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6656	Cuisine	thumb\|, a originally Italian dish A cuisine is a style of cooking characterized by distinctive ingredients, techniques and dishes, and usually associated with a specific culture or geographic region. Regional food preparation techniques, customs and ingredients combine to enable dishes unique to a region. Etymology Used in English since the late 18th century, the word cuisine—meaning manner or style of cooking—is borrowed from the French for 'style of cooking', as originally derived from Latin coquere, 'to cook'. Influences on cuisine A cuisine is partly determined by ingredients that are available locally or through trade. Regional ingredients are developed and commonly contribute to a regional or national cuisine, such as Japanese rice in Japanese cuisine. Religious food laws can also exercise an influence on cuisine, such as Indian cuisine and Hinduism that is mainly lacto-vegetarian (avoiding meat and eggs) due to sacred animal worship. Sikhism in Punjabi cuisine, Buddhism in East Asian cuisine, Christianity in European cuisine, Islam in Middle Eastern cuisine, and Judaism in Jewish and Israeli cuisine all exercise an influence on cuisine. Some factors that have an influence on a region's cuisine include the area's climate, the trade among different countries, religious or sumptuary laws and culinary culture exchange. For example, a tropical diet may be based more on fruits and vegetables, while a polar diet might rely more on meat and fish. The area's climate, in large measure, determines the native foods that are available. In addition, climate influences food preservation. For example, foods preserved for winter consumption by smoking, curing and pickling have remained significant in world cuisines for their altered gustatory properties. The trade among different countries also largely affects a region's cuisine. Dating back to the ancient spice trade, seasonings such as cinnamon, cassia, cardamom, ginger and turmeric were important items of commerce in the earliest evolution of trade, and India was a global market for this. Cinnamon and cassia found their way to the Middle East at least 4,000 years ago. Certain foods and food preparations are required or proscribed by the religiousness or sumptuary laws, such as Islamic dietary laws and Jewish dietary laws. Culinary culture exchange is also an important factor for cuisine in many regions: Japan's first substantial and direct exposure to the West came with the arrival of European missionaries in the second half of the 16th century. At that time, the combination of Spanish and Portuguese game frying techniques with an East Asian method for cooking vegetables in oil, led to the development of tempura, the "popular Japanese dish in which seafood and many different types of vegetables are coated with batter and deep fried". History Cuisine dates back to classical antiquity. As food began to require more planning, there was an emergence of meals that situated around culture. Evolution of cuisine thumb\|An example of nouvelle cuisine presentation. This dish consists of marinated crayfish on gazpacho asparagus and watercress. Cuisines evolve continually, and new cuisines are created by innovation and cultural interaction. One recent example is fusion cuisine, which combines elements of various culinary traditions while not being categorized per any one cuisine style, and generally refers to the innovations in many contemporary restaurant cuisines since the 1970s. Nouvelle cuisine ('New cuisine') is an approach to cooking and food presentation in French cuisine that was popularized in the 1960s by the food critics Henri Gault, who invented the phrase, and his colleagues André Gayot and Christian Millau in a new restaurant guide, the Gault-Millau, or Le Nouveau Guide. Molecular cuisine, is a modern style of cooking which takes advantage of many technical innovations from the scientific disciplines (molecular cooking). The term was coined in 1999 by the French INRA chemist Hervé This because he wanted to distinguish it from the name Molecular gastronomy (a scientific activity) that was introduced by him and the late Oxford physicist Nicholas Kurti in 1988. It is also named as multi sensory cooking, modernist cuisine, culinary physics and experimental cuisine by some chefs. Besides, international trade brings new foodstuffs including ingredients to existing cuisines and leads to changes. The introduction of hot pepper to China from South America around the end of the 17th century, greatly influencing Sichuan cuisine, which combines the original taste (with use of Sichuan pepper) with the taste of newly introduced hot pepper and creates a unique mala () flavor that's mouth-numbingly spicy and pungent. Global cuisine A global cuisine is a cuisine that is practiced around the world, and can be categorized according to the common use of major foodstuffs, including grains, produce and cooking fats. Regional diversity Regional cuisines can vary based on availability and usage of specific ingredients, local cooking traditions and practices, as well as overall cultural differences. Such factors can be more-or-less uniform across wide swaths of territory, or vary intensely within individual regions. For example, in Central and North South America, corn (maize), both fresh and dried, is a staple food, and is used in many different ways. In northern Europe, wheat, rye and fats of animal origin predominate, while in southern Europe olive oil is ubiquitous and rice is more prevalent. In Italy, the cuisine of the north, featuring butter and rice, stands in contrast to that of the south, with its wheat pasta and olive oil. In some parts of Greece, gyros is the staple, while in others this role is filled by bread. Throughout the Middle East and Mediterranean, common ingredients include lamb, olive oil, lemons, peppers and rice. The vegetarianism practiced in much of India has made pulses (crops harvested solely for the dry seed) such as chickpeas and lentils as important as wheat or rice. From India to Indonesia, the extensive use of spices is characteristic; coconuts and seafood are also used throughout the region both as foodstuffs and as seasonings. African cuisine thumb\|215px African cuisines use a combination of locally available fruits, cereals and vegetables, as well as milk and meat products. In some parts of the continent, the traditional diet features a preponderance of milk, curd and whey products. In much of tropical Africa, however, cow's milk is rare and cannot be produced locally (owing to various diseases that affect livestock). The continent's diverse demographic makeup is reflected in the many different eating and drinking habits, dishes and preparation techniques of its manifold populations. File:Injera with eight kinds of stew.jpg\|Typical Ethiopian and Eritrean cuisine: Injera (thin pancake-like bread) and several types of wat (stew) File:Iftar.jpg\|A Ramadan dinner in Tanzania File:Yassapoulet.JPG\|Yassa is a popular dish throughout West Africa prepared with chicken or fish. Chicken yassa is pictured. File:Spices1.jpg\|Spices at central market in Agadir, Morocco Asian cuisines thumb\|215px Due to Asia's vast size and extremely diverse geography and demographics, Asian cuisines are many and varied, and include East Asian cuisine, South Asian cuisine, Southeast Asian cuisine, Central Asian cuisine and West Asian cuisine. Ingredients common to East Asia and Southeast Asia (due to overseas Chinese influence) include rice, ginger, garlic, sesame seeds, chilies, dried onions, soy and tofu, with stir frying, steaming and deep frying being common cooking methods. While rice is common to most regional cuisines in Asia, different varieties are popular in the different regions: Basmati rice is popular in South Asia, Jasmine rice in Southeast Asia, and long-grain rice in China and short-grain rice in Japan and Korea. Curry is also a common ingredient found in South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Asia (notably Japanese curry); however, they are not popular in West Asian and Central Asian cuisines. Those curry dishes with origins in South Asia usually have a yogurt base, with origins in Southeast Asia a coconut milk base, and in East Asia a stewed meat and vegetable base. South Asian cuisine and Southeast Asian cuisine are often characterized by their extensive use of spices and herbs native to the tropical regions of Asia. File:CantoneseRestaurantSeafood.jpg\|Due to Guangdong's location on the southern coast of China, fresh live seafood is a specialty in Cantonese cuisine. Such markets selling seafood are found across East Asia. File:Vegetarian Curry.jpeg\|Traditional North Indian vegetarian thali with various curries from India. Various curry dishes are found across South Asia. File:Thai market food 01.jpg\|A market stall at Thanin market in Chiang Mai, Thailand, selling readily-made food. Market stalls selling food are found across Southeast Asia. File:Tajik dastarkhan meal.jpg\|A Tajik feast. A large feast is commonly associated with cultures of Central Asia. File:Assyriancusiene.jpg\|Typical Assyrian cuisine; an example of a type of meal found in West Asia European cuisine thumb\|215px European cuisine (alternatively, "Western cuisine") include the cuisines of Europe and other Western countries. European cuisine includes non-indigenous cuisines of North America, Australasia, Oceania and Latin America as well. The term is used by East Asians to contrast with East Asian styles of cooking. When used in English, the term may refer more specifically to cuisine in (Continental) Europe; in this context, a synonym is Continental cuisine. File:Sunday roast - roast beef 1.jpg\|An English Sunday roast with roast beef, roast potatoes, vegetables and Yorkshire pudding File:Traditional_pizza_from_Napoli.jpg\|Traditional pizza from Naples: originally Italian dish File:German sausages and cheese.jpg\|German sausages and cheese File:-2020-09-14 Beef stroganoff, Trimingham.JPG\|Beef Stroganoff, a Russian dish Oceanian cuisine thumb\|215px Oceanian cuisines include Australian cuisine, New Zealand cuisine and cuisines from many other islands or island groups throughout Oceania. Australian cuisine consists of immigrant Anglo-Celtic derived cuisine, and Bushfood prepared and eaten by native Aboriginal Australian peoples, and various newer Asian influences. New Zealand cuisine also consists of European inspired dishes, such as Pavlova, and native Māori cuisine. Across Oceania, staples include the Kūmura and Taro, which was/is a staple from Papua New Guinea to the South Pacific. On most islands in the south pacific, fish are widely consumed because of the proximity to the ocean. File:Australian bush tucker, Alice Springs.jpg\|Bush Tucker (bush foods) harvested at Alice Springs Desert Park in Australia File:Hangi prepare.jpg\|A Hāngī being prepared, a New Zealand Māori method of cooking food for special occasions using hot rocks buried in a pit oven File:Pig on the Samoan Umu.jpg\|Samoan umu, an oven of hot rocks above ground Cuisines of the Americas thumb\|140px The cuisines of the Americas are found across North and South America, and are based on the cuisines of the countries from which the immigrant people came from, primarily Europe. However, the traditional European cuisine has been adapted by the addition of many local and native ingredients, and many of their techniques have been added to traditional foods as well. Native American cuisine is prepared by indigenous populations across the continent, and its influences can be seen on multi-ethnic Latin American cuisine. Many staple foods have been seen to be eaten across the continent, such as corn (maize), beans and potatoes have their own respective native origins. The regional cuisines are North American cuisine, Mexican cuisine, Central American cuisine, South American cuisine and Caribbean cuisine. File:Bandeja paisa 30062011.jpg\|Bandeja paisa from Peñól de Guatapé in Antioquia, Colombia File:Coco bread wrapped beef patty.jpg\|A Jamaican patty wrapped in coco bread File:Buffalo - Wings at Airport Anchor Bar.jpg\|Buffalo wings with blue cheese dressing, served with lager beer File:001 Tacos de carnitas, carne asada y al pastor.jpg\|Tacos filled with several meat types, mainly beef, chicken and pork See also Culinary art Diet food Dish (food) Food group Food photography Food preparation Food presentation Foodpairing Haute cuisine List of cuisines Lists of foods List of nutrition guides Meal Outline of cuisines Outline of food preparation Portion size Traditional food Whole food References Further reading Albala, Ken (2011). Food Cultures of the World Encyclopedia Greenwood. . California Culinary Academy (2001). In the World Kitchen: Global Cuisine from California Culinary Academy. Bay Books (CA). . Laudan, Rachel (2013). Cuisine and Empire: Cooking in World History University of California Press. . MacVeigh, Jeremy (2008). International Cuisine. Delmar Cengage Learning; 1st edition. . Nenes, Michael F; Robbins, Joe (2008). International Cuisine. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley, John & Sons; 1st edition. . Scarparto, Rosario (2000). New global cuisine: the perspective of postmodern gastronomy studies. Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology. Zobel, Myron (1962). Global cuisine: being the unique recipes of the 84 top restaurants of the world. Patron Press. External links The Elizabeth Robins Pennell Collection at the Library of Congress has many volumes on the topic of cuisine. Category:Cooking	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuisine	2025-04-05T18:27:53.843812
6660	Codec	A codec is a computer hardware or software component that encodes or decodes a data stream or signal. Codec is a portmanteau of coder/decoder. In electronic communications, an endec is a device that acts as both an encoder and a decoder on a signal or data stream, and hence is a type of codec. Endec is a portmanteau of encoder/decoder. A coder or encoder encodes a data stream or a signal for transmission or storage, possibly in encrypted form, and the decoder function reverses the encoding for playback or editing. Codecs are used in videoconferencing, streaming media, and video editing applications. History Originally, in the mid-20th century, a codec was a hardware device that coded analog signals into digital form using pulse-code modulation (PCM). Later, the term was also applied to software for converting between digital signal formats, including companding functions. Examples An audio codec converts analog audio signals into digital signals for transmission or encodes them for storage. A receiving device converts the digital signals back to analog form using an audio decoder for playback. An example of this is the codecs used in the sound cards of personal computers. A video codec accomplishes the same task for video signals. When implementing the Infrared Data Association (IrDA) protocol, an endec may be used between the UART and the optoelectronic systems. Compression In addition to encoding a signal, a codec may also compress the data to reduce transmission bandwidth or storage space. Compression codecs are classified primarily into lossy codecs and lossless codecs. Lossless codecs are often used for archiving data in compressed form while retaining all information present in the original stream. If preserving the original quality of the stream is more important than eliminating the correspondingly larger data sizes, lossless codecs are preferred. This is especially true if the data is to undergo further processing (for example, editing) in which case the repeated application of processing (encoding and decoding) on lossy codecs will degrade the quality of the resulting data such that it is no longer identifiable (visually, audibly, or both). Using more than one codec or encoding scheme successively can also degrade quality significantly. The decreasing cost of storage capacity and network bandwidth has a tendency to reduce the need for lossy codecs for some media. Many popular codecs are lossy. They reduce quality in order to maximize compression. Often, this type of compression is virtually indistinguishable from the original uncompressed sound or images, depending on the codec and the settings used. The most widely used lossy data compression technique in digital media is based on the discrete cosine transform (DCT), used in compression standards such as JPEG images, H.26x and MPEG video, and MP3 and AAC audio. Smaller data sets ease the strain on relatively expensive storage sub-systems such as non-volatile memory and hard disk, as well as write-once-read-many formats such as CD-ROM, DVD, and Blu-ray Disc. Lower data rates also reduce cost and improve performance when the data is transmitted, e.g., over the internet. Media codecs Two principal techniques are used in codecs, pulse-code modulation and delta modulation. Codecs are often designed to emphasize certain aspects of the media to be encoded. For example, a digital video (using a DV codec) of a sports event needs to encode motion well but not necessarily exact colors, while a video of an art exhibit needs to encode color and surface texture well. Audio codecs for cell phones need to have very low latency between source encoding and playback. In contrast, audio codecs for recording or broadcasting can use high-latency audio compression techniques to achieve higher fidelity at a lower bit rate. There are thousands of audio and video codecs, ranging in cost from free to hundreds of dollars or more. This variety of codecs can create compatibility and obsolescence issues. The impact is lessened for older formats, for which free or nearly-free codecs have existed for a long time. The older formats are often ill-suited to modern applications, however, such as playback on small portable devices. For example, raw uncompressed PCM audio (44.1 kHz, 16-bit stereo, as represented on an audio CD or in a .wav or .aiff file) has long been a standard across multiple platforms, but its transmission over networks is slow and expensive compared with more modern compressed formats, such as Opus and MP3. Many multimedia data streams contain both audio and video, and often some metadata that permits synchronization of audio and video. Each of these three streams may be handled by different programs, processes, or hardware; but for the multimedia data streams to be useful in stored or transmitted form, they must be encapsulated together in a container format. Lower bitrate codecs allow more users, but they also have more distortion. Beyond the initial increase in distortion, lower bit rate codecs also achieve their lower bit rates by using more complex algorithms that make certain assumptions, such as those about the media and the packet loss rate. Other codecs may not make those same assumptions. When a user with a low bitrate codec talks to a user with another codec, additional distortion is introduced by each transcoding. Audio Video Interleave (AVI) is sometimes erroneously described as a codec, but AVI is actually a container format, while a codec is a software or hardware tool that encodes or decodes audio or video into or from some audio or video format. Audio and video encoded with many codecs might be put into an AVI container, although AVI is not an ISO standard. There are also other well-known container formats, such as Ogg, ASF, QuickTime, RealMedia, Matroska, and DivX Media Format. MPEG transport stream, MPEG program stream, MP4, and ISO base media file format are examples of container formats that are ISO standardized. Malware are used when an online user takes a type of codec and installs viruses and other malware into whatever data is being compressed and uses it as a disguise. This disguise appears as a codec download through a pop-up alert or ad. When a user goes to click or download that codec, the malware is then installed on the computer. Once a fake codec is installed it is often used to access private data, corrupt an entire computer system or to keep spreading the malware. One of the previous most used ways to spread malware was fake AV pages and with the rise of codec technology, both have been used in combination to take advantage of online users. This combination allows fake codecs to be automatically downloaded to a device through a website linked in a pop-up ad, virus/codec alerts or articles as well. See also Audio signal processing Comparison of audio coding formats Comparison of video codecs Comparison of video container formats Digital signal processing List of codecs List of open-source codecs References Category:Digital signal processing Category:Data compression	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codec	2025-04-05T18:27:53.921624
6663	Clyde Tombaugh	\| birth_place = Streator, Illinois, U.S. \| death_date = \| death_place = Las Cruces, New Mexico, U.S. \| spouse = \| children = 2 \| relatives = Clayton Kershaw (great-nephew) \| occupation = Astronomer \| alma_mater = University of Kansas \| known_for = Discovery of Pluto \| awards = }} Clyde William Tombaugh (; February 4, 1906 January 17, 1997) was an American astronomer. He discovered Pluto in 1930, the first object to be discovered in what would later be identified as the Kuiper belt. At the time of discovery, Pluto was considered the ninth planet, but it was reclassified as a dwarf planet in 2006. Tombaugh also discovered many asteroids, and called for the serious scientific research of unidentified flying objects. Early life Tombaugh was born in Streator, Illinois, son of Muron Dealvo Tombaugh, a farmer of Pennsylvania Dutch descent, and his wife Adella Pearl Chritton on February 4, 1906. He was the first of six children in the family with his sister, Esther being born years after Clyde followed by his brother Roy in 1912, Charles in 1914, Robert in 1923 and Anita Rachel in 1929. Tombaugh's interest in astronomy appears to have begun when he visited the Yerkes Observatory in Lake Geneva, Wisconsin when he was 12 years old in 1918. His uncle Lee also helped spark his interest in astronomy as he was an amateur astronomer who used a diameter non-achromatic refractor telescope and gave him several astronomy-related books. The family's poor finances, due to years of bad weather on the farm and a bad corn harvest in 1921, caused them to move to a new farm in Burdett, Kansas in 1922. As the family had moved to the farm in August 1922 and the crops needed to be prepared urgently, Tombaugh had to drop out of high school for a year to help his father prepare the crops on the family farm. Tombaugh graduated from high school in 1925. Tombaugh's plans for attending college were frustrated when a hailstorm in June 1928 ruined his family's farm crops. Tombaugh read an article in Popular Astronomy in 1924 by an amateur astronomer named Latimer J. Wilson, titled "The Drift of Jupiter's Markings" showing sketches of Jupiter and decided he wanted to make his own telescope so he could see the features shown on Jupiter in sketches. Astronomy career Beginning in 1926, he built several telescopes with lenses and mirrors by himself. He sent drawings of Jupiter and Mars to the Lowell Observatory, at Flagstaff, Arizona, which offered him a job. Tombaugh worked there from 1929 to 1945. Pluto ]] It was at Lowell in 1930 that Tombaugh discovered Pluto. Following his discovery, Tombaugh earned bachelor's and master's degrees in astronomy from the University of Kansas in 1936 and 1938. and William Pickering. Starting April 6, 1929, Tombaugh used the observatory's astrograph to take photographs of the same section of sky several nights apart. He then used a blink comparator to compare the different images. When he shifted between the two images, a moving object, such as a planet, would appear to jump from one position to another, while the more distant objects such as stars would appear stationary. Tombaugh noticed such a moving object in his search, near the place predicted by Lowell, and subsequent observations showed it to have an orbit beyond that of Neptune. This ruled out classification as an asteroid, and they decided this was the ninth planet that Lowell had predicted. The discovery was made on Tuesday, February 18, 1930, using images taken the previous month. Three classical mythological names were proposed: Minerva, Cronus and Pluto. Minerva was eliminated as it was found to already be in use as the name of an asteroid while Cronus was written off as it was feared the astronomer Thomas Jefferson Jackson See who was the primary supporter of it would falsely take credit for it and was widely disliked. In Roman mythology, Pluto can render himself invisible, his name's first two letters are Percival Lowell's initials, and it was proposed by an 11-year-old English girl, Venetia Burney. In order to avoid the name changes suffered by Neptune, the name was proposed to both the American Astronomical Society and the Royal Astronomical Society, both of which approved it unanimously. The name was officially adopted on May 1, 1930. <!-- at apparent magnitude +15.4]]--> Following the discovery, it was recognized that Pluto wasn't massive enough to be the expected ninth planet, and some astronomers began to consider it the first of a new class of object – and indeed Tombaugh searched for additional trans-Neptunian objects for years, though due to the lack of any further discoveries he concluded that Pluto was indeed a planet. The idea that Pluto was not a true planet remained a minority position until the discovery of other Kuiper belt objects in the late 1990s, which showed that it did not orbit alone but was at best the largest of a number of icy bodies in its region of space. After it was shown that at least one such body, dubbed Eris, was more massive than Pluto, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) reclassified Pluto on August 24, 2006, as a dwarf planet, leaving eight planets in the Solar System. Tombaugh's widow Patricia stated after the IAU's decision that while he might have been disappointed with the change since he had resisted attempts to remove Pluto's planetary status in his lifetime, he would have accepted the decision now if he were alive. She noted that he "was a scientist. He would understand they had a real problem when they start finding several of these things flying around the place." Hal Levison offered this perspective on Tombaugh's place in history: "Clyde Tombaugh discovered the Kuiper Belt. That's a helluva lot more interesting than the ninth planet." Further research Tombaugh continued searching for over a decade after the discovery of Pluto, and the lack of further discoveries left him satisfied that no other object of a comparable apparent magnitude existed near the ecliptic. No more trans-Neptunian objects were discovered until 15760 Albion, in 1992. However, in 2005 the relatively bright object was discovered. It has a relatively high orbital inclination, but at the time of Tombaugh's discovery of Pluto, Makemake was only a few degrees from the ecliptic, near the border of Taurus and Auriga, at an apparent magnitude of 16. This position was also very near the galactic equator, making it almost impossible to find such an object within the dense concentration of background stars of the Milky Way. In the fourteen years of looking for planets, until he was drafted in July 1943, Tombaugh looked for motion in 90 million star images (two each of 45 million stars). Asteroids Tombaugh is officially credited by the Minor Planet Center with discovering 15 asteroids, and he observed nearly 800 asteroids during his search for Pluto and years of follow-up searches looking for another candidate for the postulated Planet X. Tombaugh is also credited with the discovery of periodic comet 274P/Tombaugh–Tenagra. He also discovered hundreds of variable stars, as well as star clusters, galaxy clusters, and a galaxy supercluster. discovered in 1931, is named after him. He discovered hundreds of asteroids, beginning with 2839 Annette in 1929, mostly as a by-product of his search for Pluto and his searches for other celestial objects.UFOsTombaugh was probably the most eminent astronomer to have reported seeing unidentified flying objects. On August 20, 1949, Tombaugh saw several unidentified objects near Las Cruces, New Mexico. He described them as six to eight rectangular lights, stating: "I doubt that the phenomenon was any terrestrial reflection, because... nothing of the kind has ever appeared before or since... I was so unprepared for such a strange sight that I was really petrified with astonishment.". Tombaugh observed these rectangles of light for about 3 seconds and his wife saw them for about seconds. He never supported the interpretation as a spaceship that has often been attributed to him. He considered other possibilities, with a temperature inversion as the most likely cause.<blockquote>From my own studies of the solar system I cannot entertain any serious possibility for intelligent life on other planets, not even for Mars... The logistics of visitations from planets revolving around the nearer stars is staggering. In consideration of the hundreds of millions of years in the geologic time scale when such visits may have possibly occurred, the odds of a single visit in a given century or millennium are overwhelmingly against such an event. Tombaugh later reported having seen three of the mysterious green fireballs, which suddenly appeared over New Mexico in late 1948 and continued at least through the early 1950s. A researcher on Project Twinkle reported that Tombaugh "... never observed an unexplainable aerial object despite his continuous and extensive observations of the sky." Shortly after this, in January 1957, in an Associated Press article in the Alamogordo Daily News titled "Celestial Visitors May Be Invading Earth's Atmosphere", Tombaugh was again quoted on his sightings and opinion about them. "Although our own solar system is believed to support no other life than on Earth, other stars in the galaxy may have hundreds of thousands of habitable worlds. Races on these worlds may have been able to utilize the tremendous amounts of power required to bridge the space between the stars ...". Tombaugh stated that he had observed celestial phenomena which he could not explain, but had seen none personally since 1951 or 1952. "These things, which do appear to be directed, are unlike any other phenomena I ever observed. Their apparent lack of obedience to the ordinary laws of celestial motion gives credence." In 1949, Tombaugh had also told the Naval missile director at White Sands Missile Range, Commander Robert McLaughlin, that he had seen a bright flash on Mars on August 27, 1941, which he now attributed to an atomic blast. Tombaugh also noted that the first atomic bomb tested in New Mexico would have lit up the dark side of the Earth like a neon sign and that Mars was coincidentally quite close at the time, the implication apparently being that the atomic test would have been visible from Mars. In June 1952, Dr. J. Allen Hynek, an astronomer acting as a scientific consultant to the Air Force's Project Blue Book UFO study, secretly conducted a survey of fellow astronomers on UFO sightings and attitudes while attending an astronomy convention. Tombaugh and four other astronomers, including Dr. Lincoln LaPaz of the University of New Mexico, told Hynek about their sightings. Tombaugh also told Hynek that his telescopes were at the Air Force's disposal for taking photos of UFOs, if he was properly alerted.Near-Earth objectsTombaugh's offer may have led to his involvement in a search for Near-Earth objects, first announced in late 1953 and sponsored by the Army Office of Ordnance Research. Another public statement was made on the search in March 1954, emphasizing the rationale that such an orbiting object would serve as a natural space station. However, according to Donald Keyhoe, later director of the National Investigations Committee on Aerial Phenomena (NICAP), the real reason for the sudden search was because two near-Earth orbiting objects had been picked up on new long-range radar in the summer of 1953, according to his Pentagon source. By May 1954, Keyhoe was making public statements that his sources told him the search had indeed been successful, and either one or two objects had been found. However, the story did not break until August 23, 1954, when Aviation Week magazine stated that two satellites had been found only 400 and 600 miles out. They were termed "natural satellites" and implied that they had been recently captured, despite this being a virtual impossibility. The next day, the story was in many major newspapers. Dr. LaPaz was implicated in the discovery in addition to Tombaugh. LaPaz had earlier conducted secret investigations on behalf of the Air Force on the green fireballs and other unidentified aerial phenomena over New Mexico. The New York Times reported on August 29 that "a source close to the O. O. R. unit here described as 'quite accurate' the report in the magazine Aviation Week that two previously unobserved satellites had been spotted and identified by Dr. Lincoln LaPaz of the University of New Mexico as natural and not artificial objects. This source also said there was absolutely no connection between the reported satellites and flying saucer reports." However, in the October 10 issue, LaPaz said the magazine article was "false in every particular, in so far as reference to me is concerned." Both LaPaz and Tombaugh were to issue public denials that anything had been found. The October 1955 issue of Popular Mechanics magazine reported: "Professor Tombaugh is closemouthed about his results. He won't say whether or not any small natural satellites have been discovered. He does say, however, that newspaper reports of 18 months ago announcing the discovery of natural satellites at 400 and 600 miles out are not correct. He adds that there is no connection between the search program and the reports of so-called flying saucers." At a meteor conference in Los Angeles in 1957, Tombaugh reiterated that his four-year search for "natural satellites" had been unsuccessful. In 1959, Tombaugh was to issue a final report stating that nothing had been found in his search. His personal 16-inch telescope was reassembled and dedicated on September 17, 2009, at Rancho Hidalgo, New Mexico (near Animas, New Mexico), adjacent to Astronomys new observatory. Other ventures During World War II he taught naval personnel navigation at Northern Arizona University. In 1991, he received the American Academy of Achievement's Golden Plate Award presented by Awards Council member Glenn T. Seaborg.Later lifeDirect visual observation became rare in astronomy. By 1965, Robert S. Richardson called Tombaugh one of two great living experienced visual observers as talented as Percival Lowell or Giovanni Schiaparelli. In 1980, Tombaugh and Patrick Moore wrote a book Out of the Darkness: The Planet Pluto. In August 1992, JPL scientist Robert Staehle called Tombaugh, requesting permission to visit his planet. "I told him he was welcome to it," Tombaugh later remembered, "though he's got to go one long, cold trip." The call eventually led to the launch of the New Horizons space probe to Pluto in 2006. Following the passage of Pluto by New Horizons on July 14, 2015, the "Heart of Pluto" was named Tombaugh Regio. Personal life Clyde Tombaugh had five siblings. Through the daughter of his youngest brother, Robert, he is the great-uncle of Los Angeles Dodgers pitcher Clayton Kershaw. He married Patricia Edson in 1934. They had two children, Annette and Alden. Tombaugh was an active Unitarian Universalist, and he and his wife helped found the Unitarian Universalist Church of Las Cruces, New Mexico. Death Tombaugh died on January 17, 1997, in Las Cruces, New Mexico, at the age of 90, and he was cremated. A small portion of his ashes was placed aboard the New Horizons spacecraft. The container includes the inscription: "Interred herein are remains of American Clyde W. Tombaugh, discoverer of Pluto and the Solar System's 'third zone'. Adelle and Muron's boy, Patricia's husband, Annette and Alden's father, astronomer, teacher, punster and friend: Clyde W. Tombaugh (1906–1997)". Tombaugh was survived by his wife, Patricia (1912–2012), and their children, Annette and Alden. In popular culture * Clyde Tombaugh's fame for his discovery of Pluto was enough for him to qualify as a contestant on the October 24, 1956, episode of the game show ''I've Got A Secret. * The 2006 release The Avalanche by musical artist Sufjan Stevens contains an instrumental track titled "For Clyde Tombaugh". * The ninth episode of the fourth season of Fargo'' featured a visit to a memorial marking the site of Tombaugh's boyhood home. * Robert Heinlein's 1958 juvenile science fiction novel Have Space Suit – Will Travel features a scientific base on Earth's moon called Tombaugh Station. When the hero arrives on Pluto, he reflects: See also * List of astronomers * Tombaugh (crater) * Tombaugh Cliffs * Tombaugh Regio References Sources * Falk, Dan, "More than a one-hit wonder", Astronomy, February 2006, 40–45. * David H. Levy Clyde Tombaugh: Discoverer of the Planet Pluto (Tucson, Ariz.: University of Arizona Press, 1991). ; also Sky Publishing Corporation, March 2006. External links * [http://contentdm.nmsu.edu/cdm/landingpage/collection/Ms0407 Clyde Tombaugh papers at New Mexico State University] * [http://www.astro.uni-bonn.de/~pbrosche/persons/pers_t.html Many biographical articles on Clyde Tombaugh] * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150715015456/http://www.achievement.org/autodoc/page/tom0gal-1 Biography, Interviews, Photo Gallery of Clyde Tombaugh], achievement.org * [http://www.ilga.gov/legislation/96/SR/PDF/09600SR0046lv.pdf Illinois proposes a Pluto Day and reinstate Pluto as a Planet in honor of C. Tombaugh: Illinois General Assembly, Senate Resolution SR0046 2/26/2009] Category:1906 births Category:1997 deaths Category:American people of Pennsylvania Dutch descent Category:American Unitarian Universalists Category:Discoverers of asteroids Category:Discoverers of trans-Neptunian objects Category:New Mexico State University faculty Category:Northern Arizona University alumni Category:People from Flagstaff, Arizona Category:People from Las Cruces, New Mexico Category:People from Pawnee County, Kansas Category:People from Streator, Illinois Category:American planetary scientists Category:Scientists from Kansas Category:Space burials Category:University of Kansas alumni Category:Pluto	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clyde_Tombaugh	2025-04-05T18:27:53.988228
6666	Christopher Báthory	\| issue = \| noble family = House of Báthory \| father =Stephen VIII Báthory \| mother =Catherine Telegdi \| birth_date = 1530 \| birth_place = Szilágysomlyó, Kingdom of Hungary (now Șimleu Silvaniei, Romania) \| death_date \| death_place = Gyulafehérvár, Principality of Transylvania<br /><small>(today Alba Iulia, Romania)</small> \| place of burial=Jesuit Church, Gyulafehérvár \|signature = }} Christopher Báthory (; 1530 – 27 May 1581) was voivode of Transylvania from 1576 to 1581. He was a younger son of Stephen Báthory of Somlyó. Christopher's career began during the reign of Queen Isabella Jagiellon, who administered the eastern territories of the Kingdom of Hungary on behalf of her son, John Sigismund Zápolya, from 1556 to 1559. He was one of the commanders of John Sigismund's army in the early 1560s. Christopher's brother, Stephen Báthory, who succeeded John Sigismund in 1571, made Christopher captain of Várad (now Oradea in Romania). After being elected King of Poland, Stephen Báthory adopted the title of Prince of Transylvania and made Christopher voivode in 1576. Christopher cooperated with Márton Berzeviczy, whom his brother appointed to supervise the administration of the Principality of Transylvania as the head of the Transylvanian chancellery at Kraków. Christopher ordered the imprisonment of Ferenc Dávid, a leading theologian of the Unitarian Church of Transylvania, who started to condemn the adoration of Jesus. He supported his brother's efforts to settle the Jesuits in Transylvania. Early life Christopher was the third of the four sons of Stephen Báthory of Somlyó and Catherine Telegdi. His father was a supporter of John Zápolya, King of Hungary, who made him voivode of Transylvania in February 1530. Christopher was born in Báthorys' castle at Szilágysomlyó (now Șimleu Silvaniei in Romania) in the same year. His father died in 1534. His brother, Andrew, and their kinsman, Tamás Nádasdy, took charge of Christopher's education. Christopher visited England, France, Italy, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire in his youth. He also served as a page in Emperor Charles V's court. Career Christopher entered the service of John Zápolya's widow, Isabella Jagiellon, in the late 1550s. At the time, Isabella administered the eastern territories of the Kingdom of Hungary on behalf of her son, John Sigismund Zápolya. She wanted to persuade Henry II of France to withdraw his troops from three fortresses that the Ottomans had captured in Banat, so she sent Christopher to France to start negotiations in 1557. John Sigismund took charge of the administration of his realm after his mother died on 15 November 1559. He retained his mother's advisors, including Christopher who became one of his most influential officials. After the rebellion of Melchior Balassa, Christopher persuaded John Sigismund to fight for his realm instead of fleeing to Poland in 1562. Christopher was one of the commanders of John Sigismund's troops during the ensuing war against the Habsburg rulers of the western territories of the Kingdom of Hungary, Ferdinand and Maximilian, who tried to reunite the kingdom under their rule. Christopher defeated Maximilian's commander, Lazarus von Schwendi, forcing him to lift the siege of Huszt (now Khust in Ukraine) in 1565. After the death of John Sigismund, the Diet of Transylvania elected Christopher's younger brother, Stephen Báthory, voivode (or ruler) on 25 May 1571. Stephen made Christopher captain of Várad (now Oradea in Romania). The following year, the Ottoman Sultan, Selim II (who was the overlord of Transylvania), acknowledged the hereditary right of the Báthory family to rule the province. Reign in 1570]] Stephen Báthory was elected King of Poland on 15 December 1575. He adopted the title of Prince of Transylvania and made Christopher voivode on 14 January 1576. An Ottoman delegation confirmed Christopher's appointment at the Diet in Gyulafehérvár (now Alba Iulia in Romania) in July. The sultan's charter (or ahidnâme) sent to Christopher emphasized that he should keep the peace along the frontiers. Stephen set up a separate chancellery in Kraków to keep an eye on the administration of Transylvania. The head of the new chancellery, Márton Berzeviczy, and Christopher cooperated closely. Anti-Trinitarian preachers began to condemn the worshiping of Jesus in Partium and Székely Land in 1576, although the Diet had already forbade all doctrinal innovations. Ferenc Dávid, the most influential leader of the Unitarian Church of Transylvania, openly joined the dissenters in the autumn of 1578. Christopher invited Fausto Sozzini, a leading Anti-Trinitarian theologian, to Transylvania to convince Dávid that the new teaching was erroneous. Since Dávid refused to obey, Christopher held a Diet and the "Three Nations" (including the Unitarian delegates) ordered Dávid's imprisonment. Christopher also supported his brother's attempts to strengthen the position of the Roman Catholic Church in Transylvania. He granted estates to the Jesuits to promote the establishment of a college in Kolozsvár (now Cluj-Napoca in Romania) on 5 May 1579. Christopher fell seriously ill after his second wife, Elisabeth Bocskai, died in early 1581. After a false rumor about Christopher's death reached Istanbul, Koca Sinan Pasha proposed Transylvania to Pál Márkházy whom Christopher had been forced into exile. Although Christopher's only surviving son Sigismund was still a minor, the Diet elected him as voivode before Christopher's death, because they wanted to prevent the appointment of Márkházy. Christopher died in Gyulafehérvár on 27 May 1581. He was buried in the Jesuits' church in Gyulafehérvár, almost two years later, on 14 March 1583. Family \|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc; \|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9; \|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc; \|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc; \|1= 1. Christopher Báthory \|2= 2. Stephen VIII Báthory \|3= 3. Catherine Telegdi \|4= 4. Miklós Báthory \|5\|6 \|7\|8 8. Stephen Báthory \|9= 9. Dorothea Várdai \|10\|11 \|12\|13 \|14\|15 }} Christopher's first wife, Catherina Danicska, was a Polish noblewoman, but only the Hungarian form of her name is known. Their eldest son, Balthasar Báthory, moved to Kraków shortly after Stephen Báthory was crowned King of Poland; he drowned in the Vistula River in May 1577 at the age of 22. Christopher's and Catherina's second son, Nicholas, was born in 1567 and died in 1576. Christopher's second wife, Elisabeth Bocskai, was a Calvinist noblewoman. Their first child, Cristina (or Griselda), was born in 1569. She was given in marriage to Jan Zamoyski, Chancellor of Poland, in 1583. Christopher's youngest son, Sigismund, was born in 1573. References Sources * * * * * * * * * Category:1530 births Category:1581 deaths Category:Voivodes of Transylvania Christopher Category:People from Șimleu Silvaniei Category:16th-century Hungarian people Category:Eastern Hungarian Kingdom	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Báthory	2025-04-05T18:27:54.021733
6667	CPAN	thumb\|CPAN logo The Comprehensive Perl Archive Network (CPAN) is a software repository of over 220,000 software modules and accompanying documentation for 45,500 distributions, written in the Perl programming language by over 14,500 contributors. CPAN can denote either the archive network or the Perl program that acts as an interface to the network and as an automated software installer (somewhat like a package manager). Most software on CPAN is free and open source software. History CPAN was conceived in 1993 and has been active online since October 1995. It is based on the CTAN model and began as a place to unify the structure of scattered Perl archives. Role Like many programming languages, Perl has mechanisms to use external libraries of code, making one file contain common routines used by several programs. Perl calls these modules. Perl modules are typically installed in one of several directories whose paths are placed in the Perl interpreter when it is first compiled; on Unix-like operating systems, common paths include /usr/lib/perl5, /usr/local/lib/perl5, and several of their subdirectories. Perl comes with a small set of core modules. Some of these perform bootstrapping tasks, such as ExtUtils::MakeMaker, which is used to create Makefiles for building and installing other extension modules; others, like List::Util, are merely commonly used. CPAN's main purpose is to help programmers locate modules and programs not included in the Perl standard distribution. Its structure is decentralized. Authors maintain and improve their own modules. Forking, and creating competing modules for the same task or purpose, is common. There is a third-party bug tracking system that is automatically set up for any uploaded distribution, but authors may opt to use a different bug tracking system such as GitHub. Similarly, though GitHub is a popular location to store the source for distributions, it may be stored anywhere the author prefers, or may not be publicly accessible at all. Maintainers may grant permissions to others to maintain or take over their modules, and permissions may be granted by admins for those wishing to take over abandoned modules. Previous versions of updated distributions are retained on CPAN until deleted by the uploader, and a secondary mirror network called BackPAN retains distributions even if they are deleted from CPAN. Also, the complete history of the CPAN and all its modules is available as the GitPAN project, allowing to easily see the complete history for all the modules and for easy maintenance of forks. CPAN is also used to distribute new versions of Perl, as well as related projects, such as Parrot and Raku. Structure Files on the CPAN are referred to as distributions. A distribution may consist of one or more modules, documentation files, or programs packaged in a common archiving format, such as a gzipped tar archive or a ZIP file. Distributions will often contain installation scripts (usually called Makefile.PL or Build.PL) and test scripts which can be run to verify the contents of the distribution are functioning properly. New distributions are uploaded to the Perl Authors Upload Server, or PAUSE (see the section Uploading distributions with PAUSE). In 2003, distributions started to include metadata files, called META.yml, indicating the distribution's name, version, dependencies, and other useful information; however, not all distributions contain metadata. When metadata is not present in a distribution, the PAUSE's software will try to analyze the code in the distribution to look for the same information; this is not necessarily very reliable. In 2010, version 2 of this specification was created to be used via a new file called META.json, with the YAML format file often also included for backward compatibility. With thousands of distributions, CPAN needs to be structured to be useful. Authors often place their modules in the natural hierarchy of Perl module names (such as Apache::DBI or Lingua::EN::Inflect) according to purpose or domain, though this is not enforced. CPAN module distributions usually have names in the form of CGI-Application-3.1 (where the :: used in the module's name has been replaced with a dash, and the version number has been appended to the name), but this is only a convention; many prominent distributions break the convention, especially those that contain multiple modules. Security restrictions prevent a distribution from ever being replaced with an identical filename, so virtually all distribution names do include a version number. Components The distribution infrastructure of CPAN consists of its worldwide network of more than 250 mirrors in more than 60 countries. Each full mirror hosts around 36 gigabytes of data. Most mirrors update themselves hourly, daily or bidaily from the CPAN master site. Some sites are major FTP servers which mirror lots of other software, but others are simply servers owned by companies that use Perl heavily. There are at least two mirrors on every continent except Antarctica. Several search engines have been written to help Perl programmers sort through the CPAN. The official includes textual search, a browsable index of modules, and extracted copies of all distributions currently on the CPAN. On 16 May 2018, the Perl Foundation announced that search.cpan.org would be shut down on 29 June 2018 (after 19 years of operation), due to its aging codebase and maintenance burden. Users will be transitioned and redirected to the third-party alternative MetaCPAN. CPAN Testers are a group of volunteers, who will download and test distributions as they are uploaded to CPAN. This enables the authors to have their modules tested on many platforms and environments to which they otherwise lack access, thus improving portability, and quality. Smoke testers send reports, which are then collated and used for a variety of presentation websites, including the main reports site, statistics, and dependencies. Authors can upload new distributions to the CPAN through the Perl Authors Upload Server (PAUSE). To do so, they must request a PAUSE account. Once registered, they may use a web interface at pause.perl.org, or an FTP interface to upload files to their directory and delete them. Modules in the upload will only be indexed as canonical if the module name has not been used before (granting first-come permission to the uploader), or if the uploader has permission for that name, and if the module is a higher version than any existing entry. This can be specified through PAUSE's web interface. CPAN.pm, CPANPLUS, and cpanminus There is also a Perl core module named CPAN; it is usually differentiated from the repository itself by using the name CPAN.pm. CPAN.pm is mainly an interactive shell which can be used to search for, download, and install distributions. An interactive shell called is also provided in the Perl core, and is the usual way of running CPAN.pm. After a short configuration process and mirror selection, it uses tools available on the user's computer to automatically download, unpack, compile, test, and install modules. It can also self-update. An effort to replace CPAN.pm with something cleaner and more modern resulted in the CPANPLUS (or CPAN++) set of modules. CPANPLUS separates the back-end work of downloading, compiling, and installing modules from the interactive shell used to issue commands. It supports several advanced features, such as cryptographic signature checking, test result reporting, and uninstalling a distribution. CPANPLUS was added to the Perl core in version 5.10.0, and removed from it in version 5.20.0. A smaller, leaner modern alternative to these CPAN installers was developed called cpanminus. cpanminus was designed to have a much smaller memory footprint as often required in limited memory environments, and to be usable as a standalone script such that it can even install itself, requiring only the expected set of core Perl modules to be available. It is also available from CPAN as the module App::cpanminus, which installs the script. It does not maintain or rely on a persistent configuration, but is configured only by the environment and command-line options. cpanminus does not have an interactive shell component. It recognizes the cpanfile format for specifying prerequisites, useful in ad-hoc Perl projects that may not be designed for CPAN installation. cpanminus also has the ability to uninstall distributions. Each of these modules can check a distribution's dependencies and recursively install any prerequisites, either automatically or with individual user approval. Each support FTP and HTTP and can work through firewalls and proxies. Influence Experienced Perl programmers often comment that half of Perl's power is in the CPAN. It has been called Perl's killer app. It is roughly equivalent to Composer for PHP; the PyPI (Python Package Index) repository for Python; RubyGems for Ruby; CRAN for R; npm for Node.js; LuaRocks for Lua; Maven for Java; and Hackage for Haskell. CPAN's use of arbitrated name spaces, a testing regime and a well defined documentation style makes it unique. Given its importance to the Perl developer community, the CPAN both shapes and is shaped by Perl's culture. Its "self-appointed master librarian", Jarkko Hietaniemi, often takes part in the April Fools' Day jokes; on 1 April 2002 the site was temporarily named to CJAN, where the "J" stood for "Java". In 2003, the www.cpan.org domain name was redirected to Matt's Script Archive, a site infamous in the Perl community for having badly written code. Some of the distributions on the CPAN are distributed as jokes. The Acme:: hierarchy is reserved for joke modules; for instance, Acme::Don't adds a don't function that doesn't run the code given to it (to complement the do built-in, which does). Even outside the Acme:: hierarchy, some modules are still written largely for amusement; one example is Lingua::Romana::Perligata, which can be used to write Perl programs in a subset of Latin. In 2005, a group of Perl developers who also had an interest in JavaScript got together to create JSAN, the JavaScript Archive Network. The JSAN is a near-direct port of the CPAN infrastructure for use with the JavaScript language, which for most of its lifespan did not have a cohesive "community". In 2008, after a chance meeting with CPAN admin Adam Kennedy at the Open Source Developers Conference, Linux kernel developer Rusty Russell created the CCAN, the Comprehensive C Archive Network. The CCAN is a direct port of the CPAN architecture for use with the C language. CRAN, the Comprehensive R Archive Network, is a set of mirrors hosting the R language distribution(s), documentation, and contributed extensions. References External links MetaCPAN List of official CPAN mirrors, status of mirrors ZCAN - "The Zen of Comprehensive Archive Networks" - a document that aims to explain how and why CPAN succeeded and how to duplicate it in similar efforts. (9 January 2003 by Jarkko Hietaniemi). Category:Perl Category:Archive networks Category:Free package management systems Category:Package management systems	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPAN	2025-04-05T18:27:54.053193
6669	Colorado Rockies	\| colors Purple, black, silver, white<br /> \| y3 = 1993 \| nicknames = The Rox * The Blake Street Bombers \| pastnames \| ballpark Coors Field \| y4 = 1995 \| pastparks = * Mile High Stadium (–) \| WS = (0) \| WORLD CHAMPIONS = None \| LEAGUE = NL \| P = (1) \| PENNANTS = 2007 \| misc1 \| OTHER PENNANTS \| DIV = NL West \| DV = (0) \| Division Champs = None \| misc5 \| OTHER DIV CHAMPS \| WC = (5) \| Wild Card = \| misc6 \| owner Richard & Charles Monfort \| manager = Bud Black \| gm = Bill Schmidt \| president = Greg Feasel \| mascots = Dinger \| website = }} The Colorado Rockies are an American professional baseball team based in Denver. The Rockies compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the National League (NL) West Division. The team plays its home baseball games at Coors Field, which is located in the Lower Downtown area of Denver. The club is owned by the Monfort brothers and managed by Bud Black. The Rockies began as an expansion team for the 1993 season and played their home games for their first two seasons at Mile High Stadium. Since 1995, they have played at Coors Field, which has earned a reputation as a hitter's park, as demonstrated by the 1995 team that had four players (Dante Bichette, Vinny Castilla, Andrés Galarraga, and Larry Walker) each hit for 30 home runs; they were nicknamed the "Blake Street Bombers." The Rockies have qualified for the postseason five times, each time as a Wild Card winner. In 2007, the team earned its only NL pennant after winning 14 of their final 15 games in the regular season to secure a Wild Card position, capping the streak off with a 13-inning 9–8 victory against the San Diego Padres in the tiebreaker game affectionately known as "Game 163" by Rockies fans. The Rockies then proceeded to sweep the Philadelphia Phillies and Arizona Diamondbacks in the NLDS and NLCS and entered the 2007 World Series as winners of 21 of their last 22 games. However, they were swept by the American League (AL) champions Boston Red Sox in four games. As the Rockies were swept in their only World Series appearance, they are one of only two teams never to win a World Series game, along with the Seattle Mariners, who have never reached the World Series. At the end of 2024, the Rockies have an all-time record of . This winning percentage is one of the worst among active MLB franchises. After the Denver Nuggets won the 2023 NBA Finals, the Rockies became the only one of Denver's franchises in the major North American professional sports leagues yet to win a championship.History were recognized as one of the 100 greatest minor league teams of all time.]] Denver had long been a hotbed of minor league baseball as far back as the late 19th century with the original Denver Bears (or Grizzlies) competing in the Western League before being replaced in 1955 by a Triple-A team of the same name. Residents and businesses in the area desired a Major League team. Denver's Mile High Stadium was built originally as Denver Bears Stadium, a minor league baseball stadium that could be upgraded to major league standards. In 1991, as part of Major League Baseball's two-team expansion (along with the Florida (now Miami) Marlins), an ownership group representing Denver led by John Antonucci and Michael I. Monus was granted a franchise. They took the name "Rockies" due to Denver's proximity to the Rocky Mountains, which is reflected in their logo; the name was previously used by the city's first NHL team, now the New Jersey Devils. Monus and Antonucci were forced to drop out in 1992 after Monus's reputation was ruined by an accounting scandal. Trucking magnate Jerry McMorris stepped in at the 11th hour to save the franchise, allowing the team to begin play in 1993. The Rockies shared Mile High Stadium with the National Football League (NFL)'s Denver Broncos for their first two seasons while Coors Field was constructed. It was completed for the 1995 Major League Baseball season. . Later the same year, Colorado won its first NL pennant]] In 1993, they began play in the National League West. That year the Rockies set the all-time Major League record for attendance, drawing 4,483,350 fans, still the MLB record. The Rockies were MLB's first team based in the Mountain Time Zone. They have reached the Major League Baseball postseason five times, each time as the National League wild card team. Twice (1995 and 2009), they were eliminated in the first round of the playoffs. In 2007, the Rockies advanced to the World Series, only to be swept by the Boston Red Sox. The team's stretch run was among the greatest ever for a Major League Baseball team. Having a record of 76–72 at the start of play on September 16, the Rockies proceeded to win 14 of their final 15 regular season games. The stretch culminated with a 9–8, 13-inning victory over the San Diego Padres in a one-game playoff for the wild card berth. Colorado then swept their first seven playoff games to win the NL pennant. At the start of the World Series, the Rockies had won a total of 21 out of 22 games. Fans and media nicknamed their improbable October run "Rocktober". Colorado made postseason berths in 2017 and 2018. In 2018, the Rockies became the first team since the 1922 Philadelphia Phillies to play in four cities against four teams in five days, including the 162nd game of the regular season, NL West tie-breaker, NL Wild Card Game and NLDS Game 1, eventually losing to the Milwaukee Brewers in the NLDS. Like their expansion brethren, the Marlins, they have never won a division title since their establishment and they, along with the Marlins and Pittsburgh Pirates, are also one of three MLB teams that have never won their current division. The Rockies have played their home games at Coors Field since 1995. Their spring training home, Salt River Fields at Talking Stick in Scottsdale, Arizona, opened in March 2011 and is shared with the Arizona Diamondbacks. Controversies On June 1, 2006, USA Today reported that Rockies management, including manager Clint Hurdle, had instituted an explicitly Christian code of conduct for the team's players, banning men's magazines (such as Maxim and Playboy) and sexually explicit music from the team's clubhouse. The article sparked controversy, and soon-after The Denver Post published an article featuring many Rockies players contesting the claims made in the USA Today article. Former Rockies pitcher Jason Jennings said: "[The article in USA Today] was just bad. I am not happy at all. Some of the best teammates I have ever had are the furthest thing from Christian," Jennings said. "You don't have to be a Christian to have good character. They can be separate. [The article] was misleading." On October 17, 2007, a week before the first game of the 2007 World Series against the Boston Red Sox, the Colorado Rockies announced that tickets were to be available to the general public via online sales only, despite prior arrangements to sell the tickets at local retail outlets. Five days later on October 22, California-based ticket vendor Paciolan, Inc., the sole contractor authorized by the Colorado Rockies to distribute tickets, was forced to suspend sales after less than an hour due to an overwhelming number of attempts to purchase tickets. An official statement from the Rockies claimed that they were the victims of a denial of service attack. These claims, however, were unsubstantiated and neither the Rockies nor Paciolan have sought investigation into the matter. The United States Federal Bureau of Investigation started its own investigation into the claims. Ticket sales resumed the next day, with all three home games selling out within two and a half hours. In March 2021, Ken Rosenthal and Nick Groke reported in The Athletic that, during the season, the Rockies had made baseball operations personnel work as clubhouse attendants in addition to their front office duties, resulting in work days lasting up to 17 hours. Former staffers described doing laundry for players while team personnel asked them for scouting and statistical information. The article further described a general atmosphere of dysfunction and unaccountability in Colorado's front office. On April 10, 2024, during a charter flight on a United Airlines Boeing 757, coach Hensley Meulens posted a video of himself seated in the captain's seat mid-flight. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is investigating the incident.Season recordUniforms One of the Rockies' team colors is purple which was inspired by the line "For purple mountain majesties" in "America the Beautiful." The shades of the color used by the club lacked uniformity until PMS 2685 was established as the official purple beginning with the 2017 season. The Rockies' home uniform is white with purple pinstripes, and the Rockies are the first team in Major League history to wear purple pinstripes. The front of the uniform has the word "Rockies" in silver trimmed in black, with letters and numerals in black trimmed in silver. During the Rockies' inaugural season, home uniforms lacked names on the back, but names were added for the following season. In 2000, numerals were added to the chest. The Rockies' road uniform is grey with purple piping. The front of the uniform originally featured the team name in silver trimmed in purple but was changed the next season to purple with white trim. Letters and numerals are in purple with white trim. In 2000, piping was replaced with pinstripes, "Colorado" was emblazoned in front, chest numerals were placed, and black trim was added to the letters. Prior to the 2012 season, the Rockies brought back the purple piping on their road uniforms, but kept the other elements of their 2000 uniform change. The Rockies originally wore an alternate black uniform during their inaugural 1993 season, but for only a few games. The uniform featured the team name in silver with purple trim, and letters and numerals in purple with white trim. In the 2005 season, the Rockies started wearing black sleeveless alternate uniforms, featuring "Colorado" letters and numerals in silver with purple and white trim. The uniforms also included black undershirts, and for a few games in 2005, purple undershirts. The Rockies retired the black sleeveless uniform in 2022, replacing it with the "City Connect" uniform (see below). From 2002 to 2011, the Rockies wore alternate versions of their pinstriped white uniform, featuring the interlocking "CR" on the left chest and numerals on the right chest. This design featured sleeves until 2004, when they went with a vest design with black undershirts. In addition to the black sleeveless alternate uniform, the Rockies also wear a purple alternate uniform, which they first unveiled in the 2000 season. The design featured "Colorado" in silver with black and white trim, and letters and numerals in black with white trim. At the start of the 2012 season, the Rockies introduced "Purple Mondays" in which the team wears its purple uniform every Monday game day, though the team continued to wear them on other days of the week. Prior to 2019, the Rockies always wore their white pinstriped pants regardless of what uniform top they wore during home games. However, the Rockies have since added alternate white non-pinstriped pants to pair with either their black or purple alternate uniforms at home, as neither uniform contained pinstripes. The Rockies currently wear an all-black cap with "CR" in purple trimmed in silver and a purple-brimmed variation as an alternate. The team previously wore an all-purple cap with "CR" in black trimmed in silver, and in the 2018 season, caps with the "CR" in silver to commemorate the team's 25th anniversary. In 2022, the Rockies were one of seven additional teams to don Nike's "City Connect" uniforms. The set is predominantly green and white with printed mountain range motifs adorning the chest. The lettering was taken from the official Colorado license plates. The right sleeve has a yellow patch featuring the shortened nickname "ROX", the "5280" sign representing the altitude of Denver, two black diamonds representing Double Diamond skiing, and the exact longitude and latitude of Coors Field. The left sleeve has the interlocking "CR" in white with green trim, and purple piping was added to represent purple seats at Coors Field. Caps are green with a white panel, featuring a "CO" patch with various Colorado-inspired symbols, including colors from the state flag and mountain ranges. In 2023, the Rockies tweaked their "City Connect" uniform, pairing it with white pants on day games and green pants on night games. Baseball Hall of Famers (1997–2013)]] (1995–2004)]] Colorado Sports Hall of Fame {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" \|- \| colspan"5" style";"\|Colorado Rockies in the Colorado Sports Hall of Fame \|- ! style="width:40px; ;"\|No. ! style="width:120px; ;"\|Name ! style="width:60px; ;"\|Position(s) ! style="width:80px; ;"\|Seasons ! style="width:220px; ;"\|Notes \|- \| — \|\| Jerry McMorris \|\| Owner \|\| 1992–2005 \|\| \|- \| — \|\| Bob Gebhard \|\| GM \|\| 1992–1999 \|\| \|- \| KSM \|\| Keli McGregor \|\| President \|\| 2001–2010 \|\| Attended Colorado State University \|- \| 9, 14 \|\| Vinny Castilla \|\| 3B \|\| 1993–1999<br>2004, 2006 \|\| \|- \| 10 \|\| Dante Bichette \|\| OF \|\| 1993–1999 \|\| \|- \| 14 \|\| Andrés Galarraga \|\| 1B \|\| 1993–1997 \|\| \|- \| 17 \|\| Todd Helton \|\| 1B \|\| 1997–2013 \|\| \|- \| 25 \|\| Don Baylor \|\| Manager \|\| 1993–1998 \|\| \|- \| 33 \|\| Larry Walker \|\| RF \|\| 1995–2004 \|\| \|} Retired numbers Todd Helton is the first Colorado player to have his number (17) retired, which happened on August 17, 2014. Jackie Robinson's No. 42, was retired throughout all of baseball in 1997. Larry Walker, the first member of the Baseball Hall of Fame wearing a Colorado Rockies hat, became the second Colorado player to have his number (33) retired, which occurred in 2021. Keli McGregor had worked with the Rockies since their inception in 1993, rising from senior director of operations to team president in 2002, until his death on April 20, 2010. He is honored at Coors Field alongside Helton, Walker, and Robinson with his initials. }} Out of circulation, but not retired The Rockies have not re-issued Carlos Gonzalez's number 5 since he left the team after 2018. Individual awards NL MVP 1997 – Larry Walker NLCS MVP 2007 – Matt Holliday NL Rookie of the Year 2002 – Jason Jennings NL Comeback Player of the Year 2017 – Greg Holland 2020 – Daniel Bard Silver Slugger Award (2013–2020)]] (2006–2015) was 5× All-Star in his tenure in Denver]] Dante Bichette (1995) * Vinny Castilla (1995, 1997–1998) * Andrés Galarraga (1996) * Eric Young (1996) * Ellis Burks (1996) * Larry Walker (1997, 1999) * Mike Hampton (2001–2002) * Todd Helton (2000–2003) * Matt Holliday (2006–2008) * Carlos González (2010, 2015) * Troy Tulowitzki (2010–2011) * Michael Cuddyer (2013) * Nolan Arenado (2015–2018) * Charlie Blackmon (2016–2017) * Trevor Story (2018–2019) * Germán Márquez (2018) Hank Aaron Award 2000 – Todd Helton Gold Glove Award First base: Todd Helton (2001–2002, 2004) Second base: * DJ LeMahieu (2014, 2017–2018) * Brendan Rodgers (2022) Shortstop: * Neifi Pérez (2000) * Troy Tulowitzki (2010–2011) * Ezequiel Tovar (2024) Third base: * Nolan Arenado (2013–2020) Outfield: * Larry Walker (1997–1999, 2001–2002) * Carlos González (2010, 2012–2013) * Brenton Doyle (2023–2024) Manager of the Year Award 1995 – Don Baylor 2009 – Jim Tracy NL Batting Champion * Andrés Galarraga (1993) * Larry Walker (1998, 1999, 2001) * Todd Helton (2000) * Matt Holliday (2007) * Carlos González (2010) * Michael Cuddyer (2013) * Justin Morneau (2014) * DJ LeMahieu (2016) * Charlie Blackmon (2017) DHL Hometown Heroes (2006)Larry Walker – voted by MLB fans as the most outstanding player in the history of the franchise, based on on-field performance, leadership quality and character valueTeam award – Warren Giles Trophy (National League champion) 2007 – Baseball America Organization of the Year Team records (single-game, single-season, career) Championships \| colspan"3" style"text-align:center;"\| National League Champions \|- \| style="width:30%; text-align:center;"\| Preceded by:<br/>St. Louis Cardinals \| style="width:40%; text-align:center;"\| 2007 \| style="width:30%; text-align:center;"\| Succeeded by:<br/>Philadelphia Phillies \|- \| colspan"3" style"text-align:center;"\| National League Wild Card Winners \|- \| style="width:30%; text-align:center;"\| Preceded by:<br/>None (First) \| style="width:40%; text-align:center;"\| 1995 \| style="width:30%; text-align:center;"\| Succeeded by:<br/>Los Angeles Dodgers \|- \| style="width:30%; text-align:center;"\| Preceded by:<br/>Los Angeles Dodgers \| style="width:40%; text-align:center;"\| 2007 \| style="width:30%; text-align:center;"\| Succeeded by:<br/>Milwaukee Brewers \|- \| style="width:30%; text-align:center;"\| Preceded by:<br/>Milwaukee Brewers \| style="width:40%; text-align:center;"\| 2009 \| style="width:30%; text-align:center;"\| Succeeded by:<br/>Atlanta Braves \|- \| style="width:30%; text-align:center;"\| Preceded by:<br/>Arizona Diamondbacks \| style="width:40%; text-align:center;"\| 2018 \| style="width:30%; text-align:center;"\| Succeeded by:<br/>Washington Nationals \|- \| colspan"3" style"text-align:center;"\| National League Wild Card Runner-Up \|- \| \| style="width:40%; text-align:center;"\| 2017 \| \|- Rivalries The Rockies developed an on-and-off rivalry with the Arizona Diamondbacks, often attributed to both teams being the newest in the division. Colorado had joined the NL West in 1993, while the Diamondbacks are the newest team in the league; founded in 1998. The two teams have met twice in the postseason; notably during the 2007 National League Championship Series, which saw the Rockies enter the postseason as a wild card, and went on to upset the division champion Diamondbacks in a sweep en route to the franchise's lone World Series appearance. The two teams met again in the 2017 National League Wild Card Game, which Arizona won. The Rockies also have clashed in divisional matchups with the Los Angeles Dodgers and San Francisco Giants particularly as both teams often thwarted the Rockies' postseason ambitions by winning the division. The Rockies have never won the NL West while the Dodgers and Giants have combined for 21 division titles since the Rockies began play in 1993. Roster Home attendance (1993–1994)]] (1995–present)]] The Rockies led MLB attendance records for the first seven years of their existence. The inaugural season is currently the MLB all-time record for home attendance. {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" ! colspan5 style";"\|Home Attendance at Mile High Stadium \|- style="background:#FFFFFF; color:#000000;" \| style";"\|Year\|\|style";"\|Total Attendance\|\|style";"\|Game Average\|\|style";"\|League Rank \|- \| 1993 \| 4,483,350 \| 55,350 \| 1st \|- \| 1994 \| 3,281,511 \| 57,570+ \| 1st \|} {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" ! colspan5 style";"\|Home Attendance at Coors Field \|- style="background:#FFFFFF; color:#000000;" \| style";"\|Year\|\|style";"\|Total Attendance\|\|style";"\|Game Average\|\|style";"\|League Rank \|- \| 1995 \| 3,390,037 \| 47,084++ \| 1st \|- \| 1996 \| 3,891,014 \| 48,037 \| 1st \|- \| 1997 \| 3,888,453 \| 48,006 \| 1st \|- \| 1998 \| 3,792,683 \| 46,823 \| 1st \|- \| 1999 \| 3,481,065 \| 42,976 \| 1st \|- \| 2000 \| 3,295,129 \| 40,681 \| 3rd \|- \| 2001 \| 3,166,821 \| 39,097 \| 2nd \|- \| 2002 \| 2,737,838 \| 33,800 \| 6th \|- \| 2003 \| 2,334,085 \| 28,816 \| 9th \|- \| 2004 \| 2,338,069 \| 28,865 \| 9th \|- \| 2005 \| 1,914,389 \| 23,634 \| 14th \|- \| 2006 \| 2,104,362 \| 28,979 \| 11th \|- \| 2007 \| 2,650,218 \| 32,719 \| 9th \|- \| 2008 \| 2,665,080 \| 32,902 \| 8th \|- \| 2009 \| 2,875,245 \| 35,497 \| 6th \|- \| 2010 \| 2,909,777 \| 35,923 \| 7th \|- \| 2011 \| 2,630,458 \| 32,475 \| 7th \|- \| 2012 \| 2,793,828 \| 34,492 \| 5th \|- \| 2013 \| 2,680,329 \| 33,090 \| 5th \|- \| 2014 \| 2,506,789 \| 30,948 \| 8th \|- \| 2015 \| 2,602,524 \| 32,130 \| 6th \|- \| 2016 \| 2,953,650 \| 36,465 \| 5th \|- \| 2017 \| 2,048,138 \| 25,286 \| 11th \|- \| 2018 \| 3,015,880 \| 37,233 \| 5th \|- \| 2019 \| 2,993,244 \| 36,954 \| 4th \|- \| 2020 \|colspan3\| No attendance information available \|- \| 2021 \| 1,978,645 \| 24,854 \| 7th \|- \| 2022 \| 2,597,428 \| 32,467 \| 9th \|- \| 2023 \| 2,607,935 \| 32,196 \| 7th \|} + 57 home games in strike shortened season. ++ 72 home games in strike shortened season. Minor league affiliations The Colorado Rockies farm system consists of seven minor league affiliates. {\| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable" \|- !scope"col" style""\|Class !scope"col" style""\|Team !scope"col" style""\|League !scope"col" style""\|Location !scope"col" style""\|Ballpark !scope"col" style""\|Affiliated \|- \| Triple-A !scope="row"\| Albuquerque Isotopes \| Pacific Coast League \| Albuquerque, New Mexico \| Rio Grande Credit Union Field at Isotopes Park \| align="right"\| 2015 \|- \| Double-A !scope="row"\| Hartford Yard Goats \| Eastern League \| Hartford, Connecticut \| Dunkin' Park \| align="right"\| 2015 \|- \| High-A !scope="row"\| Spokane Indians \| Northwest League \| Spokane Valley, Washington \| Avista Stadium \| align="right"\| 2021 \|- \| Single-A !scope="row"\| Fresno Grizzlies \| California League \| Fresno, California \| Chukchansi Park \| align="right"\| 2021 \|- \| rowspan=3\| Rookie !scope="row"\| ACL Rockies \| Arizona Complex League \| Scottsdale, Arizona \| Salt River Fields at Talking Stick \| align="right"\| 2021 \|- !scope="row"\| DSL Colorado \| rowspan=2\|Dominican Summer League \| rowspan=2\|Boca Chica, Santo Domingo \| rowspan=2\|Colorado Rockies Complex \| align="right"\| 2018 \|- !scope="row"\| DSL Rockies \| align="right"\| 1997 \|} Radio and television Colorado Rockies games are produced by MLB Network and televised locally on Rockies.TV, a streaming service with no blackouts that is available with MLB.tv for $199.99 a year or $39.99 a month, or without MLB.tv for $99.99 a year or $19.99 a month. Games air on the following cable providers and networks: DirecTV/DirecTV Stream (CH. 683) Xfinity/Comcast (CH. 1262) Spectrum (Colorado and Wyoming) (CH. 130 or CH. 445) Spectrum (Gunnison and Telluride) (CH. 305 or CH. 445) Spectrum (Lincoln) (CH. 435 or CH. 445) Jeff Huson and Drew Goodman are the usual TV broadcast team, with Ryan Spilborghs and Kelsey Wingert handling on-field coverage and clubhouse interviews. Jason Hirsh and Cory Sullivan host the pre-game and post-game shows. Corrigan, Spilborghs, and Sullivan also fill in as play-by-play or color commentator during absences of Huson or Goodman. From 1997 to 2023, most regular season games were produced and televised by AT&T SportsNet Rocky Mountain. The Rockies' flagship radio station is KOA 850AM, with some late-season games broadcast on KHOW 630 AM due to conflicts with Denver Broncos games. The Rockies Radio Network is composed of 38 affiliate stations in eight states. Jack Corrigan and Jerry Schemmel are the radio announcers, serving as a backup TV announcer whenever Drew Goodman is not available. In January 2020, long-time KOA radio announcer Jerry Schemmel was let go from his role for budgetary reasons from KOA's parent company. He returned in 2022, replacing Mike Rice, who reportedly refused the COVID-19 vaccine. As of 2013, Spanish language radio broadcasts of the Rockies are heard on KNRV 1150 AM. References External links * * [http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/minorleagues/affiliates/index.jsp?c_id=col Minor League Affiliates of the Colorado Rockies] }} ;\|list1= }} Category:Major League Baseball teams Category:Baseball teams established in 1993 Category:Cactus League Category:Professional baseball teams in Colorado Category:1993 establishments in Colorado	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_Rockies	2025-04-05T18:27:54.134288
6670	Cement	A cement is a binder, a chemical substance used for construction that sets, hardens, and adheres to other materials to bind them together. Cement is seldom used on its own, but rather to bind sand and gravel (aggregate) together. Cement mixed with fine aggregate produces mortar for masonry, or with sand and gravel, produces concrete. Concrete is the most widely used material in existence and is behind only water as the planet's most-consumed resource. Cements used in construction are usually inorganic, often lime- or calcium silicate-based, and are either hydraulic or less commonly non-hydraulic, depending on the ability of the cement to set in the presence of water (see hydraulic and non-hydraulic lime plaster). Hydraulic cements (e.g., Portland cement) set and become adhesive through a chemical reaction between the dry ingredients and water. The chemical reaction results in mineral hydrates that are not very water-soluble. This allows setting in wet conditions or under water and further protects the hardened material from chemical attack. The chemical process for hydraulic cement was found by ancient Romans who used volcanic ash (pozzolana) with added lime (calcium oxide). Non-hydraulic cement (less common) does not set in wet conditions or under water. Rather, it sets as it dries and reacts with carbon dioxide in the air. It is resistant to attack by chemicals after setting. The word "cement" can be traced back to the Ancient Roman term , used to describe masonry resembling modern concrete that was made from crushed rock with burnt lime as binder. The volcanic ash and pulverized brick supplements that were added to the burnt lime, to obtain a hydraulic binder, were later referred to as , , cäment, and cement. In modern times, organic polymers are sometimes used as cements in concrete. World production of cement is about 4.4 billion tonnes per year (2021, estimation), Chemistry Cement materials can be classified into two distinct categories: hydraulic cements and non-hydraulic cements according to their respective setting and hardening mechanisms. Hydraulic cement setting and hardening involves hydration reactions and therefore requires water, while non-hydraulic cements only react with a gas and can directly set under air. Hydraulic cement nodules produced by sintering at 1450 °C]] By far the most common type of cement is hydraulic cement, which hardens by hydration (when water is added) of the clinker minerals. Hydraulic cements (such as Portland cement) are made of a mixture of silicates and oxides, the four main mineral phases of the clinker, abbreviated in the cement chemist notation, being: :C<sub>3</sub>S: alite (3CaO·SiO<sub>2</sub>); :C<sub>2</sub>S: belite (2CaO·SiO<sub>2</sub>); :C<sub>3</sub>A: tricalcium aluminate (3CaO·Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>) (historically, and still occasionally, called celite); :C<sub>4</sub>AF: brownmillerite (4CaO·Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>·Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>). The silicates are responsible for the cement's mechanical properties — the tricalcium aluminate and brownmillerite are essential for the formation of the liquid phase during the sintering (firing) process of clinker at high temperature in the kiln. The chemistry of these reactions is not completely clear and is still the object of research. First, the limestone (calcium carbonate) is burned to remove its carbon, producing lime (calcium oxide) in what is known as a calcination reaction. This single chemical reaction is a major emitter of global carbon dioxide emissions. :<chem>CaCO3 -> CaO + CO2</chem> The lime reacts with silicon dioxide to produce dicalcium silicate and tricalcium silicate. :<chem>2CaO + SiO2 -> 2CaO.SiO2</chem> :<chem>3CaO + SiO2 -> 3CaO.SiO2</chem> The lime also reacts with aluminium oxide to form tricalcium aluminate. :<chem>3CaO + Al2O3 -> 3CaO.Al2O3</chem> In the last step, calcium oxide, aluminium oxide, and ferric oxide react together to form brownmillerite. :<chem>4CaO + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 -> 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3</chem> Non-hydraulic cement obtained by thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate at high temperature (above 825 °C).]] A less common form of cement is non-hydraulic cement, such as slaked lime (calcium oxide mixed with water), which hardens by carbonation in contact with carbon dioxide, which is present in the air (~ 412 vol. ppm ≃ 0.04 vol. %). First calcium oxide (lime) is produced from calcium carbonate (limestone or chalk) by calcination at temperatures above 825 °C (1,517 °F) for about 10 hours at atmospheric pressure: :<chem>CaCO3 -> CaO + CO2</chem> The calcium oxide is then spent (slaked) by mixing it with water to make slaked lime (calcium hydroxide): :<chem>CaO + H2O -> Ca(OH)2</chem> Once the excess water is completely evaporated (this process is technically called setting), the carbonation starts: :<chem>Ca(OH)2 + CO2 -> CaCO3 + H2O</chem> This reaction is slow, because the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the air is low (~ 0.4 millibar). The carbonation reaction requires that the dry cement be exposed to air, so the slaked lime is a non-hydraulic cement and cannot be used under water. This process is called the lime cycle. History Perhaps the earliest known occurrence of cement is from twelve million years ago. A deposit of cement was formed after an occurrence of oil shale located adjacent to a bed of limestone burned by natural causes. These ancient deposits were investigated in the 1960s and 1970s. Alternatives to cement used in antiquity Cement, chemically speaking, is a product that includes lime as the primary binding ingredient, but is far from the first material used for cementation. The Babylonians and Assyrians used bitumen (asphalt or pitch) to bind together burnt brick or alabaster slabs. In Ancient Egypt, stone blocks were cemented together with a mortar made of sand and roughly burnt gypsum (CaSO<sub>4</sub> · 2H<sub>2</sub>O), which is plaster of Paris, which often contained calcium carbonate (CaCO<sub>3</sub>), and three centuries later on a large scale by Roman engineers. The Greeks used volcanic tuff from the island of Thera as their pozzolan and the Romans used crushed volcanic ash (activated aluminium silicates) with lime. This mixture could set under water, increasing its resistance to corrosion like rust. The material was called pozzolana from the town of Pozzuoli, west of Naples where volcanic ash was extracted. In the absence of pozzolanic ash, the Romans used powdered brick or pottery as a substitute and they may have used crushed tiles for this purpose before discovering natural sources near Rome. Roman concrete was rarely used on the outside of buildings. The normal technique was to use brick facing material as the formwork for an infill of mortar mixed with an aggregate of broken pieces of stone, brick, potsherds, recycled chunks of concrete, or other building rubble. Mesoamerica Lightweight concrete was designed and used for the construction of structural elements by the pre-Columbian builders who lived in a very advanced civilisation in El Tajin near Mexico City, in Mexico. A detailed study of the composition of the aggregate and binder show that the aggregate was pumice and the binder was a pozzolanic cement made with volcanic ash and lime. Middle Ages Any preservation of this knowledge in literature from the Middle Ages is unknown, but medieval masons and some military engineers actively used hydraulic cement in structures such as canals, fortresses, harbors, and shipbuilding facilities. A mixture of lime mortar and aggregate with brick or stone facing material was used in the Eastern Roman Empire as well as in the West into the Gothic period. The German Rhineland continued to use hydraulic mortar throughout the Middle Ages, having local pozzolana deposits called trass. 18th century The technical knowledge for making hydraulic cement was formalized by French and British engineers in the 18th century. and did exhaustive market research on the available hydraulic limes, visiting their production sites, and noted that the "hydraulicity" of the lime was directly related to the clay content of the limestone used to make it. Smeaton was a civil engineer by profession, and took the idea no further. In the South Atlantic seaboard of the United States, tabby relying on the oyster-shell middens of earlier Native American populations was used in house construction from the 1730s to the 1860s. This was developed by James Parker in the 1780s, and finally patented in 1796. It was, in fact, nothing like material used by the Romans, but was a "natural cement" made by burning septaria – nodules that are found in certain clay deposits, and that contain both clay minerals and calcium carbonate. The burnt nodules were ground to a fine powder. This product, made into a mortar with sand, set in 5–15 minutes. The success of "Roman cement" led other manufacturers to develop rival products by burning artificial hydraulic lime cements of clay and chalk. Roman cement quickly became popular but was largely replaced by Portland cement in the 1850s. considered the "principal forerunner" is considered the inventor of "modern" Portland cement.]] Portland cement, the most common type of cement in general use around the world as a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar, stucco, and non-speciality grout, was developed in England in the mid 19th century, and usually originates from limestone. James Frost produced what he called "British cement" in a similar manner around the same time, but did not obtain a patent until 1822. In 1824, Joseph Aspdin patented a similar material, which he called Portland cement, because the render made from it was in color similar to the prestigious Portland stone quarried on the Isle of Portland, Dorset, England. However, Aspdins' cement was nothing like modern Portland cement but was a first step in its development, called a proto-Portland cement. Setting time and "early strength" are important characteristics of cements. Hydraulic limes, "natural" cements, and "artificial" cements all rely on their belite (2 CaO · SiO<sub>2</sub>, abbreviated as C<sub>2</sub>S) content for strength development. Belite develops strength slowly. Because they were burned at temperatures below , they contained no alite (3 CaO · SiO<sub>2</sub>, abbreviated as C<sub>3</sub>S), which is responsible for early strength in modern cements. The first cement to consistently contain alite was made by William Aspdin in the early 1840s: This was what we call today "modern" Portland cement. Because of the air of mystery with which William Aspdin surrounded his product, others (e.g., Vicat and Johnson) have claimed precedence in this invention, but recent analysis of both his concrete and raw cement have shown that William Aspdin's product made at Northfleet, Kent was a true alite-based cement. However, Aspdin's methods were "rule-of-thumb": Vicat is responsible for establishing the chemical basis of these cements, and Johnson established the importance of sintering the mix in the kiln. In the US the first large-scale use of cement was Rosendale cement, a natural cement mined from a massive deposit of dolomite discovered in the early 19th century near Rosendale, New York. Rosendale cement was extremely popular for the foundation of buildings (e.g., Statue of Liberty, Capitol Building, Brooklyn Bridge) and lining water pipes. Sorel cement, or magnesia-based cement, was patented in 1867 by the Frenchman Stanislas Sorel. It was stronger than Portland cement but its poor water resistance (leaching) and corrosive properties (pitting corrosion due to the presence of leachable chloride anions and the low pH (8.5–9.5) of its pore water) limited its use as reinforced concrete for building construction. The next development in the manufacture of Portland cement was the introduction of the rotary kiln. It produced a clinker mixture that was both stronger, because more alite (C<sub>3</sub>S) is formed at the higher temperature it achieved (1450 °C), and more homogeneous. Because raw material is constantly fed into a rotary kiln, it allowed a continuous manufacturing process to replace lower capacity batch production processes. Also in 1908, Thomas Edison experimented with pre-cast concrete in houses in Union, N.J. In the US, after World War One, the long curing time of at least a month for Rosendale cement made it unpopular for constructing highways and bridges, and many states and construction firms turned to Portland cement. Because of the switch to Portland cement, by the end of the 1920s only one of the 15 Rosendale cement companies had survived. But in the early 1930s, builders discovered that, while Portland cement set faster, it was not as durable, especially for highways—to the point that some states stopped building highways and roads with cement. Bertrain H. Wait, an engineer whose company had helped construct the New York City's Catskill Aqueduct, was impressed with the durability of Rosendale cement, and came up with a blend of both Rosendale and Portland cements that had the good attributes of both. It was highly durable and had a much faster setting time. Wait convinced the New York Commissioner of Highways to construct an experimental section of highway near New Paltz, New York, using one sack of Rosendale to six sacks of Portland cement. It was a success, and for decades the Rosendale-Portland cement blend was used in concrete highway and concrete bridge construction. Technologies of waste cementation have been developed and deployed at industrial scale in many countries. Cementitious wasteforms require a careful selection and design process adapted to each specific type of waste to satisfy the strict waste acceptance criteria for long-term storage and disposal. Types Modern development of hydraulic cement began with the start of the Industrial Revolution (around 1800), driven by three main needs: * Hydraulic cement render (stucco) for finishing brick buildings in wet climates * Hydraulic mortars for masonry construction of harbor works, etc., in contact with sea water * Development of strong concretes Modern cements are often Portland cement or Portland cement blends, but other cement blends are used in some industrial settings. Portland cement Portland cement, a form of hydraulic cement, is by far the most common type of cement in general use around the world. This cement is made by heating limestone (calcium carbonate) with other materials (such as clay) to in a kiln, in a process known as calcination that liberates a molecule of carbon dioxide from the calcium carbonate to form calcium oxide, or quicklime, which then chemically combines with the other materials in the mix to form calcium silicates and other cementitious compounds. The resulting hard substance, called 'clinker', is then ground with a small amount of gypsum () into a powder to make ordinary Portland cement, the most commonly used type of cement (often referred to as OPC). Portland cement is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar, and most non-specialty grout. The most common use for Portland cement is to make concrete. Portland cement may be grey or white. Portland cement blend <!--Clinker (cement) links here---> Portland cement blends are often available as inter-ground mixtures from cement producers, but similar formulations are often also mixed from the ground components at the concrete mixing plant. Portland blast-furnace slag cement, or blast furnace cement (ASTM C595 and EN 197-1 nomenclature respectively), contains up to 95% ground granulated blast furnace slag, with the rest Portland clinker and a little gypsum. All compositions produce high ultimate strength, but as slag content is increased, early strength is reduced, while sulfate resistance increases and heat evolution diminishes. Used as an economic alternative to Portland sulfate-resisting and low-heat cements. Portland-fly ash cement contains up to 40% fly ash under ASTM standards (ASTM C595), or 35% under EN standards (EN 197–1). The fly ash is pozzolanic, so that ultimate strength is maintained. Because fly ash addition allows a lower concrete water content, early strength can also be maintained. Where good quality cheap fly ash is available, this can be an economic alternative to ordinary Portland cement. Portland pozzolan cement includes fly ash cement, since fly ash is a pozzolan, but also includes cements made from other natural or artificial pozzolans. In countries where volcanic ashes are available (e.g., Italy, Chile, Mexico, the Philippines), these cements are often the most common form in use. The maximum replacement ratios are generally defined as for Portland-fly ash cement. Portland silica fume cement. Addition of silica fume can yield exceptionally high strengths, and cements containing 5–20% silica fume are occasionally produced, with 10% being the maximum allowed addition under EN 197–1. However, silica fume is more usually added to Portland cement at the concrete mixer. Masonry cements are used for preparing bricklaying mortars and stuccos, and must not be used in concrete. They are usually complex proprietary formulations containing Portland clinker and a number of other ingredients that may include limestone, hydrated lime, air entrainers, retarders, waterproofers, and coloring agents. They are formulated to yield workable mortars that allow rapid and consistent masonry work. Subtle variations of masonry cement in North America are plastic cements and stucco cements. These are designed to produce a controlled bond with masonry blocks. Expansive cements contain, in addition to Portland clinker, expansive clinkers (usually sulfoaluminate clinkers), and are designed to offset the effects of drying shrinkage normally encountered in hydraulic cements. This cement can make concrete for floor slabs (up to 60 m square) without contraction joints. White blended cements may be made using white clinker (containing little or no iron) and white supplementary materials such as high-purity metakaolin. Colored cements serve decorative purposes. Some standards allow the addition of pigments to produce colored Portland cement. Other standards (e.g., ASTM) do not allow pigments in Portland cement, and colored cements are sold as blended hydraulic cements. Very finely ground cements are cement mixed with sand or with slag or other pozzolan type minerals that are extremely finely ground together. Such cements can have the same physical characteristics as normal cement but with 50% less cement, particularly because there is more surface area for the chemical reaction. Even with intensive grinding they can use up to 50% less energy (and thus less carbon emissions) to fabricate than ordinary Portland cements.Other Pozzolan-lime cements are mixtures of ground pozzolan and lime. These are the cements the Romans used, and are present in surviving Roman structures like the Pantheon in Rome. They develop strength slowly, but their ultimate strength can be very high. The hydration products that produce strength are essentially the same as those in Portland cement. Slag-lime cements—ground granulated blast-furnace slag—are not hydraulic on their own, but are "activated" by addition of alkalis, most economically using lime. They are similar to pozzolan lime cements in their properties. Only granulated slag (i.e., water-quenched, glassy slag) is effective as a cement component. Supersulfated cements contain about 80% ground granulated blast furnace slag, 15% gypsum or anhydrite and a little Portland clinker or lime as an activator. They produce strength by formation of ettringite, with strength growth similar to a slow Portland cement. They exhibit good resistance to aggressive agents, including sulfate. Calcium aluminate cements are hydraulic cements made primarily from limestone and bauxite. The active ingredients are monocalcium aluminate CaAl<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub> (CaO · Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> or CA in cement chemist notation, CCN) and mayenite Ca<sub>12</sub>Al<sub>14</sub>O<sub>33</sub> (12 CaO · 7 Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, or C<sub>12</sub>A<sub>7</sub> in CCN). Strength forms by hydration to calcium aluminate hydrates. They are well-adapted for use in refractory (high-temperature resistant) concretes, e.g., for furnace linings. Calcium sulfoaluminate cements are made from clinkers that include ye'elimite (Ca<sub>4</sub>(AlO<sub>2</sub>)<sub>6</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> or C<sub>4</sub>A<sub>3</sub> in Cement chemist's notation) as a primary phase. They are used in expansive cements, in ultra-high early strength cements, and in "low-energy" cements. Hydration produces ettringite, and specialized physical properties (such as expansion or rapid reaction) are obtained by adjustment of the availability of calcium and sulfate ions. Their use as a low-energy alternative to Portland cement has been pioneered in China, where several million tonnes per year are produced. Energy requirements are lower because of the lower kiln temperatures required for reaction, and the lower amount of limestone (which must be endothermically decarbonated) in the mix. In addition, the lower limestone content and lower fuel consumption leads to a emission around half that associated with Portland clinker. However, SO<sub>2</sub> emissions are usually significantly higher. "Natural" cements corresponding to certain cements of the pre-Portland era, are produced by burning argillaceous limestones at moderate temperatures. The level of clay components in the limestone (around 30–35%) is such that large amounts of belite (the low-early strength, high-late strength mineral in Portland cement) are formed without the formation of excessive amounts of free lime. As with any natural material, such cements have highly variable properties. Geopolymer cements are made from mixtures of water-soluble alkali metal silicates, and aluminosilicate mineral powders such as fly ash and metakaolin. Polymer cements are made from organic chemicals that polymerise. Producers often use thermoset materials. While they are often significantly more expensive, they can give a water proof material that has useful tensile strength. Sorel cement is a hard, durable cement made by combining magnesium oxide and a magnesium chloride solution Fiber mesh cement or fiber reinforced concrete is cement that is made up of fibrous materials like synthetic fibers, glass fibers, natural fibers, and steel fibers. This type of mesh is distributed evenly throughout the wet concrete. The purpose of fiber mesh is to reduce water loss from the concrete as well as enhance its structural integrity. When used in plasters, fiber mesh increases cohesiveness, tensile strength, impact resistance, and to reduce shrinkage; ultimately, the main purpose of these combined properties is to reduce cracking. Electric cement is proposed to be made by recycling cement from demolition wastes in an electric arc furnace as part of a steelmaking process. The recycled cement is intended to be used to replace part or all of the lime used in steelmaking, resulting in a slag-like material that is similar in mineralogy to Portland cement, eliminating most of the associated carbon emissions. Setting, hardening and curing Cement starts to set when mixed with water, which causes a series of hydration chemical reactions. The constituents slowly hydrate and the mineral hydrates solidify and harden. The interlocking of the hydrates gives cement its strength. Contrary to popular belief, hydraulic cement does not set by drying out — proper curing requires maintaining the appropriate moisture content necessary for the hydration reactions during the setting and the hardening processes. If hydraulic cements dry out during the curing phase, the resulting product can be insufficiently hydrated and significantly weakened. A minimum temperature of 5 °C is recommended, and no more than 30 °C. The concrete at young age must be protected against water evaporation due to direct insolation, elevated temperature, low relative humidity and wind. The interfacial transition zone (ITZ) is a region of the cement paste around the aggregate particles in concrete. In the zone, a gradual transition in the microstructural features occurs. Reducing agents such as ferrous sulfate (FeSO<sub>4</sub>) are often added to cement to convert the carcinogenic hexavalent chromate (CrO<sub>4</sub><sup>2−</sup>) into trivalent chromium (Cr<sup>3+</sup>), a less toxic chemical species. Cement users need also to wear appropriate gloves and protective clothing.Cement industry in the world In 2010, the world production of hydraulic cement was . The top three producers were China with 1,800, India with 220, and the United States with 63.5 million tonnes for a total of over half the world total by the world's three most populated states. For the world capacity to produce cement in 2010, the situation was similar with the top three states (China, India, and the US) accounting for just under half the world total capacity. Over 2011 and 2012, global consumption continued to climb, rising to 3585 Mt in 2011 and 3736 Mt in 2012, while annual growth rates eased to 8.3% and 4.2%, respectively. China, representing an increasing share of world cement consumption, remains the main engine of global growth. By 2012, Chinese demand was recorded at 2160 Mt, representing 58% of world consumption. Annual growth rates, which reached 16% in 2010, appear to have softened, slowing to 5–6% over 2011 and 2012, as China's economy targets a more sustainable growth rate. Outside of China, worldwide consumption climbed by 4.4% to 1462 Mt in 2010, 5% to 1535 Mt in 2011, and finally 2.7% to 1576 Mt in 2012. Iran is now the 3rd largest cement producer in the world and has increased its output by over 10% from 2008 to 2011. Because of climbing energy costs in Pakistan and other major cement-producing countries, Iran is in a unique position as a trading partner, utilizing its own surplus petroleum to power clinker plants. Now a top producer in the Middle-East, Iran is further increasing its dominant position in local markets and abroad. The performance in North America and Europe over the 2010–12 period contrasted strikingly with that of China, as the global financial crisis evolved into a sovereign debt crisis for many economies in this region and recession. Cement consumption levels for this region fell by 1.9% in 2010 to 445 Mt, recovered by 4.9% in 2011, then dipped again by 1.1% in 2012. The performance in the rest of the world, which includes many emerging economies in Asia, Africa and Latin America and representing some 1020 Mt cement demand in 2010, was positive and more than offset the declines in North America and Europe. Annual consumption growth was recorded at 7.4% in 2010, moderating to 5.1% and 4.3% in 2011 and 2012, respectively. As at year-end 2012, the global cement industry consisted of 5673 cement production facilities, including both integrated and grinding, of which 3900 were located in China and 1773 in the rest of the world. Total cement capacity worldwide was recorded at 5245 Mt in 2012, with 2950 Mt located in China and 2295 Mt in the rest of the world. China "For the past 18 years, China consistently has produced more cement than any other country in the world. [...] (However,) China's cement export peaked in 1994 with 11 million tonnes shipped out and has been in steady decline ever since. Only 5.18 million tonnes were exported out of China in 2002. Offered at $34 a ton, Chinese cement is pricing itself out of the market as Thailand is asking as little as $20 for the same quality." In 2006, it was estimated that China manufactured 1.235 billion tonnes of cement, which was 44% of the world total cement production. "Demand for cement in China is expected to advance 5.4% annually and exceed 1 billion tonnes in 2008, driven by slowing but healthy growth in construction expenditures. Cement consumed in China will amount to 44% of global demand, and China will remain the world's largest national consumer of cement by a large margin." In 2010, 3.3 billion tonnes of cement was consumed globally. Of this, China accounted for 1.8 billion tonnes. Environmental impacts Cement manufacture causes environmental impacts at all stages of the process. These include emissions of airborne pollution in the form of dust, gases, noise and vibration when operating machinery and during blasting in quarries, and damage to countryside from quarrying. Equipment to reduce dust emissions during quarrying and manufacture of cement is widely used, and equipment to trap and separate exhaust gases are coming into increased use. Environmental protection also includes the re-integration of quarries into the countryside after they have been closed down by returning them to nature or re-cultivating them. emissions Carbon concentration in cement spans from ≈5% in cement structures to ≈8% in the case of roads in cement. Cement manufacturing releases in the atmosphere both directly when calcium carbonate is heated, producing lime and carbon dioxide, and also indirectly through the use of energy if its production involves the emission of . The cement industry produces about 10% of global human-made emissions, of which 60% is from the chemical process, and 40% from burning fuel. A Chatham House study from 2018 estimates that the 4 billion tonnes of cement produced annually account for 8% of worldwide emissions. Nearly 900 kg of are emitted for every 1000 kg of Portland cement produced. In the European Union, the specific energy consumption for the production of cement clinker has been reduced by approximately 30% since the 1970s. This reduction in primary energy requirements is equivalent to approximately 11 million tonnes of coal per year with corresponding benefits in reduction of emissions. This accounts for approximately 5% of anthropogenic . The majority of carbon dioxide emissions in the manufacture of Portland cement (approximately 60%) are produced from the chemical decomposition of limestone to lime, an ingredient in Portland cement clinker. These emissions may be reduced by lowering the clinker content of cement. They can also be reduced by alternative fabrication methods such as the intergrinding cement with sand or with slag or other pozzolan type minerals to a very fine powder. To reduce the transport of heavier raw materials and to minimize the associated costs, it is more economical to build cement plants closer to the limestone quarries rather than to the consumer centers. carbon capture and storage is about to be trialed, but its financial viability is uncertain. absorption Hydrated products of Portland cement, such as concrete and mortars, slowly reabsorb atmospheric CO2 gas, which has been released during calcination in a kiln. This natural process, reversed to calcination, is called carbonation. As it depends on CO2 diffusion into the bulk of concrete, its rate depends on many parameters, such as environmental conditions and surface area exposed to the atmosphere. Carbonation is particularly significant at the latter stages of the concrete life - after demolition and crushing of the debris. It was estimated that during the whole life-cycle of cement products, it can be reabsorbed nearly 30% of atmospheric CO2 generated by cement production. There are proposals to reduce carbon footprint of hydraulic cement by adopting non-hydraulic cement, lime mortar, for certain applications. It reabsorbs some of the during hardening, and has a lower energy requirement in production than Portland cement. A few other attempts to increase absorption of carbon dioxide include cements based on magnesium (Sorel cement).Heavy metal emissions in the airIn some circumstances, mainly depending on the origin and the composition of the raw materials used, the high-temperature calcination process of limestone and clay minerals can release in the atmosphere gases and dust rich in volatile heavy metals, e.g. thallium, cadmium and mercury are the most toxic. Heavy metals (Tl, Cd, Hg, ...) and also selenium are often found as trace elements in common metal sulfides (pyrite (FeS<sub>2</sub>), zinc blende (ZnS), galena (PbS), ...) present as secondary minerals in most of the raw materials. Environmental regulations exist in many countries to limit these emissions. As of 2011 in the United States, cement kilns are "legally allowed to pump more toxins into the air than are hazardous-waste incinerators." Heavy metals present in the clinker The presence of heavy metals in the clinker arises both from the natural raw materials and from the use of recycled by-products or alternative fuels. The high pH prevailing in the cement porewater (12.5 < pH < 13.5) limits the mobility of many heavy metals by decreasing their solubility and increasing their sorption onto the cement mineral phases. Nickel, zinc and lead are commonly found in cement in non-negligible concentrations. Chromium may also directly arise as natural impurity from the raw materials or as secondary contamination from the abrasion of hard chromium steel alloys used in the ball mills when the clinker is ground. As chromate (CrO<sub>4</sub><sup>2−</sup>) is toxic and may cause severe skin allergies at trace concentration, it is sometimes reduced into trivalent Cr(III) by addition of ferrous sulfate (FeSO<sub>4</sub>). Use of alternative fuels and by-products materials A cement plant consumes 3 to 6 GJ of fuel per tonne of clinker produced, depending on the raw materials and the process used. Most cement kilns today use coal and petroleum coke as primary fuels, and to a lesser extent natural gas and fuel oil. Selected waste and by-products with recoverable calorific value can be used as fuels in a cement kiln (referred to as co-processing), replacing a portion of conventional fossil fuels, like coal, if they meet strict specifications. Selected waste and by-products containing useful minerals such as calcium, silica, alumina, and iron can be used as raw materials in the kiln, replacing raw materials such as clay, shale, and limestone. Because some materials have both useful mineral content and recoverable calorific value, the distinction between alternative fuels and raw materials is not always clear. For example, sewage sludge has a low but significant calorific value, and burns to give ash containing minerals useful in the clinker matrix. Scrap automobile and truck tires are useful in cement manufacturing as they have high calorific value and the iron embedded in tires is useful as a feed stock. Clinker is manufactured by heating raw materials inside the main burner of a kiln to a temperature of 1,450 °C. The flame reaches temperatures of 1,800 °C. The material remains at 1,200 °C for 12–15 seconds at 1,800 °C or sometimes for 5–8 seconds (also referred to as residence time). These characteristics of a clinker kiln offer numerous benefits and they ensure a complete destruction of organic compounds, a total neutralization of acid gases, sulphur oxides and hydrogen chloride. Furthermore, heavy metal traces are embedded in the clinker structure and no by-products, such as ash or residues, are produced. The EU cement industry already uses more than 40% fuels derived from waste and biomass in supplying the thermal energy to the grey clinker making process. Although the choice for this so-called alternative fuels (AF) is typically cost driven, other factors are becoming more important. Use of alternative fuels provides benefits for both society and the company: -emissions are lower than with fossil fuels, waste can be co-processed in an efficient and sustainable manner and the demand for certain virgin materials can be reduced. Yet there are large differences in the share of alternative fuels used between the European Union (EU) member states. The societal benefits could be improved if more member states increase their alternative fuels share. The Ecofys study assessed the barriers and opportunities for further uptake of alternative fuels in 14 EU member states. The Ecofys study found that local factors constrain the market potential to a much larger extent than the technical and economic feasibility of the cement industry itself.Reduced-footprint cementGrowing environmental concerns and the increasing cost of fossil fuels have resulted, in many countries, in a sharp reduction of the resources needed to produce cement, as well as effluents (dust and exhaust gases). Reduced-footprint cement is a cementitious material that meets or exceeds the functional performance capabilities of Portland cement. Various techniques are under development. One is geopolymer cement, which incorporates recycled materials, thereby reducing consumption of raw materials, water, and energy. Another approach is to reduce or eliminate the production and release of damaging pollutants and greenhouse gasses, particularly . Recycling old cement in electric arc furnaces is another approach. Also, a team at the University of Edinburgh has developed the 'DUPE' process based on the microbial activity of Sporosarcina pasteurii, a bacterium precipitating calcium carbonate, which, when mixed with sand and urine, can produce mortar blocks with a compressive strength 70% of that of concrete. An overview of climate-friendly methods for cement production can be found here. See also * Asphalt concrete * Calcium aluminate cements * Cement chemist notation * Cement render * Cenocell * Energetically modified cement (EMC) * Fly ash * Geopolymer cement * Portland cement * Rosendale cement * Sulfate attack in concrete and mortar * Sulfur concrete * Tiocem * List of countries by cement production References Further reading * }} * }} * * * * * Friedrich W. Locher: Cement : Principles of production and use, Düsseldorf, Germany: Verlag Bau + Technik GmbH, 2006, * Javed I. Bhatty, F. MacGregor Miller, Steven H. Kosmatka; editors: Innovations in Portland Cement Manufacturing, SP400, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, Illinois, U.S., 2004, * [https://www.carbonbrief.org/qa-why-cement-emissions-matter-for-climate-change "Why cement emissions matter for climate change"] Carbon Brief 2018 * * * External links * Category:Building materials Category:Concrete	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cement	2025-04-05T18:27:54.191492
6671	Cincinnati Reds	}} \| colors Red, black, white<br /> \| y3 = 1959 \| nicknames = Big Red Machine \| pastnames = * Cincinnati Redlegs (–) * Cincinnati Reds (–) * Cincinnati Red Stockings (–) \| ballpark = Great American Ball Park \| y4 = 2003 \| pastparks = * Riverfront Stadium (–) * Crosley Field (–) * Palace of the Fans (–) * League Park (II) (–) * League Park (I) (–) * Bank Street Grounds (–) \| WS = (5) \| WORLD CHAMPIONS = \| \| \| \| }} \| LEAGUE = NL \| P = (9) \| PENNANTS = \| \| \| \| }} \| misc1 = AA Pennants (1) \| OTHER PENNANTS = 1882 \| DIV = NL Central \| DV = (3) \| Division Champs = \| misc5 = NL West Division titles (7) \| OTHER DIV CHAMPS = \| WC = (2) \| Wild Card = \| misc6 \| owner Bob Castellini \| president = Phillip J. Castellini \| manager = Terry Francona \| gm = Brad Meador \| presbo = Nick Krall \| website = }} The Cincinnati Reds are an American professional baseball team based in Cincinnati. The Reds compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the National League (NL) Central Division. They were a charter member of the American Association in 1881 before joining the NL in 1890. The Reds played in the NL West division from 1969 to 1993, before joining the Central division in 1994. For several years in the 1970s, they were considered the most dominant team in baseball, most notably winning the 1975 and 1976 World Series; the team was colloquially known as the "Big Red Machine" during this time, and it included Hall of Fame members Johnny Bench, Joe Morgan and Tony Pérez, as well as the controversial Pete Rose, the all-time hits leader in Major League Baseball. Overall, the Reds have won five World Series championships, nine NL pennants, one AA pennant and 10 division titles. The team plays its home games at Great American Ball Park, which opened in 2003. Bob Castellini has been the CEO of the Reds since 2006. From 1882 to 2024, the Reds' overall win–loss record is (a winning percentage). History<!-- This section is linked from National League (baseball) --> The birth of the Reds and the American Association (1881–1889) The origins of the modern Cincinnati Reds baseball team can be traced back to the expulsion from the National League of an earlier team bearing the same name. In 1876, Cincinnati became one of the charter members of the new National League (NL), but the club ran afoul of league organizer and longtime president William Hulbert for selling beer during games and renting out its ballpark on Sundays. Both were important in enticing the city's large German population to support the team. While Hulbert made clear his distaste for both beer and Sunday baseball at the founding of the league, neither practice was against league rules at the time. On October 6, 1880, however, seven of the eight team owners adopted a pledge to ban both beer and Sunday baseball at the regular league meeting in December. Only Cincinnati president W. H. Kennett refused to sign the pledge, so the other owners preemptively expelled Cincinnati from the league for violating the new rules even though they were not yet in effect. Cincinnati's expulsion incensed Cincinnati Enquirer sports editor O. P. Caylor, who made two attempts to form a new league on behalf of the receivers for the now-bankrupt Reds franchise. When these attempts failed, he formed a new independent ball club known as the Red Stockings in the spring of 1881 and brought the team to St. Louis for a weekend exhibition. The Reds' first game was a 12–3 victory over the St. Louis club. After the 1881 series proved successful, Caylor and former Reds president Justus Thorner received an invitation from Philadelphia businessman Horace Phillips to attend a meeting of several clubs in Pittsburgh, planning to establish a new league to compete with the NL. Upon arriving, however, Caylor and Thorner found that no other owners had accepted the invitation, while even Phillips declined to attend his own meeting. By chance, the duo met former pitcher Al Pratt, who paired them with former Pittsburgh Alleghenys president H. Denny McKnight. Together, the three hatched a scheme to form a new league by sending a telegram to each of the owners who were invited to attend the meeting stating that he was the only person who did not attend, and that everyone else was enthusiastic about the new venture and eager to attend a second meeting in Cincinnati. The ploy worked, and the American Association (AA) was officially formed at the Hotel Gibson in Cincinnati. The new Reds – with Thorner now serving as president – became a charter member of the AA. Led by the hitting of third baseman Hick Carpenter, the defense of future Hall of Fame second baseman Bid McPhee and the pitching of 40-game-winner Will White, the Reds won the inaugural AA pennant in 1882. With the establishment of the Union Association in 1884, Thorner left the club to finance the Cincinnati Outlaw Reds and managed to acquire the lease on the Reds' Bank Street Grounds playing field, forcing new president Aaron Stern to relocate three blocks away to the hastily built League Park. The club never placed higher than second or lower than fifth for the rest of its tenure in the American Association. The National League returns to Cincinnati (1890–1911) The Cincinnati Red Stockings left the American Association on November 14, 1889, and joined the National League along with the Brooklyn Bridegrooms after a dispute with St. Louis Browns owner Chris von der Ahe over the selection of a new league president. The National League was happy to accept the teams in part due to the emergence of the new Player's League, an early failed attempt to break the reserve clause in baseball that threatened both existing leagues. Because the National League decided to expand while the American Association was weakening, the team accepted an invitation to join the National League. After shortening their name to the Reds, the team wandered through the 1890s, signing local stars and aging veterans. During this time, the team never finished above third place (1897) and never closer than games to first (1890). At the start of the 20th century, the Reds had hitting stars Sam Crawford and Cy Seymour. Seymour's .377 average in 1905 was the first individual batting crown won by a Red. In 1911, Bob Bescher stole 81 bases, which is still a team record. Like the previous decade, the 1900s were not kind to the Reds, as much of the decade was spent in the league's second division. Redland Field to the Great Depression (1912–1932) led Cincinnati to the 1919 World Series.]] In 1912, the club opened Redland Field (renamed Crosley Field in 1934), a new steel-and-concrete ballpark. The Reds had been playing baseball on that same site – the corner of Findlay and Western Avenues on the city's west side – for 28 years in wooden structures that had been occasionally damaged by fires. By the late 1910s, the Reds began to come out of the second division. The 1918 team finished fourth, and new manager Pat Moran led the Reds to an NL pennant in 1919, in what the club advertised as its "Golden Anniversary." The 1919 team had hitting stars Edd Roush and Heinie Groh, while the pitching staff was led by Hod Eller and left-hander Harry "Slim" Sallee. The Reds finished ahead of John McGraw's New York Giants and then won the World Series in eight games over the Chicago White Sox. By 1920, the "Black Sox" scandal had brought a taint to the Reds' first championship. After 1926 and well into the 1930s, the Reds were second division dwellers. Eppa Rixey, Dolf Luque and Pete Donohue were pitching stars, but the offense never lived up to the pitching. By 1931, the team was bankrupt, the Great Depression was in full swing and Redland Field was in a state of disrepair. Championship baseball and revival (1933–1940) Powel Crosley, Jr., an electronics magnate who, with his brother Lewis M. Crosley, produced radios, refrigerators and other household items, bought the Reds out of bankruptcy in 1933 and hired Larry MacPhail to be the general manager. Crosley had started WLW radio, the Reds flagship radio broadcaster, and the Crosley Broadcasting Corporation in Cincinnati, where he was also a prominent civic leader. MacPhail began to develop the Reds' minor league system and expanded the Reds' fan base. Throughout the rest of the decade, the Reds became a team of "firsts." The now-renamed Crosley Field became the host of the first night game in 1935, which was also the first baseball fireworks night. (The fireworks at the game were shot by Joe Rozzi of Rozzi's Famous Fireworks.) Johnny Vander Meer became the only pitcher in major league history to throw back-to-back no-hitters in 1938. Thanks to Vander Meer, Paul Derringer and second baseman/third baseman-turned-pitcher Bucky Walters, the Reds had a solid pitching staff. The offense came around in the late 1930s. By 1938, the Reds, led by manager Bill McKechnie, were out of the second division, finishing fourth. Ernie Lombardi was named the National League's Most Valuable Player in 1938. By 1939, the Reds were National League champions but were swept in the World Series by the New York Yankees. In 1940, the Reds repeated as NL Champions, and for the first time in 21 years, they captured a world championship, beating the Detroit Tigers 4 games to 3. Frank McCormick was the 1940 NL MVP; other position players included Harry Craft, Lonny Frey, Ival Goodman, Lew Riggs and Bill Werber. 1941–1969 World War II and age finally caught up with the Reds, as the team finished mostly in the second division throughout the 1940s and early 1950s. In 1944, Joe Nuxhall (who was later to become part of the radio broadcasting team), at age 15, pitched for the Reds on loan from Wilson Junior High school in Hamilton, Ohio. He became the youngest player ever to appear in a major league game, a record that still stands today. Ewell "The Whip" Blackwell was the main pitching stalwart before arm problems cut short his career. Ted Kluszewski was the NL home run leader in 1954. The rest of the offense was a collection of over-the-hill players and not-ready-for-prime-time youngsters. (1953)]] In April 1953, in a political climate increasingly dominated by anti-Communism, the Reds announced a preference to be called the "Redlegs", saying that the name of the club had been "Red Stockings" and then "Redlegs", The team hoped to avoid any association between the team and the political connotation of the word "red" to mean Communism, but as the New York Times reported, "The political significance of the word 'Reds' these days and its effect on the change was not discussed by management". From 1956 to 1960, the club's logo was altered to remove the term "REDS" from the inside of the "wishbone C" symbol. The word "REDS" reappeared on the 1961 uniforms, but the point of the "C" was removed. The traditional home uniform logo was reinstated in 1967. In 1956, the Redlegs, led by National League Rookie of the Year Frank Robinson, hit 221 home runs to tie the NL record. By 1961, Robinson was joined by Vada Pinson, Wally Post, Gordy Coleman and Gene Freese. Pitchers Joey Jay, Jim O'Toole and Bob Purkey led the staff. The Reds captured the 1961 National League pennant, holding off the Los Angeles Dodgers and San Francisco Giants, only to be defeated by the perennially powerful New York Yankees in the World Series. The Reds had winning teams during the rest of the 1960s, but did not produce any championships. They won 98 games in 1962, paced by Purkey's 23 wins, but finished third. In 1964, they lost the pennant by one game to the St. Louis Cardinals after having taken first place when the Philadelphia Phillies collapsed in September. Their beloved manager Fred Hutchinson died of cancer just weeks after the end of the 1964 season. The failure of the Reds to win the 1964 pennant led to owner Bill DeWitt selling off key components of the team in anticipation of relocating the franchise. In response to DeWitt's threatened move, women of Cincinnati banded together to form the Rosie Reds to urge DeWitt to keep the franchise in Cincinnati. The Rosie Reds are still in existence, and are currently the oldest fan club in Major League Baseball. After the 1965 season, DeWitt executed what is remembered as the most lopsided trade in baseball history, sending former MVP Frank Robinson to the Baltimore Orioles for pitchers Milt Pappas and Jack Baldschun, and outfielder Dick Simpson. Robinson went on to win the MVP and Triple Crown in the American League in 1966, and led Baltimore to its first-ever World Series title in a sweep of the Los Angeles Dodgers. The Reds did not recover from this trade until the rise of the "Big Red Machine" in the 1970s. (pictured in 1969), the Reds' home stadium from 1912 to 1970]] Starting in the early 1960s, the Reds' farm system began producing a series of stars, including Jim Maloney (the Reds' pitching ace of the 1960s), Pete Rose, Tony Pérez, Johnny Bench, Lee May, Tommy Helms, Bernie Carbo, Hal McRae, Dave Concepción and Gary Nolan. The tipping point came in 1967, with the appointment of Bob Howsam as general manager. That same year, the Reds avoided a move to San Diego when the city of Cincinnati and Hamilton County agreed to build a state-of-the-art, downtown stadium on the edge of the Ohio River. The Reds entered into a 30-year lease in exchange for the stadium commitment keeping the franchise in Cincinnati. In a series of strategic moves, Howsam brought in key personnel to complement the homegrown talent. The Reds' final game at Crosley Field, where they had played since 1912, was played on June 24, 1970, with a 5–4 victory over the San Francisco Giants. Under Howsam's administration starting in the late 1960s, all players coming to the Reds were required to shave and cut their hair for the next three decades in order to present the team as wholesome in an era of turmoil. The rule was controversial, but persisted well into the ownership of Marge Schott. On at least one occasion, in the early 1980s, enforcement of this rule lost the Reds the services of star reliever and Ohio native Rollie Fingers, who would not shave his trademark handlebar mustache in order to join the team. The rule was not officially rescinded until 1999, when the Reds traded for slugger Greg Vaughn, who had a goatee. The New York Yankees continue to have a similar rule today, although Yankees players are permitted to have mustaches. Much like when players leave the Yankees today, players who left the Reds took advantage with their new teams; Pete Rose, for instance, grew his hair out much longer than would be allowed by the Reds once he signed with the Philadelphia Phillies in 1979. The Reds' rules also included conservative uniforms. In Major League Baseball, a club generally provides most of the equipment and clothing needed for play. However, players are required to supply their gloves and shoes themselves. Many players enter into sponsorship arrangements with shoe manufacturers, but until the mid-1980s, the Reds had a strict rule requiring players to wear only plain black shoes with no prominent logo. Reds players decried what they considered to be the boring color choice, as well as the denial of the opportunity to earn more money through shoe contracts. In 1985, a compromise was struck in which players could paint red marks on their black shoes and were allowed to wear all-red shoes the following year. The Big Red Machine (1970–1976) (pictured in 1974), the home stadium of the Reds from 1970 to 2002]] In , little-known George "Sparky" Anderson was hired as manager of the Reds, and the team embarked upon a decade of excellence, with a lineup that came to be known as "the Big Red Machine." Playing at Crosley Field until June 30, 1970, when they moved into Riverfront Stadium, a new 52,000-seat multi-purpose venue on the shores of the Ohio River, the Reds began the 1970s with a bang by winning 70 of their first 100 games. Johnny Bench, Tony Pérez, Pete Rose, Lee May and Bobby Tolan were the early offensive leaders of this era. Gary Nolan, Jim Merritt, Wayne Simpson and Jim McGlothlin led a pitching staff that also included veterans Tony Cloninger and Clay Carroll, as well as youngsters Pedro Borbón and Don Gullett. The Reds breezed through the 1970 season, winning the NL West and capturing the NL pennant by sweeping the Pittsburgh Pirates in three games. By the time the club got to the World Series, however, the pitching staff had run out of gas, and the veteran Baltimore Orioles, led by Hall of Fame third baseman and World Series MVP Brooks Robinson, beat the Reds in five games. After the disastrous season – the only year in the decade in which the team finished with a losing record – the Reds reloaded by trading veterans Jimmy Stewart, May and Tommy Helms to the Houston Astros for Joe Morgan, César Gerónimo, Jack Billingham, Ed Armbrister and Denis Menke. Meanwhile, Dave Concepción blossomed at shortstop. 1971 was also the year a key component of future world championships was acquired, when George Foster was traded to the Reds from the San Francisco Giants in exchange for shortstop Frank Duffy. The Reds won the NL West in baseball's first-ever strike-shortened season, and defeated the Pittsburgh Pirates in a five-game playoff series. They then faced the Oakland Athletics in the World Series, where six of the seven games were decided by one run. With powerful slugger Reggie Jackson sidelined by an injury incurred during Oakland's playoff series, Ohio native Gene Tenace got a chance to play in the series, delivering four home runs that tied the World Series record for homers, propelling Oakland to a dramatic seven-game series win. This was one of the few World Series in which no starting pitcher for either side pitched a complete game. The Reds won a third NL West crown in after a dramatic second-half comeback that saw them make up games on the Los Angeles Dodgers after the All-Star break. However, they lost the NL pennant to the New York Mets in five games in the NLCS. In Game 1, Tom Seaver faced Jack Billingham in a classic pitching duel, with all three runs of the 2–1 margin being scored on home runs. John Milner provided New York's run off Billingham, while Pete Rose tied the game in the seventh inning off Seaver, setting the stage for a dramatic game-ending home run by Johnny Bench in the bottom of the ninth. The New York series provided plenty of controversy surrounding the riotous behavior of Shea Stadium fans toward Pete Rose when he and Bud Harrelson scuffled after a hard slide by Rose into Harrelson at second base during the fifth inning of Game 3. A full bench-clearing fight resulted after Harrelson responded to Rose's aggressive move to prevent him from completing a double play by calling him a name. This also led to two more incidents in which play was stopped. The Reds trailed 9–3, and New York's manager Yogi Berra and legendary outfielder Willie Mays, at the request of National League president Warren Giles, appealed to fans in left field to restrain themselves. The next day the series was extended to a fifth game when Rose homered in the 12th inning to tie the series at two games each. The Reds won 98 games in but finished second to the 102-win Los Angeles Dodgers. The 1974 season started off with much excitement, as the Atlanta Braves were in town to open the season with the Reds. Hank Aaron entered opening day with 713 home runs, one shy of tying Babe Ruth's record of 714. The first pitch Aaron swung at in the 1974 season was the record-tying home run off Jack Billingham. The next day, the Braves benched Aaron, hoping to save him for his record-breaking home run on their season-opening homestand. Then-commissioner Bowie Kuhn ordered Braves management to play Aaron the next day, where he narrowly missed a historic home run in the fifth inning. Aaron went on to set the record in Atlanta two nights later. The 1974 season also saw the debut of Hall of Fame radio announcer Marty Brennaman after Al Michaels left the Reds to broadcast for the San Francisco Giants. With 1975, the Big Red Machine lineup solidified with the "Great Eight" starting team of Johnny Bench (catcher), Tony Pérez (first base), Joe Morgan (second base), Dave Concepción (shortstop), Pete Rose (third base), Ken Griffey (right field), César Gerónimo (center field) and George Foster (left field). The starting pitchers included Don Gullett, Fred Norman, Gary Nolan, Jack Billingham, Pat Darcy and Clay Kirby. The bullpen featured Rawly Eastwick and Will McEnaney, who combined for 37 saves, and veterans Pedro Borbón and Clay Carroll. On Opening Day, Rose still played in left field and Foster was not a starter, while John Vukovich, an off-season acquisition, was the starting third baseman. While Vuckovich was a superb fielder, he was a weak hitter. In May, with the team off to a slow start and trailing the Dodgers, Sparky Anderson made a bold move by moving Rose to third base, a position where he had very little experience, and inserting Foster in left field. This was the jolt that the Reds needed to propel them into first place, with Rose proving to be reliable on defense and the addition of Foster to the outfield giving the offense some added punch. During the season, the Reds compiled two notable streaks: 1.) winning 41 out of 50 games in one stretch, and 2.) by going a month without committing any errors on defense. at bat in a game at Dodger Stadium during the 1970s]] In the 1975 season, Cincinnati clinched the NL West with 108 victories before sweeping the Pittsburgh Pirates in three games to win the NL pennant. They went on to face the Boston Red Sox in the World Series, splitting the first four games and taking Game 5. After a three-day rain delay, the two teams met in Game 6, considered by many to be the best World Series game ever. The Reds were ahead 6–3 with five outs left when the Red Sox tied the game on former Red Bernie Carbo's three-run home run, his second pinch-hit, three-run homer in the series. After a few close calls both ways, Carlton Fisk hit a dramatic 12th-inning home run off the foul pole in left field to give the Red Sox a 7–6 win and force a decisive game 7. Cincinnati prevailed the next day when Morgan's RBI single won Game 7 and gave the Reds their first championship in 35 years. The Reds have not lost a World Series game since Carlton Fisk's home run, a span of nine straight wins. saw a return of the same starting eight in the field. The starting rotation was again led by Nolan, Gullett, Billingham and Norman, while the addition of rookies Pat Zachry and Santo Alcalá comprised an underrated staff in which four of the six had ERAs below 3.10. Eastwick, Borbon and McEnaney shared closer duties, recording 26, eight and seven saves, respectively. The Reds won the NL West by 10 games and went undefeated in the postseason, sweeping the Philadelphia Phillies (winning game 3 in their final at-bat) to return to the World Series, where they beat the Yankees at the newly renovated Yankee Stadium in the first Series held there since 1964. This was only the second-ever sweep of the Yankees in the World Series, and the Reds became the first NL team since the 1921–22 New York Giants to win consecutive World Series championships. To date, the 1975 and 1976 Reds were the last NL team to repeat as champions. Beginning with the 1970 National League pennant, the Reds beat either of the two Pennsylvania-based clubs – the Philadelphia Phillies and the Pittsburgh Pirates – to win their pennants (they beat the Pirates in 1970, 1972, 1975 and 1990, and the Phillies in 1976), making the Big Red Machine part of the rivalry between the two Pennsylvania teams. In 1979, Pete Rose added further fuel to the Big Red Machine, being part of the rivalry when he signed with the Phillies and helped them win their first World Series in . The Machine dismantled (1977–1989) The late 1970s brought turmoil and change to the Reds. Popular Tony Pérez was sent to the Montreal Expos after the 1976 season, breaking up the Big Red Machine's starting lineup. Manager Sparky Anderson and general manager Bob Howsam later considered this trade to be the biggest mistake of their careers. Starting pitcher Don Gullett left via free agency and signed with the New York Yankees. In an effort to fill that gap, a trade with the Oakland Athletics for starting ace Vida Blue was arranged during the 1977–78 offseason. However, then-commissioner Bowie Kuhn vetoed the trade in order to maintain competitive balance in baseball; some have suggested that the actual reason had more to do with Kuhn's continued feud with Athletics owner Charlie Finley. On June 15, 1977, the Reds acquired pitcher Tom Seaver from the New York Mets for Pat Zachry, Doug Flynn, Steve Henderson and Dan Norman. In other deals that proved to be less successful, the Reds traded Gary Nolan to the California Angels for Craig Hendrickson; Rawly Eastwick to the St. Louis Cardinals for Doug Capilla; and Mike Caldwell to the Milwaukee Brewers for Rick O'Keeffe and Garry Pyka, as well as Rick Auerbach from Texas. The end of the Big Red Machine era was heralded by the replacement of general manager Bob Howsam with Dick Wagner. In his last season as a Red, Rose gave baseball a thrill as he challenged Joe DiMaggio's 56-game hitting streak, tying for the second-longest streak ever at 44 games. The streak came to an end in Atlanta after striking out in his fifth at-bat in the game against Gene Garber. Rose also earned his 3,000th hit that season, on his way to becoming baseball's all-time hits leader when he rejoined the Reds in the mid-1980s. The year also witnessed the only no-hitter of Hall of Fame pitcher Tom Seaver's career, coming against the St. Louis Cardinals on June 16, 1978. slugged 52 home runs in 1977, earning the NL MVP award.]] After the 1978 season and two straight second-place finishes, Wagner fired manager Anderson in a move that proved to be unpopular. Pete Rose, who had played almost every position for the team except pitcher, shortstop and catcher since 1963, signed with Philadelphia as a free agent. By , the starters were Bench (catcher), Dan Driessen (first base), Morgan (second base), Concepción (shortstop) and Ray Knight (third base), with Griffey, Foster and Geronimo again in the outfield. The pitching staff had experienced a complete turnover since 1976, except for Fred Norman. In addition to ace starter Tom Seaver, the remaining starters were Mike LaCoss, Bill Bonham and Paul Moskau. In the bullpen, only Borbon had remained. Dave Tomlin and Mario Soto worked middle relief, with Tom Hume and Doug Bair closing. The Reds won the 1979 NL West behind the pitching of Seaver, but were dispatched in the NL playoffs by the Pittsburgh Pirates. Game 2 featured a controversial play in which a ball hit by Pittsburgh's Phil Garner was caught by Reds outfielder Dave Collins but was ruled a trap, setting the Pirates up to take a 2–1 lead. The Pirates swept the series 3 games to 0 and went on to win the World Series against the Baltimore Orioles. The 1981 team fielded a strong lineup, with only Concepción, Foster and Griffey retaining their spots from the 1975–76 heyday. After Johnny Bench was able to play only a few games as catcher each year after 1980 due to ongoing injuries, Joe Nolan took over as starting catcher. Driessen and Bench shared first base, and Knight starred at third. Morgan and Geronimo had been replaced at second base and center field by Ron Oester and Dave Collins, respectively. Mario Soto posted a banner year starting on the mound, only surpassed by the outstanding performance of Seaver's Cy Young runner-up season. La Coss, Bruce Berenyi and Frank Pastore rounded out the starting rotation. Hume again led the bullpen as closer, joined by Bair and Joe Price. In , the Reds had the best overall record in baseball, but finished second in the division in both of the half-seasons that resulted from a mid-season players' strike, and missed the playoffs. To commemorate this, a team photo was taken, accompanied by a banner that read "Baseball's Best Record 1981." By , the Reds were a shell of the original Red Machine, having lost 101 games that year. Johnny Bench, after an unsuccessful transition to third base, retired a year later. After the heartbreak of 1981, general manager Dick Wagner pursued the strategy of ridding the team of veterans, including third baseman Knight and the entire starting outfield of Griffey, Foster and Collins. Bench, after being able to catch only seven games in 1981, was moved from platooning at first base to be the starting third baseman; Alex Treviño became the regular starting catcher. The outfield was staffed with Paul Householder, César Cedeño and future Colorado Rockies and Pittsburgh Pirates manager Clint Hurdle on Opening Day. Hurdle was an immediate bust, and rookie Eddie Milner took his place in the starting outfield early in the year. The highly touted Householder struggled throughout the year despite extensive playing time. Cedeno, while providing steady veteran play, was a disappointment, unable to recapture his glory days with the Houston Astros. The starting rotation featured the emergence of a dominant Mario Soto and featured strong years by Pastore and Bruce Berenyi, but Seaver was injured all year, and their efforts were wasted without a strong offensive lineup. Tom Hume still led the bullpen along with Joe Price, but the colorful Brad "The Animal" Lesley was unable to consistently excel, and former All-Star Jim Kern was also a disappointment. Kern was also publicly upset over having to shave off his prominent beard to join the Reds, and helped force the issue of getting traded during mid-season by growing it back. The season also saw the midseason firing of manager John McNamara, who was replaced as skipper by Russ Nixon. The Reds fell to the bottom of the Western Division for the next few years. After the 1982 season, Seaver was traded back to the Mets. found Dann Bilardello behind the plate, Bench returning to part-time duty at first base, rookie Nick Esasky taking over at third base and Gary Redus taking over from Cedeno. Tom Hume's effectiveness as a closer had diminished, and no other consistent relievers emerged. Dave Concepción was the sole remaining starter from the Big Red Machine era. Wagner's tenure ended in 1983, when Howsam, the architect of the Big Red Machine, was brought back. The popular Howsam began his second term as the Reds' general manager by signing Cincinnati native Dave Parker as a free agent from Pittsburgh. In , the Reds began to move up, depending on trades and some minor leaguers. In that season, Dave Parker, Dave Concepción and Tony Pérez were in Cincinnati uniforms. In August of the same year, Pete Rose was reacquired and hired to be the Reds player-manager. After raising the franchise from the grave, Howsam gave way to the administration of Bill Bergesch, who attempted to build the team around a core of highly regarded young players in addition to veterans like Parker. However, he was unable to capitalize on an excess of young and highly touted position players including Kurt Stillwell, Tracy Jones and Kal Daniels by trading them for pitching. Despite the emergence of Tom Browning as Rookie of the Year in , when he won 20 games, the rotation was devastated by the early demise of Mario Soto's career to arm injury. Under Bergesch, the Reds finished second four times from 1985 to . Among the highlights, Rose became the all-time hits leader, Tom Browning threw a perfect game, Eric Davis became the first player in baseball history to hit at least 35 home runs and steal 50 bases, and Chris Sabo was the 1988 National League Rookie of the Year. The Reds also had a bullpen star in John Franco, who was with the team from 1984 to 1989. Rose once had Concepción pitch late in a game at Dodger Stadium. In , following the release of the Dowd Report, which accused Rose of betting on baseball games, Rose was banned from baseball by Commissioner Bart Giamatti, who declared him guilty of "conduct detrimental to baseball." World championship and the end of an era (1990–2002) In , general manager Bergesch was replaced by Murray Cook, who initiated a series of deals that would finally bring the Reds back to the championship, starting with acquisitions of Danny Jackson and José Rijo. An aging Dave Parker was let go after a revival of his career in Cincinnati following the Pittsburgh drug trials. Barry Larkin emerged as the starting shortstop over Kurt Stillwell, who, along with reliever Ted Power, was traded for Jackson. In , Cook was succeeded by Bob Quinn, who put the final pieces of the championship puzzle together, with the acquisitions of Hal Morris, Billy Hatcher and Randy Myers. in 1990]] In , the Reds, under new manager Lou Piniella, shocked baseball by leading the NL West from wire-to-wire, making them the only NL team to do so. Winning their first nine games, they started 33–12 and maintained their lead throughout the year. Led by Chris Sabo, Barry Larkin, Eric Davis, Paul O'Neill and Billy Hatcher on the field, and by José Rijo, Tom Browning and the "Nasty Boys" – Rob Dibble, Norm Charlton and Randy Myers – on the mound, the Reds took out the Pirates in the NLCS. The Reds swept the heavily favored Oakland Athletics in four straight and extended a winning streak in the World Series to nine consecutive games. This Series, however, saw Eric Davis severely bruise a kidney diving for a fly ball in Game 4, and his play was greatly limited the next year. In , Quinn was replaced in the front office by Jim Bowden. On the field, manager Lou Piniella wanted outfielder Paul O'Neill to be a power hitter to fill the void Eric Davis left when he was traded to the Los Angeles Dodgers in exchange for Tim Belcher. However, O'Neill only hit .246 with 14 home runs. The Reds returned to winning after a losing season in , but 90 wins was only enough for second place behind the division-winning Atlanta Braves. Before the season ended, Piniella got into an altercation with reliever Rob Dibble. In the offseason, Paul O'Neill was traded to the New York Yankees for outfielder Roberto Kelly, who was a disappointment for the Reds over the next couple of years, while O'Neill led a downtrodden Yankees franchise to a return to glory. Around this time, the Reds would replace their Big Red Machine–era uniforms in favor of a pinstriped uniform with no sleeves. Controversy erupted after the 1992 season when team owner Marge Schott was reported to have racially and ethnically slurred players and business associates, and in a November interview, praised the early efforts of Adolf Hitler. As punishment, Major League Baseball's executive council prevented her from exercising day-to-day oversight of the Reds during the 1993 season. Schott did not like Johnson, and she did not approve of Johnson living with his fiancée before they were married. The and seasons continued the trend of big-hitting, poor pitching and poor records. Griffey, Jr. joined the 500 home run club in 2004, but was again hampered by injuries. Adam Dunn emerged as consistent home run hitter, including a home run against José Lima. He also broke the major league record for strikeouts in 2004. Although a number of free agents were signed before 2005, the Reds were quickly in last place, and manager Dave Miley was forced out in the 2005 midseason and replaced by Jerry Narron. Like many other small-market clubs, the Reds dispatched some of their veteran players and began entrusting their future to a young nucleus that included Adam Dunn and Austin Kearns. played in his hometown of Cincinnati from 2000 to 2008.]] 2004 saw the opening of the Cincinnati Reds Hall of Fame (HOF), which had been in existence in name only since the 1950s, with player plaques, photos and other memorabilia scattered throughout their front offices. Ownership and management desired a standalone facility where the public could walk through interactive displays, see locker room recreations, watch videos of classic Reds moments and peruse historical items, such as the history of Reds uniforms dating back to the 1920s or a baseball marking every hit Pete Rose had during his career. Robert Castellini took over as controlling owner from Lindner in 2006. Castellini promptly fired general manager Dan O'Brien and hired Wayne Krivsky. The Reds made a run at the playoffs, but ultimately fell short. The 2007 season was again mired in mediocrity. Midway through the season, Jerry Narron was fired as manager and replaced by Pete Mackanin. The Reds ended up posting a winning record under Mackanin, but finished the season in fifth place in the Central Division. Mackanin was manager in an interim capacity only, and the Reds, seeking a big name to fill the spot, ultimately brought in Dusty Baker. Early in the 2008 season, Krivsky was fired and replaced by Walt Jocketty. Although the Reds did not win under Krivsky, he is credited with revamping the farm system and signing young talent that could potentially lead the team to success in the future. The Reds failed to post winning records in both 2008 and 2009. In 2010, with NL MVP Joey Votto and Gold Glovers Brandon Phillips and Scott Rolen, the Reds posted a 91–71 record and were NL Central champions. The following week, the Reds became only the second team in MLB history to be no-hit in a postseason game when Philadelphia's Roy Halladay shut down the National League's No. 1 offense in Game 1 of the NLDS. The Reds eventually lost in a three-game sweep of the NLDS to Philadelphia. After coming off their surprising 2010 NL Central Division title, the Reds fell short of many expectations for the 2011 season. Multiple injuries and inconsistent starting pitching played a big role in their mid-season collapse, along with a less productive offense as compared to the previous year. The Reds ended the season at 79–83, and won the 2012 NL Central Division Title. On September 28, Homer Bailey threw a 1–0 no-hitter against the Pittsburgh Pirates, marking the first Reds no-hitter since Tom Browning's perfect game in 1988. Finishing with a 97–65 record, the Reds earned the second seed in the Division Series and a matchup with the eventual World Series champion, the San Francisco Giants. After taking a 2–0 lead with road victories at AT&T Park, they headed home looking to win the series. However, they lost three straight at their home ballpark, becoming the first National League team since the Chicago Cubs in 1984 to lose a division series after leading 2–0. , first baseman (2007–2023)]] In the offseason, the team traded outfielder Drew Stubbs – as part of a three-team deal with the Arizona Diamondbacks and Cleveland Indians – to the Indians, and in turn received right fielder Shin-Soo Choo. On July 2, 2013, Homer Bailey pitched a no-hitter against the San Francisco Giants for a 4–0 Reds victory, making him the third pitcher in Reds history with two complete-game no-hitters in their career. Following six consecutive losses to close out the 2013 season, including a loss to the Pittsburgh Pirates at PNC Park in the National League wild-card playoff game, the Reds decided to fire Dusty Baker. During his six years as manager, Baker led the Reds to the playoff three times; however, they never advanced beyond the first round. On October 22, 2013, the Reds hired pitching coach Bryan Price to replace Baker as manager. Under Price, the Reds were led by pitchers Johnny Cueto and the hard-throwing Aroldis Chapman. The offense was led by All-Star third baseman Todd Frazier, Joey Votto and Brandon Phillips, but although they had plenty of star power, the Reds never got off to a good start and ended the season in lowly fourth place in the division to go along with a 76–86 record. During the offseason, the Reds traded pitchers Alfredo Simón to the Tigers and Mat Latos to the Marlins. In return, they acquired young talents such as Eugenio Suárez and Anthony DeSclafani. They also acquired veteran slugger Marlon Byrd from the Phillies to play left field. The Reds' 2015 season wasn't much better, as they finished with the second-worst record in the league at 64–98, their worst finish since 1982. The Reds were forced to trade star pitchers Johnny Cueto and Mike Leake to the Kansas City Royals and San Francisco Giants, respectively, receiving minor league pitching prospects for both. Shortly after the season's end, the Reds traded Home Run Derby champion Todd Frazier to the Chicago White Sox and closing pitcher Aroldis Chapman to the New York Yankees. In 2016, the Reds broke the then-record for home runs allowed during a single season, The Reds held this record until the 2019 season when it was broken by the Baltimore Orioles. The previous record holder was the 1996 Detroit Tigers with 241 home runs yielded to opposing teams. The Reds went 68–94 and again were one of the worst teams in MLB. The Reds traded outfielder Jay Bruce to the Mets just before the July 31 non-waiver trade deadline in exchange for two prospects: infielder Dilson Herrera and pitcher Max Wotell. During the offseason, the Reds traded Brandon Phillips to the Atlanta Braves in exchange for two minor league pitchers. On September 25, 2020, the Reds earned their first postseason berth since 2013, ultimately earning the seventh seed in the expanded 2020 playoffs. The 2020 season had been shortened to 60 games as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. The Reds lost their first-round series against the Atlanta Braves two games to none. The Reds finished the 2021 season with a record of 83–79, good for third in the NL Central. In 2022, the Reds started out the regular season with a ghastly 3–22 record. Their three-game win total in 25 games had not seen since the 2003 Detroit Tigers and was tied for second-worst overall behind the 1988 Baltimore Orioles, who started 2–23 in their first 25 games. They would finish the season with a record of 62–100. The 2023 season found the Reds in contention for a wild card berth up until the final weekend of the season. They eventually fell short of a playoff berth by 2 games with a record of 82–80. The team was led by a group of young players including rookies Spencer Steer, Matt McLain and Elly De La Cruz. De La Cruz caused quite a buzz from the beginning of his mid-season call up and in his 15th career game became the first Red to hit for the cycle since Eric Davis in 1989. At the end of the season, retirement speculation surrounded former MVP Joey Votto. With high hopes of competing in the 2024 season, the Reds started off strong, beginning the season 14–11, winning the season series against the 2023 NLCS runner-up Philadelphia Phillies 4–3. However, they went 9–18 in the month of May, dropping their chances of making the playoffs. While the Reds went on to play well against contenders, they struggled against teams playing under .500. This ultimately made them fall short, specifically in one run games where they ranked second-to-last in MLB, only in front of the Chicago White Sox. On September 22, 2024, the Reds fired manager David Bell with only five games remaining in the season. Bench coach Freddie Benavides was named interim manager. The Reds also fired co-bench coach and infield coach Jeff Pickler. On October 4, 2024, the team announced that Terry Francona would be hired as the team's next manager. On October 8, 2024, the Reds fired hitting coach Joel McKeithan and his assistants, Terry Bradshaw and Tim Lamonte. On October 24, 2024 the Reds announced that former Red and Cleveland Guardians hitting coach Chris Valaika would be the team's new director of hitting and MLB hitting coach. Ballparks opened in 2003 along the Ohio River.]] The Cincinnati Reds play their home games at Great American Ball Park, located at 100 Joe Nuxhall Way, in downtown Cincinnati. Great American Ball Park opened in 2003 at the cost of $290 million and has a capacity of 42,271. Along with serving as the home field for the Reds, the stadium also holds the Cincinnati Reds Hall of Fame, which was added as a part of Reds tradition allowing fans to walk through the history of the franchise as well as participating in many interactive baseball features. Great American Ball Park is the seventh home of the Cincinnati Reds, built immediately to the east of the site on which Riverfront Stadium, later named Cinergy Field, once stood. The first ballpark the Reds occupied was Bank Street Grounds from 1882 to 1883 until they moved to League Park I in 1884, where they would remain until 1893. Through the late 1890s and early 1900s, the Reds moved to two different parks, where they stayed for less than 10 years: League Park II was the third home field for the Reds from 1894 to 1901, and then they moved to the Palace of the Fans, which served as the home of the Reds in the 1910s. It was in 1912 that the Reds moved to Crosley Field, which they called home for 58 years. Crosley served as the home field for the Reds for two World Series titles and five National League pennants. Beginning June 30, 1970, and during the dynasty of the Big Red Machine, the Reds played in Riverfront Stadium, appropriately named due to its location right by the Ohio River. Riverfront saw three World Series titles and five National League pennants. It was in the late 1990s that the city agreed to build two separate stadiums on the riverfront for the Reds and the Cincinnati Bengals. Thus, in 2003, the Reds began a new era with the opening of the current stadium. The Reds hold their spring training in Goodyear, Arizona, at Goodyear Ballpark. The Reds moved into this stadium and the Cactus League in 2010 after staying in the Grapefruit League for most of their history. The Reds share Goodyear Park with their rivals in Ohio, the Cleveland Guardians. Logos and uniforms Logo Throughout the team's history, many different variations of the classic wishbone "C" logo have been introduced. In the team's early history, the Reds logo has been simply the wishbone "C" with the word "REDS" inside, the only colors used being red and white. However, during the 1950s, during the renaming and re-branding of the team as the Cincinnati Redlegs because of the connections to communism of the word "Reds," the color blue was introduced as part of the Reds color combination. During the 1960s and 1970s, the Reds saw a move toward the more traditional colors, abandoning the navy blue. A new logo also appeared with the new era of baseball in 1972, when the team went away from the script "REDS" inside of the "C," instead putting their mascot, Mr. Redlegs, in its place as well as putting the name of the team inside of the wishbone "C." In the 1990s, the more traditional, early logos of Reds came back with the current logo reflecting more of what the team's logo was when they were founded. Uniforms Along with the logo, the Reds' uniforms have been changed many different times throughout their history. Following their departure from being called the "Redlegs" in 1956, the Reds made a groundbreaking change to their uniforms with the use of sleeveless jerseys, seen only once before in the Major Leagues by the Chicago Cubs. At home and away, the cap was all-red with a white wishbone "C" insignia. The long-sleeved undershirts were red. The uniform was plain white with a red wishbone "C" logo on the left and the uniform number on the right. On the road, the wishbone "C" was replaced by the mustachioed "Mr. Redlegs" logo, the pillbox-hat-wearing man with a baseball for a head. The home stockings were red with six white stripes. The away stockings had only three white stripes. wearing the current Reds away uniform, featuring classic lettering.]] The Reds changed uniforms again in 1961, when they replaced the traditional wishbone "C" insignia with an oval-shaped "C" logo, but continued to use the sleeveless jerseys. At home, the Reds wore white caps with the red bill with the oval "C" in red, white sleeveless jerseys with red pinstripes, with the oval "C-REDS" logo in black with red lettering on the left breast and the number in red on the right. The gray away uniform included a gray cap with the red oval "C" and a red bill. Their gray away uniforms, which also included a sleeveless jersey, bore "CINCINNATI" in an arched block style across with the number below on the left. In 1964, players' last names were placed on the back of each set of uniforms, below the numbers. Those uniforms were scrapped after the 1966 season. However, the Cincinnati uniform design most familiar to baseball enthusiasts is the one whose basic form, with minor variations, held sway for 25 seasons from 1967 to 1992. Most significantly, the point was restored to the "C" insignia, making it a wishbone again. During this era, the Reds wore all-red caps both at home and on the road. The caps bore the simple wishbone "C" insignia in white. The uniforms were standard short-sleeved jerseys and standard trousers – white at home and gray on the road. The home uniform featured the wishbone "C-REDS" logo in red with white type on the left breast and the uniform number in red on the right. The away uniform bore "CINCINNATI" in an arched block style across the front with the uniform number below on the left. Red, long-sleeved undershirts and plain red stirrups over white sanitary stockings completed the basic design. The Reds wore pinstriped home uniforms in 1967 only, and the uniforms were flannel through 1971, changing to double-knits with pullover jerseys and belt-less pants in 1972. Those uniforms lasted 20 seasons, and the 1992 Reds were the last MLB team to date whose primary uniforms featured pullover jerseys and belt-less pants. The 1993 uniforms, which did away with the pullovers and brought back button-down jerseys, kept white and gray as the base colors for the home and away uniforms, but added red pinstripes. The home jerseys were sleeveless, showing more of the red undershirts. The color scheme of the "C-REDS" logo on the home uniform was reversed, now red lettering on a white background. A new home cap was created that had a red bill and a white crown with red pinstripes and a red wishbone "C" insignia. The away uniform kept the all-red cap, but moved the uniform number to the left to more closely match the home uniform. The only additional change to these uniforms was the introduction of black as a primary color of the Reds in 1999, especially on their road uniforms. In 2023, the Reds and Nike, Inc. introduced a new City Connect jersey, which features a modified "C" on the cap and on the sleeve of the jersey. For the Jersey, it features "CINCY" (shorten for Cincinnati) across the chest of the jersey. On the collar, it features an Ohio Buckeye and also features the motto of Cincinnati "Juncta Juvant" (Latin for "Strength of Unity"). The design of the jersey is to inspire the future of the Reds jersey. Awards and accolades playing in Riverfront Stadium in 1990]] ]] ]] ]] Team captains Tommy Corcoran – 1900–1905 Joe Kelley – 1906 John Ganzel – 1907 Hans Lobert – 1909 Mike Mitchell – 1910–1912 Ivey Wingo – 1916 Heinie Groh – 1918–1921 Jake Daubert – 1922–1924 Edd Roush – 1925–1926 Bubbles Hargrave – 1927–1928 14 Pete Rose – 1970–1978 13 Dave Concepción – 1983–1988 11 Barry Larkin – 1997–2004 Retired numbers The Cincinnati Reds have retired 10 numbers in franchise history, as well as honoring Jackie Robinson, whose number is retired league-wide in Major League Baseball. All of the retired numbers are located at Great American Ball Park behind home plate on the outside of the press box. Along with the retired players' and managers' number, the following broadcasters are honored with microphones by the broadcast booth: Marty Brennaman, Waite Hoyt and Joe Nuxhall. }}On April 15, 1997, No. 42 was retired throughout Major League Baseball in honor of Jackie Robinson. Baseball Hall of Famers Ford C. Frick Award recipients MLB All-Star Games The Reds have hosted the Major League Baseball All-Star Game five times: twice at Crosley Field (1938, 1953), twice at Riverfront Stadium (1970, 1988) and once at Great American Ball Park (2015). Rivalries Cleveland Guardians trophy]] First introduced in 1989, the Ohio Cup was an annual pre-season baseball game, which pitted the Ohio rivals Cleveland Guardians (Indians at the time) and Cincinnati Reds. In its first series it was a single-game cup, played each year at minor-league Cooper Stadium in Columbus, and was staged just days before the start of each new Major League Baseball season. A total of eight Ohio Cup games were played, between 1989 and 1996, with the Indians winning six of them. The winner of the game each year was awarded the Ohio Cup in postgame ceremonies. The Ohio Cup was a favorite among baseball fans in Columbus, with attendances regularly topping 15,000. The Ohio Cup games ended with the introduction of regular-season interleague play in 1997. Thereafter, the two teams competed annually in the regular-season Battle of Ohio or Buckeye Series. The Ohio Cup was revived in 2008 and now serves as a reward for the team with the better overall record in the Reds–Guardians series each year. Pittsburgh Pirates The Pirates-Reds rivalry at one point in time was one of the fiercest matchups in the National League during the 1970s; both teams often met in the postseason multiple times prior to both being realigned to the National League Central in 1993. The two teams date far into the infancy of MLB, having both been founded in the 1880s, and first met during the 1900 MLB season. Both teams combine for 10 World Series championships and 18 pennants. The Pirates and Reds met 5 times during the NLCS in 1970, 1972, 1975, 1979, and 1990. Most recently; both teams met again during the 2013 NL Wild Card Game. As of 2023, the Pirates currently lead the rivalry 1141–1113, However; the Reds lead in postseason wins 13–8.Los Angeles DodgersThe Dodgers–Reds rivalry was one of the most intense during the 1970s through the early 1990s. They often competed for the NL West division title. From 1970 to 1990, they had eleven 1–2 finishes in the standings, with seven of them being within games or fewer. Both teams also played in numerous championships during this span, combining to win 10 NL Pennants and 5 World Series titles from – Notably as the Big Red Machine teams clashed frequently with the Tommy Lasorda era Dodgers teams. Reds manager Sparky Anderson once said, "I don't think there's a rivalry like ours in either league. The Giants are supposed to be the Dodgers' natural rivals, but I don't think the feeling is there anymore. It's not there the way it is with us and the Dodgers." The rivalry ended when division realignment moved the Reds to the NL Central. However, they did face one another in the 1995 NLDS.MediaRadio "voice of the Reds"]] The Reds' flagship radio station has been WLW, 700AM since 1969. Prior to that, the Reds were heard over WKRC, WCPO, WSAI and WCKY. WLW, a 50,000-watt station, is "clear channel" in more than one way, as iHeartMedia owns the "blowtorch" outlet, which is also known as "The Nation's Station." Reds games can be heard on over 100 local radio stations through the Reds on Radio Network. Since 2020, the Reds broadcast team has been former Pensacola Blue Wahoos radio play-by-play announcer Tommy Thrall and retired relief pitcher Jeff Brantley on color commentary. Marty Brennaman called Reds games from 1974 to 2019, most famously alongside former Reds pitcher and color commentator Joe Nuxhall through 2007. Brennaman has won the Ford C. Frick Award for his work, which includes his famous call of "... and this one belongs to the Reds!" after a win. Nuxhall preceded Brennaman in the Reds' booth, beginning in 1967 (the year after his retirement as an active player) until his death in 2007. (From 2004 to 2007, Nuxhall only called select home games.) In 2007, Thom Brennaman, a veteran announcer seen nationwide on Fox Sports, joined his father Marty in the radio booth. Brantley, formerly of ESPN, also joined the network in 2007. Three years later in 2010, Brantley and Thom Brennaman's increased TV schedule led to more appearances for Jim Kelch, who had filled in on the network since 2008. Kelch's contract expired after the 2017 season. In 2019, Thrall was brought in to provide in-game and post-game coverage, as well as act as a fill-in play-by-play announcer. He succeeded Marty Brennaman when the former retired at the end of the 2019 season.Television Televised games that are not picked up by one of Major League Baseball's national broadcasters air exclusively on FanDuel Sports Network Ohio and FanDuel Sports Network Indiana. In addition, FanDuel Sports Network South televises Bally Sports Ohio broadcasts of Reds games to Tennessee and western North Carolina. George Grande, who hosted the first SportsCenter on ESPN in 1979, was the play-by-play announcer, usually alongside Chris Welsh, from 1993 until his retirement during the final game of the 2009 season. Since 2009, Grande has worked part time for the Reds as play-by-play announcer in September when Thom Brennaman is covering the NFL for Fox Sports. He has also made guest appearances throughout each season. Brennaman had been the head play-by-play commentator since 2010, with Welsh and Brantley sharing time as the color commentators. Cincinnati native Paul Keels, who left in 2011 to devote more time to his full-time job as the play-by-play announcer for the Ohio State Buckeyes Radio Network, was the Reds' backup play-by-play television announcer during the 2010 season. Jim Kelch served as Keels' replacement. The Reds also added former Reds first baseman Sean Casey – known as "The Mayor" by Reds fans – to do color commentary for approximately 15 games in 2011. MLB's local media division announced that it would take over the television rights to the Reds in November 2024, with the first telecasts in the 2025 season. The games would be distributed via cable and satellite providers and a direct-to-consumer service. However, the team would later return to the FanDuel Sports Networks in January 2025, under similar distribution agreements earlier reached with MLB. NBC affiliate WLWT carried Reds games from 1948 to 1995. Among those that have called games for WLWT include Waite Hoyt, Ray Lane, Steve Physioc, Johnny Bench, Joe Morgan and Ken Wilson. Al Michaels, who established a long career with ABC and NBC, spent three years in Cincinnati early in his career. The last regularly scheduled, over-the-air broadcasts of Reds games were on WSTR-TV from 1996 to 1998. From 2010 to 2023, WKRC-TV has simulcast Opening Day games with Fox/Bally Sports Ohio, which it came into common ownership with in 2019. The simulcasts returned to WLWT beginning in 2024. On August 19, 2020, Thom Brennaman was caught uttering a homophobic slur during a game against the Kansas City Royals. Brennaman eventually apologized for the incident and was suspended, but on September 26, he resigned from his duties as the Reds' TV play-by-play announcer. This ended the Brennamans' 46-year association with the Reds franchise, dating back to Marty's first season in 1974. Sideline reporter Jim Day served as the interim play-by-play voice for the remainder of the 2020 season, after which the Reds hired John Sadak to serve as its television play-by-play announcer. Community involvement The Reds Community Fund, founded in 2001, is focused on the youth of the Greater Cincinnati area with the goal of improving the lives of participants by leveraging the traditions of the Reds. The fund sponsors the Reviving Baseball in Inner Cities (RBI) program with a goal of 30–50 young people graduating high school and attending college annually. It also holds an annual telethon, raising in excess of $120,000. An example of the fund's community involvement is its renovation of Hoffman Fields in the Evanston neighborhood of the city, upgrading the entire recreation complex, for a total of over 400 baseball diamonds renovated at 200 locations throughout the region. During the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, since no spectators were allowed at MLB games, the Reds offered fans the opportunity to purchase paper cutouts of their own photographs in the stands at Great American Ball Park. The promotion raised over $300,000 for the fund, more than the fund's traditional events such as Redsfest, the Redlegs Run, an annual golf outing and the Fox Sports Ohio Telethon. Roster Minor league affiliations The Cincinnati Reds farm system consists of seven minor league affiliates. {\| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable" \|- !scope"col" style""\|Class !scope"col" style""\|Team !scope"col" style""\|League !scope"col" style""\|Location !scope"col" style""\|Ballpark !scope"col" style""\|Affiliated \|- \| Triple-A !scope="row"\| Louisville Bats \| International League \| Louisville, Kentucky \| Louisville Slugger Field \| align="right"\| 2000 \|- \| Double-A !scope="row"\| Chattanooga Lookouts \| Southern League \| Chattanooga, Tennessee \| AT&T Field \| align="right"\| 1988 \|- \| High-A !scope="row"\| Dayton Dragons \| Midwest League \| Dayton, Ohio \| Day Air Ballpark \| align="right"\| 2000 \|- \| Single-A !scope="row"\| Daytona Tortugas \| Florida State League \| Daytona Beach, Florida \| Jackie Robinson Ballpark \| align="right"\| 2015 \|- \| rowspan=3\| Rookie !scope="row"\| ACL Reds \| Arizona Complex League \| Goodyear, Arizona \| Goodyear Ballpark \| align="right"\| 1999 \|- !scope="row"\| DSL Reds \| rowspan=2\| Dominican Summer League \| rowspan=2\| Boca Chica, Santo Domingo \| rowspan=2\| Baseball City Complex \| align="right"\| 1998 \|- !scope="row"\| DSL Rojos \| align="right"\| 2024 \|} References Further reading External links * * [http://www.redsminorleagues.com Reds Minor Leagues News] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120111085932/http://www.scsr.org/19CCBB/Home.htm SCSR / 19th Century Cincinnati Base Ball] * [http://voicesofoklahoma.com/interview/bench-johnny/ Voices of Oklahoma interview with Johnny Bench.] First-person interview conducted on March 28, 2012, with Johnny Bench, Hall of Fame Catcher for the Cincinnati Reds. }} ;\|list1= ;\|list1 }} }} Category:Major League Baseball teams Category:Cactus League Category:Sports clubs and teams in Cincinnati Category:Baseball in Cincinnati Category:Baseball teams established in 1882 Category:1882 establishments in Ohio	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cincinnati_Reds	2025-04-05T18:27:54.280541
6672	Caribbean cuisine	thumb\|right\|Mangu with plant-based "meat" Caribbean cuisine is a fusion of West African, Creole, Amerindian, European, Latin American, Indian/South Asian, Chinese, Javanese/Indonesian, North American, and Middle Eastern cuisines. These traditions were brought from many countries when they moved to the Caribbean. Traditional dishes are so important to regional culture that, for example, the local version of Caribbean goat stew has been chosen as the official national dish of Montserrat and is also one of the signature dishes of St. Kitts and Nevis. Another popular dish in the Anglophone Caribbean is called "cook-up", or pelau. Ackee and saltfish is another popular dish that is unique to Jamaica. Callaloo is a dish containing leafy vegetables such as spinach and sometimes okra amongst others, widely distributed in the Caribbean, with a distinctively mixed African and indigenous character. The variety of dessert dishes in the area also reflects the mixed origins of the recipes. In some areas, black cake, a derivative of English Christmas pudding, may be served, especially on special occasions. Over time, food from the Caribbean has evolved into a narrative technique through which their culture has been accentuated and promoted. However, by studying Caribbean culture through a literary lens there then runs the risk of generalizing exoticist ideas about food practices from the tropics. Some food theorists argue that this depiction of Caribbean food in various forms of media contributes to the inaccurate conceptions revolving around their culinary practices, which are much more grounded in unpleasant historical events. Therefore, it can be argued that the connection between the idea of the Caribbean being the ultimate paradise and Caribbean food being exotic is based on inaccurate information. By location Anguillian cuisine Antigua and Barbuda cuisine Aruban cuisine Bahamian cuisine Barbadian cuisine Cayman Islands cuisine Cuban cuisine Curaçaoan cuisine Dominica cuisine Dominican Republic cuisine Grenadan cuisine Guadeloupean cuisine Haitian cuisine Jamaican cuisine Martinique cuisine Montserratian cuisine Puerto Rican cuisine Saint Barthélemy cuisine Saint Kitts and Nevis cuisine Saint Lucian cuisine Trinidad and Tobago cuisine Turks and Caicos Islands cuisine Virgin Islands cuisine See also Ground provisions List of cuisines Caribbean Chinese cuisine Puerto Rican Chinese cuisine References	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caribbean_cuisine	2025-04-05T18:27:54.315382
6673	Central Powers	* * * (from 1915) }} \| status = Military alliance \| year_end = 1918 \| year_start = 1914 \| event_end = Dissolved \| p1 = Dual Alliance (1879) \| p2 = German–Ottoman alliance \| p3 = Bulgaria–Germany treaty (1915) \| p4 = Triple Alliance (1882) \| era = World War I }} of Germany; \|Kaiser and King Franz Joseph of Austria-Hungary; \|Sultan Mehmed V of the Ottoman Empire; \|Tsar Ferdinand I of Bulgaria\|The caption reads:\|"Vereinte Kräfte führen zum Ziel"\|("United Powers Lead to the Goal")}}]] The Central Powers, also known as the Central Empires, were one of the two main coalitions that fought in World War I (1914–1918). It consisted of the German Empire, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria; this was also known as the Quadruple Alliance. The Central Powers' origin was the alliance of Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1879. Despite having nominally joined the Triple Alliance before, Italy did not take part in World War I on the side of the Central Powers and later joined on the side of the Allied Powers. The Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria did not join until after World War I had begun. The Central Powers faced, and were defeated by, the Allied Powers, which themselves had formed around the Triple Entente. They dissolved in 1918 after they lost the war. Name The name 'Central Powers' is derived from the location of its member countries. All four were located between the Russian Empire in the east and France and the United Kingdom in the west. The Central Powers too used the name in their languages respectively, with the exception of Turkish, in which the Central Powers were called the , , or , 'Allied States'. Likewise in China, an associated state on the Allied side, the Central Powers were called the , , 'Allied States', while the Allies were known as the , , 'Entente States'. Collaboration Germany had plans to create a Mitteleuropa economic association. Members would include Austria-Hungary, Germany, and others. History Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir presumptive to the Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife, Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, were assassinated on 28 June 1914 by Bosnian Serb student Gavrilo Princip. This provoked Austria to deliver an ultimatum to Serbia, listing ten demands made intentionally unacceptable to provide an excuse for starting hostilities. Serbia ordered general mobilization on 25July, but accepted almost all of the terms, the only ones not accepted were the ones empowering Austrian representatives to suppress "subversive elements" in Serbia, and to take part in the investigation and trial of Serbians linked to the assassination. After claiming that was rejection, Austria broke off diplomatic relations with Serbia. They then declared war and began shelling Belgrade. Russia ordered general mobilization in support of Serbia on 30 July. When Russia mobilized, Germany saw it as provocative. Despite Russia's claim that it was responding to the events in Serbia and not Germany, Germany dismissed this and mobilized as well. Later, France, allied with Russia, also mobilized. On 29 October 1914, the Ottoman Empire entered the war by launching a naval raid on Russian ports. Main member states At the start of the war, the Central Powers consisted of the German Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The Ottoman Empire joined later in 1914, followed by the Tsardom of Bulgaria in 1915. When Russia enacted a general mobilization, Germany viewed the act as provocative. The Russian government promised Germany that its general mobilization did not mean preparation for war with Germany but was a reaction to the tensions between Austria-Hungary and Serbia. After Germany declared war on Russia, France, with its alliance with Russia, prepared a general mobilization in expectation of war. On 3 August 1914, Germany responded to this action by declaring war on France. Germany, facing a two-front war, enacted what was known as the Schlieffen Plan, which involved German armed forces moving through Belgium and swinging south into France and towards the French capital of Paris. This plan was hoped to quickly gain victory against the French and allow German forces to concentrate on the Eastern Front. Belgium was a neutral country and would not accept German forces crossing its territory. Germany disregarded Belgian neutrality and invaded the country to launch an offensive towards Paris. This caused Great Britain to declare war against the German Empire, as the action violated the Treaty of London that both nations signed in 1839 guaranteeing Belgian neutrality. Subsequently, several states declared war on Germany in late August 1914, with Italy declaring war on Germany in August 1916, the United States in April 1917, and Greece in July 1917. Colonies and dependencies Europe The German Empire had incorporated the province of Alsace-Lorraine, after successfully defeating France in the Franco-Prussian War. However, the province was still claimed by French revanchists, leading to its return to France at the Treaty of Versailles.AfricaThe German Empire was late to colonization, only beginning overseas expansion in the 1870s and 1880s. Colonization was opposed by much of the government, including chancellor Otto von Bismarck, but it became a colonial power after participating in the Berlin Conference. Then, private companies were founded and began settling parts of Africa, the Pacific, and China. Later these groups became German protectorates and colonies. Cameroon was a German colony existing from 1884 until its complete occupation in 1915. It was ceded to France as a League of Nations Mandate at the war's end. German East Africa was founded in 1885 and expanded to include modern-day Tanzania (except Zanzibar), Rwanda, Burundi, and parts of Mozambique. It was the only German colony to not be fully conquered during the war, with resistance by commander Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck lasting until November 1918. Later it was surrendered to the Allies in 1919 and split between the Belgian Congo, Portuguese Mozambique, and the newly founded colony of Tanganyika. South West Africa, modern-day Namibia, came under German rule in 1885 and was absorbed into South Africa following its invasion in 1915. Togoland, now part of Ghana, was made a German protectorate in 1884. However, after a swift campaign, it was occupied by the Allies in 1915 and divided between French Togoland and British Togoland.AsiaThe Jiaozhou Bay Leased Territory was a German dependency in East Asia leased from China in 1898. Japanese forces occupied it following the Siege of Tsingtao. The Austrian Empire had a foreign concession in Tianjin which was swiftly invaded by China in 1917. The German concessions in Tianjin and Hankou were also invaded.PacificGerman New Guinea was a German protectorate in the Pacific. It was occupied by Australian forces in 1914. German Samoa had been a German protectorate since the Tripartite Convention. It was occupied by the New Zealand Expeditionary Force in 1914. Austro-Hungarian Empire in Jerusalem in the Ottoman Empire, during the Middle Eastern campaign]] War justifications Austria-Hungary regarded the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand as having been orchestrated with the assistance of Serbia. Territory Austria-Hungary was internally divided into two states with their own governments, joined through the Habsburg throne. Austria, also known as Cisleithania, contained various duchies and principalities but also the Kingdom of Bohemia, the Kingdom of Dalmatia, and the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria. Hungary (Transleithania) was composed of the Kingdom of Hungary and the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, sovereign authority was shared by both Austria and Hungary. Ottoman Empire in 1914]] in October 1917 as a guest of Sultan Mehmed V]] War justifications The Ottoman Empire joined the war on the side of the Central Powers in November 1914. The Ottoman Empire had gained strong economic connections with Germany through the Berlin-to-Baghdad railway project that was still incomplete at the time. The Ottoman Empire made a formal alliance with Germany signed on 2 August 1914. The alliance treaty expected that the Ottoman Empire would become involved in the conflict in a short amount of time. Ottoman officials informed the German government that the country needed time to prepare for conflict. thus engaging in military action in accordance with its alliance obligations with Germany. Shortly after, the Triple Entente declared war on the Ottoman Empire. Bulgaria was the last country to join the Central Powers, which it did in October 1915 by declaring war on Serbia. Bulgaria held claims on the region of Vardar Macedonia then held by Serbia following the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913 and the Treaty of Bucharest (1913). As a condition of entering the war on the side of the Central Powers, Bulgaria was granted the right to reclaim that territory. Co-belligerents South African Republic In opposition to offensive operations by Union of South Africa, which had joined the war, Boer army officers of what is now known as the Maritz Rebellion "refounded" the South African Republic in September 1914. Germany assisted the rebels, with some operating in and out of the German colony of German South-West Africa. The rebels were all defeated or captured by South African government forces by 4 February 1915. Senussi Order The Senussi Order was a Muslim political-religious tariqa (Sufi order) and clan in Libya, previously under Ottoman control, which had been lost to Italy in 1912. In 1915, they were courted by the Ottoman Empire and Germany, and Grand Senussi Ahmed Sharif as-Senussi declared jihad and attacked the Italians in Libya and the British in Egypt in the Senussi Campaign. Sultanate of Darfur In 1915, the Sultanate of Darfur renounced allegiance to the Sudanese government and aligned with the Ottomans. They were able to contact them via the Senussi. Prior to this they were a British ally. The Anglo-Egyptian Darfur Expedition preemptively invaded to prevent an attack on Sudan. The invasion ended with an Anglo-Egyptian victory in November 1916. Zaian Confederation The Zaian Confederation began to fight against France in the Zaian War to prevent French expansion into Morocco. The fighting lasted from 1914 and continued after the First World War ended, to 1921. The Central Powers (mainly the Germans) began to attempt to incite unrest to hopefully divert French resources from Europe. Dervish State The Dervish State fought against the British, Ethiopian, Italian, and French Empires between 1896 and 1925. During World War I, the Dervish State received many supplies from the German and Ottoman Empires to carry on fighting the Allies. However, looting from other Somali tribes in the Korahe raid eventually led to its collapse in 1925. Client states Both the Ottomans and Germans had client states, they are listed below. {\| class="wikitable" \|+ !Client state !State in charge \|- \|Poland \| \|- \|Lithuania \| \|- \|Belarus \| \|- \|Ukraine \| \|- \|Crimea \| \|- \|Courland and Semigallia \| \|- \|United Baltic Duchy \| \|- \|Finland \| \|- \|Georgia \| \|- \|Jabal Shammar \| \|- \|Azerbaijan \| \|- \|Qatar \| \|- \|Yemen \| \|} Nations supported by the Central Powers States listed in this section were not officially members of the Central Powers. Still, during the war, they cooperated with one or more Central Powers members on a level that makes their neutrality disputable. Ethiopia , ruler of Ethiopia until 1916 pictured in his Ottoman-style turban with governor Abdullahi Sadiq]] The Ethiopian Empire was officially neutral throughout World War I but widely suspected of sympathy for the Central Powers between 1915 and 1916. At the time, Ethiopia was one of only two fully independent states in Africa (the other being Liberia) and a major power in the Horn of Africa. Its ruler, Lij Iyasu, was widely suspected of harbouring pro-Islamic sentiments and being sympathetic to the Ottoman Empire. The German Empire also attempted to reach out to Iyasu, dispatching several unsuccessful expeditions to the region to attempt to encourage it to collaborate in an Arab Revolt-style uprising in East Africa. One of the unsuccessful expeditions was led by Leo Frobenius, a celebrated ethnographer and personal friend of Kaiser Wilhelm II. Under Iyasu's directions, Ethiopia probably supplied weapons to the Muslim Dervish rebels during the Somaliland Campaign of 1915 to 1916, indirectly helping the Central Powers' cause. The Allies jointly pressured the aristocracy for the designated emperor's removal on the 10th of September, 1916 stating he was a threat to both the Allies and Ethiopia. Fearing the rising influence of Iyasu and the Ottoman Empire, the Christian nobles of Ethiopia conspired against Iyasu. Iyasu was first excommunicated by the Ethiopian Orthodox Patriarch and eventually deposed in a coup d'état on 27 September 1916. A less pro-Ottoman regent, Ras Tafari Makonnen, was installed on the throne. By 1916 all food deliveries from Austria-Hungary had ceased, which forced Liechtenstein to seek closer ties with Switzerland in order to ensure food deliveries continued. From 1916, Liechtenstein was embargoed by the Entente countries due to its connections with the Central Powers; this caused mass unemployment in the country. The government remained sympathetic to the Central Powers until 7 November 1918, when the November 1918 Liechtenstein putsch took place and a new government took power. Upper Asir Upper Asir, a sheikdom in Arabia, revolted away from Asir in 1916, possibly with Hejazi aid. It was led by Hassan bin Ali al-Aidh. It was then partitioned between the Saudi and the Idrisi on 30 August 1920. Romania Following their armistice with the Central Powers, Romania was involved in the Russian Civil War against both the Whites and the Reds. Romania fought alongside the Central Powers until it rejoined the war against them on November 10, 1918.KelantanKelantanese rebels were supported by the Ottoman and German Empires during their anti-colonial uprising against the British Empire in 1915. Non-state combatants Other movements supported the efforts of the Central Powers for their own reasons, such as the radical Irish Nationalists who launched the Easter Rising in Dublin in April 1916; they referred to their "gallant allies in Europe". However, most Irish Nationalists supported the British and allied war effort up until 1916, when the Irish political landscape was changing. In 1914, Józef Piłsudski was permitted by Germany and Austria-Hungary to form independent Polish legions. Piłsudski wanted his legions to help the Central Powers defeat Russia and then side with France and the UK and win the war with them. Below is a list of these non-state combatants. Armistice and treaties Bulgaria signed an armistice with the Allies on 29 September 1918, following a successful Allied advance in Macedonia. The Ottoman Empire followed suit on 30 October 1918 in the face of British and Arab gains in Palestine and Syria. Austria and Hungary concluded ceasefires separately during the first week of November following the disintegration of the Habsburg Empire and the Italian offensive at Vittorio Veneto; Germany signed the armistice ending the war on the morning of 11 November 1918 after the Hundred Days Offensive, and a succession of advances by New Zealand, Australian, Canadian, Belgian, British, French and US forces in north-eastern France and Belgium. There was no unified treaty ending the war; the Central Powers were dealt with in separate treaties. {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|+ Central Powers by date of armistice ! Country ! Date \|- \| Bulgaria \|\| \|- \| Ottoman Empire \|\| \|- \| Austria-Hungary \|\| \|- \| Germany \|\| \|} {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|+ Central Powers treaties ! width=160\|Country ! width=90 \|Treaty of ! class=unsortable\|Results ! Date signed \|- \| Germany\|\| Versailles \|Germany was required to demilitarize the Rhineland, to reduce their army to 100,000 men, and the navy to 15,000 sailors, and to pay 132 billion gold marks (US$33 billion). Tanks, submarines, and an air force were all forbidden. \| \|- \| Austria\|\| Saint-Germain \| \| \|- \| Bulgaria\|\| Neuilly \| \| \|- \| Hungary \|\| Trianon \| \|\| \|- \| Ottoman Empire/Turkey \|\| Sèvres/Lausanne \| The Treaty of Sèvres caused resentment among the Turkish populace of the Ottoman Empire and resulted in the outbreak of the Turkish War of Independence, after which the Treaty of Lausanne was signed. \|/ \|} <gallery widths"200" heights"200"> File:CentralPowersPoster3.jpg\|A postcard depicting the flags of the Central Powers' countries File:Weinold Reiss - WWI poster Charity Bazaar.jpg\|Poster for a 1916 charity bazaar raising funds for widows and orphans of the Central Power states File:Drei Kaiser Bund.jpg\|The leaders of the Central Powers in 1914 </gallery> Leaders {\| class="wikitable" \|+Leaders of the Central Powers !Portrait !Leader !Title !Time period \|- \| \|Franz Joseph I \|Emperor of Austria and Apostolic King of Hungary \|1848–1916 \|- \| \|Karl I \|Tsar of Bulgaria \|1887–1918 \|- \| \|Ali Dinar \|Sultan of Darfur \|1899–1916 \|- \| \|Manie Maritz \|Leader of the Maritz Rebellion \|1914–1915 \|- \| \|Mohammed Abdullah Hassan \|Emir of the Dervish State \|1896–1920 \|- \| \|Ahmed Sharif as-Senussi \|Leader of the Senussi \|1902–1933 \|- \| \|Saud bin Abdulaziz \|Emir of Jabal Shammar \|1908–1920 \|- \| \|Fatali Khan Khoyski \|Prime Minister of Azerbaijan \|1918–1919 \|- \| \|Pavlo Skoropadskyi \|Hetman of Ukraine \|1918–1918 \|} Statistics {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|+Economic statistics of the Central Powers ! colspan="2" \|Country !Population<br />(millions) !Area<br />(million km<sup>2</sup>) !GDP<br />($ billion) !GDP per<br>capita<br />($) \|- \|rowspan3\| (1914) \|Mainland \|align="right"\|67.0 \|align="right"\|0.5 \|align="right"\|244.3 \|align="right"\|3,648 \|- \|Colonies \|align="right"\|10.7 \|align="right"\|3.0 \|align="right"\|6.4 \|align="right"\|601 \|- \|Total \|align="right"\|77.7 \|align="right"\|3.5 \|align="right"\|250.7 \|align="right"\|3,227 \|- \|colspan=2\| Austria-Hungary (1914) \|align="right"\|50.6 \|align="right"\|0.6 \|align="right"\|100.5 \|align="right"\|1,980 \|- \|colspan=2\| (1914) \|align="right"\|23.0 \|align="right"\|1.8 \|align="right"\|25.3 \|align="right"\|1,100 \|- \|colspan2\| (1915) \|align="right"\|4.8 \|align="right"\|0.1 \|align="right"\|7.4 \|align="right"\|1,527 \|- style="background:#eee;" \|colspan=2\| Total \|align="right"\|156.1 \|align="right"\|6.0 \|align="right"\|383.9 \|align="right"\|2,459 \|- \|colspan=2\| Allies, total, November 1914 \|align="right"\|793.3 \|align="right"\|67.5 \|align="right"\|1,096.5 \| \|- \|colspan=2\| UK, France and Russia only \|align="right"\|259.0 \|align="right"\|22.6 \|align="right"\|622.8 \| \|} {\| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:right;" \|+ Military statistics of the Central Powers !class="unsortable"\|Country !Mobilized !Killed in action !Wounded !Missing<br>in action !Total<br>casualties !Casualties<br>as % of<br> total force<br>mobilized \|- \|align"left"\| \|\| 13,250,000 \|\| 2,037,000 (13.65%)\|\| 6,267,143 \|\| 1,152,800 \|\| 9,456,943 \|\| 71% \|- \|align="left"\| \|\| 7,800,000 \|\| 1,494,200 (11.82%)\|\| 3,620,000 \|\| 2,200,000 \|\| 7,314,200 \|\| 94% \|- \|align="left"\| \|\| 3,056,000 \|\| 771,884 (10.84%) \|\| 763,163 \|\| 250,000 \|\| 1,785,000 \|\| 60% \|- \|align"left"\| \|\| 1,200,000 \|\| 75,844 (6.32%)\|\| 153,390 \|\| 27,029 \|\| 255,263 \|\| 21% \|- style="background:#eee;" \|align="left"\| Total\|\| 25,257,321 \|\| 4,378,928\|\| 10,803,533 \|\| 3,629,829 \|\| 18,812,290 \|\| 75% \|} See also * Central Powers intervention in the Russian Civil War * Color books, transcripts of official documents released by each nation early in the war * Diplomatic history of World War I * Home front during World War I covering all major countries * International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919) * Axis powers * Kaiserreich (disambiguation) * Spa Conferences (First World War) Footnotes References Further reading * Akin, Yigit. ''When the War Came Home: The Ottomans' Great War and the Devastation of an Empire (2018) * Aksakal, Mustafa. The Ottoman Road to War in 1914: The Ottoman Empire and the First World War (2010). * Brandenburg, Erich. (1927) From Bismarck to the World War: A History of German Foreign Policy 1870–1914 (1927) [https://web.archive.org/web/20170315175229/http://www.dli.ernet.in/handle/2015/12322 online]. * Clark, Christopher. The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914 (2013) * Craig, Gordon A. "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/1875406 The World War I alliance of the Central Powers in retrospect: The military cohesion of the alliance]". Journal of Modern History 37.3 (1965): 336–344. * Dedijer, Vladimir. The Road to Sarajevo, comprehensive history of the assassination with detailed material on the Austrian Empire and Serbia. (1966) * Fay, Sidney B. The Origins of the World War (2 vols in one. 2nd ed. 1930). [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.499097 online], passim * Gooch, G. P. Before The War Vol II pp. 373–447 on Berchtold (1939) * Hall, Richard C. "Bulgaria in the First World War". Historian 73.2 (2011): 300–315. [https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-260060597/bulgaria-in-the-first-world-war online] * Hamilton, Richard F. and Holger H. Herwig, eds. Decisions for War, 1914–1917 (2004), scholarly essays on Serbia, Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia, France, Britain, Japan, Ottoman Empire, Italy, United States, Bulgaria, Romania, and Greece. * Herweg, Holger H. The First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary 1914–1918 (2009). * Herweg, Holger H., and Neil Heyman. Biographical Dictionary of World War I (1982). * Hubatsch, Walther. Germany and the Central Powers in the World War, 1914– 1918 (1963) [https://www.questia.com/library/107552/germany-and-the-central-powers-in-the-world-war-1914 online] * Jarausch, Konrad Hugo. "Revising German History: Bethmann-Hollweg Revisited". Central European History 21#3 (1988): 224–243, historiography * Pribram, A. F. Austrian Foreign Policy, 1908–18 (1923) pp 68–128. * Rich, Norman. Great Power Diplomacy: 1814–1914 (1991), comprehensive survey * Schmitt, Bernadotte E. The coming of the war, 1914 (2 vol 1930) comprehensive history [https://archive.org/details/comingofwar191401bern online vol 1]; [https://archive.org/details/comingofwar191402bern online vol 2], esp vol 2 ch 20 pp 334–382 * Strachan, Hew. The First World War: Volume I: To Arms (2003). * Tucker, Spencer C., ed. The European Powers in the First World War: An Encyclopedia (1996) 816pp * Watson, Alexander. Ring of Steel: Germany and Austria-Hungary in World War I (2014) * Wawro, Geoffrey. A Mad Catastrophe: The Outbreak of World War I and the Collapse of the Habsburg Empire (2014) * Williamson, Samuel R. Austria-Hungary and the Origins of the First World War (1991) * Zametica, John. Folly and malice: the Habsburg empire, the Balkans and the start of World War One'' (London: Shepheard–Walwyn, 2017). 416 pp. Category:1914 establishments in Bulgaria Category:1914 establishments in the Ottoman Empire Category:1918 disestablishments in Austria-Hungary Category:1918 disestablishments in Bulgaria Category:1918 disestablishments in the Ottoman Empire Category:20th century in international relations . . Category:German Empire in World War I . Category:Military alliances involving Austria-Hungary Category:Military alliances involving Bulgaria Category:Military alliances involving the German Empire Category:Military alliances involving the Ottoman Empire Category:20th-century military alliances	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Powers	2025-04-05T18:27:54.383982
6675	Conservatism	Conservative Party}} Conservatism is a cultural, social, and political philosophy and ideology that seeks to promote and preserve traditional institutions, customs, and values. The central tenets of conservatism may vary in relation to the culture and civilization in which it appears. In Western culture, depending on the particular nation, conservatives seek to promote and preserve a range of institutions, such as the nuclear family, organized religion, the military, the nation-state, property rights, rule of law, aristocracy, and monarchy. Conservatives tend to favor institutions and practices that enhance social order and historical continuity. The 18th-century Anglo-Irish statesman Edmund Burke, who opposed the French Revolution but supported the American Revolution, is credited as one of the forefathers of conservative thought in the 1790s along with Savoyard statesman Joseph de Maistre. The first established use of the term in a political context originated in 1818 with François-René de Chateaubriand during the period of Bourbon Restoration that sought to roll back the policies of the French Revolution and establish social order. Conservatism has varied considerably as it has adapted itself to existing traditions and national cultures. Thus, conservatives from different parts of the world, each upholding their respective traditions, may disagree on a wide range of issues. One of the three major ideologies along with liberalism and socialism, conservatism is the dominant ideology in many nations across the world, including Hungary, India, Iran, Israel, populist or elitist, progressive or reactionary, moderate or extreme. Beliefs and principles Scholars have tried to define conservatism as a set of beliefs or principles. Political scientist Andrew Heywood argues that the five central beliefs of conservatism are tradition, human imperfection, organic society, authority/hierarchy, and property. Historian Russell Kirk developed five canons of conservatism in The Conservative Mind (1953): * A belief in a transcendent order, which Kirk described variously as based in tradition, divine revelation, or natural law; * An affection for the "variety and mystery" of human existence; * A conviction that society requires orders and classes that emphasize natural distinctions; * A belief that property and freedom are closely linked; * A faith in custom, convention, and prescription, and a recognition that innovation must be tied to existing traditions and customs, which entails a respect for the political value of prudence. Some political scientists, such as Samuel P. Huntington, have seen conservatism as situational. Under this definition, conservatives are seen as defending the established institutions of their time. According to Quintin Hogg, the chairman of the British Conservative Party in 1959: "Conservatism is not so much a philosophy as an attitude, a constant force, performing a timeless function in the development of a free society, and corresponding to a deep and permanent requirement of human nature itself." Conservatism is often used as a generic term to describe a "right-wing viewpoint occupying the political spectrum between [classical] liberalism and fascism". From this perspective, conservatism is less an attempt to uphold old institutions and more "a meditation on—and theoretical rendition of—the felt experience of having power, seeing it threatened, and trying to win it back". On another occasion, Robin argues for a more complex relation: In Conservatism: A Rediscovery (2022), political philosopher Yoram Hazony argues that, in a traditional conservative community, members have importance and influence to the degree they are honored within the social hierarchy, which includes factors such as age, experience, and wisdom. Conservatives often glorify hierarchies, as demonstrated in an aphorism by conservative philosopher Nicolás Gómez Dávila: "Hierarchies are celestial. In hell all are equal." The word hierarchy has religious roots and translates to 'rule of a high priest.' Authority Authority is a core tenet of conservatism. More specifically, conservatives tend to believe in traditional authority. According to sociologist Max Weber, this form of authority is "resting on an established belief in the sanctity of immemorial traditions and the legitimacy of those exercising authority under them". Philosopher Alexandre Kojève distinguishes between two different forms of traditional authority: * The Authority of the Father—represented by actual fathers as well as conceptual fathers such as priests and monarchs. * The Authority of the Master—represented by aristocrats and military commanders. Sociologist Robert Nisbet acknowledges that the decline of traditional authority in the modern world is partly linked with the retreat of old institutions such as guild, order, parish, and family—institutions that formerly acted as intermediaries between the state and the individual. Philosopher Hannah Arendt argues that the modern world suffers an existential crisis with a "dramatic breakdown of all traditional authorities," which are needed for the continuity of an established civilization. Historical background Anglo-Irish statesman Edmund Burke has been widely regarded as the philosophical founder of modern conservatism. He served as the private secretary to the Marquis of Rockingham and as official pamphleteer to the Rockingham branch of the Whig party. Together with the Tories, they were the conservatives in the late 18th century United Kingdom. (1729–1797)]] Burke's views were a mixture of conservatism and republicanism. He supported the American Revolution of 1775–1783 but abhorred the violence of the French Revolution of 1789–1799. He accepted the conservative ideals of private property and the economics of Adam Smith, but he thought that capitalism should remain subordinate to the conservative social ethic and that the business class should be subordinate to aristocracy. He insisted on standards of honor derived from the medieval aristocratic tradition and saw the aristocracy as the nation's natural leaders. That meant limits on the powers of the Crown, since he found the institutions of Parliament to be better informed than commissions appointed by the executive. He favored an established church, but allowed for a degree of religious toleration. Burke ultimately justified the social order on the basis of tradition: tradition represented the wisdom of the species, and he valued community and social harmony over social reforms. (1753–1821)]] Another form of conservatism developed in France in parallel to conservatism in Britain. It was influenced by Counter-Enlightenment works by philosophers such as Joseph de Maistre and Louis de Bonald. Many continental conservatives do not support separation of church and state, with most supporting state cooperation with the Catholic Church, such as had existed in France before the Revolution. Conservatives were also early to embrace nationalism, which was previously associated with liberalism and the Revolution in France. Another early French conservative, François-René de Chateaubriand, espoused a romantic opposition to modernity, contrasting its emptiness with the 'full heart' of traditional faith and loyalty. Elsewhere on the continent, German thinkers Justus Möser and Friedrich von Gentz criticized the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen that came of the Revolution. Opposition was also expressed by German idealists such as Adam Müller and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, the latter inspiring both leftist and rightist followers. Both Burke and Maistre were critical of democracy in general, though their reasons differed. Maistre was pessimistic about humans being able to follow rules, while Burke was skeptical about humans' innate ability to make rules. For Maistre, rules had a divine origin, while Burke believed they arose from custom. The lack of custom for Burke, and the lack of divine guidance for Maistre, meant that people would act in terrible ways. Both also believed that liberty of the wrong kind led to bewilderment and political breakdown. Their ideas would together flow into a stream of anti-rationalist, romantic conservatism, but would still stay separate. Whereas Burke was more open to argumentation and disagreement, Maistre wanted faith and authority, leading to a more illiberal strain of thought. Ideological variants Authoritarian conservatism Authoritarian conservatism refers to autocratic regimes that portray authority as absolute and unquestionable. Authoritarian conservative movements show strong devotion towards religion, tradition, and culture while also expressing fervent nationalism akin to other far-right nationalist movements. Examples of authoritarian conservative dictators include Marshal Philippe Pétain in France, Regent Miklós Horthy in Hungary, General Ioannis Metaxas in Greece, King Alexander I in Yugoslavia, Prime Minister António de Oliveira Salazar in Portugal, Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss in Austria, Generalissimo Francisco Franco in Spain, King Carol II in Romania, and Tsar Boris III in Bulgaria. Authoritarian conservative movements were prominent in the same era as fascism, with which they sometimes clashed. Although both ideologies shared core values such as nationalism and had common enemies such as communism, there was nonetheless a contrast between the traditionalist and elitist nature of authoritarian conservatism and the revolutionary and populist nature of fascism—thus it was common for authoritarian conservative regimes to suppress rising fascist and Nazi movements. In Romania, as the fascist Iron Guard was gaining popularity and Nazi Germany was making advances on the European political stage, King Carol II ordered the execution of Corneliu Zelea Codreanu and other top-ranking Romanian fascists. The exiled German Emperor Wilhelm II was an enemy of Adolf Hitler and stated that Nazism made him ashamed to be a German for the first time in his life. The Catholic seminarian António de Oliveira Salazar, who was Portugal's dictator for 40 years, denounced fascism and Nazism as a "pagan Caesarism" that did not recognize legal, religious, or moral limits. Political scientist Seymour Martin Lipset has examined the class basis of right-wing extremist politics in the 1920–1960 era. He reports: Edmund Fawcett states that fascism is totalitarian, populist, and anti-pluralist, whereas authoritarian conservatism is somewhat pluralist but most of all elitist and anti-populist. He concludes: "The fascist is a nonconservative who takes anti-liberalism to extremes. The right-wing authoritarian is a conservative who takes fear of democracy to extremes." During the Cold War, right-wing military dictatorships were prominent in Latin America, with most nations being under military rule by the middle of the 1970s. One example of this was General Augusto Pinochet, who ruled over Chile from 1973 to 1990. According to Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn, military dictatorships arise in democratic systems in order to stop leftist parties from becoming totalitarian. The most recent instance occurred in Bolivia in 2024, when General Juan José Zúñiga staged a coup in order to overthrow the far-left president Luis Arce. In the 21st century, the authoritarian style of government experienced a worldwide renaissance with conservative statesmen such as President Vladimir Putin in Russia, President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan in Turkey, Prime Minister Viktor Orbán in Hungary, Prime Minister Narendra Modi in India, and President Donald Trump in the United States. Liberal conservatism Liberal conservatism is a variant of conservatism that is strongly influenced by liberal stances. It incorporates the classical liberal view of minimal economic interventionism, meaning that individuals should be free to participate in the market and generate wealth without government interference. However, individuals cannot be thoroughly depended on to act responsibly in other spheres of life; therefore, liberal conservatives believe that a strong state is necessary to ensure law and order, and social institutions are needed to nurture a sense of duty and responsibility to the nation. National conservatism —leader of the national-conservative party Brothers of Italy, first female Prime Minister of Italy, and president of the European Conservatives and Reformists Party]] National conservatism prioritizes the defense of national and cultural identity, often based on a theory of the family as a model for the state. National conservatism is oriented towards upholding national sovereignty, which includes limited immigration and a strong national defense. In Europe, national conservatives are usually eurosceptics. Political philosopher Yoram Hazony has argued for national conservatism in his work The Virtue of Nationalism (2018). Paternalistic conservatism Paternalistic conservatism is a strand in conservatism which reflects the belief that societies exist and develop organically and that members within them have obligations towards each other. There is particular emphasis on the paternalistic obligation () of those who are privileged and wealthy to the poorer parts of society, which is consistent with principles such as duty, organicism, and hierarchy. Its proponents often stress the importance of a social safety net to deal with poverty, supporting limited redistribution of wealth along with government regulation of markets in the interests of both consumers and producers. Paternalistic conservatism first arose as a distinct ideology in the United Kingdom under Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli's "One Nation" Toryism. There have been a variety of one-nation conservative governments in the United Kingdom with exponents such as Prime Ministers Disraeli, Stanley Baldwin, Neville Chamberlain, Winston Churchill, and Harold Macmillan. In 19th-century Germany, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck adopted a set of social programs, known as state socialism, which included insurance for workers against sickness, accident, incapacity, and old age. The goal of this conservative state-building strategy was to make ordinary Germans, not just the Junker aristocracy, more loyal to state and Emperor. Chancellor Leo von Caprivi promoted a conservative agenda called the "New Course". Progressive conservatism In the United States, President Theodore Roosevelt has been identified as the main exponent of progressive conservatism. Roosevelt stated that he had "always believed that wise progressivism and wise conservatism go hand in hand". President Dwight D. Eisenhower also declared himself an advocate of progressive conservatism. In Canada, a variety of conservative governments have been part of the Red Tory tradition, with Canada's former major conservative party being named the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada from 1942 to 2003. Prime Ministers Arthur Meighen, R. B. Bennett, John Diefenbaker, Joe Clark, Brian Mulroney, and Kim Campbell led Red Tory federal governments. In popular usage, reactionism refers to a staunch traditionalist conservative political perspective of a person who supports the status quo and opposes social, political, and economic change. Some adherents of conservatism, rather than opposing change, seek to return to the and tend to view the modern world in a negative light, especially concerning mass culture and secularism, although different groups of reactionaries may choose different traditional values to revive. Some political scientists, such as Corey Robin, treat the words reactionary and conservative as synonyms. Others, such as Mark Lilla, argue that reactionism and conservatism are distinct worldviews. Francis Wilson defines conservatism as "a philosophy of social evolution, in which certain lasting values are defended within the framework of the tension of political conflict". Some reactionaries favor a return to the status quo ante, the previous political state of society, which that person believes possessed positive characteristics absent from contemporary society. An early example of a powerful reactionary movement was German Romanticism, which centred around concepts of organicism, medievalism, and traditionalism against the forces of rationalism, secularism, and individualism that were unleashed in the French Revolution. In political discourse, being a reactionary is generally regarded as negative; Peter King observed that it is "an unsought-for label, used as a torment rather than a badge of honor". Despite this, the descriptor has been adopted by intellectuals such as Italian esoteric traditionalist Julius Evola, Austrian monarchist Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn, Colombian political theologian Nicolás Gómez Dávila, and American historian John Lukacs. Religious conservatism Religious conservatism principally applies the teachings of particular religions to politics—sometimes by merely proclaiming the value of those teachings, at other times by having those teachings influence laws. In most democracies, political conservatism seeks to uphold traditional family structures and social values. Religious conservatives typically oppose abortion, LGBT behavior (or, in certain cases, identity), drug use, and sexual activity outside of marriage. In some cases, conservative values are grounded in religious beliefs, and conservatives seek to increase the role of religion in public life. Christian democracy is a moderately conservative center-right ideology inspired by Christian social teaching. It originated as a reaction against the industrialization and urbanization associated with laissez-faire-capitalism. In post-war Europe, Christian-democratic parties dominated politics in several nations—the Christian People's Party in Belgium, CDU and CSU in Germany, Fine Gael and Fianna Fáil in Ireland, and Christian Democracy in Italy. Many post-war Europeans saw Christian democracy as a moderate alternative to the extremes of right-wing nationalism and left-wing communism. Christian-democratic parties were especially popular among European women, who often voted for these parties to a large extent due to their pro-family policies. Social conservatism in Paris, France]] Social conservatives believe that society is built upon a fragile network of relationships which need to be upheld through duty, traditional values, and established institutions; and that the government has a role in encouraging or enforcing traditional values or practices. A social conservative wants to preserve traditional morality and social mores, often by opposing what they consider radical policies or social engineering. Some social-conservative stances are the following: * Support of a culture of life and opposition to the destruction of human life at any stage, including abortion, embryonic stem cells research, and euthanasia. * Support of bioconservatism and opposition to both eugenics and transhumanism. * Support of traditional family values, viewing the nuclear family model as society's foundational unit. * Support of a traditional definition of marriage as being one man and one woman, and opposition to expansion of civil marriage and child adoption to couples in same-sex relationships. * Support of public morality with prohibition of drugs and prostitution and censorship of pornography. * Support of organized religion and opposition to atheism and secularism, especially when militant. Traditionalist conservatism Traditionalist conservatism, also known as classical conservatism, emphasises the need for the principles of natural law, transcendent moral order, tradition, hierarchy, organicism, agrarianism, classicism, and high culture as well as the intersecting spheres of loyalty. Some traditionalists have embraced the labels reactionary and counter-revolutionary, defying the stigma that has attached to these terms since the Enlightenment. Having a hierarchical view of society, many traditionalist conservatives, including a few notable Americans such as Ralph Adams Cram, William S. Lind, and Charles A. Coulombe, defend the monarchical political structure as the most natural and beneficial social arrangement. National variants Conservative parties vary widely from country to country in the goals they wish to achieve. For thousands of years, China was ruled by monarchs of various imperial dynasties. The Mandate of Heaven theory was invoked in order to legitimize the absolute authority of the Emperor. The Xinhai Revolution of 1911 overthrew Puyi, the last Chinese Emperor, and ushered in the Republic of China. Between 1927 and 1949, China was ruled by the nationalist party Kuomintang, which became right-wing after General Chiang Kai-shek purged communists from his party. Following his defeat in the Chinese Civil War by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), Chiang continued ruling the island of Taiwan until his death in 1975. On the mainland, Chinese conservatism was vehemently opposed and suppressed by the CCP, especially during the Cultural Revolution. Members of the "Five Black Categories"—landlords, rich farmers, counter-revolutionaries, bad influencers, and right-wingers—were violently persecuted. Young people formed cadres of Red Guards throughout the country and sought to destroy the Four Olds: old ideas, old culture, old customs, and old habits—leading to the destruction of a large part of China's cultural heritage, including historical artifacts and religious sites. Among them, some Red Guards who embraced local officials were pejoratively called "conservatives". In recent decades, Chinese conservatism has experienced a national revival. The ancient schools of Confucianism and Legalism have made a return into mainstream Chinese thought. Wang Huning, widely regarded as the grey eminence and chief ideologue of the CCP, has criticized aspects of Marxism and recommended that China combine its historical and modern values. General Secretary Xi Jinping has called traditional Chinese culture the "soul" of the nation and the "foundation" of the CCP. China has also developed a form of authoritarian capitalism in recent years, further breaking with the orthodox communism of its past. Neoauthoritarianism is a current of political thought that advocates a powerful state to facilitate market reforms. A major concern of modern Chinese conservatism is the preservation of traditional culture. India Indian politics has long been dominated by aristocratic and religious elites in one of the most hierarchically stratified nations in the world. In modern times, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), led by Narendra Modi, represents conservative politics. With over 170 million members as of October 2022, the BJP is by far the world's largest political party. It promotes Hindu nationalism, quasi-fascist Hindutva, a hostile foreign policy against Pakistan, and a conservative social and fiscal policy. The BJP movement is both elitist and populist, attracting privileged groups that fear encroachment on their dominant positions as well as "plebeian" groups that seek recognition around a majoritarian rhetoric of cultural pride, social order, and national strength. Iran The Pahlavi dynasty replaced the Qajar dynasty in 1925 after a ''coup d'état, ruling Iran as a constitutional monarchy from 1925 until 1953 and then as an autocratic monarchy from the U.S.-instigated 1953 coup d'état'' until 1979. In an attempt to introduce reform from above while preserving traditional relations of hierarchy, the Shah, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, launched the White Revolution in 1963 as a series of reforms of aggressive modernization, resulting in a great redistribution of wealth from the aristocratic landlord class to Iran's working class and explosive economic growth in subsequent decades. The Iranian Revolution of 1979, supported by the clergy and the aristocracy, overthrew the monarchy and transformed the Imperial State of Iran to the Islamic Republic of Iran, thus replacing the progressive conservatism of the Shah monarchy with the reactionary conservatism of Islamic theocracy. The two main political camps in today's Iran are the Principlists and the Reformists. Israel After the declaration of the State of Israel, politics was initially dominated by left-wing parties, but overtime right-wing parties became increasingly powerful with conservatism now being the dominant ideology. In the 2022 election, right-wing parties received 75 percent of the popular vote, a centrist party 17 percent and left-wing parties 7 percent, and the subsequent government has been variously described as the most right-wing, as well as the most religious, in Israeli history. Israeli conservatism is based around upholding Jewish culture, promotion of forms of Zionism that tend to be more irredentist in nature (i.e. Revisionist and Neo-Zionism, which promote the idea of Greater Israel, as compared to Liberal or Labor Zionism, which are supportive of a two-state solution), promoting Israeli national security, maintaining the role of religion and the Rabbinate in the public sphere, support for the free market, and closer ties with the United States. Japan Conservatism has been the dominant political ideology throughout modern Japanese history. The right-wing conservative Liberal Democratic Party has been the dominant ruling party since 1955, often referred to as the 1955 System. Therefore, some experts consider Japan a democratically elected one-party state since the populace always votes for the same conservative party. Up until 1868, Japan was largely a feudal state ruled by members of the aristocratic Samurai order with its bushido code of honor. In the Meiji era, a process of modernization, industrialization, and nationalization was initiated. Power struggles between the old decentralized Samurai aristocracy and the new centralized imperial monarchy culminated in the Satsuma Rebellion in 1877 with imperial victory. During the era of World War II, Japan was transformed into an ultranationalist, imperialist state that conquered much of east and southeast Asia. Contemporary conservatives, notably during the second premiership of Shinzo Abe from 2012 to 2020, advocate for revising the country's constitution, particularly Article 9 which renounces war and prohibits Japan from maintaining a military. Japan is the oldest continuing monarchy in the history of mankind, with Naruhito currently serving as Emperor of Japan. In accordance with the principle of monarchy, Japanese society has an authoritarian family structure with a traditionalist fatherly authority that is primarily transferred to the oldest son. Anti-communist and anti-Chinese sentiment is widespread in Japan. In 1925 the Peace Preservation Law was enacted with the aim of allowing the Special Higher Police to suppress socialists and communists more effectively. In 1936 the Empire of Japan and Nazi Germany opposed the Communist International by signing the Anti-Comintern Pact—a pact later joined by the Kingdom of Italy, Francoist Spain, and the Kingdom of Hungary. The Japanese term tenkō refers to the coerced ideological conversions of Japanese socialists who were induced to renounce leftist ideology and enthusiastically embrace the monarchist, capitalist, and imperialist ideology favored by the state. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, during the Red Purge, tens of thousands of supporters of left-wing groups, especially those affiliated with the Japanese Communist Party, were removed from their jobs in government, schools, and universities. Nippon Kaigi is an ultraconservative and ultranationalist organization that exerts a significant influence over contemporary Japanese politics. In 2014, a majority of National Diet members were part of the group. Many ministers and a few prime ministers, including Fumio Kishida, Tarō Asō, Shinzō Abe, and Yoshihide Suga, have been members. A highly developed and industrialized nation, Japan is more capitalistic and Western-oriented than other Asian nations. Therefore, some experts consider Japan part of the Western world. In 1960 a treaty was signed that established a military alliance between the United States and Japan. However, the ultraconservative reactionary traditionalist Yukio Mishima feared that his fellow Japanese were too enamored of modernization and Western-style capitalism to protect traditional Japanese culture. Singapore Singapore's conservative party is the People's Action Party (PAP), which promotes conservative values in the form of Asian democracy and Asian values. These values include: nation before community and society above self; family as the basic unit of society; regard and community support for the individual; consensus instead of contention, and racial and religious harmony. They are a contrast against the "more Westernised, individualistic, and self-centred outlook on life" and uphold the "traditional Asian ideas of morality, duty and society". The PAP is currently in government and has been since independence in 1965. Having governed for over six decades, the PAP is the longest uninterrupted governing party among modern multiparty parliamentary democracies. Singapore is a city state and has a reputation as a nanny state, owing to the considerable number of government regulations and restrictions on its citizens' lives. Former Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew, the architect of the modern Singapore, observed: "If Singapore is a nanny state, then I am proud to have fostered one". In an interview in the Straits Times in 1987, Lee said: <blockquote>I am often accused of interfering in the private lives of citizens. Yes, if I did not, had I not done that, we wouldn't be here today. And I say without the slightest remorse, that we wouldn't be here, we would not have made economic progress, if we had not intervened on very personal matters–who your neighbour is, how you live, the noise you make, how you spit, or what language you use. We decide what is right. Never mind what the people think.</blockquote> South Korea South Korean army general Park Chung Hee seized power in the May 16 coup of 1961, after which he was elected as the third President of South Korea. He introduced the highly authoritarian Yushin Constitution, ushering in the Fourth Republic. He ruled the country as a dictator until his assassination by a fellow army general in 1979. Right-wing conservative parties have dominated South Korean politics for most of its modern history, while the main opposition parties have been moderate centrist and not left-wing. South Korea's major conservative party, the People Power Party, has changed its form throughout its history. First it was the Democratic-Liberal Party and its first head was Roh Tae-woo, who was the first President of the Sixth Republic of South Korea. Democratic-Liberal Party was founded by the merging of Roh Tae-woo's Democratic Justice Party, Kim Young Sam's Reunification Democratic Party and Kim Jong-pil's New Democratic Republican Party. Kim Young-sam became the fourteenth President of Korea. When the conservative party was beaten by the opposition party in the general election, it changed its form again to follow the party members' demand for reforms. It became the New Korea Party, but it changed again one year later since the President Kim Young-sam was blamed by the citizen for the International Monetary Fund. It changed its name to Grand National Party (GNP). Since the late Kim Dae-jung assumed the presidency in 1998, GNP had been the opposition party until Lee Myung-bak won the presidential election of 2007. Europe European conservatism has taken many different expressions. Early forms were often reactionary and romantic, idealizing the Middle Ages and its feudal social order with aristocratic rule and an established church. In the late 19th century, conservatism became increasingly progressive, adopting capitalism and espousing nationalism—which up until now had been anti-traditionalist and anti-imperialist forces. During the first half of the 20th century, as socialist movements were becoming more powerful and the Tsarist regime was overthrown in the Russian Revolution, conservatism in Austria, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Portugal, Spain, and Romania transformed into the far-right, becoming more authoritarian and extreme. In the post-war era, conservatism assumed a more moderate form with center-right Christian-democratic parties dominating politics across Western Europe throughout the rest of the century, European nations, with the exception of Switzerland, have had a long monarchical tradition throughout history. Today, existing monarchies are Andorra, Belgium, Denmark, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Monaco, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. Some reactionary movements in republican nations, such as in France, the Monarchist National Party in Italy, and the Black-Yellow Alliance in Austria, have advocated a restoration of the monarchy. Austria Austrian conservatism originated with Prince Klemens von Metternich, who was the architect behind the monarchist and imperialist Conservative Order that was enacted at the Congress of Vienna in the aftermath of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. The goal was to establish a European balance of power that could guarantee peace and suppress republican and nationalist movements. During its existence, the Austrian Empire was the third most populous monarchy in Europe after the Russian Empire and the United Kingdom. Following its defeat in the Austro-Prussian War, it transformed into the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which was the most diverse state in Europe with twelve nationalities living under a unifying monarch. The Empire was fragmented in the aftermath of World War I, ushering in the democratic First Austrian Republic. The Austrian Civil War in 1934 saw a series of skirmishes between the right-wing government and socialist forces. When the insurgents were defeated, the government declared martial law and held mass trials, forcing leading socialist politicians, such as Otto Bauer, into exile. The conservatives banned the Social Democratic Party and replaced parliamentary democracy with a corporatist and clerical constitution. The Patriotic Front, into which the paramilitary and the Christian Social Party were merged, became the only legal political party in the resulting authoritarian regime, the Federal State of Austria. While having close ties to Fascist Italy, which was still a monarchy as well as a fellow Catholic nation, Austrian conservatives harbored strong anti-Prussian and anti-Nazi sentiment. Austria's most prominent conservative intellectual, the Catholic aristocrat Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn, published several books in which he interpreted Nazism as a leftist, ochlocratic, and demagogic ideology opposed to the traditional rightist ideals of aristocracy, monarchy, and Christianity. Austria's dictator Engelbert Dollfuss saw Nazism as another form of totalitarian communism, and he saw Adolf Hitler as the German version of Joseph Stalin. The conservatives banned the Austrian Nazi Party and arrested many of its activists, causing tens of thousands of Nazi sympathisers to flee to Nazi Germany in order to avoid persecution. A few months later, Nazi forces initiated the July Putsch and managed to assassinate Chancellor Dollfuss in an attempt to overthrow the conservative government. In response, Benito Mussolini mobilized a part of the Italian army on the Austrian border and threatened Hitler with war in the event of a German invasion of Austria. In 1938, when Nazi Germany annexed Austria in the , conservative groups were suppressed: members of the Austrian nobility and the Catholic clergy were arrested and their properties were confiscated. Otto von Hapsburg, the last Crown Prince of Austria-Hungary, was a fervent anti-Nazi, for which reason the Nazi regime ordered that he was to be executed immediately if caught. Following World War II and the return to democracy, Austrian conservatives and socialists alike abandoned their extremism, believing in political compromise and seeking consensus in the middle. The conservatives formed the Austrian People's Party, which has been the major conservative party in Austria ever since. In contemporary politics, the party was led by Sebastian Kurz, whom the nicknamed the "young Metternich". Belgium Having its roots in the conservative Catholic Party, the Christian People's Party retained a conservative edge through the 20th century, supporting the King in the Royal Question, supporting nuclear family as the cornerstone of society, defending Christian education, and opposing euthanasia. The Christian People's Party dominated politics in post-war Belgium. In 1999, the party's support collapsed, and it became the country's fifth-largest party. Since 2014, the Flemish nationalist and conservative New Flemish Alliance is the largest party in Belgium. Denmark Danish conservatism emerged with the political grouping Højre (literally "Right"), which due to its alliance with King Christian IX of Denmark dominated Danish politics and formed all governments from 1865 to 1901. When a constitutional reform in 1915 stripped the landed gentry of political power, Højre was succeeded by the Conservative People's Party of Denmark, which has since then been the main Danish conservative party. Another Danish conservative party was the Free Conservatives, who were active between 1902 and 1920. Traditionally and historically, conservatism in Denmark has been more populist and agrarian than in Sweden and Norway, where conservatism has been more elitist and urban. The Conservative People's Party led the government coalition from 1982 to 1993. The party had previously been member of various governments from 1916 to 1917, 1940 to 1945, 1950 to 1953, and 1968 to 1971. The party was a junior partner in governments led by the Liberals from 2001 to 2011 and again from 2016 to 2019. The party is preceded by 11 years by the Young Conservatives (KU), today the youth movement of the party. The Conservative People's Party had a stable electoral support close to 15 to 20% at almost all general elections from 1918 to 1971. In the 1970s it declined to around 5%, but then under the leadership of Poul Schlüter reached its highest popularity level ever in 1984, receiving 23% of the votes. Since the late 1990s the party has obtained around 5 to 10% of the vote. In 2022, the party received 5.5% of the vote. Conservative thinking has also influenced other Danish political parties. In 1995, the Danish People's Party was founded, based on a mixture of conservative, nationalist, and social-democratic ideas. The conservative parties in Denmark have always considered the monarchy a central institution in Denmark. Finland The conservative party in Finland is the National Coalition Party. The party was founded in 1918, when several monarchist parties united. Although right-wing in the past, today it is a moderate liberal-conservative party. While advocating economic liberalism, it is committed to the social market economy. There has been strong anti-Russian and anti-communist sentiment in Finland due to its long history of being invaded and conquered by Russia and the Soviet Union. In the Finnish Civil War of 1918, White Finland defeated the leftist Red Finland. The Finnish Defence Forces and the paramilitary White Guard, led by Baron Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim, were assisted by the German Imperial Army at the request of the Finnish civil government. The far-right Lapua movement continued to terrorize communists in post-war Finland, but it was banned after a failed ''coup d'etat attempt in 1932. France Early conservatism in France focused on the rejection of the secularism of the French Revolution, support for the role of the Catholic Church, and the restoration of the monarchy. After the first fall of Napoleon in 1814, the House of Bourbon returned to power in the Bourbon Restoration. Louis XVIII and Charles X, brothers of the executed King Louis XVI, successively mounted the throne and instituted a conservative government intended to restore the proprieties, if not all the institutions, of the . After the July Revolution of 1830, Louis Philippe I, a member of the more liberal Orléans branch of the House of Bourbon, proclaimed himself as King of the French. The Second French Empire saw an Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870. The Bourbon monarchist cause was on the verge of victory in the 1870s, but then collapsed because the proposed king, Henri, Count of Chambord, refused to fly the tri-colored flag. The turn of the century saw the rise of —an ultraconservative, reactionary, nationalist, and royalist movement that advocated a restoration of the monarchy. Tensions between Christian rightists and secular leftists heightened in the 1890–1910 era, but moderated after the spirit of unity in fighting World War I. An authoritarian form of conservatism characterized the Vichy regime of 1940–1944 under Marshal Philippe Pétain with heightened antisemitism, opposition to individualism, emphasis on family life, and national direction of the economy. although the number of conservative groups and their lack of stability defy simple categorization. Unusually, post-war conservatism in France was formed around the personality of a leader—army general and aristocrat Charles de Gaulle who led the Free French Forces against Nazi Germany—and it did not draw on traditional French conservatism, but on the Bonapartist tradition. Gaullism in France continues under The Republicans (formerly Union for a Popular Movement), a party previously led by Nicolas Sarkozy, who served as President of France from 2007 to 2012 and whose ideology is known as Sarkozysm. In 2021, the French intellectual Éric Zemmour founded the nationalist party Reconquête, which has been described as a more rightist version of Marine Le Pen's National Rally. Germany Germany was the heart of the reactionary Romantic movement that swept Europe in the aftermath of the progressive Age of Enlightenment and its culmination in the anti-conservative French Revolution. Prominent conservative exponents were Friedrich Schlegel, Novalis, Wilhelm Heinrich Wackenroder, Friedrich Carl von Savigny, and Adam Müller. During the second half of the 19th century, German conservatism developed alongside nationalism, culminating in Germany's victory over France in the Franco-Prussian War, the creation of the unified German Empire in 1871, and the simultaneous rise of ”Iron Chancellor” Otto von Bismarck on the European political stage. Bismarck's balance of power model maintained peace in Europe for decades at the end of the 19th century. His "revolutionary conservatism" was a conservative state-building strategy, based on class collaboration and designed to make ordinary Germans—not just the Junker aristocracy—more loyal to state and Emperor. He created the modern welfare state in Germany in the 1880s. According to scholars, his strategy was: Bismarck also enacted universal manhood suffrage in the new German Empire in 1871. He became a great hero to German conservatives, who erected many monuments to his memory after he left office in 1890. During the interwar period—after Germany's defeat in World War I, the abdication of Emperor Wilhelm II, and the introduction of parliamentary democracy—German conservatives experienced a cultural crisis and felt uprooted by a progressively modernist world. This angst was expressed philosophically in the Conservative Revolution movement with prominent exponents such as historian Oswald Spengler, jurist Carl Schmitt, and author Ernst Jünger. The major conservative party of this era was the reactionary German National People's Party, who advocated a restored monarchy. With the rise of Nazism in 1933, traditional agrarian movements faded and were supplanted by a more command-based economy and forced social integration. Adolf Hitler succeeded in garnering the support of many German industrialists; but prominent traditionalists, including military officers Claus von Stauffenberg and Henning von Tresckow, pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Bishop Clemens August Graf von Galen, and monarchist Carl Friedrich Goerdeler, openly and secretly opposed his policies of euthanasia, genocide, and attacks on organized religion. The former German Emperor Wilhelm II was highly critical of Hitler, writing in 1938: The main inter-war conservative party was called the People's Party (PP), which supported constitutional monarchy and opposed the republican Liberal Party. Both parties were suppressed by the authoritarian, arch-conservative, and royalist 4th of August Regime of General Ioannis Metaxas in 1936–1941. The PP was able to re-group after World War II as part of a United Nationalist Front which achieved power campaigning on a simple anti-communist, nationalist platform during the Greek Civil War in 1946–1949. However, the vote received by the PP declined during the so-called "Centrist Interlude" in 1950–1952. In 1952, Marshal Alexandros Papagos created the Greek Rally as an umbrella for the right-wing forces. The Greek Rally came to power in 1952 and remained the leading party in Greece until 1963. After Papagos' death in 1955, it was reformed as the National Radical Union under Konstantinos Karamanlis. Right-wing governments backed by the palace and the army overthrew the Centre Union government in 1965 and governed the country until the establishment of the far-right Greek junta (1967–1974). After the regime's collapse in August 1974, Karamanlis returned from exile to lead the government and founded the New Democracy party. The new conservative party had four objectives: to confront Turkish expansionism in Cyprus, to reestablish and solidify democratic rule, to give the country a strong government, and to make a powerful moderate party a force in Greek politics. The Independent Greeks, a newly formed political party in Greece, has also supported conservatism, particularly national and religious conservatism. The Founding Declaration of the Independent Greeks strongly emphasises the preservation of the Greek state and its sovereignty, the Greek people, and the Greek Orthodox Church.Hungary The dominance of the political right of inter-war Hungary, after the collapse of a short-lived communist regime, was described by historian István Deák: Horthy's authoritarian conservative regime suppressed communists and fascists alike, banning the Hungarian Communist Party as well as the fascist Arrow Cross Party. The fascist leader Ferenc Szálasi was repeatedly imprisoned at Horthy's command. Iceland Founded in 1924 as the Conservative Party, Iceland's Independence Party adopted its current name in 1929 after the merger with the Liberal Party. From the beginning, they have been the largest vote-winning party, averaging around 40%. They combined liberalism and conservatism, supported nationalization of infrastructure, and advocated class collaboration. While mostly in opposition during the 1930s, they embraced economic liberalism, but accepted the welfare state after the war and participated in governments supportive of state intervention and protectionism. Unlike other Scandanivian conservative (and liberal) parties, it has always had a large working-class following. After the financial crisis in 2008, the support level has dropped to 20–25%. Ireland Conservatism in Ireland historically revolved around social policies relating to the Catholic Church as well as a commitment to Irish republicanism, Irish neutrality, anti-abortion, anti-communism, pro-Europeanism, and, more recently, anti-immigration. During the presidency of Éamon de Valera, a broad array of Catholic social policies were enacted, mostly with the goals of winning devout, rural, conservative voters, most of whom welcomed these policies. Such policies included writing into the Constitution of Ireland that a woman's place was in the home, prohibiting the importation or sale of contraceptives, and enactment of strict censorship laws. Fianna Fáil and its historic rival, Fine Gael, are both considered historically to be conservative parties. However, there are some differences: mainly, Fianna Fáil is usually considered more republican, while Fine Gael tends to be more classically-liberal. Starting in 2022, a series of protests calling for a reduction in illegal immigration have become more commonplace in Ireland, mostly over the status of temporary asylum seeker shelters were unable to accommodate the more than 65,000 refugees. Italy After the unification of Italy, the country was governed successively by the Historical Right, which represented conservative, liberal-conservative, and conservative-liberal positions, and the Historical Left. After World War I, the country saw the emergence of its first mass parties, notably including the Italian People's Party (PPI), a Christian-democratic party that sought to represent the Catholic majority, which had long refrained from politics. The PPI and the Italian Socialist Party decisively contributed to the loss of strength and authority of the old liberal ruling class, which had not been able to structure itself into a proper party: the Liberal Union was not coherent and the Italian Liberal Party came too late. In 1921, Benito Mussolini founded the National Fascist Party (PNF), and the next year, through the March on Rome, he was appointed Prime Minister by King Victor Emmanuel III. Fascism originated as a populist, revolutionary, anti-royalist, anti-clerical, anti-capitalist, and anti-conservative ideology, viewed by many socialists as a leftist heresy rather than a rightist opponent, but it transformed and became distinctly right-wing when it made compromises with the conservative establishment in order to consolidate authority and suppress communist movements. Mussolini commented on the dynamic pragmatism of fascism: In 1926, all parties were dissolved except the PNF, which remained the only legal party in the Kingdom of Italy until the fall of the regime in July 1943. By 1945, fascists were discredited, disbanded, and outlawed, while Mussolini was executed in April that year. The 1946 Italian institutional referendum concerned the fate of the monarchy. While southern Italy and parts of northern Italy were royalist, other parts, especially in central Italy, were predominantly republican. The outcome was 54–46% in favor of a republic, leading to a collapse of the monarchy. After World War II, the center-right was dominated by the centrist party Christian Democracy (DC), which included both conservative and center-left elements. With its landslide victory over the Italian Socialist Party and the Italian Communist Party in 1948, the political center was in power. In Denis Mack Smith's words, it was "moderately conservative, reasonably tolerant of everything which did not touch religion or property, but above all Catholic and sometimes clerical". DC dominated politics until its dissolution in 1994, having governed for 47 out of 52 years. After the 2018 general election, the LN and the Five Star Movement formed a populist government, which lasted about a year. In the 2022 general election, a center-right coalition came to power, this time dominated by Brothers of Italy (FdI), a new national-conservative party born on the ashes of AN. Consequently, FdI, the re-branded Lega, and FI formed a government under FdI leader Giorgia Meloni. Luxembourg Luxembourg's major conservative party, the Christian Social People's Party, was formed as the Party of the Right in 1914 and adopted its present name in 1945. It was consistently the largest political party in Luxembourg and dominated politics throughout the 20th century. Netherlands Liberalism has been strong in the Netherlands. Therefore, rightist parties are often liberal-conservative or conservative-liberal. One example is the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy. Even the right-wing populist and far-right Party for Freedom, which dominated the 2023 election, supports liberal positions such as gay rights, abortion, and euthanasia. Norway The Conservative Party of Norway (Norwegian: , literally "Right") was formed by the old upper-class of state officials and wealthy merchants to fight the populist democracy of the Liberal Party, but it lost power in 1884, when parliamentarian government was first practiced. It formed its first government under parliamentarism in 1889 and continued to alternate in power with the Liberals until the 1930s, when Labour became the dominant party. It has elements both of paternalism, stressing the responsibilities of the state, and of economic liberalism. It first returned to power in the 1960s. During Kåre Willoch's premiership in the 1980s, much emphasis was laid on liberalizing the credit and housing market and abolishing the NRK TV and radio monopoly, while supporting law and order in criminal justice and traditional norms in education. Poland The dominant conservative party in Poland is Law and Justice (PiS). Polish conservatism is characterized by social and cultural conservatism, patriotism, adherence to Catholic social teaching, and cooperation with the Catholic Church. Contemporary Polish conservatives believe in Atlanticism and strong relations with the United States, meanwhile taking a stand against Russia. PiS has taken a populist and statist approach to economics, expanding regulations, state control over industries and media, greatly expanding social welfare and applying Keynesian-esque "anti-crisis shields", which believed in economic liberalism. Another difference to AWS is PiS' euroscepticism. Russia Russian conservatism has experienced a revival in recent decades. Under Vladimir Putin, the dominant leader since 1999, Russia has promoted explicitly conservative policies in social, cultural, and political matters, both at home and abroad. Putin has criticized globalism and economic liberalism, claiming that "liberalism has become obsolete" and that the vast majority of people in the world oppose multiculturalism, free immigration, and rights for LGBT people. Russian conservatism is special in some respects as it supports a mixed economy with economic intervention, combined with a strong nationalist sentiment and social conservatism which is largely populist. As a result, Russian conservatism opposes right-libertarian ideals such as the aforementioned concept of economic liberalism found in other conservative movements around the world. Putin has also promoted new think tanks that bring together like-minded intellectuals and writers. For example, the Izborsky Club, founded in 2012 by Alexander Prokhanov, stresses Russian nationalism, the restoration of Russia's historical greatness, and systematic opposition to liberal ideas and policies. Vladislav Surkov, a senior government official, has been one of the key ideologues during Putin's presidency. In cultural and social affairs, Putin has collaborated closely with the Russian Orthodox Church. Under Patriarch Kirill of Moscow, the Church has backed the expansion of Russian power into Crimea and eastern Ukraine. More broadly, The New York Times reports in September 2016 how the Church's policy prescriptions support the Kremlin's appeal to social conservatives: Sweden In the early 19th century, Swedish conservatism developed alongside Swedish Romanticism. The historian Erik Gustaf Geijer, an exponent of Gothicism, glorified the Viking Age and the Swedish Empire, and the idealist philosopher Christopher Jacob Boström became the chief ideologue of the official state doctrine, which dominated Swedish politics for almost a century. Other influential Swedish conservative Romantics were Esaias Tegnér and Per Daniel Amadeus Atterbom. Early parliamentary conservatism in Sweden was explicitly elitist. The Conservative Party was formed in 1904 with one major goal in mind: to stop the advent of universal suffrage, which they feared would result in socialism. Yet, it was a Swedish admiral, the conservative politician Arvid Lindman, who first extended democracy by enacting male suffrage, despite the protests of more traditionalist voices, such as the later prime minister, the arch-conservative and authoritarian statesman Ernst Trygger, who railed at progressive policies such as the abolition of the death penalty. Once a democratic system was in place, Swedish conservatives sought to combine traditional elitism with modern populism. Sweden's most renowned political scientist, the conservative politician Rudolf Kjellén, coined the terms geopolitics and biopolitics in relation to his organic theory of the state. He also developed the corporatist-nationalist concept of ('the people's home'), which became the single most powerful political concept in Sweden throughout the 20th century, although it was adopted by the Social Democratic Party who gave it a more socialist interpretation. After a brief grand coalition between Left and Right during World War II, the center-right parties struggled to cooperate due to their ideological differences: the agrarian populism of the Centre Party, the urban liberalism of the Liberal People's Party, and the liberal-conservative elitism of the Moderate Party (the old Conservative Party). However, in 1976 and in 1979, the three parties managed to form a government under Thorbjörn Fälldin—and again in 1991 under aristocrat Carl Bildt and with support from the newly founded Christian Democrats, the most conservative party in contemporary Sweden. In modern times, mass immigration from distant cultures caused a large populist dissatisfaction, which was not channeled through any of the established parties, who generally espoused multiculturalism. Instead, the 2010s saw the rise of the right-wing populist Sweden Democrats, who were surging as the largest party in the polls on several occasions. Due to its fascist roots, the party was ostracized by the other parties until 2019 when Christian Democrat leader Ebba Busch reached out for collaboration, after which the Moderate Party followed suit. In 2022, the center-right parties formed a government with support from the Sweden Democrats as the largest party. The subsequent Tidö Agreement, negotiated in Tidö Castle, incorporated authoritarian policies such as a stricter stance on immigration and a harsher stance on law and order. Switzerland In some aspects, Swiss conservatism is unique, as Switzerland is an old federal republic born from historically sovereign cantons, comprising three major nationalities and adhering to the principle of Swiss neutrality. There are a number of conservative parties in Switzerland's parliament, the Federal Assembly. These include the largest ones: the Swiss People's Party (SVP), the Christian Democratic People's Party (CVP), and the Conservative Democratic Party of Switzerland (BDP), which is a splinter of the SVP created in the aftermath to the election of Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf as Federal Council. The Council of Europe has called the SVP "extreme right", although some scholars dispute this classification. For instance, Hans-Georg Betz describes it as "populist radical right". The SVP has been the largest party since 2003. Ukraine The authoritarian Ukrainian State was headed by Cossack aristocrat Pavlo Skoropadskyi and represented the conservative movement. The 1918 Hetman government, which appealed to the tradition of the 17th–18th century Cossack Hetman state, represented the conservative strand in Ukraine's struggle for independence. It had the support of the proprietary classes and of conservative and moderate political groups. Vyacheslav Lypynsky was a main ideologue of Ukrainian conservatism. United Kingdom Modern English conservatives celebrate Anglo-Irish statesman Edmund Burke as their intellectual father. Burke was affiliated with the Whig Party, which eventually split among the Liberal Party and the Conservative Party, but the modern Conservative Party is generally thought to derive primarily from the Tories, and the MPs of the modern conservative party are still frequently referred to as Tories. Shortly after Burke's death in 1797, conservatism was revived as a mainstream political force as the Whigs suffered a series of internal divisions. This new generation of conservatives derived their politics not from Burke, but from his predecessor, the Viscount Bolingbroke, who was a Jacobite and traditional Tory, lacking Burke's sympathies for Whiggish policies such as Catholic emancipation and American independence (famously attacked by Samuel Johnson in "Taxation No Tyranny"). As early as 1835, Disraeli attacked the Whigs and utilitarians as slavishly devoted to an industrial oligarchy, while he described his fellow Tories as the only "really democratic party of England", devoted to the interests of the whole people. Nevertheless, inside the party there was a tension between the growing numbers of wealthy businessmen on the one side and the aristocracy and rural gentry on the other. The aristocracy gained strength as businessmen discovered they could use their wealth to buy a peerage and a country estate. Some conservatives lamented the passing of a pastoral world where the ethos of had promoted respect from the lower classes. They saw the Anglican Church and the aristocracy as balances against commercial wealth. They worked toward legislation for improved working conditions and urban housing. This viewpoint would later be called Tory democracy. However, since Burke, there has always been tension between traditional aristocratic conservatism and the wealthy liberal business class. In 1834, Tory Prime Minister Robert Peel issued the "Tamworth Manifesto", in which he pledged to endorse moderate political reform. This marked the beginning of the transformation from High Tory reactionism towards a more modern form of conservatism. As a result, the party became known as the Conservative Party—a name it has retained to this day. However, Peel would also be the root of a split in the party between the traditional Tories (by the Earl of Derby and Benjamin Disraeli) and the "Peelites" (led first by Peel himself, then by the Earl of Aberdeen). The split occurred in 1846 over the issue of free trade, which Peel supported, versus protectionism, supported by Derby. The majority of the party sided with Derby while about a third split away, eventually merging with the Whigs and the radicals to form the Liberal Party. Despite the split, the mainstream Conservative Party accepted the doctrine of free trade in 1852. In the second half of the 19th century, the Liberal Party faced political schisms, especially over Irish Home Rule. Leader William Gladstone (himself a former Peelite) sought to give Ireland a degree of autonomy, a move that elements in both the left and right-wings of his party opposed. These split off to become the Liberal Unionists (led by Joseph Chamberlain), forming a coalition with the Conservatives before merging with them in 1912. The Liberal Unionist influence dragged the Conservative Party towards the left as Conservative governments passed a number of progressive reforms at the turn of the 20th century. By the late 19th century, the traditional business supporters of the Liberal Party had joined the Conservatives, making them the party of business and commerce as well. After a period of Liberal dominance before World War I, the Conservatives gradually became more influential in government, regaining full control of the cabinet in 1922. In the inter-war period, conservatism was the major ideology in Britain as the Liberal Party vied with the Labour Party for control of the left. After World War II, the first Labour government (1945–1951) under Clement Attlee embarked on a program of nationalization of industry and the promotion of social welfare. The Conservatives generally accepted those policies until the 1980s. In the 1980s, the Conservative government of Margaret Thatcher, guided by neoliberal economics, reversed many of Labour's social programmes, privatized large parts of the UK economy, and sold state-owned assets. The Conservative Party also adopted soft eurosceptic politics and opposed Federal Europe. Other conservative political parties, such as the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP, founded in 1971), and the United Kingdom Independence Party (UKIP, founded in 1993), began to appear, although they have yet to make any significant impact at Westminster. As of 2014, the DUP is the largest political party in the ruling coalition in the Northern Ireland Assembly, and from 2017 to 2019 the DUP provided support for the Conservative minority government under a confidence-and-supply arrangement. Latin America Conservative elites have long dominated Latin American nations. Mostly, this has been achieved through control of civil institutions, the Catholic Church, and the military, rather than through party politics. Typically, the Church was exempt from taxes and its employees immune from civil prosecution. Where conservative parties were weak or non-existent, conservatives were more likely to rely on military dictatorship as a preferred form of government. However, in some nations where the elites were able to mobilize popular support for conservative parties, longer periods of political stability were achieved. Chile, Colombia, and Venezuela are examples of nations that developed strong conservative parties. Argentina, Brazil, El Salvador, and Peru are examples of nations where this did not occur. Political scientist Louis Hartz explained conservatism in Latin American nations as a result of their settlement as feudal societies. Brazil Conservatism in Brazil originates from the cultural and historical tradition of Brazil, whose cultural roots are Luso-Iberian and Roman Catholic. More traditional conservative historical views and features include belief in political federalism and monarchism. Brazil is the only Latin American nation with a relatively strong royalist sentiment, and throughout modern history a significant minority of the population has always supported a monarchical restoration. The military dictatorship in Brazil was established on April 1, 1964, after a ''coup d'état'' by the Brazilian Army with support from the United States government, and it lasted for 21 years, until March 15, 1985. The coup received support from almost all high-ranking members of the military along with conservative sectors in society, such as the Catholic Church and anti-communist civilian movements among the Brazilian middle and upper classes. The dictatorship reached the height of its popularity in the 1970s with the so-called Brazilian Miracle. Brazil's military government provided a model for other military regimes throughout Latin America, being systematized by the "National Security Doctrine", which was used to justify the military's actions as operating in the interest of national security in a time of crisis. In contemporary politics, a conservative wave began roughly around the 2014 Brazilian presidential election. According to commentators, the National Congress of Brazil elected in 2014 may be considered the most conservative since the re-democratisation movement, citing an increase in the number of parliamentarians linked to more conservative segments, such as ruralists, the military, the police, and religious conservatives. The subsequent economic crisis of 2015 and investigations of corruption scandals led to a right-wing movement that sought to rescue ideas from capitalism in opposition to socialism. At the same time, fiscal conservatives such as those that make up the Free Brazil Movement emerged among many others. Military officer Jair Bolsonaro of the Social Liberal Party was the winner of the 2018 Brazilian presidential election. Chile Chile's conservative party, the National Party, disbanded in 1973 following a military coup and did not re-emerge as a political force after the return to democracy. During the military dictatorship of Chile, the country was ruled by a military junta headed by General Augusto Pinochet. His ideology, known as Pinochetism, was anti-communist, militaristic, nationalistic, and laissez-faire capitalistic. Under Pinochet, Chile's economy was placed under the control of a group of economists known collectively as the Chicago Boys, whose liberalizing policies have been described as neoliberal. Colombia The Colombian Conservative Party, founded in 1849, traces its origins to opponents of General Francisco de Paula Santander's 1833–1837 administration. While the term "liberal" had been used to describe all political forces in Colombia, the conservatives began describing themselves as "conservative liberals" and their opponents as "red liberals". From the 1860s until the present, the party has supported strong central government and the Catholic Church, especially its role as protector of the sanctity of the family, and opposed separation of church and state. Its policies include the legal equality of all men, the citizen's right to own property, and opposition to dictatorship. It has usually been Colombia's second largest party, with the Colombian Liberal Party being the largest. North America North American conservatism, combining traditionalist conservatism, economic liberalism, and right-wing populism, is different from European conservatism and can be traced back to the classical liberalism of the 18th and 19th centuries, although Canada developed an American-style conservatism that competed with the older Tory conservatism. According to political scientist Louis Hartz, French Canada is a fragment of feudal Europe, whereas the United States and English Canada are liberal fragments. Sociologist Reginald Bibby asserts that conservatism has been strong and enduring throughout North America because of the propagation of religious values from generation to generation. Canada Canada's conservatives had their roots in the Tory loyalists who left America after the American Revolution. They developed in the socio-economic and political cleavages that existed during the first three decades of the 19th century and had the support of the mercantile, professional, and religious elites in Ontario and to a lesser extent in Quebec. Holding a monopoly over administrative and judicial offices, they were called the Family Compact in Ontario and the in Quebec. John A. Macdonald's successful leadership of the movement to confederate the provinces, and his subsequent tenure as prime minister for most of the late 19th century, rested on his ability to bring together the English-speaking Protestant aristocracy and the ultramontane Catholic hierarchy of Quebec and to keep them united in a conservative coalition. The conservatives combined Toryism and pro-market liberalism. They generally supported an activist government and state intervention in the marketplace, and their policies were marked by —a paternalistic responsibility of the elites for the less well-off. The party was known as the Progressive Conservatives from 1942 until 2003, when the party merged with the Canadian Alliance to form the Conservative Party of Canada. The conservative and autonomist Union Nationale, led by Maurice Duplessis, governed the province of Quebec in periods from 1936 to 1960 and in a close alliance with the Catholic Church, small rural elites, farmers, and business elites. This period, known by liberals as the Great Darkness, ended with the Quiet Revolution and the party went into terminal decline. By the end of the 1960s, the political debate in Quebec centred around the question of independence, opposing the social democratic and sovereignist Parti Québécois and the centrist and federalist Quebec Liberal Party, therefore marginalizing the conservative movement. Most French Canadian conservatives rallied either the Quebec Liberal Party or the Parti Québécois, while some of them still tried to offer an autonomist third-way with what was left of the Union Nationale or the more populists Ralliement créditiste du Québec and Parti national populaire, but by the 1981 provincial election politically organized conservatism had been obliterated in Quebec. It slowly started to revive at the 1994 provincial election with the Action démocratique du Québec, who served as Official opposition in the National Assembly from 2007 to 2008, before merging in 2012 with François Legault's Coalition Avenir Québec, which took power in 2018. The modern Conservative Party of Canada has rebranded conservatism and, under the leadership of Stephen Harper, added more conservative policies. Yoram Hazony, a scholar on the history and ideology of conservatism, identified Canadian psychologist Jordan Peterson as the most significant conservative thinker to appear in the English-speaking world in a generation. United States The meaning of conservatism in the United States is different from the way the word is used elsewhere. Following the American Revolution, Americans rejected the core ideals of European conservatism, which were based on landed nobility, hereditary monarchy, established churches, and powerful armies. However, the prominent American conservative historian Russell Kirk argued, in his influential work The Conservative Mind (1953), that conservatism had been brought to the United States and he interpreted the American Revolution as a "conservative revolution" against royal innovation. The revolution was also supported by Anglo-Irish statesman Edmund Burke, widely known as the father of conservatism, although Burke and a few Founding Fathers, most notably John Adams, were highly critical of the French Revolution. American conservatism is a broad system of political beliefs in the United States, which is characterized by respect for American traditions, support for Judeo-Christian values, economic liberalism, anti-communism, and a defense of Western culture. Liberty within the bounds of conformity to conservatism is a core value, with a particular emphasis on strengthening the free market, limiting the size and scope of government, and opposing high taxes as well as government or labor union encroachment on the entrepreneur. The 1830s Democratic Party became divided between Southern Democrats, who supported slavery, secession, and later segregation, and the Northern Democrats, who tended to support the abolition of slavery, union, and equality. Many Democrats were conservative in the sense that they wanted things to be like they were in the past, especially as far as race was concerned. They generally favored poorer farmers and urban workers, and were hostile to banks, industrialization, and high tariffs. The post-Civil War Republican Party had conservative factions, but was not uniformly conservative. The Southern Democrats united with pro-segregation Northern Republicans to form the Conservative Coalition, which successfully put an end to Blacks being elected to national political office until 1967, when Edward Brooke was elected Senator from Massachusetts. Conservative Democrats influenced US politics until 1994's Republican Revolution, as the American South shifted from solid Democrat to solid Republican, while maintaining its conservative values. In late 19th century, the Democratic Party split into two factions; the more conservative Eastern business faction (led by Grover Cleveland) favored gold, while the South and West (led by William Jennings Bryan) wanted more silver in order to raise prices for their crops. In 1892, Cleveland won the election on a conservative platform, which supported maintaining the gold standard, reducing tariffs, and taking a approach to government intervention. A severe nationwide depression ruined his plans. Many of his supporters in 1896 supported the Gold Democrats when liberal William Jennings Bryan won the nomination and campaigned for bimetallism, money backed by both gold and silver. The conservative wing nominated Alton B. Parker in 1904, but he got very few votes. The major conservative party in the United States today is the Republican Party, also known as the GOP (Grand Old Party). Modern American conservatives often consider individual liberty as the fundamental trait of democracy, as long as it conforms to conservative values, small government, deregulation of the government, and economic liberalism—which contrasts with modern American liberals, who generally place a greater value on social equality and social justice. Other major priorities within American conservatism include support for the nuclear family, law and order, the right to bear arms, Christian values, anti-communism, and a defense of "Western civilization from the challenges of modernist culture and totalitarian governments". Economic conservatives and libertarians favor small government, low taxes, limited regulation, and free enterprise. Some social conservatives see traditional social values threatened by secularism; so, they support school prayer, and oppose abortion. Neoconservatives want to expand American ideals throughout the world, and show a strong support for Israel. Paleoconservatives oppose multiculturalism and press for restrictions on immigration. The conservative movement of the 1950s attempted to bring together the divergent conservative strands, stressing the need for unity to prevent the spread of "godless communism", which Reagan later labeled an "evil empire". During the Reagan administration, conservatives also supported the so-called Reagan Doctrine, under which the US as part of a Cold War strategy provided military and other support to guerrilla insurgencies that were fighting governments identified as socialist or communist. The Reagan administration also adopted neoliberalism and Reaganomics (pejoratively referred to as trickle-down economics), resulting in the 1980s economic growth and trillion-dollar deficits. Other modern conservative positions include anti-environmentalism. On average, American conservatives desire tougher foreign policies than liberals do. The Tea Party movement, founded in 2009, proved a large outlet for populist American conservative ideas. Their stated goals included rigorous adherence to the US constitution, lower taxes, and opposition to a growing role for the federal government in health care. Electorally, it was considered a key force in Republicans reclaiming control of the US House of Representatives in 2010. Long-term shifts in conservative thinking following the election of Donald Trump have been described as a "new fusionism" of traditional conservative ideology and right-wing populist themes. protectionism, cultural conservatism, a more realist foreign policy, a repudiation of neoconservatism, reduced efforts to roll back entitlement programs, and a disdain for traditional checks and balances. Oceania Australia The Liberal Party of Australia adheres to the principles of social conservatism and liberal conservatism. It is liberal in the sense of economics. Commentators explain: "In America, 'liberal' means left-of-center, and it is a pejorative term when used by conservatives in adversarial political debate. In Australia, of course, the conservatives are in the Liberal Party." The National Right is the most organized and reactionary of the three factions within the party. Political scientist James Jupp writes that "[the] decline in English influences on Australian reformism and radicalism, and appropriation of the symbols of Empire by conservatives continued under the Liberal Party leadership of Sir Robert Menzies, which lasted until 1966". Other conservative parties are the National Party of Australia (a sister party of the Liberals), Family First Party, Democratic Labor Party, Shooters, Fishers and Farmers Party, Australian Conservatives, and the Katter's Australian Party. The largest party in the country is the Australian Labor Party, and its dominant faction is Labor Right, a socially conservative element. Australia undertook significant economic reform under the Labor Party in the mid-1980s. Consequently, issues like protectionism, welfare reform, privatization, and deregulation are no longer debated in the political space as they are in Europe or North America. New Zealand Historic conservatism in New Zealand traces its roots to the unorganized conservative opposition to the New Zealand Liberal Party in the late 19th century. In 1909 this ideological strand found a more organized expression in the Reform Party, a forerunner to the contemporary New Zealand National Party, which absorbed historic conservative elements. The National Party, established in 1936, embodies a spectrum of tendencies, including conservative and liberal. Throughout its history, the party has oscillated between periods of conservative emphasis and liberal reform. Its stated values include "individual freedom and choice" and "limited government". In the 1980s and 1990s both the National Party and its main opposing party, the traditionally left-wing Labour Party, implemented free-market reforms. The New Zealand First party, which split from the National Party in 1993, espouses nationalist and conservative principles. Psychology Conscientiousness The Big Five personality model has applications in the study of political psychology. It has been found by several studies that individuals who score high in Conscientiousness (the quality of working hard and being careful) are more likely to possess a right-wing political identification. Since conscientiousness is positively related to job performance, a 2021 study found that conservative service workers earn higher ratings, evaluations, and tips than social liberal ones. Disgust sensitivity A number of studies have found that disgust is tightly linked to political orientation. People who are highly sensitive to disgusting images are more likely to align with the political right and value traditional ideals of bodily and spiritual purity, tending to oppose, for example, abortion and gay marriage. Research in the field of evolutionary psychology has also found that people who are more disgust sensitive tend to favor their own in-group over out-groups. A proposed reason for this phenomenon is that people begin to associate outsiders with disease while associating health with people similar to themselves. The higher one's disgust sensitivity is, the greater the tendency to make more conservative moral judgments. Disgust sensitivity is associated with moral hypervigilance, which means that people who have higher disgust sensitivity are more likely to think that suspects of a crime are guilty. They also tend to view them as evil, if found guilty, and endorse harsher punishment in the setting of a court. Authoritarianism The right-wing authoritarian personality (RWA) is a personality type that describes somebody who is highly submissive to their authority figures, acts aggressively in the name of said authorities, and is conformist in thought and behavior. According to psychologist Bob Altemeyer, individuals who are politically conservative tend to rank high in RWA. This finding was echoed by philosopher Theodor W. Adorno in The Authoritarian Personality (1950) based on the F-scale personality test. A study done on Israeli and Palestinian students in Israel found that RWA scores of right-wing party supporters were significantly higher than those of left-wing party supporters. However, a 2005 study by psychologist H. Michael Crowson and colleagues suggested a moderate gap between RWA and other conservative positions, stating that their "results indicated that conservatism is not synonymous with RWA". According to political scientist Karen Stenner, who specializes in authoritarianism, conservatives will embrace diversity and civil liberties to the extent that they are institutionalized traditions in the social order, but they tend to be drawn to authoritarianism when public opinion is fractious and there is a loss of confidence in public institutions. Ambiguity intolerance In 1973, psychologist Glenn Wilson published an influential book providing evidence that a general factor underlying conservative beliefs is "fear of uncertainty". A meta-analysis of research literature found that many factors, such as intolerance of ambiguity and need for cognitive closure, contribute to the degree of one's political conservatism and its manifestations in decision-making. A study by Kathleen Maclay stated that these traits "might be associated with such generally valued characteristics as personal commitment and unwavering loyalty". The research also suggested that while most people are resistant to change, social liberals are more tolerant of it. Social dominance orientation Social dominance orientation (SDO) is a personality trait measuring an individual's support for social hierarchy and the extent to which they desire their in-group be superior to out-groups. Psychologist Felicia Pratto and her colleagues have found evidence to support the claim that a high SDO is strongly correlated with conservative views and opposition to social engineering to promote equality. Pratto and her colleagues also found that high SDO scores were highly correlated with measures of prejudice. However, psychologist David J. Schneider argued for a more complex relationships between the three factors, writing that "correlations between prejudice and political conservatism are reduced virtually to zero when controls for SDO are instituted, suggesting that the conservatism–prejudice link is caused by SDO". Political theorist Kenneth Minogue criticized Pratto's work, saying: A 1996 study by Pratto and her colleagues examined the topic of racism. Contrary to what these theorists predicted, correlations between conservatism and racism were strongest among the most educated individuals, and weakest among the least educated. They also found that the correlation between racism and conservatism could be accounted for by their mutual relationship with SDO. Happiness In his book Gross National Happiness (2008), Arthur C. Brooks presents the finding that conservatives are roughly twice as happy as social liberals. A 2008 study suggested that conservatives tend to be happier than social liberals because of their tendency to justify the current state of affairs and to remain unbothered by inequalities in society. A 2012 study disputed this hypothesis, demonstrating that conservatives expressed greater personal agency (e.g., personal control, responsibility), more positive outlook (e.g., optimism, self-worth), and more transcendent moral beliefs (e.g., greater religiosity, greater moral clarity). Prominent figures Statesmen <!-- This section doesn't include living persons. --> <gallery> File:Official Presidential portrait of John Adams (by John Trumbull, circa 1792).jpg\|link=\|President John Adams of the United States File:Prince Metternich by Lawrence.jpeg\|link=\|Prince Klemens von Metternich of the Austrian Empire File:Benjamin Disraeli by Cornelius Jabez Hughes, 1878.jpg\|link=\|Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli of the United Kingdom File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-2005-0057, Otto von Bismarck (cropped).jpg\|link=\|Chancellor Otto von Bismarck of the German Empire File:Mannerheim1940.jpg\|link=\|Marshal Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim of Finland File:Horthy the regent.jpg\|link=\|Regent Miklós Horthy of the Kingdom of Hungary File:Sir Winston Churchill - 19086236948.jpg\|link\|Prime Minister Winston Churchill of the United Kingdom File:Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-F078072-0004, Konrad Adenauer.jpg\|link=\|Chancellor Konrad Adenauer of Germany File:Chiang Kai-shek（蔣中正）.jpg\|link=\|Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek of Republic of China File:António de Oliveira Salazar portrait (by Manuel Alves San Payo) – Lisboa.jpg\|link=\|Prime Minister António de Oliveira Salazar of Portugal File:De Gaulle-OWI (cropped)-(c).jpg\|link=\|General Charles de Gaulle of France File:RETRATO DEL GRAL. FRANCISCO FRANCO BAHAMONDE (adjusted levels).jpg\|link=\|Generalissimo Francisco Franco of Spain File:Official Portrait of President Reagan 1981.jpg\|link=\|President Ronald Reagan of the United States File:Park Chung Hee (박정희) Presidential Portrait.jpg\|link=\|President Park Chung Hee of South Korea File: Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew of Singapore Making a Toast at a State Dinner Held in His Honor, 1975.jpg\|link=\|Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew of Singapore File:Augusto Pinochet foto oficial.jpg\|link=\|General Augusto Pinochet of Chile File:Shah fullsize.jpg\|link=\|Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi of the Imperial State of Iran File:Atal Bihari Vajpayee (crop 2).jpg\|link=\|Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee of India File:Margaret Thatcher stock portrait (cropped).jpg\|link\|Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher of the United Kingdom File:Shinzō Abe 20120501.jpg\|link=\|Prime Minister Shinzo Abe of Japan </gallery> Intellectuals <gallery> File:Edmund Burke by James Northcote.JPG\|link=\|Edmund Burke File:HannahMore.jpg\|link=\|Hannah More File:Cogordan - Joseph de Maistre, 1894 (page 12 crop).jpg\|link=\|Joseph de Maistre File:Anne-Louis Girodet-Trioson 006.jpg\|link=\|François-René de Chateaubriand File:SamuelTaylorColeridge.jpg\|link=\|Samuel Taylor Coleridge File:Thomas Carlyle lm.jpg\|link\|Thomas Carlyle File:John Henry Newman by Sir John Everett Millais, 1st Bt.jpg\|link\|John Henry Newman File:Alexis de Tocqueville (Théodore Chassériau - Versailles).jpg\|link\|Alexis de Tocqueville File:Vilfredo Pareto 1870s2.jpg\|link\|Vilfredo Pareto File:George Santayana.jpg\|link\|George Santayana File:Hu Hanmin3.jpg\|link\|Hu Hanmin File:PORTRAIT OF VLADIMIR JABOTINSKY TAKEN BY BRITT IN PARIS. פורטרט, זאב ז'בוטינסקי.D850-062 (cropped).jpg\|link\|Ze'ev Jabotinsky File:Ernst Jünger vers 1920 (cropped).jpg\|link\|Ernst Jünger File:Leo Strauss USA 1939.jpg\|link\|Leo Strauss File:Michael Oakeshott.jpg\|link=\|Michael Oakeshott File:Portrait of Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre.jpg\|link\|Marcel Lefebvre File:Kirk 1962.jpg\|link\|Russell Kirk File:Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn 1974crop.jpg\|link=\|Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn File:Thomas Sowell cropped.jpg\|link\|Thomas Sowell File:Roger Scruton by Pete Helme.jpg\|link\|Roger Scruton </gallery> Artists <gallery> File:John Constable by Daniel Gardner, 1796.JPG\|link\|John Constable File:CBRichmond.png\|link\|Charlotte Brontë File:Vasily Perov - Портрет Ф.М.Достоевского - Google Art Project.jpg\|link\|Fyodor Dostoevsky File:Paul-Cezanne.jpg\|link\|Paul Cézanne File:Edith Newbold Jones Wharton (cropped 02).jpg\|link\|Edith Wharton File:Yeats Boughton.jpg\|link=\|W. B. Yeats File:Igor Stravinsky LOC 32392u.jpg\|link\|Igor Stravinsky File:Thomas Stearns Eliot by Lady Ottoline Morrell (1934).jpg\|link\|T. S. Eliot File:Carl Theodor Dreyer (1965) by Erling Mandelmann.jpg\|link\|Carl Theodor Dreyer File:H. P. Lovecraft, June 1934.jpg\|link\|H. P. Lovecraft File:John Ford 1946.jpg\|link\|John Ford File:Frank Capra.jpg\|link\|Frank Capra File:Jorge Luis Borges 1951, by Grete Stern.jpg\|link\|Jorge Luis Borges File:Walt Disney 1946.JPG\|link\|Walt Disney File:Salvador Dalí 1939.jpg\|link\|Salvador Dalí File:Bacon by Gray 257.jpg\|link\|Francis Bacon File:Ingmar Bergman (1966).jpg\|link\|Ingmar Bergman File:Kerouac by Palumbo 2 (cropped).png\|link\|Jack Kerouac File:Yukio Mishima, 1955 (cropped).jpg\|link\|Yukio Mishima File:Stockhausen 1994 WDR.jpg\|link\|Karlheinz Stockhausen </gallery> See also National variants * Conservatism in Australia * Conservatism in Bangladesh * Conservatism in Brazil * Conservatism in Canada * Conservatism in Colombia * Conservatism in Germany * Conservatism in Hong Kong * Conservatism in India * Conservatism in Japan * Conservatism in Malaysia * Conservatism in New Zealand * Conservatism in Pakistan * Conservatism in Peru * Conservatism in Russia * Conservatism in Serbia * Conservatism in South Korea * Conservatism in Turkey * Conservatism in the United Kingdom * Conservatism in the United States Ideological variants * Authoritarian conservatism * Black conservatism * Corporatist conservatism * Cultural conservatism * Feminist conservatism * Fiscal conservatism * Green conservatism * LGBT conservatism * Liberal conservatism * Libertarian conservatism * Moderate conservatism * National conservatism * Neoconservatism * Paternalistic conservatism * Pragmatic conservatism * Progressive conservatism * Populist conservatism * Social conservatism * Traditionalist conservatism * Ultraconservatism Related topics * Christian democracy * Christian right * Communitarianism * Counter-revolutionary * Familialism * Historism * Neopatriarchy * Reactionary * Right realism * Small-c conservative * Toryism * Traditionalist Catholicism References Bibliography * * * * * * \|titleConservatism \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/topic/conservatism \|access-dateMay 1, 2022 \|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}} * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Further reading General * * * * * * * [2396 pages; worldwide sources] Conservatism and fascism * * Conservatism and liberalism * * * Conservatism and women * * * * Conservatism in Germany * * * * Conservatism in Latin America * * Conservatism in Russia * * * Conservatism in the United Kingdom * * * * Conservatism in the United States * * * * * * * * Psychology * * * * * External links * [https://www.britannica.com/topic/conservatism Conservatism] an article by Encyclopædia Britannica. * }} * Category:Social theories Category:Political theories	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatism	2025-04-05T18:27:54.549857
6677	Classical liberalism	Classical liberalism is a political tradition and a branch of liberalism that advocates free market and laissez-faire economics and civil liberties under the rule of law, with special emphasis on individual autonomy, limited government, economic freedom, political freedom and freedom of speech. Classical liberalism, contrary to progressive branches like social liberalism, looks more negatively on social policies, taxation and the state involvement in the lives of individuals, and it advocates deregulation. Until the Great Depression and the rise of social liberalism, classical liberalism was called economic liberalism. Later, the term was applied as a retronym, to distinguish earlier 19th-century liberalism from social liberalism. By modern standards, in the United States, the bare term liberalism often means social or progressive liberalism, but in Europe and Australia, the bare term liberalism often means classical liberalism. Classical liberalism gained full flowering in the early 18th century, building on ideas dating at least as far back as the 16th century, within the Iberian, French, British, and Central European contexts, and it was foundational to the American Revolution and "American Project" more broadly. Notable liberal individuals whose ideas contributed to classical liberalism include John Locke, François Quesnay, Jean-Baptiste Say, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Marquis de Condorcet, Thomas Paine, Thomas Malthus, and David Ricardo. It drew on classical economics, especially the economic ideas espoused by Adam Smith in Book One of The Wealth of Nations, and on a belief in natural law. In contemporary times, Murray Rothbard, Friedrich Hayek, Milton Friedman, Ludwig von Mises, Thomas Sowell, Walter E. Williams, George Stigler, Larry Arnhart, Ronald Coase and James M. Buchanan are seen as the most prominent advocates of classical liberalism. However, other scholars have made reference to these contemporary thoughts as neoclassical liberalism, distinguishing them from 18th-century classical liberalism. In its defense of economic liberties, classical liberalism may be described as conservative or right wing, Additionally, in the United States, classical liberalism is considered closely tied to, or synonymous with, American libertarianism. Evolution of core beliefs Core beliefs of classical liberals included new ideaswhich departed from both the older conservative idea of society as a family and from the later sociological concept of society as a complex set of social networks. Classical liberals agreed with Thomas Hobbes that individuals created government to protect themselves from each other and to minimize conflict between individuals that would otherwise arise in a state of nature. These beliefs were complemented by a belief that financial incentive could best motivate labourers. This belief led to the passage of the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834, which limited the provision of social assistance, based on the idea that markets are the mechanism that most efficiently leads to wealth. Drawing on ideas of Adam Smith, classical liberals believed that it was in the common interest that all individuals be able to secure their own economic self-interest. They were critical of what would come to be the idea of the welfare state as interfering in a free market. Despite Smith's resolute recognition of the importance and value of labour and of labourers, classical liberals criticized labour's group rights being pursued at the expense of individual rights while accepting corporations' rights, which led to inequality of bargaining power. Classical liberals argued that individuals should be free to obtain work from the highest-paying employers, while the profit motive would ensure that products that people desired were produced at prices they would pay. In a free market, both labour and capital would receive the greatest possible reward, while production would be organized efficiently to meet consumer demand. Classical liberals argued for what they called a minimal state and government, limited to the following functions: * Laws to protect citizens from wrongs committed against them by other citizens, which included protection of individual rights, private property, enforcement of contracts and common law. * A common national defence to provide protection against foreign invaders. * Public works and services that cannot be provided in a free market such as a stable currency, standard weights and measures and building and upkeep of roads, canals, harbours, railways, communications and postal services. Classical liberals asserted that rights are of a negative nature and therefore stipulate that other individuals and governments are to refrain from interfering with the free market, opposing social liberals who assert that individuals have positive rights, such as the right to vote, the right to an education, the right to healthcare, and the right to a minimum wage. For society to guarantee positive rights, it requires taxation over and above the minimum needed to enforce negative rights. Core beliefs of classical liberals did not necessarily include democracy nor government by a majority vote by citizens because "there is nothing in the bare idea of majority rule to show that majorities will always respect the rights of property or maintain rule of law". For example, James Madison argued for a constitutional republic with protections for individual liberty over a pure democracy, reasoning that in a pure democracy a "common passion or interest will, in almost every case, be felt by a majority of the whole ... and there is nothing to check the inducements to sacrifice the weaker party". In the late 19th century, classical liberalism developed into neoclassical liberalism, which argued for government to be as small as possible to allow the exercise of individual freedom. In its most extreme form, neoclassical liberalism advocated social Darwinism. Right-libertarianism is a modern form of neoclassical liberalism. However, Edwin Van de Haar states although classical liberal thought influenced libertarianism, there are significant differences between them. Classical liberalism refuses to give priority to liberty over order and therefore does not exhibit the hostility to the state which is the defining feature of libertarianism. As such, right-libertarians believe classical liberals do not have enough respect for individual property rights and lack sufficient trust in the free market's workings and spontaneous order leading to their support of a much larger state. Right-libertarians also disagree with classical liberals as being too supportive of central banks and monetarist policies. Typology of beliefs Friedrich Hayek identified two different traditions within classical liberalism, namely the British tradition and the French tradition: * The British philosophers Bernard Mandeville, David Hume, Edmund Burke, Adam Smith, Adam Ferguson, Josiah Tucker and William Paley held beliefs in empiricism, the common law and in traditions and institutions which had spontaneously evolved but were imperfectly understood. The French philosophers Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Denis Diderot, Maximilien Robespierre, Louis Antoine de Saint-Just, Marquis de Condorcet, the Encyclopedists and the Physiocrats believed in rationalism and sometimes showed hostility to tradition and religion. Hayek conceded that the national labels did not exactly correspond to those belonging to each tradition since he saw the Frenchmen Montesquieu, Benjamin Constant, Joseph De Maistre and Alexis de Tocqueville as belonging to the British tradition and the British Thomas Hobbes, Joseph Priestley, Richard Price, Edward Gibbon, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson and Thomas Paine as belonging to the French tradition. Hayek also rejected the label laissez-faire as originating from the French tradition and alien to the beliefs of Hume and Smith. Guido De Ruggiero also identified differences between "Montesquieu and Rousseau, the English and the democratic types of liberalism" and argued that there was a "profound contrast between the two Liberal systems". He claimed that the spirit of "authentic English Liberalism" had "built up its work piece by piece without ever destroying what had once been built, but basing upon it every new departure". This liberalism had "insensibly adapted ancient institutions to modern needs" and "instinctively recoiled from all abstract proclamations of principles and rights". Ruggiero claimed that this liberalism was challenged by what he called the "new Liberalism of France" that was characterised by egalitarianism and a "rationalistic consciousness". In 1848, Francis Lieber distinguished between what he called "Anglican and Gallican Liberty". Lieber asserted that "independence in the highest degree, compatible with safety and broad national guarantees of liberty, is the great aim of Anglican liberty, and self-reliance is the chief source from which it draws its strength". On the other hand, Gallican liberty "is sought in government ... . [T]he French look for the highest degree of political civilisation in organisation, that is, in the highest degree of interference by public power". History Great Britain French physiocracy heavily influenced British classical liberalism, which traces its roots to the Whigs and Radicals. Whiggery had become a dominant ideology following the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and was associated with supporting the British Parliament, upholding the rule of law, defending landed property and sometimes included freedom of the press and freedom of speech. The origins of rights were seen as being in an ancient constitution existing from time immemorial. Custom rather than as natural rights justified these rights. Whigs believed that executive power had to be constrained. While they supported limited suffrage, they saw voting as a privilege rather than as a right. However, there was no consistency in Whig ideology and diverse writers including John Locke, David Hume, Adam Smith and Edmund Burke were all influential among Whigs, although none of them were universally accepted. From the 1790s to the 1820s, British radicals concentrated on parliamentary and electoral reform, emphasising natural rights and popular sovereignty. Richard Price and Joseph Priestley adapted the language of Locke to the ideology of radicalism. The radicals saw parliamentary reform as a first step toward dealing with their many grievances, including the treatment of Protestant Dissenters, the slave trade, high prices, and high taxes. There was greater unity among classical liberals than there had been among Whigs. Classical liberals were committed to individualism, liberty, and equal rights, as well as some other important tenants of leftism, since classical liberalism was introduced in the late 18th century as a leftist movement. Helena Vieira, writing for the London School of Economics, argued that classical liberalism "may contradict some fundamental democratic principles as they are inconsistent with the principle of unanimity (also known as the Pareto Principle) – the idea that if everyone in society prefers a policy A to a policy B, then the former should be adopted." Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire had liberal free trade policies by the 18th century, with origins in capitulations of the Ottoman Empire, dating back to the first commercial treaties signed with France in 1536 and taken further with capitulations in 1673, in 1740 which lowered duties to only 3% for imports and exports and in 1790. Ottoman free trade policies were praised by British economists advocating free trade such as J. R. McCulloch in his Dictionary of Commerce (1834) but criticized by British politicians opposing free trade such as Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli, who cited the Ottoman Empire as "an instance of the injury done by unrestrained competition" in the 1846 Corn Laws debate, arguing that it destroyed what had been "some of the finest manufactures of the world" in 1812. United States In the United States, liberalism took a strong root because it had little opposition to its ideals, whereas in Europe liberalism was opposed by many reactionary or feudal interests such as the nobility; the aristocracy, including army officers; the landed gentry; and the established church. Thomas Jefferson adopted many of the ideals of liberalism, but in the Declaration of Independence changed Locke's "life, liberty and property" to the more socially liberal "Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness". Freedom, according to classical liberals, was maximised when the government took a "hands off" attitude toward the economy. Historian Kathleen G. Donohue argues: <blockquote>[A]t the center of classical liberal theory [in Europe] was the idea of laissez-faire. To the vast majority of American classical liberals, however, laissez-faire did not mean no government intervention at all. On the contrary, they were more than willing to see government provide tariffs, railroad subsidies, and internal improvements, all of which benefited producers. What they condemned was intervention on behalf of consumers.</blockquote> The Nation magazine espoused liberalism every week starting in 1865 under the influential editor Edwin Lawrence Godkin (1831–1902). The ideas of classical liberalism remained essentially unchallenged until a series of depressions, thought to be impossible according to the tenets of classical economics, led to economic hardship from which the voters demanded relief. In the words of William Jennings Bryan, "You shall not crucify this nation on a cross of gold". Classical liberalism remained the orthodox belief among American businessmen until the Great Depression. The Great Depression in the United States saw a sea change in liberalism, with priority shifting from the producers to consumers. Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal represented the dominance of modern liberalism in politics for decades. In the words of Arthur Schlesinger Jr.: Alan Wolfe summarizes the viewpoint that there is a continuous liberal understanding that includes both Adam Smith and John Maynard Keynes: The view that modern liberalism is a continuation of classical liberalism is controversial and disputed by many. James Kurth, Robert E. Lerner, John Micklethwait, Adrian Wooldridge and several other political scholars have argued that classical liberalism still exists today, but in the form of American conservatism. According to Deepak Lal, only in the United States does classical liberalism continue to be a significant political force through American conservatism. American libertarians also claim to be the true continuation of the classical liberal tradition. Tadd Wilson, writing for the libertarian Foundation for Economic Education, noted that "Many on the left and right criticize classical liberals for focusing purely on economics and politics to the neglect of a vital issue: culture." Intellectual sources John Locke ]] Central to classical liberal ideology was their interpretation of John Locke's Second Treatise of Government and A Letter Concerning Toleration, which had been written as a defence of the Glorious Revolution of 1688. Although these writings were considered too radical at the time for Britain's new rulers, Whigs, radicals and supporters of the American Revolution later came to cite them. However, much of later liberal thought was absent in Locke's writings or scarcely mentioned and his writings have been subject to various interpretations. For example, there is little mention of constitutionalism, the separation of powers and limited government. James L. Richardson identified five central themes in Locke's writing: Individualism * Consent * Rule of law and government as trustee * Significance of property * Religious toleration Although Locke did not develop a theory of natural rights, he envisioned individuals in the state of nature as being free and equal. The individual, rather than the community or institutions, was the point of reference. Locke believed that individuals had given consent to government and therefore authority derived from the people rather than from above. This belief would influence later revolutionary movements. As a trustee, government was expected to serve the interests of the people, not the rulers; and rulers were expected to follow the laws enacted by legislatures. Locke also held that the main purpose of men uniting into commonwealths and governments was for the preservation of their property. Despite the ambiguity of Locke's definition of property, which limited property to "as much land as a man tills, plants, improves, cultivates, and can use the product of", this principle held great appeal to individuals possessed of great wealth. Locke held that the individual had the right to follow his own religious beliefs and that the state should not impose a religion against Dissenters, but there were limitations. No tolerance should be shown for atheists, who were seen as amoral, or to Catholics, who were seen as owing allegiance to the Pope over their own national government. Adam Smith ]] Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations, published in 1776, was to provide most of the ideas of economics, at least until the publication of John Stuart Mill's Principles of Political Economy in 1848. Smith addressed the motivation for economic activity, the causes of prices and the distribution of wealth and the policies the state should follow to maximise wealth. Smith wrote that as long as supply, demand, prices and competition were left free of government regulation, the pursuit of material self-interest, rather than altruism, would maximise the wealth of a society This general belief influenced government policies until the 1930s. Following this law, since the economic cycle was seen as self-correcting, government did not intervene during periods of economic hardship because it was seen as futile. Malthus wrote two books, An Essay on the Principle of Population (published in 1798) and Principles of Political Economy (published in 1820). The second book which was a rebuttal of Say's law had little influence on contemporary economists. However, his first book became a major influence on classical liberalism. In that book, Malthus claimed that population growth would outstrip food production because population grew geometrically while food production grew arithmetically. As people were provided with food, they would reproduce until their growth outstripped the food supply. Nature would then provide a check to growth in the forms of vice and misery. No gains in income could prevent this and any welfare for the poor would be self-defeating. The poor were in fact responsible for their own problems which could have been avoided through self-restraint. Ricardo, who was an admirer of Smith, covered many of the same topics, but while Smith drew conclusions from broadly empirical observations he used deduction, drawing conclusions by reasoning from basic assumptions. While Ricardo accepted Smith's labour theory of value, he acknowledged that utility could influence the price of some rare items. Rents on agricultural land were seen as the production that was surplus to the subsistence required by the tenants. Wages were seen as the amount required for workers' subsistence and to maintain current population levels. According to his iron law of wages, wages could never rise beyond subsistence levels. Ricardo explained profits as a return on capital, which itself was the product of labour, but a conclusion many drew from his theory was that profit was a surplus appropriated by capitalists to which they were not entitled. Utilitarianism The central concept of utilitarianism, which was developed by Jeremy Bentham, was that public policy should seek to provide "the greatest happiness of the greatest number". While this could be interpreted as a justification for state action to reduce poverty, it was used by classical liberals to justify inaction with the argument that the net benefit to all individuals would be higher. Utilitarianism provided British governments with the political justification to implement economic liberalism, which was to dominate economic policy from the 1830s. Although utilitarianism prompted legislative and administrative reform and John Stuart Mill's later writings on the subject foreshadowed the welfare state, it was mainly used as a justification for laissez-faire. Political economy Classical liberals following Mill saw utility as the foundation for public policies. This broke both with conservative "tradition" and Lockean "natural rights", which were seen as irrational. Utility, which emphasises the happiness of individuals, became the central ethical value of all Mill-style liberalism. Although utilitarianism inspired wide-ranging reforms, it became primarily a justification for laissez-faire economics. However, Mill adherents rejected Smith's belief that the "invisible hand" would lead to general benefits and embraced Malthus' view that population expansion would prevent any general benefit and Ricardo's view of the inevitability of class conflict. Laissez-faire was seen as the only possible economic approach and any government intervention was seen as useless and harmful. The Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 was defended on "scientific or economic principles" while the authors of the Poor Relief Act 1601 were seen as not having had the benefit of reading Malthus. However, commitment to laissez-faire was not uniform and some economists advocated state support of public works and education. Classical liberals were also divided on free trade as Ricardo expressed doubt that the removal of grain tariffs advocated by Richard Cobden and the Anti-Corn Law League would have any general benefits. Most classical liberals also supported legislation to regulate the number of hours that children were allowed to work and usually did not oppose factory reform legislation. Despite the pragmatism of classical economists, their views were expressed in dogmatic terms by such popular writers as Jane Marcet and Harriet Martineau. The strongest defender of laissez-faire was The Economist founded by James Wilson in 1843. The Economist criticised Ricardo for his lack of support for free trade and expressed hostility to welfare, believing that the lower orders were responsible for their economic circumstances. The Economist took the position that regulation of factory hours was harmful to workers and also strongly opposed state support for education, health, the provision of water, and granting of patents and copyrights. The Economist also campaigned against the Corn Laws that protected landlords in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland against competition from less expensive foreign imports of cereal products. A rigid belief in laissez-faire guided the government response in 1846–1849 to the Great Famine in Ireland, during which an estimated 1.5 million people died. The minister responsible for economic and financial affairs, Charles Wood, expected that private enterprise and free trade, rather than government intervention, would alleviate the famine. The Corn Laws were finally repealed in 1846 by the removal of tariffs on grain which kept the price of bread artificially high, but it came too late to stop the Irish famine, partly because it was done in stages over three years. Free trade and world peace Several liberals, including Smith and Cobden, argued that the free exchange of goods between nations could lead to world peace. Erik Gartzke states: "Scholars like Montesquieu, Adam Smith, Richard Cobden, Norman Angell, and Richard Rosecrance have long speculated that free markets have the potential to free states from the looming prospect of recurrent warfare". American political scientists John R. Oneal and Bruce M. Russett, well known for their work on the democratic peace theory, state: In The Wealth of Nations, Smith argued that as societies progressed from hunter gatherers to industrial societies the spoils of war would rise, but that the costs of war would rise further and thus making war difficult and costly for industrialised nations: Cobden believed that military expenditures worsened the welfare of the state and benefited a small, but concentrated elite minority, summing up British imperialism, which he believed was the result of the economic restrictions of mercantilist policies. To Cobden and many classical liberals, those who advocated peace must also advocate free markets. The belief that free trade would promote peace was widely shared by English liberals of the 19th and early 20th century, leading the economist John Maynard Keynes (1883–1946), who was a classical liberal in his early life, to say that this was a doctrine on which he was "brought up" and which he held unquestioned only until the 1920s. In his review of a book on Keynes, Michael S. Lawlor argues that it may be in large part due to Keynes' contributions in economics and politics, as in the implementation of the Marshall Plan and the way economies have been managed since his work, "that we have the luxury of not facing his unpalatable choice between free trade and full employment". A related manifestation of this idea was the argument of Norman Angell (1872–1967), most famously before World War I in The Great Illusion (1909), that the interdependence of the economies of the major powers was now so great that war between them was futile and irrational; and therefore unlikely. Notable thinkers * Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) * James Harrington (1611–1677) * John Locke (1632–1704) * Montesquieu (1689–1755) * David Hume (1711–1776) * Voltaire (1694–1778) * Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) * Adam Smith (1723–1790) * Edmund Burke (1729–1797) * Edward Gibbon (1737–1794) * Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) * Anders Chydenius (1729–1803) * Thomas Paine (1737–1809) * Cesare Beccaria (1738–1794) * Marquis de Condorcet (1743–1794) * Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826) * Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) * Gaetano Filangieri (1753–1788) * Benjamin Constant (1767–1830) * David Ricardo (1772–1823) * Alexis de Tocqueville (1805–1859) * Giuseppe Mazzini (1805–1872) * John Stuart Mill (1806–1872) * William Ewart Gladstone (1809–1898) * Horace Greeley (1811–1873) * Fukuzawa Yukichi (1835–1901) * Henry George (1839–1897) * Friedrich Naumann (1860–1919) * Ludwig Von Mises (1881–1973) * Friedrich Hayek (1899–1992) * Karl Popper (1902–1994) * Raymond Aron (1938–2002) Classical liberal parties worldwide While general libertarian, liberal-conservative and some right-wing populist political parties are also included in classical liberal parties in a broad sense, only general classical liberal parties such as Germany's FDP, Denmark's Liberal Alliance and Thailand Democrat Party should be listed. Classical liberal parties or parties with classical liberal factions * Argentina: Republican Proposal, Liberty Advances, * Australia: Liberal Party of Australia, Libertarian Party * Austria: NEOS – The New Austria and Liberal Forum, Freedom Party of Austria (factions) * Belgium: Open Flemish Liberals and Democrats, Reformist Movement * Brazil: New Party * Canada: Liberal Party, Conservative Party (factions), Libertarian Party, People's Party * Chile: Evópoli * Denmark: , Moderates, Liberal Alliance * Estonia: Estonian Reform Party * Finland: Liberal Party – Freedom to Choose * France: Renaissance * Georgia: Girchi — More Freedom, Girchi * Germany: Free Democratic Party * Iceland: Viðreisn * India: Lok Satta Party * India: Swatantra Bharat Paksh * Latvia: For Latvia's Development, Movement For! * Lithuania: Liberals' Movement * Luxembourg: Democratic Party * Netherlands: People's Party for Freedom and Democracy, Belang van Nederland * New Zealand: New Zealand National Party, ACT New Zealand * Norway: , Progress Party * Poland: Modern, Civic Platform * Portugal: Liberal Initiative, Social Democratic Party * Romania: National Liberal Party * Russia: Yabloko, PARNAS * Serbia: Liberal Democratic Party of Serbia * Slovakia: Freedom and Solidarity * South Africa: Democratic Alliance, ActionSA * Spain: Citizens, People's Party * Sweden: Liberals, Classical Liberal Party, Moderate Party * Switzerland: FDP.The Liberals * Thailand: Democrat Party * Turkey: Liberal Democratic Party * United Kingdom: Liberal Democrats, Liberal Party, Conservative Party (factions) * United States: Democratic Party (factions), Republican Party (factions), Liberal Party USA, Libertarian Party * Venezuela: Come Venezuela Historical classical liberal parties or parties with classical liberal factions (since 1900s) * Belgium: Liberal Party, Party for Freedom and Progress, Liberal Reformist Party * Chile: Liberal Party, Amplitude * Germany: German Democratic Party * India: Swatantra Party, Indian Liberal Party * Ireland: Progressive Democrats * Japan: Liberal Party (1998), Liberal League * Netherlands: Freedom Party * New Zealand: New Zealand Liberal Party, United Party, New Zealand Party * South Korea: New Democratic Party * Switzerland: Free Democratic Party of Switzerland, Liberal Party of Switzerland * United Kingdom: Liberal Party See also * Age of Enlightenment * Austrian School * Bourbon Democrat ** National Democratic Party * Classical economics * Cultural liberalism * Classical radicalism ** Modern liberalism * Classical republicanism * Constitutionalism * Constitutional liberalism * Conservative liberalism * Corporate liberalism * Economic liberalism * Fiscal conservatism * Friedrich Naumann Foundation * Georgism * Gladstonian liberalism * Jeffersonian democracy * Liberal conservatism * Liberal democracy * Liberalism in Europe * Libertarianism Left-libertarianism Right-libertarianism * List of liberal theorists * Neoclassical liberalism * Neoliberalism * Night-watchman state * Opportunist Republicans * Orléanist * Physiocracy * Political individualism * Rule of law * Separation of powers * Whig history Notes References Sources * * * * * * * * * * * * * Further reading * Alan Bullock and Maurice Shock, ed. (1967). The Liberal Tradition: From Fox to Keynes. Oxford: Clarendon Press. * * Katherine Henry (2011). Liberalism and the Culture of Security: The Nineteenth-Century Rhetoric of Reform. University of Alabama Press; draws on literary and other writings to study the debates over liberty and tyranny. * Donald Markwell (2006). John Maynard Keynes and International Relations: Economic Paths to War and Peace. Oxford: Oxford University Press. . * * Gustav Pollak, ed. (1915). [https://archive.org/details/fiftyyearsofamer00poll Fifty Years of American Idealism: 1865–1915]; short history of The Nation plus numerous excerpts, most by Edwin Lawrence Godkin. * External links * * * Category:Liberalism Category:19th-century introductions Category:Economic liberalism Category:History of libertarianism Category:Ideologies of capitalism Category:Liberalism in Europe Category:Political ideologies	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_liberalism	2025-04-05T18:27:54.640695
6678	Cat	<!-- Per MOS:ENGVAR and MOS:DATEVAR, articles should conform to one overall spelling of English and date format, typically the ones with which it was created when the topic has no strong national ties. This article was created with American English, using international date format (DD Month YYYY), and should continue to be written that way. If there is a compelling reason to change it propose a change on the talk page. --> <br/> Holocene to present (9,500 years ago) \|image= \|status=DOM \|genus=Felis \|speciescatus * F. angorensis * F. vulgaris }} The cat (Felis catus), also referred to as the domestic cat or house cat, is a small domesticated carnivorous mammal. It is the only domesticated species of the family Felidae. Advances in archaeology and genetics have shown that the domestication of the cat occurred in the Near East around 7500 BC. It is commonly kept as a pet and farm cat, but also ranges freely as a feral cat avoiding human contact. It is valued by humans for companionship and its ability to kill vermin. Its retractable claws are adapted to killing small prey species such as mice and rats. It has a strong, flexible body, quick reflexes, and sharp teeth, and its night vision and sense of smell are well developed. It is a social species, but a solitary hunter and a crepuscular predator. Cat intelligence is evident in their ability to adapt, learn through observation, and solve problems, with research showing they possess strong memories, exhibit neuroplasticity, and display cognitive skills comparable to a young child. Cat communication includes meowing, purring, trilling, hissing, growling, grunting, and body language. It can hear sounds too faint or too high in frequency for human ears, such as those made by small mammals. It secretes and perceives pheromones. Female domestic cats can have kittens from spring to late autumn in temperate zones and throughout the year in equatorial regions, with litter sizes often ranging from two to five kittens. Domestic cats are bred and shown at cat fancy events as registered pedigreed cats. Population control includes spaying and neutering, but pet abandonment has exploded the global feral cat population, which has driven the extinction of bird, mammal, and reptile species. Domestic cats are found across the globe, though their popularity as pets varies by region. Out of the estimated 600 million cats worldwide, 400 million reside in Asia, including 58 million pet cats in China. The United States leads in cat ownership with 73.8 million cats despite having a significantly smaller human population. In the United Kingdom, approximately 10.9 million domestic cats are kept as pets. Etymology and naming The origin of the English word cat, Old English , is thought to be the Late Latin word , which was first used at the beginning of the 6th century. The Late Latin word may be derived from an unidentified African language. The Nubian word wildcat and Nobiin are possible sources or cognates. The forms might also have derived from an ancient Germanic word that was absorbed into Latin and then into Greek, Syriac, and Arabic. The word may be derived from Germanic and Northern European languages, and ultimately be borrowed from Uralic, Northern Sámi , female stoat, and Hungarian , lady, female stoat; from Proto-Uralic , female (of a furred animal). The English puss, extended as pussy and pussycat, is attested from the 16th century and may have been introduced from Dutch or from Low German , related to Swedish , or Norwegian , . Similar forms exist in Lithuanian and Irish or . The etymology is unknown, but it may be an onomatopoeia from using a sound to attract a cat. A male cat is called a tom or tomcat (or a gib, if neutered). A female is called a queen. Some sources wrote that queen refers to unspayed cats that are in an estrous cycle. (or sometimes a molly, if spayed). A juvenile cat is referred to as a kitten. In Early Modern English, that was interchangeable with the now-obsolete word catling. A group of cats can be referred to as a clowder, a glaring, or a colony. Taxonomy The scientific name Felis catus was proposed by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 for a domestic cat. Felis catus domesticus was proposed by Johann Christian Polycarp Erxleben in 1777. In 2003, the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature ruled that the domestic cat is a distinct species, namely Felis catus. In 2007, the modern domesticated subspecies F. silvestris catus sampled worldwide was considered to have probably descended from the African wildcat (F. lybica), following results of phylogenetic research. did not conclude a date for genetic divergence, noting from archaeological evidence that "the broadest range of dates for domestication to be from 11,000 to 4,000 B.P.".}} In 2017, the IUCN Cat Classification Taskforce followed the recommendation of the ICZN in regarding the domestic cat as a distinct species, Felis catus. Evolution The domestic cat is a member of the Felidae, a family that has a common ancestor from about . The evolutionary radiation of the Felidae began in Asia during the Miocene around . Analysis of mitochondrial DNA of all Felidae species indicates a radiation at . The genus Felis genetically diverged from other Felidae around . The domestic cat and its closest wild ancestor are diploid and both possess 38 chromosomes and roughly 20,000 genes. Size of a male domestic cat]] The domestic cat has a smaller skull and shorter bones than the European wildcat. It averages about in head-to-body length and in height, with about long tails. Males are larger than females. Adult domestic cats typically weigh . The extra lumbar and thoracic vertebrae account for the cat's spinal mobility and flexibility. Attached to the spine are 13 ribs, the shoulder, and the pelvis. Skull The cat skull is unusual among mammals in having very large eye sockets and a powerful specialized jaw. Two long canine teeth for killing and tearing prey, can stab between two of the prey's vertebrae and sever its spinal cord, causing paralysis and death. Compared to other felines, domestic cats have narrowly spaced canine teeth relative to the size of their jaw, which is an adaptation to their preferred prey of small rodents, which have small vertebrae. Claws Cats have protractible and retractable claws. In their normal, relaxed position, the claws are sheathed with the skin and fur around the paw's toe pads. This keeps the claws sharp by preventing wear from contact with the ground and allows for the silent stalking of prey. The claws on the forefeet are typically sharper than those on the hindfeet. Cats can voluntarily extend their claws, such as in hunting, fighting, climbing, kneading, or for extra traction on soft surfaces. Cats shed the outside layer of their claw sheaths when scratching rough surfaces. Most cats have five claws on their front paws and four on their rear paws. The dewclaw is proximal to the other claws. More proximally is a protrusion which appears to be a sixth "finger". This special feature of the front paws on the inside of the wrists has no function in normal walking but is thought to be an antiskidding device used while jumping. Some cat breeds are prone to having extra digits ("polydactyly"). Ambulation The cat is digitigrade. It walks on the toes, with the bones of the feet making up the lower part of the visible leg. Unlike most mammals, it uses a "pacing" gait that alternates both legs together on each side. It registers directly by placing each hind paw close to the track of the corresponding fore paw, minimizing noise and visible tracks. This also provides sure footing for hind paws when navigating rough terrain. As it speeds up from walking to trotting, its gait changes to a "diagonal" gait: The diagonally opposite hind and fore legs move simultaneously. Balance Cats are generally fond of perching in high places. This may be a concealed hunting site such as a tree branch, for domestic cats to pounce upon prey. They favor a superior observation point over territory. A cat falling from up to can right itself and land on its paws. During a lofty fall, a cat reflexively twists and rights itself to land on its feet using its acute sense of balance and flexibility. This reflex is known as the cat righting reflex. A cat always rights itself in the same way, and it has enough time in falls of at least . This has been investigated as the "falling cat problem". Coats The cat family (Felidae) can pass down many colors and patterns to their offspring. The domestic cat genes MC1R and ASIP allow color variety in their coats. The feline ASIP gene consists of three coding exons. Three novel microsatellite markers linked to ASIP were isolated from a domestic cat BAC clone containing this gene to perform linkage analysis on 89 domestic cats segregated for melanism. The domestic cat family demonstrated a cosegregation between the ASIP allele and coat black coloration. Senses Vision is exposed as it blinks.]] Cats have excellent night vision and can see at one sixth the light level required for human vision. Large pupils are an adaptation to dim light. The domestic cat has slit pupils, which allow it to focus bright light without chromatic aberration. At low light, a cat's pupils expand to cover most of the exposed surface of its eyes. The domestic cat has rather poor color vision and only two types of cone cells, optimized for sensitivity to blue and yellowish green; its ability to distinguish between red and green is limited. A response to middle wavelengths from a system other than the rod cells might be due to a third type of cone. This appears to be an adaptation to low light levels rather than representing true trichromatic vision. Cats have a nictitating membrane, allowing them to blink without hindering their vision. Hearing The domestic cat's hearing is most acute in the range of 500 Hz to 32 kHz. It can detect an extremely broad range of frequencies ranging from 55 Hz to 79 kHz, whereas humans can only detect frequencies between 20 Hz and 20 kHz. It can hear a range of 10.5 octaves, compared to about 9 octaves for humans and dogs. Its hearing sensitivity is enhanced by its large movable outer ears, the pinnae, which amplify sounds and help detect the location of a noise. It can detect ultrasound, including ultrasonic calls from rodent prey. Research has shown that cats have socio-spatial cognitive abilities to create mental maps of familiar people's locations based on hearing their voices. Smell Cats have an acute sense of smell, due in part to their well-developed olfactory bulb and a large surface of olfactory mucosa, about in area, which is about twice that of humans<!-- impossible logic and only 1.7-fold less than the average dog. -->. Cats and many other animals have a Jacobson's organ in their mouths that is used in the behavioral process of flehmening. It allows them to sense certain aromas in a way that humans cannot. Cats are sensitive to pheromones such as 3-mercapto-3-methylbutan-1-ol, which they use to communicate through urine spraying and marking with scent glands. About 70–80% of cats are affected by nepetalactone. This response is also produced by other plants, such as silver vine (Actinidia polygama) and the herb valerian; it may be caused by the smell of these plants mimicking a pheromone and stimulating cats' social or sexual behaviors. Taste Cats have about 470 taste buds, compared to more than 9,000 on the human tongue. Domestic and wild cats share a taste receptor gene mutation that keeps their sweet taste buds from binding to sugary molecules, leaving them with no ability to taste sweetness. But they do have taste bud receptors specialized for acids, amino acids such as the constituents of protein, and bitter tastes. Cats taste buds possess the receptors needed to detect umami. However, these receptors contain molecular changes that make them taste umami differently from humans. In humans, they detect the amino acids glutamic acid and aspartic acid; but in cats, they instead detect inosine monophosphate and histidine. These molecules are particularly enriched in tuna. Cats distinctly prefer food temperature around , similar to a fresh kill. Some cats reject cold food, which would signal to the cat that the prey is long dead and therefore possibly toxic or decomposing. Domestic cats spend the majority of their time in the vicinity of their homes, but they can range a radius of many hundreds of meters. They establish territories that vary considerably in size, in one study ranging . The timing of cats' activity is quite flexible and varied; but being low-light predators, they are generally crepuscular, which means they tend to be more active near dawn and dusk. However, house cats' behavior is also influenced by human activity, and they may adapt to their owners' sleeping patterns to some extent. Cats conserve energy by sleeping more than most animals, especially as they grow older. The daily duration of sleep varies, usually between 12 and 16 hours, with 13 to 14 being the average. Some cats can sleep as much as 20 hours. The term "cat nap" for a short rest refers to the cat's tendency to fall asleep (lightly) for a brief period. Short periods of rapid eye movement sleep are often accompanied by muscle twitches, which suggests they are dreaming. Behavioral and personality traits depend on a complex interplay between genetic and environmental factors. Scientific evidence is mixed about the popular belief that those traits are linked to coat colors. Sociability The social behavior of the domestic cat ranges from widely dispersed individuals to feral cat colonies that gather around a food source, based on groups of co-operating females. Within such groups, one cat is usually dominant over the others. Each cat in a colony holds a distinct territory, with sexually active males having the largest territories, which are about 10 times larger than those of female cats and may overlap with several females' territories. These territories are marked by urine spraying, rubbing objects at head height with secretions from facial glands, and by defecation. Between these territories are neutral areas where cats watch and greet one another without territorial conflicts. Outside these neutral areas, territory holders usually chase away stranger cats, at first by staring, hissing, and growling, and, if that does not work, by short and violent, noisy attacks. Although cats do not have a social survival strategy or herd behavior, they always hunt alone. Life in proximity to humans and other domestic animals has led to a symbiotic social adaptation in cats, and cats may express great affection toward humans or other animals. Ethologically, a cat's human keeper functions as a mother surrogate. Adult cats live in a type of extended kittenhood, a form of behavioral neoteny. Their high-pitched sounds may mimic the cries of a hungry human infant, making them particularly difficult for humans to ignore. Some pet cats are poorly socialized. In particular, older cats show aggressiveness toward newly arrived kittens, which includes biting and scratching; this type of behavior is known as feline asocial aggression. Redirected aggression is a common form of aggression which can occur in multiple cat households. In redirected aggression, there is usually something that agitates the cat: this could be a sight, sound, or another source of stimuli which causes a heightened level of anxiety or arousal. If the cat cannot attack the stimuli, it may direct anger elsewhere by attacking or directing aggression to the nearest cat, pet, human or other being. Domestic cats' scent rubbing behavior toward humans or other cats is thought to be a feline means of social bonding. Communication Domestic cats use many vocalizations for communication, including purring, trilling, hissing, growling/snarling, grunting, and several different forms of meowing. Their body language, including position of ears and tail, relaxation of the whole body, and kneading of the paws, are all indicators of mood. The tail and ears are particularly important social signal mechanisms; a raised tail indicates a friendly greeting, and flattened ears indicate hostility. Tail-raising also indicates the cat's position in the group's social hierarchy, with dominant individuals raising their tails less often than subordinate ones. Feral cats are generally silent. Nose-to-nose touching is also a common greeting and may be followed by social grooming, which is solicited by one of the cats raising and tilting its head. or eating. Although purring is popularly interpreted as indicative of pleasure, it has been recorded in a wide variety of circumstances, most of which involve physical contact between the cat and another, presumably trusted individual. The exact mechanism by which cats purr has long been elusive, but it has been proposed that purring is generated via a series of sudden build-ups and releases of pressure as the glottis is opened and closed, which causes the vocal folds to separate forcefully. The laryngeal muscles in control of the glottis are thought to be driven by a neural oscillator which generates a cycle of contraction and release every 30–40 milliseconds (giving a frequency of 33 to 25 Hz). Domestic cats observed in rescue facilities have 276 morphologically distinct facial expressions based on 26 facial movements; each facial expression corresponds to different social functions that are probably influenced by domestication. Facial expressions have helped researchers detect pain in cats. The feline grimace scale's five criteria—ear position, orbital tightening, muzzle tension, whisker change, and head position—indicated the presence of acute pain in cats. Grooming Cats are known for spending considerable amounts of time licking their coats to keep them clean. The cat's tongue has backward-facing spines about 0.5 millimeter long, called lingual papillae, which contain keratin making them rigid. The papillae act like a hairbrush, and some cats, particularly long-haired cats, occasionally regurgitate sausage-shaped long hairballs of fur that have collected in their stomachs from grooming. Hairballs can be prevented with remedies that ease elimination of the hair through the gut, and regular grooming of the coat with a comb or stiff brush. Cat intelligence Cat intelligence refers to a cat’s ability to solve problems, adapt to its environment, learn new behaviors, and communicate its needs. Structurally, a cat’s brain shares similarities with the human brain, containing around 250 million neurons in the cerebral cortex, which is responsible for complex processing. Cats display neuroplasticity allowing their brains to reorganize based on experiences. They have well-developed memory retaining information for a decade or longer. These memories are often intertwined with emotions, allowing cats to recall both positive and negative experiences associated with specific places. While they excel in observational learning and problem-solving, studies concludes that they struggle with understanding cause-and-effect relationships in the same way that humans do. Cat intelligence study is mostly from consideration of the domesticated cat. Living in urban environments has exposed them to challenges that require adaptive behaviors, contributing to cognitive development. Selective breeding and genetic changes have further influenced their intelligence. Kittens learn essential survival skills by observing their mothers, while adult cats refine their abilities through trial and error. Play Domestic cats, especially young kittens, are known for their love of play. This behavior mimics hunting and is important in helping kittens learn to stalk, capture, and kill prey. Cats also engage in play fighting, both with each other and with humans. This behavior may be a way for cats to practice the skills needed for real combat, and it might also reduce the fear that they associate with launching attacks on other animals. Cats also tend to play with toys more when they are hungry. Owing to the close similarity between play and hunting, cats prefer to play with objects that resemble prey, such as small furry toys that move rapidly, but rapidly lose interest. They become habituated to a toy they have played with before. String is often used as a toy, but if it is eaten, it can become caught at the base of the cat's tongue and then move into the intestines, a medical emergency which can cause serious illness, even death. Hunting and feeding is the prey of this domestic cat.]] The shape and structure of cats' cheeks is insufficient to allow them to take in liquids using suction. Lapping at a rate of four times a second, the cat touches the smooth tip of its tongue to the surface of the water, and quickly retracts it like a corkscrew, drawing water upward into their mouths. Feral cats and free-fed house cats consume several small meals in a day. The frequency and size of meals varies between individuals. They select food based on its temperature, smell, and texture; they dislike chilled foods and respond most strongly to moist foods rich in amino acids, which are similar to meat. Cats reject novel flavors (a response termed neophobia) and learn quickly to avoid foods that have tasted unpleasant in the past. It is also a common misconception that all cats like milk or cream, as they tend to avoid sweet food and milk. Most adult cats are lactose intolerant; the sugar in milk is not easily digested and may cause soft stools or diarrhea. Some also develop odd eating habits and like to eat or chew on things such as wool, plastic, cables, paper, string, aluminum foil, or even coal. This condition, pica, can threaten their health, depending on the amount and toxicity of the items eaten. Cats hunt small prey, primarily birds and rodents, and are often used as a form of pest control. Other common small creatures, such as lizards and snakes, may also become prey. Cats use two hunting strategies, either stalking prey actively, or waiting in ambush until an animal comes close enough to be captured. The strategy used depends on available prey, with cats waiting in ambush outside burrows, but tending to actively stalk birds. Domestic cats are a major predator of wildlife in the United States, killing an estimated 1.3 to 4.0 billion birds and 6.3 to 22.3 billion mammals annually. Certain species appear more susceptible than others; in one English village, for example, 30% of house sparrow mortality was linked to the domestic cat. In the recovery of ringed robins (Erithacus rubecula) and dunnocks (Prunella modularis) in Britain, 31% of deaths were a result of cat predation. In parts of North America, the presence of larger carnivores such as coyotes, which prey on cats and other small predators, reduces the effect of predation by cats and other small predators such as opossums and raccoons on bird numbers and variety. Another poorly understood element of cat hunting behavior is the presentation of prey to human guardians. One explanation is that cats adopt humans into their social group and share excess kill with others in the group according to the dominance hierarchy, in which humans are reacted to as if they are at or near the top. Another explanation is that they attempt to teach their guardians to hunt or to help their human as if feeding "an elderly cat, or an inept kitten". This hypothesis is inconsistent with the fact that male cats also bring home prey, though males have negligible involvement in raising kittens. The most common reason for feral cat fighting is competition between two males to mate with a female, and most fights are won by the heavier male. Another common reason for fighting in domestic cats is the difficulty of establishing territories within a small home. When cats become aggressive, they try to appear larger and more threatening by raising their fur, arching their backs, turning sideways, hissing, or spitting. Often, the ears are pointed down and back to avoid damage to the inner ear and potentially listen for any changes behind them while focused forward. Cats may also vocalize loudly and bare their teeth in an effort to further intimidate their opponents. Fights usually consist of grappling, slapping the face and body with the forepaws, and bites. Cats throw themselves to the ground in a defensive posture to rake their opponent's belly with their hind legs. Serious damage is rare, because the fights are usually short, with the loser fleeing with scratches to the face and ears. More severe fights for mating rights may give deep punctures and lacerations. Normally, serious injuries from fighting are limited to infections from scratches and bites. Bites are probably the main route of transmission of the feline immunodeficiency virus. Sexually active males are usually involved in many fights and have battered faces. Cats are willing to threaten animals larger than them to defend their territory, such as dogs and foxes. Reproduction known as lordosis behavior.]] The cat secretes and perceives pheromones. Female cats, called queens, are polyestrous with several estrus cycles during a year, lasting usually 21 days. They are usually ready to mate between early February and August in northern temperate zones and throughout the year in equatorial regions. Several males, called tomcats, are attracted to a female in heat. They fight over her, and the victor wins the right to mate. At first, the female rejects the male, but eventually, the female allows the male to mate. The female utters a loud yowl as the male pulls out of her because a male cat's penis has a band of about 120–150 backward-pointing penile spines, which are about long; upon withdrawal of the penis, the spines may provide the female with increased sexual stimulation, which acts to induce ovulation. After mating, the female cleans her vulva thoroughly. If a male attempts to mate with her at this point, the female attacks him. After about 20 to 30 minutes, once the female is finished grooming, the cycle will repeat. Furthermore, cats are superfecund; that is, a female may mate with more than one male when she is in heat, with the result that different kittens in a litter may have different fathers. The morula forms 124 hours after conception. At 148 hours, early blastocysts form. At 10–12 days, implantation occurs. The gestation of queens lasts between 64 and 67 days, with an average of 65 days. Based on a study of 2,300 free-ranging queens conducted from May 1998 and October2000, they had one to six kittens per litter, with an average of three kittens. They produced a mean of 1.4 litters per year, but a maximum of three litters in a year. Of 169 kittens, 127 died before they were six months old due to a trauma caused in most cases by dog attacks and road accidents. The first litter is usually smaller than subsequent litters. Kittens are weaned between six and seven weeks of age. Queens normally reach sexual maturity at 5–10 months, and males at 5–7 months. This varies depending on breed. They can be surgically sterilized (spayed or castrated) as early as seven weeks to limit unwanted reproduction. This surgery also prevents undesirable sex-related behavior, such as aggression, territory marking (spraying urine) in males, and yowling (calling) in females. Traditionally, this surgery was performed at around six to nine months of age, but it is increasingly being performed before puberty, at about three to six months. In the United States, about 80% of household cats are neutered. Lifespan and health The average lifespan of pet cats has risen in recent decades. In the early 1980s, it was about seven years, rising to 9.4 years in 1995 Neutering increases life expectancy; one study found castrated male cats live twice as long as intact males, while spayed female cats live 62% longer than intact females. However, neutering decreases metabolism and increases food intake, both of which can cause obesity in neutered cats. Pre-pubertal neutering (neutering at 4 months or earlier) was only recommended by 28% of American veterinarians in one study. Some concerns of early neutering were metabolic, retarded physeal closure, and urinary tract disease related. Disease About 250 heritable genetic disorders have been identified in cats; many are similar to human inborn errors of metabolism. The high level of similarity among the metabolism of mammals allows many of these feline diseases to be diagnosed using genetic tests that were originally developed for use in humans, as well as the use of cats as animal models in the study of the human diseases. Diseases affecting domestic cats include acute infections, parasitic infestations, injuries, and chronic diseases such as kidney disease, thyroid disease, and arthritis. Vaccinations are available for many infectious diseases, as are treatments to eliminate parasites such as worms, ticks, and fleas. Ecology Habitats living among the yurts of shepherds in the Altai Mountains, Russia]] The domestic cat is a cosmopolitan species and occurs across much of the world. Due to its ability to thrive in almost any terrestrial habitat, it is among the world's most invasive species. It lives on small islands with no human inhabitants. Feral cats can live in forests, grasslands, tundra, coastal areas, agricultural land, scrublands, urban areas, and wetlands. The unwantedness that leads to the domestic cat being treated as an invasive species is twofold. As it is little altered from the wildcat, it can readily interbreed with the wildcat. This hybridization poses a danger to the genetic distinctiveness of some wildcat populations, particularly in Scotland and Hungary, possibly also the Iberian Peninsula, and where protected natural areas are close to human-dominated landscapes, such as Kruger National Park in South Africa. However, its introduction to places where no native felines are present also contributes to the decline of native species. The numbers of feral cats are not known, but estimates of the United States feral population range from 25 to 60 million. Famous feral cat colonies are in Rome around the Colosseum and Forum Romanum, some being fed and given medical attention by volunteers. Public attitudes toward feral cats vary widely, from seeing them as free-ranging pets to regarding them as vermin. Impact on wildlife has caught a Pale-headed rosella.]] On islands, birds can contribute as much as 60% of a cat's diet. In nearly all cases, the cat cannot be identified as the sole cause for reducing the numbers of island birds, and in some instances, eradication of cats has caused a "mesopredator release" effect; where the suppression of top carnivores creates an abundance of smaller predators that cause a severe decline in their shared prey. Domestic cats are a contributing factor to the decline of several species, a factor that has ultimately led, in some cases, to extinction. The South Island piopio, Chatham rail, are a few from a long list, with the most extreme case being the flightless Lyall's wren, which was driven to extinction only a few years after its discovery. One feral cat in New Zealand killed 102 New Zealand lesser short-tailed bats in seven days. In the United States, feral and free-ranging domestic cats kill an estimated 6.3–22.3 billion mammals annually. Cats have contributed to the extinction of the Navassa curly-tailed lizard and Chioninia coctei. Interaction with humans Cats are common pets throughout the world, and their worldwide population as of 2007 exceeded 500 million. the domestic cat was the second most popular pet in the United States, with 73.8 million cats owned and around 42.2 million households owning at least one cat. In the United Kingdom, 26% of adults have a cat, with an estimated population of 10.9 million pet cats there were an estimated 220 million owned and 480 million stray cats in the world. Cats have been used for millennia to control rodents, notably around grain stores and aboard ships, and both uses extend to the present day. Cats are also used in the international fur trade and leather industries for making coats, hats, blankets, stuffed toys, shoes, gloves, and musical instruments. About 24 cats are needed to make a cat-fur coat. This use has been outlawed in the United States since 2000 and in the European Union (as well as the United Kingdom) since 2007. Cat pelts have been used for superstitious purposes as part of the practice of witchcraft, and they are still made into blankets in Switzerland as traditional medicines thought to cure rheumatism. A few attempts to build a cat census have been made over the years, both through associations or national and international organizations (such as that of the Canadian Federation of Humane Societies) and over the Internet. General estimates for the global population of domestic cats range widely from anywhere between 200 million to 600 million. Walter Chandoha made his career photographing cats after his 1949 images of Loco, a stray cat, were published. He is reported to have photographed 90,000 cats during his career and maintained an archive of 225,000 images that he drew from for publications during his lifetime. Pet humanization is a form of anthropomorphism in which cats are kept for companionship and treated more like human family members than traditional pets. This trend of pet culture involves providing cats with a higher level of care, attention and often even luxury, similar to the way humans are treated. Shows A cat show is a judged event in which the owners of cats compete to win titles in various cat-registering organizations by entering their cats to be judged after a breed standard. It is often required that a cat must be healthy and vaccinated to participate in a cat show. The same disease can then become evident in a human. The likelihood that a person will become diseased depends on the age and immune status of the person. Humans who have cats living in their home or in close association are more likely to become infected. Others might also acquire infections from cat feces and parasites exiting the cat's body. Some of the infections of most concern include salmonella, cat-scratch disease, and toxoplasmosis. \|image2=Cat birds MAN Napoli Inv9993.jpg \|caption2=An ancient Roman mosaic depicts a cat killing a partridge from the House of the Faun in Pompeii. \|image3=PSM V37 D105 English tabby cat.jpg \|caption3=A 19th-century drawing of a tabby cat \|image4=Black Cat (7983739954).jpg \|caption4=Some cultures superstitiously attribute good or bad luck to black cats. }} In ancient Egypt, cats were revered, and the goddess Bastet often depicted in cat form, sometimes taking on the war-like aspect of a lioness. The Greek historian Herodotus reported that killing a cat was forbidden, and when a household cat died, the entire family mourned and shaved their eyebrows. Families took their dead cats to the sacred city of Bubastis, where they were embalmed and buried in sacred repositories. Herodotus expressed astonishment at the domestic cats in Egypt, because he had only ever seen wildcats. Ancient Greeks and Romans kept weasels as pets, which were seen as the ideal rodent-killers. The earliest unmistakable evidence of the Greeks having domestic cats comes from two coins from Magna Graecia dating to the mid-fifth century BC showing Iokastos and Phalanthos, the legendary founders of Rhegion and Taras respectively, playing with their pet cats. The usual ancient Greek word for 'cat' was , meaning 'thing with the waving tail'. Cats are rarely mentioned in ancient Greek literature. Aristotle remarked in his History of Animals that "female cats are naturally lecherous". The Greeks later syncretized their own goddess Artemis with the Egyptian goddess Bastet, adopting Bastet's associations with cats and ascribing them to Artemis. In Ovid's Metamorphoses, when the deities flee to Egypt and take animal forms, the goddess Diana turns into a cat. Cats eventually displaced weasels as the pest control of choice because they were more pleasant to have around the house and were more enthusiastic hunters of mice. During the Middle Ages, many of Artemis's associations with cats were grafted onto the Virgin Mary. Cats are often shown in icons of Annunciation and of the Holy Family and, according to Italian folklore, on the same night that Mary gave birth to Jesus, a cat in Bethlehem gave birth to a kitten. Domestic cats were spread throughout much of the rest of the world during the Age of Discovery, as ships' cats were carried on sailing ships to control shipboard rodents and as good-luck charms. In Norse mythology, Freyja, the goddess of love, beauty, and fertility, is depicted as riding a chariot drawn by cats. In Jewish legend, the first cat was living in the house of the first man Adam as a pet that got rid of mice. The cat was once partnering with the first dog before the latter broke an oath they had made which resulted in enmity between the descendants of these two animals. It is also written that neither cats nor foxes are represented in the water, while every other animal has an incarnation species in the water. Although no species are sacred in Islam, cats are revered by Muslims. Some Western writers have stated Muhammad had a favorite cat, Muezza. He is reported to have loved cats so much, "he would do without his cloak rather than disturb one that was sleeping on it". The story has no origin in early Muslim writers, and seems to confuse a story of a later Sufi saint, Ahmed ar-Rifa'i, centuries after Muhammad. One of the companions of Muhammad was known as Abu Hurayrah ("father of the kitten"), in reference to his documented affection to cats. Superstitions and rituals '' is a 1903 painting by Evelyn De Morgan depicting a witch with a black cat.]] Many cultures have negative superstitions about cats. For example, that encountering a black cat ("crossing one's path") leads to bad luck, or that cats are witches' familiar spirits used to augment a witch's powers and skills. The killing of cats in medieval Ypres, Belgium, is commemorated in the innocuous present-day Kattenstoet (cat parade). In mid-16th century France, cats were allegedly burnt alive as a form of entertainment, particularly during midsummer festivals. According to Norman Davies, the assembled people "shrieked with laughter as the animals, howling with pain, were singed, roasted, and finally carbonized". The remaining ashes were sometimes taken back home by the people for good luck. According to a myth in many cultures, cats have multiple lives. In many countries, they are believed to have nine lives, but in Italy, Germany, Greece, Brazil, and some Spanish-speaking regions, they are said to have seven lives, while in Arabic traditions, the number of lives is six. An early mention of the myth is in John Heywood's The Proverbs of John Heywood (1546): The myth is attributed to the natural suppleness and swiftness cats exhibit to escape life-threatening situations. Falling cats often land on their feet, using an instinctive righting reflex to twist their bodies around. See also * Aging in cats * Ailurophobia * Animal testing on cats * Cancer in cats * Cat bite * Cat café * Cat collar * Cat fancy * Cat lady * Cat food * Cat meat * Cat repeller * Cats and the Internet * Cats in Australia * Cats in New Zealand * Cats in the United States * Cat–dog relationship * Dog * Dried cat * Feral cats in Istanbul * List of cat breeds * List of cat documentaries, television series and cartoons * List of individual cats * List of fictional felines * List of feline diseases * Neko-dera * Perlorian * Pet door * Pet first aid * Popular cat names Notes References External links * * * * * * * [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/name/Felis_catus Biodiversity Heritage Library bibliography] for Felis catus * View the [http://www.ensembl.org/Felis_catus/Info/Index/ cat genome] in Ensembl * [https://web.archive.org/web/20190520030950/http://brainmaps.org/index.php?pspeciesdata&speciesfelis-catus High-resolution images of the cat's brain] * Scientific American. "[https://books.google.com/books?idYIE9AQAAIAAJ&qcarbonic+oxide The Origin of the Cat]". 1881. p. 120. Category:English words Category:Mammals described in 1758 Category:Animal models Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Felis Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus Category:Cosmopolitan mammals	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cat	2025-04-05T18:27:54.783529
6681	Crank	Crank may refer to: Mechanisms Crank (mechanism), in mechanical engineering, a bent portion of an axle or shaft, or an arm keyed at right angles to the end of a shaft, by which motion is imparted to or received from it Crankset, the component of a bicycle drivetrain that converts the reciprocating motion of the rider's legs into rotational motion Crankshaft, the part of a piston engine which translates reciprocating linear piston motion into rotation Crank machine, a machine used to deliver hard labour in early Victorian prisons in the United Kingdom Places Crank, Merseyside, a village near Rainford, England Crank Halt railway station in the village of Crank Cranks, Kentucky, United States Popular culture Crank (film), a 2006 film starring Jason Statham Crank: High Voltage, the 2009 sequel Crank (Hoodoo Gurus album), 1994 Crank (novel), a 2004 book written by Ellen Hopkins "Crank" (song), a 1993 song by the alternative rock band Catherine Wheel "Crank" (Playboi Carti song), 2025 "Crank", a song by Fischer-Z from Going Deaf for a Living, 1980 "Crank", a song by TV Rock from Sunshine City, 2006 Crank (The Almighty album), the fourth studio album released by Scottish heavy metal band The Almighty Crank! A Record Company, a record label that released albums by indie bands Mineral, The Gloria Record, and Bright Eyes Cranks, creatures in The Maze Runner series by James Dashner Slang Crank (person), a pejorative term used for a person who holds an unshakable belief that most of his or her contemporaries consider to be false. Prank call or crank call, a false telephone call Crank, slang term for powdered substituted amphetamines, especially methamphetamine Other uses Cranks (restaurant), a chain of English wholefood vegetarian restaurants Crank (surname), a surname, notable people with the surname see there Crank conjecture, a term coined by Freeman Dyson to explain congruence patterns in integer partitions Crank of a partition, of a partition of an integer is a certain integer associated with the partition See also Cranky (disambiguation) Krank (disambiguation)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crank	2025-04-05T18:27:54.811091
6682	Clade	thumb\|400px\| Cladogram (a branching tree diagram) illustrating the relationships of organisms within groups of taxa known as clades. The vertical line stem at the base represents the last common ancestor. The blue and orange subgroups are clades, each defined by a common ancestor stem at the base of its respective subgroup branch. The green subgroup alone, however, is not a clade; it is a paraphyletic group relative to the blue subgroup because it excludes the blue branch, which shares the same common ancestor. Together, the green and blue subgroups form a clade. In biological phylogenetics, a clade (), also known as a monophyletic group or natural group, is a grouping of organisms that are monophyletic – that is, composed of a common ancestor and all its lineal descendants – on a phylogenetic tree. In the taxonomical literature, sometimes the Latin form cladus (plural cladi) is used rather than the English form. Clades are the fundamental unit of cladistics, a modern approach to taxonomy adopted by most biological fields. The common ancestor may be an individual, a population, or a species (extinct or extant). Clades are nested, one in another, as each branch in turn splits into smaller branches. These splits reflect evolutionary history as populations diverged and evolved independently. Clades are termed monophyletic (Greek: "one clan") groups. Over the last few decades, the cladistic approach has revolutionized biological classification and revealed surprising evolutionary relationships among organisms. Increasingly, taxonomists try to avoid naming taxa that are not clades; that is, taxa that are not monophyletic. Some of the relationships between organisms that the molecular biology arm of cladistics has revealed include that fungi are closer relatives to animals than they are to plants, archaea are now considered different from bacteria, and multicellular organisms may have evolved from archaea. The term "clade" is also used with a similar meaning in other fields besides biology, such as historical linguistics; see Cladistics § In disciplines other than biology. Naming and etymology The term "clade" was coined in 1957 by the biologist Julian Huxley to refer to the result of cladogenesis, the evolutionary splitting of a parent species into two distinct species, a concept Huxley borrowed from Bernhard Rensch. Many commonly named groups – rodents and insects, for example – are clades because, in each case, the group consists of a common ancestor with all its descendant branches. Rodents, for example, are a branch of mammals that split off after the end of the period when the clade Dinosauria stopped being the dominant terrestrial vertebrates 66 million years ago. The original population and all its descendants are a clade. The rodent clade corresponds to the order Rodentia, and insects to the class Insecta. These clades include smaller clades, such as chipmunk or ant, each of which consists of even smaller clades. The clade "rodent" is in turn included in the mammal, vertebrate and animal clades. History of nomenclature and taxonomy thumb\|right\|upright\|Early phylogenetic tree by Haeckel, 1866. Groups once thought to be more advanced, such as birds ("Aves"), are placed at the top. The idea of a clade did not exist in pre-Darwinian Linnaean taxonomy, which was based by necessity only on internal or external morphological similarities between organisms. Many of the better known animal groups in Linnaeus's original Systema Naturae (mostly vertebrate groups) do represent clades. The phenomenon of convergent evolution is responsible for many cases of misleading similarities in the morphology of groups that evolved from different lineages. With the increasing realization in the first half of the 19th century that species had changed and split through the ages, classification increasingly came to be seen as branches on the evolutionary tree of life. The publication of Darwin's theory of evolution in 1859 gave this view increasing weight. In 1876 Thomas Henry Huxley, an early advocate of evolutionary theory, proposed a revised taxonomy based on a concept strongly resembling clades, although the term clade itself would not be coined until 1957 by his grandson, Julian Huxley. German biologist Emil Hans Willi Hennig (1913–1976) is considered to be the founder of cladistics. He proposed a classification system that represented repeated branchings of the family tree, as opposed to the previous systems, which put organisms on a "ladder", with supposedly more "advanced" organisms at the top. Taxonomists have increasingly worked to make the taxonomic system reflect evolution. The ancestor can be known or unknown; any and all members of a clade can be extant or extinct. Clades and phylogenetic trees The science that tries to reconstruct phylogenetic trees and thus discover clades is called phylogenetics or cladistics, the latter term coined by Ernst Mayr (1965), derived from "clade". The results of phylogenetic/cladistic analyses are tree-shaped diagrams called cladograms; they, and all their branches, are phylogenetic hypotheses. Three methods of defining clades are featured in phylogenetic nomenclature: node-, stem-, and apomorphy-based (see Phylogenetic nomenclature§Phylogenetic definitions of clade names for detailed definitions). Terminology thumb\|left\|Cladogram of modern primate groups; all tarsiers are haplorhines, but not all haplorhines are tarsiers; all apes are catarrhines, but not all catarrhines are apes; etc. The relationship between clades can be described in several ways: A clade located within a clade is said to be nested within that clade. In the diagram, the hominoid clade, i.e. the apes and humans, is nested within the primate clade. Two clades are sisters if they have an immediate common ancestor. In the diagram, lemurs and lorises are sister clades, while humans and tarsiers are not. A clade A is basal to a clade B if A branches off the lineage leading to B before the first branch leading only to members of B. In the adjacent diagram, the strepsirrhine/prosimian clade, is basal to the hominoids/ape clade. In this example, both Haplorrhine as prosimians should be considered as most basal groupings. It is better to say that the prosimians are the sister group to the rest of the primates. This way one also avoids unintended and misconceived connotations about evolutionary advancement, complexity, diversity and ancestor status, e.g. due to impact of sampling diversity and extinction. Basal clades should not be confused with stem groupings, as the latter is associated with paraphyletic or unresolved groupings. Age The age of a clade can be described based on two different reference points, crown age and stem age. The crown age of a clade refers to the age of the most recent common ancestor of all of the species in the clade. The stem age of a clade refers to the time that the ancestral lineage of the clade diverged from its sister clade. A clade's stem age is either the same as or older than its crown age. Ages of clades cannot be directly observed. They are inferred, either from stratigraphy of fossils, or from molecular clock estimates. Viruses right\|thumb\|Phylogenetic tree of the SIV and HIV viruses showing clades (subtypes) of the virus. Viruses, and particularly RNA viruses form clades. These are useful in tracking the spread of viral infections. HIV, for example, has clades called subtypes, which vary in geographical prevalence. HIV subtype (clade) B, for example is predominant in Europe, the Americas and Japan, whereas subtype A is more common in east Africa. See also Adaptive radiation Binomial nomenclature Biological classification Cladistics Crown group Grade Monophyly Paraphyly Phylogenetic network Phylogenetic nomenclature Phylogenetics Polyphyly Notes References Bibliography External links Evolving Thoughts: "Clade" DM Hillis, D Zwickl & R Gutell. "Tree of life". An unrooted cladogram depicting around 3000 species. "Phylogenetic systematics, an introductory slide-show on evolutionary trees" – University of California, Berkeley Category:Evolutionary biology terminology Category:Philosophy of biology Category:Phylogenetics Category:1950s neologisms	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clade	2025-04-05T18:27:54.845770
6684	Communications in Afghanistan	<!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE --> themed postage stamp (1951) issued by Postes Afghanes (Afghan Post)]] Communications in Afghanistan is under the control of the Ministry of Communications and Information Technology (MCIT). It has rapidly expanded after the Karzai administration was formed in late 2001, and has embarked on wireless companies, internet, radio stations and television channels. The Afghan government signed a $64.5 million agreement in 2006 with China's ZTE on the establishment of a countrywide optical fiber telecommunications network. The project began to improve telephone, internet, television and radio services throughout Afghanistan. About 90% of the country's population had access to communication services by the end of 2013. Afghanistan uses its own space satellite called Afghansat 1. There are about 18 million mobile phone users in the country. Telecom companies include Afghan Telecom, Afghan Wireless, Etisalat, MTN, Roshan, Salaam. Around 20% of the population has access to the Internet. Internet in Afghanistan is accessed by over 9 million users today. According to a 2020 estimate, over 7 million residents, which is roughly 18% of the population, had access to the internet. There are over a dozen different internet service providers in Afghanistan. and the postal administration elevated to the Ministry of Communication in 1934. Civil war caused a disruption in issuing official stamps during the 1980s–90s war but in 1999 postal service was operating again. Postal services to/from Kabul worked remarkably well all throughout the war years. Postal services to/from Herat resumed in 1997. The Afghan government has reported to the UPU several times about illegal stamps being issued and sold in 2003 and 2007. Afghanistan Post has been reorganizing the postal service in 2000s with assistance from Pakistan Post.Radio Radio broadcasting in Afghanistan began in 1925 with Radio Kabul being the first station. The country currently has over 200 AM, FM and shortwave radio stations. They broadcast in Dari, Pashto, English, Uzbeki and a number of other languages.Telephone According to 2013 statistics, there were 20,521,585 GSM mobile phone subscribers and 177,705 CDMA subscribers in Afghanistan. Mobile communications have improved because of the introduction of wireless carriers. The first was Afghan Wireless and the second Roshan, which began providing services to all major cities within Afghanistan. There are also a number of VSAT stations in major cities such as Kabul, Kandahar, Herat, Mazari Sharif, and Jalalabad, providing international and domestic voice/data connectivity. The international calling code for Afghanistan is +93. The following is a partial list of mobile phone companies in the country: Afghan Telecom (provides 4G services) Afghan Wireless (provides 4G services) Etisalat (provides 4G services) MTN Group (provides 4G services) Roshan (provides 4G services) Salaam Network (provides 3G services) All the companies providing communication services are obligated to deliver 2.5% of their income to the communication development fund annually. According to the Ministry of Communication and Information Technology there are 4760 active towers throughout the country which covers 85% of the population. The Ministry of Communication and Information Technology plans to expand its services in remote parts of the country where the remaining 15% of the population will be covered with the installation of 700 new towers. According to WikiLeaks, phone calls in Afghanistan have been monitored by the National Security Agency.Television There are over 106 television operators in Afghanistan and 320 television transmitters, many of which are based Kabul, while others are broadcast from other provinces. Selected foreign channels are also shown to the public in Afghanistan, but with the use of the internet, over 3,500 international TV channels may be accessed in Afghanistan.ReferencesExternal links *[https://web.archive.org/web/20070607060720/http://www.moc.gov.af/ Ministry of Communications and Information Technology] (archived) pt:Economia do Afeganistão#Comunicações	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_in_Afghanistan	2025-04-05T18:27:54.872754
6689	Christian of Oliva	thumb\|Memorial plaque of Bishop Christian at Grudziądz Christian of Oliva (), also Christian of Prussia () (died 4 December(?) 1245) was the first missionary bishop of Prussia. History Christian was born about 1180 in the Duchy of Pomerania, possibly in the area of Chociwel (according to Johannes Voigt). Probably as a juvenile he joined the Cistercian Order at newly established Kołbacz (Kolbatz) Abbey and in 1209 entered Oliwa Abbey near Gdańsk, founded in 1178 by the Samboride dukes of Pomerelia. At this time the Piast duke Konrad I of Masovia with the consent of Pope Innocent III had started the first of several unsuccessful Prussian Crusades into the adjacent Chełmno Land and Christian acted as a missionary among the Prussians east of the Vistula River. thumb\|left\|Prussian tribes in the 13th century, Chełmno Land (Kulmerland) in white In 1209, Christian was commissioned by the Pope to be responsible for the Prussian missions between the Vistula and Neman Rivers and in 1212 he was appointed bishop. In 1215 he went to Rome in order to report to the Curia on the condition and prospects of his mission, and was consecrated first "Bishop of Prussia" at the Fourth Council of the Lateran. His seat as a bishop remained at Oliwa Abbey on the western side of the Vistula, whereas the pagan Prussian (later East Prussian) territory was on the eastern side of it. The attempts by Konrad of Masovia to subdue the Prussian lands had picked long-term and intense border quarrels, whereby the Polish lands of Masovia, Cuyavia and even Greater Poland became subject to continuous Prussian raids. Bishop Christian asked the new Pope Honorius III for the consent to start another Crusade, however a first campaign in 1217 proved a failure and even the joint efforts by Duke Konrad with the Polish High Duke Leszek I the White and Duke Henry I the Bearded of Silesia in 1222/23 only led to the reconquest of Chełmno Land but did not stop the Prussian invasions. At least Christian was able to establish the Diocese of Chełmno east of the Vistula, adopting the episcopal rights from the Masovian Bishop of Płock, confirmed by both Duke Konrad and the Pope. Duke Konrad of Masovia still was not capable to end the Prussian attacks on his territory and in 1226 began to conduct negotiations with the Teutonic Knights under Grand Master Hermann von Salza in order to strengthen his forces. As von Salza initially hesitated to offer his services, Christian created the military Order of Dobrzyń (Fratres Milites Christi) in 1228, however to little avail. Meanwhile, von Salza had to abandon his hope to establish an Order's State in the Burzenland region of Transylvania, which had led to an éclat with King Andrew II of Hungary. He obtained a charter by Emperor Frederick II issued in the 1226 Golden Bull of Rimini, whereby Chełmno Land would be the unshared possession of the Teutonic Knights, which was confirmed by Duke Konrad of Masovia in the 1230 Treaty of Kruszwica. Christian ceded his possessions to the new State of the Teutonic Order and in turn was appointed Bishop of Chełmno the next year. Bishop Christian continued his mission in Sambia (Samland), where from 1233 to 1239 he was held captive by pagan Prussians, and freed in trade for five other hostages who then in turn were released for a ransom of 800 Marks, granted to him by Pope Gregory IX. He had to deal with the constant cut-back of his autonomy by the Knights and asked the Roman Curia for mediation. In 1243, the Papal legate William of Modena divided the Prussian lands of the Order's State into four dioceses, whereby the bishops retained the secular rule over about on third of the diocesan territory: Bishopric of Chełmno (Chełmno Land, Ziemia Chełminska) Bishopric of Pomesania (Pomesania) Bishopric of Warmia (Ermland) (state)/ Diocese of Warmia (ecclesiastical ambit) Bishopric of Samland (Sambia) all suffragan dioceses under the Archbishopric of Riga. Christian was supposed to choose one of them, but did not agree to the division. He possibly retired to the Cistercians Abbey in Sulejów, where he died before the conflict was solved. See also Baldwin of Alna References External links Article in Catholic Encyclopedia at newadvent.org Category:German Cistercians Category:13th-century German Roman Catholic bishops Category:1245 deaths Category:Christians of the Prussian Crusade Category:Year of birth unknown	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_of_Oliva	2025-04-05T18:27:54.921117
6690	Coca-Cola	\| color = Caramel E-150d \| variants = \| related = Mojo<br />Pepsi<br />RC Cola<br />Afri-Cola<br />Postobón<br />Inca Kola<br />Kola Real<br />Cavan Cola<br />Est Cola \| website = \| image_size = 190 \| logo_size = 190 }} Coca-Cola, or Coke, is a cola soft drink manufactured by the Coca-Cola Company. In 2013, Coke products were sold in over 200 countries and territories worldwide, with consumers drinking more than 1.8 billion company beverage servings each day. Coca-Cola ranked No. 94 in the 2024 Fortune 500 list of the largest United States corporations by revenue. Based on Interbrand's "best global brand" study of 2023, Coca-Cola was the world's sixth most valuable brand. Originally marketed as a temperance drink and intended as a patent medicine, Coca-Cola was invented in the late 19th century by John Stith Pemberton in Atlanta, Georgia. In 1888, Pemberton sold the ownership rights to Asa Griggs Candler, a businessman, whose marketing tactics led Coca-Cola to its dominance of the global soft-drink market throughout the 20th and 21st centuries. The name refers to two of its original ingredients: coca leaves and kola nuts (a source of caffeine). The formula of Coca-Cola remains a trade secret; however, a variety of reported recipes and experimental recreations have been published. The secrecy around the formula has been used by Coca-Cola as a marketing aid because only a handful of anonymous employees know the formula. The drink has inspired imitators and created a whole classification of soft drink: colas. The Coca-Cola Company produces concentrate, which is then sold to licensed Coca-Cola bottlers throughout the world. The bottlers, who hold exclusive territory contracts with the company, produce the finished product in cans and bottles from the concentrate, in combination with filtered water and sweeteners. A typical can contains of sugar (usually in the form of high-fructose corn syrup in North America). The bottlers then sell, distribute, and merchandise Coca-Cola to retail stores, restaurants, and vending machines throughout the world. The Coca-Cola Company also sells concentrate for soda fountains of major restaurants and foodservice distributors. The Coca-Cola Company has, on occasion, introduced other cola drinks under the Coke name. The most common of these is Diet Coke, along with others including Caffeine-Free Coca-Cola, Diet Coke Caffeine-Free, Coca-Cola Zero Sugar, Coca-Cola Cherry, Coca-Cola Vanilla, and special versions with lemon, lime, and coffee. Coca-Cola was called "Coca-Cola Classic" from July 1985 to 2009, to distinguish it from "New Coke". History 19th century origins , the original creator of Coca-Cola]] \|volume18 \|date October 2010\|page104 \|issue11}}</ref>]] .]] in Monroe, Louisiana]] Confederate Colonel John Pemberton, wounded in the American Civil War and addicted to morphine, also had a medical degree and began a quest to find a substitute for the problematic drug. In 1885 at Pemberton's Eagle Drug and Chemical House, his drugstore in Columbus, Georgia, he registered Pemberton's French Wine Coca nerve tonic. Pemberton's tonic may have been inspired by the formidable success of Vin Mariani, a French-Corsican coca wine, but his recipe additionally included the African kola nut, the beverage's source of caffeine. A Spanish drink called "Kola Coca" was presented at a contest in Philadelphia in 1885, a year before the official birth of Coca-Cola. The rights for this Spanish drink were bought by Coca-Cola in 1953. In 1886, when Atlanta and Fulton County passed prohibition legislation, Pemberton responded by developing Coca-Cola, a non-alcoholic version of Pemberton's French Wine Coca. It was marketed as "Coca-Cola: The temperance drink", which appealed to many people as the temperance movement enjoyed wide support during this time. where it initially sold for five cents a glass. Drugstore soda fountains were popular in the United States at the time due to the belief that carbonated water was good for the health, and Pemberton's new drink was marketed and sold as a patent medicine, Pemberton claiming it a cure for many diseases, including morphine addiction, indigestion, nerve disorders, headaches, and impotence. Pemberton ran the first advertisement for the beverage on May 29 of the same year in the Atlanta Journal. By 1888, three versions of Coca-Cola – sold by three separate businesses – were on the market. A co-partnership had been formed on January 14, 1888, between Pemberton and four Atlanta businessmen: J.C. Mayfield, A.O. Murphey, C.O. Mullahy, and E.H. Bloodworth. Not codified by any signed document, a verbal statement given by Asa Candler years later asserted under testimony that he had acquired a stake in Pemberton's company as early as 1887. John Pemberton declared that the "Coca-Cola" belonged to his son, Charley, but the other two manufacturers could continue to use the . Charley Pemberton's record of control over the "Coca-Cola" name was the underlying factor that allowed for him to participate as a major shareholder in the March 1888 Coca-Cola Company incorporation filing made in his father's place. Charley's exclusive control over the "Coca-Cola" name became a continual thorn in Asa Candler's side. Candler's oldest son, Charles Howard Candler, authored a book in 1950 published by Emory University. In this definitive biography about his father, Candler specifically states: "on April 14, 1888, the young druggist Asa Griggs Candler purchased a one-third interest in the formula of an almost completely unknown proprietary elixir known as Coca-Cola." The deal was actually between John Pemberton's son Charley and Walker, Candler & Co. – with John Pemberton acting as cosigner for his son. For $50 down and $500 in 30 days, Walker, Candler & Co. obtained all of the one-third interest in the Coca-Cola Company that Charley held, all while Charley still held on to the name. After the April 14 deal, on April 17, 1888, one-half of the Walker/Dozier interest shares were acquired by Candler for an additional $750.CompanyAfter Candler had gained a better foothold on Coca-Cola in April 1888, he nevertheless was forced to sell the beverage he produced with the recipe he had under the names "Yum Yum" and "Koke". This was while Charley Pemberton was selling the elixir, although a cruder mixture, under the name "Coca-Cola", all with his father's blessing. After both names failed to catch on for Candler, by the middle of 1888, the Atlanta pharmacist was quite anxious to establish a firmer legal claim to Coca-Cola, and hoped he could force his two competitors, Walker and Dozier, completely out of the business, as well. In 1914, Margaret Dozier, as co-owner of the original Coca-Cola Company in 1888, came forward to claim that her signature on the 1888 Coca-Cola Company bill of sale had been forged. Subsequent analysis of other similar transfer documents had also indicated John Pemberton's signature had most likely been forged as well, which some accounts claim was precipitated by his son Charley. On June 23, 1894, Charley Pemberton was found unconscious with a stick of opium by his side. Ten days later, Charley died at Atlanta's Grady Hospital at the age of 40. On September 12, 1919, Coca-Cola Co. was purchased by a group of investors led by Ernest Woodruff's Trust Company for $25 million and reincorporated under the Delaware General Corporation Law. The company publicly offered 500,000 shares of the company for $40 a share. In 1923, his son Robert W. Woodruff was elected President of the company. Woodruff expanded the company and brought Coca-Cola to the rest of the world. Coca-Cola began distributing bottles as "Six-packs", encouraging customers to purchase the beverage for their home. During its first several decades, Coca-Cola officially wanted to be known by its full-name despite being commonly known as "Coke". This was due to company fears that the term "coke" would eventually become a generic trademark, which to an extent became true in the Southern United States where "coke" is used even for non Coca-Cola products. The company also didn't want to confuse its drink with the similarly named coal byproduct that clearly wasn't safe to consume. Eventually, out for fears that another company may claim the trademark for "Coke", Coca-Cola finally embraced it and officially endorsed the name "Coke" in 1941. "Coke" eventually became a registered trademark of the Coca-Cola Company in 1945. In 1986, the Coca-Cola Company merged with two of their bottling operators (owned by JTL Corporation and BCI Holding Corporation) to form Coca-Cola Enterprises Inc. (CCE). In December 1991, Coca-Cola Enterprises merged with the Johnston Coca-Cola Bottling Group, Inc. The proprietor of the bottling works was Joseph A. Biedenharn. The original bottles were Hutchinson bottles, very different from the much later hobble-skirt design of 1915 now so familiar. A few years later two entrepreneurs from Chattanooga, Tennessee, namely Benjamin F. Thomas and Joseph B. Whitehead, proposed the idea of bottling and were so persuasive that Candler signed a contract giving them control of the procedure for only one dollar. Candler later realized that he had made a grave mistake. Candler never collected his dollar, but in 1899, Chattanooga became the site of the first Coca-Cola bottling company. Candler remained very content just selling his company's syrup. The loosely termed contract proved to be problematic for the Coca-Cola Company for decades to come. Legal matters were not helped by the decision of the bottlers to subcontract to other companies, effectively becoming parent bottlers. This contract specified that bottles would be sold at 5¢ each and had no fixed duration, leading to the fixed price of Coca-Cola from 1886 to 1959. 20th century The first outdoor wall advertisement that promoted the Coca-Cola drink was painted in 1894 in Cartersville, Georgia. Cola syrup was sold as an over-the-counter dietary supplement for upset stomach. By the time of its 50th anniversary, the soft drink had reached the status of a national icon in the US. In 1935, it was certified kosher by Atlanta rabbi Tobias Geffen. With the help of Harold Hirsch, Geffen was the first person outside the company to see the top-secret ingredients list after Coke faced scrutiny from the American Jewish population regarding the drink's kosher status. Consequently, the company made minor changes in the sourcing of some ingredients so it could continue to be consumed by America's Jewish population, including during Passover. A yellow cap on a Coca-Cola drink indicates that it is kosher for Passover. The longest running commercial Coca-Cola soda fountain anywhere was Atlanta's Fleeman's Pharmacy, which first opened its doors in 1914. Jack Fleeman took over the pharmacy from his father and ran it until 1995; closing it after 81 years. On July 12, 1944, the one-billionth gallon of Coca-Cola syrup was manufactured by the Coca-Cola Company. Cans of Coke first appeared in 1955. Sugar replaced with high-fructose corn syrup Sugar prices spiked in the 1970s because of Soviet demand/hoarding and possible futures contracts market manipulation. The Soviet Union was the largest producer of sugar at the time. In 1974 Coca-Cola switched over to high-fructose corn syrup because of the elevated prices. New Coke World of Coca-Cola museum in 2003]] On April 23, 1985, Coca-Cola, amid much publicity, changed the formula of the drink with "New Coke". Follow-up taste tests revealed most consumers preferred the taste of New Coke to both old Coke and Pepsi but Coca-Cola management was unprepared for the public's nostalgia for the old drink, leading to a backlash. The company gave in to protests and returned to the old formula under the name Coca-Cola Classic, on July 10, 1985. "New Coke" remained available and was renamed Coke II in 1992; it was discontinued in 2002. 21st century On July 5, 2005, it was revealed that Coca-Cola would resume operations in Iraq for the first time since the Arab League boycotted the company in 1968. In April 2007, in Canada, the name "Coca-Cola Classic" was changed back to "Coca-Cola". The word "Classic" was removed because "New Coke" was no longer in production, eliminating the need to differentiate between the two. The formula remained unchanged. In January 2009, Coca-Cola stopped printing the word "Classic" on the labels of bottles sold in parts of the southeastern United States. The change was part of a larger strategy to rejuvenate the product's image. Some Costco locations (such as the ones in Tucson, Arizona) additionally sell imported Coca-Cola from Mexico with cane sugar instead of corn syrup from separate distributors. Coca-Cola introduced the 7.5-ounce mini-can in 2009, and on September 22, 2011, the company announced price reductions, asking retailers to sell eight-packs for $2.99. That same day, Coca-Cola announced the 12.5-ounce bottle, to sell for 89 cents. A 16-ounce bottle has sold well at 99 cents since being re-introduced, but the price was going up to $1.19. In 2012, Coca-Cola resumed business in Myanmar after 60 years of absence due to US-imposed investment sanctions against the country. Coca-Cola's bottling plant is located in Yangon and is part of the company's five-year plan and $200 million investment in Myanmar. Coca-Cola with its partners is to invest US$5 billion in its operations in India by 2020. In February 2021, as a plan to combat plastic waste, Coca-Cola said that it would start selling its sodas in bottles made from 100% recycled plastic material in the United States, and by 2030 planned to recycle one bottle or can for each one it sold. Coca-Cola started by selling 2000 paper bottles to see if they held up due to the risk of safety and of changing the taste of the drink. Production Listed ingredients * Carbonated water * Sugar (sucrose or high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) depending on country of origin) * Caffeine * Phosphoric acid * Caramel color (E150d) * Natural flavorings A typical can of Coca-Cola (12 fl ounces/355 ml) contains 39 grams of sugar, 46 mg of caffeine,Formula of natural flavorings The exact formula for Coca-Cola's natural flavorings is a trade secret. (All of its other ingredients are listed on the side of the bottle or can, and are not secret.) The original copy of the formula was held in Truist Financial's main vault in Atlanta for 86 years. Its predecessor, the Trust Company, was the underwriter for the Coca-Cola Company's initial public offering in 1919. On December 8, 2011, the original secret formula was moved from the vault at SunTrust Banks into a new vault; this vault will be on display for visitors to its World of Coca-Cola museum in downtown Atlanta. According to Snopes, a popular myth states that only two executives have access to the formula, with each executive having only half the formula. However, several sources state that while Coca-Cola does have a rule restricting access to only two executives, each of them knows the entire formula, and that persons other than the prescribed duo have known the formulation process. On February 11, 2011, Ira Glass said on his PRI radio show, This American Life, that his staffers had found a recipe in "Everett Beal's Recipe Book", reproduced in the February 28, 1979 issue of The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, that they believed was either Pemberton's original formula for Coca-Cola or a version that he made either before or after the product hit the market in 1886. The formula basically matched the one found in Pemberton's diary. Coca-Cola archivist Phil Mooney acknowledged that the recipe "could be a precursor" to the formula used in the original 1886 product, but emphasized that Pemberton's original formula is not the same as the one used in the modern product. Joya Williams, a secretary to the global brand director at Coca-Cola's Atlanta headquarters, stole the formula. Williams, along with her accomplices Ibrahim Dimson and Edmund Duhaney, conspired to sell the confidential trade secret to Pepsi for $1.5 million USD. However, Pepsi did not capitalize on the opportunity and instead reported the illegal offer to Coca-Cola and the FBI. The FBI setup a sting operation posing as Pepsi executives, leading to the arrest of Williams and her accomplices. Public prosecutor David Nahmias praised Pepsi for doing the right thing: "They did so because trade secrets are important to everybody in the business community. They realise that if their trade secrets are violated, they all suffer, the market suffers and the community suffers." Use of stimulants in formula When launched, Coca-Cola's two key ingredients were cocaine and caffeine. The cocaine was derived from the coca leaf and the caffeine from kola nut (also spelled "cola nut" at the time), leading to the name Coca-Cola. Coca leaf Pemberton called for five ounces of coca leaf per gallon of syrup (approximately 37 g/L), a significant dose; in 1891, Candler claimed his formula (altered extensively from Pemberton's original) contained only a tenth of this amount. Coca-Cola once contained an estimated nine milligrams of cocaine per glass. (For comparison, a typical dose or "line" of cocaine is 50–75 mg.) In 1903, the fresh coca leaves were removed from the formula. After 1904, instead of using fresh leaves, Coca-Cola started using "spent" leaves – the leftovers of the cocaine-extraction process with trace levels of cocaine. Since then (by 1929), Coca-Cola has used a cocaine-free coca leaf extract. Today, that extract is prepared at a Stepan Company plant in Maywood, New Jersey, the only manufacturing plant authorized by the federal government to import and process coca leaves, which it obtains from Peru and Bolivia. Stepan Company extracts cocaine from the coca leaves, which it then sells to Mallinckrodt, the only company in the United States licensed to purify cocaine for medicinal use. Long after the syrup had ceased to contain any significant amount of cocaine, in North Carolina "dope" remained a common colloquialism for Coca-Cola, and "dope-wagons" were trucks that transported it.Kola nuts for caffeine The kola nut acts as a flavoring and the original source of caffeine in Coca-Cola. It contains about 2.0 to 3.5% caffeine, and has a bitter flavor. In 1911, the US government sued in United States v. Forty Barrels and Twenty Kegs of Coca-Cola, hoping to force the Coca-Cola Company to remove caffeine from its formula. The court found that the syrup, when diluted as directed, would result in a beverage containing 1.21 grains (or 78.4 mg) of caffeine per serving. The case was decided in favor of the Coca-Cola Company at the district court, but subsequently in 1912, the US Pure Food and Drug Act was amended, adding caffeine to the list of "habit-forming" and "deleterious" substances which must be listed on a product's label. In 1913 the case was appealed to the Sixth Circuit in Cincinnati, where the ruling was affirmed, but then appealed again in 1916 to the Supreme Court, where the government effectively won as a new trial was ordered. The company then voluntarily reduced the amount of caffeine in its product, and offered to pay the government's legal costs to settle and avoid further litigation. Coca-Cola contains 46 mg of caffeine per 12 US fluid ounces (or 30.7 mg per serving). Franchised production model The production and distribution of Coca-Cola follows a franchising model. The Coca-Cola Company only produces a syrup concentrate, which it sells to bottlers throughout the world, who hold Coca-Cola franchises for one or more geographical areas. The bottlers produce the final drink by mixing the syrup with filtered water and sweeteners, putting the mixture into cans and bottles, and carbonating it, which the bottlers then sell and distribute to retail stores, vending machines, restaurants, and foodservice distributors. The Coca-Cola Company owns minority shares in some of its largest franchises, such as Coca-Cola Enterprises, Coca-Cola Amatil, Coca-Cola Hellenic Bottling Company, and Coca-Cola FEMSA, as well as some smaller ones, such as Coca-Cola Bottlers Uzbekistan, but fully independent bottlers produce almost half of the volume sold in the world. Independent bottlers are allowed to sweeten the drink according to local tastes.Geographic spread Coca-Cola has been sold outside the United States as early as 1900, when the Cuba Libre (a mix between Coca-Cola and rum) was created in Havana shortly after the Spanish-American War of 1898. However, the international reach of the product became mostly limited to North and Central America, the Caribbean, the Netherlands, Germany and parts of Asia until the 1940s, when the brand was introduced throughout South America and then Europe after the end of World War II (Fanta was initially conceived by the German Coca-Cola subsidiary as an emergency replacement as the wartime trade embargo prevented the import of syrup). As a result, Coca-Cola eventually became regarded as one of the major symbols of American soft power as well as of globalization. Since it announced its intention to begin distribution in Myanmar in June 2012, Coca-Cola has been officially available in every country in the world except Cuba (where it stopped being available officially since 1960—ironically, Coca-Cola's first bottling plant outside the United States was established there in 1906) and North Korea. However, it is reported to be available in both countries as a grey import. As of 2022, Coca-Cola has suspended its operations in Russia due to the invasion of Ukraine. Coca-Cola has been a point of legal discussion in the Middle East. In the early 20th century, a fatwa was created in Egypt to discuss the question of "whether Muslims were permitted to drink Coca-Cola and Pepsi cola." The fatwa states: "According to the Muslim Hanefite, Shafi'ite, etc., the rule in Islamic law of forbidding or allowing foods and beverages is based on the presumption that such things are permitted unless it can be shown that they are forbidden on the basis of the Qur'an." The story introduction from Coca-Cola mentions that Chiang Yee provided the new localized name, but there are also sources that the localized name appeared before 1935, or that it was given by someone named Jerome T. Lieu who studied at Columbia University in New York.Brand portfolio This is a list of variants of Coca-Cola introduced around the world. In addition to the caffeine-free version of the original, additional fruit flavors have been included over the years. Not included here are versions of Diet Coke and Coca-Cola Zero Sugar; these variant versions of those no-calorie colas can be found in their respective articles. {\| class="wikitable" !width=12%\| Name !! Launched !! Notes \|- \| Diet Coke \| style="text-align:center;"\| 1983 \| A low-calorie version of Coca-Cola with sweeteners instead of sugar or corn syrup. \|- \| Caffeine-Free Coca-Cola \| style="text-align:center;"\| 1983 \|A variant of the standard Coca-Cola without caffeine. \|- \| Coca-Cola Cherry \| style="text-align:center;"\| 1985 \| Coca-Cola with a cherry flavor. It was originally marketed as Cherry Coke (Cherry Coca-Cola), and was named as such in North America until 2006. \|- \| New Coke / Coca-Cola II \| style="text-align:center;"\| 1985 \| An unpopular formula change, remained after the original formula quickly returned and was later rebranded as Coca-Cola II until its full discontinuation in 2002. In 2019, New Coke was re-introduced to the market to promote the third season of the Netflix original series, Stranger Things. \|- \| Golden Coca-Cola \| style="text-align:center;"\| 2001 \| A limited edition produced by Beijing Coca-Cola company to celebrate Beijing's successful bid to host the Olympics. \|- \| Coca-Cola Vanilla \| style="text-align:center;"\| 2002 \| Coca-Cola with a vanilla flavor. \|- \| Coca-Cola C2 \| style="text-align:center;"\| 2004 \| A mid-calorie version of Coca-Cola sweetened with both corn syrup and artificial sweeteners. It was first sold in Japan, and shortly expanded to North America. The drink was a flop, and was commonly replaced with Coca-Cola Zero upon its launch until it was fully discontinued in 2007. \|- \| Coca-Cola with Lime \| style="text-align:center;"\| 2005 \| Coca-Cola with a lime flavor, introduced after the success of its diet counterpart. \|- \| Coca-Cola with Lemon \| style="text-align:center;"\| 2005 \| Coca-Cola with a lemon flavor. Debuted in the United Kingdom, and was also available in Japan, France, Hong Kong, Brazil, and Hungary. \|- \| Coca-Cola Raspberry \| style="text-align:center;"\| 2005 \| Coca-Cola with a raspberry flavor. It was originally exclusively sold in New Zealand for a short time and was later given a wider international release through the Coca-Cola Freestyle fountain machine. \|- \| Coca-Cola Zero/Coca-Cola Zero Sugar \| style="text-align:center;"\| 2005 \| Low-calorie variant formulated to be more like standard Coca-Cola. It has had different formula changes over the years. \|- \| Coca-Cola Citra \| style="text-align:center;"\| 2005 \| Coca-Cola with a Lemon-Lime flavor. It was first sold as a limited edition in Mexico and New Zealand, before gaining a release in Japan. \|- \| Coca-Cola Black Cherry Vanilla \| style="text-align:center;"\| 2006 \| Coca-Cola with a combination of black cherry and vanilla flavor. It was only sold in North America as a replacement to Vanilla Coke, before the drink returned and re-replaced it in June 2007. \|- \| Coca-Cola Blāk \| style="text-align:center;"\| 2006 \| Coca-Cola with a rich coffee flavor, of which the formula depends on the country. It was first sold in France, before being released in North America where it was discontinued in 2008. \|- \| Coca-Cola Orange \| style="text-align:center;"\| 2007 \| Coca-Cola with an orange flavor, similar to that of the drink Mezzo Mix which is sold in DACH regions. It was available in the United Kingdom and Gibraltar as a limited edition for the summer of 2007. It was later given a wider international release through the Coca-Cola Freestyle fountain machine. \|- \| Coca-Cola Life \| style="text-align:center;"\| 2014 \| A version of Coca-Cola with stevia and sugar as sweeteners rather than simply sugar. It was largely unsuccessful and was quietly discontinued in all territories by 2020. \|- \| Coca-Cola Ginger \| style="text-align:center;"\| 2016 \| A version that mixes in the classic Coca-Cola formula with the taste of ginger beer. It was available as a limited edition in Vietnam, Australia, and New Zealand. \|- \| Coca-Cola Fiber+ \| style="text-align:center;"\| 2017 \| A dietary variant of Coca-Cola with added dietary fiber in the form of dextrin developed by Coca-Cola Asia Pacific. It is available in Asian territories such as Japan, Taiwan, mainland China, Hong Kong, Vietnam, and Mongolia. \|- \| Coca-Cola with Coffee \| style="text-align:center;"\| 2017 \| Coca-Cola mixed in with Coffee. It was originally introduced in Japan in 2017 before expanding to North America in January 2021, available in Dark Blend, Vanilla and Caramel variants along with Zero Sugar dark blend and vanilla variants. The North American unit was discontinued the following year. \|- \| Coca-Cola Peach \| style="text-align:center;"\| 2018 \| Coca-Cola with a Peach flavor. It was made for and sold exclusively in Japan as a limited edition in 2018 and 2019 and later sold in China. \|- \| Coca-Cola Georgia Peach \| style="text-align:center;"\| 2018 \|A hand-crafted Peach-flavored Coca-Cola sweetened with cane sugar. Sold in the United States. \|- \| Coca-Cola California Raspberry \| style="text-align:center;"\| 2018 \| A hand-crafted Raspberry-flavored Coca-Cola sweetened with cane sugar. Sold in the United States. and was discontinued in 2021. \|- \| Coca-Cola Energy \| style="text-align:center;"\| 2019 \| An energy drink with a flavor similar to standard Coca-Cola, with guarana, vitamin B3 (niacinamide), vitamin B6 (pyridoxine hydrochloride), and extra caffeine. The drink debuted in Spain and Hungary in April 2019 and would go onto launch in Australia, the United Kingdom and other European territories throughout the year. The drink debuted in North America in 2020 and was largely unsuccessful, with Coca-Cola announcing its discontinuation in the latter market in May 2021, to focus more on its traditional beverages. \|- \| Coca-Cola Signature Mixers \| style="text-align:center;"\| 2019 \| Premium variants of the original Coca-Cola formula that were made to blend in with different dark spirits. It was sold in Smokey, Spicy, Herbal and Woody varieties. They were sold in the United Kingdom from 2019 until 2022. \|- \| Coca-Cola Apple \| style="text-align:center;"\| 2019 \| Coca-Cola with an Apple flavor. Sold in Japan for a limited time in 2019 and was also made available in Hong Kong. \|- \| Coca-Cola Cinnamon \| style="text-align:center;"\| 2019 \| Coca-Cola with cinnamon flavor. Released in October 2019 in the United States as a limited release for the 2019 holiday season. Made available again in 2020 for the holiday season. \|- \| Coca-Cola Strawberry \| style="text-align:center;"\| 2020 \| Coca-Cola with a Strawberry flavor. Sold in Japan for a limited time in 2020 and later sold in China. \|- \| Coca-Cola Cherry Vanilla \| style="text-align:center;"\| 2020 \| Coca-Cola with cherry vanilla flavor. Released in the United States on February 10, 2020. \|- \| Coca-Cola Energy Cherry \| style="text-align:center;"\| 2020 \| Cherry-flavored variant of the standard Coca-Cola Energy. Debuted in North America in January 2020 and the United Kingdom in April. \|- \| Coca-Cola Creations \| style="text-align:center;"\| 2022 \| Limited edition variants of the original Coca-Cola formula that were made to appeal to younger consumers, such as Coca-Cola Starlight and Coca-Cola Ultimate. They has been sold internationally as well. \|- \| Jack Daniel's and Coca-Cola \| style="text-align:center;"\| 2022 \| A ready-to-drink canned mixture of Tennessee whiskey and Coca-Cola. Debuted in Mexico in November 2022, and expanded to the United Kingdom and North America in March 2023, before expanding to other European territories, Asia and Latin America. \|- \| Coca-Cola Spiced \| style="text-align:center;"\| 2024 \| Coca-Cola with a Raspberry and spiced flavoring. It was sold in the United States and Canada from February until September 2024. \|- \| Coca-Cola Orange Cream \| style="text-align:center;" \| 2025 \| Similar in flavor to 2019's Coca-Cola Orange but “zestier, smoother and creamier", the product is offered in both regular and zero-sugar forms and will be available until early 2026. \|} Logo design The Coca-Cola logo was created by John Pemberton's bookkeeper, Frank Mason Robinson, in 1885. Robinson came up with the name and chose the logo's distinctive cursive script. The writing style used, known as Spencerian script, was developed in the mid-19th century and was the dominant form of formal handwriting in the United States during that period. Robinson also played a significant role in early Coca-Cola advertising. His promotional suggestions to Pemberton included giving away thousands of free drink coupons and plastering the city of Atlanta with publicity banners and streetcar signs. Coca-Cola came under scrutiny in Egypt in 1951 because of a conspiracy theory that the Coca-Cola logo, when reflected in a mirror, spells out "No Mohammed no Mecca" in Arabic. Contour bottle design <!-- Deleted image removed: --> in the Encyclopædia Britannica]] The Coca-Cola bottle, called the "contour bottle" within the company, was created by bottle designer Earl R. Dean and Coca-Cola's general counsel, Harold Hirsch. In 1915, the Coca-Cola Company was represented by their general counsel to launch a competition among its bottle suppliers as well as any competition entrants to create a new bottle for their beverage that would distinguish it from other beverage bottles, "a bottle which a person could recognize even if they felt it in the dark, and so shaped that, even if broken, a person could tell at a glance what it was." Chapman J. Root, president of the Root Glass Company of Terre Haute, Indiana, turned the project over to members of his supervisory staff, including company auditor T. Clyde Edwards, plant superintendent Alexander Samuelsson, and Earl R. Dean, bottle designer and supervisor of the bottle molding room. Root and his subordinates decided to base the bottle's design on one of the soda's two ingredients, the coca leaf or the kola nut, but were unaware of what either ingredient looked like. Dean and Edwards went to the Emeline Fairbanks Memorial Library and were unable to find any information about coca or kola. Instead, Dean was inspired by a picture of the gourd-shaped cocoa pod in the Encyclopædia Britannica. Dean made a rough sketch of the pod and returned to the plant to show Root. He explained to Root how he could transform the shape of the pod into a bottle. Root gave Dean his approval. Raymond Loewy updated the design in 1955 to accommodate larger formats. Misinterpretations of comments Loewy made on his involvement have given rise to a popular misconception, misattributing him as the original designer of the Coke bottle. Others have attributed inspiration for the design not to the cocoa pod, but to a Victorian hooped dress. In 1944, Associate Justice Roger J. Traynor of the Supreme Court of California took advantage of a case involving a waitress injured by an exploding Coca-Cola bottle to articulate the doctrine of strict liability for defective products. Traynor's concurring opinion in Escola v. Coca-Cola Bottling Co. is widely recognized as a landmark case in US law today.Examples<gallery widths"150px" heights="200px"> File:ContourBottleConceptSketch.jpg\|Earl R. Dean's original 1915 concept drawing of the contour Coca-Cola bottle File:1915 contour Coca-Cola contour bottle prototype.png\|The prototype never made it to production since its middle diameter was larger than its base, making it unstable on conveyor belts. File:Coca-Cola 1915 Contour bottle.jpg\|Final production version with slimmer middle section File:6 Coca-Cola bottles.jpg\|Numerous historical Coke bottles </gallery> Designer bottles and inspired by American singer Madonna]] Karl Lagerfeld is the latest designer to have created a collection of aluminum bottles for Coca-Cola. Lagerfeld is not the first fashion designer to create a special version of the famous Coca-Cola Contour bottle. A number of other limited edition bottles by fashion designers for Coca-Cola Light soda have been created in the last few years, including Jean Paul Gaultier. In 2019, Coca-Cola shared the first beverage bottle made with ocean plastic. Competitors Pepsi, the flagship product of PepsiCo, the Coca-Cola Company's main rival in the soft drink industry, is usually second to Coke in sales, and outsells Coca-Cola in some markets. RC Cola, now owned by the Dr Pepper Snapple Group, the third-largest soft drink manufacturer, is also widely available. Around the world, many local brands compete with Coke. In South and Central America Kola Real, also known as Big Cola, is a growing competitor to Coca-Cola. On the French island of Corsica, Corsica Cola, made by brewers of the local Pietra beer, is a growing competitor to Coca-Cola. In the French region of Brittany, Breizh Cola is available. In Peru, Inca Kola outsells Coca-Cola, which led the Coca-Cola Company to purchase the brand in 1999. In Sweden, Julmust outsells Coca-Cola during the Christmas season. In Scotland, the locally produced Irn-Bru was more popular than Coca-Cola until 2005, when Coca-Cola and Diet Coke began to outpace its sales. In the former East Germany, Vita Cola, invented during communist rule, is gaining popularity. While Coca-Cola does not have the majority of the market share in India, The Coca-Cola Company's other brands like Thums Up and Sprite perform well. The Coca-Cola Company purchased Thums Up in 1993 when they re-entered the Indian market. , Coca-Cola held a 9% market-share in India while Thums Up and Sprite had a 16% and 20% market share respectively. Tropicola, a domestic drink, is served in Cuba instead of Coca-Cola, due to a United States embargo. French brand Mecca-Cola and British brand Qibla Cola are competitors to Coca-Cola in the Middle East. In Turkey, Cola Turka, in Iran and the Middle East, Zamzam and Parsi Cola, in some parts of China, Future Cola, in the Czech Republic and Slovakia, Kofola, in Slovenia, Cockta, and the inexpensive Mercator Cola, sold only in the country's biggest supermarket chain, Mercator, are some of the brand's competitors. In 2021, Coca-Cola petitioned to cancel registrations for the marks Thums Up and Limca issued to Meenaxi Enterprise, Inc. based on misrepresentation of source. The Trademark Trial and Appeal Board concluded that "Meenaxi engaged in blatant misuse in a manner calculated to trade on the goodwill and reputation of Coca-Cola in an attempt to confuse consumers in the United States that its Thums Up and Limca marks were licensed or produced by the source of the same types of cola and lemon-lime soda sold under these marks for decades in India."Advertising in formal 19th century attire. The ad is titled Drink Coca-Cola 5¢. (US).]] in Fort Dodge, Iowa. Older Coca-Cola ghosts behind Borax and telephone ads. April 2008.]] Coca-Cola's advertising has significantly affected American culture, and it is frequently credited with inventing the modern image of Santa Claus as an old man in a red-and-white suit. Although the company did start using the red-and-white Santa image in the 1930s, with its winter advertising campaigns illustrated by Haddon Sundblom, the motif was already common. Coca-Cola was not even the first soft drink company to use the modern image of Santa Claus in its advertising: White Rock Beverages used Santa in advertisements for its ginger ale in 1923, after first using him to sell mineral water in 1915. Before Santa Claus, Coca-Cola relied on images of smartly dressed young women to sell its beverages. Coca-Cola's first such advertisement appeared in 1895, featuring the young Bostonian actress Hilda Clark as its spokeswoman. 1941 saw the first use of the nickname "Coke" as an official trademark for the product, with a series of advertisements informing consumers that "Coke means Coca-Cola". In 1971, a song from a Coca-Cola commercial called "I'd Like to Teach the World to Sing", produced by Billy Davis, became a hit single. During the 1950s the term cola wars emerged, describing the on-going battle between Coca-Cola and Pepsi for supremacy in the soft drink industry. Coca-Cola and Pepsi were competing with new products, global expansion, US marketing initiatives and sport sponsorships. in 2004]] , 2013]] Coke's advertising is pervasive, as one of Woodruff's stated goals was to ensure that everyone on Earth drank Coca-Cola as their preferred beverage. This is especially true in southern areas of the United States, such as Atlanta, where Coke was born. Some Coca-Cola television commercials between 1960 through 1986 were written and produced by former Atlanta radio veteran Don Naylor (WGST 1936–1950, WAGA 1951–1959) during his career as a producer for the McCann Erickson advertising agency. Many of these early television commercials for Coca-Cola featured movie stars, sports heroes, and popular singers. During the 1980s, Pepsi ran a series of television advertisements showing people participating in taste tests demonstrating that, according to the commercials, "fifty percent of the participants who said they preferred Coke chose the Pepsi." Coca-Cola ran ads to combat Pepsi's ads in an incident sometimes referred to as the cola wars; one of Coke's ads compared the so-called Pepsi challenge to two chimpanzees deciding which tennis ball was furrier. Thereafter, Coca-Cola regained its leadership in the market. Selena was a spokesperson for Coca-Cola from 1989 until the time of her death. She filmed three commercials for the company. During 1994, to commemorate her five years with the company, Coca-Cola issued special Selena coke bottles. The Coca-Cola Company purchased Columbia Pictures in 1982, and began inserting Coke-product images into many of its films. After a few early successes during Coca-Cola's ownership, Columbia began to underperform, and the studio was sold to Sony in 1989. Coca-Cola has gone through a number of different advertising slogans in its long history, including "It's the real thing", "The pause that refreshes", and "Coke is it". In 1999, the Coca-Cola Company introduced the Coke Card, a loyalty program that offered deals on items like clothes, entertainment and food when the cardholder purchased a Coca-Cola Classic. The scheme was cancelled after three years, with a Coca-Cola spokesperson declining to state why. The company then introduced another loyalty campaign in 2006, My Coke Rewards. This allows consumers to earn points by entering codes from specially marked packages of Coca-Cola products into a website. These points can be redeemed for various prizes or sweepstakes entries. In Australia in 2011, Coca-Cola began the "share a Coke" campaign, where the Coca-Cola logo was replaced on the bottles and replaced with first names. Coca-Cola used the 150 most popular names in Australia to print on the bottles. The campaign was paired with a website page, Facebook page, and an online "share a virtual Coke". The same campaign was introduced to Coca-Cola, Diet Coke and Coke Zero bottles and cans in the UK in 2013. Coca-Cola has also advertised its product to be consumed as a breakfast beverage, instead of coffee or tea for the morning caffeine.5 cents From 1886 to 1959, the price of Coca-Cola was fixed at five cents, in part due to an advertising campaign. Holiday campaigns Throughout the years, Coca-Cola has released limited-time collector bottles for Christmas. Coca-Cola Christmas truck in Dresden, Germany, 2004]] Debuted in 1995, the "Holidays are coming!" advertisement featured a train of red delivery trucks, emblazoned with the Coca-Cola name and decorated with Christmas lights, driving through a snowy landscape and causing everything that they pass to light up and people to watch as they pass through. The advertisement fell into disuse in 2001, as the Coca-Cola Company restructured its advertising campaigns so that advertising around the world was produced locally in each country, rather than centrally in the company's headquarters in Atlanta, Georgia. In 2007, the company brought back the campaign after, according to the company, many consumers telephoned its information center saying that they considered it to mark the beginning of Christmas. Keith Law, a producer and writer of commercials for Belfast CityBeat, was not convinced by Coca-Cola's reintroduction of the advertisement in 2007, saying that "I do not think there's anything Christmassy about HGVs and the commercial is too generic." In 2001, singer Melanie Thornton recorded the campaign's advertising jingle as a single, "Wonderful Dream (Holidays Are Coming)", which entered the pop-music charts in Germany at no. 9. In 2005, Coca-Cola expanded the advertising campaign to radio, employing several variations of the jingle. In 2011, Coca-Cola launched a campaign for the Indian holiday Diwali. The campaign included commercials, a song, and an integration with Shah Rukh Khan's film Ra.One. In November 2024, Coca-Cola released three short AI-generated videos as its Christmas ads, reviving the original 1995 "Holidays are Coming" ads. The ads were created by three AI studios: Secret Level, Silverside AI, and the Wild Card. The company defended ads, writing to The New York Times "Coca-Cola will always remain dedicated to creating the highest level of work at the intersection of human creativity and technology". This corporate sponsorship included the 1996 Summer Olympics hosted in Atlanta, which allowed Coca-Cola to spotlight its hometown. Most recently, Coca-Cola has released localized commercials for the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver; one Canadian commercial referred to Canada's hockey heritage and was modified after Canada won the gold medal game on February 28, 2010, by changing the ending line of the commercial to say "Now they know whose game they're playing". Since 1978, Coca-Cola has sponsored the FIFA World Cup, and other competitions organized by FIFA. One FIFA tournament trophy, the FIFA World Youth Championship from Tunisia in 1977 to Malaysia in 1997, was called "FIFA – Coca-Cola Cup". In addition, Coca-Cola sponsors NASCAR's annual Coca-Cola 600 and Coke Zero Sugar 400 at Charlotte Motor Speedway in Concord, North Carolina and Daytona International Speedway in Daytona, Florida, respectively; since 2020, Coca-Cola has served as a premier partner of the NASCAR Cup Series, which includes holding the naming rights to the series' regular season championship trophy. Coca-Cola is also the sponsor of the iRacing Pro Series. Coca-Cola has a long history of sports marketing relationships, which over the years have included Major League Baseball, the National Football League, the National Basketball Association, and the National Hockey League, as well as with many teams within those leagues. Coca-Cola has had a longtime relationship with the NFL's Pittsburgh Steelers, due in part to the now-famous 1979 television commercial featuring "Mean Joe" Greene, leading to the two opening the Coca-Cola Great Hall at Heinz Field in 2001 and a more recent Coca-Cola Zero commercial featuring Troy Polamalu. Coca-Cola is the official soft drink of many collegiate football teams throughout the nation, partly due to Coca-Cola providing those schools with upgraded athletic facilities in exchange for Coca-Cola's sponsorship. This is especially prevalent at the high school level, which is more dependent on such contracts due to tighter budgets. Coca-Cola was one of the official sponsors of the 1996 Cricket World Cup held on the Indian subcontinent. Coca-Cola is also one of the associate sponsors of Delhi Capitals in the Indian Premier League. In England, Coca-Cola was the main sponsor of The Football League between 2004 and 2010, a name given to the three professional divisions below the Premier League in soccer. In 2005, Coca-Cola launched a competition for the 72 clubs of The Football League – it was called "Win a Player". This allowed fans to place one vote per day for their favorite club, with one entry being chosen at random earning £250,000 for the club; this was repeated in 2006. The "Win A Player" competition was very controversial, as at the end of the 2 competitions, Leeds United A.F.C. had the most votes by more than double, yet they did not win any money to spend on a new player for the club. In 2007, the competition changed to "Buy a Player". This competition allowed fans to buy a bottle of Coca-Cola or Coca-Cola Zero and submit the code on the wrapper on the Coca-Cola website. This code could then earn anything from 50p to £100,000 for a club of their choice. This competition was favored over the old "Win a Player" competition, as it allowed all clubs to win some money. Between 1992 and 1998, Coca-Cola was the title sponsor of the Football League Cup (Coca-Cola Cup), the secondary cup tournament of England. Starting in 2019–20 season, Coca-Cola has agreed its biggest UK sponsorship deal by becoming Premier League soccer's seventh and final commercial partner for the UK and Ireland, China, Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore, Egyptian and the West African markets. Between 1994 and 1997, Coca-Cola was also the title sponsor of the Scottish League Cup, renaming it to the Coca-Cola Cup like its English counterpart. From 1998 to 2001, the company was the title sponsor of the Irish League Cup in Northern Ireland, where it was named the Coca-Cola League Cup. Coca-Cola is the presenting sponsor of the Tour Championship, the final event of the PGA Tour held each year at East Lake Golf Club in Atlanta, Georgia. Introduced March 1, 2010, in Canada, to celebrate the 2010 Winter Olympics, Coca-Cola sold gold colored cans in packs of 12 each, in select stores. Coca-Cola which has been a partner with UEFA since 1988. In mass media in Maringá, Paraná, Brazil, 2012]] Coca-Cola has been prominently featured in many films and television programs. It was a major plot element in films such as One, Two, Three, The Coca-Cola Kid, and The Gods Must Be Crazy, among many others. In music, such as in the Beatles' song, "Come Together", the lyrics say, "He shoot Coca-Cola". The Beach Boys also referenced Coca-Cola in their 1964 song "All Summer Long", singing "Member when you spilled Coke all over your blouse?" The best selling solo artist of all time Elvis Presley, promoted Coca-Cola during his last tour of 1977. The Coca-Cola Company used Presley's image to promote the product. For example, the company used a song performed by Presley, "A Little Less Conversation", in a Japanese Coca-Cola commercial. Other artists that promoted Coca-Cola include David Bowie, George Michael, Elton John, and Whitney Houston, who appeared in the Diet Coke commercial, among many others. Not all musical references to Coca-Cola went well. A line in "Lola" by the Kinks was originally recorded as "You drink champagne and it tastes just like Coca-Cola." When the British Broadcasting Corporation refused to play the song because of the commercial reference, lead singer Ray Davies re-recorded the lyric as "it tastes just like cherry cola" to get airplay for the song. Political cartoonist Michel Kichka satirized a famous Coca-Cola billboard in his 1982 poster "And I Love New York." On the billboard, the Coca-Cola wave is accompanied by the words "Enjoy Coke." In Kichka's poster, the lettering and script above the Coca-Cola wave instead read "Enjoy Cocaine."Use as political and corporate symbol in 1995.]] Coca-Cola has a high degree of identification with the United States, being considered by some an "American Brand" or as an item representing America, criticized as Cocacolonization. After World War II, this gave rise to the brief production of White Coke at the request of and for Soviet Marshal Georgy Zhukov, who did not want to be seen drinking a symbol of American imperialism. The bottles were given by the President Eisenhower during a conference, and Marshal Zhukov enjoyed the drink. The bottles were disguised as vodka bottles, with the cap having a red star design, to avoid suspicion of Soviet officials. Coca-Cola was introduced to China in 1927, and was very popular until 1949. After the Chinese Civil War ended in 1949, the beverage was no longer imported into China, as it was perceived to be a symbol of decadent Western culture and capitalist lifestyle. Importation and sales of the beverage resumed in 1979, after diplomatic relations between the United States and China were restored. The agreement to allow Coca-Cola into the Chinese market was reached during Deng Xiaoping's visit to the United States. There are some consumer boycotts of Coca-Cola in Arab countries due to Coke's early investment in Israel during the Arab League boycott of Israel (its competitor Pepsi stayed out of Israel). Mecca-Cola and Pepsi are popular alternatives in the Middle East. A Coca-Cola fountain dispenser (officially a Fluids Generic Bioprocessing Apparatus or FGBA) was developed for use on the Space Shuttle as a test bed to determine if carbonated beverages can be produced from separately stored carbon dioxide, water, and flavored syrups and determine if the resulting fluids can be made available for consumption without bubble nucleation and resulting foam formation. FGBA-1 flew on STS-63 in 1995 and dispensed pre-mixed beverages, followed by FGBA-2 on STS-77 the next year. The latter mixed CO₂, water, and syrup to make beverages. It supplied 1.65 liters each of Coca-Cola and Diet Coke. The drink is also often a metonym for the Coca-Cola Company. Medicinal application Coca-Cola is sometimes used for the treatment of gastric phytobezoars. In about 50% of cases studied, Coca-Cola alone was found to be effective in gastric phytobezoar dissolution. This treatment can however result in the potential of developing small bowel obstruction in a minority of cases, necessitating surgical intervention.Criticism Criticism of Coca-Cola has arisen from various groups around the world, concerning a variety of issues, including health effects, environmental issues, and business practices. The drink's coca flavoring, and the nickname "Coke", remain a common theme of criticism due to the relationship with the illegal drug cocaine. In 1911, the US government seized 40 barrels and 20 kegs of Coca-Cola syrup in Chattanooga, Tennessee, alleging the caffeine in its drink was "injurious to health", leading to amended food safety legislation. Beginning in the 1940s, PepsiCo started marketing their drinks to African Americans, a niche market that was largely ignored by white-owned manufacturers in the US, and was able to use its anti-racism stance as a selling point, attacking Coke's reluctance to hire blacks and support by the chairman of the Coca-Cola Company for segregationist Governor of Georgia Herman Talmadge. As a result of this campaign, PepsiCo's market share as compared to Coca-Cola's shot up dramatically in the 1950s with African American soft-drink consumers three times more likely to purchase Pepsi over Coke. The Coca-Cola Company, its subsidiaries and products have been subject to sustained criticism by consumer groups, environmentalists, and watchdogs, particularly since the early 2000s. In 2019, BreakFreeFromPlastic named Coca-Cola the single biggest plastic polluter in the world. After 72,541 volunteers collected 476,423 pieces of plastic waste from around where they lived, a total of 11,732 pieces were found to be labeled with a Coca-Cola brand (including the Dasani, Sprite, and Fanta brands) in 37 countries across four continents. At the 2020 World Economic Forum in Davos, Coca-Cola's head of sustainability, Bea Perez, said customers like them because they reseal and are lightweight, and "business won't be in business if we don't accommodate consumers." In February 2022, Coca-Cola announced that it will aim to make 25 percent of its packaging reusable by 2030. Coca-Cola Classic is rich in sugars, especially sucrose, which causes dental caries when consumed regularly. Besides this, the high caloric value of the sugars themselves can contribute to obesity. Both are major health issues in the developed world. In February 2021, Coca-Cola received criticism after a video of a training session, which told employees to "try to be less white", was leaked by an employee. The session also said in order to be "less white" employees had to be less "arrogant" and "defensive". The company, along with Pepsico and other American conglomerates, has faced criticism and an ongoing boycott by the pro-Palestine movement, especially amidst the Gaza war. Critics pointed to the company's ties with Israel, including its donations to far-right Zionist organization Im Tirtzu, to justify the boycott. In June 2024, Coca-Cola's Bangladesh distributor ran an ad in Bangladesh—where it faced a heavy boycott—attempting to distance the company from Israel.Colombian death-squad allegations In July 2001, the Coca-Cola Company was sued over its alleged use of far-right death squads (the United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia) to kidnap, torture, and kill Colombian bottler workers that were linked with trade union activity. Coca-Cola was sued in a US federal court in Miami by the Colombian food and drink union Sinaltrainal. The suit alleged that Coca-Cola was indirectly responsible for having "contracted with or otherwise directed paramilitary security forces that utilized extreme violence and murdered, tortured, unlawfully detained or otherwise silenced trade union leaders". This sparked campaigns to boycott Coca-Cola in the UK, US, Germany, Italy, and Australia. Javier Correa, the president of Sinaltrainal, said the campaign aimed to put pressure on Coca-Cola "to mitigate the pain and suffering" that union members had suffered.Other usesCoca-Cola can be used to remove grease and oil stains from concrete, metal, and clothes. It is also used to delay concrete from setting. See also * The Coca-Cola Company * Coca-Cola HBC AG * Coca-Cola treatment of phytobezoars * Colalife * Fanta * List of Coca-Cola brands * List of soft drink flavors * Mexican Coke * Neiman Marcus * OpenCola (drink) * Premix and postmix References Works cited * Elmore, Bartow J. "Citizen Coke: An Environmental and Political History of the Coca-Cola Company," Enterprise & Society (2013) 14#4 pp 717–731 [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/enterprise_and_society/v014/14.4.elmore.html online]. Further reading * Allen, Frederick. Secret Formula: How Brilliant Marketing and Relentless Salesmanship Made Coca-Cola the Best-Known Product in the World. New York: Harper Business, 1994. * Blanding, Michael. ''The Coke Machine: The Dirty Truth Behind the World's Favorite Soft Drink. New York: Avery, 2010. * * * Hays, Constance L. The Real Thing: Truth and Power at the Coca-Cola Company. New York: Random House, 2004. * Kahn, Ely J. Jr. The Big Drink: The Story of Coca-Cola. New York: Random House, 1960. * Louis, Jill Chen and Harvey Z. Yazijian. The Cola Wars. New York: Everest House Publishers, 1980. * Oliver, Thomas. The Real Coke, The Real Story. New York: Random House, 1986. * Pendergrast, Mark. For God, Country, and Coca-Cola: The Unauthorized History of the Great American Soft Drink And the Company That Makes It. New York: Basic Books, 2000. Primary sources * Isdell, Neville. Inside Coca-Cola: A CEO's Life Story of Building the World's Most Popular Brand. With the assistance of David Beasley.'' New York: St. Martin's Press, 2011. External links * * [https://archive.org/details/Coke_Commercial Kinescope of a live 1954 TV commercial for Coca-Cola (Internet Archive)] * [http://jipemania.com/coke Coca-Cola Advertising History]. . * [http://www.contourbottle.com/ The Contour Bottle] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110529094049/http://www.life.com/gallery/60951/coca-cola-refreshing-memories#index/0 Coca-Cola: Refreshing Memories] – slideshow by Life * [https://web.archive.org/web/20091222190342/http://www.troutmansanders.com/11-19-2008/ China Advisory: Avoiding the Wax Tadpole – Effective Chinese Language Trademark Strategy] – Chinese language trademark for Coca-Cola Category:Coca-Cola Category:1886 establishments in Georgia (U.S. state) Category:American brands Category:American drinks Category:American inventions Category:Caffeinated soft drinks Category:Coca-Cola cola brands Category:Cola brands Category:Kosher drinks Category:Drink brands originating from patent medicines Category:Products introduced in 1886 Category:Food and drink introduced in 1886 Category:Soft drinks	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coca-Cola	2025-04-05T18:27:55.035123
6693	Cofinality	In mathematics, especially in order theory, the cofinality cf(A) of a partially ordered set A is the least of the cardinalities of the cofinal subsets of A. Formally, \operatorname{cf}(A) = \inf \{\|B\| : B \subseteq A, (\forall x \in A) (\exists y \in B) (x \leq y)\} This definition of cofinality relies on the axiom of choice, as it uses the fact that every non-empty set of cardinal numbers has a least member. The cofinality of a partially ordered set A can alternatively be defined as the least ordinal x such that there is a function from x to A with cofinal image. This second definition makes sense without the axiom of choice. If the axiom of choice is assumed, as will be the case in the rest of this article, then the two definitions are equivalent. Cofinality can be similarly defined for a directed set and is used to generalize the notion of a subsequence in a net. Examples The cofinality of a partially ordered set with greatest element is 1 as the set consisting only of the greatest element is cofinal (and must be contained in every other cofinal subset). In particular, the cofinality of any nonzero finite ordinal, or indeed any finite directed set, is 1, since such sets have a greatest element. Every cofinal subset of a partially ordered set must contain all maximal elements of that set. Thus the cofinality of a finite partially ordered set is equal to the number of its maximal elements. In particular, let A be a set of size n, and consider the set of subsets of A containing no more than m elements. This is partially ordered under inclusion and the subsets with m elements are maximal. Thus the cofinality of this poset is n choose m. A subset of the natural numbers \N is cofinal in \N if and only if it is infinite, and therefore the cofinality of \aleph_0 is \aleph_0. Thus \aleph_0 is a regular cardinal. The cofinality of the real numbers with their usual ordering is \aleph_0, since \N is cofinal in \R. The usual ordering of \R is not order isomorphic to c, the cardinality of the real numbers, which has cofinality strictly greater than \aleph_0. This demonstrates that the cofinality depends on the order; different orders on the same set may have different cofinality. Properties If A admits a totally ordered cofinal subset, then we can find a subset B that is well-ordered and cofinal in A. Any subset of B is also well-ordered. Two cofinal subsets of B with minimal cardinality (that is, their cardinality is the cofinality of B) need not be order isomorphic (for example if B = \omega + \omega, then both \omega + \omega and \{\omega + n : n viewed as subsets of B have the countable cardinality of the cofinality of B but are not order isomorphic). But cofinal subsets of B with minimal order type will be order isomorphic. Cofinality of ordinals and other well-ordered sets The cofinality of an ordinal \alpha is the smallest ordinal \delta that is the order type of a cofinal subset of \alpha. The cofinality of a set of ordinals or any other well-ordered set is the cofinality of the order type of that set. Thus for a limit ordinal \alpha, there exists a \delta-indexed strictly increasing sequence with limit \alpha. For example, the cofinality of \omega^2 is \omega, because the sequence \omega \cdot m (where m ranges over the natural numbers) tends to \omega^2; but, more generally, any countable limit ordinal has cofinality \omega. An uncountable limit ordinal may have either cofinality \omega as does \omega_\omega or an uncountable cofinality. The cofinality of 0 is 0. The cofinality of any successor ordinal is 1. The cofinality of any nonzero limit ordinal is an infinite regular cardinal. Regular and singular ordinals A regular ordinal is an ordinal that is equal to its cofinality. A singular ordinal is any ordinal that is not regular. Every regular ordinal is the initial ordinal of a cardinal. Any limit of regular ordinals is a limit of initial ordinals and thus is also initial but need not be regular. Assuming the axiom of choice, \omega_{\alpha+1} is regular for each \alpha. In this case, the ordinals 0, 1, \omega, \omega_1, and \omega_2 are regular, whereas 2, 3, \omega_\omega, and \omega_{\omega \cdot 2} are initial ordinals that are not regular. The cofinality of any ordinal \alpha is a regular ordinal, that is, the cofinality of the cofinality of \alpha is the same as the cofinality of \alpha. So the cofinality operation is idempotent. Cofinality of cardinals If \kappa is an infinite cardinal number, then \operatorname{cf}(\kappa) is the least cardinal such that there is an unbounded function from \operatorname{cf}(\kappa) to \kappa; \operatorname{cf}(\kappa) is also the cardinality of the smallest set of strictly smaller cardinals whose sum is \kappa; more precisely \operatorname{cf}(\kappa) \min \left\{ \|I\|\ :\ \kappa \sum_{i \in I} \lambda_i\ \land \forall i \in I \colon \lambda_i That the set above is nonempty comes from the fact that \kappa = \bigcup_{i \in \kappa} \{i\} that is, the disjoint union of \kappa singleton sets. This implies immediately that \operatorname{cf}(\kappa) \leq \kappa. The cofinality of any totally ordered set is regular, so \operatorname{cf}(\kappa) = \operatorname{cf}(\operatorname{cf}(\kappa)). Using König's theorem, one can prove \kappa and \kappa for any infinite cardinal \kappa. The last inequality implies that the cofinality of the cardinality of the continuum must be uncountable. On the other hand, \aleph_\omega = \bigcup_{n the ordinal number ω being the first infinite ordinal, so that the cofinality of \aleph_\omega is card(ω) = \aleph_0. (In particular, \aleph_\omega is singular.) Therefore, 2^{\aleph_0} \neq \aleph_\omega. (Compare to the continuum hypothesis, which states 2^{\aleph_0} = \aleph_1.) Generalizing this argument, one can prove that for a limit ordinal \delta \operatorname{cf} (\aleph_\delta) = \operatorname{cf} (\delta). On the other hand, if the axiom of choice holds, then for a successor or zero ordinal \delta \operatorname{cf} (\aleph_\delta) = \aleph_\delta. See also References Jech, Thomas, 2003. Set Theory: The Third Millennium Edition, Revised and Expanded. Springer. . Kunen, Kenneth, 1980. Set Theory: An Introduction to Independence Proofs. Elsevier. . Category:Cardinal numbers Category:Order theory Category:Ordinal numbers Category:Set theory	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cofinality	2025-04-05T18:27:55.065641
6695	Citadel	thumb\|In this seventeenth-century plan of the fortified city of Casale Monferrato the citadel is the large star-shaped structure on the left. A citadel is the most fortified area of a town or city. It may be a castle, fortress, or fortified center. The term is a diminutive of city, meaning "little city", because it is a smaller part of the city of which it is the defensive core. In a fortification with bastions, the citadel is the strongest part of the system, sometimes well inside the outer walls and bastions, but often forming part of the outer wall for the sake of economy. It is positioned to be the last line of defence, should the enemy breach the other components of the fortification system. History 3300–1300 BC Some of the oldest known structures which have served as citadels were built by the Indus Valley civilisation, where citadels represented a centralised authority. Citadels in Indus Valley were almost 12 meters tall. The purpose of these structures, however, remains debated. Though the structures found in the ruins of Mohenjo-daro were walled, it is far from clear that these structures were defensive against enemy attacks. Rather, they may have been built to divert flood waters. Several settlements in Anatolia, including the Assyrian city of Kaneš in modern-day Kültepe, featured citadels. Kaneš' citadel contained the city's palace, temples, and official buildings. The citadel of the Greek city of Mycenae was built atop a highly-defensible rectangular hill and was later surrounded by walls in order to increase its defensive capabilities. 800 BC – 400 AD thumb\|Reconstruction of the redoubt of Bibracte, a part of the Gaulish oppidum. The Celts utilized these fortified cities in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC. In Ancient Greece, the Acropolis, which literally means "high city", placed on a commanding eminence, was important in the life of the people, serving as a lookout, a refuge, and a stronghold in peril, as well as containing military and food supplies, the shrine of the god and a royal palace. The most well known is the Acropolis of Athens, but nearly every Greek city-state had one – the Acrocorinth is famed as a particularly strong fortress. In a much later period, when Greece was ruled by the Latin Empire, the same strong points were used by the new feudal rulers for much the same purpose. In the first millennium BC, the Castro culture emerged in northwestern Portugal and Spain in the region extending from the Douro river up to the Minho, but soon expanding north along the coast, and east following the river valleys. It was an autochthonous evolution of Atlantic Bronze Age communities. In 2008, the origins of the Celts were attributed to this period by John T. Koch and supported by Barry Cunliffe. The Ave River Valley in Portugal was the core region of this culture, with a large number of small settlements (the castros), but also settlements known as citadels or oppida by the Roman conquerors. These had several rings of walls and the Roman conquest of the citadels of Abobriga, Lambriaca and Cinania around 138 BC was possible only by prolonged siege. Ruins of notable citadels still exist, and are known by archaeologists as Citânia de Briteiros, Citânia de Sanfins, Cividade de Terroso and Cividade de Bagunte. 1600 to the present In times of war, the citadel in many cases afforded retreat to the people living in the areas around the town. However, citadels were often used also to protect a garrison or political power from the inhabitants of the town where it was located, being designed to ensure loyalty from the town that they defended. This was used, for example, during the Dutch Wars of 1664–1667, King Charles II of England constructed a Royal Citadel at Plymouth, an important channel port which needed to be defended from a possible naval attack. However, due to Plymouth's support for the Parliamentarians, in the then-recent English Civil War, the Plymouth Citadel was so designed that its guns could fire on the town as well as on the sea approaches. Barcelona had a great citadel built in 1714 to intimidate the Catalans against repeating their mid-17th- and early-18th-century rebellions against the Spanish central government. In the 19th century, when the political climate had liberalized enough to permit it, the people of Barcelona had the citadel torn down, and replaced it with the city's main central park, the Parc de la Ciutadella. A similar example is the Citadella in Budapest, Hungary. The attack on the Bastille in the French Revolution – though afterwards remembered mainly for the release of the handful of prisoners incarcerated there – was to considerable degree motivated by the structure's being a Royal citadel in the midst of revolutionary Paris. Similarly, after Garibaldi's overthrow of Bourbon rule in Palermo, during the 1860 Unification of Italy, Palermo's Castellamare Citadel – a symbol of the hated and oppressive former rule – was ceremoniously demolished. Following Belgium gaining its independence in 1830, a Dutch garrison under General David Hendrik Chassé held out in Antwerp Citadel between 1830 and 1832, while the city had already become part of independent Belgium. The Siege of the Alcázar in the Spanish Civil War, in which the Nationalists held out against a much larger Republican force for two months until relieved, shows that in some cases a citadel can be effective even in modern warfare; a similar case is the Battle of Huế during the Vietnam War, where a North Vietnamese Army division held the citadel of Huế for 26 days against roughly their own numbers of much better-equipped US and South Vietnamese troops. Modern usage thumb\|The Royal 22nd Regiment's home garrison is the Citadelle of Quebec in Canada. The citadel is the largest still in military operation in North America. The Citadelle of Québec (the construction was started in 1673 and completed in 1820) still survives as the largest citadel still in official military operation in North America. It is home to the Royal 22nd Regiment of the Canadian Army and forms part of the Ramparts of Quebec City dating back to 1620s. Since the mid 20th century, citadels have commonly enclosed military command and control centres, rather than cities or strategic points of defence on the boundaries of a country. These modern citadels are built to protect the command centre from heavy attacks, such as aerial or nuclear bombardment. The military citadels under London in the UK, including the massive underground complex Pindar beneath the Ministry of Defence, are examples, as is the Cheyenne Mountain nuclear bunker in the US. Naval term thumb\|Entrance to the armoured citadel of On armoured warships, the heavily armoured section of the ship that protects the ammunition and machinery spaces is called the armoured citadel. A modern naval interpretation refers to the heaviest protected part of the hull as "the vitals", and the citadel is the semi-armoured freeboard above the vitals. Generally, Anglo-American and German languages follow this while Russian sources/language refer to "the vitals" as цитадель "citadel". Likewise, Russian literature often refers to the turret of a tank as the 'tower'. The safe room on a ship is also called a citadel. See also List of citadels Acropolis Alcázar Arx (Roman) Fujian Tulou Kasbah, a synonym Kremlin (fortification) Presidio Rocca (fortification) List of cities with defensive walls List of forts References External links Category:Fortifications by type Category:Engineering barrages Category:Military strategy	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citadel	2025-04-05T18:27:55.093522
6696	Chain mail	Mail (sometimes spelled maille and, since the 18th century, colloquially referred to as chain mail, chainmail or chain-mail) is a type of armour consisting of small metal rings linked together in a pattern to form a mesh. It was in common military use between the 3rd century BC and the 16th century AD in Europe, while it continued to be used militarily in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East as late as the 18th century. Even today it is still in use in industries such as butchery and as protection against the powerful bites of creatures such as sharks. A coat of this armour is often called a hauberk or sometimes a byrnie. History warrior, 1st century BC, a statue depicting a Romanized Gaulish warrior wearing mail and a Celtic torc around his neck, bearing a Celtic-style shield.]] soldier (thorakites) wearing mail armour and bearing a thureos shield]] The earliest examples of surviving mail were found in the Carpathian Basin at a burial in Horný Jatov, Slovakia dated in the 3rd century BC, and in a chieftain's burial located in Ciumești, Romania. Its invention is commonly credited to the Celts, but there are examples of Etruscan pattern mail dating from at least the 4th century BC. Mail may have been inspired by the much earlier scale armour. Mail spread to North Africa, West Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, India, Tibet, South East Asia, and Japan. Herodotus wrote that the ancient Persians wore scale armour, but mail is also distinctly mentioned in the Avesta, the holy scripture of the Zoroastrian religion that written in the 6th century AD. Mail continues to be used in the 21st century as a component of stab-resistant body armour, cut-resistant gloves for butchers and woodworkers, shark-resistant wet-suits for defense against shark bites, and a number of other applications.EtymologyThe origin of the word mail are not fully known. One theory is that it originally derives from the Latin word , meaning 'spot' or 'opacity' (as in macula of retina). Another theory relates the word to the old French , meaning 'to hammer' (related to the modern English word malleable). In modern French, maille refers to a loop or stitch. The Arabic words burnus ( 'burnoose, a hooded cloak', also a chasuble worn by Coptic priests) and barnaza ( 'to bronze') suggest an Arabic influence for the Carolingian armour known as byrnie (see below). The first attestations of the word mail are in Old French and Anglo-Norman: maille, maile, or male or other variants, which became mailye, maille, maile, male, or meile in Middle English. Civilizations that used mail invented specific terms for each garment made from it. The standard terms for European mail armour derive from French: leggings are called chausses, a hood is a mail coif, and mittens, mitons. A mail collar hanging from a helmet is a camail or aventail. A shirt made from mail is a hauberk if knee-length and a haubergeon if mid-thigh length. A layer (or multiple layers) of mail sandwiched between layers of fabric is called a jazerant. A waist-length coat in medieval Europe was called a byrnie, although the exact construction of a byrnie is unclear, including whether it was constructed of mail or other armour types. Noting that the byrnie was the "most highly valued piece of armour" to the Carolingian soldier, Bennet, Bradbury, DeVries, Dickie, and Jestice indicate that: <blockquote> There is some dispute among historians as to what exactly constituted the Carolingian byrnie. Relying... only on artistic and some literary sources because of the lack of archaeological examples, some believe that it was a heavy leather jacket with metal scales sewn onto it with strong thread. It was also quite long, reaching below the hips and covering most of the arms. Other historians claim instead that the Carolingian byrnie was nothing more than a coat of mail, but longer and perhaps heavier than traditional early medieval mail. Without more certain evidence, this dispute will continue. </blockquote> In Europe The use of mail as battlefield armour was common during the Iron Age and the Middle Ages, becoming less common over the course of the 16th and 17th centuries when plate armour and more advanced firearms were developed. It is believed that the Roman Republic first came into contact with mail fighting the Gauls in Cisalpine Gaul, now Northern Italy. The Roman army adopted the technology for their troops in the form of the lorica hamata which was used as a primary form of armour through the Imperial period. showing Norman and Anglo-Saxon soldiers in mail armour. Note the scene of stripping a mail hauberk from a dead combatant at bottom.]] After the fall of the Western Empire, much of the infrastructure needed to create plate armour diminished. Eventually the word "mail" came to be synonymous with armour. It was typically an extremely prized commodity, as it was expensive and time-consuming to produce and could mean the difference between life and death in a battle. Mail from dead combatants was frequently looted and was used by the new owner or sold for a lucrative price. As time went on and infrastructure improved, it came to be used by more soldiers. The oldest intact mail hauberk still in existence is thought to have been worn by Leopold III, Duke of Austria, who died in 1386 during the Battle of Sempach. By the 14th century, articulated plate armour was commonly used to supplement mail. Eventually mail was supplanted by plate for the most part, as it provided greater protection against windlass crossbows, bludgeoning weapons, and lance charges while maintaining most of the mobility of mail. However, it was still widely used by many soldiers, along with brigandines and padded jacks. These three types of armour made up the bulk of the equipment used by soldiers, with mail being the most expensive. It was sometimes more expensive than plate armour. Mail typically persisted longer in less technologically advanced areas such as Eastern Europe but was in use throughout Europe into the 16th century. During the late 19th and early 20th century, mail was used as a material for bulletproof vests, most notably by the Wilkinson Sword Company. Results were unsatisfactory; Wilkinson mail worn by the Khedive of Egypt's regiment of "Iron Men" was manufactured from split rings which proved to be too brittle, and the rings would fragment when struck by bullets and aggravate the injury. The riveted mail armour worn by the opposing Sudanese Madhists did not have the same problem but also proved to be relatively useless against the firearms of British forces at the battle of Omdurman. During World War I, Wilkinson Sword transitioned from mail to a lamellar design which was the precursor to the flak jacket. Mail was also used for face protection in World War I. Oculist Captain Cruise of the British Infantry designed a mail fringe to be attached to helmets to protect the upper face. This proved unpopular with soldiers, in spite of being proven to defend against a shrapnel round fired at a distance of . Another invention, a "splatter mask" or "splinter mask", consisted of rigid upper face protection and a mail veil to protect the lower face, and was used by early tank crews as a measure against flying steel fragments (spalling) inside the vehicle. In Asia ]] Mail armour was introduced to the Middle East and Asia through the Romans and was adopted by the Sassanid Persians starting in the 3rd century AD, where it was supplemental to the scale and lamellar armour already used. Mail was commonly also used as horse armour for cataphracts and heavy cavalry as well as armour for the soldiers themselves. Asian mail could be just as heavy as the European variety and sometimes had prayer symbols stamped on the rings as a sign of their craftsmanship as well as for divine protection. Mail armour is mentioned in the Quran as being a gift revealed by Allah to David: <blockquote>21:80 It was We Who taught him the making of coats of mail for your benefit, to guard you from each other's violence: will ye then be grateful? (Yusuf Ali's translation)</blockquote> ]] From the Abbasid Caliphate, mail was quickly adopted in Central Asia by Timur (Tamerlane) and the Sogdians and by India's Delhi Sultanate. Mail armour was introduced by the Turks in late 12th century and commonly used by Turk and the Mughal and Suri armies where it eventually became the armour of choice in India. Indian mail was constructed with alternating rows of solid links and round riveted links and it was often integrated with plate protection (mail and plate armour). China Mail was introduced to China when its allies in Central Asia paid tribute to the Tang Emperor in 718 by giving him a coat of "link armour" assumed to be mail. Earliest assumed reference to mail can be found in early 3rd century record by Cao Zhi, being called "chained ring armor". China first encountered the armour in 384 when its allies in the nation of Kuchi arrived wearing "armour similar to chains". Once in China, mail was imported but was not produced widely. Due to its flexibility, comfort, and rarity, it was typically the armour of high-ranking guards and those who could afford the exotic import (to show off their social status) rather than the armour of the rank and file, who used more common brigandine, scale, and lamellar types. However, it was one of the few military products that China imported from foreigners. Mail spread to Korea slightly later where it was imported as the armour of imperial guards and generals.Japan In Japan, mail is called kusari which means chain. When the word kusari is used in conjunction with an armoured item it usually means that mail makes up the majority of the armour composition. An example of this would be kusari gusoku which means chain armour. Kusari jackets, hoods, gloves, vests, shin guards, shoulder guards, thigh guards, and other armoured clothing were produced, even kusari tabi socks. Kusari was used in samurai armour at least from the time of the Mongol invasion (1270s) but particularly from the Nambokucho Period (1336–1392). The Japanese used many different weave methods including a square 4-in-1 pattern (so gusari), a hexagonal 6-in-1 pattern (hana gusari) and a European 4-in-1 (nanban gusari). The rings of Japanese mail were much smaller than their European counterparts; they would be used in patches to link together plates and to drape over vulnerable areas such as the armpits. Riveted kusari was known and used in Japan. On page 58 of the book Japanese Arms & Armor: Introduction by H. Russell Robinson, there is a picture of Japanese riveted kusari, and this quote from the translated reference of Sakakibara Kozan's 1800 book, The Manufacture of Armour and Helmets in Sixteenth-Century Japan, shows that the Japanese not only knew of and used riveted kusari but that they manufactured it as well. <blockquote>... karakuri-namban (riveted namban), with stout links each closed by a rivet. Its invention is credited to Fukushima Dembei Kunitaka, pupil, of Hojo Awa no Kami Ujifusa, but it is also said to be derived directly from foreign models. It is heavy because the links are tinned (biakuro-nagashi) and these are also sharp-edged because they are punched out of iron plate</blockquote> Butted or split (twisted) links made up the majority of kusari links used by the Japanese. Links were either butted together meaning that the ends touched each other and were not riveted, or the kusari was constructed with links where the wire was turned or twisted two or more times; these split links are similar to the modern split ring commonly used on keychains. The rings were lacquered black to prevent rusting, and were always stitched onto a backing of cloth or leather. The kusari was sometimes concealed entirely between layers of cloth. Kusari gusoku or chain armour was commonly used during the Edo period 1603 to 1868 as a stand-alone defense. According to George Cameron Stone <blockquote>Entire suits of mail kusari gusoku were worn on occasions, sometimes under the ordinary clothing</blockquote> In his book Arms and Armor of the Samurai: The History of Weaponry in Ancient Japan, Ian Bottomley shows a picture of a kusari armour and mentions kusari katabira (chain jackets) with detachable arms being worn by samurai police officials during the Edo period. The end of the samurai era in the 1860s, along with the 1876 ban on wearing swords in public, marked the end of any practical use for mail and other armour in Japan. Japan turned to a conscription army and uniforms replaced armour. Effectiveness Mail's resistance to weapons is determined by four factors: linkage type (riveted, butted, or welded), material used (iron versus bronze or steel), weave density (a tighter weave needs a thinner weapon to surpass), and ring thickness (generally ranging from 1.0 to 1.6 mm diameter (18 to 14 gauge) wire in most examples). Mail, if a warrior could afford it, provided a significant advantage when combined with competent fighting techniques. When the mail was not riveted, a thrust from most sharp weapons could penetrate it. However, when mail was riveted, only a strong well-placed thrust from certain spears, or thin or dedicated mail-piercing swords like the estoc, could penetrate, and a pollaxe or halberd blow could break through the armour. Strong projectile weapons such as stronger self bows, recurve bows, and crossbows could also penetrate riveted mail. Some evidence indicates that during armoured combat, the intention was to actually get around the armour rather than through it—according to a study of skeletons found at the battle of Visby, Gotland, a majority of the skeletons showed wounds on less well protected legs. Although mail was a formidable protection, due to technological advances as time progressed, mail worn under plate armour (and stand-alone mail as well) could be penetrated by the conventional weaponry of another knight. The flexibility of mail meant that a blow would often injure the wearer, potentially causing serious bruising or fractures, and it was a poor defence against head trauma. Mail-clad warriors typically wore separate rigid helms over their mail coifs for head protection. Likewise, blunt weapons such as maces and warhammers could harm the wearer by their impact without penetrating the armour; usually a soft armour, such as gambeson, was worn under the hauberk. Medieval surgeons were very well capable of setting and caring for bone fractures resulting from blunt weapons. With the poor understanding of hygiene, however, cuts that could get infected were much more of a problem. Manufacture from 1698 showing the manufacture of mail]] Several patterns of linking the rings together have been known since ancient times, with the most common being the 4-to-1 pattern (where each ring is linked with four others). In Europe, the 4-to-1 pattern was completely dominant. Mail was also common in East Asia, primarily Japan, with several more patterns being utilised and an entire nomenclature developing around them. Historically, in Europe, from the pre-Roman period on, the rings composing a piece of mail would be riveted closed to reduce the chance of the rings splitting open when subjected to a thrusting attack or a hit by an arrow. Up until the 14th century European mail was made of alternating rows of round riveted rings and solid rings. Sometime during the 14th century European mail makers started to transition from round rivets to wedge-shaped rivets, but continued using alternating rows of solid rings. Eventually European mail makers stopped using solid rings and almost all European mail was made from wedge riveted rings only with no solid rings. Both were commonly made of wrought iron, but some later pieces were made of heat-treated steel. Wire for the riveted rings was formed by either of two methods. One was to hammer out wrought iron into plates and cut or slit the plates. These thin pieces were then pulled through a draw plate repeatedly until the desired diameter was achieved. Waterwheel-powered drawing mills are pictured in several period manuscripts. Another method was to simply forge down an iron billet into a rod and then proceed to draw it out into wire. The solid links would have been made by punching from a sheet. Guild marks were often stamped on the rings to show their origin and craftsmanship. Forge welding was also used to create solid links, but there are few possible examples known; the only well-documented example from Europe is that of the camail (mail neck-defence) of the 7th-century Coppergate Helmet found in York. Outside of Europe this practice was more common such as "theta" links from India. Very few examples of historic butted mail have been found, and it is generally accepted that butted mail was never in wide use historically except in Japan, where mail (kusari) was commonly made from butted links. Butchers also commonly wear a single mail glove to protect themselves from self-inflicted injury while cutting meat, as do many oyster shuckers. Scuba divers sometimes use mail to protect them from sharkbite, as do animal control officers for protection against the animals they handle. In 1980, marine biologist Jeremiah Sullivan patented his design for Neptunic full coverage chain mail shark resistant suits which he had developed for close encounters with sharks. Shark expert and underwater filmmaker Valerie Taylor was among the first to develop and test shark suits in 1979 while diving with sharks. Mail is widely used in industrial settings as shrapnel guards and splash guards in metal working operations. Electrical applications for mail include RF leakage testing and being worn as a Faraday cage suit by tesla coil enthusiasts and high voltage electrical workers. Stab-proof vests Conventional textile-based ballistic vests are designed to stop soft-nosed bullets but offer little defense from knife attacks. Knife-resistant armour is designed to defend against knife attacks; some of these use layers of metal plates, mail and metallic wires. Historical re-enactment Many historical reenactment groups, especially those whose focus is Antiquity or the Middle Ages, commonly use mail both as practical armour and for costuming. Mail is especially popular amongst those groups which use steel weapons. A modern hauberk made from 1.5 mm diameter wire with 10 mm inner diameter rings weighs roughly and contains 15,000–45,000 rings. One of the drawbacks of mail is the uneven weight distribution; the stress falls mainly on shoulders. Weight can be better distributed by wearing a belt over the mail, which provides another point of support. Mail worn today for re-enactment and recreational use can be made in a variety of styles and materials. Most recreational mail today is made of butted links which are galvanised or stainless steel. This is historically inaccurate but is much less expensive to procure and especially to maintain than historically accurate reproductions. Mail can also be made of titanium, aluminium, bronze, or copper. Riveted mail offers significantly better protection ability as well as historical accuracy than mail constructed with butted links. Japanese mail (kusari) is one of the few historically correct examples of mail being constructed with such butted links. Large-linked mail is occasionally used as BDSM clothing material, with the large links intended for fetishistic purposes. In popular culture Video games Chainmail armor can be found in multiple games, such as Elden Ring and Minecraft. It is typically depicted as less expensive than plate armor, with the tradeoff being an inferior defense. Chainmail may also be purely cosmetic and hold no gameplay advantage. Film In some films, knitted string spray-painted with a metallic paint is used instead of actual mail in order to cut down on cost (an example being Monty Python and the Holy Grail, which was filmed on a very small budget). Films more dedicated to costume accuracy often use ABS plastic rings, for the lower cost and weight. Such ABS mail coats were made for The Lord of the Rings film trilogy, in addition to many metal coats. The metal coats are used rarely because of their weight, except in close-up filming where the appearance of ABS rings is distinguishable. A large scale example of the ABS mail used in the Lord of the Rings can be seen in the entrance to the Royal Armouries museum in Leeds in the form of a large curtain bearing the logo of the museum. It was acquired from the makers of the film's armour, Weta Workshop, when the museum hosted an exhibition of WETA armour from their films. For the film Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome, Tina Turner is said to have worn actual mail and she complained how heavy this was. Game of Thrones makes use of mail, notably during the "Red Wedding" scene. <!-- To be relocated: -->Gallery<gallery mode"packed" style="text-align:left"> File:Kusari tabi.JPG\|Edo period 1800s Japanese (samurai) mail socks or kusari tabi, butted rings. File:Kusari katabira 6.JPG\|Japanese Edo period mail jacket, butted rings kusari katabira. File:Kusari kote.JPG\|Edo period Japanese (samurai) mail gauntlets kusari han kote, butted rings. File:Rriveted kusari kote.jpg\|A rare example of Japanese riveted mail, round riveted rings. File:Kusari examples.JPG\|Examples of Edo period Japanese (samurai) mail kusari. File:Eastern riveted armor.JPG\|Riveted mail and plate coat zirah bagtar. Armour of this type was introduced into India under the Mughals. File:Riveted armor and plate.JPG\|Close up of Mughal riveted mail and plate coat zirah Bagtar, 17th century, alternating rows of solid rings and round riveted rings. File:Eastern riveted hood detail.JPG\|Close up detail of Mughal riveted mail hood kulah zirah, 17th century, alternating rows of round riveted rings and solid rings. File:Eastern riveted armor 1.JPG\|Mughal riveted mail and plate coat zirah Bagtar, 17th century, alternating rows of round riveted rings and solid rings. File:Eastern riveted armor hood.JPG\|Mughal riveted mail hood kulah zirah. 17th century, alternating rows of round riveted rings and solid rings. File:Morgan Bible 28r detail.jpg\|"David rejects the unaccustomed armour" (detail of fol. 28r of the 13th century Morgan Bible). The image depicts a method of removing a hauberk. File:Indian theta or bar link mail 1.jpg\|Indian theta link mail (bar link mail), alternating rows of solid theta rings and round riveted rings, 17th century. File:Ottoman krug front plate, detail view.jpg\|Ottoman riveted mail, alternating rows of round riveted links and solid links, 16th century. File:European riveted mail hauberk, close up view.jpg\|European wedge riveted mail, showing both sides of the rings, 16th to 17th century. File:Cota de malha não rebitada.jpg\|Man wearing mail in modern days. </gallery> See also Mail-based armour * Banded mail * Hauberk * Mail and plate armour * Kusari (Japanese mail armour) * Lorica hamata * Lorica plumata with scales attached to a backing of mail * Tatami (Japanese armour) * Baju Rantai, type of mail from the Nusantara archipelago Armour supplementary to mail Typically worn under mail armour if thin or over mail armour if thick: * Gambeson (also known as quilted armour or a padded jack) Can be worn over mail armour: * Brigandine * Coat of plates * Lamellar armour * Mirror armour (supplementary plates worn over mail) * Scale armour * Splint armour * Transitional armour Others: * Cataphract * Proofing (armour) * Ring armour References External links * [http://www.erikds.com/ Erik D. Schmid/The Mail Research Society] * * * * [http://mailleartisans.org/ The Maille Artisans International League (MAIL) – Hundreds of weaves/tutorials/articles, and gallery pictures] * [http://www.myarmoury.com/feature_mail.html "Mail: Unchained", an article taking an in-depth look at the construction and usage of European chain mail] * Construction tips [http://www.ringinator.com The Ringinator - Tool for making jump rings] ** [http://realbeer.com/jjpalmer/HowtoChain.html The Apprentice Armorer's Illustrated Handbook For Making Mail] * Ancient Roman originals can be seen on the pages of the Roman Military Equipment Web museum, [http://www.romancoins.info/MilitaryEquipment.html Romancoins.info] * http://artofchainmail.com/patterns/european/index.html * http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/armor-ii Category:Body armor Category:Medieval armour Category:Military equipment of antiquity	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_mail	2025-04-05T18:27:55.133584
6697	Cerberus	thumb\|right\|Heracles, wearing his characteristic lion-skin, club in right hand, leash in left, presenting a three-headed Cerberus, snakes coiling from his snouts, necks and front paws, to a frightened Eurystheus hiding in a giant pot. Caeretan hydria (c. 530 BC) from Caere (Louvre E701). In Greek mythology, Cerberus ( or ; Kérberos ), often referred to as the hound of Hades, is a multi-headed dog that guards the gates of the underworld to prevent the dead from leaving. He was the offspring of the monsters Echidna and Typhon, and was usually described as having three heads, a serpent for a tail, and snakes protruding from his body. Cerberus is primarily known for his capture by Heracles, the last of Heracles' twelve labours. Etymology thumb\|right\|upright\|Cerberus and Hades/Serapis. Heraklion Archaeological Museum, Crete, Greece. The etymology of Cerberus' name is uncertain. Ogden refers to attempts to establish an Indo-European etymology as "not yet successful". It has been claimed to be related to the Sanskrit word सर्वरा sarvarā, used as an epithet of one of the dogs of Yama, from a Proto-Indo-European word k̑érberos, meaning "spotted". Lincoln (1991), among others, critiques this etymology. This etymology was also rejected by Manfred Mayrhofer, who proposed an Austro-Asiatic origin for the word, and by Beekes. Lincoln notes a similarity between Cerberus and the Norse mythological dog Garmr, relating both names to a Proto-Indo-European root ger- "to growl" (perhaps with the suffixes -m/b and -r). However, as Ogden observes, this analysis actually requires Kerberos and Garmr to be derived from two different Indo-European roots (ker- and *gher- respectively), and so does not actually establish a relationship between the two names. Though probably not Greek, Greek etymologies for Cerberus have been offered. An etymology given by Servius (the late-fourth-century commentator on Virgil)—but rejected by Ogden—derives Cerberus from the Greek word creoboros meaning "flesh-devouring". Another suggested etymology derives Cerberus from "Ker berethrou", meaning "evil of the pit". Descriptions Descriptions of Cerberus vary, including the number of his heads. Cerberus was usually three-headed, though not always. Cerberus had several multi-headed relatives. His father was the multi snake-footed Typhon, and Cerberus was the brother of three other multi-headed monsters, the multi-snake-headed Lernaean Hydra; Orthrus, the two-headed dog that guarded the Cattle of Geryon; and the Chimera, who had three heads: that of a lion, a goat, and a snake. And, like these close relatives, Cerberus was, with only the rare iconographic exception, multi-headed. In the earliest description of Cerberus, Hesiod's Theogony (c. 8th – 7th century BC), Cerberus has fifty heads, while Pindar (c. 522 – c. 443 BC) gave him one hundred heads. However, later writers almost universally give Cerberus three heads. An exception is the Latin poet Horace's Cerberus which has a single dog head, and one hundred snake heads. Perhaps trying to reconcile these competing traditions, Apollodorus's Cerberus has three dog heads and the heads of "all sorts of snakes" along his back, while the Byzantine poet John Tzetzes (who probably based his account on Apollodorus) gives Cerberus fifty heads, three of which were dog heads, the rest being the "heads of other beasts of all sorts". thumb\|left\|Heracles, chain in left hand, his club laid aside, calms a two-headed Cerberus, which has a snake protruding from each of his heads, a mane down his necks and back, and a snake tail. Cerberus is emerging from a portico, which represents the palace of Hades in the underworld. Between them, a tree represents the sacred grove of Hades' wife Persephone. On the far left, Athena stands, left arm extended. Amphora (c. 525–510 BC) from Vulci (Louvre F204). In art Cerberus is most commonly depicted with two dog heads (visible), never more than three, but occasionally with only one. On one of the two earliest depictions (c. 590–580 BC), a Corinthian cup from Argos (see below), now lost, Cerberus was shown as a normal single-headed dog. The first appearance of a three-headed Cerberus occurs on a mid-sixth-century BC Laconian cup (see below). Horace's many snake-headed Cerberus followed a long tradition of Cerberus being part snake. This is perhaps already implied as early as in Hesiod's Theogony, where Cerberus' mother is the half-snake Echidna, and his father the snake-headed Typhon. In art, Cerberus is often shown as being part snake, for example the lost Corinthian cup showed snakes protruding from Cerberus' body, while the mid sixth-century BC Laconian cup gives Cerberus a snake for a tail. In the literary record, the first certain indication of Cerberus' serpentine nature comes from the rationalized account of Hecataeus of Miletus (fl. 500–494 BC), who makes Cerberus a large poisonous snake. Plato refers to Cerberus' composite nature, and Euphorion of Chalcis (3rd century BC) describes Cerberus as having multiple snake tails, and presumably in connection to his serpentine nature, associates Cerberus with the creation of the poisonous aconite plant. Virgil has snakes writhe around Cerberus' neck, Ovid's Cerberus has a venomous mouth, necks "vile with snakes", and "hair inwoven with the threatening snake", while Seneca gives Cerberus a mane consisting of snakes, and a single snake tail. Cerberus was given various other traits. According to Euripides, Cerberus not only had three heads but three bodies, and according to Virgil he had multiple backs. Cerberus ate raw flesh (according to Hesiod), had eyes which flashed fire (according to Euphorion), a three-tongued mouth (according to Horace), and acute hearing (according to Seneca). The Twelfth Labour of Heracles thumb\|Athena, Hermes and Heracles, leading a two-headed Cerberus out of the underworld, as Persephone looks on. Hydria (c. 550–500 BC) attributed to the Leagros Group (Louvre CA 2992). Cerberus' only mythology concerns his capture by Heracles. As early as Homer we learn that Heracles was sent by Eurystheus, the king of Tiryns, to bring back Cerberus from Hades the king of the underworld. According to Apollodorus, this was the twelfth and final labour imposed on Heracles. In a fragment from a lost play Pirithous, (attributed to either Euripides or Critias) Heracles says that, although Eurystheus commanded him to bring back Cerberus, it was not from any desire to see Cerberus, but only because Eurystheus thought that the task was impossible. Heracles was aided in his mission by his being an initiate of the Eleusinian Mysteries. Euripides has his initiation being "lucky" for Heracles in capturing Cerberus. And both Diodorus Siculus and Apollodorus say that Heracles was initiated into the Mysteries, in preparation for his descent into the underworld. According to Diodorus, Heracles went to Athens, where Musaeus, the son of Orpheus, was in charge of the initiation rites, while according to Apollodorus, he went to Eumolpus at Eleusis. Heracles also had the help of Hermes, the usual guide of the underworld, as well as Athena. In the Odyssey, Homer has Hermes and Athena as his guides. And Hermes and Athena are often shown with Heracles on vase paintings depicting Cerberus' capture. By most accounts, Heracles made his descent into the underworld through an entrance at Tainaron, the most famous of the various Greek entrances to the underworld. The place is first mentioned in connection with the Cerberus story in the rationalized account of Hecataeus of Miletus (fl. 500–494 BC), and Euripides, Seneca, and Apolodorus, all have Heracles descend into the underworld there. However Xenophon reports that Heracles was said to have descended at the Acherusian Chersonese near Heraclea Pontica, on the Black Sea, a place more usually associated with Heracles' exit from the underworld (see below). Heraclea, founded c. 560 BC, perhaps took its name from the association of its site with Heracles' Cerberian exploit. Theseus and Pirithous While in the underworld, Heracles met the heroes Theseus and Pirithous, where the two companions were being held prisoner by Hades for attempting to carry off Hades's wife Persephone. Along with bringing back Cerberus, Heracles also managed (usually) to rescue Theseus, and in some versions Pirithous as well. According to Apollodorus, Heracles found Theseus and Pirithous near the gates of Hades, bound to the "Chair of Forgetfulness, to which they grew and were held fast by coils of serpents", and when they saw Heracles, "they stretched out their hands as if they should be raised from the dead by his might", and Heracles was able to free Theseus, but when he tried to raise up Pirithous, "the earth quaked and he let go." The earliest evidence for the involvement of Theseus and Pirithous in the Cerberus story, is found on a shield-band relief (c. 560 BC) from Olympia, where Theseus and Pirithous (named) are seated together on a chair, arms held out in supplication, while Heracles approaches, about to draw his sword. The earliest literary mention of the rescue occurs in Euripides, where Heracles saves Theseus (with no mention of Pirithous). In the lost play Pirithous, both heroes are rescued, while in the rationalized account of Philochorus, Heracles was able to rescue Theseus, but not Pirithous. In one place Diodorus says Heracles brought back both Theseus and Pirithous, by the favor of Persephone, while in another he says that Pirithous remained in Hades, or according to "some writers of myth" that neither Theseus, nor Pirithous returned. Both are rescued in the Fabulae of Hyginus. Capture thumb\|left\|Athena, Heracles, and a two-headed Cerberus, with mane down his necks and back. Hermes (not shown in the photograph) stands to the left of Athena. An amphora (c. 575–525 BC) from Kameiros, Rhodes (Louvre A481). There are various versions of how Heracles accomplished Cerberus' capture. According to Apollodorus, Heracles asked Hades for Cerberus, and Hades told Heracles he would allow him to take Cerberus only if he "mastered him without the use of the weapons which he carried", and so, using his lion-skin as a shield, Heracles squeezed Cerberus around the head until he submitted. In some early sources Cerberus' capture seems to involve Heracles fighting Hades. Homer (Iliad 5.395–397) has Hades injured by an arrow shot by Heracles. A scholium to the Iliad passage, explains that Hades had commanded that Heracles "master Cerberus without shield or Iron". Heracles did this, by (as in Apollodorus) using his lion-skin instead of his shield, and making stone points for his arrows, but when Hades still opposed him, Heracles shot Hades in anger. Consistent with the no iron requirement, on an early-sixth-century BC lost Corinthian cup, Heracles is shown attacking Hades with a stone, while the iconographic tradition, from c. 560 BC, often shows Heracles using his wooden club against Cerberus. Euripides has Amphitryon ask Heracles: "Did you conquer him in fight, or receive him from the goddess [i.e. Persephone]? To which Heracles answers: "In fight", and the Pirithous fragment says that Heracles "overcame the beast by force". However, according to Diodorus, Persephone welcomed Heracles "like a brother" and gave Cerberus "in chains" to Heracles. Aristophanes has Heracles seize Cerberus in a stranglehold and run off, while Seneca has Heracles again use his lion-skin as shield, and his wooden club, to subdue Cerberus, after which a quailing Hades and Persephone allow Heracles to lead a chained and submissive Cerberus away. Cerberus is often shown being chained, and Ovid tells that Heracles dragged the three headed Cerberus with chains of adamant. Exit from the underworld thumb\|right\|Hercules and Cerberus. Oil on canvas, by Peter Paul Rubens 1636, Prado Museum. There were several locations which were said to be the place where Heracles brought up Cerberus from the underworld. The geographer Strabo (63/64 BC – c. AD 24) reports that "according to the myth writers" Cerberus was brought up at Tainaron, the same place where Euripides has Heracles enter the underworld. Seneca has Heracles enter and exit at Tainaron. Apollodorus, although he has Heracles enter at Tainaron, has him exit at Troezen. The geographer Pausanias tells us that there was a temple at Troezen with "altars to the gods said to rule under the earth", where it was said that, in addition to Cerberus being "dragged" up by Heracles, Semele was supposed to have been brought up out of the underworld by Dionysus. Another tradition had Cerberus brought up at Heraclea Pontica (the same place which Xenophon had earlier associated with Heracles' descent) and the cause of the poisonous plant aconite which grew there in abundance. Herodorus of Heraclea and Euphorion said that when Heracles brought Cerberus up from the underworld at Heraclea, Cerberus "vomited bile" from which the aconite plant grew up. Ovid, also makes Cerberus the cause of the poisonous aconite, saying that on the "shores of Scythia", upon leaving the underworld, as Cerberus was being dragged by Heracles from a cave, dazzled by the unaccustomed daylight, Cerberus spewed out a "poison-foam", which made the aconite plants growing there poisonous. Seneca's Cerberus too, like Ovid's, reacts violently to his first sight of daylight. Enraged, the previously submissive Cerberus struggles furiously, and Heracles and Theseus must together drag Cerberus into the light. Pausanias reports that according to local legend Cerberus was brought up through a chasm in the earth dedicated to Clymenus (Hades) next to the sanctuary of Chthonia at Hermione, and in Euripides' Heracles, though Euripides does not say that Cerberus was brought out there, he has Cerberus kept for a while in the "grove of Chthonia" at Hermione. Pausanias also mentions that at Mount Laphystion in Boeotia, that there was a statue of Heracles Charops ("with bright eyes"), where the Boeotians said Heracles brought up Cerberus. Other locations which perhaps were also associated with Cerberus being brought out of the underworld include, Hierapolis, Thesprotia, and Emeia near Mycenae. Presented to Eurystheus, returned to Hades In some accounts, after bringing Cerberus up from the underworld, Heracles paraded the captured Cerberus through Greece. Euphorion has Heracles lead Cerberus through Midea in Argolis, as women and children watch in fear, and Diodorus Siculus says of Cerberus, that Heracles "carried him away to the amazement of all and exhibited him to men." Seneca has Juno complain of Heracles "highhandedly parading the black hound through Argive cities" and Heracles greeted by laurel-wreathed crowds, "singing" his praises. Then, according to Apollodorus, Heracles showed Cerberus to Eurystheus, as commanded, after which he returned Cerberus to the underworld. However, according to Hesychius of Alexandria, Cerberus escaped, presumably returning to the underworld on his own. Principal sources thumb\|left\|Cerberus, with the gluttons in Dante's Third Circle of Hell. William Blake. The earliest mentions of Cerberus (c. 8th – 7th century BC) occur in Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, and Hesiod's Theogony. Homer does not name or describe Cerberus, but simply refers to Heracles being sent by Eurystheus to fetch the "hound of Hades", with Hermes and Athena as his guides, and, in a possible reference to Cerberus' capture, that Heracles shot Hades with an arrow. According to Hesiod, Cerberus was the offspring of the monsters Echidna and Typhon, was fifty-headed, ate raw flesh, and was the "brazen-voiced hound of Hades", who fawns on those that enter the house of Hades, but eats those who try to leave. Stesichorus (c. 630 – 555 BC) apparently wrote a poem called Cerberus, of which virtually nothing remains. However the early-sixth-century BC-lost Corinthian cup from Argos, which showed a single head, and snakes growing out from many places on his body, was possibly influenced by Stesichorus' poem. The mid-sixth-century BC cup from Laconia gives Cerberus three heads and a snake tail, which eventually becomes the standard representation. Pindar (c. 522 – c. 443 BC) apparently gave Cerberus one hundred heads. Bacchylides (5th century BC) also mentions Heracles bringing Cerberus up from the underworld, with no further details. Sophocles (c. 495 – c. 405 BC), in his Women of Trachis, makes Cerberus three-headed, and in his Oedipus at Colonus, the Chorus asks that Oedipus be allowed to pass the gates of the underworld undisturbed by Cerberus, called here the "untamable Watcher of Hades". Euripides (c. 480 – 406 BC) describes Cerberus as three-headed, and three-bodied, says that Heracles entered the underworld at Tainaron, has Heracles say that Cerberus was not given to him by Persephone, but rather he fought and conquered Cerberus, "for I had been lucky enough to witness the rites of the initiated", an apparent reference to his initiation into the Eleusinian Mysteries, and says that the capture of Cerberus was the last of Heracles' labors. The lost play Pirthous (attributed to either Euripides or his late contemporary Critias) has Heracles say that he came to the underworld at the command of Eurystheus, who had ordered him to bring back Cerberus alive, not because he wanted to see Cerberus, but only because Eurystheus thought Heracles would not be able to accomplish the task, and that Heracles "overcame the beast" and "received favour from the gods". thumb\|right\| Cerberus and Heracles. Etching by Antonio Tempesta (Florence, Italy, 1555–1630). The Los Angeles County Museum of Art. Plato (c. 425 – 348 BC) refers to Cerberus' composite nature, citing Cerberus, along with Scylla and the Chimera, as an example from "ancient fables" of a creature composed of many animal forms "grown together in one". Euphorion of Chalcis (3rd century BC) describes Cerberus as having multiple snake tails, and eyes that flashed, like sparks from a blacksmith's forge, or the volcanic Mount Etna. From Euphorion, also comes the first mention of a story which told that at Heraclea Pontica, where Cerberus was brought out of the underworld, by Heracles, Cerberus "vomited bile" from which the poisonous aconite plant grew up. According to Diodorus Siculus (1st century BC), the capture of Cerberus was the eleventh of Heracles' labors, the twelfth and last being stealing the Apples of the Hesperides. Diodorus says that Heracles thought it best to first go to Athens to take part in the Eleusinian Mysteries, "Musaeus, the son of Orpheus, being at that time in charge of the initiatory rites", after which, he entered into the underworld "welcomed like a brother by Persephone", and "receiving the dog Cerberus in chains he carried him away to the amazement of all and exhibited him to men." In Virgil's Aeneid (1st century BC), Aeneas and the Sibyl encounter Cerberus in a cave, where he "lay at vast length", filling the cave "from end to end", blocking the entrance to the underworld. Cerberus is described as "triple-throated", with "three fierce mouths", multiple "large backs", and serpents writhing around his neck. The Sibyl throws Cerberus a loaf laced with honey and herbs to induce sleep, enabling Aeneas to enter the underworld, and so apparently for Virgil—contradicting Hesiod—Cerberus guarded the underworld against entrance. Later Virgil describes Cerberus, in his bloody cave, crouching over half-gnawed bones. In his Georgics, Virgil refers to Cerberus, his "triple jaws agape" being tamed by Orpheus' playing his lyre. Horace (65 – 8 BC) also refers to Cerberus yielding to Orpheus' lyre, here Cerberus has a single dog head, which "like a Fury's is fortified by a hundred snakes", with a "triple-tongued mouth" oozing "fetid breath and gore". Ovid (43 BC – AD 17/18) has Cerberus' mouth produce venom, and like Euphorion, makes Cerberus the cause of the poisonous plant aconite. According to Ovid, Heracles dragged Cerberus from the underworld, emerging from a cave "where 'tis fabled, the plant grew / on soil infected by Cerberian teeth", and dazzled by the daylight, Cerberus spewed out a "poison-foam", which made the aconite plants growing there poisonous. thumb\|left\|Cerberus and Heracles. Etching by Antonio Tempesta (Florence, Italy, 1555–1630). The Los Angeles County Museum of Art. Seneca, in his tragedy Hercules Furens gives a detailed description of Cerberus and his capture. Seneca's Cerberus has three heads, a mane of snakes, and a snake tail, with his three heads being covered in gore, and licked by the many snakes which surround them, and with hearing so acute that he can hear "even ghosts". Seneca has Heracles use his lion-skin as shield, and his wooden club, to beat Cerberus into submission, after which Hades and Persephone, quailing on their thrones, let Heracles lead a chained and submissive Cerberus away. But upon leaving the underworld, at his first sight of daylight, a frightened Cerberus struggles furiously, and Heracles, with the help of Theseus (who had been held captive by Hades, but released, at Heracles' request) drag Cerberus into the light. Seneca, like Diodorus, has Heracles parade the captured Cerberus through Greece. Apollodorus' Cerberus has three dog-heads, a serpent for a tail, and the heads of many snakes on his back. According to Apollodorus, Heracles' twelfth and final labor was to bring back Cerberus from Hades. Heracles first went to Eumolpus to be initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries. Upon his entering the underworld, all the dead flee Heracles except for Meleager and the Gorgon Medusa. Heracles drew his sword against Medusa, but Hermes told Heracles that the dead are mere "empty phantoms". Heracles asked Hades (here called Pluto) for Cerberus, and Hades said that Heracles could take Cerberus provided he was able to subdue him without using weapons. Heracles found Cerberus at the gates of Acheron, and with his arms around Cerberus, though being bitten by Cerberus' serpent tail, Heracles squeezed until Cerberus submitted. Heracles carried Cerberus away, showed him to Eurystheus, then returned Cerberus to the underworld. In an apparently unique version of the story, related by the sixth-century AD Pseudo-Nonnus, Heracles descended into Hades to abduct Persephone, and killed Cerberus on his way back up. Iconography thumb\|upright=1.3\|One of the two earliest depictions of the capture of Cerberus (composed of the last five figures on the right) shows, from right to left: Cerberus, with a single dog head and snakes rising from his body, fleeing right, Hermes, with his characteristic hat (petasos) and caduceus, Heracles, with quiver on his back, stone in left hand, and bow in right, a goddess, standing in front of Hades' throne, facing Heracles, and Hades, with scepter, fleeing left. Drawing of a lost Corinthian cup (c. 590–580 BC) from Argos. The capture of Cerberus was a popular theme in ancient Greek and Roman art. The earliest depictions date from the beginning of the sixth century BC. One of the two earliest depictions, a Corinthian cup (c. 590–580 BC) from Argos (now lost), shows a naked Heracles, with quiver on his back and bow in his right hand, striding left, accompanied by Hermes. Heracles threatens Hades with a stone, who flees left, while a goddess, perhaps Persephone or possibly Athena, standing in front of Hades' throne, prevents the attack. Cerberus, with a single canine head and snakes rising from his head and body, flees right. On the far right a column indicates the entrance to Hades' palace. Many of the elements of this scene—Hermes, Athena, Hades, Persephone, and a column or portico—are common occurrences in later works. The other earliest depiction, a relief pithos fragment from Crete (c. 590–570 BC), is thought to show a single lion-headed Cerberus with a snake (open-mouthed) over his back being led to the right. A mid-sixth-century BC Laconian cup by the Hunt Painter adds several new features to the scene which also become common in later works: three heads, a snake tail, Cerberus' chain and Heracles' club. Here Cerberus has three canine heads, is covered by a shaggy coat of snakes, and has a tail which ends in a snake head. He is being held on a chain leash by Heracles who holds his club raised over head. In Greek art, the vast majority of depictions of Heracles and Cerberus occur on Attic vases. Although the lost Corinthian cup shows Cerberus with a single dog head, and the relief pithos fragment (c. 590–570 BC) apparently shows a single lion-headed Cerberus, in Attic vase painting Cerberus usually has two dog heads. In other art, as in the Laconian cup, Cerberus is usually three-headed. Occasionally in Roman art Cerberus is shown with a large central lion head and two smaller dog heads on either side. thumb\|left\|upright\|Heracles with club in his right hand raised over head and leash in left hand drives ahead of him a two-headed Cerberus with mane down his necks and back and a snake tail. A neck-amphora (c. 530–515 BC) from Vulci (Munich 1493). As in the Corinthian and Laconian cups (and possibly the relief pithos fragment), Cerberus is often depicted as part snake. In Attic vase painting, Cerberus is usually shown with a snake for a tail or a tail which ends in the head of a snake. Snakes are also often shown rising from various parts of his body including snout, head, neck, back, ankles, and paws. Two Attic amphoras from Vulci, one (c. 530–515 BC) by the Bucci Painter (Munich 1493), the other (c. 525–510 BC) by the Andokides painter (Louvre F204), in addition to the usual two heads and snake tail, show Cerberus with a mane down his necks and back, another typical Cerberian feature of Attic vase painting. Andokides' amphora also has a small snake curling up from each of Cerberus' two heads. Besides this lion-like mane and the occasional lion-head mentioned above, Cerberus was sometimes shown with other leonine features. A pitcher (c. 530–500) shows Cerberus with mane and claws, while a first-century BC sardonyx cameo shows Cerberus with leonine body and paws. In addition, a limestone relief fragment from Taranto (c. 320–300 BC) shows Cerberus with three lion-like heads. During the second quarter of the 5th century BC the capture of Cerberus disappears from Attic vase painting. After the early third century BC, the subject becomes rare everywhere until the Roman period. In Roman art the capture of Cerberus is usually shown together with other labors. Heracles and Cerberus are usually alone, with Heracles leading Cerberus. Cerberus rationalized At least as early as the 6th century BC, some ancient writers attempted to explain away various fantastical features of Greek mythology; included in these are various rationalized accounts of the Cerberus story. The earliest such account (late 6th century BC) is that of Hecataeus of Miletus. In his account Cerberus was not a dog at all, but rather simply a large venomous snake, which lived on Tainaron. The serpent was called the "hound of Hades" only because anyone bitten by it died immediately, and it was this snake that Heracles brought to Eurystheus. The geographer Pausanias (who preserves for us Hecataeus' version of the story) points out that, since Homer does not describe Cerberus, Hecataeus' account does not necessarily conflict with Homer, since Homer's "Hound of Hades" may not in fact refer to an actual dog. Other rationalized accounts make Cerberus out to be a normal dog. According to Palaephatus (4th century BC) Cerberus was one of the two dogs who guarded the cattle of Geryon, the other being Orthrus. Geryon lived in a city named Tricranium (in Greek Tricarenia, "Three-Heads"), from which name both Cerberus and Geryon came to be called "three-headed". Heracles killed Orthus, and drove away Geryon's cattle, with Cerberus following along behind. Molossus, a Mycenaen, offered to buy Cerberus from Eurystheus (presumably having received the dog, along with the cattle, from Heracles). But when Eurystheus refused, Molossus stole the dog and penned him up in a cave in Tainaron. Eurystheus commanded Heracles to find Cerberus and bring him back. After searching the entire Peloponnesus, Heracles found where it was said Cerberus was being held, went down into the cave, and brought up Cerberus, after which it was said: "Heracles descended through the cave into Hades and brought up Cerberus." In the rationalized account of Philochorus, in which Heracles rescues Theseus, Perithous is eaten by Cerberus. In this version of the story, Aidoneus (i.e., "Hades") is the mortal king of the Molossians, with a wife named Persephone, a daughter named Kore (another name for the goddess Persephone) and a large mortal dog named Cerberus, with whom all suitors of his daughter were required to fight. After having stolen Helen, to be Theseus' wife, Theseus and Perithous, attempt to abduct Kore, for Perithous, but Aidoneus catches the two heroes, imprisons Theseus, and feeds Perithous to Cerberus. Later, while a guest of Aidoneus, Heracles asks Aidoneus to release Theseus, as a favor, which Aidoneus grants. A 2nd-century AD Greek known as Heraclitus the paradoxographer (not to be confused with the 5th-century BC Greek philosopher Heraclitus)—claimed that Cerberus had two pups that were never away from their father, which made Cerberus appear to be three-headed. Cerberus allegorized thumb\|left\|Virgil feeding Cerberus earth in the Third Circle of Hell. Illustration from Dante's Inferno by Gustave Doré. Servius, a medieval commentator on Virgil's Aeneid, derived Cerberus' name from the Greek word creoboros meaning "flesh-devouring" (see above), and held that Cerberus symbolized the corpse-consuming earth, with Heracles' triumph over Cerberus representing his victory over earthly desires. Later, the mythographer Fulgentius, allegorizes Cerberus' three heads as representing the three origins of human strife: "nature, cause, and accident", and (drawing on the same flesh-devouring etymology as Servius) as symbolizing "the three ages—infancy, youth, old age, at which death enters the world." The Byzantine historian and bishop Eusebius wrote that Cerberus was represented with three heads, because the positions of the sun above the earth are three—rising, midday, and setting. The later Vatican Mythographers repeat and expand upon the traditions of Servius and Fulgentius. All three Vatican Mythographers repeat Servius' derivation of Cerberus' name from creoboros. The Second Vatican Mythographer repeats (nearly word for word) what Fulgentius had to say about Cerberus, while the Third Vatican Mythographer, in another very similar passage to Fugentius', says (more specifically than Fugentius), that for "the philosophers" Cerberus represented hatred, his three heads symbolizing the three kinds of human hatred: natural, causal, and casual (i.e. accidental). The Second and Third Vatican Mythographers, note that the three brothers Zeus, Poseidon and Hades each have tripartite insignia, associating Hades' three-headed Cerberus, with Zeus' three-forked thunderbolt, and Poseidon's three-pronged trident, while the Third Vatican Mythographer adds that "some philosophers think of Cerberus as the tripartite earth: Asia, Africa, and Europe. This earth, swallowing up bodies, sends souls to Tartarus." Virgil described Cerberus as "ravenous" (fame rabida), and a rapacious Cerberus became proverbial. Thus Cerberus came to symbolize avarice, and so, for example, in Dante's Inferno, Cerberus is placed in the Third Circle of Hell, guarding over the gluttons, where he "rends the spirits, flays and quarters them," and Dante (perhaps echoing Servius' association of Cerberus with earth) has his guide Virgil take up handfuls of earth and throw them into Cerberus' "rapacious gullets." Namesakes thumb\|right\|Cerberus constellation In the constellation Cerberus introduced by Johannes Hevelius in 1687, Cerberus is drawn as a three-headed snake, held in Hercules' hand (previously these stars had been depicted as a branch of the tree on which grew the Apples of the Hesperides). In 1829, French naturalist Georges Cuvier gave the name Cerberus to a genus of Asian snakes, which are commonly called "dog-faced water snakes" in English. In 1988 the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) developed Kerberos, a computer-network authentication protocol, named after Cerberus. In 2023 European heatwaves, the most significant of which was named "Cerberus Heatwave", which brought the hottest temperatures ever recorded in Europe. See also List of Greek mythological creatures Sharvara and Shyama of Hindu mythology Dormarch – part of the Cŵn Annwn Hellhound Ammit, a chthonic creature in Egyptian mythology Cadejo Notes References Apollodorus, Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Apuleius, Metamorphoses (The Golden Ass), Volume I: Books 1–6. Edited and translated by J. Arthur Hanson. Loeb Classical Library No. 44. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1996. Online version at Harvard University Press. Aristophanes, Frogs, Matthew Dillon, Ed., Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University, 1995. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Bacchylides, Odes, translated by Diane Arnson Svarlien. 1991. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Bloomfield, Maurice, Cerberus, the Dog of Hades: The History of an Idea, Open Court publishing Company, 1905. Online version at Internet Archive Bowra, C. M., Greek Lyric Poetry: From Alcman to Simonides, Clarendon Press, 2001. . Diodorus Siculus, Diodorus Siculus: The Library of History. Translated by C. H. Oldfather. Twelve volumes. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1989. Euripides. Fragments: Oedipus-Chrysippus. Other Fragments. Edited and translated by Christopher Collard, Martin Cropp. Loeb Classical Library No. 506. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2009. Euripides, Heracles, translated by E. P. Coleridge in The Complete Greek Drama, edited by Whitney J. Oates and Eugene O'Neill Jr. Volume 1. New York. Random House. 1938. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Fowler, R. L. (2000), Early Greek Mythography: Volume 1: Text and Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2000. . Fowler, R. L. (2013), Early Greek Mythography: Volume 2: Commentary, Oxford University Press, 2013. . Freeman, Kathleen, Ancilla to the Pre-Socratic Philosophers: A Complete Translation of the Fragments in Diels, Fragmente Der Vorsokratiker, Harvard University Press, 1983. . Gantz, Timothy, Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: (Vol. 1), (Vol. 2). Hard, Robin, The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology: Based on H.J. Rose's "Handbook of Greek Mythology", Psychology Press, 2004, . Google Books. Harding, Phillip, The Story of Athens: The Fragments of the Local Chronicles of Attika, Routledge, 2007. . Hawes, Greta, Rationalizing Myth in Antiquity, OUP Oxford, 2014. . Hesiod, Theogony, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PhD in two volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Homer; The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Hopman, Marianne Govers, Scylla: Myth, Metaphor, Paradox, Cambridge University Press, 2013. . Horace, The Odes and Carmen Saeculare of Horace. John Conington. trans. London. George Bell and Sons. 1882. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Hyginus, The Myths of Hyginus. Edited and translated by Mary A. Grant, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1960. Kirk, G. S. 1990 The Iliad: A Commentary: Volume 2, Books 5–8, . Lansing, Richard (editor), The Dante Encyclopedia, Routledge, 2010. . Lightfoot, J. L. Hellenistic Collection: Philitas. Alexander of Aetolia. Hermesianax. Euphorion. Parthenius. Edited and translated by J. L. Lightfoot. Loeb Classical Library No. 508. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2010. . Online version at Harvard University Press. Lucan, Pharsalia, Sir Edward Ridley. London. Longmans, Green, and Co. 1905. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Markantonatos, Andreas, Tragic Narrative: A Narratological Study of Sophocles' Oedipus at Colonus, Walter de Gruyter, 2002. . Nimmo Smith, Jennifer, A Christian's Guide to Greek Culture: The Pseudo-nonnus Commentaries on Sermons 4, 5, 39 and 43. Liverpool University Press, 2001. . Ogden, Daniel (2013a), Drakōn: Dragon Myth and Serpent Cult in the Greek and Roman Worlds, Oxford University Press, 2013. . Ogden, Daniel (2013b), Dragons, Serpents, and Slayers in the Classical and early Christian Worlds: A sourcebook, Oxford University Press. . Ovid. Heroides. Amores. Translated by Grant Showerman. Revised by G. P. Goold. Loeb Classical Library 41. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1977. . Online version at Harvard University Press. Ovid, Metamorphoses, Brookes More. Boston. Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Papadopoulou, Thalia, Heracles and Euripidean Tragedy, Cambridge University Press, 2005. . Pausanias, Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Pepin, Ronald E., The Vatican Mythographers, Fordham University Press, 2008. Pindar, Odes, Diane Arnson Svarlien. 1990. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Pipili, Maria, Laconian Iconography of the Sixth Century B.C., Oxford University, 1987. Plato, Republic Books 6–10, Translated by Paul Shorey, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1969. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Plutarch. Lives, Volume I: Theseus and Romulus. Lycurgus and Numa. Solon and Publicola. Translated by Bernadotte Perrin. Loeb Classical Library No. 46. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1914. . Theseus at the Perseus Digital Library. Propertius Elegies Edited and translated by G. P. Goold. Loeb Classical Library 18. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1990. Online version at Harvard University Press. Quintus Smyrnaeus, Quintus Smyrnaeus: The Fall of Troy, Translator: A.S. Way; Harvard University Press, Cambridge MA, 1913. Internet Archive Room, Adrian, Who's Who in Classical Mythology, Gramercy Books, 2003. . Schefold, Karl (1966), Myth and Legend in Early Greek Art, London, Thames and Hudson. Schefold, Karl (1992), Gods and Heroes in Late Archaic Greek Art, assisted by Luca Giuliani, Cambridge University Press, 1992. . Seneca, Tragedies, Volume I: Hercules. Trojan Women. Phoenician Women. Medea. Phaedra. Edited and translated by John G. Fitch. Loeb Classical Library No. 62. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2002. . Online version at Harvard University Press. Seneca, Tragedies, Volume II: Oedipus. Agamemnon. Thyestes. Hercules on Oeta. Octavia. Edited and translated by John G. Fitch. Loeb Classical Library No. 78. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2004. . Online version at Harvard University Press. Smallwood, Valerie, "M. Herakles and Kerberos (Labour XI)" in Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae (LIMC) V.1 Artemis Verlag, Zürich and Munich, 1990. . pp. 85–100. Sophocles, Women of Trachis, Translated by Robert Torrance. Houghton Mifflin. 1966. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Statius, Statius with an English Translation by J. H. Mozley, Volume I, Silvae, Thebaid, Books I–IV, Loeb Classical Library No. 206, London: William Heinemann, Ltd., New York: G. P. Putnamm's Sons, 1928. . Internet Archive Statius, Statius with an English Translation by J. H. Mozley, Volume II, Thebaid, Books V–XII, Achilleid, Loeb Classical Library No. 207, London: William Heinemann, Ltd., New York: G. P. Putnamm's Sons, 1928. . Internet Archive Stern, Jacob, Palaephatus Πεπὶ Ὰπίστων, On Unbelievable Tales, Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, 1996. . Trypanis, C. A., Gelzer, Thomas; Whitman, Cedric, CALLIMACHUS, MUSAEUS, Aetia, Iambi, Hecale and Other Fragments. Hero and Leander, Harvard University Press, 1975. . Tzetzes, Chiliades, editor Gottlieb Kiessling, F.C.G. Vogel, 1826. (English translation, Books II–IV, by Gary Berkowitz. Internet Archive). Virgil, Aeneid, Theodore C. Williams. trans. Boston. Houghton Mifflin Co. 1910. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Virgil, Bucolics, Aeneid, and Georgics of Vergil. J. B. Greenough. Boston. Ginn & Co. 1900. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library West, David, Horace, Odes 3, Oxford University Press, 2002. . West, M. L. (2003), Greek Epic Fragments: From the Seventh to the Fifth Centuries BC. Edited and translated by Martin L. West. Loeb Classical Library No. 497. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2003. Online version at Harvard University Press. Whitbread, Leslie George, Fulgentius the Mythographer. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1971. Woodford, Susan, Spier, Jeffrey, "Kerberos", in Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae (LIMC) VI.1 Artemis Verlag, Zürich and Munich, 1992. . pp. 24–32. Xenophon, Anabasis in Xenophon in Seven Volumes, 3. Carleton L. Brownson. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts; William Heinemann, Ltd., London. 1922. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. External links Category:Greek underworld Category:Characters in Book VI of the Aeneid Category:Residents of the Greek underworld Category:Mythological dogs Category:Mythological hybrids Category:Symbols of Hades Category:Labours of Hercules Category:Mythological canines Category:Deeds of Hermes Category:Monsters in Greek mythology Category:Mythical many-headed creatures Category:Greek legendary creatures Category:Dogs in religion Category:Metamorphoses into flowers in Greek mythology Category:Characters in the Divine Comedy	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerberus	2025-04-05T18:27:55.341374
6698	Camel case	alt=\|thumb\|Camel case is named after the "hump" of its protruding capital letter, similar to the hump of common camels. Camel case (sometimes stylized autologically as camelCase or CamelCase, also known as camel caps or more formally as medial capitals) is the practice of writing phrases without spaces or punctuation and with capitalized words. The format indicates the first word starting with either case, then the following words having an initial uppercase letter. Common examples include YouTube, PowerPoint, HarperCollins, FedEx, iPhone, eBay, and LaGuardia. Camel case is often used as a naming convention in computer programming. It is also sometimes used in online usernames such as JohnSmith, and to make multi-word domain names more legible, for example in promoting EasyWidgetCompany.com. The more specific terms Pascal case and upper camel case refer to a joined phrase where the first letter of each word is capitalized, including the initial letter of the first word. Similarly, lower camel case (also known as dromedary case) requires an initial lowercase letter. Some people and organizations, notably Microsoft, use the term camel case only for lower camel case, designating Pascal case for the upper camel case. For clarity, this article leaves the definition of camel case ambiguous with respect to capitalization, and uses the more specific terms when necessary. Camel case is distinct from several other styles: title case, which capitalizes all words but retains the spaces between them; Tall Man lettering, which uses capitals to emphasize the differences between similar-looking product names such as predniSONE and predniSOLONE; and snake case, which uses underscores interspersed with lowercase letters (sometimes with the first letter capitalized). A combination of snake and camel case (identifiers Written_Like_This) is recommended in the Ada 95 style guide. Variations and synonyms The practice has various names, including: camelBack (or camel-back) notation or CamelCaps camel case or CamelCase CapitalizedWords or CapWords for upper camel case in Python compoundNames Embedded caps (or embedded capitals) HumpBack (or hump-back) notation InterCaps or intercapping (abbreviation of Internal Capitalization) medial capitals, recommended by the Oxford English Dictionary mixedCase for lower camel case in Python (after the Pascal programming language) Smalltalk case WikiWord or WikiCase (especially in older wikis) History The earliest known occurrence of the term "InterCaps" on Usenet is in an April 1990 post to the group alt.folklore.computers by Avi Rappoport. The earliest use of the name "Camel Case" occurs in 1995, in a post by Newton Love. Love has since said, "With the advent of programming languages having these sorts of constructs, the humpiness of the style made me call it HumpyCase at first, before I settled on CamelCase. I had been calling it CamelCase for years. ... The citation above was just the first time I had used the name on USENET." The term "Pascal Case" was coined in design discussions for the .NET Framework, first released in 2002. Traditional use in natural language In word combinations The use of medial capitals as a convention in the regular spelling of everyday texts is rare, but is used in some languages as a solution to particular problems which arise when two words or segments are combined. In Italian, pronouns can be suffixed to verbs, and because the honorific form of second-person pronouns is capitalized, this can produce a sentence like non ho trovato il tempo di risponderLe ("I have not found time to answer you" – where Le means "to you"). In German, the medial capital letter I, called Binnen-I, is sometimes used in a word like StudentInnen ("students") to indicate that both Studenten ("male students") and Studentinnen ("female students") are intended simultaneously. However, mid-word capitalization does not conform to the German orthography prescribed by the Rat für deutsche Rechtschreibung (Council for German Orthography) apart from proper names like McDonald; the previous example could be correctly written using parentheses as Student(inn)en, analogous to "congress(wo)men" in English. In Irish, camel case is used when an inflectional prefix is attached to a proper noun, for example ("in Galway"), from ("Galway"); ("the Scottish person"), from ("Scottish person"); and ("to Ireland"), from ("Ireland"). In recent Scottish Gaelic orthography, a hyphen has been inserted: . This convention of inflectional prefix is also used by several written Bantu languages (e.g. isiZulu, "Zulu language") and several indigenous languages of Mexico (e.g. Nahuatl, Totonacan, Mixe–Zoque, and some Oto-Manguean languages). In Dutch, when capitalizing the digraph ij, both the letter I and the letter J are capitalized, for example in the country name IJsland ("Iceland"). In Chinese pinyin, camel case is sometimes used for place names so that readers can more easily pick out the different parts of the name. For example, places like Beijing (北京), Qinhuangdao (秦皇岛), and Daxing'anling (大兴安岭) can be written as BeiJing, QinHuangDao, and DaXingAnLing respectively, with the number of capital letters equaling the number of Chinese characters. Writing word compounds only by the initial letter of each character is also acceptable in some cases, so Beijing can be written as BJ, Qinghuangdao as QHD, and Daxing'anling as DXAL. In English, medial capitals are usually only found in Scottish or Irish "Mac-" or "Mc-" patronymic names, where for example MacDonald, McDonald, and Macdonald are common spelling variants of MacDonald (son of Dòmhnall), and in Anglo-Norman "Fitz-" names, where for example both FitzGerald and Fitzgerald (son of Gerald) are found. In their English style guide The King's English, first published in 1906, H. W. and F. G. Fowler suggested that medial capitals could be used in triple compound words where hyphens would cause ambiguity—the examples they give are KingMark-like (as against King Mark-like) and Anglo-SouthAmerican (as against Anglo-South American). However, they described the system as "too hopelessly contrary to use at present". Some French names also uses CamelCase names, such as LeBeau (surname), LaRue, DeMordaunt, and Italian names DeRose/DeRosa. In transliterations In the scholarly transliteration of languages written in other scripts, medial capitals are used in similar situations. For example, in transliterated Hebrew, haIvri means "the Hebrew person" or "the Jew" and b'Yerushalayim means "in Jerusalem". In Tibetan proper names like rLobsang, the "r" stands for a prefix glyph in the original script that functions as tone marker rather than a normal letter. Another example is tsIurku, a Latin transcription of the Chechen term for the capping stone of the characteristic Medieval defensive towers of Chechnya and Ingushetia; the letter "I" (palochka) is not actually capital, denoting a phoneme distinct from the one transcribed as "i". In abbreviations Medial capitals are traditionally used in abbreviations to reflect the capitalization that the words would have when written out in full, for example in the academic titles PhD or BSc. A more recent example is NaNoWriMo, a contraction of National Novel Writing Month and the designation for both the annual event and the nonprofit organization that runs it. In German, the names of statutes are abbreviated using embedded capitals, e.g. StGB for (Criminal Code), PatG for (Patent Act), BVerfG for (Federal Constitutional Court), or the very common GmbH, for (private limited company). In this context, there can even be three or more camel case capitals, e.g. in TzBfG for (Act on Part-Time and Limited Term Occupations). In French, camel case acronyms such as OuLiPo (1960) were favored for a time as alternatives to initialisms. Camel case is often used to transliterate initialisms into alphabets where two letters may be required to represent a single character of the original alphabet, e.g., DShK from Cyrillic ДШК. History of modern technical use Chemical formulas The first systematic and widespread use of medial capitals for technical purposes was the notation for chemical formulas invented by the Swedish chemist Jacob Berzelius in 1813. To replace the multitude of naming and symbol conventions used by chemists until that time, he proposed to indicate each chemical element by a symbol of one or two letters, the first one being capitalized. The capitalization allowed formulas like "NaCl" to be written without spaces and still be parsed without ambiguity. Berzelius' system continues to be used, augmented with three-letter symbols such as "Uue" for unconfirmed or unknown elements and abbreviations for some common substituents (especially in the field of organic chemistry, for instance "Et" for "ethyl-"). This has been further extended to describe the amino acid sequences of proteins and other similar domains. Early use in trademarks Since the early 20th century, medial capitals have occasionally been used for corporate names and product trademarks, such as DryIce Corporation (1925) marketed the solid form of carbon dioxide (CO2) as "Dry Ice", thus leading to its common name. CinemaScope and VistaVision, rival widescreen movie formats (1953) ShopKo (1962), retail stores, later renamed Shopko MisteRogers Neighborhood, the TV series also called Mister Rogers' Neighborhood (1968) ChemGrass (1965), later renamed AstroTurf (1967) ConAgra (1971), formerly Consolidated Mills MasterCraft (1968), a sports boat manufacturer AeroVironment (1971) PolyGram (1972), formerly Grammophon-Philips Group United HealthCare (1977) MasterCard (1979), formerly Master Charge SportsCenter (1979) Computer programming In the 1970s and 1980s, medial capitals were adopted as a standard or alternative naming convention for multi-word identifiers in several programming languages. The precise origin of the convention in computer programming has not yet been settled. A 1954 conference proceedings occasionally informally referred to IBM's Speedcoding system as "SpeedCo". Christopher Strachey's paper on GPM (1965), shows a program that includes some medial capital identifiers, including "NextCh" and "WriteSymbol" (This was most likely the influence of the CPL language, of which Strachey was one of the designers) Multiple-word descriptive identifiers with embedded spaces such as end of file or char table cannot be used in most programming languages because the spaces between the words would be parsed as delimiters between tokens. The alternative of running the words together as in endoffile or chartable is difficult to understand and possibly misleading; for example, chartable is an English word (able to be charted), whereas charTable means a table of chars . Some early programming languages, notably Lisp (1958) and COBOL (1959), addressed this problem by allowing a hyphen ("-") to be used between words of compound identifiers, as in "END-OF-FILE": Lisp because it worked well with prefix notation (a Lisp parser would not treat a hyphen in the middle of a symbol as a subtraction operator) and COBOL because its operators were individual English words. This convention remains in use in these languages, and is also common in program names entered on a command line, as in Unix. However, this solution was not adequate for mathematically oriented languages such as FORTRAN (1955) and ALGOL (1958), which used the hyphen as an infix subtraction operator. FORTRAN ignored blanks altogether, so programmers could use embedded spaces in variable names. However, this feature was not very useful since the early versions of the language restricted identifiers to no more than six characters. Exacerbating the problem, common punched card character sets of the time were uppercase only and lacked other special characters. It was only in the late 1960s that the widespread adoption of the ASCII character set made both lowercase and the underscore character _ universally available. Some languages, notably C, promptly adopted underscores as word separators, and identifiers such as end_of_file are still prevalent in C programs and libraries (as well as in later languages influenced by C, such as Perl and Python). However, some languages and programmers chose to avoid underscores and adopted camel case instead. Charles Simonyi, who worked at Xerox PARC in the 1970s and later oversaw the creation of Microsoft's Office suite of applications, invented and taught the use of Hungarian Notation, one version of which uses the lowercase letter(s) at the start of a (capitalized) variable name to denote its type. One account claims that the camel case style first became popular at Xerox PARC around 1978, with the Mesa programming language developed for the Xerox Alto computer. This machine lacked an underscore key (whose place was taken by a left arrow "←"), and the hyphen and space characters were not permitted in identifiers, leaving camel case as the only viable scheme for readable multiword names. The PARC Mesa Language Manual (1979) included a coding standard with specific rules for upper and lower camel case that was strictly followed by the Mesa libraries and the Alto operating system. Niklaus Wirth, the inventor of Pascal, came to appreciate camel case during a sabbatical at PARC and used it in Modula, his next programming language. The Smalltalk language, which was developed originally on the Alto, also uses camel case instead of underscores. This language became quite popular in the early 1980s, and thus may also have been instrumental in spreading the style outside PARC. Upper camel case (or "Pascal case") is used in Wolfram Language in computer algebraic system Mathematica for predefined identifiers. User defined identifiers should start with a lower case letter. This avoids the conflict between predefined and user defined identifiers both today and in all future versions. C# variable names are recommended to follow the lower camel case convention. Computer companies and products Whatever its origins in the computing field, the convention was used in the names of computer companies and their commercial brands, since the late 1970s — a trend that continues to this day: (1977) CompuServe (1978) WordStar (1979) VisiCalc (1982) MicroProse, WordPerfect (1983) NetWare (1984) LaserJet, MacWorks, PostScript (1985) PageMaker (1987) ClarisWorks, HyperCard, PowerPoint (1990) WorldWideWeb (the first web browser), later renamed Nexus Spread to mainstream usage In the 1980s and 1990s, after the advent of the personal computer exposed hacker culture to the world, camel case then became fashionable for corporate trade names in non-computer fields as well. Mainstream usage was well established by 1990: (1980) EchoStar (1984) BellSouth (1985) EastEnders (1986) SpaceCamp (1990) HarperCollins, SeaTac (1998) PricewaterhouseCoopers, merger of Price Waterhouse and Coopers During the dot-com bubble of the late 1990s, the lowercase prefixes "e" (for "electronic") and "i" (for "Internet", "information", "intelligent", etc.) became quite common, giving rise to names like Apple's iMac and the eBox software platform. In 1998, Dave Yost suggested that chemists use medial capitals to aid readability of long chemical names, e.g. write AmidoPhosphoRibosylTransferase instead of amidophosphoribosyltransferase. This usage was not widely adopted. Camel case is sometimes used for abbreviated names of certain neighborhoods, e.g. New York City neighborhoods SoHo (South of Houston Street) and TriBeCa (Triangle Below Canal Street) and San Francisco's SoMa (South of Market). Such usages erode quickly, so the neighborhoods are now typically rendered as Soho, Tribeca, and Soma. Internal capitalization has also been used for other technical codes like HeLa (1983). Current usage in computing Programming and coding The use of medial caps for compound identifiers is recommended by the coding style guidelines of many organizations or software projects. For some languages (such as Mesa, Pascal, Modula, Java and Microsoft's .NET) this practice is recommended by the language developers or by authoritative manuals and has therefore become part of the language's "culture". Style guidelines often distinguish between upper and lower camel case, typically specifying which variety should be used for specific kinds of entities: variables, record fields, methods, procedures, functions, subroutines, types, etc. These rules are sometimes supported by static analysis tools that check source code for adherence. The original Hungarian notation for programming, for example, specifies that a lowercase abbreviation for the "usage type" (not data type) should prefix all variable names, with the remainder of the name in upper camel case; as such it is a form of lower camel case. Programming identifiers often need to contain acronyms and initialisms that are already in uppercase, such as "old HTML file". By analogy with the title case rules, the natural camel case rendering would have the abbreviation all in uppercase, namely "oldHTMLFile". However, this approach is problematic when two acronyms occur together (e.g., "parse DBM XML" would become "parseDBMXML") or when the standard mandates lower camel case but the name begins with an abbreviation (e.g. "SQL server" would become "sQLServer"). For this reason, some programmers prefer to treat abbreviations as if they were words and write "oldHtmlFile", "parseDbmXml" or "sqlServer". However, this can make it harder to recognize that a given word is intended as an acronym. Difficulties arise when identifiers have different meaning depending only on the case, as can occur with mathematical functions or trademarks. In this situation changing the case of an identifier might not be an option and an alternative name need be chosen. Wiki link markup Camel case is used in some wiki markup languages for terms that should be automatically linked to other wiki pages. This convention was originally used in Ward Cunningham's original wiki software, WikiWikiWeb, and can be activated in most other wikis. Some wiki engines such as TiddlyWiki, Trac and PmWiki make use of it in the default settings, but usually also provide a configuration mechanism or plugin to disable it. Wikipedia formerly used camel case linking as well, but switched to explicit link markup using square brackets and many other wiki sites have done the same. MediaWiki, for example, does not support camel case for linking. Some wikis that do not use camel case linking may still use the camel case as a naming convention, such as AboutUs. Other uses The NIEM registry requires that XML data elements use upper camel case and XML attributes use lower camel case. Most popular command-line interfaces and scripting languages cannot easily handle file names that contain embedded spaces (usually requiring the name to be put in quotes). Therefore, users of those systems often resort to camel case (or underscores, hyphens and other "safe" characters) for compound file names like MyJobResume.pdf. Microblogging and social networking services that limit the number of characters in a message are potential outlets for medial capitals. Using camel case between words reduces the number of spaces, and thus the number of characters, in a given message, allowing more content to fit into the limited space. Hashtags, especially long ones, often use camel case to maintain readability (e.g. #CollegeStudentProblems is easier to read than #collegestudentproblems); this practice improves accessibility as screen readers recognize CamelCase in parsing composite hashtags. In website URLs, spaces are percent-encoded as "%20", making the address longer and less human readable. By omitting spaces, camel case does not have this problem. Readability studies Camel case has been criticized as negatively impacting readability due to the removal of spaces and uppercasing of every word. A 2009 study of 135 subjects comparing snake case (underscored identifiers) to camel case found that camel case identifiers were recognized with higher accuracy among all subjects. Subjects recognized snake case identifiers more quickly than camel case identifiers. Training in camel case sped up camel case recognition and slowed snake case recognition, although this effect involved coefficients with high p-values. The study also conducted a subjective survey and found that non-programmers either preferred underscores or had no preference, and 38% of programmers trained in camel case stated a preference for underscores. However, these preferences had no statistical correlation to accuracy or speed when controlling for other variables. A 2010 follow-up study used a similar study design with 15 subjects consisting of expert programmers trained primarily in snake case. It used a static rather than animated stimulus and found perfect accuracy in both styles except for one incorrect camel case response. Subjects recognized identifiers in snake case more quickly than camel case. The study used eye-tracking equipment and found that the difference in speed for its subjects was primarily due to the fact that average duration of fixations for camel-case was significantly higher than that of snake case for 3-part identifiers. The survey recorded a mixture of preferred identifier styles but again there was no correlation of preferred style to accuracy or speed. See also References External links Camel Case Guide & Converter, further reading on usage with examples Examples and history of CamelCase, also WordsSmashedTogetherLikeSo .NET Framework General Reference Capitalization Styles What's in a nAME(cq)?, by Bill Walsh, at The Slot The Science of Word Recognition, by Kevin Larson, Advanced Reading Technology, Microsoft Corporation Convert text to CamelCase OASIS Cover Pages: CamelCase for Naming XML-Related Components Convert text to CamelCase, Title Case, Uppercase and lowercase Demystifying Common Casings in Programming: What They Are and When to Use Them Category:Capitalization Category:Naming conventions Category:Typography Category:Source code Category:Metaphors referring to camels	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camel_case	2025-04-05T18:27:55.404054
6700	Cereal	}} ing a cereal with a combine harvester accompanied by a tractor and trailer.]] s: (top) pearl millet, rice, barley<br/>(middle) sorghum, maize, oats<br/>(bottom) millet, wheat, rye, triticale ]] A cereal is a grass cultivated for its edible grain. Cereals are the world's largest crops, and are therefore staple foods. They include rice, wheat, rye, oats, barley, millet, and maize. Edible grains from other plant families, such as buckwheat and quinoa, are pseudocereals. Most cereals are annuals, producing one crop from each planting, though rice is sometimes grown as a perennial. Winter varieties are hardy enough to be planted in the autumn, becoming dormant in the winter, and harvested in spring or early summer; spring varieties are planted in spring and harvested in late summer. The term cereal is derived from the name of the Roman goddess of grain crops and fertility, Ceres. Cereals were domesticated in the Neolithic around 8,000 years ago. Wheat and barley were domesticated in the Fertile Crescent; rice was domesticated in East Asia, and sorghum and millet were domesticated in West Africa. Maize was domesticated by Indigenous peoples of the Americas in southern Mexico about 9,000 years ago. In the 20th century, cereal productivity was greatly increased by the Green Revolution. This increase in production has accompanied a growing international trade, with some countries producing large portions of the cereal supply for other countries. Cereals provide food eaten directly as whole grains, usually cooked, or they are ground to flour and made into bread, porridge, and other products. Cereals have a high starch content, enabling them to be fermented into alcoholic drinks such as beer. Cereal farming has a substantial environmental impact, and is often produced in high-intensity monocultures. The environmental harms can be mitigated by sustainable practices which reduce the impact on soil and improve biodiversity, such as no-till farming and intercropping. History Origins ]] Wheat, barley, rye, and oats were gathered and eaten in the Fertile Crescent during the early Neolithic. Cereal grains 19,000 years old have been found at the Ohalo II site in Israel, with charred remnants of wild wheat and barley. During the same period, farmers in China began to farm rice and millet, using human-made floods and fires as part of their cultivation regimen. The use of soil conditioners, including manure, fish, compost and ashes, appears to have begun early, and developed independently in areas of the world including Mesopotamia, the Nile Valley, and Eastern Asia. Cereals that became modern barley and wheat were domesticated some 8,000 years ago in the Fertile Crescent. Millets and rice were domesticated in East Asia, while sorghum and other millets were domesticated in sub-Saharan West Africa, primarily as feed for livestock. Maize arose from a single domestication in Mesoamerica about 9,000 years ago. In these agricultural regions, religion was often shaped by the divinity associated with the grain and harvests. In the Mesopotamian creation myth, an era of civilization is inaugurated by the grain goddess Ashnan. The Roman goddess Ceres presided over agriculture, grain crops, fertility, and motherhood; the term cereal is derived from Latin cerealis, "of grain", originally meaning "of [the goddess] Ceres". Several gods of antiquity combined agriculture and war: the Hittite Sun goddess of Arinna, the Canaanite Lahmu and the Roman Janus. Complex civilizations arose where cereal agriculture created a surplus, allowing for part of the harvest to be appropriated from farmers, allowing power to be concentrated in cities. Modern in India. India's participation in the Green Revolution helped resolve food shortages in the mid-twentieth century.]] During the second half of the 20th century, there was a significant increase in the production of high-yield cereal crops worldwide, especially wheat and rice, due to the Green Revolution, a technological change funded by development organizations. The strategies developed by the Green Revolution included mechanized tilling, monoculture, nitrogen fertilizers, and breeding of new strains of seeds. These innovations focused on fending off starvation and increasing yield-per-plant, and were very successful in raising overall yields of cereal grains, but paid less attention to nutritional quality. These modern high-yield cereal crops tend to have low-quality proteins, with essential amino acid deficiencies, are high in carbohydrates, and lack balanced essential fatty acids, vitamins, minerals and other quality factors. Biology . A: Plant; B ripe ear of grains; 1 spikelet before flowering; 2 the same, flowering and spread, enlarged; 3 flowers with glumes; 4 stamens 5 pollen; 6 and 7 ovaries with juice scales; 8 and 9 parts of the scar; 10 fruit husks; 11–14 grains, natural size and enlarged.]] Cereals are grasses, in the Poaceae family, that produce edible grains. A cereal grain is botanically a caryopsis, a fruit where the seed coat is fused with the pericarp. Grasses have stems that are hollow except at the nodes and narrow alternate leaves borne in two ranks. The lower part of each leaf encloses the stem, forming a leaf-sheath. The leaf grows from the base of the blade, an adaptation that protects the growing meristem from grazing animals. The flowers are usually hermaphroditic, with the exception of maize, and mainly anemophilous or wind-pollinated, although insects occasionally play a role. Among the best-known cereals are maize, rice, wheat, barley, sorghum, millet, oat, rye and triticale. Some other grains are colloquially called cereals, even though they are not grasses; these pseudocereals include buckwheat, quinoa, and amaranth. Cultivation All cereal crops are cultivated in a similar way. Most are annual, so after sowing they are harvested just once. Cereals adapted to a temperate climate, such as barley, oats, rye, spelt, triticale, and wheat, are called cool-season cereals. Those preferring a tropical climate, such as millet and sorghum, are called warm-season cereals. Cool-season cereals, especially rye, followed by barley, are hardy; they grow best in fairly cool weather, and stop growing, depending on variety, when the temperature goes above around . Warm-season cereals, in contrast, require hot weather and cannot tolerate frost. Cool-season cereals can be grown in highlands in the tropics, where they sometimes deliver several crops in a single year. though some strains are grown on dry land. Other warm climate cereals, such as sorghum, are adapted to arid conditions. Cool-season cereals are grown mainly in temperate zones. These cereals often have both winter varieties for autumn sowing, winter dormancy, and early summer harvesting, and spring varieties planted in spring and harvested in late summer. Winter varieties have the advantage of using water when it is plentiful, and permitting a second crop after the early harvest. They flower only in spring as they require vernalization, exposure to cold for a specific period, fixed genetically. Spring crops grow when it is warmer but less rainy, so they may need irrigation. Fusarium head blight, caused by Fusarium graminearum, is a significant limitation on a wide variety of cereals. Other pressures include pest insects and wildlife like rodents and deer. In conventional agriculture, some farmers will apply fungicides or pesticides Harvesting Annual cereals die when they have come to seed, and dry up. Harvesting begins once the plants and seeds are dry enough. Harvesting in mechanized agricultural systems is by combine harvester, a machine which drives across the field in a single pass in which it cuts the stalks and then threshes and winnows the grain. In traditional agricultural systems, mostly in the Global South, harvesting may be by hand, using tools such as scythes and grain cradles. It is used in crafts such as building with cob or straw-bale construction. <gallery modepacked heights155> File:Rice-combine-harvester, Katori-city, Japan.jpg\|A small-scale rice combine harvester in Japan </gallery> Preprocessing and storage If cereals are not completely dry when harvested, such as when the weather is rainy, the stored grain will be spoilt by mould fungi such as Aspergillus and Penicillium''. This can be prevented by drying it artificially. It may then be stored in a grain elevator or silo, to be sold later. Grain stores need to be constructed to protect the grain from damage by pests such as seed-eating birds and rodents. In developing countries, processing may be traditional, in artisanal workshops, as with tortilla production in Central America. Most cereals can be processed in a variety of ways. Rice processing, for instance, can create whole-grain or polished rice, or rice flour. Removal of the germ increases the longevity of grain in storage. Some grains can be malted, a process of activating enzymes in the seed to cause sprouting that turns the complex starches into sugars before drying. These sugars can be extracted for industrial uses and further processing, such as for making industrial alcohol, or rice wine, In the 20th century, industrial processes developed around chemically altering the grain, to be used for other processes. In particular, maize can be altered to produce food additives, such as corn starch and high-fructose corn syrup. Effects on the environment Impacts , a perennial cereal developed in the 21st century. Because it grows back every year, farmers no longer have to till the soil.]] Cereal production has a substantial impact on the environment. Tillage can lead to soil erosion and increased runoff. Irrigation consumes large quantities of water; its extraction from lakes, rivers, or aquifers may have multiple environmental effects, such as lowering the water table and cause salination of aquifers. Fertilizer production contributes to global warming, and its use can lead to pollution and eutrophication of waterways. Arable farming uses large amounts of fossil fuel, releasing greenhouse gases which contribute to global warming. Pesticide usage can cause harm to wildlife, such as to bees. Mitigations with no-till farming using a crop rotation of maize, soybeans, and wheat accompanied by cover crops. The main crop has been harvested but the roots of the cover crop are still visible in autumn.]] Some of the impacts of growing cereals can be mitigated by changing production practices. Tillage can be reduced by no-till farming, such as by direct drilling of cereal seeds, or by developing and planting perennial crop varieties so that annual tilling is not required. Rice can be grown as a ratoon crop; Fertilizer and pesticide usage may be reduced in some polycultures, growing several crops in a single field at the same time. Fossil fuel-based nitrogen fertilizer usage can be reduced by intercropping cereals with legumes which fix nitrogen. Greenhouse gas emissions may be cut further by more efficient irrigation or by water harvesting methods like contour trenching that reduce the need for irrigation, and by breeding new crop varieties. Uses Direct consumption Some cereals such as rice require little preparation before human consumption. For example, to make plain cooked rice, raw milled rice is washed and boiled. Foods such as porridge and muesli may be made largely of whole cereals, especially oats, whereas commercial breakfast cereals such as granola may be highly processed and combined with sugars, oils, and other products. Flour-based foods Cereals can be ground to make flour. Wheat flour is the main ingredient of bread and pasta. Maize flour has been important in Mesoamerica since ancient times, with foods such as Mexican tortillas and tamales. Rye flour is a constituent of bread in central and northern Europe, while rice flour is common in Asia. A cereal grain consists of starchy endosperm, germ, and bran. Wholemeal flour contains all of these; white flour is without some or all of the germ or bran. and alcoholic drinks by fermentation. For instance, beer is produced by brewing and fermenting starch, mainly from cereal grains—most commonly malted barley. Rice wines such as Japanese sake are brewed in Asia; a fermented rice and honey wine was made in China some 9,000 years ago. Animal feed ]] Cereals and their related byproducts such as hay are routinely fed to farm animals. Common cereals as animal food include maize, barley, wheat, and oats. Moist grains may be treated chemically or made into silage; mechanically flattened or crimped, and kept in airtight storage until used; or stored dry with a moisture content of less than 14%. Commercially, grains are often combined with other materials and formed into feed pellets. Nutrition Whole-grain and processed As whole grains, cereals provide carbohydrates, polyunsaturated fats, protein, vitamins, and minerals. When processed by the removal of the bran and germ, all that remains is the starchy endosperm. In some developing countries, cereals constitute a majority of daily sustenance. In developed countries, cereal consumption is moderate and varied but still substantial, primarily in the form of refined and processed grains. Amino acid balance Some cereals are deficient in the essential amino acid lysine, obliging vegetarian cultures to combine their diet of cereal grains with legumes to obtain a balanced diet. Many legumes, however, are deficient in the essential amino acid methionine, which grains contain. Thus, a combination of legumes with grains forms a well-balanced diet for vegetarians. Such combinations include dal (lentils) with rice by South Indians and Bengalis, beans with maize tortillas, tofu with rice, and peanut butter with wholegrain wheat bread (as sandwiches) in several other cultures, including the Americas. For feeding animals, the amount of crude protein measured in grains is expressed as grain crude protein concentration. Comparison of major cereals {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Nutritional values for some major cereals ! colspan="2" \|Per 45g serving !Barley !Maize !Millet !Oats !Rice !Rye !Sorgh. !Wheat \|- \|Energy \|kcal \|159 \|163 \|170 \|175 \|165 \|152 \|148 \|153 \|- \|Protein \|g \|5.6 \|3.6 \|5.0 \|7.6 \|3.4 \|4.6 \|4.8 \|6.1 \|- \|Lipid \|g \|1 \|1.6 \|1.9 \|3.1 \|1.4 \|0.7 \|1.6 \|1.1 \|- \|Carbohydrate \|g \|33 \|35 \|31 \|30 \|31 \|34 \|32 \|32 \|- \|Fibre \|g \|7.8 \|3.3 \|3.8 \|4.8 \|1.6 \|6.8 \|3.0 \|4.8 \|- \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- \|Calcium \|mg \|15 \|3 \|4 \|24 \|4 \|11 \|6 \|15 \|- \|Iron \|mg \|1.6 \|1.5 \|1.3 \|2.1 \|0.6 \|1.2 \|1.5 \|1.6 \|- \|Magnesium \|mg \|60 \|57 \|51 \|80 \|52 \|50 \|74 \|65 \|- \|Phosphorus \|mg \|119 \|108 \|128 \|235 \|140 \|149 \|130 \|229 \|- \|Potassium \|mg \|203 \|129 \|88 \|193 \|112 \|230 \|163 \|194 \|- \|Sodium \|mg \|5 \|16 \|2 \|1 \|2 \|1 \|1 \|1 \|- \|Zinc \|mg \|1.2 \|0.8 \|0.8 \|1.8 \|1.0 \|1.2 \|0.7 \|1.9 \|- \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- \|Thiamine (B1) \|mg \|0.29 \|0.17 \|0.19 \|0.34 \|0.24 \|0.14 \|0.15 \|0.19 \|- \|Riboflavin (B2) \|mg \|0.13 \|0.09 \|0.13 \|0.06 \|0.04 \|0.11 \|0.04 \|0.05 \|- \|Niacin (B3) \|mg \|2 \|1.6 \|2.1 \|0.4 \|2.9 \|1.9 \|1.7 \|3.0 \|- \|Pantothenic acid (B5) \|mg \|0.1 \|0.2 \|0.4 \|0.6 \|0.7 \|0.7 \|0.2 \|0.4 \|- \|Pyridoxine (B6) \|mg \|0.1 \|0.1 \|0.2 \|0.05 \|0.2 \|0.1 \|0.2 \|0.2 \|- \|Folic acid (B9) \|mcg \|9 \|11 \|38 \|25 \|10 \|17 \|9 \|19 \|} Production and trade commodities .]] Cereals constitute the world's largest commodities by tonnage, whether measured by production Speculation, as well as other compounding production and supply factors leading up to the 2007–2008 financial crises, created rapid inflation of grain prices during the 2007–2008 world food price crisis. Other disruptions, such as climate change or war related changes to supply or transportation can create further food insecurity; for example the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022 disrupted Ukrainian and Russian wheat supplies causing a global food price crisis in 2022 that affected countries heavily dependent on wheat flour. Production , Ethiopia, 2007]] Cereals are the world's largest crops by tonnage of grain produced. Three cereals, maize, wheat, and rice, together accounted for 89% of all cereal production worldwide in 2012, and 43% of the global supply of food energy in 2009, while the production of oats and rye has drastically fallen from their 1960s levels. {\|class="wikitable" ! rowspan="2" \|Grain ! colspan"5" nowrap"" \|Worldwide production (millions of metric tons) ! rowspan="2" \|Notes \|- !1961 !1980 !2000 !2010 !2019/20 \|- \|Maize (corn) \|205 \|397 \|592 \|852 \|1,148 \|A staple food of people in the Americas, Africa, and of livestock worldwide; often called corn in North America, Australia, and New Zealand. A large portion of maize crops are grown for purposes other than human consumption. \|- \|Rice Production is in milled terms. \|285 \|397 \|599 \|697 \|755 \|The primary cereal of tropical and some temperate regions. Staple food in most of Brazil, other parts of Latin America and some other Portuguese-descended cultures, parts of Africa (even more before the Columbian exchange), most of South Asia and the Far East. Largely overridden by breadfruit (a dicot tree) during the South Pacific's part of the Austronesian expansion. \|- \|Triticale \|0 \|0.17 \|9 \|14 \|— \|Hybrid of wheat and rye, grown similarly to rye. Cereals are traded as futures on world commodity markets, helping to mitigate the risks of changes in price for example, if harvests fail. <gallery modepacked widths600 heights=500> File:Main Traded Cereals, Top Importers And Exporters (Quantities, 2021).svg\|Main traded cereals, top import, export in 2021 </gallery> See also <!--don't link Breakfast cereal here, it's already in the article--> * Food price crisis * Food quality * Food safety * Lists of foods * Post-harvest losses * Pulse Notes References Sources * * * Cereals Category:Crops	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cereal	2025-04-05T18:27:55.491024
6704	Christendom	The terms Christendom or Christian world commonly refer to the global Christian community, Christian states, Christian-majority countries or countries in which Christianity is dominant Following the spread of Christianity from the Levant to Europe and North Africa during the early Roman Empire, Christendom has been divided in the pre-existing Greek East and Latin West. After the Great schism of 1054, two main branches within Christianity emerged, centred around the cities of Rome (Western Christianity, whose community was called Western or Latin Christendom) and Constantinople (Eastern Christianity, whose community was called Eastern Christendom). After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Latin Christendom rose to a central role in the Western world. Following the reformation, protestantism emerged as the third main branch of Christianity in the 16th century. The history of the Christian world spans about 2,000 years and includes a variety of socio-political developments, as well as advancements in the arts, architecture, literature, science, philosophy, politics and technology.TerminologyThe Anglo-Saxon term crīstendōm appears to have been coined in the 9th century by a scribe somewhere in southern England, possibly at the court of king Alfred the Great of Wessex. The scribe was translating Paulus Orosius' book History Against the Pagans () and in need for a term to express the concept of the universal culture focused on Jesus Christ. It had the sense now taken by Christianity (as is still the case with the cognate Dutch christendom, where it denotes mostly the religion itself, just like the German Christentum). The current sense of the word of "lands where Christianity is the dominant religion" emerged in Late Middle English (by ). Canadian theology professor Douglas John Hall stated (1997) that "Christendom" [...] means literally the dominion or sovereignty of the Christian religion." Curry states that the end of Christendom came about because modern governments refused to "uphold the teachings, customs, ethos, and practice of Christianity."}} There is a common and nonliteral sense of the word that is much like the terms Western world, known world or Free World. The notion of "Europe" and the "Western World" has been intimately connected with the concept of "Christianity and Christendom"; many even attribute Christianity for being the link that created a unified European identity.HistoryRise of Christendom , which abstracts the then known world to a cross inscribed within an orb, remakes geography in the service of Christian iconography. More detailed versions place Jerusalem at the center of the world.]] Early Christianity spread in the Greek/Roman world and beyond as a 1st-century Jewish sect, which historians refer to as Jewish Christianity. It may be divided into two distinct phases: the apostolic period, when the first apostles were alive and organizing the Church, and the post-apostolic period, when an early episcopal structure developed, whereby bishoprics were governed by bishops (overseers). The post-apostolic period concerns the time roughly after the death of the apostles when bishops emerged as overseers of urban Christian populations. The earliest recorded use of the terms Christianity (Greek ) and catholic (Greek ), dates to this period, the 2nd century, attributed to Ignatius of Antioch c. 107. Early Christendom would close at the end of imperial persecution of Christians after the ascension of Constantine the Great and the Edict of Milan in AD 313 and the First Council of Nicaea in 325. According to Malcolm Muggeridge (1980), Christ founded Christianity, but Constantine founded Christendom. Canadian theology professor Douglas John Hall dates the 'inauguration of Christendom' to the 4th century, with Constantine playing the primary role (so much so that he equates Christendom with "Constantinianism") and Theodosius I (Edict of Thessalonica, 380) and Justinian I secondary roles.Late Antiquity and Early Middle Ages and the bishops of the First Council of Nicaea (AD 325) holding the Niceno–Constantinopolitan Creed of 381]] up to AD 325)]] "Christendom" has referred to the medieval and renaissance notion of the Christian world as a polity. In essence, the earliest vision of Christendom was a vision of a Christian theocracy, a government founded upon and upholding Christian values, whose institutions are spread through and over with Christian doctrine. In this period, members of the Christian clergy wield political authority. The specific relationship between the political leaders and the clergy varied but, in theory, the national and political divisions were at times subsumed under the leadership of the church as an institution. This model of church-state relations was accepted by various Church leaders and political leaders in European history. The Church gradually became a defining institution of the Roman Empire. Emperor Constantine issued the Edict of Milan in 313 proclaiming toleration for the Christian religion, and convoked the First Council of Nicaea in 325 whose Nicene Creed included belief in "one holy catholic and apostolic Church". Emperor Theodosius I made Nicene Christianity the state church of the Roman Empire with the Edict of Thessalonica of 380. In terms of prosperity and cultural life, the Byzantine Empire was one of the peaks in Christian history and Christian civilization, and Constantinople remained the leading city of the Christian world in size, wealth, and culture. There was a renewed interest in classical Greek philosophy, as well as an increase in literary output in vernacular Greek. As the Western Roman Empire disintegrated into feudal kingdoms and principalities, the concept of Christendom changed as the western church became one of five patriarchates of the Pentarchy and the Christians of the Eastern Roman Empire developed. The Byzantine Empire was the last bastion of Christendom. Christendom would take a turn with the rise of the Franks, a Germanic tribe who converted to the Christian faith and entered into communion with Rome. On Christmas Day 800 AD, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne, resulting in the creation of another Christian king beside the Christian emperor in the Byzantine state.<!-- An outdated source by an author whose qualifications are unknown is not a reliable source --> The Carolingian Empire created a definition of Christendom in juxtaposition with the Byzantine Empire, that of a distributed versus centralized culture respectively. The classical heritage flourished throughout the Middle Ages in both the Byzantine Greek East and the Latin West. In the Greek philosopher Plato's ideal state there are three major classes, which was representative of the idea of the "tripartite soul", which is expressive of three functions or capacities of the human soul: "reason", "the spirited element", and "appetites" (or "passions"). Will Durant made a convincing case that certain prominent features of Plato's ideal community where discernible in the organization, dogma and effectiveness of "the" Medieval Church in Europe: <blockquote>... For a thousand years Europe was ruled by an order of guardians considerably like that which was visioned by our philosopher. During the Middle Ages it was customary to classify the population of Christendom into laboratores (workers), bellatores (soldiers), and oratores (clergy). The last group, though small in number, monopolized the instruments and opportunities of culture, and ruled with almost unlimited sway half of the most powerful continent on the globe. The clergy, like Plato's guardians, were placed in authority... by their talent as shown in ecclesiastical studies and administration, by their disposition to a life of meditation and simplicity, and ... by the influence of their relatives with the powers of state and church. In the latter half of the period in which they ruled [800 AD onwards], the clergy were as free from family cares as even Plato could desire [for such guardians]... [Clerical] Celibacy was part of the psychological structure of the power of the clergy; for on the one hand they were unimpeded by the narrowing egoism of the family, and on the other their apparent superiority to the call of the flesh added to the awe in which lay sinners held them.... Its legal basis was the corpus iuris canonica (body of canon law). In the East, Christendom became more defined as the Byzantine Empire's gradual loss of territory to an expanding Islam and the Muslim conquest of Persia. This caused Christianity to become important to the Byzantine identity. Before the East–West Schism which divided the Church religiously, there had been the notion of a universal Christendom that included the East and the West. After the East–West Schism, hopes of regaining religious unity with the West were ended by the Fourth Crusade, when Crusaders conquered the Byzantine capital of Constantinople and hastened the decline of the Byzantine Empire on the path to its destruction. With the breakup of the Byzantine Empire into individual nations with nationalist Orthodox Churches, the term Christendom described Western Europe, Catholicism, Orthodox Byzantines, and other Eastern rites of the Church. The Catholic Church's peak of authority over all European Christians and their common endeavours of the Christian community—for example, the Crusades, the fight against the Moors in the Iberian Peninsula and against the Ottomans in the Balkans—helped to develop a sense of communal identity against the obstacle of Europe's deep political divisions. The popes, formally just the bishops of Rome, claimed to be the focus of all Christendom, which was largely recognised in Western Christendom from the 11th century until the Reformation, but not in Eastern Christendom. Moreover, this authority was also sometimes abused, and fostered the Inquisition and anti-Jewish pogroms, to root out divergent elements and create a religiously uniform community. Ultimately, the Inquisition was done away with by order of Pope Innocent III. Christendom ultimately was led into specific crisis in the late Middle Ages, when the kings of France managed to establish a French national church during the 14th century and the papacy became ever more aligned with the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. Known as the Western Schism, western Christendom was a split between three men, who were driven by politics rather than any real theological disagreement for simultaneously claiming to be the true pope. The Avignon Papacy developed a reputation for corruption that estranged major parts of Western Christendom. The Avignon schism was ended by the Council of Constance. Before the modern period, Christendom was in a general crisis at the time of the Renaissance Popes because of the moral laxity of these pontiffs and their willingness to seek and rely on temporal power as secular rulers did. Many in the Catholic Church's hierarchy in the Renaissance became increasingly entangled with insatiable greed for material wealth and temporal power, which led to many reform movements, some merely wanting a moral reformation of the Church's clergy, while others repudiated the Church and separated from it in order to form new sects. The Italian Renaissance produced ideas or institutions by which men living in society could be held together in harmony. In the early 16th century, Baldassare Castiglione (The Book of the Courtier) laid out his vision of the ideal gentleman and lady, while Machiavelli cast a jaundiced eye on "la verità effetuale delle cose"—the actual truth of things—in The Prince, composed, humanist style, chiefly of parallel ancient and modern examples of Virtù. Some Protestant movements grew up along lines of mysticism or renaissance humanism (cf. Erasmus). The Catholic Church fell partly into general neglect under the Renaissance Popes, whose inability to govern the Church by showing personal example of high moral standards set the climate for what would ultimately become the Protestant Reformation. During the Renaissance, the papacy was mainly run by the wealthy families and also had strong secular interests. To safeguard Rome and the connected Papal States the popes became necessarily involved in temporal matters, even leading armies, as the great patron of arts Pope Julius II did. During these intermediate times, popes strove to make Rome the capital of Christendom while projecting it through art, architecture, and literature as the center of a Golden Age of unity, order, and peace. Professor Frederick J. McGinness described Rome as essential in understanding the legacy the Church and its representatives encapsulated best by The Eternal City: <blockquote>No other city in Europe matches Rome in its traditions, history, legacies, and influence in the Western world. Rome in the Renaissance under the papacy not only acted as guardian and transmitter of these elements stemming from the Roman Empire but also assumed the role as artificer and interpreter of its myths and meanings for the peoples of Europe from the Middle Ages to modern times... Under the patronage of the popes, whose wealth and income were exceeded only by their ambitions, the city became a cultural center for master architects, sculptors, musicians, painters, and artisans of every kind...In its myth and message, Rome had become the sacred city of the popes, the prime symbol of a triumphant Catholicism, the center of orthodox Christianity, a new Jerusalem.</blockquote> It is clearly noticeable that the popes of the Italian Renaissance have been subjected by many writers with an overly harsh tone. Pope Julius II, for example, was not only an effective secular leader in military affairs, a deviously effective politician but foremost one of the greatest patron of the Renaissance period and person who also encouraged open criticism from noted humanists. The blossoming of renaissance humanism was made very much possible due to the universality of the institutions of Catholic Church and represented by personalities such as Pope Pius II, Nicolaus Copernicus, Leon Battista Alberti, Desiderius Erasmus, sir Thomas More, Bartolomé de Las Casas, Leonardo da Vinci and Teresa of Ávila. George Santayana in his work The Life of Reason postulated the tenets of the all encompassing order the Church had brought and as the repository of the legacy of classical antiquity: <blockquote>The enterprise of individuals or of small aristocratic bodies has meantime sown the world which we call civilised with some seeds and nuclei of order. There are scattered about a variety of churches, industries, academies, and governments. But the universal order once dreamt of and nominally almost established, the empire of universal peace, all-permeating rational art, and philosophical worship, is mentioned no more. An unformulated conception, the prerational ethics of private privilege and national unity, fills the background of men's minds. It represents feudal traditions rather than the tendency really involved in contemporary industry, science, or philanthropy. Those dark ages, from which our political practice is derived, had a political theory which we should do well to study; for their theory about a universal empire and a Catholic church was in turn the echo of a former age of reason, when a few men conscious of ruling the world had for a moment sought to survey it as a whole and to rule it justly. denoted the European transition from feudalism to capitalism. By the end of the Hundred Years' War, both France and England were able to raise enough money through taxation to create independent standing armies. In the Wars of the Roses, Henry Tudor took the crown of England. His heir, the absolute king Henry VIII establishing the English church. In modern history, the Reformation and rise of modernity in the early 16th century entailed a change in the Corpus Christianum. In the Holy Roman Empire, the Peace of Augsburg of 1555 officially ended the idea among secular leaders that all Christians must be united under one church. The principle of cuius regio, eius religio ("whose the region is, his religion") established the religious, political and geographic divisions of Christianity, and this was established with the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, which legally ended the concept of a single Christian hegemony in the territories of the Holy Roman Empire, despite the Catholic Church's doctrine that it alone is the one true Church founded by Christ. Subsequently, each government determined the religion of their own state. Christians living in states where their denomination was not the established one were guaranteed the right to practice their faith in public during allotted hours and in private at their will. The European wars of religion are usually taken to have ended with the Treaty of Westphalia (1648), or arguably, including the Nine Years' War and the War of the Spanish Succession in this period, with the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713. In the 18th century, the focus shifts away from religious conflicts, either between Christian factions or against the external threat of Islamic factions. End of Christendom The European Miracle, the Age of Enlightenment and the formation of the great colonial empires, together with the beginning decline of the Ottoman Empire, mark the end of the geopolitical "history of Christendom". Instead, the focus of Western history shifts to the development of the nation-state, accompanied by increasing atheism and secularism, culminating with the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars at the turn of the 19th century.}}Writing in 1997, Canadian theology professor Douglas John Hall argued that Christendom had either fallen already or was in its death throes; although its end was gradual and not as clear to pin down as its 4th-century establishment, the "transition to the post-Constantinian, or post-Christendom, situation (...) has already been in process for a century or two", beginning with the 18th-century rationalist Enlightenment and the French Revolution (the first attempt to topple the Christian establishment). Changes in worldwide Christianity over the last century have been significant, since 1900, Christianity has spread rapidly in the Global South and Third World countries. The late 20th century has shown the shift of Christian adherence to the Third World and the Southern Hemisphere in general, by 2010 about 157 countries and territories in the world had Christian majorities. Until the Age of Enlightenment, Christian culture guided the course of philosophy, literature, art, music and science. The Catholic Church established a hospital system in medieval Europe that vastly improved upon the Roman valetudinaria. These hospitals were established to cater to "particular social groups marginalized by poverty, sickness, and age," according to historian of hospitals, Guenter Risse. Christianity also had a strong impact on all other aspects of life: marriage and family, education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy, and the arts. Christianity had a significant impact on education and science and medicine as the church created the bases of the Western system of education, and was the sponsor of founding universities in the Western world as the university is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. Many clerics throughout history have made significant contributions to science and Jesuits in particular have made numerous significant contributions to the development of science. The cultural influence of Christianity includes social welfare, founding hospitals, economics (as the Protestant work ethic), natural law (which would later influence the creation of international law), politics, architecture, literature, personal hygiene, and family life. Christianity played a role in ending practices common among pagan societies, such as human sacrifice, slavery, infanticide and polygamy. Art and literature Writings and poetry Christian literature is writing that deals with Christian themes and incorporates the Christian world view. This constitutes a huge body of extremely varied writing. Christian poetry is any poetry that contains Christian teachings, themes, or references. The influence of Christianity on poetry has been great in any area that Christianity has taken hold. Christian poems often directly reference the Bible, while others provide allegory. Supplemental arts Christian art is art produced in an attempt to illustrate, supplement and portray in tangible form the principles of Christianity. Virtually all Christian groupings use or have used art to some extent. The prominence of art and the media, style, and representations change; however, the unifying theme is ultimately the representation of the life and times of Jesus and in some cases the Old Testament. Depictions of saints are also common, especially in Anglicanism, Roman Catholicism, and Eastern Orthodoxy. Most illuminated manuscripts were created as codices, which had superseded scrolls; some isolated single sheets survive. A very few illuminated manuscript fragments survive on papyrus. Most medieval manuscripts, illuminated or not, were written on parchment (most commonly of calf, sheep, or goat skin), but most manuscripts important enough to illuminate were written on the best quality of parchment, called vellum, traditionally made of unsplit calfskin, though high quality parchment from other skins was also called parchment.Iconography icon which dates to (from Preslav, Bulgaria).]] Christian art began, about two centuries after Christ, by borrowing motifs from Roman Imperial imagery, classical Greek and Roman religion and popular art. Religious images are used to some extent by the Abrahamic Christian faith, and often contain highly complex iconography, which reflects centuries of accumulated tradition. In the Late Antique period iconography began to be standardised, and to relate more closely to Biblical texts, although many gaps in the canonical Gospel narratives were plugged with matter from the apocryphal gospels. Eventually the Church would succeed in weeding most of these out, but some remain, like the ox and ass in the Nativity of Christ. An icon is a religious work of art, most commonly a painting, from Eastern Christianity. Christianity has used symbolism from its very beginnings. In both East and West, numerous iconic types of Christ, Mary and saints and other subjects were developed; the number of named types of icons of Mary, with or without the infant Christ, was especially large in the East, whereas Christ Pantocrator was much the commonest image of Christ. Christian symbolism invests objects or actions with an inner meaning expressing Christian ideas. Christianity has borrowed from the common stock of significant symbols known to most periods and to all regions of the world. Religious symbolism is effective when it appeals to both the intellect and the emotions. Especially important depictions of Mary include the Hodegetria and Panagia types. Traditional models evolved for narrative paintings, including large cycles covering the events of the Life of Christ, the Life of the Virgin, parts of the Old Testament, and, increasingly, the lives of popular saints. Especially in the West, a system of attributes developed for identifying individual figures of saints by a standard appearance and symbolic objects held by them; in the East they were more likely to identified by text labels. Architecture Christian architecture encompasses a wide range of both secular and religious styles from the foundation of Christianity to the present day, influencing the design and construction of buildings and structures in Christian culture. Buildings were at first adapted from those originally intended for other purposes but, with the rise of distinctively ecclesiastical architecture, church buildings came to influence secular ones which have often imitated religious architecture. In the 20th century, the use of new materials, such as concrete, as well as simpler styles has had its effect upon the design of churches and arguably the flow of influence has been reversed. From the birth of Christianity to the present, the most significant period of transformation for Christian architecture in the west was the Gothic cathedral. In the east, Byzantine architecture was a continuation of Roman architecture. Philosophy Christian philosophy is a term to describe the fusion of various fields of philosophy with the theological doctrines of Christianity. Scholasticism, which means "that [which] belongs to the school", and was a method of learning taught by the academics (or school people) of medieval universities c. 1100–1500. Scholasticism originally started to reconcile the philosophy of the ancient classical philosophers with medieval Christian theology. Scholasticism is not a philosophy or theology in itself but a tool and method for learning which places emphasis on dialectical reasoning. The period saw major technological advances, including the adoption of gunpowder and the astrolabe, the invention of spectacles, and greatly improved water mills, building techniques, agriculture in general, clocks, and ships. The latter advances made possible the dawn of the Age of Exploration. The development of water mills was impressive, and extended from agriculture to sawmills both for timber and stone, probably derived from Roman technology. By the time of the Domesday Book, most large villages in Britain had mills. They also were widely used in mining, as described by Georg Agricola in De Re Metallica for raising ore from shafts, crushing ore, and even powering bellows. Significant in this respect were advances within the fields of navigation. The compass and astrolabe along with advances in shipbuilding, enabled the navigation of the World Oceans and thus domination of the worlds economic trade. Gutenberg's printing press made possible a dissemination of knowledge to a wider population, that would not only lead to a gradually more egalitarian society, but one more able to dominate other cultures, drawing from a vast reserve of knowledge and experience. Renaissance innovations During the Renaissance, great advances occurred in geography, astronomy, chemistry, physics, math, manufacturing, and engineering. The rediscovery of ancient scientific texts was accelerated after the Fall of Constantinople, and the invention of printing which would democratize learning and allow a faster propagation of new ideas. Renaissance technology is the set of artifacts and customs, spanning roughly the 14th through the 16th century. The era is marked by such profound technical advancements like the printing press, linear perspectivity, patent law, double shell domes or Bastion fortresses. Draw-books of the Renaissance artist-engineers such as Taccola and Leonardo da Vinci give a deep insight into the mechanical technology then known and applied. Renaissance science spawned the Scientific Revolution; science and technology began a cycle of mutual advancement. The Scientific Renaissance was the early phase of the Scientific Revolution. In the two-phase model of early modern science: a Scientific Renaissance of the 15th and 16th centuries, focused on the restoration of the natural knowledge of the ancients; and a Scientific Revolution of the 17th century, when scientists shifted from recovery to innovation. Some scholars and historians attributes Christianity to having contributed to the rise of the Scientific Revolution. Professor Noah J Efron says that "Generations of historians and sociologists have discovered many ways in which Christians, Christian beliefs, and Christian institutions played crucial roles in fashioning the tenets, methods, and institutions of what in time became modern science. They found that some forms of Christianity provided the motivation to study nature systematically..." Virtually all modern scholars and historians agree that Christianity moved many early-modern intellectuals to study nature systematically. Demographics Geographic spread versus lack of either religion (2006)]] In 2009, according to the Encyclopædia Britannica, Christianity was the majority religion in Europe (including Russia) with 80%, Latin America with 92%, North America with 81%, and Oceania with 79%. There are also large Christian communities in other parts of the world, such as China, India and Central Asia, where Christianity is the second-largest religion after Islam. The United States is home to the world's largest Christian population, followed by Brazil and Mexico. Many Christians not only live under, but also have an official status in, a state religion of the following nations: Argentina (Roman Catholic Church), Armenia (Armenian Apostolic Church), Costa Rica (Roman Catholic Church), Denmark (Church of Denmark), El Salvador (Roman Catholic Church), England (Church of England), Georgia (Georgian Orthodox Church), Greece (Church of Greece), Iceland (Church of Iceland), Liechtenstein (Roman Catholic Church), Malta (Roman Catholic Church), Monaco (Roman Catholic Church), Romania (Romanian Orthodox Church), Norway (Church of Norway), Vatican City (Roman Catholic Church), Switzerland (Roman Catholic Church, Swiss Reformed Church and Christian Catholic Church of Switzerland). Number of adherents The estimated number of Christians in the world ranges from 2.2 billion to 2.4 billion people. The faith represents approximately one-third of the world's population and is the largest religion in the world, The largest Christian denomination is the Catholic Church, with an estimated 1.2 billion adherents. {\| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:center;margin: auto" \|+ Demographics of major traditions within Christianity (Pew Research Center, 2010 data) \|- ! cyrus="col" \| Tradition ! scope="col" \| Followers ! scope="col" \| % of the Christian population ! scope="col" \| % of the world population ! scope="col" \| Follower dynamics ! scope="col" \| Dynamics in- and outside Christianity \|- style="background: yellow" \| Catholic Church \| 1,094,610,000 \| 50.1 \| 15.9 \| Growing \| Declining \|- style="background: #B57EDC" \| Protestantism \| 800,640,000 \| 36.7 \| 11.6 \| Growing \| Growing \|- style="background: #9F8170" \|Orthodoxy \| 260,380,000 \| 11.9 \| 3.8 \| Declining \| Declining \|- style="background: cyan" \|Other Christianity \| 28,430,000 \| 1.3 \| 0.4 \| Growing \| Growing \|- ! Christianity ! 2,184,060,000 ! 100 ! 31.7 ! Growing ! Stable \|} Notable Christian organizations A religious order is a lineage of communities and organizations of people who live in some way set apart from society in accordance with their specific religious devotion, usually characterized by the principles of its founder's religious practice. In contrast, the term Holy Orders is used by many Christian churches to refer to ordination or to a group of individuals who are set apart for a special role or ministry. Historically, the word "order" designated an established civil body or corporation with a hierarchy, and ordination meant legal incorporation into an ordo. The word "holy" refers to the Church. In context, therefore, a holy order is set apart for ministry in the Church. Religious orders are composed of initiates (laity) and, in some traditions, ordained clergies. Various organizations include: * In the Roman Catholic Church, religious institutes and secular institutes are the major forms of institutes of consecrated life, similar to which are societies of apostolic life. They are organizations of laity or clergy who live a common life under the guidance of a fixed rule and the leadership of a superior. (ed., see :Category: Catholic orders and societies for a particular listing.) * Anglican religious orders are communities of laity or clergy in the Anglican churches who live under a common rule of life. (ed., see :Category: Anglican organizations for a particular listing) Christianity law and ethics Church and state framing Within the framework of Christianity, there are at least three possible definitions for Church law. One is the Torah/Mosaic Law (from what Christians consider to be the Old Testament) also called Divine Law or Biblical law. Another is the instructions of Jesus of Nazareth in the Gospel (sometimes referred to as the Law of Christ or the New Commandment or the New Covenant). A third is canon law which is the internal ecclesiastical law governing the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox churches, and the Anglican Communion of churches. The way that such church law is legislated, interpreted and at times adjudicated varies widely among these three bodies of churches. In all three traditions, a canon was initially a rule adopted by a council (From Greek kanon / κανών, Hebrew kaneh / קנה, for rule, standard, or measure); these canons formed the foundation of canon law. Christian ethics in general has tended to stress the need for grace, mercy, and forgiveness because of human weakness and developed while Early Christians were subjects of the Roman Empire. From the time Nero blamed Christians for setting Rome ablaze (64 AD) until Galerius (311 AD), persecutions against Christians erupted periodically. Consequently, Early Christian ethics included discussions of how believers should relate to Roman authority and to the empire. Under the Emperor Constantine I (312–337), Christianity became a legal religion. While some scholars debate whether Constantine's conversion to Christianity was authentic or simply matter of political expediency, Constantine's decree made the empire safe for Christian practice and belief. Consequently, issues of Christian doctrine, ethics and church practice were debated openly, see for example the First Council of Nicaea and the First seven Ecumenical Councils. By the time of Theodosius I (379–395), Christianity had become the state religion of the empire. With Christianity in power, ethical concerns broaden and included discussions of the proper role of the state. Render unto Caesar... is the beginning of a phrase attributed to Jesus in the synoptic gospels which reads in full, "Render unto Caesar the things which are Caesar's, and unto God the things that are God's". This phrase has become a widely quoted summary of the relationship between Christianity and secular authority. The gospels say that when Jesus gave his response, his interrogators "marvelled, and left him, and went their way." Time has not resolved an ambiguity in this phrase, and people continue to interpret this passage to support various positions that are poles apart. The traditional division, carefully determined, in Christian thought is the state and church have separate spheres of influence. Thomas Aquinas thoroughly discussed that human law is positive law which means that it is natural law applied by governments to societies. All human laws were to be judged by their conformity to the natural law. An unjust law was in a sense no law at all. At this point, the natural law was not only used to pass judgment on the moral worth of various laws, but also to determine what the law said in the first place. This could result in some tension. Late ecclesiastical writers followed in his footsteps. Democratic ideology Christian democracy is a political ideology that seeks to apply Christian principles to public policy. It emerged in 19th-century Europe, largely under the influence of Catholic social teaching. In a number of countries, the democracy's Christian ethos has been diluted by secularisation. In practice, Christian democracy is often considered conservative on cultural, social and moral issues and progressive on fiscal and economic issues. In places, where their opponents have traditionally been secularist socialists and social democrats, Christian democratic parties are moderately conservative, whereas in other cultural and political environments they can lean to the left. Women's roles Attitudes and beliefs about the roles and responsibilities of women in Christianity vary considerably today as they have throughout the last two millennia—evolving along with or counter to the societies in which Christians have lived. The Bible and Christianity historically have been interpreted as excluding women from church leadership and placing them in submissive roles in marriage. Male leadership has been assumed in the church and within marriage, society and government. Some contemporary writers describe the role of women in the life of the church as having been downplayed, overlooked, or denied throughout much of Christian history. Paradigm shifts in gender roles in society and also many churches has inspired reevaluation by many Christians of some long-held attitudes to the contrary. Christian egalitarians have increasingly argued for equal roles for men and women in marriage, as well as for the ordination of women to the clergy. Contemporary conservatives meanwhile have reasserted what has been termed a "complementarian" position, promoting the traditional belief that the Bible ordains different roles and responsibilities for women and men in the Church and family. See also * * * * * * * * * * * * Union of Christendom, a traditional Catholic view of ecumenism Notes References Sources * * Bosanquet, Bernard. [https://archive.org/details/civilizationchr02bosagoog The Civilization of Christendom, And Other Studies]. London: S. Sonnenschein, 1893. * * * * * * Further reading * * * * * * * ([https://books.google.com/books?id=pqAEibVjkA4C reprint version] is available) * * * * * Further reading * Bainton, Roland H. (1966). Christendom: a Short History of Christianity and Its Impact on Western Civilization, in series, Harper Colophon Books. New York: Harper & Row. 2 vol., ill. Molland, Einar (1959) Christendom: the Christian churches, their doctrines, constitutional forms and ways of worship. London: A. & R. Mowbray & Co. (first published in Norwegian in 1953 as Konfesjonskunnskap). Whalen, Brett Edward (2009). Dominion of God: Christendom and Apocalypse in the Middle Ages. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. External links ;Websites * Category:Christian terminology Category:Cultural regions Category:Ecclesiology Category:Historical regions Category:World Christianity	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christendom	2025-04-05T18:27:55.553140
6710	Coyote	}} \| image = 2009-Coyote-Yosemite.jpg \| image_caption = Mountain coyote (C. l. lestes) at Yosemite National Park, California \| status = LC \| status_system = IUCN3.1 \| status_ref \| status2 = G5 \| status2_system = TNC \| status2_ref \| taxon = Canis latrans \| authority Say, 1823 }} The coyote (Canis latrans), also known as the American jackal, prairie wolf, or brush wolf, is a species of canine native to North America. It is smaller than its close relative, the gray wolf, and slightly smaller than the closely related eastern wolf and red wolf. It fills much of the same ecological niche as the golden jackal does in Eurasia; however, the coyote is generally larger. The coyote is listed as least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, due to its wide distribution and abundance throughout North America. The species is versatile, able to adapt to and expand into environments modified by humans; urban coyotes are common in many cities. The coyote was sighted in eastern Panama (across the Panama Canal from their home range) for the first time in 2013. The coyote has 19 recognized subspecies. The average male weighs and the average female . Their fur color is predominantly light gray and red or fulvous interspersed with black and white, though it varies somewhat with geography. It is highly flexible in social organization, living either in a family unit or in loosely knit packs of unrelated individuals. Primarily carnivorous, its diet consists mainly of deer, rabbits, hares, rodents, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, and invertebrates, though it may also eat fruits and vegetables on occasion. Its characteristic vocalization is a howl made by solitary individuals. Humans are the coyote's greatest threat, followed by cougars and gray wolves. Despite predation by gray wolves, coyotes sometimes mate with them, and with eastern, or red wolves, producing "coywolf" hybrids. In the northeastern regions of North America, the eastern coyote (a larger subspecies, though still smaller than wolves) is the result of various historical and recent matings with various types of wolves. Genetic studies show that most North American wolves contain some level of coyote DNA. The coyote is a prominent character in Native American folklore, mainly in Aridoamerica, usually depicted as a trickster that alternately assumes the form of an actual coyote or a man. As with other trickster figures, the coyote uses deception and humor to rebel against social conventions. The animal was especially respected in Mesoamerican cosmology as a symbol of military might. After the European colonization of the Americas, it was seen in Anglo-American culture as a cowardly and untrustworthy animal. Unlike wolves, which have seen their public image improve, attitudes towards the coyote remain largely negative. Scent glands are located at the upper side of the base of the tail and are a bluish-black color. The coyote's fur consists of short, soft underfur and long, coarse guard hairs. The fur of northern subspecies is longer and denser than in southern forms, with the fur of some Mexican and Central American forms being almost hispid (bristly). Generally, adult coyotes (including coywolf hybrids) have a sable coat color, dark neonatal coat color, bushy tail with an active supracaudal gland, and a white facial mask. as well as a thinner frame, face, and muzzle. The scent glands are smaller than the gray wolf's, but are the same color.<!--not sure if this cites to Young 50 or not, needs verification--> The coyote also carries its tail downwards when running or walking, rather than horizontally as the wolf does. Coyote tracks can be distinguished from those of dogs by their more elongated, less rounded shape. Unlike dogs, the upper canines of coyotes extend past the mental foramina. This species was encountered several times during the Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804–1806), though it was already well known to European traders on the upper Missouri. Meriwether Lewis, writing on 5 May 1805, in northeastern Montana, described the coyote in these terms: (Mescacâkanis)<br/>Yvhvlanuce (modern)<br />Isaw \|- \| Klamath \| Ko-ha-a \|- \| Nez Perce \| ʔiceyé•ye \|- \| Nahuatl \| Coyōtl \|- \| Lakota \| Mee-yah-slay'-cha-lah \|- \| Omaha \| Mikasi \|- \| Pawnee \| Ckirihki \|- \| Piute \| Eja-ah<br/> Isapaippü<br/> Sedet \|} Evolution \|cladogram"></span> \|2=Gray wolf }} }} \|2=Coyote }} \|2=African wolf }} \|2=Golden jackal }} \|2=Ethiopian wolf }} \|2=Dhole }} \|2=African wild dog }} \|2= \|label1=2.6 }} }} }} }} Fossil record Xiaoming Wang and Richard H. Tedford, one of the foremost authorities on carnivore evolution, proposed that the genus Canis was the descendant of the coyote-like Eucyon davisi and its remains first appeared in the Miocene 6million years ago (Mya) in the southwestern US and Mexico. By the Pliocene (5Mya), the larger Canis lepophagus Pleistocene coyotes were likely more specialized carnivores than their descendants, as their teeth were more adapted to shearing meat, showing fewer grinding surfaces suited for processing vegetation. Their reduction in size occurred within 1,000 years of the Quaternary extinction event, when their large prey died out. Geographic variation in coyotes is not great, though taken as a whole, the eastern subspecies ( and ) are large, dark-colored animals, with a gradual paling in color and reduction in size westward and northward (, , , and ), a brightening of 'ochraceous' tones – deep orange or brown – towards the Pacific coast (, ), a reduction in size in Aridoamerica (, ) and a general trend towards dark reddish colors and short muzzles in Mexican and Central American populations. {\| class"sortable wikitable collapsible collapsed" style"width:100%;" \|- style="background:#115a6c;" ! Subspecies ! Trinomial authority !Trinomial authority (year) ! Description & Image ! Range !Synonyms \|- \| Plains coyote<br/>C. l. latrans<br/>nominate subspecies \| Say<br/><br/> \|1823 \| <br/>The largest subspecies; it has rather pale fur and bears large molars and carnassials. \| The Great Plains from Alberta, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan south to New Mexico and the Texas Panhandle \| (Merriam, 1898)<br/> (Merriam, 1897)]}} \|- \| Mexican coyote<br/>C. l. cagottis<br/> \| C.E.H. Smith \|1839 \| Similar to , but larger and redder in color; it has shorter ears, larger teeth, and a broader muzzle. \| Northern Baja California and southwestern California \| Originally only known from Cerro Mogote, west of the Goascorán River in La Unión, El Salvador; \| Known only from San Vicente, Chiapas, Mexico, near the Guatemalan border, though it could be the coyote of western Guatemala. \| Known only from the open country northeast of Archaga, north of Tegucigalpa \| Boreal forests of Alaska, the Yukon, the Northwest Territories, northern British Columbia, and northern Alberta \| Tiburón Island \| Most of Texas, eastern New Mexico, and northeastern Mexico \| North-central Saskatchewan, Manitoba (except the extreme southwestern corner), east to southern Quebec, south to eastern North Dakota, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri (north of the Missouri River), Michigan, Wisconsin, Illinois (except the extreme southern portion), and northern Indiana Such matings are rare in the wild, as the mating cycles of dogs and coyotes do not coincide, and coyotes are usually antagonistic towards dogs. Hybridization usually only occurs when coyotes are expanding into areas where conspecifics are few, and dogs are the only alternatives. Even then, pup survival rates are lower than normal, as dogs do not form pair bonds with coyotes, thus making the rearing of pups more difficult. In captivity, F<sub>1</sub> hybrids (first generation) tend to be more mischievous and less manageable as pups than dogs, and are less trustworthy on maturity than wolf-dog hybrids. Hybrids are fertile and can be successfully bred through four generations. A population of non-albino white coyotes in Newfoundland owe their coloration to a melanocortin 1 receptor mutation inherited from Golden Retrievers. hybrid conceived in captivity between a male gray wolf and a female coyote]] Coyotes have hybridized with wolves to varying degrees, particularly in eastern North America. The so-called "eastern coyote" of northeastern North America probably originated in the aftermath of the extermination of gray and eastern wolves in the northeast, thus allowing coyotes to colonize former wolf ranges and mix with the remnant wolf populations. This hybrid is smaller than either the gray or eastern wolf, and holds smaller territories, but is in turn larger and holds more extensive home ranges than the typical western coyote. , the eastern coyote's genetic makeup is fairly uniform, with minimal influence from eastern wolves or western coyotes. Adult eastern coyotes are larger than western coyotes, with female eastern coyotes weighing 21% more than male western coyotes. Physical differences become more apparent by the age of 35 days, with eastern coyote pups having longer legs than their western counterparts. Differences in dental development also occurs, with tooth eruption being later, and in a different order in the eastern coyote. No significant differences exist between eastern and western coyotes in aggression and fighting, though eastern coyotes tend to fight less, and are more playful. Unlike western coyote pups, in which fighting precedes play behavior, fighting among eastern coyote pups occurs after the onset of play. Eastern coyotes tend to reach sexual maturity at two years of age, much later than in western coyotes. Behavior Social and reproductive behaviors ]] Like the Eurasian golden jackal, the coyote is gregarious, but not as dependent on conspecifics as more social canid species like wolves are. This is likely because the coyote is not a specialized hunter of large prey as the latter species is. The basic social unit of a coyote pack is a family containing a reproductive female. However, unrelated coyotes may join forces for companionship, or to bring down prey too large to attack on their own. Such "nonfamily" packs are only temporary, and may consist of bachelor males, nonreproductive females and subadult young. Families are formed in midwinter, when females enter estrus. The copulatory tie can last 5–45 minutes. A female entering estrus attracts males by scent marking and howling with increasing frequency. the coyote is strictly monogamous, even in areas with high coyote densities and abundant food. Females that fail to mate sometimes assist their sisters or mothers in raising their pups, or join their siblings until the next time they can mate. The newly mated pair then establishes a territory and either constructs their own den or cleans out abandoned badger, marmot, or skunk earths. During the pregnancy, the male frequently hunts alone and brings back food for the female. The female may line the den with dried grass or with fur pulled from her belly. The male plays an active role in feeding, grooming, and guarding the pups, but abandons them if the female goes missing before the pups are completely weaned. The den is abandoned by June to July, and the pups follow their parents in patrolling their territory and hunting. Pups may leave their families in August, though can remain for much longer. The pups attain adult dimensions at eight months and gain adult weight a month later. Conflicts between coyotes can arise during times of food shortage. A single den can be used year after year. two studies that experimentally investigated the role of olfactory, auditory, and visual cues found that visual cues are the most important ones for hunting in red foxes and coyotes. }} When hunting large prey, the coyote often works in pairs or small groups. Coyotes catch mouse-sized rodents by pouncing, whereas ground squirrels are chased. Although coyotes can live in large groups, small prey is typically caught singly. Coyotes sometimes urinate on their food, possibly to claim ownership over it. Recent evidence demonstrates that at least some coyotes have become more nocturnal in hunting, presumably to avoid humans. Coyotes may occasionally form mutualistic hunting relationships with American badgers, assisting each other in digging up rodent prey. The relationship between the two species may occasionally border on apparent "friendship", as some coyotes have been observed laying their heads on their badger companions or licking their faces without protest. The amicable interactions between coyotes and badgers were known to pre-Columbian civilizations, as shown on a jar found in Mexico dated to 1250–1300 CE depicting the relationship between the two. Communication ]] Body language Being both a gregarious and solitary animal, the variability of the coyote's visual and vocal repertoire is intermediate between that of the solitary foxes and the highly social wolf. Unlike dogs, which solicit playful behavior by performing a "play-bow" followed by a "play-leap", play in coyotes consists of a bow, followed by side-to-side head flexions and a series of "spins" and "dives". Although coyotes will sometimes bite their playmates' scruff as dogs do, they typically approach low, and make upward-directed bites. Pups fight each other regardless of sex, while among adults, aggression is typically reserved for members of the same sex. Combatants approach each other waving their tails and snarling with their jaws open, though fights are typically silent. Males tend to fight in a vertical stance, while females fight on all four paws. Fights among females tend to be more serious than ones among males, as females seize their opponents' forelegs, throat, and shoulders. Its loudness and range of vocalizations was the cause for its binomial name Canis latrans, meaning "barking dog". At least 11 different vocalizations are known in adult coyotes. These sounds are divided into three categories: agonistic and alarm, greeting, and contact. Vocalizations of the first category include woofs, growls, huffs, barks, bark howls, yelps, and high-frequency whines. Woofs are used as low-intensity threats or alarms and are usually heard near den sites, prompting the pups to immediately retreat into their burrows.EcologyHabitat in Bernal Heights, San Francisco]] Prior to the near extermination of wolves and cougars, the coyote was most numerous in grasslands inhabited by bison, pronghorn, elk, and other deer, doing particularly well in short-grass areas with prairie dogs, though it was just as much at home in semiarid areas with sagebrush and jackrabbits or in deserts inhabited by cactus, kangaroo rats, and rattlesnakes. As long as it was not in direct competition with the wolf, the coyote ranged from the Sonoran Desert to the alpine regions of adjoining mountains or the plains and mountainous areas of Alberta. With the extermination of the wolf, the coyote's range expanded to encompass broken forests from the tropics of Guatemala and the northern slope of Alaska. Like many canids, coyotes are competent swimmers, reported to be able to travel at least across water. Diet in Seedskadee National Wildlife Refuge, Wyoming]] The coyote is ecologically the North American equivalent of the Eurasian golden jackal. Likewise, the coyote is highly versatile in its choice of food, but is primarily carnivorous, with 90% of its diet consisting of meat. Prey species include bison (largely as carrion), white-tailed deer, mule deer, moose, elk, bighorn sheep, pronghorn, rabbits, hares, rodents, birds (especially galliformes, roadrunners, young water birds and pigeons and doves), amphibians (except toads), lizards, snakes, turtles and tortoises, fish, crustaceans, and insects. Coyotes may be picky over the prey they target, as animals such as shrews, moles, and brown rats do not occur in their diet in proportion to their numbers. Examples of specific, primary mammal prey include eastern cottontail rabbits, thirteen-lined ground squirrels, and white-footed mice. More unusual prey include fishers, young black bear cubs, harp seals and rattlesnakes. Coyotes kill rattlesnakes mostly for food, but also to protect their pups at their dens, by teasing the snakes until they stretch out and then biting their heads and snapping and shaking the snakes. Birds taken by coyotes may range in size from thrashers, larks and sparrows to adult wild turkeys and, rarely, brooding adult swans and pelicans. If working in packs or pairs, coyotes may have access to larger prey than lone individuals normally take, such as various prey weighing more than . In some cases, packs of coyotes have dispatched much larger prey such as adult Odocoileus deer, cow elk, pronghorns and wild sheep, although the young fawn, calves and lambs of these animals are considerably more often taken even by packs, as well as domestic sheep and domestic cattle. In some cases, coyotes can bring down prey weighing up to or more. When it comes to adult ungulates such as wild deer, they often exploit them when vulnerable such as those that are infirm, stuck in snow or ice, otherwise winter-weakened or heavily pregnant, whereas less wary domestic ungulates may be more easily exploited. Although coyotes prefer fresh meat, they will scavenge when the opportunity presents itself. Excluding the insects, fruit, and grass eaten, the coyote requires an estimated of food daily, or annually. The coyote's winter diet consists mainly of large ungulate carcasses, with very little plant matter. Rodent prey increases in importance during the spring, summer, and fall.Enemies and competitors ]] ]] In areas where the ranges of coyotes and gray wolves overlap, interference competition and predation by wolves has been hypothesized to limit local coyote densities. Coyote ranges expanded during the 19th and 20th centuries following the extirpation of wolves, while coyotes were driven to extinction on Isle Royale after wolves colonized the island in the 1940s. One study conducted in Yellowstone National Park, where both species coexist, concluded that the coyote population in the Lamar River Valley declined by 39% following the reintroduction of wolves in the 1990s, while coyote populations in wolf inhabited areas of the Grand Teton National Park are 33% lower than in areas where they are absent. Wolves have been observed to not tolerate coyotes in their vicinity, though coyotes have been known to trail wolves to feed on their kills. Coyotes may compete with cougars in some areas. In the eastern Sierra Nevada, coyotes compete with cougars over mule deer. Cougars normally outcompete and dominate coyotes, and may kill them occasionally, thus reducing coyote predation pressure on smaller carnivores such as foxes and bobcats. Coyotes that are killed are sometimes not eaten, perhaps indicating that these comprise competitive interspecies interactions, however there are multiple confirmed cases of cougars also eating coyotes. In northeastern Mexico, cougar predation on coyotes continues apace but coyotes were absent from the prey spectrum of sympatric jaguars, apparently due to differing habitat usages. Other than by gray wolves and cougars, predation on adult coyotes is relatively rare but multiple other predators can be occasional threats. In some cases, adult coyotes have been preyed upon by both American black and grizzly bears, American alligators, large Canada lynx and golden eagles. At kill sites and carrion, coyotes, especially if working alone, tend to be dominated by wolves, cougars, bears, wolverines and, usually but not always, eagles (i.e., bald and golden). When such larger, more powerful or more aggressive predators such as these come to a shared feeding site, a coyote may either try to fight, wait until the other predator is done or occasionally share a kill, but if a major danger such as wolves or an adult cougar is present, the coyote will tend to flee. Coyotes rarely kill healthy adult red foxes, and have been observed to feed or den alongside them, though they often kill foxes caught in traps. Coyotes may kill fox kits, but this is not a major source of mortality. In southern California, coyotes frequently kill gray foxes, and these smaller canids tend to avoid areas with high coyote densities. In some areas, coyotes share their ranges with bobcats. These two similarly-sized species rarely physically confront one another, though bobcat populations tend to diminish in areas with high coyote densities. However, several studies have demonstrated interference competition between coyotes and bobcats, and in all cases coyotes dominated the interaction. reported instances of coyotes killing bobcats, whereas bobcats killing coyotes is more rare. Coyote attacks, by an unknown number of coyotes, on adult male bobcats have occurred. In California, coyote and bobcat populations are not negatively correlated across different habitat types, but predation by coyotes is an important source of mortality in bobcats. and compete with them for prey, especially snowshoe hares.Range, (10) plains coyote, (11) mountain coyote, (12) Mearns' coyote, (13) Lower Rio Grande coyote, (14) California valley coyote, (15) peninsula coyote, (16) Texas plains coyote, (17) northeastern coyote, (18) northwest coast coyote, (19) Colima coyote, (20) eastern coyote This expansion is ongoing, and the species now occupies the majority of areas between 8°N (Panama) and 70°N (northern Alaska). Concerns have been raised of a possible expansion into South America through the Panamanian Isthmus, should the Darién Gap ever be closed by the Pan-American Highway. This fear was partially confirmed in January 2013, when the species was recorded in eastern Panama's Chepo District, beyond the Panama Canal. A 2017 genetic study proposes that coyotes were originally not found in the area of the eastern United States. From the 1890s, dense forests were transformed into agricultural land and wolf control implemented on a large scale, leaving a niche for coyotes to disperse into. There were two major dispersals from two populations of genetically distinct coyotes. The first major dispersal to the northeast came in the early 20th century from those coyotes living in the northern Great Plains. These came to New England via the northern Great Lakes region and southern Canada, and to Pennsylvania via the southern Great Lakes region, meeting together in the 1940s in New York and Pennsylvania. Viral diseases known to infect coyotes include rabies, canine distemper, infectious canine hepatitis, four strains of equine encephalitis, and oral papillomatosis. By the late 1970s, serious rabies outbreaks in coyotes had ceased to be a problem for over 60 years, though sporadic cases every 1–5 years did occur. Distemper causes the deaths of many pups in the wild, though some specimens can survive infection. Tularemia, a bacterial disease, infects coyotes from tick bites and through their rodent and lagomorph prey, and can be deadly for pups. Coyotes can be infected by both demodectic and sarcoptic mange, the latter being the most common. Mite infestations are rare and incidental in coyotes, while tick infestations are more common, with seasonal peaks depending on locality (May–August in the Northwest, March–November in Arkansas). Coyotes are only rarely infested with lice, while fleas infest coyotes from puphood, though they may be more a source of irritation than serious illness. Pulex simulans is the most common species to infest coyotes, while Ctenocephalides canis tends to occur only in places where coyotes and dogs (its primary host) inhabit the same area. Although coyotes are rarely host to flukes, they can nevertheless have serious effects on coyotes, particularly Nanophyetus salmincola, which can infect them with salmon poisoning disease, a disease with a 90% mortality rate. Trematode Metorchis conjunctus can also infect coyotes. Tapeworms have been recorded to infest 60–95% of all coyotes examined. The most common species to infest coyotes are Taenia pisiformis and Taenia crassiceps, which uses cottontail rabbits and rodents as intermediate hosts. The largest species known in coyotes is T. hydatigena, which enters coyotes through infected ungulates, and can grow to lengths of . Although once largely limited to wolves, Echinococcus granulosus has expanded to coyotes since the latter began colonizing former wolf ranges. Folklorists such as Harris believe coyotes came to be seen as tricksters due to the animal's intelligence and adaptability. After the European colonization of the Americas, Anglo-American depictions of Coyote are of a cowardly and untrustworthy animal. Unlike the gray wolf, which has undergone a radical improvement of its public image, Anglo-American cultural attitudes towards the coyote remain largely negative. In the Maidu creation story, Coyote introduces work, suffering, and death to the world. Zuni lore has Coyote bringing winter into the world by stealing light from the kachinas. The Chinook, Maidu, Pawnee, Tohono O'odham, and Ute portray the coyote as the companion of The Creator. A Tohono O'odham flood story has Coyote helping Montezuma survive a global deluge that destroys humanity. After The Creator creates humanity, Coyote and Montezuma teach people how to live. The Crow creation story portrays Old Man Coyote as The Creator. In The Dineh creation story, Coyote was present in the First World with First Man and First Woman, though a different version has it being created in the Fourth World. The Navajo Coyote brings death into the world, explaining that without death, too many people would exist, thus no room to plant corn. depicting coyote warriors]] Prior to the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, Coyote played a significant role in Mesoamerican cosmology. The coyote symbolized military might in Classic era Teotihuacan, with warriors dressing up in coyote costumes to call upon its predatory power. The species continued to be linked to Central Mexican warrior cults in the centuries leading up to the post-Classic Aztec rule. In Aztec mythology, Huehuecóyotl (meaning "old coyote"), the god of dance, music and carnality, is depicted in several codices as a man with a coyote's head. He is sometimes depicted as a womanizer, responsible for bringing war into the world by seducing Xochiquetzal, the goddess of love. Epigrapher David H. Kelley argued that the god Quetzalcoatl owed its origins to pre-Aztec Uto-Aztecan mythological depictions of the coyote, which is portrayed as mankind's "Elder Brother", a creator, seducer, trickster, and culture hero linked to the morning star.Attacks on humans Coyote attacks on humans are uncommon and rarely cause serious injuries, due to the relatively small size of the coyote, but have been increasingly frequent, especially in California. By the middle of the 19th century, the coyote was already marked as an enemy by humans. (Sharp & Hall, 1978 Pg. 41-54) There have been only two confirmed fatal attacks: one on three-year-old Kelly Keen in Glendale, California In the 30 years leading up to March 2006, at least 160 attacks occurred in the United States, mostly in the Los Angeles County area. Data from United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Wildlife Services, the California Department of Fish and Game, and other sources show that while 41 attacks occurred during the period of 1988–1997, 48 attacks were verified from 1998 through 2003. The majority of these incidents occurred in Southern California near the suburban-wildland interface. In the absence of the harassment of coyotes practiced by rural people, urban coyotes are losing their fear of humans, which is further worsened by people intentionally or unintentionally feeding coyotes. In such situations, some coyotes have begun to act aggressively toward humans, chasing joggers and bicyclists, confronting people walking their dogs, and stalking small children. Although media reports of such attacks generally identify the animals in question as simply "coyotes", research into the genetics of the eastern coyote indicates those involved in attacks in northeast North America, including Pennsylvania, New York, New England, and eastern Canada, may have actually been coywolves, hybrids of Canis latrans and C. lupus, not fully coyotes.Livestock and pet predation, coyotes were the most abundant livestock predators in western North America, causing the majority of sheep, goat, and cattle losses. For example, according to the National Agricultural Statistics Service, coyotes were responsible for 60.5% of the 224,000 sheep deaths attributed to predation in 2004. The total number of sheep deaths in 2004 comprised 2.22% of the total sheep and lamb population in the United States, which, according to the National Agricultural Statistics Service USDA report, totaled 4.66 million and 7.80 million heads respectively as of July 1, 2005. Because coyote populations are typically many times greater and more widely distributed than those of wolves, coyotes cause more overall predation losses. United States government agents routinely shoot, poison, trap, and kill about 90,000 coyotes each year to protect livestock. An Idaho census taken in 2005 showed that individual coyotes were 5% as likely to attack livestock as individual wolves. In Utah, more than 11,000 coyotes were killed for bounties totaling over $500,000 in the fiscal year ending June 30, 2017. A 1986 survey of sheep producers in the USA found that 82% reported the use of dogs represented an economic asset. Re-wilding cattle, which involves increasing the natural protective tendencies of cattle, is a method for controlling coyotes discussed by Temple Grandin of Colorado State University. This method is gaining popularity among producers who allow their herds to calve on the range and whose cattle graze open pastures throughout the year. Coyotes typically bite the throat just behind the jaw and below the ear when attacking adult sheep or goats, with death commonly resulting from suffocation. Blood loss is usually a secondary cause of death. Calves and heavily fleeced sheep are killed by attacking the flanks or hindquarters, causing shock and blood loss. When attacking smaller prey, such as young lambs, the kill is made by biting the skull and spinal regions, causing massive tissue and bone damage. Small or young prey may be completely carried off, leaving only blood as evidence of a kill. Coyotes usually leave the hide and most of the skeleton of larger animals relatively intact, unless food is scarce, in which case they may leave only the largest bones. Scattered bits of wool, skin, and other parts are characteristic where coyotes feed extensively on larger carcasses. Coyotes are often attracted to dog food and animals that are small enough to appear as prey. Items such as garbage, pet food, and sometimes feeding stations for birds and squirrels attract coyotes into backyards. About three to five pets attacked by coyotes are brought into the Animal Urgent Care hospital of South Orange County (California) each week, the majority of which are dogs, since cats typically do not survive the attacks. Scat analysis collected near Claremont, California, revealed that coyotes relied heavily on pets as a food source in winter and spring. Dogs larger than coyotes, such as greyhounds, are generally able to drive them off and have been known to kill coyotes. Smaller breeds are more likely to suffer injury or death. Since coyotes are colorblind, seeing only in shades of gray and subtle blues, open camouflages and plain patterns can be used. As the average male coyote weighs 8 to 20 kg (18 to 44 lbs) and the average female coyote 7 to 18 kg (15 to 40 lbs), a universal projectile that can perform between those weights is the .223 Remington, so that the projectile expands in the target after entry, but before the exit, thus delivering the most energy. Coyotes being the light and agile animals they are, they often leave a very light impression on terrain. The coyote's footprint is oblong, approximately 6.35 cm (2.5-inches) long and 5.08 cm (2-inches) wide. There are four claws in both their front and hind paws. The coyote's center pad is relatively shaped like that of a rounded triangle. Like the domestic dog the coyote's front paw is slightly larger than the hind paw. The coyote's paw is most similar to that of the domestic dog. The hunting of coyotes often results in grey wolves being shot in places where the two species still coexist, as a result of mistaken identity. Fur uses Prior to the mid-19th century, coyote fur was considered worthless. This changed with the diminution of beavers, and by 1860, the hunting of coyotes for their fur became a great source of income (75 cents to $1.50 per skin) for wolfers in the Great Plains. Coyote pelts were of significant economic importance during the early 1950s, ranging in price from $5 to $25 per pelt, depending on locality. The coyote's fur is not durable enough to make rugs, but can be used for coats and jackets, scarves, or muffs. The majority of pelts are used for making trimmings, such as coat collars and sleeves for women's clothing. Coyote fur is sometimes dyed black as imitation silver fox. Tameability Coyotes were likely semidomesticated by various pre-Columbian cultures. Some 19th-century writers wrote of coyotes being kept in native villages in the Great Plains. The coyote is easily tamed as a pup, but can become destructive as an adult. Both full-blooded and hybrid coyotes can be playful and confiding with their owners, but are suspicious and shy of strangers, and pointing have been recorded. A tame coyote named "Butch", caught in the summer of 1945, had a short-lived career in cinema, appearing in Smoky (1946) and Ramrod (1947) before being shot while raiding a henhouse. Copper, a coyote, was one of three mascots for the 2002 Winter Olympics. An animated coyote voiced by Johnny Cash plays a pivotal role as a spirit guide to Homer Simpson in the Simpsons episode "El Viaje Misterioso de Nuestro Jomer". The 2013 documentary film Bad Coyote profiles the expansion of coyotes into Atlantic Canada, centred in part on the 2009 death of singer-songwriter Taylor Mitchell in a coyote attack. Athletic teams at the University of South Dakota are called the Coyotes. The Daily Coyote, a 2008 autobiographical book about a woman who raises a coyote pup. Explanatory notes Citations General and cited sources * * * * * * }} Further reading Books * Dixon, J. S. (1920). [https://archive.org/details/controlofcoyotei320dixo Control of the coyote in California]. Berkeley, Cal. : Agricultural Experiment Station * Flores, D. (2016). [https://books.google.com/books?idCSvXCwAAQBAJ&pgPA1 Coyote America: A Natural and Supernatural History]. Basic Books. * Harding, A. R. (1909). ''[https://archive.org/details/wolfcoyotetrappi00hard Wolf and coyote trapping; an up-to-date wolf hunter's guide, giving the most successful methods of experienced "wolfers" for hunting and trapping these animals, also gives their habits in detail]. Columbus, Ohio, A. R. Harding pub. co. * * }} * * Murie, A. (1940). [https://archive.org/details/ecologyofcoyotei00muri Ecology of the coyote in the Yellowstone]. Washington, D.C. : U.S. G.P.O. * Parker, Gerry. (1995). "Eastern Coyote: Story of Its Success", Nimbus Publishing, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. * Van Nuys, Frank (2015). Varmints and Victims: Predator Control in the American West. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. * Wagner, M. M. (c. 1920). [https://archive.org/details/tamecoyote00wagnrich The autobiography of a tame coyote]. San Francisco, Harr Wagner pub. co. Video Shelly, Priya (June 2016). [https://aeon.co/videos/wildlife-management-is-really-a-misnomer-it-s-about-managing-people Living with Coyote] (18 minutes). Aeon. Audiobooks Olson, Jack (May 2015). The Last Coyote (8 hours). Narrated by Gary MacFadden. Originally published as Slaughter the Animals, Poison the Earth, Simon & Schuster, Oct. 11, 1971. . External links * * * [https://www.azgfd.com/wildlife/livingwith/coyotes/ Arizona Game & Fish Department, "Living with Coyotes"] * [http://wolf.nrdpfc.ca/westerncoyote.htm Western coyote] , Wolf and Coyote DNA Bank @ Trent University * View occurrences of [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/name/Canis_latrans Canis latrans]'' in the Biodiversity Heritage Library Category:Carnivorans of Central America Category:Carnivorans of North America Category:Extant Middle Pleistocene first appearances Category:Fauna of the California chaparral and woodlands Category:Fauna of the Rocky Mountains Category:Fauna of the Western United States Category:Mammals described in 1823 Category:Mammals of Canada Category:Mammals of Mexico Category:Mammals of the United States Category:Pleistocene carnivorans Category:Pleistocene mammals of North America Category:Quaternary carnivorans Category:Scavengers Category:Spanish words and phrases Category:Symbols of South Dakota Category:Taxa named by Thomas Say Category:Fur trade	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coyote	2025-04-05T18:27:55.714436
6711	Compressor (disambiguation)	A compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume. Compressor may also refer to: A device that performs Compression (disambiguation) Compressor (audio signal processor), for dynamic range compression Compressor (software), a video and audio media compression and encoding application See also Compression (disambiguation) Compaction (disambiguation) Decompression (disambiguation) Expansion (disambiguation) Kompressor (disambiguation) Compressor Hot Springs, a place in California, U.S. Supercharger Turbocharger	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressor_(disambiguation)	2025-04-05T18:27:55.738814
6713	Conan the Barbarian	\| voice = }} Conan the Barbarian (also known as Conan the Cimmerian) is a fictional sword and sorcery hero created by American author Robert E. Howard (1906-1936) and who debuted in 1932 and went on to appear in a series of fantasy stories published in Weird Tales magazine. After first appearing in pulp magazines. the character has since been adapted to books, comics, films (including Conan the Barbarian and Conan the Destroyer), television programs (animated and live-action), video games, and role-playing games. The earliest appearance of a Robert E. Howard character named Conan was that of a black-haired barbarian with heroic attributes in the 1931 short story "People of the Dark". Before Howard's death he wrote 21 stories starring the barbarian. Over the years, many other writers have written works featuring Conan. Many Conan the Barbarian stories feature Conan embarking on heroic adventures filled with common fantasy elements such as princesses and wizards. Howard's mythopoeia has the stories set in the legendary Hyborian Age in the times after the fall of Atlantis. Conan is a Cimmerian, who are descendants of the Atlanteans and ancestors of the modern Gaels. Conan is himself a descendant of Kull of Atlantis (an earlier adventurer of Howard's). He was born on a battlefield and is the son of a blacksmith. Conan is characterized as chivalric due to his penchant to save damsels in distress. He possesses great strength, combativeness, intelligence, agility, and endurance. The barbarian's appearance is iconic, with square-cut black hair, blue eyes, tanned skin, and giant stature, often wearing a barbarian's garb. Licensed comics published in the 1970s by Marvel Comics drew further popularity to the character, introducing the now iconic image of Conan in his loincloth. The most popular cinematic adaptation is the 1982 film Conan the Barbarian directed by John Milius and starring Arnold Schwarzenegger as Conan. Publication history Robert E. Howard created Conan the Barbarian in a series of fantasy stories published in Weird Tales from 1932. Howard was searching for a new character to market to the burgeoning pulp outlets of the early 1930s. In October 1931, he submitted the short story "People of the Dark" to Clayton Publications' new magazine, Strange Tales of Mystery and Terror (June 1932). "People of the Dark" is a story about the remembrance of "past lives", and in its first-person narrative, the protagonist describes one of his previous incarnations: Conan is a black-haired barbarian hero who swears by a deity called Crom. Some Howard scholars believe this Conan to be a forerunner of the more famous character. In February 1932, Howard vacationed at a border town on the lower Rio Grande. During this trip, he further conceived the character of Conan and also wrote the poem "Cimmeria", much of which echoes specific passages in Plutarch's Lives. According to some scholars, reading Thomas Bulfinch inspired Howard to "coalesce into a coherent whole his literary aspirations and the strong physical, autobiographical elements underlying the creation of Conan". The two volumes were combined and the stories restored to chronological order as The Complete Chronicles of Conan: Centenary Edition (Gollancz Science Fiction, 2006; edited and with an Afterword by Steve Jones). In 2003, another British publisher, Wandering Star Books, made an effort both to restore Howard's original manuscripts and to provide a more scholarly and historical view of the Conan stories. It published hardcover editions in England, which were republished in the United States by the Del Rey imprint of Ballantine Books. The first book, Conan of Cimmeria: Volume One (1932–1933) (2003; published in the US as The Coming of Conan the Cimmerian) includes Howard's notes on his fictional setting as well as letters and poems concerning the genesis of his ideas. This was followed by Conan of Cimmeria: Volume Two (1934) (2004; published in the US as The Bloody Crown of Conan) and Conan of Cimmeria: Volume Three (1935–1936) (2005; published in the US as The Conquering Sword of Conan). These three volumes include all the original Conan stories. Setting The stories occur in the fictional "Hyborian Age", set after the destruction of Atlantis and before the rise of any historical ancient civilization. This is a specific epoch in a fictional timeline created by Howard for many of the low fantasy tales of his artificial legendary. Howard invented the Hyborian Age as a useful literary device. He had an intense love for history and historical dramas, but he also recognized the difficulties and the time-consuming research work needed in maintaining historical accuracy. Also, the poorly-stocked libraries in the rural part of Texas where Howard lived did not have the material needed for such research. By conceiving a fictional "vanished age" and choosing names that resembled historical ones, Howard avoided anachronisms and the need for lengthy exposition. Personality and character Conan is a Cimmerian. The writings of Robert E. Howard (particularly his essay "The Hyborian Age") suggests that his Cimmerians are based on the Celts or perhaps the historic Cimmerians. Conan was born on a battlefield and is the son of a village blacksmith. Conan matured quickly as a youth and, by age fifteen, he was already a respected warrior who had participated in the destruction of the Aquilonian fortress of Venarium. After its demise, he was struck by wanderlust and began the adventures chronicled by Howard, encountering skulking monsters, evil wizards, tavern wenches, and beautiful princesses. He roamed throughout the Hyborian Age nations as a thief, outlaw, mercenary, and pirate. As he grew older, he began commanding vast units of warriors and escalating his ambitions. In his forties, he seized the crown from the tyrannical king of Aquilonia, the most powerful kingdom of the Hyborian Age, having strangled the previous ruler on the steps of his own throne. Conan's adventures often result in him performing heroic feats, though his motivation for doing so is largely to protect his own survival or for personal gain. A conspicuous element of Conan's character is his chivalry. He is extremely reluctant to fight women (even when they fight him) and has a strong tendency to save a damsel in distress. In "Jewels of Gwahlur", he has to make a split-second decision whether to save the dancing girl Muriela or the chest of priceless gems which he spent months in search of. So, without hesitation, he rescues Muriela and allows for the treasure to be irrevocably lost. In "The Black Stranger", Conan saves the exile Zingaran Lady Belesa at considerable risk to himself, giving her as a parting gift his fortune in gems big enough to have a comfortable and wealthy life in Zingara, while asking for no favors in return. Reviewer Jennifer Bard also noted that when Conan is in a pirate crew or a robber gang led by another male, his tendency is to subvert and undermine the leader's authority, and eventually supplant (and often, kill) him (e.g. "Pool of the Black One", "A Witch Shall be Born", "Shadows in the Moonlight"). Conversely, in "Queen of the Black Coast", it is noted that Conan "generally agreed to Belit's plan. Hers was the mind that directed their raids, his the arm that carried out her ideas. It was a good life." And at the end of "Red Nails", Conan and Valeria seem to be headed towards a reasonably amicable piratical partnership. Appearance Conan has "sullen", "smoldering", and "volcanic" blue eyes with a black "square-cut mane". Howard once describes him as having a hairy chest and, while comic book interpretations often portray Conan as wearing a loincloth or other minimalist clothing to give him a more barbaric image, Howard describes the character as wearing whatever garb is typical for the kingdom and culture in which Conan finds himself. Howard never gave a strict height or weight for Conan in a story, only describing him in loose terms like "giant" and "massive". In the tales, no human is ever described as being stronger than Conan, although a few are mentioned as taller (including the strangler, Baal-Pteor) or of larger bulk. In a letter to P. Schuyler Miller and John D. Clark in 1936, only three months before Howard's death, Conan is described as standing 6 ft/183 cm and weighing when he takes part in an attack on Venarium at only 15 years old, though being far from fully grown. At one point, when he is meeting Juma in Kush, he describes Conan as tall as his friend, at nearly 7 ft. in height. Conan himself says in "Beyond the Black River" that he had "not yet seen 15 snows" at the Battle of Venarium: "At Vanarium he was already a formidable antagonist, though only fifteen, He stood six feet tall [1.83 m] and weighed 180 pounds [82 kg], though he lacked much of having his full growth." Although Conan is muscular, Howard frequently compares his agility and way of moving to that of a panther (see, for instance, "Jewels of Gwahlur", "Beyond the Black River", or "Rogues in the House"). His skin is frequently characterized as bronzed from constant exposure to the sun. In his younger years, he is often depicted wearing a light chain shirt and a horned helmet, though appearances vary with different stories. During his reign as king of Aquilonia, Conan was ::<blockquote>[...] a tall man, mightily shouldered and deep of chest, with a massive corded neck and heavily muscled limbs. He was clad in silk and velvet, with the royal lions of Aquilonia worked in gold upon his rich jupon, and the crown of Aquilonia shone on his square-cut black mane; but the great sword at his side seemed more natural to him than the regal accoutrements. His brow was low and broad, his eyes a volcanic blue that smoldered as if with some inner fire. His dark, scarred, almost sinister face was that of a fighting-man, and his velvet garments could not conceal the hard, dangerous lines of his limbs.</blockquote> Howard imagined the Cimmerians as a pre-Celtic people with mostly black hair and blue or grey eyes. Ethnically, the Cimmerians to which Conan belongs are descendants of the Atlanteans, though they do not remember their ancestry. In his fictional historical essay "The Hyborian Age", Howard describes how the people of Atlantis—the land where his character King Kull originated—had to move east after a great cataclysm changed the face of the world and sank their island, settling where Ireland and Scotland would eventually be located. Thus they are (in Howard's work) the ancestors of the Irish and Scottish (the Celtic Gaels) and not the Picts, the other ancestor of modern Scots who also appear in Howard's work. In the same work, Howard also described how the Cimmerians eventually moved south and east after the age of Conan (presumably in the vicinity of the Black Sea, where the historical Cimmerians dwelt). Abilities Despite his brutish appearance, Conan uses his brains as well as his brawn. The Cimmerian is a highly skilled warrior, possibly without peer with a sword, but his travels have given him vast experience in other trades, especially as a thief. He's also a talented commander, tactician, and strategist, as well as a born leader. In addition, Conan has advanced knowledge of languages and codes and is able to recognize, or even decipher, certain ancient or secret signs and writings. For example, in "Jewels of Gwahlur" Howard states: "In his roaming about the world the giant adventurer had picked up a wide smattering of knowledge, particularly including the speaking and reading of many alien tongues. Many a sheltered scholar would have been astonished at the Cimmerian's linguistic abilities." He also has incredible stamina, enabling him to go without sleep for a few days. In "A Witch Shall be Born", Conan fights armed men until he is overwhelmed, captured, and crucified, before going an entire night and day without water. However, Conan still possesses the strength to pull the nails from his feet, while hoisting himself into a horse's saddle and riding for ten miles. Another noticeable trait is his sense of humor, largely absent in the comics and movies, but very much a part of Howard's original vision of the character (particularly apparent in "Xuthal of the Dusk", also known as "The Slithering Shadow".) His sense of humor can also be rather grimly ironic, as was demonstrated by how he unleashes his own version of justice on the treacherous—and ill-fated—innkeeper Aram Baksh in "Shadows in Zamboula". He is a loyal friend to those true to him, with a barbaric code of conduct that often marks him as more honorable than the more sophisticated people he meets in his travels. Indeed, his straightforward nature and barbarism are constants in all the tales. Conan is a formidable combatant both armed and unarmed. With his back to the wall, Conan is capable of engaging and killing opponents by the score. This is seen in several stories, such as "Queen of the Black Coast", "The Scarlet Citadel", and "A Witch Shall Be Born". Conan is not superhuman, though; he needed the providential help of Zelata's wolf to defeat four Nemedian soldiers in Howard's novel The Hour of the Dragon. Some of his hardest victories have come from fighting single opponents of inhuman strength: one such as Thak, an ape-like humanoid from "Rogues in the House", or the strangler Baal-Pteor in "Shadows in Zamboula". Conan is far from untouchable and has been captured or defeated several times (on one occasion, knocking himself out after drunkenly running into a wall). Influences Howard frequently corresponded with H. P. Lovecraft, and the two would sometimes insert references or elements of each other's settings in their works. Later editors reworked many of the original Conan stories by Howard, thus diluting this connection. Nevertheless, many of Howard's unedited Conan stories are arguably part of the Cthulhu Mythos. Additionally, many of the Conan stories by Howard, de Camp, and Carter used geographical place names from Clark Ashton Smith's Hyperborean Cycle. Original Robert E. Howard Conan stories '' (May 1934) depicting Conan and Bêlit in "Queen of the Black Coast", one of Robert E. Howard's original Conan stories]] Conan stories published in Weird Tales # "The Phoenix on the Sword" (novelette; vol. 20, #6, December 1932) # "The Scarlet Citadel" (novelette; vol. 21, #1, January 1, 1933) # "The Tower of the Elephant" (novelette; vol. 21, #3, March 1933) # "Black Colossus" (novelette; vol. 21, #6, June 1933) # "The Slithering Shadow" (novelette; vol. 22, #3, September 1933, alternate title "Xuthal of the Dusk") # "The Pool of the Black One" (novelette; vol. 22, #4, October 1933) # "Rogues in the House" (novelette; vol. 23, #1, January 1934) # "Iron Shadows in the Moon" (novelette; vol. 23, #4, April 1934, published as "Shadows in the Moonlight") # "Queen of the Black Coast" (novelette; vol. 23, #5, May 1934) # "The Devil in Iron" (novelette; vol. 24, #2, August 1934) # "The People of the Black Circle" (novella; vol. 24, #3–5, September–November 1934) # "A Witch Shall Be Born" (novelette; vol. 24, #6, December 1934) # "Jewels of Gwahlur" (novelette; vol. 25, #3, March 1935, author's original title "The Servants of Bit-Yakin") # "Beyond the Black River" (novella; vol. 25, #5–6, May–June 1935) # "Shadows in Zamboula" (novelette; vol. 26, #5, November 1935, author's original title "The Man-Eaters of Zamboula") # "The Hour of the Dragon" (novel; vol. 26, #6 & vol. 27, #1–4, December 1935, January–April 1936) # "Red Nails" (novella; vol. 28, #1–3, July, September, October 1936) Conan stories published in Fantasy Fan magazine * "Gods of the North" (March 1934) – published as ''The Frost-Giant's Daughter in The Coming of Conan'', 1953. Conan stories not published in Howard's lifetime * "The God in the Bowl" – Published in Space Science Fiction, Sep. 1952. * "The Black Stranger" – Published in Fantasy Magazine, Feb. 1953. * "The Vale of Lost Women" – Published in The Magazine of Horror, Spring 1967. Unfinished Conan stories by Howard * "The Drums of Tombalku" – Fragment. Published in Conan the Adventurer, 1966. * "The Hall of the Dead" – Synopsis. Published in The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, February 1967. * "The Hand of Nergal" – Fragment. Published in Conan, 1967. * "The Snout in the Dark" – Fragment. Published in Conan of Cimmeria, 1969. A number of untitled synopses for Conan stories also exist. Other Conan-related material by Howard * "Wolves Beyond the Border" – A non-Conan story set in Conan's world. Fragment. Published in 1967 in Conan the Usurper * "The Hyborian Age" – An essay written in 1932. Published in 1938 in The Hyborian Age. * "Cimmeria" – A poem written in 1932. Published in 1965 in The Howard Collector. Book editions The character of Conan has proven durably popular, resulting in Conan stories by later writers such as Poul Anderson, Leonard Carpenter, Lin Carter, L. Sprague de Camp, Roland J. Green, John C. Hocking, Robert Jordan, Sean A. Moore, Björn Nyberg, Andrew J. Offutt, Steve Perry, John Maddox Roberts, Harry Turtledove, and Karl Edward Wagner. Some of these writers have finished incomplete Conan manuscripts by Howard. Others were created by rewriting Howard stories which originally featured entirely different characters from entirely different milieus. Most, however, are completely original works. In total, more than fifty novels and dozens of short stories featuring the Conan character have been written by authors other than Howard. The Gnome Press edition (1950–1957) was the first hardcover collection of Howard's Conan stories, including all the original Howard material known to exist at the time, some left unpublished in his lifetime. The later volumes contain some stories rewritten by L. Sprague de Camp (like "The Treasure of Tranicos"), including several non-Conan Howard stories, mostly historical exotica situated in the Levant at the time of the Crusades, which he turned into Conan yarns. The Gnome edition also issued the first Conan story written by an author other than Howard—the final volume published, which is by Björn Nyberg and revised by de Camp. The Lancer/Ace editions (1966–1977), under the direction of de Camp and Lin Carter, were the first comprehensive paperbacks, compiling the material from the Gnome Press series together in a chronological order with all the remaining original Howard material, including that left unpublished in his lifetime and fragments and outlines. These were completed by de Camp and Carter. The series also included Howard stories originally featuring other protagonists that were rewritten by de Camp as Conan stories. New Conan stories written entirely by de Camp and Carter were added as well. Lancer Books went out of business before bringing out the entire series, the publication of which was completed by Ace Books. Eight of the eventual twelve volumes published featured dynamic cover paintings by Frank Frazetta that, for many fans, presented the definitive, iconic impression of Conan and his world. For decades to come, most other portrayals of the Cimmerian and his imitators were heavily influenced by the cover paintings of this series. Most editions after the Lancer/Ace series have been of either the original Howard stories or Conan material by others, but not both. The exception are the Ace Maroto editions (1978–1981), which include both new material by other authors and older material by Howard, though the latter are some of the non-Conan tales by Howard rewritten as Conan stories by de Camp. Notable later editions of the original Howard Conan stories include the Donald M. Grant editions (1974–1989, incomplete); Berkley editions (1977); Gollancz editions (2000–2006), and Wandering Star/Del Rey editions (2003–2005). Later series of new Conan material include the Bantam editions (1978–1982) and Tor editions (1982–2004). Conan chronologies In an attempt to provide a coherent timeline which fit the numerous adventures of Conan penned by Robert E. Howard and later writers, various "Conan chronologies" have been prepared by many people from the 1930s onward. Note that no consistent timeline has yet accommodated every single Conan story. The following are the principal theories that have been advanced over the years. * Miller/Clark chronology – ''A Probable Outline of Conan's Career (1936) was the first effort to put the tales in chronological order. Completed by P. Schuyler Miller and John Drury Clark, the chronology was later revised by Clark and L. Sprague de Camp in An Informal Biography of Conan the Cimmerian (1952). * Robert Jordan chronology – A Conan Chronology by Robert Jordan (1987) was a new chronology written by Conan writer Robert Jordan that included all written Conan material up to that point. It was heavily influenced by the Miller/Clark/de Camp chronologies, though it departed from them in a number of idiosyncratic instances. * William Galen Gray chronology – Timeline of Conan's Journeys'' (1997, rev. 2004), was fan William Galen Gray's attempt to create "a chronology of all the stories, both Howard and pastiche." Drawing on the earlier Miller/Clark and Jordan chronologies, it represents the ultimate expression of their tradition to date. * Joe Marek chronology – Joe Marek's chronology is limited to stories written (or devised) by Howard, though within that context it is essentially a revision of the Miller/Clark tradition to better reflect the internal evidence of the stories and avoid forcing Conan into what he perceives as a "mad dash" around the Hyborian world within timeframes too rapid to be credible. * Dale Rippke chronology – The Darkstorm Conan Chronology (2003) was a completely revised and heavily researched chronology, radically repositioning a number of stories and including only those stories written or devised by Howard. The Dark Horse comic series follows this chronology. Media Films <!-- Please do not include overviews of the Kull or Red Sonja films as such data belongs on their respective articles. --> Schwarzenegger as Conan (1980s) The first Conan cinematic project was planned by Edward Summer. Summer envisioned a series of Conan films, much like the James Bond franchise. He outlined six stories for this film series, but none was ever made. An original screenplay by Summer and Roy Thomas was written, but their lore-authentic screen story was never filmed. However, the resulting film, Conan the Barbarian (1982), was a combination of director John Milius's ideas and plots from Conan stories (written also by Howard's successors, notably Lin Carter and L. Sprague de Camp). A Nietzschean motto and Conan's life philosophy were notably added in this adaptation. The plot of Conan the Barbarian (1982) begins with Conan being enslaved by the Vanir raiders of Thulsa Doom, a malevolent warlord who is responsible for the slaying of Conan's parents and the genocide of his people. Later, Thulsa Doom becomes a cult leader of a religion that worships Set, a Snake God. The vengeful Conan, the archer Subotai and the thief Valeria set out on a quest to rescue a princess held captive by Thulsa Doom. The film was directed by John Milius and produced by Dino De Laurentiis. The character of Conan was played by Jorge Sanz as a child and Arnold Schwarzenegger as an adult. It was Schwarzenegger's break-through role as an actor. This film was followed by a less popular sequel, Conan the Destroyer in 1984. This sequel was a more typical fantasy-genre film and was even less faithful to Howard's Conan stories, being just a picaresque story of an assorted bunch of adventurers. The third film in the Conan trilogy was planned for 1987 to be titled Conan the Conqueror. The director was to be either Guy Hamilton or John Guillermin. Since Arnold Schwarzenegger was committed to the film Predator and De Laurentiis's contract with the star had expired after his obligation to Red Sonja and Raw Deal, he wasn't keen to negotiate a new one; thus the third Conan film sank into development hell. The script was eventually turned into Kull the Conqueror. Momoa as Conan (2011) There were rumors in the late 1990s of another Conan sequel, a story about an older Conan titled King Conan: Crown of Iron, but Schwarzenegger's election in 2003 as governor of California ended this project. Warner Bros. spent seven years trying to get the project off the ground. However, in June 2007 the rights reverted to Paradox Entertainment, though all drafts made under Warner remained with them. In August 2007, it was announced that Millennium Films had acquired the rights to the project. Production was aimed for a Spring 2006 start, with the intention of having stories more faithful to the Robert E. Howard creation. In June 2009, Millennium hired Marcus Nispel to direct. In January 2010, Jason Momoa was selected for the role of Conan. The film was released in August 2011, and met poor critical reviews and box office results.Unproduced: Legend of ConanIn 2012, producers Chris Morgan and Frederick Malmberg announced plans for a sequel to the 1982 Conan the Barbarian titled The Legend of Conan, with Arnold Schwarzenegger reprising his role as Conan. A year later, Deadline reported that Andrea Berloff would write the script. Years passed since the initial announcement as Schwarzenegger worked on other films, but as late as 2016, Schwarzenegger affirmed his enthusiasm for making the film, saying, "Interest is high ... but we are not rushing." The script was finished, and Schwarzenegger and Morgan were meeting with possible directors. She Is Conann In 2023, French film director Bertrand Mandico released She Is Conann, a gender-flipped version of Conan the Barbarian which stars five different actresses playing a female Conann at different stages in her life.Television There have been three television series related to Conan: * 'Conan the Adventurer' is an animated television series produced by Jetlag Productions and Sunbow Productions that debuted on September 13, 1992, ran for 65 episodes and concluded on November 23, 1993. The series involved Conan chasing Serpent Men across the world in an attempt to release his parents from eternal imprisonment as living statues. * Conan and the Young Warriors is an animated television series that premiered in 1994 and ran for 13 episodes. DiC Entertainment produced the show and CBS aired this series as a spin-off to the previous animated series. This cartoon took place after the finale of Conan the Adventurer with Wrath-Amon vanquished and Conan's family returned to life from living stone. Conan soon finds that the family of one of his friends are being turned into wolves by an evil sorceress and he must train three warriors in order to aid him in rescuing them. * 'Conan the Adventurer' is a live-action television series that premiered on September 22, 1997, and ran for 22 episodes. It starred German bodybuilder Ralf Möller as Conan, Danny Woodburn (Otli), Robert McRay (Zzeben), and TJ Storm (Bayu) as his sidekicks. The storyline was quite different from the Conan lore of Howard. In this adaptation, Conan is a pleasant and jovial person. Also in this version, Conan is not a loner but one member of a merry band of adventurers. * In September 2020, it was announced that Netflix will develop a new Conan TV series as a part of a larger deal involving and Mark Wheeler from Pathfinder Media between Netflix and Conan Properties International, owned by Cabinet Entertainment, for the exclusive rights to the Conan library for the rights for live-action and animated films and TV shows. Deadline had previously reported that a Conan show was in the works at Amazon Prime, but nothing came of it. Comics Comic adaptations of Conan are arguably, apart from the books, the vehicle that had the greatest influence on the longevity and popularity of the character. The earliest comic book adaptation of Conan was written in Spanish and first published in Mexico in the fifties. This version, which was done without authorization from the estate of Robert E. Howard, is loosely based on the short story Queen of the Black Coast. The first licensed comic adaptations were written in English and first published by Marvel Comics in the seventies, beginning with Conan the Barbarian (1970–1993) and the classic Savage Sword of Conan (1974–1995). Dark Horse Comics launched their Conan series in 2003. Dark Horse Comics published compilations of the 1970s Marvel Comics series in trade paperback format. Barack Obama, former President of the United States, is a fan of the character and collects Conan the Barbarian comic books. Obama also appeared as a character in a comic book called Barack the Barbarian from Devil's Due. Marvel Comics introduced a relatively lore-faithful version of Conan the Barbarian in 1970 with Conan the Barbarian, written by Roy Thomas and illustrated by Barry Windsor-Smith. Smith was succeeded by penciller John Buscema, while Thomas continued to write for many years. Later writers included J. M. DeMatteis, Bruce Jones, Michael Fleisher, Doug Moench, Jim Owsley, Alan Zelenetz, Chuck Dixon and Don Kraar. In 1974, Conan the Barbarian series spawned the more adult-oriented, black-and-white comics magazine Savage Sword of Conan, written by Thomas with art mostly by Buscema or Alfredo Alcala. Marvel also published several graphic novels starring the character , and a handbook with detailed information about the Hyborian world. Conan the Barbarian is also officially considered to be part of the larger Marvel Universe and has interacted with heroes and villains alike. The Marvel Conan stories were also adapted as a newspaper comic strip which appeared daily and Sunday from 4 September 1978 to 12 April 1981. Originally written by Roy Thomas and illustrated by John Buscema, the strip was continued by several different Marvel artists and writers. Dark Horse Comics began their comic adaptation of the Conan saga in 2003. Entitled simply Conan, the series was first written by Kurt Busiek and pencilled by Cary Nord. Tim Truman replaced Busiek, when Busiek signed an exclusive contract with DC Comics. However, Busiek issues were sometimes used for filler. This series is an interpretation of the original Conan material by Robert E. Howard with no connection whatsoever to the earlier Marvel comics or any Conan story not written or envisioned by Howard supplemented by wholly original material. A second series, Conan the Cimmerian was released in 2008 by Tim Truman (writer) and Tomás Giorello (artist). The series ran for twenty-six issues, including an introductory "zero" issue. Dark Horse's third series, Conan: Road of Kings, began in December 2010 by Roy Thomas (writer) and Mike Hawthorne (artist) and ran for twelve issues. A fourth series, Conan the Barbarian, began in February 2012 by Brian Wood (writer) and Becky Cloonan (artist). It ran for twenty-five issues, and expanded on Robert E. Howard's Queen of the Black Coast. A fifth series, Conan the Avenger, began in April 2014 by Fred Van Lente (writer) and Brian Ching (artist). It ran for twenty-five issues, and expanded on Robert E. Howard's The Snout in the Dark and A Witch Shall Be Born. Dark Horse's sixth series, Conan the Slayer, began in July 2016 by Cullen Bunn (writer) and Sergio Dávila (artist). In 2018, Marvel reacquired the rights and started new runs of both Conan the Barbarian and Savage Sword of Conan in January/February 2019. Conan is also a lead in the Savage Avengers title, which launched in 2019 and received a second volume in 2022. In 2022, it was revealed that Titan Publishing Group had acquired the rights from Heroic Signatures to make Conan comics, with a new ongoing series set to release in May 2023. Games Board games * Hyborian Risk is an unofficial variant for the Risk boardgame based on the Conan mythos, published in The Space Gamer magazine in issue 37 (March, 1981). * In 2009, Fantasy Flight Games released the Age of Conan strategy board game, depicting warfare between the Hyborian nations in the Conan's adventures. * In 2016, Monolith Board Games LLC released a new boardgame with miniatures directly based on Howard's short stories. [http://boardgamegeek.com/boardgame/160010/conan Conan] (previously known as Conan: Hyborian Quests) pits one player, controlling the evil forces, against 2-4 other players controlling Conan and his companions. Collectible card games * In 2006, Comic Images released the Conan Collectible Card Game designed by Jason Robinette. Play-by-mail games * Hyborian War, introduced by Reality Simulations, Inc. as of 1985, is a play-by-mail game set in the Hyborian Age.Role-playing gamesTSR, Inc., which in 1982 had introduced a barbarian character class inspired by the Conan character, made a licensing agreement in 1984 to publish Conan-related gaming material: * Two modules for Advanced Dungeons & Dragons: CB1 Conan Unchained! (1984) CB2 Conan Against Darkness! (1984) * The Conan Role-Playing Game (1985), with 3 official game adventures: CN1 Conan the Buccaneer (1985) CN2 Conan the Mercenary (1985) ** CN3 Conan Triumphant (1985) * Three Endless Quest books by TSR allow the reader to play the role of Conan: Conan the Undaunted (1984) Conan and the Prophecy (1984) ** Conan the Outlaw (1984) In 1988 Steve Jackson Games acquired a Conan license and started publishing Conan solo adventures for its GURPS generic system of rules as of 1988 and a GURPS Conan core rulebook in 1989: * GURPS Conan: Beyond Thunder River (1988, solo adventure) * GURPS Conan (1989, core rulebook) * GURPS Conan and the Queen of the Black Coast (1989, solo adventure) * GURPS Conan: Moon of Blood (1989, solo adventure) * GURPS Conan the Wyrmslayer (1989, solo adventure) In 2003 the British company Mongoose Publishing bought a license and acquired in turn the rights to make use of the Conan gaming franchise, publishing a Conan role-playing game from 2004 until 2010. The game ran the OGL System of rules that Mongoose established for its OGL series of games: * Conan: The Roleplaying Game (2004), with many supplements. In 2010 Mongoose Publishing dropped the Conan license. In February 2015, another British company, Modiphius Entertainment, acquired the license, announcing plans to put out a new Conan role-playing game in August of that year. Actually, the core rulebook was not launched (via Kickstarter) until a whole year later, in February 2016, reaching by far all funds needed for publication. Long after the Kickstarter ended the core rulebook was launched in PDF format on January 31, 2017. The physical core rulebook finally started distribution in June 2017: * Conan: Adventures in an Age Undreamed Of (hardcover, 368 pages, 2017), with two hardcover supplements already published and at least 17 additional supplements in the works (as planned following the Kickstarter). Several less well known choose your own adventure-style books and gamebooks based on Conan have been published. Video games Nine video games have been released based on the Conan mythos. * In 1984, Datasoft released Conan: Hall of Volta for Apple II, Atari 8-bit computers, and Commodore 64. * In 1991, Mindscape released Conan: The Mysteries of Time for NES, a Commodore 64 port by System 3. * In 1991, Virgin Games and Synergistic released Conan: The Cimmerian for Amiga and IBM PC compatibles. * In 2004, TDK Mediactive released Conan, a third-person action game for Windows and consoles. * In 2007, THQ and Nihilistic released Conan, a third-person action game for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360. * In 2008, Funcom released Age of Conan, a MMORPG, on May 20 in the US and May 23 in Europe. * A RPG game titled Conan: The Tower of the Elephant was released for the iOS around the time of the release of the movie Conan the Barbarian as a promotion. The game is based on the short story of the same name. * In 2013, the side-scrolling shooter game Broforce introduced a playable character known as Bronan the Brobarian. In the game, he is one of the few characters who does not fight with a firearm or an explosive. Instead, Bronan fights with a sword that can cause massive shockwaves depending on how long the player holds the attack button. * On January 31, 2017, Funcom released Conan Exiles for PS4, Xbox One and PC. The title is an open world survival game. The game was released in early access, and was released on May 8, 2018. * In 2019, Funcom released a real time strategy game named Conan Unconquered. * Conan the Barbarian, based on Schwarzenegger's likeness, appears as a playable character in Mortal Kombat 1 via the "Khaos Reigns" DLC pack, voiced by Chris Cox. Characters Prose fiction <!-- Please include ONLY well-known and important characters to limit the article size. --> * Bêlit – Self-styled Shemite Queen of the Black Coast, captain of the pirate ship Tigress, and Conan's first serious lover ("Queen of the Black Coast"). * Ctesphon - The king of Stygia is mentioned only once and in passing, in "The Phoenix on the Sword". He is a priest king, like Thugra-Khotan in the Stygian daughter-kingdom of Kutchemes. * Thoth-Amon – Stygian wizard of great power who appeared in the first Conan story written ("The Phoenix on the Sword" and was mentioned in "The God in the Bowl" and The Hour of the Dragon. L. Sprague de Camp and Lin Carter made Thoth-Amon the nemesis of Conan. In the Marvel comics, Thoth-Amon was also Conan's lifelong opponent and had a striking appearance designed by Barry Windsor-Smith; he wore a distinctive ram-horn ornamental headdress. In "The Phoenix on the Sword" though, where Thoth has been robbed of his magical ring, he doesn't at all seem very impressive, yet less admirable. He is portrayed by Pat Roach in Conan the Destroyer. * Valeria – Aquilonian female mercenary affiliated with the Red Brotherhood ("Red Nails"). * Yara – Evil wizard and adversary of Conan ("The Tower of the Elephant") who enslaved Yag-Kosha, an extraterrestrial being resembling the Hindu god Ganesh. * Yasmina- Brave, proud, feisty, wise, and warmhearted queen over the ancient kingdom of Vendhya, homeland and stronghold of Asura-worship. * Zenobia – Seraglio concubine Conan promises to wed and make queen of Aquilonia (The Hour of the Dragon). Comic books <!-- Please include ONLY well-known and important characters to limit the article size. --> * Fafnir – A pastiche of Fafhrd from the sword-and-sorcery stories of Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser by Fritz Leiber. He is a mighty red-bearded Vanir warrior and pirate captain. At first he and Conan are enemies, but they soon become allies after being shipwrecked. * Jenna – (Marvel comics character). A dancing girl from the city of Shadizar. She becomes Conan's girlfriend after he saves her from a monstrous bat, but later betrays him to the authorities. Conan gets his revenge by throwing her into a pool of sewage. Based on an unnamed character in the prose story "Rogues in the House". * Mikhal "the Vulture" Oglu – In Marvel comics' Conan the Barbarian #23, Mikhal Oglu is Yezdigerd's enforcer and the greatest swordsman in Turan. He challenges Conan but is defeated and his severed head is sent to Yezdigerd in an ornate casket intended for Conan's head. He was inspired by a character in a non-Conan story by Robert E. Howard ("The Shadow of the Vulture"). * Kulan Gath - a prominent evil wizard appearing initially in the Marvel Conan comics and later fully integrated into the Marvel Universe. He has also appeared in Red Sonya comics by Dynamite Entertainment. * Red Sonja – An Hyrkanian warrior created by Roy Thomas and Barry Windsor-Smith for the Conan comics. She was based on the Howard character, Red Sonya of Rogatino, who appeared in "The Shadow of the Vulture", a novella set in the 16th century. * Yezdigerd – Ruler of Turan, a Turkish empire-based civilization. He employs Conan as a mercenary but betrays him after he outlived his usefulness * Zukala – A character from the Conan comics published by Marvel, inspired by a poem by Robert E. Howard. Zukala is an evil sorcerer who gains his powers from a mask. His daughter, Zephra, falls in love with Conan. * Elric - A powerful magician and ruler of the ancient empire of Melnibone who befriends Conan and unsuccessfully attempts to prevent Zephra's death. Based on the character created by Michael Moorcock. Films <!-- Please include ONLY well-known and important characters to limit the article size. --> * Akiro – A character from the two Schwarzenegger Conan films. He is a powerful wizard who befriends Conan and Subotai, and serves as the narrator and Conan's chronicler. He is played by Japanese actor Mako Iwamatsu. * Rexor – In the 1982 film, the chief priest of Thulsa Doom's snake cult, who stole the sword of Conan's father. Played by Ben Davidson. * Subotai – Hyrkanian thief and archer. He is Conan's companion in the 1982 film. Played by Gerry Lopez. * Malak – A thief. He is Conan's traveling companion in the 1984 sequel. Played by Tracey Walter. * Thorgrim – Hammer-wielding minion of Thulsa Doom in the 1982 film. Played by Sven-Ole Thorsen * Thulsa Doom – A skull-faced necromancer from a King Kull story, a recurring villain in the Kull comics, and the antagonist in the 1982 film, played by James Earl Jones. <!-- this means there are incoming links, so even if you rename or move the section, please keep the anchor pointing to the relevant passages --> Copyright and trademark dispute The name Conan and the names of some of Robert E. Howard's other characters are claimed as trademarked by Conan Properties International and licensed to Cabinet Entertainment, both entities controlled by CEO Fredrik Malmberg. Since Robert E. Howard's Conan stories were published at a time when the date of publication was the marker (1932–1963), however, and any new owners failed to renew them to maintain the copyrights, the exact copyright status of all of Howard's 'Conan' works is in question. The majority of Howard's Conan fiction exist in at least two versions, subject to different copyright standards, namely 1) the original Weird Tales publications before or shortly after Howard's death, which are generally understood to be public domain and 2) restored versions based upon manuscripts which were unpublished during Howard's lifetime. The character of Conan will officially enter the public domain worldwide on January 1st, 2028 due to the longest extant term of copyright in the world on work for hire material being 95 years from the date of first publication. The character of Conan first appeared in print in 1932. Current trademarks on Conan can not be used to extend Conan Properties International's copyright protections, as established by the United States Supreme Court in the case Dastar Corp. v. Twentieth Century Fox Film Corp.. in which Antonin Scalia warned that allowing these types of restrictions on a public domain work could effectively create “a species of mutant copyright law” that would limit the public’s right to copy and use expired copyrights. The Australian site of Project Gutenberg hosts digital copies of many of Howard's stories, including several works about Conan. In the United Kingdom, works are released into the public domain 70 years after the death of an author. With Howard having died in 1936, his works have been in the public domain there since 2007. The same standard applies for Malmberg's home country of Sweden. In August 2018, Conan Properties International LLC won by default a suit against Spanish sculptor Ricardo Jove Sanchez after he failed to appear at court in the United States. Jove had started a crowdfunding campaign that raised around €3000 on Kickstarter, with the intent of selling barbarian figurines to online customers, including those in the United States. The Magistrate Judge originally recommended statutory damages for infringement on three Robert E. Howard characters not including Conan, but Jove was eventually fined $3,000 per character used in the campaign, including Conan, for a total of $21,000. In September 2020, it was announced that Netflix had made a larger deal involving Malmberg and Mark Wheeler from Pathfinder Media between Netflix and Conan Properties International for the exclusive rights to the Conan library for the rights for live-action and animated films and TV shows.ReferencesFurther reading * * * * * * External links * * [http://howardworks.com/ The Works of Robert E. Howard] * [http://www.conan.com/ Conan: The Official Website] * [http://www.barbarconan.cz/ Conan: Czech fanpage] * [http://www.hyboria.pl/ Hyboria: Polish fanpage] * Category:American novels adapted into films Category:American novels adapted into television shows Category:Barbarians in popular culture Category:Characters in pulp fiction Category:Conan the Barbarian characters Category:Cthulhu Mythos characters Category:Dark Horse Comics titles Category:Fantasy books by series Category:Fantasy film characters Category:Fictional kings Category:Fictional mercenaries Category:Fictional pagans Category:Fictional pirates Category:Fictional thieves Category:Fictional slaves Category:Fictional swordfighters in literature Category:Literary characters introduced in 1932 Category:Male characters in literature Category:Novels adapted into comics Category:Novels adapted into video games Category:Robert E. Howard characters Category:Damsels in distress	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conan_the_Barbarian	2025-04-05T18:27:55.810817
6715	Chris Marker	\| birth_place = Neuilly-sur-Seine, France \| death_date \| death_place = Paris, France \| occupation = Film director, photographer, journalist, multimedia artist }} Chris Marker (; 29 July 1921 – 29 July 2012) (born Christian-François Bouche-Villeneuve) was a French writer, photographer, documentary film director, multimedia artist and film essayist. His best known films are La Jetée (1962), A Grin Without a Cat (1977) and Sans Soleil (1983). Marker is usually associated with the Left Bank subset of the French New Wave that occurred in the late 1950s and 1960s, and included such other filmmakers as Alain Resnais, Agnès Varda and Jacques Demy. His friend and sometime collaborator Alain Resnais called him "the prototype of the twenty-first-century man." Film theorist Roy Armes has said of him: "Marker is unclassifiable because he is unique... French Cinema has its dramatists and its poets, its technicians, and its autobiographers, but only has one true essayist: Chris Marker." He was always elusive about his past and known to refuse interviews and not allow photographs to be taken of him; his place of birth is highly disputed. Other sources say he was born in Belleville, Paris, and others, in Neuilly-sur-Seine. When asked about his secretive nature, Marker said, "My films are enough for them [the audience]." After the war, he began a career as a journalist, first writing for the journal Esprit, a neo-Catholic, Marxist magazine where he met fellow journalist André Bazin. For Esprit, Marker wrote political commentaries, poems, short stories, and film reviews. During this period, Marker began to travel around the world as a journalist and photographer, a vocation he pursued for the rest of his life. The French publishing company Éditions du Seuil hired him as editor of the series Petite Planète ("Small World"). That collection devoted one edition to each country and included information and photographs, In 1949 Marker published his first novel, Le Coeur net (The Forthright Spirit), which was about aviation. In 1952 Marker published an illustrated essay on French writer Jean Giraudoux, Giraudoux Par Lui-Même. who described them as having "fondness for a kind of Bohemian life and an impatience with the conformity of the Right Bank, a high degree of involvement in literature and the plastic arts, and a consequent interest in experimental filmmaking", as well as an identification with the political left. An essay film on the narrativization of Siberia, it contains Marker's signature commentary, which takes the form of a letter from the director, in the long tradition of epistolary treatments by French explorers of the "undeveloped" world. Letter looks at Siberia's movement into the 20th century and at some of the tribal cultural practices receding into the past. It combines footage Marker shot in Siberia with old newsreel footage, cartoon sequences, stills, and even an illustration of Alfred E. Neuman from Mad Magazine as well as a fake TV commercial as part of a humorous attack on Western mass culture. In producing a meta-commentary on narrativity and film, Marker uses the same brief filmic sequence three times but with different commentary—the first praising the Soviet Union, the second denouncing it, and the third taking an apparently neutral or "objective" stance. In January 1961, Marker traveled to Cuba and shot the film ¡Cuba Sí!'' The film promotes and defends Fidel Castro and includes two interviews with him. It ends with an anti-American epilogue in which the United States is embarrassed by the Bay of Pigs Invasion fiasco, and was subsequently banned. The banned essay was included in Marker's first volume of collected film commentaries, Commentaires I, published in 1961. The following year Marker published Coréennes, a collection of photographs and essays on conditions in Korea. It tells of a post-nuclear war experiment in time travel by using a series of filmed photographs developed as a photomontage of varying pace, with limited narration and sound effects. In the film, a survivor of a futuristic third World War is obsessed with distant and disconnected memories of a pier at the Orly Airport, the image of a mysterious woman, and a man's death. Scientists experimenting in time travel choose him for their studies, and the man travels back in time to contact the mysterious woman, and discovers that the man's death at the Orly Airport was his own. Except for one shot of the woman mentioned above sleeping and suddenly waking up, the film is composed entirely of photographs by Jean Chiabaud and stars Davos Hanich as the man, Hélène Châtelain as the woman and photographer-film director William Klein as a man from the future. While making La Jetée, Marker was simultaneously making the 150-minute documentary essay-film Le joli mai, released in 1963. Beginning in the spring of 1962, Marker and his camera operator Pierre Lhomme shot 55 hours of footage interviewing random people on the streets of Paris. The questions, asked by the unseen Marker, range from their personal lives, as well as social and political issues of relevance at that time. As he had with montages of landscapes and indigenous art, Marker created a film essay that contrasted and juxtaposed a variety of lives with his signature commentary (spoken by Marker's friends, singer-actor Yves Montand in the French version and Simone Signoret in the English version). The film has been compared to the Cinéma vérité films of Jean Rouch, and criticized by its practitioners at the time. It was shown in competition at the 1963 Venice Film Festival, where it won the award for Best First Work. It also won the Golden Dove Award at the Leipzig DOK Festival. After the documentary Le Mystère Koumiko in 1965, Marker made ''Si j'avais quatre dromadaires, an essay-film that, like La Jetée'', is a photomontage of over 800 photographs Marker had taken over the previous 10 years in 26 countries. The commentary involves a conversation between a fictitious photographer and two friends, who discuss the photos. The film's title is an allusion to a poem by Guillaume Apollinaire. It was the last film in which Marker included "travel footage" for many years. SLON was a film collective whose objectives were to make films and to encourage industrial workers to create film collectives of their own. Its members included Valerie Mayoux, Jean-Claude Lerner, Alain Adair and John Tooker. Marker is usually credited as director or co-director of all of the films made by SLON. The film was intended to be an all-encompassing portrait of political movements since May 1968, a summation of the work which he had taken part in for ten years. The film is divided into two parts: the first half focuses on the hopes and idealism before May 1968, and the second half on the disillusion and disappointments since those events. Marker begins the film with the Odessa Steps sequence from Sergei Eisenstein's film The Battleship Potemkin, which Marker points out is a fictitious creation of Eisenstein which has still influenced the image of the historical event. Marker used very little commentary in this film, but the film's montage structure and preoccupation with memory make it a Marker film. Upon release, the film was criticized for not addressing many current issues of the New Left such as the woman's movement, sexual liberation and worker self-management. The film was screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 1985 Cannes Film Festival, before Ran itself had been released. In 1985, Marker's long-time friend and neighbor Simone Signoret died of cancer. Marker then made the one-hour TV documentary Mémoires pour Simone as a tribute to her in 1986. His interests in digital technology also led to his film Level Five (1996) and Immemory (1998, 2008), an interactive multimedia CD-ROM, produced for the Centre Pompidou (French language version) and from Exact Change (English version). Marker created a 19-minute multimedia piece in 2005 for the Museum of Modern Art in New York City titled Owls at Noon Prelude: The Hollow Men which was influenced by T. S. Eliot's poem. Marker lived in Paris, and very rarely granted interviews. One exception was a lengthy interview with Libération in 2003 in which he explained his approach to filmmaking. When asked for a picture of himself, he usually offered a photograph of a cat instead. (Marker was represented in Agnes Varda's 2008 documentary The Beaches of Agnes by a cartoon drawing of a cat, speaking in a technologically altered voice.) Marker's own cat was named Guillaume-en-égypte. In 2009, Marker commissioned an Avatar of Guillaume-en-Egypte to represent him in machinima works. The avatar was created by Exosius Woolley and first appeared in the short film / machinima, Ouvroir the Movie by Chris Marker. In the 2007 Criterion Collection release of La Jetée and Sans Soleil, Marker included a short essay, "Working on a Shoestring Budget". He confessed to shooting all of Sans Soleil with a silent film camera, and recording all the audio on a primitive audio cassette recorder. Marker also reminds the reader that only one short scene in La Jetée is of a moving image, as Marker could only borrow a movie camera for one afternoon while working on the film. From 2007 through 2011 Marker collaborated with the art dealer and publisher Peter Blum on a variety of projects that were exhibited at the Peter Blum galleries in New York City's Soho and Chelsea neighborhoods. Marker's works were also exhibited at the Peter Blum Gallery on 57th Street in 2014. These projects include several series of printed photographs titled PASSENGERS, Koreans, Crush Art, Quelle heure est-elle?, and Staring Back; a set of photogravures titled After Dürer; a book, PASSENGERS; and digital prints of movie posters, whose titles were often appropriated, including Breathless, Hiroshima Mon Amour, Owl People, and Rin Tin Tin. The video installations Silent Movie and Owls at Noon Prelude: The Hollow Men were exhibited at Peter Blum in 2009. These works were also exhibited at the 2014 & 2015 Venice Biennale, Whitechapel Gallery in London, the MIT List Visual Arts Center in Cambridge, Massachusetts, the Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts at Harvard University, the Moscow Photobiennale, Les Recontres d'Arles de la Photographie in Arles, France, the Centre de la Photographie in Geneva, Switzerland, the Walker Art Center in Minneapolis, Minnesota, the Wexner Center for the Arts in Columbus, Ohio, The Museum of Modern Art in New York, and the Pacific Film Archive in Berkeley, California. Since 2014 the artworks of the Estate of Chris Marker are represented by Peter Blum Gallery, New York. Marker died on 29 July 2012, his 91st birthday. Legacy La Jetée was the inspiration for Mamoru Oshii's 1987 debut live action feature The Red Spectacles (and later for parts of Oshii's 2001 film Avalon) and also inspired Terry Gilliam's 12 Monkeys (1995) and Jonás Cuarón's Year of the Nail (2007) as well as many of Mira Nair's shots in her 2006 film The Namesake.Works Filmography Olympia 52 (1952) Statues Also Die (1953 with Alain Resnais) Sunday in Peking (1956) Lettre de Sibérie (1957) Les Astronautes (1959 with Walerian Borowczyk) ''Description d'un combat (1960) ¡Cuba Sí! (1961) La Jetée (1962) Le Joli Mai (1963, 2006 re-cut) Le Mystère Koumiko (1965) Si j'avais quatre dromadaires (1966) Loin du Vietnam (1967) Rhodiacéta (1967) La Sixième face du pentagone (1968 with Reichenbach) Cinétracts (1968) À bientôt, j'espère (1968 with Marret) On vous parle du Brésil: Tortures (1969) Jour de tournage (1969) Classe de lutte (1969) On vous parle de Paris: Maspero, les mots ont un sens (1970) On vous parle du Brésil: Carlos Marighela (1970) La Bataille des dix millions (1971) Le Train en marche (1971) On vous parle de Prague: le deuxième procès d'Artur London (1971) Vive la baleine (1972) L'Ambassade (1973) On vous parle du Chili: ce que disait Allende (1973 with Miguel Littín) Puisqu'on vous dit que c'est possible (1974) La Solitude du chanteur de fond (1974) La Spirale (1975) A Grin Without a Cat (1977) Quand le siècle a pris formes (1978) Junkopia (1981) Sans Soleil (1983) 2084 (1984) From Chris to Christo (1985) Matta (1985) A.K. (1985) Eclats (1986) Tokyo Days (1988) Spectre (1988) The Owl's Legacy (L'héritage de la chouette) (1989) Bestiaire 1. Chat écoutant la musique Bestiaire 2. An owl is An owl is an owl *Bestiaire 3. Zoo Piece Getting away with it (1990) Berlin 1990 (1990) Détour Ceausescu (1991) Théorie des ensembles (1991) Coin fenêtre (1992) Le Tombeau d'Alexandre a.k.a. The Last Bolshevik (1992) Prime Time in the Camps (1993) SLON Tango (1993) Bullfight in Okinawa (1994) Eclipse (1994) Haiku (1994) *Haiku 1. Petite Ceinture Silent Movie (1995) Level Five (1997) Un maire au Kosovo (2000) Le Facteur sonne toujours cheval (2001) Avril inquiet (2001) a documentary about M. Chat street art Leila Attacks (2006) Stopover in Dubai (2011) Film collaborations Nuit et Brouillard (Resnais 1955) Note: In a 1995 interview Resnais states that the final version of the commentary was a collaboration between Marker and Jean Cayrol (source: Film Comment). Toute la mémoire du monde (Resnais 1956) *Note: Credited as "Chris and Magic Marker." Les hommes de la baleine'' (Ruspoli 1956) *Note: under the pseudonym "Jacopo Berenizi" Marker wrote the commentary for this short about whale hunters in the Azores. The two would return to this topic in 1972's Vive la Baleine (Film Comment). Broadway by Light (Klein 1957) *Note: Marker wrote the introductory text to this film. Kashima Paradise (Le Masson et Deswarte 1974) *Note: Marker collaborated on the commentary on this documentary about the destruction of Kashima and Narita (Film Comment). La Batalla de Chile (Guzman, 1975–1976) *Note: Marker helped produce and contributed to the screenplay for this, perhaps the greatest of all documentary films (Film Comment). One Sister and Many Brothers (Makavejev 1994) *Note: Marker tapes Makavejev circulating among the guests of a party in his honor as much jovial backslapping abounds (Film comment). Photographic series Koreans (1957, printed in 2009) * Crush Art (2003–2008) * "Quelle heure est-elle?" (2004–2008) * PASSENGERS (2008–2010) * Staring Back (varying years) Digital prints * Breathless (1995, printed 2009) * Hiroshima Mon Amour (1995, printed 2009) * Owl People (1995, printed 2009) * Rin Tin Tin (1995, printed 2009) Photogravures * After Dürer (2005–07, printed in 2009) Video installations * Silent Movie (1995) * Owls at Noon Prelude: The Hollow Men (2005) Bibliography (self-contained works by Marker) Le Cœur Net (1949, Editions du Seuil, Paris) Giraudoux Par Lui-Même (1952, Editions du Seuil, Paris) Commentaires I (1961, Editions du Seuil, Paris) Coréennes (1962, Editions du Seuil, Paris) Commentaires II (1967, Editions du Seuil, Paris) Le Dépays (1982, Editions Herscher, Paris) Silent Movie (1995, Ohio State University Press) La Jetée ciné-roman (1996 / 2nd printing 2008, MIT Press, Cambridge; designed by Bruce Mau) Staring Back (2007, MIT Press, Cambridge) Immemory (CDROM) (1997 / 2nd printing 2008, Exact Change, Cambridge) Inner Time of Television'' (2010, The Otolith Group, London) References External links [https://web.archive.org/web/20230507031122/https://chrismarker.org/ Chris Marker: Notes from the Era of Imperfect Memory] A site, blog and search engine exploring all aspects of the work of Chris Marker [http://www.chrismarker.ch Chris Marker: Plongée en imméroire (French)] The most up-to-date site on Chris Marker's work [http://homevideo.icarusfilms.com/filmmakers/marker.html Icarus Films biography of Marker and list of his titles that they distribute] [https://web.archive.org/web/20110121123131/http://eai.org/artistBio.htm?id317 EAI: Chris Marker Biography] and list of [http://www.eai.org/artistTitles.htm?id317 video works] by the artist. [http://www.markertext.com/index.htm Texts from Chris Marker films] [http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/avantbib.html#marker Bibliography of books and articles about Marker] via UC Berkeley Media Resources Center [https://web.archive.org/web/20081020185553/http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?ttype2&tid11270 Marker's book of photographs and essays: Staring Back ] [https://web.archive.org/web/20120804062623/http://store.wexarts.org/chrismarker.html The Wexner Center's "Chris Marker Store"] [http://www.brooklynrail.org/2009/05/express/filmmaker-as-socialist-anthologistchris-markers-grin-without-a-cat-le-fond-de-lair-est-rouge Filmmaker As Socialist Anthologist] by Williams Cole, The Brooklyn Rail, May 2009 Issue [http://www.virtual-history.com/movie/person/10047/chris-marker Literature on Chris Marker] * [http://www.scope.nottingham.ac.uk/article.php?issue20&id1308 Chris Marker and the Audiovisual Archive], Oliver Mayer, Scope 20 * [http://www.fundaciotapies.org/site/spip.php?rubrique476 Chris Marker] Fundació Antoni Tàpies * [http://iskrafilms.com/A-grin-without-a-cat-34 A grin without a cat] ISKRA films Category:1921 births Category:2012 deaths Category:Burials at Montparnasse Cemetery Category:French documentary film directors Category:French experimental filmmakers Category:French animators Category:French animated film directors Category:French Marxists Category:French Resistance members Category:Lycée Pasteur (Neuilly-sur-Seine) alumni Category:French multimedia artists Category:Film people from Neuilly-sur-Seine Category:Collage filmmakers Category:Counterculture of the 1960s	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Marker	2025-04-05T18:27:55.907247
6716	Cardinal vowels	thumb\|200px\|X-rays of Daniel Jones' . thumb\|200px\|Highest tongue positions of cardinal front and back vowels 200px\|thumb\|Diagram of relative highest points of tongue for cardinal vowels thumb\|200px\|The "cardinal vowel quadrilateral", a more commonly seen schematic diagram of highest tongue positions of cardinal vowels Cardinal vowels are a set of reference vowels used by phoneticians in describing the sounds of languages. They are classified depending on the position of the tongue relative to the roof of the mouth, how far forward or back is the highest point of the tongue, and the position of the lips (rounded or unrounded). A cardinal vowel is a vowel sound produced when the tongue is in an extreme position, either front or back, high or low. The current system was systematised by Daniel Jones in the early 20th century, though the idea goes back to earlier phoneticians, notably Ellis and Bell. Table of cardinal vowels 400px Three of the cardinal vowels—, and —have articulatory definitions. The vowel is produced with the tongue as far forward and as high in the mouth as is possible (without producing friction), with spread lips. The vowel is produced with the tongue as far back and as high in the mouth as is possible, with protruded lips. This sound can be approximated by adopting the posture to whistle a very low note, or to blow out a candle. And is produced with the tongue as low and as far back in the mouth as possible. The other vowels are 'auditorily equidistant' between these three 'corner vowels', at four degrees of aperture or 'height': close (high tongue position), close-mid, open-mid, and open (low tongue position). These degrees of aperture plus the front-back distinction define eight reference points on a mixture of articulatory and auditory criteria. These eight vowels are known as the eight 'primary cardinal vowels', and vowels like these are common in the world's languages. The lip positions can be reversed with the lip position for the corresponding vowel on the opposite side of the front-back dimension, so that e.g. Cardinal 1 can be produced with rounding somewhat similar to that of Cardinal 8; these are known as 'secondary cardinal vowels'. Sounds such as these are claimed to be less common in the world's languages. Other vowel sounds are also recognised on the vowel chart of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Jones argued that to be able to use the cardinal vowel system effectively one must undergo training with an expert phonetician, working both on the recognition and the production of the vowels. Cardinal vowels are not vowels of any particular language, but a measuring system. However, some languages contain vowel or vowels that are close to the cardinal vowel(s). An example of such language is Ngwe, which is spoken in Cameroon. It has been cited as a language with a vowel system that has eight vowels which are rather similar to the eight primary cardinal vowels (Ladefoged 1971:67). Number IPA Description 1 Close front unrounded vowel 2 Close-mid front unrounded vowel 3 Open-mid front unrounded vowel 4 Open front unrounded vowel 5 Open back unrounded vowel 6 Open-mid back rounded vowel 7 Close-mid back rounded vowel 8 Close back rounded vowel 9 Close front rounded vowel 10 Close-mid front rounded vowel 11 Open-mid front rounded vowel 12 Open front rounded vowel 13 Open back rounded vowel 14 Open-mid back unrounded vowel 15 Close-mid back unrounded vowel 16 Close back unrounded vowel 17 Close central unrounded vowel 18 Close central rounded vowel 19 Close-mid central unrounded vowel 20 Close-mid central rounded vowel 21 Open-mid central unrounded vowel 22 Open-mid central rounded vowel Cardinal vowels 19–22 were added by David Abercrombie. In IPA Numbers, cardinal vowels 1–18 have the same numbers but added to 300. Limits on the accuracy of the system The usual explanation of the cardinal vowel system implies that the competent user can reliably distinguish between sixteen Primary and Secondary vowels plus a small number of central vowels. The provision of diacritics by the International Phonetic Association further implies that intermediate values may also be reliably recognized, so that a phonetician might be able to produce and recognize not only a close-mid front unrounded vowel and an open-mid front unrounded vowel but also a mid front unrounded vowel , a centralized mid front unrounded vowel , and so on. This suggests a range of vowels nearer to forty or fifty than to twenty in number. Empirical evidence for this ability in trained phoneticians is hard to come by. Ladefoged, in a series of pioneering experiments published in the 1950s and 60s, studied how trained phoneticians coped with the vowels of a dialect of Scottish Gaelic. He asked eighteen phoneticians to listen to a recording of ten words spoken by a native speaker of Gaelic and to place the vowels on a cardinal vowel quadrilateral. He then studied the degree of agreement or disagreement among the phoneticians. Ladefoged himself drew attention to the fact that the phoneticians who were trained in the British tradition established by Daniel Jones were closer to each other in their judgments than those who had not had this training. However, the most striking result is the great divergence of judgments among all the listeners regarding vowels that were distant from Cardinal values. See also List of phonetics topics References Bibliography Ladefoged, Peter. (1971). Preliminaries to linguistic phonetics. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. External links Audio demonstrations of cardinal vowels by Daniel Jones at age 75 (full) Audio demonstrations of cardinal vowels by Daniel Jones at age 75 (segments) Category:Vowels	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_vowels	2025-04-05T18:27:55.942843
6719	Columbia, Missouri	\| image_flag = Flag of Columbia, Missouri.svg \| flag_alt = City flag \| image_seal = The seal of columbia, missouri.png \| seal_alt = City seal \| image_shield \| shield_alt \| nicknames "The Athens of Missouri", or CoMo \| motto \| image_map \| zoom = 11 \| type = shape \| marker = city \| stroke-width = 2 \| stroke-color = #0096FF \| fill = #0096FF \| id2 = Q38022 \| type2 = shape-inverse \| stroke-width2 = 2 \| stroke-color2 = #5F5F5F \| stroke-opacity2 = 0 \| fill2 = #000000 \| fill-opacity2 = 0 }} \| map_alt \| map_caption Interactive map of Columbia \| pushpin_map = Missouri#USA \| pushpin_map_caption = Location within Missouri##Location within the contiguous U.S. \| pushpin_label = Columbia \| pushpin_relief = yes \| coordinates \| coor_pinpoint \| coordinates_footnotes \| subdivision_type = Country \| subdivision_name = United States \| subdivision_type1 = State \| subdivision_type2 = County \| subdivision_type3 \| subdivision_name1 Missouri \| subdivision_name2 = Boone \| subdivision_name3 \| established_title \| established_date \| established_title1 Founded \| established_date1 = \| established_title2 = Incorporated \| established_date2 = 1826 \| founder \| seat_type \| seat \| government_footnotes \| government_type = Council–manager \| governing_body = Columbia City Council \| leader_party \| leader_title Mayor \| leader_name Barbara Buffaloe \| leader_title1 = City manager \| leader_name1 = De'Carlon Seewood \| unit_pref = Imperial <!-- ALL fields with measurements have automatic unit conversion --> <!-- for references: use \| area_magnitude = <!-- use only to set a special wikilink --> \| area_total_sq_mi = 67.45 \| area_land_sq_mi = 67.17 \| area_water_sq_mi = 0.28 \|area_total_km2 = 174.70 \|area_land_km2 = 173.98 \|area_water_km2 = 0.72 \| area_water_percent \| area_urban_sq_mi \| area_rural_sq_mi \| area_metro_sq_mi \| area_rank \| area_blank1_title \| area_blank1_sq_mi \| area_blank2_title <!-- square miles --> \| area_blank2_sq_mi = <!-- acres --> \| area_note \| dimensions_footnotes \| length_mi \| width_mi \| elevation_footnotes \| area_urban_footnotes = <!-- --> \| area_rural_footnotes = <!-- --> \| area_metro_footnotes = <!-- --> \| blank_name = FIPS code \| blank_info = 29-15670 \| blank1_name = GNIS feature ID \| blank1_info 2393605 }} Columbia is a city in Missouri, United States. It was founded in 1821 as the county seat of Boone County and had a population of 126,254 as recorded in the 2020 United States census, making it the fourth-most populous city in Missouri. Columbia is a Midwestern college town, home to the University of Missouri, a major research institution also known as MU or Mizzou. In addition to the university and surrounding Downtown Columbia are Stephens College and Columbia College, giving the city its educational focus and nearly 40,000 college students. It is the principal city of the Columbia metropolitan area, population 215,811, and the central city of the nine-county Columbia–Jefferson City–Moberly combined statistical area with 415,747 residents. The city is the fastest-growing municipality in Missouri, with a growth of almost 40% since 2000, and a population estimated at 130,000 in 2024. Columbia is among the most-educated cities in the United States with about half of citizens being college graduates and about a quarter holding advance degrees. The city is built on the oak-forested hills and rolling prairies of Mid-Missouri, near the Missouri River, where the Ozark Mountains transition into plains and savanna. At the city's center is the Avenue of the Columns (8th Street), connecting Francis Quadrangle and Jesse Hall to the Boone County Courthouse and City Hall. Surrounding Columbia is a greenbelt including Rock Bridge Memorial State Park, Eagle Bluffs Conservation Area, the Mark Twain National Forest, Katy Trail State Park, Finger Lakes State Park, and the Big Muddy National Fish and Wildlife Refuge. Limestone bedrock forms bluffs and glades while rain dissolves the bedrock, creating karst (caves and springs) which water the Hinkson, Roche Perche, Flat Branch, and Bonne Femme creeks. Within city limits, there is an extensive city parks and trails system with a focus on non-motorized transportation, including the MKT Trail. The Columbia Agriculture Park is home to the nationally-regarded Columbia Farmers Market. Originally an agricultural town, education and healthcare are now Columbia's primary economic concern, with secondary interests in the insurance, finance, and technology sectors. Companies founded in Columbia include: Paytient, Carfax, Shelter Insurance, Veterans United Home Loans, MFA Incorporated, MFA Oil, Slackers CDs and Games, MidwayUSA, EquipmentShare, and Scripps News. The University of Missouri Health Care system operates six hospitals in Columbia, several clinics, and the Thompson Center for Autism and Neurodevelopment. There is also the county-owned Boone Hospital Center, several smaller private hospitals, and the Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans' Hospital, adjacent to University Hospital and MU School of Medicine. The University of Missouri nuclear reactor is the most-powerful research reactor in the United States and the sole supplier of important radioisotopes used in nuclear medicine. Cultural institutions include the State Historical Society of Missouri, the Museum of Art and Archaeology, the Missouri Symphony, the North Village Arts District, The Blue Note, the Missouri Theatre, The Conservatory of the Performing Arts at Stephens College, the Boone County Historical Society, Columbia Public Library, Ragtag Cinema and the annual True/False Film Festival, an internationally-known documentary festival. The Missouri Tigers, the state's only major college athletic program, play football at Faurot Field and basketball at Mizzou Arena as members of the Southeastern Conference (SEC). The city has been known as the "Athens of Missouri" for its educational emphasis and classic beauty, but is more commonly called "CoMo". Original plans for the town set aside land for a state university. In 1833, Columbia Baptist Female College opened, which later became Stephens College. Columbia College, distinct from today's and later to become the University of Missouri, was founded in 1839. When the state legislature decided to establish a state university, Columbia raised three times as much money as any competing city, and James S. Rollins donated the land that is today the Francis Quadrangle. Columbia's infrastructure was relatively untouched by the Civil War. As a slave state, Missouri had many residents with Southern sympathies, but it stayed in the Union. The majority of the city was pro-Union; In the spring of 1923, James T. Scott, an African-American janitor at the University of Missouri, was arrested on allegations of raping a university professor's daughter. He was taken from the county jail and lynched on April 29 before a white mob of roughly two thousand people, hanged from the Old Stewart Road Bridge. at the University of Missouri]] In the 21st century, a number of efforts have been undertaken to recognize Scott's death. In 2010 his death certificate was changed to reflect that he was never tried or convicted of charges, and that he had been lynched. In 2011 a headstone was put at his grave at Columbia Cemetery; it includes his wife's and parents' names and dates, to provide a more full account of his life. In 2016, a marker was erected at the lynching site to memorialize Scott. 5 years later, in 2021, the marker was removed in an act of vandalism. In 1901, Rufus Logan established The Columbia Professional newspaper to serve Columbia's large African American population. In 1963, University of Missouri System and the Columbia College system established their headquarters in Columbia. The insurance industry also became important to the local economy as several companies established headquarters in Columbia, including Shelter Insurance, Missouri Employers Mutual, and Columbia Insurance Group. State Farm Insurance has a regional office in Columbia. In addition, the now-defunct Silvey Insurance was a large local employer. Columbia became a transportation crossroads when U.S. Route 63 and U.S. Route 40 (which was improved as present-day Interstate 70) were routed through the city. Soon after, the city opened the Columbia Regional Airport. By 2000, the city's population was nearly 85,000.GeographyColumbia, in northern mid-Missouri, is away from both St. Louis and Kansas City, and north of the state capital of Jefferson City. The city is near the Missouri River, between the Ozark Plateau and the Northern Plains. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water.TopographyThe city generally slopes from the highest point in the Northeast to the lowest point in the Southwest towards the Missouri River. Prominent tributaries of the river are Perche Creek, Hinkson Creek, and Flat Branch Creek. Along these and other creeks in the area can be found large valleys, cliffs, and cave systems such as that in Rock Bridge State Park just south of the city. These creeks are largely responsible for numerous stream valleys giving Columbia hilly terrain similar to the Ozarks while also having prairie flatland typical of northern Missouri. Columbia also operates several greenbelts with trails and parks throughout town. Animal life Large mammals found in the city include urbanized coyotes, red foxes, and numerous whitetail deer. Eastern gray squirrel, and other rodents are abundant, as well as cottontail rabbits and the nocturnal opossum and raccoon. Large bird species are abundant in parks and include the Canada goose, mallard duck, as well as shorebirds, including the great egret and great blue heron. Turkeys are also common in wooded areas and can occasionally be seen on the MKT recreation trail. Populations of bald eagles are found by the Missouri River. The city is on the Mississippi Flyway, used by migrating birds, and has a large variety of small bird species, common to the eastern U.S. The Eurasian tree sparrow, an introduced species, is limited in North America to the counties surrounding St. Louis. Columbia has large areas of forested and open land and many of these areas are home to wildlife. The Devil's Icebox Cave in Columbia's Rock Bridge State Park is the only natural home of the planarian Kenkia glandulosa, an eyeless and de-pigmented flatworm. The cave is also home to species of salamanders, frogs, troglobites, millipede, spiders, bats, and springtail. Climate Columbia has a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfa) marked by sharp seasonal contrasts in temperature, and is in USDA Plant Hardiness Zone 6a. The monthly daily average temperature ranges from in January to in July, while the high reaches or exceeds on an average of 35 days per year, on two days, while two nights of sub- lows can be expected. The downtown skyline is relatively low and is dominated by the 10-story Tiger Hotel and the 15-story Paquin Tower. Downtown Columbia is an area of approximately one square mile surrounded by the University of Missouri on the south, Stephens College to the east, and Columbia College on the north. The area serves as Columbia's financial and business district. in June 2017]] Since the early-21st century, a large number of high-rise apartment complexes have been built in downtown Columbia. Many of these buildings also offer mixed-use business and retail space on the lower levels. These developments have not been without criticism, with some expressing concern the buildings hurt the historic feel of the area, or that the city does not yet have the infrastructure to support them. The city's historic residential core lies in a ring around downtown, extending especially to the west along Broadway, and south into the East Campus Neighborhood. The city government recognizes 63 neighborhood associations. The city's most dense commercial areas are primarily along Interstate 70, U.S. Route 63, Stadium Boulevard, Grindstone Parkway, and Downtown.Demographics \|footnoteFor the year 1850, slaves and free minorities were not counted.<br />U.S. Decennial Census }} 2020 census The 2020 United States census counted 126,254 people, 49,371 households, and 25,144 families in Columbia. The population density was . There were 53,746 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup (including Hispanics in the racial counts) was 72.49% (91,516) White, 11.91% (15,038) Black or African-American, 0.32% (398) Native American, 5.61% (7,084) Asian, 0.07% (89) Pacific Islander, 2.17% (2,734) from other races, and 7.44% (9,395) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race was 4.9% (6,195) of the population. estimates show that the median household income was $53,447 (with a margin of error of +/- $2,355) and the median family income $81,392 (+/- $5,687). Males had a median income of $30,578 (+/- $2,131) versus $23,705 (+/- $1,849) for females. The median income for those above 16 years old was $26,870 (+/- $1,429). Approximately, 8.5% of families and 20.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 15.7% of those under the age of 18 and 5.2% of those ages 65 or over. {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center;" \|+Columbia, Missouri – Racial and ethnic composition<br /><small></small> !Race / Ethnicity <small>(NH = Non-Hispanic)</small> !Pop 2000 !Pop 2010 ! !% 2000 !% 2010 ! \|- \|White alone (NH) \|67,984 \|83,542 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|89,814 \|80.42% \|77.00% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|71.14% \|- \|Black or African American alone (NH) \|9,106 \|12,083 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|14,858 \|10.77% \|11.14% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|11.77% \|- \|Native American or Alaska Native alone (NH) \|303 \|296 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|273 \|0.36% \|0.27% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|0.22% \|- \|Asian alone (NH) \|3,624 \|5,604 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|7,056 \|4.29% \|5.16% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|5.59% \|- \|Pacific Islander alone (NH) \|29 \|59 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|87 \|0.03% \|0.05% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|0.07% \|- \|Some Other Race alone (NH) \|174 \|227 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|724 \|0.21% \|0.21% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|0.57% \|- \|Mixed Race or Multi-Racial (NH) \|1,578 \|2,960 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|7,247 \|1.87% \|2.73% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|5.74% \|- \|Hispanic or Latino (any race) \|1,733 \|3,729 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|6,195 \|2.05% \|3.44% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|4.91% \|- \|Total \|84,531 \|108,500 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|126,254 \|100.00% \|100.00% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|100.00% \|} 2010 census As of the census of 2010, 108,500 people, 43,065 households, and 21,418 families resided in the city. The population density was . There were 46,758 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 79.0% White, 11.3% African American, 0.3% Native American, 5.2% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 1.1% from other races, and 3.1% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.4% of the population. There were 43,065 households, of which 26.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.6% were married couples living together, 10.6% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.5% had a male householder with no wife present, and 50.3% were non-families. 32.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.32 and the average family size was 2.94. In the city the population was spread out, with 18.8% of residents under the age of 18; 27.3% between the ages of 18 and 24; 26.7% from 25 to 44; 18.6% from 45 to 64; and 8.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age in the city was 26.8 years. The gender makeup of the city was 48.3% male and 51.7% female. 2000 census As of the census of 2000, there were 84,531 people, 33,689 households, and 17,282 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 35,916 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 81.54% White, 10.85% Black or African American, 0.39% Native American, 4.30% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 0.81% from other races, and 2.07% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.05% of the population.EconomyColumbia's economy is historically dominated by education, healthcare, and insurance. The Columbia Regional Airport and the Missouri River Port of Rocheport connect the region with trade and transportation. With a Gross Metropolitan Product of $9.6 billion in 2018, Columbia's economy makes up 3% of the Gross State Product of Missouri. Columbia's metro area economy is slightly larger than the economy of Rwanda. Insurance corporations headquartered in Columbia include Shelter Insurance and the Columbia Insurance Group. Other organizations include StorageMart, Veterans United Home Loans, MFA Incorporated, the Missouri State High School Activities Association, and MFA Oil. Companies such as Socket, Datastorm Technologies, Inc. (no longer existent), Slackers CDs and Games, Carfax, and MBS Textbook Exchange were all founded in Columbia.Top employersAccording to Columbia's 2022 Annual Comprehensive Financial Report, the top employers in the city are: {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|- ! # ! Employer ! # of Employees !% of Total City Employment \|- \|1 \| University of Missouri \|8,709 \|9.07% \|- \|2 \| University of Missouri Health Care \|5,092 \|5.30% \|- \|3 \| Veterans United Home Loans \|3,474 \|3.62% \|- \|4 \| Columbia Public Schools \|2,650 \|2.76% \|- \|5 \|Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans' Hospital \|1,779 \|1.85% \|- \|6 \| Boone Hospital Center \|1,581 \|1.65% \|- \|7 \| City of Columbia \|1,515 \|1.58% \|- \|8 \| Shelter Insurance \|1,375 \|1.43% \|- \|9 \| Hubbell Power Systems \|751 \|0.78% \|- \|10 \|Joe Machens Dealerships \|611 \|0.64% \|} Culture is a rock and pop venue located in Downtown Columbia.]] The Missouri Theatre Center for the Arts and Jesse Auditorium are Columbia's largest fine arts venues. Ragtag Cinema annually hosts the True/False Film Festival. In 2008, filmmaker Todd Sklar completed the film Box Elder, which was filmed entirely in and around Columbia and the University of Missouri. The North Village Arts District, located on the north side of downtown, is home to galleries, restaurants, theaters, bars, music venues, and the Mareck Center for Dance. The University of Missouri's Museum of Art and Archaeology displays 14,000 works of art and archaeological objects in five galleries for no charge to the public. Libraries include the Columbia Public Library, the University of Missouri Libraries, with over three million volumes in Ellis Library, and the State Historical Society of Missouri.MusicThe "We Always Swing" Jazz Series and the Roots N Blues Festival is held in Columbia. "9th Street Summerfest" (now hosted in Rose Park at Rose Music Hall) closes part of that street several nights each summer to hold outdoor performances and has featured Willie Nelson (2009), Snoop Dogg (2010), The Flaming Lips (2010), and others. The "University Concert Series" regularly includes musicians and dancers from various genres, typically in Jesse Hall. Other musical venues in town include the Missouri Theatre, the university's multipurpose Hearnes Center, the university's Mizzou Arena, The Blue Note, and Rose Music Hall. Shelter Gardens, a park on the campus of Shelter Insurance headquarters, also hosts outdoor performances during the summer. The University of Missouri School of Music attracts hundreds of musicians to Columbia, student performances are held in Whitmore Recital Hall. Among many non-profit organizations for classical music are included the "Odyssey Chamber Music Series", "Missouri Symphony", "Columbia Community Band", and "Columbia Civic Orchestra". Founded in 2006, the "Plowman Chamber Music Competition" is a biennial competition held in March/April of odd-numbered years, considered to be one of the finest, top five chamber music competitions in the nation. Theater Columbia has multiple opportunities to watch and perform in theatrical productions. Ragtag Cinema is one of the most well known theaters in Columbia. The city is home to Stephens College, a private institution known for performing arts. Their season includes multiple plays and musicals. The University of Missouri and Columbia College also present multiple productions a year. The city's three public high schools are also known for their productions. Rock Bridge High School performs a musical in November and two plays in the spring. Hickman High School also performs a similar season with two musical performances (one in the fall, and one in the spring) and 2 plays (one in the winter, and one at the end of their school year). The newest high school, Battle High, opened in 2013 and also is known for their productions. Battle presents a musical in the fall and a play in the spring, along with improv nights and more productions throughout the year. The city is also home to the indoor/outdoor theatre Maplewood Barn Theatre in Nifong Park and other community theatre programs such as Columbia Entertainment Company, Talking Horse Productions, Pace Youth Theatre and TRYPS. Sports The University of Missouri's sports teams, the Missouri Tigers, play a significant role in the city's sports culture. Faurot Field at Memorial Stadium, which has a capacity of 62,621, hosts home football games. The Hearnes Center and Mizzou Arena are two other large sport and event venues, the latter being the home arena for Mizzou's basketball team. Taylor Stadium is host to their baseball team and was the regional host for the 2007 NCAA Baseball Championship. Columbia College has several men and women collegiate sports teams as well. In 2007, Columbia hosted the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics Volleyball National Championship, which the Lady Cougars participated in. Columbia also hosts the Show-Me State Games, a non-profit program of the Missouri Governor's Council on Physical Fitness and Health. They are the largest state games in the United States. Situated midway between St. Louis and Kansas City, Columbians will often have allegiances to the professional sports teams housed there, such as the St. Louis Cardinals, the Kansas City Royals, the Kansas City Chiefs, the St. Louis Blues, Sporting Kansas City, and St. Louis City SC. Cuisine Columbia has many bars and restaurants that provide diverse styles of cuisine, due in part to having three colleges. The oldest is the historic Booches bar, restaurant, and pool hall, which was established in 1884 and is frequented by college students. Shakespeare's Pizza was founded in Columbia and is known for its college town pizza. Parks and recreation Throughout the city are many parks and trails for public usage. Among the more popularly frequented is the MKT which is a spur that connects to the Katy Trail, meeting up just south of Columbia proper. The MKT ranked second in the nation for "Best Urban Trail" in the 2015 USA Todays 10 Best Readers' Choice Awards. This 10-foot wide trail built on the old railbed of the MKT railroad begins in downtown Columbia in Flat Branch Park at 4th and Cherry Streets. The all-weather crushed limestone surface provides opportunities for walking, jogging, running, and bicycling. Stephens Lake Park is the highlight of Columbia's park system and is known for its 11-acre fishing/swimming lake, mature trees, and historical significance in the community. It serves as the center for outdoor winter sports, a variety of community festivals such as the Roots N Blues Festival, and outdoor concert series at the amphitheater. Stephens Lake has reservable shelters, playgrounds, swimming beach and spraygrounds, art sculptures, waterfalls, and walking trails. Rock Bridge Memorial State Park is open year-round giving visitors the chance to scramble, hike, and bicycle through a scenic environment. Rock Bridge State Park contains some of the most popular hiking trails in the state, including the Gans Creek Wild Area. Columbia is home to Harmony Bends Disc Golf Course (https://www.como.gov/contacts/harmony-bends-championship-disc-golf-course-strawn-park/), which was named the 2017 Disc Golf Course of the Year by DGCourseReview.com. As of June, 2022, Harmony Bends still continues to rank on DGCourseReview.com as the No. 1 public course, and #2 overall course in the United States Media The city has two daily morning newspapers: the Columbia Missourian and the Columbia Daily Tribune. The Missourian is directed by professional editors and staffed by Missouri School of Journalism students who do reporting, design, copy editing, information graphics, photography, and multimedia. The Missourian publishes the monthly city magazine, [https://www.voxmagazine.com/ Vox Magazine]. The University of Missouri has the independent official bi-weekly student newspaper called The Maneater, and the quarterly literary magazine, The Missouri Review. The now-defunct Prysms Weekly was also published in Columbia. In late 2009, KCOU News launched full operations out of KCOU 88.1 FM on the MU Campus. The entirely student-run news organization airs a weekday newscast, The Pulse. The city has 4 television channels. Columbia Access Television (CAT or CAT-TV) is the public access channel. CPSTV is the education access channel, managed by Columbia Public Schools as a function of the Columbia Public Schools Community Relations Department. The Government Access channel broadcasts City Council, Planning and Zoning Commission, and Board of Adjustment meetings. Television {\| class="wikitable" \|+Columbia Area Television !Station !Channel !Network !Subchannels \|- \|KMOS-TV \|6 \|PBS \|6.2 Create 6.3 KMOS Emerge 6.4 PBS Kids \|- \|KOMU-TV \|8 \|NBC \|8.3 The CW+ \|- \|KRCG \|13 \|CBS \|13.2 Comet 13.3 Charge! 13.4 TBD \|- \|KMIZ \|17 \|ABC \|17.2 MeTV 17.3 MyNetworkTV 17.4 Fox 17.5 Bounce TV \|- \|KQFX-LD \|22 \|Fox \|22.2 Laff 22.3 Grit 22.4 Court TV Mystery 22.5 Dabl \|- \|KFDR \|25 \|CTN \|25.2 CTNi 25.3 CTN (SD) 25.4 CTN Lifestyle \|- \|K35OY-D \|35 \|Azteca America \|35.2 Infomercials 35.3 Infomercials 35.4 Infomercials \|- \|KGKM-LD \|36 \|Telemundo \|36.2 Ion Television 36.3 Court TV 36.4 Defy TV 36.5 TrueReal 36.6 Newsy \|} Radio Columbia has 19 radio stations as well as stations licensed from Jefferson City, Macon and, Lake of the Ozarks. AM KFAL 900 kHz • Country KWOS 950 kHz • News/Talk KFRU 1400 kHz • News/Talk KTGR 1580 kHz • Sports (ESPN Radio) FM KCOU 88.1 MHz • College KOPN 89.5 MHz • Public KMUC 90.5 MHz • Classical KBIA 91.3 MHz • News (NPR) KMFC 92.1 MHz • Christian (K-Love) KWJK 93.1 MHz • Variety (JACK FM) KSSZ 93.9 MHz • News/Talk KWWR 95.7 MHz • Country KCMQ 96.7 MHz • Classic Rock KDVC 98.3 MHz • Classic Hits KCLR 99.3 MHz • Country KPLA 101.5 MHz • Variety KBXR 102.3 MHz • Alternative KZZT 105.5 MHz • Classic Rock KOQL 106.1 MHz • Top 40 KTXY 106.9 MHz Top 40 Columbia is the county seat of Boone County, and houses the county court and government center. The city is in Missouri's 4th congressional district. The 19th Missouri State Senate district covers all of Boone County. There are five Missouri House of Representatives districts (9, 21, 23, 24, and 25) in the city. The Columbia Police Department provides law enforcement across the city, while the Columbia Fire Department provides fire protection. The University of Missouri Police Department also patrols areas on and around the University of Missouri campus and has jurisdiction throughout the state. Additionally, the Boone County Sheriff's Department, the law enforcement agency for the county, regularly patrols the city. The Public Service Joint Communications Center coordinates efforts between the two organizations as well as the Boone County Fire Protection District, which operates Urban Search and Rescue Missouri Task Force 1. .]] The population generally supports progressive causes, such as recycling programs and the decriminalization of cannabis both for medical and recreational use at the municipal level, though the scope of the latter of the two cannabis ordinances has since been restricted. The city is one of only four in the state to offer medical benefits to same-sex partners of city employees. The new health plan extends health benefits to unmarried heterosexual domestic partners of city employees. On October 10, 2006, the city council approved an ordinance to prohibit smoking in public places, including restaurants and bars. The ordinance was passed over protest, and several amendments to the ordinance reflect this. Over half of residents possess at least a bachelor's degree, while over a quarter hold a graduate degree. Columbia is the 13th most-highly educated municipality in the United States.EducationAlmost all of the Columbia city limits, and much of the surrounding area, lies within the Columbia Public School District. The district enrolled more than 18,000 students and had a budget of $281 million for the 2019–20 school year. 95.4% of adults age 25 and older in the city have a high school diploma. Last year's graduation rate for the class of 2022 was 90%, while the class of 2021's graduation rate was reported at 89%. According to statewide numbers for 2022, Missouri's overall graduation rate was 91.16%. The Columbia school district operates four public high schools which cover grades 9–12: David H. Hickman High School, Rock Bridge High School, Muriel Battle High School, and Frederick Douglass High School. Rock Bridge is one of two Missouri high schools to receive a silver medal by U.S. News & World Report, putting it in the Top 3% of all high schools in the nation. Hickman has been on Newsweek magazine's list of Top 1,300 schools in the country for the past three years and has more named presidential scholars than any other public high school in the US. CPS also manages seven middle schools: Jefferson, West, Oakland, Gentry, Smithton, Lange, and John Warner. John Warner Middle School first opened for the 2020/21 school year. A very small portion of the city limits is in Hallsville R-IV School District.<!--From ID number 13560--> While only 31.2% of Missourians hold a bachelor's degree. The city has three institutions of higher education: the University of Missouri, Stephens College, and Columbia College, all of which surround Downtown Columbia. The city is the headquarters of the University of Missouri System, which operates campuses in St. Louis, Kansas City, and Rolla. Moberly Area Community College, Central Methodist University, and William Woods University as well as operates satellite campuses in Columbia. Infrastructure Transportation The Columbia Transit provides public bus and para-transit service, and is owned and operated by the city. In 2008, 1,414,400 passengers boarded along the system's six fixed routes and nine University of Missouri shuttle routes, and 27,000 boarded the Para-transit service. The system is constantly experiencing growth in service and technology. A $3.5 million project to renovate and expand the Wabash Station, a rail depot built in 1910 and converted into the city's transit center in the mid-1980s, was completed in summer of 2007. In 2007, a Transit Master Plan was created to address the future transit needs of the city and county with a comprehensive plan to add infrastructure in three key phases. The five to 15-year plan intends to add service along the southwest, southeast and northeast sections of Columbia and develop alternative transportation models for Boone County. The city is served by Columbia Regional Airport. The closest rail station is Jefferson City station, in the state capital Jefferson City. Columbia is also known for its MKT Trail, a spur of the Katy Trail State Park, which allows foot and bike traffic across the city, and, conceivably, the state. It consists of a soft gravel surface for running and biking. Columbia also is preparing to embark on construction of several new bike paths and street bike lanes thanks to a $25 million grant from the federal government. The city is also served by American Airlines at the Columbia Regional Airport, the only commercial airport in mid-Missouri. I-70 (concurrent with US 40) and US 63 are the two main freeways used for travel to and from Columbia. Within the city, there are also three state highways: Routes 763 (Rangeline Street & College Avenue), 163 (Providence Road), and 740 (Stadium Boulevard). Rail service is provided by the city-owned Columbia Terminal Railroad (COLT), which runs from the north side of Columbia to Centralia and a connection to the Norfolk Southern Railway. Health systems is the main hospital of the MU Health Care System, and it is the largest hospital in Columbia.]] Health care is a big part of Columbia's economy, with nearly one in six people working in a health-care related profession and a physician density that is about three times the United States average. The city's hospitals and supporting facilities are a large referral center for the state, and medical related trips to the city are common. There are three hospital systems within the city and five hospitals with a total of 1,105 beds. The center serves as the sole supplier of the active ingredients in two U.S. Food and Drug Administration-approved radiopharmaceuticals and produces Fluorine-18 used in PET imaging with its cyclotron.Sister citiesIn accordance with the Columbia Sister Cities Program, which operates in conjunction with Sister Cities International, Columbia has been paired with five international sister cities in an attempt to foster cross-cultural understanding: * Kutaisi, Georgia * Hakusan, Ishikawa, Japan * Sibiu, Romania * Suncheon, South Jeolla, South Korea * Laoshan, Shandong, China * Armenia, Quindío, Colombia See also * List of people from Columbia, Missouri * History of the University of Missouri * National Register of Historic Places listings in Boone County, Missouri * USS Columbia (SSN-771) * The Big Tree Notes References Bibliography Stephens, E. W. (1875) "History of Boone County." An Illustrated Historical Atlas of Boone County, Missouri. Philadelphia: Edwards Brothers * * * Sapp, David (2000) "Boone County Chronicles" Columbia: Boone County Historical Society Brownlee, Richard S. 1956 The Big Moniteau Bluff Pictographs in Boone County, MO. Missouri Archaeologist 18(4): 49–54 * * * * * * * * * * * * Viles, Jonas The University of Missouri, 1839–1939, E.W. Stephens Publishing Company }} * * External links * [http://www.como.gov Official city government website] * [http://www.visitcolumbiamo.com Columbia Convention & Visitors Bureau] * [http://www.columbiamochamber.com Columbia Chamber of Commerce] * Historic maps of Columbia in the [http://dl.mospace.umsystem.edu/mu/islandora/object/mu%3A138760 Sanborn Maps of Missouri Collection] at the University of Missouri Category:Cities in Missouri Category:Cities in Boone County, Missouri Category:Populated places established in 1821 Category:County seats in Missouri Category:Columbia metropolitan area (Missouri) Category:Busking venues Category:Academic enclaves Category:1821 establishments in Missouri	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia,_Missouri	2025-04-05T18:27:56.005146
6720	Charlton Athletic F.C.	\| ground = The Valley \| capacity = 27,111 \| owner = GFP (Global Football Partners) \| manager = Nathan Jones \| chairman Gavin Carter \| league = \| season = \| position = \| website = \| pattern_la1 = _charlton2425h \| pattern_b1 = _charlton2425h \| pattern_ra1 = _charlton2425h \| pattern_sh1 = _charlton2425h \| pattern_so1 = _charlton2425hl \| leftarm1 \| body1 \| rightarm1 \| shorts1 \| socks1 = }} Charlton Athletic Football Club is a professional association football club based in Charlton, south-east London, England. The team compete in , the third level of the English football league system. Their home ground is The Valley, where the club has played since 1919. They played at The Mount in Catford during the 1923–24 season. They also played a combined seven years divided between firstly Selhurst Park, and secondly at the former 'Upton Park', (now the Boleyn Ground), between 1985 and 1992, due to both their financial problems and the local council's safety concerns. The club's traditional kit consists of red shirts, white shorts and red socks. Their most commonly used nickname is The Addicks. Charlton share local rivalries with fellow South London clubs Crystal Palace and Millwall. The club was founded on 9 June 1905 and turned professional in 1920. They spent one season in the Kent League and one season in the Southern League, before being invited to join the newly-formed Football League Third Division South in 1921. They won the division in the 1928–29 season, and again in 1934–35 following relegation in 1933. Charlton were promoted out of the Second Division in 1935–36, and finished second in the First Division the next season. Having been beaten finalists in 1946, they lifted the FA Cup the following year with a 1–0 victory over Burnley. The departure of Jimmy Seed in 1956, manager for 23 years, saw the club relegated out of the top-flight the following year. Relegated again in 1972, Charlton were promoted from the Third Division in 1974–75, and again in 1980–81 following relegation the previous season. Charlton recovered from administration to secure promotion back to the First Division in 1985–86, and went on to lose in the 1987 final of the Full Members' Cup, though they won the 1987 play-off final to retain their top-flight status. Having been relegated in 1990, Charlton won the 1998 play-off final to make their debut in the Premier League. Though they were relegated the next year, manager Alan Curbishley took them back up as champions in 1999–2000. Charlton spent seven successive years in the Premier League, before suffering two relegations in three years. They won League One with 101 points in 2011–12, though were relegated from the Championship in 2016, and again in 2020 after they won the 2019 League One play-off final. History Early history (1905–1946) Charlton Athletic was formed on 9 June 1905 At the outbreak of World War I, Charlton were one of the first clubs to close down to take part in the "Greater Game" overseas. The club was reformed in 1917, playing mainly friendlies to raise funds for charities connected to the war and for the Woolwich Memorial Hospital Cup, the trophy for which Charlton donated. It had previously been the Woolwich Cup that the team had won outright following three consecutive victories. After the war, they joined the Kent League for one season (1919–20) before becoming professional, appointing Walter Rayner as the first full-time manager. They were accepted by the Southern League and played just a single season (1920–21) before being voted into the Football League. Charlton's first Football League match was against Exeter City in August 1921, which they won 1–0. In 1923, Charlton became "giant killers" in the FA Cup beating top flight sides Manchester City, West Bromwich Albion, and Preston North End before losing to eventual winners Bolton Wanderers in the Quarter-Finals. Later that year, it was proposed that Charlton merge with Catford Southend to create a larger team with bigger support. In the 1923–24 season Charlton played in Catford at The Mount stadium and wore the colours of "The Enders", light and dark blue vertical stripes. However, the move fell through and the Addicks returned to the Charlton area in 1924, returning to the traditional red and white colours in the process. Charlton finished second bottom in the Football League in 1926 and were forced to apply for re-election which was successful. Three years later the Addicks won the Division Three championship in 1929 and they remained at the Division Two level for four years. Seed was an innovative thinker about the game at a time when tactical formations were still relatively unsophisticated. He later recalled "a simple scheme that enabled us to pull several matches out of the fire" during the 1934–35 season: when the team was in trouble "the centre-half was to forsake his defensive role and go up into the attack to add weight to the five forwards." After this promotion, the British Pathé company visited The Valley to film the players training. During the commentary, it was noted that it was their "Proud boast" that not a single player during their year in Division 2 was "Cautioned". The subsequent film was called 'Famous Football Teams at Home. No.5:Charlton Athletic ': (canister:PT 353, media URN: 39727). It was released on 28/12/'36 It contains very clear views of the early stadium. In 1937, Charlton finished runners up in the First Division, in 1938 finished fourth and 1939 finished third. They were the most consistent team in the top flight of English football over the three seasons immediately before World War II. When the full league programme resumed in 1946–47 Charlton could finish only 19th in the First Division, just above the relegation spots, but they made amends with their performance in the FA Cup, reaching the 1947 FA Cup Final. This time they were successful, beating Burnley 1–0, with Chris Duffy scoring the only goal of the day. In this period of renewed football attendances, Charlton became one of only 13 English football teams to average over 40,000 as their attendance during a full season. It caused the team's support to drop, and even a promotion in 1975 back to the second division did little to re-invigorate the team's support and finances. In 1979–80 Charlton were relegated again to the Third Division, but won immediate promotion back to the Second Division in 1980–81. This was a turning point in the club's history leading to a period of turbulence and change including further promotion and exile. A change in management and shortly after a change in club ownership led to severe problems, such as the reckless signing of former European Footballer of the Year Allan Simonsen, and the club looked like it would go out of business.The "exiled" years (1985–1992)In 1984 financial matters came to a head and the club went into administration, to be reformed as Charlton Athletic (1984) Ltd. and remained at this level for four years (achieving a highest league finish of 14th) often with late escapes, most notably against Leeds in 1987, where the Addicks triumphed in extra-time of the play-off final replay to secure their top flight place. Under his sole leadership Charlton made an appearance in the play-off in 1996 but were eliminated by Crystal Palace in the semi-finals and the following season brought a disappointing 15th-place finish. 1997–98 was Charlton's best season for years. They reached the Division One play-off final and battled against Sunderland in a thrilling game which ended with a 4–4 draw after extra time. Charlton won 7–6 on penalties, with the match described as "arguably the most dramatic game of football in Wembley's history", and were promoted to the Premier League. Charlton's first Premier League campaign began promisingly (they went top after two games) but they were unable to keep up their good form and were soon battling relegation. The battle was lost on the final day of the season but the club's board kept faith in Curbishley, confident that they could bounce back. Curbishley rewarded the chairman's loyalty with the Division One title in 2000 which signalled a return to the Premier League. After the club's return, Curbishley proved an astute spender and by 2003 he had succeeded in establishing Charlton in the top flight. Charlton spent much of the 2003–04 Premier League season challenging for a Champions League place, but a late-season slump in form and the sale of star player Scott Parker to Chelsea, left Charlton in seventh place, which was still the club's highest finish since the 1950s. Charlton were unable to build on this level of achievement and Curbishley departed in 2006, with the club still established as a solid mid-table side. In May 2006, Iain Dowie was named as Curbishley's successor, but was sacked after 12 league matches in November 2006, with only two wins. Les Reed replaced Dowie as manager, however he too failed to improve Charlton's position in the league table and on Christmas Eve 2006, Reed was replaced by former player Alan Pardew. Although results did improve, Pardew was unable to keep Charlton up and relegation was confirmed in the penultimate match of the season. Return to the Football League (2007–2014) Charlton's return to the second tier of English football was a disappointment, with their promotion campaign tailing off to an 11th-place finish. Early in the following season the Addicks were linked with a foreign takeover, but this was swiftly denied by the club. On 10 October 2008, Charlton received an indicative offer for the club from a Dubai-based diversified investment company. However, the deal later fell through. The full significance of this soon became apparent as the club recorded net losses of over £13 million for that financial year. Pardew left on 22 November after a 2–5 home loss to Sheffield United that saw the team fall into the relegation places. Matters did not improve under caretaker manager Phil Parkinson, and the team went a club record 18 games without a win, a new club record, before finally achieving a 1–0 away victory over Norwich City in an FA Cup third round replay; Parkinson was hired on a permanent basis. The team were relegated to League One after a 2–2 draw against Blackpool on 18 April 2009. After spending almost the entire 2009–10 season in the top six of League One, Charlton were defeated in the Football League One play-offs semi-final second leg on penalties against Swindon Town. returned to the club as manager between 2011 and 2014]] After a change in ownership, Parkinson and Charlton legend Mark Kinsella left after a poor run of results. Another Charlton legend, Chris Powell, was appointed manager of the club in January 2011, winning his first game in charge 2–0 over Plymouth at the Valley. This was Charlton's first league win since November. Powell's bright start continued with a further three victories, before running into a downturn which saw the club go 11 games in succession without a win. Yet the fans' respect for Powell saw him come under remarkably little criticism. The club's fortunes picked up towards the end of the season, but leaving them far short of the play-offs. In a busy summer, Powell brought in 19 new players and after a successful season, on 14 April 2012, Charlton Athletic won promotion back to the Championship with a 1–0 away win at Carlisle United. A week later, on 21 April 2012, they were confirmed as champions after a 2–1 home win over Wycombe Wanderers. Charlton then lifted the League One trophy on 5 May 2012, having been in the top position since 15 September 2011, and after recording a 3–2 victory over Hartlepool United, recorded their highest ever league points score of 101, the highest in any professional European league that year. In the first season back in the Championship, the 2012–13 season saw Charlton finish ninth place with 65 points, just three points short of the play-off places to the Premier League. Duchâtelet's ownership (2014–2019) In early January 2014 during the 2013–14 season, Belgian businessman Roland Duchâtelet took over Charlton as owner in a deal worth £14million. This made Charlton a part of a network of football clubs owned by Duchâtelet. On 11 March 2014, two days after an FA Cup quarter-final loss to Sheffield United, and with Charlton sitting bottom of the table, Powell was sacked, private emails suggesting a rift with the owner. New manager Jose Riga, despite having to join Charlton long after the transfer window had closed, was able to improve Charlton's form and eventually guide them to 18th place, successfully avoiding relegation. After Riga's departure to manage Blackpool, former Millwall player Bob Peeters was appointed as manager in May 2014 on a 12-month contract. Charlton started strong, but a long run of draws meant that after only 25 games in charge Peeters was dismissed with the team in 14th place. His replacement, Guy Luzon, ensured there was no relegation battle by winning most of the remaining matches, resulting in a 12th-place finish. The 2015–16 season began promisingly but results under Luzon deteriorated and on 24 October 2015 after a 3–0 defeat at home to Brentford he was sacked. Luzon said in a News Shopper interview that he "was not the one who chose how to do the recruitment" as the reason why he failed as manager. Karel Fraeye was appointed "interim head coach", but was sacked after 14 games and just two wins, with the club then second from bottom in the Championship. On 14 January 2016, Jose Riga was appointed head coach for a second spell, but could not prevent Charlton from being relegated to League One for the 2016–17 season. Riga resigned at the end of the season. To many fans, the managerial changes and subsequent relegation to League One were symptomatic of the mismanagement of the club under Duchâtelet's ownership and several protests began. After a slow start to the new season, with the club in 15th place of League One, the club announced that it had "parted company" with Russell Slade in November 2016. Karl Robinson was appointed on a permanent basis soon after. He led the Addicks to an uneventful 13th-place finish. The following season Robinson had the team challenging for the play-offs, but a drop in form in March led him to resign by mutual consent. He was replaced by former player Lee Bowyer as caretaker manager who guided them to a 6th-place finish, but lost in the play-off semi-final. Bowyer was appointed permanently in September on a one-year contract and managed Charlton to third place in the 2018–19 EFL League One season, qualifying for the play-offs. In their first visit to the New Wembley Stadium and a repeat of their famous match in 1998, Charlton beat Sunderland 2–1 in the League One play-off final to earn promotion back to the EFL Championship after a three-season absence. Bowyer later signed a new one-year contract following promotion, which was later extended to three years in January 2020.Multiple changes of ownership (2019–present)ESI (2019–2020)On 29 November 2019, Charlton Athletic were acquired by East Street Investments (ESI) from Abu Dhabi, subject to EFL approval. Approval was reportedly granted on 2 January 2020. However, on 10 March 2020, a public disagreement between the new owners erupted along with reports that the main investor was pulling out, and the EFL said the takeover had not been approved. The Valley and Charlton's training ground were still owned by Duchâtelet, and a transfer embargo was in place as the new owners had not provided evidence of funding through to June 2021. On 20 April 2020, the EFL said the club was being investigated for misconduct regarding the takeover. In June 2020, Charlton confirmed that ESI had been taken over by a consortium led by businessman Paul Elliott, and said it had contacted the EFL to finalise the ownership change. However, a legal dispute involving former ESI director Matt Southall continued. He attempted to regain control of the club to prevent Elliott's takeover from going ahead, but failed and was subsequently fined and dismissed for challenging the club's directors. On 7 August 2020, the EFL said three individuals, including ESI owner Elliott and lawyer Chris Farnell, had failed its Owners' and Directors' Test, leaving the club's ownership unclear; Charlton appealed against the decision. Meanwhile, Charlton were relegated to League One at the end of the 2019–20 season after finishing 22nd. Because of the COVID-19 pandemic, the final games of the season were played behind closed doors, which remained the case for the majority of the following season. Later in August, Thomas Sandgaard, a Danish businessman based in Colorado, was reported to be negotiating to buy the club. After further court hearings, Elliott was granted an injunction blocking the sale of ESI until a hearing in November 2020. Thomas Sandgaard (2020–2023) On 25 September 2020, Thomas Sandgaard acquired the club itself from ESI, and was reported to have passed the EFL's Owners' and Directors' Tests; the EFL noted the change in control, but said the club's sale was now "a matter for the interested parties". On 15 March 2021, with the club lying in eighth place, Bowyer resigned as club manager and was appointed manager of Birmingham City. His successor, Nigel Adkins, was appointed three days later. The club finished the 2020–21 season in seventh place, but started the following season by winning only two out of 13 League One matches and were in the relegation zone when Adkins was sacked on 21 October 2021. After a successful spell as caretaker manager, Johnnie Jackson was appointed manager in December 2021, but, after Charlton finished the season in 13th place, he was also sacked. Swindon Town manager Ben Garner was appointed as his replacement in June 2022, but was sacked on 5 December 2022 with the team in 17th place. After the club was knocked out of the FA Cup by League Two side Stockport County on 7 December, supporters said Charlton was at its "lowest ebb in living memory", with fans "losing confidence" in owner Thomas Sandgaard. Dean Holden was appointed manager on 20 December 2022, and Charlton improved to finish the 2022–23 season in 10th place. SE7 Partners (2023–present) On 5 June 2023, the club announced that SE7 Partners, comprising former Sunderland director Charlie Methven and Edward Warrick, had agreed a takeover of Charlton Athletic, becoming the club's fourth set of owners in under four years. On 19 July, the EFL and FA cleared SE7 Partners to take over the club, and the deal was completed on 21 July 2023. On 27 August 2023, after one win in the opening six games of the 2023–24 season, Holden was sacked as manager, and succeeded by Michael Appleton. On 23 January 2024, following a 3–2 defeat at The Valley against Northampton Town - and no wins in 10 League One games - Appleton was sacked. He was replaced on 4 February 2024 by Nathan Jones, under whom Charlton lost one and drew three of their next four games as they matched the club's longest winless streak of 18 games. The winless run ended with a 2–1 win away to Derby County on 27 February 2024. Charlton then went on a 14 match unbeaten run, the club's longest in 24 years. However, Charlton finished the season in 16th place, their worst finishing league position in 98 years. Despite a disappointing campaign for the Addicks, Charlton striker Alfie May won the League One Golden Boot award for the 2023–24 season, with his tally of 23 goals. Club identity Colours and crest Council, used by Charlton briefly in late 1940s and early 1950s]]Charlton have used a number of crests and badges during their history, although the current design has not been changed since 1968. The first known badge, from the 1930s, consisted of the letters CAF in the shape of a club from a pack of cards. In the 1940s, Charlton used a design featuring a robin sitting in a football within a shield, sometimes with the letters CAFC in the four-quarters of the shield, which was worn for the 1946 FA Cup Final. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, the crest of the former metropolitan borough of Greenwich was used as a symbol for the club but this was not used on the team's shirts. With the exception of one season, Charlton have always played in red and white – colours chosen by the boys who founded Charlton Athletic in 1905 after having to play their first matches in the borrowed kits of their local rivals Woolwich Arsenal, who also played in red and white. The exception came during part of the 1923–24 season when Charlton wore the colours of Catford Southend as part of the proposed move to Catford, which were light and dark blue stripes. However, after the move fell through, Charlton returned to wearing red and white as their home colours. The sponsors were as follows: {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center" \|- ! Year !!Kit manufacturer!!Main shirt sponsor!!Back of shirt sponsor!!Shorts sponsor \|- \| 1974–80 \|\| Bukta \|\| rowspan2\|None \|\| rowspan20 colspan=2\|None \|- \| 1980–81 \|\| rowspan=3\|Adidas \|- \| 1981–82 \|\| FADS \|- \| 1982–83 \|\| rowspan=2\| None \|- \| 1983–84 \|\| rowspan=2\| Osca \|- \| 1984–86 \|\| rowspan=3\|The Woolwich \|- \| 1986–88 \|\| Adidas \|- \| 1988–92 \|\| Admiral \|- \| 1992–93 \|\| rowspan=2\|Ribero \|\| None \|- \| 1993–94 \|\| rowspan=2\|Viglen \|- \| 1994–98 \|\| Quaser \|- \| 1998–00 \|\| rowspan=3\|Le Coq Sportif \|\| MESH \|- \| 2000–02 \|\| Redbus \|- \| 2002–03 \|\| rowspan=2\|All:Sports \|- \| 2003–05 \|\| rowspan=4\|Joma \|- \| 2005–08 \|\| Llanera \|- \| 2008–09 \|\| Carbrini Sportswear \|- \| 2009 \|\| rowspan=2\|Kent Reliance Building Society \|- \| 2010–12 \|\| Macron \|- \| 2012–14 \|\| rowspan=3\|Nike \|\| Andrews Sykes \|- \| 2014–16 \|\| University of Greenwich \|\| Andrews Sykes \|\| Mitsubishi Electric \|- \| 2016–17 \|\| rowspan2\|BETDAQ \|\| rowspan5\|ITRM \|\| Emmaus Consulting \|- \| 2017–19 \|\| rowspan=4\|Hummel \|\| Gaughan Services \|- \| 2019–20 \|\| Children with Cancer UK \|\| rowspan=2\|Cannon Glass \|- \| 2020–21 \|\| KW Holdings (home)<br />Vitech Services (away) \|- \| 2021–2022 \|\| KW Holdings (home & third)<br />Walker Mower (away) \|- \| 2022– \|\| Castore \|\| RSK (home)<br />University of Greenwich (away)\|\|\|\|Generous Robots DAO \|} Nicknames Charlton's most common nickname is The Addicks. The origin of this name is from a local fishmonger, Arthur "Ikey" Bryan, who rewarded the team with meals of haddock and chips with vinegar The progression of the nickname can be seen in the book The Addicks Cartoons: An Affectionate Look into the Early History of Charlton Athletic, which covers the pre-First World War history of Charlton through a narrative based on 56 cartoons which appeared in the now defunct Kentish Independent. The very first cartoon, from 31 October 1908, calls the team the Haddocks. By 1910, the name had changed to Addicks although it also appeared as Haddick. The club also have two other nicknames, The Robins, adopted in 1931, and The Valiants, chosen in a fan competition in the 1960s which also led to the adoption of the sword badge which is still in use. The Addicks nickname never went away and was revived by fans after the club lost its Valley home in 1985 and went into exile at Crystal Palace. It is now once again the official nickname of the club. Charlton fans' chants have included "Valley, Floyd Road", a song noting the stadium's address to the tune of "Mull of Kintyre".Stadium The club's first ground was Siemens Meadow (1905–1907), a patch of rough ground by the River Thames. This was over-shadowed by the Siemens Brothers Telegraph Works. Then followed Woolwich Common (1907–1908), Pound Park (1908–1913), and Angerstein Lane (1913–1915). After the end of the First World War, a chalk quarry known as the Swamps was identified as Charlton's new ground, and in the summer of 1919 work began to create the level playing area and remove debris from the site. as Wimbledon had moved into Selhurst Park alongside Crystal Palace. Charlton finally returned to The Valley in December 1992, celebrating with a 1–0 victory against Portsmouth. Since the return to The Valley, three sides of the ground have been completely redeveloped turning The Valley into a modern, all-seater stadium with a 27,111 capacity which is the biggest in South London. There are plans in place to increase the ground's capacity to approximately 31,000 and even around 40,000 in the future. In the May 2024, a new Desso GrassMaster pitch was laid. Supporters and rivalries The bulk of the club's support base comes from South East London and Kent, particularly the London boroughs of Greenwich, Bexley and Bromley. Supporters played a key role in the return of the club to The Valley in 1992 and were rewarded by being granted a voice on the board in the form of an elected supporter director. Any season ticket holder could put themselves forward for election, with a certain number of nominations, and votes were cast by all season ticket holders over the age of 18. The last such director, Ben Hayes, was elected in 2006 to serve until 2008, when the role was discontinued as a result of legal issues. Its functions were replaced by a fans forum, which met for the first time in December 2008 and is still active to this day. Charlton are closest in proximity to Millwall than any other EFL club, with The Valley and The Den being less than four miles () apart. They last met in July 2020, a 1–0 win for Millwall at the Valley. Since their first Football League game in 1921, Charlton have won 11, drawn 26 and lost 37 league games (the two sides also met twice in the Anglo-Italian Cup in the 1992–93 season; Charlton winning one tie, and one draw). The Addicks have not beaten Millwall in the last 12 league fixtures between the sides; their last win came on 9 March 1996 at The Valley. In the long-running BBC sitcom Only Fools and Horses, Rodney Charlton Trotter is named after the club. In the BBC science-fiction series Doctor Who, the seventh Doctor's companion Ace (played by Sophie Aldred from 1987 to 1989) wears a Charlton Athletic badge on her black bomber jacket and the club is mentioned in Silver Nemesis. The Valley and manager Alan Curbishley made cameo appearances in the Sky One television series Dream Team. Charlton Athletic assumes a pivotal role in the film The Silent Playground (1963). Three children get in to trouble when their mother's boyfriend 'Uncle' Alan (John Ronane), gives them pocket money to wander off on their own, so that he can attend a Charlton football match. There is some footage from the ground which Ronane is later seen leaving. A Charlton Athletic match against Manchester United in the 1950s is depicted in BBC Two television film United (released in 2011). A young Billy Butcher has a Charlton flag in his room in Amazon Prime Video series The Boys. Books Charlton Athletic has also featured in several book publications, in both fiction and factual/sports writing. These include works by Charlie Connelly and Paul Breen's work of popular fiction which is entitled The Charlton Men. The book is set against Charlton's successful 2011–12 season when they won the League One title and promotion back to the Championship in concurrence with the 2011 London riots. Timothy Young, the protagonist in Out of the Shelter, a 1970 novel by David Lodge, supports Charlton Athletic. The book describes Timothy listening to Charlton's victory in the 1947 FA Cup Final on the radio.Records and statisticsSam Bartram is Charlton's record appearance maker, having played a total of 623 times between 1934 and 1956. But for six years lost to the Second World War, when no league football was played, this tally would be far higher. Keith Peacock is the club's second highest appearance maker with 591 games between 1961 and 1979 He was also the first-ever substitute in a Football League game, replacing injured goalkeeper Mike Rose after 11 minutes of a match against Bolton Wanderers on 21 August 1965. Defender and midfielder Radostin Kishishev is Charlton's record international appearance maker, having received 42 caps for Bulgaria while a Charlton player. In total, 12 Charlton players have received full England caps. The first was Seth Plum, in 1923 and the most recent was Darren Bent, in 2006. Luke Young, with seven caps, is Charlton's most capped England international. Charlton's record goalscorer is Derek Hales, who scored 168 times in all competitions in 368 matches, during two spells, for the club. Counting only league goals, Stuart Leary is the club's record scorer with 153 goals between 1951 and 1962. The record number of goals scored in one season is 33, scored by Ralph Allen in the 1934–35 season. Charlton's record home attendance is 75,031 which was set on 12 February 1938 for an FA Cup match against Aston Villa The record all-seated attendance is 27,111, The Valley's current capacity. This record was first set in September 2005 in a Premier League match against Chelsea and has since been equalled several times. First-team squad Out on loan Under-21s squad Under-18s squad Women's team Player of the Year 1971 Paul Went * 1972 Keith Peacock * 1973 Arthur Horsfield * 1974 John Dunn * 1975 Richie Bowman * 1976 Derek Hales * 1977 Mike Flanagan * 1978 Keith Peacock * 1979 Keith Peacock * 1980 Les Berry * 1981 Nicky Johns * 1982 Terry Naylor * 1983 Nicky Johns * 1984 Nicky Johns * 1985 Mark Aizlewood * 1986 Mark Aizlewood * 1987 Bob Bolder * 1988 John Humphrey * 1989 John Humphrey * 1990 John Humphrey * 1991 Rob Lee * 1992 Simon Webster * 1993 Stuart Balmer * 1994 Carl Leaburn * 1995 Richard Rufus * 1996 John Robinson * 1997 Andy Petterson * 1998 Mark Kinsella * 1999 Mark Kinsella * 2000 Richard Rufus * 2001 Richard Rufus * 2002 Dean Kiely * 2003 Scott Parker * 2004 Dean Kiely * 2005 Luke Young * 2006 Darren Bent * 2007 Scott Carson * 2008 Matt Holland * 2009 Nicky Bailey * 2010 Christian Dailly * 2011 José Semedo * 2012 Chris Solly * 2013 Chris Solly * 2014 Diego Poyet * 2015 Jordan Cousins * 2016 Jordan Cousins * 2017 Ricky Holmes * 2018 Jay DaSilva * 2019 Lyle Taylor * 2020 Dillon Phillips * 2021 Jake Forster-Caskey * 2022 George Dobson * 2023 Jesurun Rak-Sakyi * 2024 Alfie May Club officials Coaching staff {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! style="background:#eee;"\|Role !! style="background:#eee;"\|Name \|- \|Manager\|\| Nathan Jones \|- \|First Team Assistant Manager\|\| Curtis Fleming \|- \|First Team Goalkeeping Coach\|\| Stephen Henderson \|- \|Set Piece and First-Team Coach\|\| James Brayne \|- \|Player-Coach\|\| Danny Hylton \|- \|First-Team Lead Sports Scientist \|\| Ben Talbot \|- \|First-Team Doctor\|\| Toby Longwill \|- \|Head of Physical Performance \| Josh Hornby \|- \|First-Team Head Physiotherapist\|\| Adam Coe \|- \|First-Team Physiotherapist \| Alex Ng \|- \|First-Team Assistant Therapist\|\| Steve Jackson \|- \|Head of Performance Analysis\|\| Brett Shaw \|- \|First-Team Kit Manager\|\| Wayne Baldacchino \|- \|Academy Director \| Steve Avory \|- \|Academy Head of Coaching\|\| Rhys Williams \|- \|Senior Professional Development Phase Lead Coach \| Jason Pearce \|- \|Lead U21s Coach \| Chris Lock \|- \|Head of Academy Sport Science and Medicine \| Danny Campbell \|- \|Senior Academy Scout \| Bert Dawkins \|- \|Academy Performance Analyst \| James Parker \|- \|Academy Physiotherapist \| Andriana Tsiantoula \|- \|Kit Assistant \| Ben Mehmet \|- \|Kit Assistant \| James Simmons \|} Managerial history managed Charlton between 1991 and 2006]] Source: {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Name ! Dates ! Achievements \|- \| Walter Rayner\|\| June 1920 – May 1925 \|\| \|- \| Alex MacFarlane\|\| May 1925 – January 1928 \|\| \|- \| Albert Lindon \|\| January 1928 – June 1928 \|\| \|- \| Alex MacFarlane \|\| June 1928 – December 1932 \|\| Third Division champions (1929) \|- \| Albert Lindon \|\| December 1932 – May 1933 \|\| \|- \| Jimmy Seed \|\| May 1933 – September 1956 \|\| Third Division champions (1935);<br />Second Division runners-up (1936);<br />First Division runners-up (1937);<br />Football League War Cup co-winners (1944);<br />FA Cup runners-up 1946;<br />FA Cup winners 1947 \|- \| David Clark (caretaker) \|\| September 1956 \|\| \|- \| Jimmy Trotter \|\| September 1956 – October 1961 \|\| \|- \| David Clark (caretaker) \|\| October 1961 – November 1961 \|\| \|- \| Frank Hill \|\| November 1961 – August 1965 \|\| \|- \| Bob Stokoe \|\| August 1965 – September 1967 \|\| \|- \| Eddie Firmani \|\| September 1967 – March 1970 \|\| \|- \| Theo Foley \|\| March 1970 – April 1974 \|\| \|- \| Les Gore (caretaker) \|\| April 1974 – May 1974 \|\| \|- \| Andy Nelson \|\| May 1974 – March 1980 \|\| Third Division 3rd place (promoted; 1975) \|- \| Mike Bailey \|\| March 1980 – June 1981 \|\| Third Division 3rd place (promoted; 1981) \|- \| Alan Mullery \|\| June 1981 – June 1982 \|\| \|- \| Ken Craggs \|\| June 1982 – November 1982 \|\| \|- \| Lennie Lawrence \|\| November 1982 – July 1991 \|\| Division Two runners-up (1986);<br />Full Members Cup runners-up (1987) \|- \| Alan Curbishley &<br /> Steve Gritt \|\| July 1991 – June 1995 \|\| \|- \| Alan Curbishley \|\| June 1995 – May 2006 \|\| First Division play-off winners (1998);<br />First Division champions (2000) \|- \| Iain Dowie \|\| May 2006 – November 2006 \|\| \|- \| Les Reed \|\| November 2006 – December 2006 \|\| \|- \| Alan Pardew \|\| December 2006 – November 2008 \|\| \|- \| Phil Parkinson \|\|November 2008 – January 2011 \|\| \|- \| Keith Peacock (caretaker) \|\| January 2011 \|\| \|- \| Chris Powell \|\| January 2011 – March 2014 \|\| League One champions (2012) \|- \| José Riga \|\|March 2014 – May 2014 \|\| \|- \| Bob Peeters \|\|May 2014 – January 2015\|\| \|- \| Damian Matthew &<br /> Ben Roberts (caretakers) \|\| January 2015 \|\| \|- \| Guy Luzon \|\|January 2015 – October 2015 \|\| \|- \| Karel Fraeye \|\| October 2015 – January 2016\|\| \|- \| José Riga \|\| January 2016 – May 2016 \|\| \|- \| Russell Slade \|\| June 2016 – November 2016\|\| \|- \| Kevin Nugent (caretaker) \|\| November 2016\|\| \|- \| Karl Robinson \|\| November 2016 – March 2018\|\| \|- \| Lee Bowyer (caretaker) \|\| March 2018 – September 2018\|\| \|- \| Lee Bowyer \|\| September 2018 – March 2021 \|\| League One play-off winners (2019) \|- \| Johnnie Jackson (caretaker) \|\| March 2021 \|\| \|- \| Nigel Adkins \|\| March 2021 – October 2021\|\| \|- \| Johnnie Jackson (caretaker) \|\| October 2021 – December 2021\|\| \|- \| Johnnie Jackson \|\| December 2021 – May 2022\|\| \|- \| Ben Garner \|\| June 2022 – December 2022\|\| \|- \| Anthony Hayes (caretaker) \|\| December 2022\|\| \|- \| Dean Holden \|\| December 2022 – August 2023\|\| \|- \| Jason Pearce (caretaker) \|\| August 2023 – September 2023\|\| \|- \| Michael Appleton \|\| September 2023 – January 2024 \|\| \|- \| Curtis Fleming (caretaker) \|\| January 2024 – February 2024 \|\| \|- \| Nathan Jones \|\| February 2024 – \|\| \|} List of chairmen {\| class="toccolours" \|- ! style"background:silver;"\|Year !! style"background:silver;"\|Name \|- \|1921–1924\|\| Douglas Oliver \|- style="background:#eee;" \|1924–1932\|\| Edwin Radford \|- \|1932–1951\|\| Albert Gliksten \|- style="background:#eee;" \|1951–1962\|\| Stanley Gliksten \|- \|1962–1982\|\| Michael Gliksten \|- style="background:#eee;" \|1982–1983\|\| Mark Hulyer \|- \|1983\|\| Richard Collins \|- style="background:#eee;" \|1983–1984\|\| Mark Hulyer \|- \|1984\|\| John Fryer \|- style="background:#eee;" \|1984–1985\|\| Jimmy Hill \|- \|1985–1987\|\| John Fryer \|- style="background:#eee;" \|1987–1989\|\| Richard Collins \|- \|1989–1995\|\| Roger Alwen \|- style="background:#eee;" \|1995–2008 \|\| Richard Murray (PLC) \|- \|1995–2008 \|\| Martin Simons \|- style="background:#eee;" \|2008–2010 \|\| Derek Chappell \|- \|2008–2010 \|\| Richard Murray \|- style="background:#eee;" \|2010–2014 \|\| Michael Slater <!-- Do not link to Michael Slater - wrong person --> \|- \|2014–2020 \|\| Richard Murray \|- style="background:#eee;" \|2020 \|\| Matt Southall <!-- Do not link to Matt Southall - wrong person --> \|- \|2020–2023 \|\| Thomas Sandgaard \|- style="background:#eee;" \|2024 \|\| James Rodwell \|- \|2024– \|\| Gavin Carter \|} Honours Source: League First Division (level 1) Runners-up: 1936–37 Second Division / First Division (level 2) Champions: 1999–2000 2nd place promotion: 1935–36, 1985–86 *Play-off winners: 1987, 1998 Third Division South / Third Division / League One (level 3) Champions: 1928–29 (South), 1934–35 (South), 2011–12 3rd place promotion: 1974–75, 1980–81 *Play-off winners: 2019 Cup FA Cup Winners: 1946–47 Runners-up: 1945–46 Full Members' Cup Runners-up: 1986–87 Football League War Cup *Joint winners: 1943–44 Kent Senior Cup Winners: 1994–95, 2012–13, 2014–15 Runners-up: 1995–96, 2015–16 London Senior Cup Winners: 2022–23, 2023–24 References Bibliography See alsoFootball in LondonExternal links [https://www.uefa.com/nationalassociations/teams/69598--charlton/ Charlton Athletic] – UEFA.com [https://www.soccerbase.com/teams/team.sd?team_id527 Charlton Athletic information and statistics] – Soccerbase Category:1905 establishments in England Category:Association football clubs established in 1905 Category:Charlton, London Category:Football clubs in London Category:Football clubs in England Category:Southern Football League clubs Category:English Football League clubs Category:Premier League clubs Category:FA Cup winners Category:Companies that have entered administration in the United Kingdom Category:2023 mergers and acquisitions	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlton_Athletic_F.C.	2025-04-05T18:27:56.114144
6721	Cross-country skiing	Cross-country skiing is a form of skiing whereby skiers traverse snow-covered terrain without use of ski lifts or other assistance. Cross-country skiing is widely practiced as a sport and recreational activity; however, some still use it as a means of travel. Variants of cross-country skiing are adapted to a range of terrain which spans unimproved, sometimes mountainous terrain to groomed courses that are specifically designed for the sport. Modern cross-country skiing is similar to the original form of skiing, from which all skiing disciplines evolved, including alpine skiing, ski jumping and Telemark skiing. Skiers propel themselves either by striding forward (classic style) or side-to-side in a skating motion (skate skiing), aided by arms pushing on ski poles against the snow. It is practised in regions with snow-covered landscapes, including Europe, Canada, Russia, the United States, Australia and New Zealand. Competitive cross-country skiing is one of the Nordic skiing sports. Cross-country skiing and rifle marksmanship are the two components of biathlon. Ski orienteering is a form of cross-country skiing, which includes map navigation along snow trails and tracks. History thumb\|right\|Sami hunter using skis of unequal length—short for traction, long for gliding—and a single pole. Both were employed until . (1673 woodcut) The word ski comes from the Old Norse word which means stick of wood. Skiing started as a technique for traveling cross-country over snow on skis, starting almost five millennia ago with beginnings in Scandinavia. It may have been practised as early as 600 BCE in Daxing'anling, in what is now China. Early historical evidence includes Procopius's (around CE 550) description of Sami people as skrithiphinoi translated as "ski running samis". Birkely argues that the Sami people have practiced skiing for more than 6000 years, evidenced by the very old Sami word čuoigat for skiing. Egil Skallagrimsson's 950 CE saga describes King Haakon the Good's practice of sending his tax collectors out on skis. The Gulating law (1274) stated that "No moose shall be disturbed by skiers on private land." Early skiers used one long pole or spear in addition to the skis. The first depiction of a skier with two ski poles dates to 1741. Traditional skis, used for snow travel in Norway and elsewhere into the 1800s, often comprised one short ski with a natural fur traction surface, the andor, and one long for gliding, the langski—one being up to longer than the other—allowing skiers to propel themselves with a scooter motion. This combination has a long history among the Sami people. Skis up to 280 cm have been produced in Finland, and the longest recorded ski in Norway is 373 cm. Transportation thumb\|German Reichswehr military patrol on skis training in the Giant Mountains, January 1932. Ski warfare, the use of ski-equipped troops in war, is first recorded by the Danish historian Saxo Grammaticus in the 13th century. These troops were reportedly able to cover distances comparable to that of light cavalry. The garrison in Trondheim used skis at least from 1675, and the Danish-Norwegian army included specialized skiing battalions from 1747—details of military ski exercises from 1767 are on record. Skis were used in military exercises in 1747. In 1799 French traveller Jacques de la Tocnaye recorded his visit to Norway in his travel diary: Norwegian immigrants used skis ("Norwegian snowshoes") in the US midwest from around 1836. Norwegian immigrant "Snowshoe Thompson" transported mail by skiing across the Sierra Nevada between California and Nevada from 1856. Sport Michal Malák skate-skis at a qualifier for the Tour de Ski, 2007.\|thumb\|right Norwegian skiing regiments organized military skiing contests in the 18th century, divided in four classes: shooting at a target while skiing at "top speed", downhill racing among trees, downhill racing on large slopes without falling, and "long racing" on "flat ground". This technique was later used in ski orienteering in the 1960s on roads and other firm surfaces. It became widespread during the 1980s after the success of Bill Koch (United States) in 1982 Cross-country Skiing Championships drew more attention to the skating style. Norwegian skier Ove Aunli started using the technique in 1984, when he found it to be much faster than classic style. Finnish skier, Pauli Siitonen, developed a one-sided variant of the style in the 1970s, leaving one ski in the track while skating to the side with the other one during endurance events; this became known as the "marathon skate". Terminology thumb\|right\|Arctic travelers, Fridtjov Nansen and Hjalmar Johansen at the camp of Frederick Jackson on Northbrook Island in 1896. The word ski comes from the Old Norse word which means "cleft wood", "stick of wood" or "ski". Norwegian language does not use a verb-form equivalent in idiomatic speech, unlike English "to ski". In modern Norwegian, a variety of terms refer to cross-country skiing, including: (literally "walk on skis")—a general term for self-propelled skiing (literally "hiking on skis")—refers to ski touring as recreation (literally "long race")—refers to cross-country ski racing In contrast, alpine skiing is referred to as (literally "stand on skis"). Fridtjof Nansen, describes the crossing of Greenland as , literally "On skis across Greenland", while the English edition of the report was titled, The first crossing of Greenland. Nansen referred to the activity of traversing snow on skis as (he used the term also in the English translation), which may be translated as ski running. Nansen used , regarding all forms of skiing, but noted that ski jumping is purely a competitive sport and not for amateurs. He further noted that in some competitions the skier "is also required to show his skill in turning his ski to one side or the other within given marks" at full speed on a steep hill. Nansen regarded these forms (i.e., jumping and slalom) as "special arts", and believed that the most important branch of skiing was travel "in an ordinary way across the country". In Germany, Nansen's Greenland report was published as (literally "On snowshoes through Greenland"). The German term, , was supplanted by the borrowed Norwegian word, , in the late 19th century. Recreation thumb\|right\|Ski touring in untracked terrain. Recreational cross-country skiing includes ski touring and groomed-trail skiing, typically at resorts or in parklands. It is an accessible form of recreation for persons with vision and mobility impairments. A related form of recreation is dog skijoring—a winter sport where a cross-country skier is assisted by one or more dogs. Ski touring Ski touring takes place off-piste and outside of ski resorts. Tours may extend over multiple days. Typically, skis, bindings, and boots allow for free movement of the heel to enable a walking pace, as with Nordic disciplines and unlike Alpine skiing. Ski touring's subgenre ski mountaineering involves independently navigating and route finding through potential avalanche terrain and often requires familiarity with meteorology along with skiing skills. Ski touring can be faster and easier than summer hiking in some terrain, allowing for traverses and ascents that would be harder in the summer. Skis can also be used to access backcountry alpine climbing routes when snow is off the technical route, but still covers the hiking trail. In some countries, organizations maintain a network of huts for use by cross-country skiers in wintertime. For example, the Norwegian Trekking Association maintains over 400 huts stretching across thousands of kilometres of trails which hikers can use in the summer and skiers in the winter. Groomed-trail skiing thumb\|right\|Groomed ski trails for cross-country in Thuringia, track-set for classic skiing at the sides and groomed for skate skiing in the center. Groomed trail skiing occurs at facilities such as Nordmarka (Oslo), Royal Gorge Cross Country Ski Resort and Gatineau Park in Quebec, where trails are laid out and groomed for both classic and skate-skiing. Such grooming and track setting (for classic technique) requires specialized equipment and techniques that adapt to the condition of the snow. Trail preparation employs snow machines which tow snow-compaction, texturing and track-setting devices. Groomers must adapt such equipment to the condition of the snow—crystal structure, temperature, degree of compaction, moisture content, etc. Depending on the initial condition of the snow, grooming may achieve an increase in density for new-fallen snow or a decrease in density for icy or compacted snow. Cross-country ski facilities may incorporate a course design that meets homologation standards for such organizations as the International Olympic Committee, the International Ski Federation, or national standards. Standards address course distances, degree of difficulty with maximums in elevation difference and steepness—both up and downhill, plus other factors. Some facilities have night-time lighting on select trails—called lysløype (light trails) in Norwegian and elljusspår (electric-light trails) in Swedish. The first lysløype opened in 1946 in Nordmarka and at Byåsen (Trondheim). Competition Cross-country ski competition encompasses a variety of formats for races over courses of varying lengths according to rules sanctioned by the International Ski and Snowboard Federation (FIS) and by national organizations, such as the U.S. Ski and Snowboard Association and Cross Country Ski Canada. It also encompasses cross-country ski marathon events, sanctioned by the Worldloppet Ski Federation, cross-country ski orienteering events, sanctioned by the International Orienteering Federation, and Paralympic cross-country skiing, sanctioned by the International Paralympic Committee. FIS-sanctioned competition Swede Anna Haag with classic technique in the women's 10 km classic race at the 2011 FIS Nordic World Ski Championships in Oslo, Norway.\|thumb\|right The FIS Nordic World Ski Championships have been held in various numbers and types of events since 1925 for men and since 1954 for women. From 1924 to 1939, the World Championships were held every year, including the Winter Olympic Games. After World War II, the World Championships were held every four years from 1950 to 1982. Since 1985, the World Championships have been held in odd-numbered years. Notable cross-country ski competitions include the Winter Olympics, the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships, and the FIS World Cup events (including the Holmenkollen). Other sanctioned competition Cross-country ski marathons—races with distances greater than 40 kilometers—have two cup series, the Ski Classics, which started in 2011, and the Worldloppet. Biathlon combines cross-country skiing and rifle shooting. Depending on the shooting performance, extra distance or time is added to the contestant's total running distance/time. For each shooting round, the biathlete must hit five targets; the skier receives a penalty for each missed target, which varies according to the competition rules. Ski orienteering is a form of cross-country skiing competition that requires navigation in a landscape, making optimal route choices at racing speeds. Standard orienteering maps are used, but with special green overprinting of trails and tracks to indicate their navigability in snow; other symbols indicate whether any roads are snow-covered or clear. Standard skate-skiing equipment is used, along with a map holder attached to the chest. It is one of the four orienteering disciplines recognized by the International Orienteering Federation. Upper body strength is especially important because of frequent double poling along narrow snow trails. Paralympic cross-country ski competition is an adaptation of cross-country skiing for athletes with disabilities. Paralympic cross-country skiing includes standing events, sitting events (for wheelchair users), and events for visually impaired athletes under the rules of the International Paralympic Committee. These are divided into several categories for people who are missing limbs, have amputations, are blind, or have any other physical disability, to continue their sport. Techniques Skiers employing step turns, while descending during a 2006 FIS World Cup Cross Country competition in Otepää, Estonia.\|thumb\|right thumb\|Video of skiers demonstrating a variety of techniques. Cross-country skiing has two basic propulsion techniques, which apply to different surfaces: classic (undisturbed snow and tracked snow) and skate skiing (firm, smooth snow surfaces). The classic technique relies on a wax or texture on the ski bottom under the foot for traction on the snow to allow the skier to slide the other ski forward in virgin or tracked snow. With the skate skiing technique a skier slides on alternating skis on a firm snow surface at an angle from each other in a manner similar to ice skating. Both techniques employ poles with baskets that allow the arms to participate in the propulsion. Specialized equipment is adapted to each technique and each type of terrain. A variety of turns are used, when descending. On uphill terrain, techniques include the "side step" for steep slopes, moving the skis perpendicular to the fall line, the "herringbone" for moderate slopes, where the skier takes alternating steps with the skis splayed outwards, and, for gentle slopes, the skier uses the diagonal technique with shorter strides and greater arm force on the poles. A variant of the technique is the "marathon skate" or "Siitonen step", where the skier leaves one ski in the track while skating outwards to the side with the other ski. Turns Turns, used while descending or for braking, include the snowplough (or "wedge turn"), the stem christie (or "wedge christie"), Equipment thumb\|Pre-1940 ski gear in Oslo: bamboo poles, wooden skis, and cable bindings. Equipment comprises skis, poles, boots and bindings; these vary according to: Technique, classic vs skate Terrain, which may vary from groomed trails to wilderness Performance level, from recreational use to competition at the elite level Glide wax may be used on the tails and tips of classic skis and across the length of skate skis. Types Each type of ski is sized and designed differently. Length affects maneuverability; camber affects pressure on the snow beneath the feet of the skier; side-cut affects the ease of turning; width affects forward friction; overall area on the snow affects bearing capacity; and tip geometry affects the ability to penetrate new snow or to stay in a track. Each of the following ski types has a different combination of these attributes: Classic skis: Designed for skiing in tracks. For adult skiers (between 155 cm/50 kg and 185 cm/75 kg), recommended lengths are between 180 and 210 centimetres (approximately 115% of the skier's height). Traction comes from a "grip zone" underfoot that when bearing the skier's weight engages either a textured gripping surface or a grip wax. Accordingly, these skis are classified as "waxable" or "waxless". Recreational waxless skis generally require little attention and are adapted for casual use. Waxable skis, if prepared correctly, provide better grip and glide. When the skier's weight is distributed on both skis, the ski's camber diminishes the pressure of the grip zone on the snow and promotes bearing on the remaining area of the ski—the "glide zone". A test for stiffness of camber is made with a piece of paper under the skier's foot, standing on skis on a flat, hard surface—the paper should be pinned throughout the grip zone of the ski on which all the skier's weight is placed, but slide freely when the skier's weight is bearing equally on both skis. Gliding surface Glide waxes enhance the speed of the gliding surface. The wax is either melted on the base using an iron or applied in a liquid form. The excess wax is first scraped off and then finished by brushing. Most glide waxes are based on paraffin that is combined with additive materials. The paraffin hardness and additives are varied based on snow type, humidity and temperature. Since the 2021-2022 race season, fluorinated products are banned in FIS sanctioned competitions. Before the ban, most race waxes combined fluorinated hydrocarbon waxes with fluorocarbon overlays. Fluorocarbons decrease surface tension and surface area of the water between the ski and the snow, increasing speed and glide of the ski under specific conditions. Either combined with the wax or applied after in a spray, powder, or block form, fluorocarbons significantly improve the glide of the ski. Traction surface Skis designed for classic technique, both in track and in virgin snow, rely on a traction zone, called the "grip zone" or "kick zone", underfoot. This comes either from a) texture, such as "fish scales" or mohair skins, designed to slide forward but not backwards, that is built into the grip zone of waxless skis, or from applied devices, e.g. climbing skins, or b) from grip waxes. Grip waxes are classified according to their hardness: harder waxes are for colder and newer snow. An incorrect choice of grip wax for the snow conditions encountered may cause ski slippage (wax too hard for the conditions) or snow sticking to the grip zone (wax too soft for the conditions). Standardized system: Boots and bindings have an integrated connection, typically a bar across the front end of the sole of the boot, and platform on which the boot rests. Two families of standards prevail: NNN (New Nordic Norm) and SNS (Salomon Nordic System) Profil. Both systems have variants for skiing on groomed surfaces and in back country. These systems are the most common type of binding. Three-pin: The boot-gripping system comprises three pins that correspond to three holes in the sole of the boot's toe, used primarily for back-country skiing. Cable: A cable secures the free-moving heel and keeps the toe of the boot pushed into a boot-gripping section, used primarily for back-country and telemark skiing. Poles Ski poles are used for balance and propulsion. Modern cross-country ski poles are made from aluminium, fibreglass-reinforced plastic, or carbon fibre, depending on weight, cost and performance parameters. Formerly they were made of wood or bamboo. They feature a foot (called a basket) near the end of the shaft that provides a pushing platform, as it makes contact with the snow. Baskets vary in size, according to the expected softness/firmness of the snow. Racing poles feature smaller, lighter baskets than recreational poles. Poles designed for skating are longer than those designed for classic skiing. Traditional skiing in the 1800s used a single pole for both cross-country and downhill. The single pole was longer and stronger than the poles that are used in pairs. In competitive cross-country poles in pairs were introduced around 1900. Gallery Image:Skigudinne.jpg\|An early depiction of a skier—a Sami woman or goddess hunting on skis by Olaus Magnus (1553). File:Birkebeinerne ski01.jpg\|Loyal retainers transporting Prince Haakon IV of Norway to safety on skis during the winter of 1206—1869 depiction by Knud Bergslien. File:138. Kronprins Olav - no-nb digifoto 20150710 00006 bldsa pk kgl0061.jpg\|Olav V of Norway as crown-prince in 1939 Image:olympic skier in ice storm.jpg\|A skate-skier in Gatineau Park, Quebec, a North American groomed-trail ski venue. File:AchenseeWinter01.JPG\|A recreational cross-country trail, groomed for classic skiing only, in Tyrol. File:Blind skier and guide.jpg\|A blind cross-country skier with guide at a regional Ski for Light event. File:Skijor worlds.jpg\|Dog skijoring—dogs provide added propulsion to the cross-country skier. References External links Tutorial on classic style. Tutorial on skate skiing. Tutorial on the snowplough or wedge turn. Tutorial on the stem or wedge christie turn. Tutorial on the Telemark turn. Tutorial on the step turn. Category:Nordic skiing	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-country_skiing	2025-04-05T18:27:56.170447
6724	Copacabana, Rio de Janeiro	Copacabana}} \|subdivision_type = Country \|subdivision_name = \|subdivision_type1 = State \|subdivision_type2 = Municipality/City \|subdivision_type3 = Zone \|subdivision_type4 \|subdivision_name1 Rio de Janeiro (RJ) \|subdivision_name2 = Rio de Janeiro \|subdivision_name3 = South Zone \|subdivision_name4 \|established_title \|established_date \|leader_title \|leader_name \|area_total_km2 \|elevation_footnotes \|elevation_m \|elevation_ft \|population_total \|population_as_of \|population_footnotes \|population_density_km2 \|website \|footnotes \|timezone \|utc_offset = }} ]] wave pattern at Copacabana beach]] ]] ]] Copacabana ( , , ) is a Brazilian (neighbourhood) located in the South Zone of the city of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It is most prominently known for its 4 km (2.5 miles) balneario beach, which is one of the most famous in the world. History The district was originally called (translated from the Tupi language, it means "the way of the ", the being a kind of bird) until the mid-18th century. It was renamed after the construction of a chapel holding a replica of the Virgen de Copacabana, the patron saint of Bolivia. Characteristics Copacabana begins at Princesa Isabel Avenue and ends at Posto Seis (lifeguard watchtower Six). Beyond Copacabana, there are two small beaches: one, inside Fort Copacabana and the other, right after it: Diabo ("Devil") Beach. Arpoador beach, where surfers go after its perfect waves, comes next, followed by the famous borough of Ipanema. The area served as one of the four "Olympic Zones" during the 2016 Summer Olympics. According to Riotur, the Tourism Secretariat of Rio de Janeiro, there are 63 hotels and 10 hostels in Copacabana. Copacabana Beach Copacabana beach, located at the Atlantic shore, stretches from Posto Dois (lifeguard watchtower Two) to Posto Seis (lifeguard watchtower Six). Leme is at Posto Um (lifeguard watchtower One). There are historic forts at both ends of Copacabana beach; Fort Copacabana, built in 1914, is at the south end by Posto Seis and Fort Duque de Caxias, built in 1779, at the north end. Many hotels, restaurants, bars, nightclubs and residential buildings are located in the area. On Sundays and holidays, one side of Avenida Atlântica is closed to cars, giving residents and tourists more space for activities along the beach. Copacabana Beach plays host to millions of revellers during the annual New Year's Eve celebrations, and for the first three editions of the tournament, has been the official venue of the FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup. Copacabana promenade The Copacabana promenade is a pavement landscape in large scale (4 kilometres long). It was rebuilt in 1970 and has used a black and white Portuguese pavement design since its origin in the 1930s: a geometric wave. The Copacabana promenade was designed by Roberto Burle Marx. Living standard Copacabana has the 12th highest Human Development Index in Rio; the 2000 census put the HDI of Copacabana at 0.902. Neighbourhood According to the IBGE, 160,000 people live in Copacabana and 44,000 or 27.5% of them are 60 years old or older. Copacabana covers an area of 5.220 km which gives the borough a population density of 20,400 people per km. Residential buildings eleven to thirteen stories high built next to each other dominate the borough. Houses and two-story buildings are rare. When Rio was the capital of Brazil, Copacabana was considered one of the best neighborhoods in the country. Transportation More than 40 different bus routes serve Copacabana, as do three subway Metro stations: Cantagalo, Siqueira Campos and Cardeal Arcoverde. Three major arteries parallel to each other cut across the entire borough: Avenida Atlântica (Atlantic Avenue), which is a 6-lane, 4 km avenue by the beachside, Nossa Senhora de Copacabana Avenue and Barata Ribeiro/Raul Pompéia Street both of which are 4 lanes and 3.5 km in length. Barata Ribeiro Street changes its name to Raul Pompéia Street after the Sá Freire Alvim Tunnel. Twenty-four streets intersect all three major arteries, and seven other streets intersect some of the three. Notable events * On 26 April 1949, broke in two as she was being towed into Rio de Janeiro harbour. Much of her cargo of oranges was washed up upon the beach. * On December 31, 1994, the New Year's Eve celebrations featured a Rod Stewart concert with an attendance of 4.5 million, making it the largest concert crowd ever. More recently, the beach has been a site for huge free concerts unrelated to the year-end festivities. On March 21, 2005, Lenny Kravitz performed there in front of 300,000 people, on a Monday night as part of his Electric Church Tour. On February 18, 2006, a Saturday, The Rolling Stones brought their A Bigger Bang Tour, surpassing that mark by far and attracting over 1.5 million people to the beach. * On July 7, 2007, the beach hosted the Brazilian leg of the Live Earth concerts, which attracted 400,000 people. As the headliner, Lenny Kravitz got to play the venue a second time, with Jorge Benjor, Macy Gray, O Rappa and Pharrell as the main opening acts. * On October 2, 2009, 100,000 people filled the beach for a huge party waiting for the IOC announcement of the host city of the 2016 Summer Olympics. . 11 of the 15 FIFA Beach Soccer World Cups have taken place here. * On July 28, 2013, the beach hosted the final event of the World Youth Day 2013. About 3 million people including 3 presidents joined Pope Francis when he celebrated the holy mass. * From May to July, 2014, the United Buddy Bears exhibit was held on the Copacabana promenade and attracted more than 1,000,000 people. The presentation consisted of more than 140 bear sculptures, each two metres high and designed by a different artist. * In August 2016, Copacabana Beach was the site of beach volleyball in the 2016 Summer Olympics. * On May 4, 2024, Madonna performed the final show of the Celebration Tour as a free event to audience of more than 1,600,000 attendees, the largest live crowd of her career. * On May 3, 2025, Lady Gaga will perform a special concert as a free event to launch "Todo Mundo no Rio" as a new initiative highlighting the economic benefits of entertainment in Rio de Janeiro. New Year's Eve in Copacabana The fireworks display in Rio de Janeiro to celebrate New Year's Eve is one of the largest in the world, lasting 15 to 20 minutes. It is estimated that 2 million people go to Copacabana Beach to see the spectacle. The festival also includes a concert that extends throughout the night. The celebration has become one of the biggest tourist attractions of Rio de Janeiro, attracting visitors from all over Brazil as well as from different parts of the world, and the city hotels generally stay fully booked. The celebration is broadcast live on major Brazilian radio and television networks, including TV Globo. History New Year's Eve has been celebrated on Copacabana beach since the 1950s when cults of African origin such as Candomblé and Umbanda gathered in small groups dressed in white for ritual celebrations. The first fireworks display occurred in 1976, sponsored by a hotel on the waterfront and this has been repeated ever since. In the 1990s the city saw it as a great opportunity to promote the city and organized and expanded the event. An assessment made during the New Year's Eve 1992 highlighted the risks associated with increasing crowd numbers on Copacabana beach after the fireworks display. Since the 1993-94 event concerts have been held on the beach to retain the public. The result was a success with egress spaced out over a period of 2 hours without the previous turmoil, although critics claimed that it denied the spirit of the New Year's tradition of a religious festival with fireworks by the sea. The following year Rod Stewart beat attendance records. Finally, the Tribute to Tom Jobim - with Gal Costa, Gilberto Gil, Caetano Veloso, Chico Buarque, and Paulinho da Viola - consolidated the shows at the Copacabana Réveillon. There was a need to transform the fireworks display in a show of the same quality. The fireworks display was created by entrepreneurs Ricardo Amaral and Marius. From the previous 8–10 minutes the time was extended to 20 minutes and the quality and diversity of the fireworks was improved. A technical problem in fireworks 2000 required the use of ferries from New Year's Eve 2001–02. New Year's Eve has begun to compete with the Carnival, and since 1992 it has been a tourist attraction in its own right. There was no celebration in 2020–21 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, but the fireworks show went on. References Category:Beaches of Rio de Janeiro (city) Category:Neighbourhoods in Rio de Janeiro (city) Category:Venues of the 2016 Summer Olympics Category:Olympic Parks Category:Tourist attractions in Rio de Janeiro (city)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copacabana,_Rio_de_Janeiro	2025-04-05T18:27:56.188489
6725	Cy Young Award	The Cy Young Award is given annually to the best pitchers in Major League Baseball (MLB), one each for the American League (AL) and National League (NL). The award was introduced in 1956 by Baseball Commissioner Ford C. Frick in honor of Hall of Fame pitcher Cy Young, who died in 1955. The award was originally given to the single best pitcher in the major leagues, but in 1967, after the retirement of Frick, the award was given to one pitcher in each league. Each league's award is voted on by members of the Baseball Writers' Association of America (BBWAA). Local BBWAA chapter chairmen in each MLB city recommend two writers to vote for each award. Final approval comes from the BBWAA national secretrary-treasurer. Writers vote for either the American League or National League awards, depending on the league in which their local team plays. A total of 30 writers vote for each league's awards. Writers cast their votes prior to the start of postseason play. As of the 2010 season, each voter places a vote for first, second, third, fourth, and fifth place among the pitchers of each league. The formula used to calculate the final scores is a weighted sum of the votes. The pitcher with the highest score in each league wins the award. From 1970 to 2009, writers voted for three pitchers, with the formula of five points for a first-place vote, three for a second-place vote and one for a third-place vote. Before 1970, writers only voted for the best pitcher and used a formula of one point per vote. In 1974, Mike Marshall became the first relief pitcher to win the award. to win the award, and since then only one other relief pitcher has won the award, Éric Gagné in 2003 (also a closer). A total of nine relief pitchers have won the Cy Young Award across both leagues. Steve Carlton in 1982 became the first pitcher to win more than three Cy Young Awards, while Greg Maddux in 1994 became the first to win at least three in a row (and received a fourth straight the following year), a feat later repeated by Randy Johnson. Winners {\| class="wikitable" \|+Key \|Year \|Each year is linked to an article about that Major League Baseball season. \|- \|ERA \|Earned run average \|- ! (#) \| Number of wins by pitchers who have won the award multiple times \|- \|* \|Also named Most Valuable Player (11 occurrences as of 2023) \|- \|** \|Also named Rookie of the Year (1 occurrence as of 2023, by Fernando Valenzuela) \|- ! scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\| \|Member of the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum (21 individuals as of 2023) \|} Major Leagues combined (1956–1966) {\|class"wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style"text-align:center" \|- !scope="col" \|Year !scope="col" \|Pitcher !scope="col" \|Team !Record\|\|Saves\|\|ERA\|\|K's \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\|* \|Brooklyn Dodgers (NL) \|27–7 \|0 \|3.06 \|139 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} \|Milwaukee Braves (NL) \|21–11 \|3 \|2.69 \|111 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|New York Yankees (AL) \|21–7 \|1 \|2.97 \|168 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} \|Chicago White Sox (AL) \|22–10 \|0 \|3.17 \|179 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Pittsburgh Pirates (NL) \|20–9 \|0 \|3.08 \|120 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} \|New York Yankees (AL) \|25–4 \|0 \|3.21 \|209 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} \|Los Angeles Dodgers (NL) \|25–9 \|1 \|2.84 \|232 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} \|Los Angeles Dodgers (NL) \|25–5 \|0 \|1.88 \|306 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|\|Los Angeles Angels (AL) \|20–9 \|4 \|1.65 \|207 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} <small>(2)</small> \|Los Angeles Dodgers (NL) \|26–8 \|2 \|2.04 \|382 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} <small>(3)</small> \|Los Angeles Dodgers (NL) \|27–9 \|0 \|1.73 \|317 \|} American League (1967–present) {\|class"wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style"text-align:center" \|- !scope="col" \|Year !scope="col" \|Pitcher !scope="col" \|Team !data-sort-type="number"\|Record\|\|Saves\|\|ERA\|\|K's \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Boston Red Sox \|22–9 \|0 \|3.16 \|246 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Detroit Tigers \|31–6 \|0 \|1.96 \|280 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Baltimore Orioles \|23–11 \|0 \|2.38 \|182 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| <small>(2)</small> \|Detroit Tigers \|24–9 \|0 \|2.80 \|181 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Minnesota Twins \|24–12 \|0 \|3.04 \|168 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\|* \|Oakland Athletics \|24–8 \|0 \|1.82 \|301 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} \|Cleveland Indians \|24–16 \|1 \|1.92 \|234 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} \|Baltimore Orioles \|22–9 \|1 \|2.40 \|168 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} \|Oakland Athletics \|25–12 \|0 \|2.49 \|143 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} <small>(2)</small> \|Baltimore Orioles \|23–11 \|1 \|2.09 \|193 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} <small>(3)</small> \|Baltimore Orioles \|22–13 \|0 \|2.51 \|159 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|New York Yankees \|13–5 \|26 \|2.17 \|68 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|New York Yankees \|25–3 \|0 \|1.74 \|248 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Baltimore Orioles \|23–9 \|0 \|3.08 \|190 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Baltimore Orioles \|25–7 \|0 \|3.23 \|149 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} \|Milwaukee Brewers \|6–3 \|28 \|1.04 \|61 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Milwaukee Brewers \|18–6 \|0 \|3.34 \|105 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Chicago White Sox \|24–10 \|0 \|3.66 \|148 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Detroit Tigers \|9–3 \|32 \|1.92 \|112 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Kansas City Royals \|20–6 \|0 \|2.87 \|158 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\|* \|Boston Red Sox \|24–4 \|0 \|2.48 \|238 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| <small>(2)</small> \|Boston Red Sox \|20–9 \|0 \|2.97 \|256 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Minnesota Twins \|24–7 \|0 \|2.64 \|193 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| <small>(2)</small> \|Kansas City Royals \|23–6 \|0 \|2.16 \|193 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Oakland Athletics \|27–6 \|0 \|2.95 \|127 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| <small>(3)</small> \|Boston Red Sox \|18–10 \|0 \|2.62 \|241 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} \|Oakland Athletics \|7–1 \|51 \|1.91 \|93 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Chicago White Sox \|22–10 \|0 \|3.37 \|158 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Kansas City Royals \|16–5 \|0 \|2.94 \|132 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} \|Seattle Mariners \|18–2 \|0 \|2.48 \|294 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Toronto Blue Jays \|20–10 \|0 \|3.22 \|177 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| <small>(4)</small> \|Toronto Blue Jays \|21–7 \|0 \|2.05 \|292 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| <small>(5)</small> \|Toronto Blue Jays \|20–6 \|0 \|2.65 \|271 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} <small>(2)</small> \|Boston Red Sox \|23–4 \|0 \|2.07 \|313 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} <small>(3)</small> \|Boston Red Sox \|18–6 \|0 \|1.74 \|284 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| <small>(6)</small> \|New York Yankees \|20–3 \|0 \|3.51 \|213 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Oakland Athletics \|23–5 \|0 \|2.75 \|182 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} \|Toronto Blue Jays \|22–7 \|0 \|3.25 \|204 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Minnesota Twins \|20–6 \|0 \|2.61 \|265 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim \|21–8 \|0 \|3.48 \|157 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| <small>(2)</small> \|Minnesota Twins \|19–6 \|0 \|2.77 \|265 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} \|Cleveland Indians \|19–7 \|0 \|3.21 \|209 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Cleveland Indians \|22–3 \|0 \|2.54 \|170 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Kansas City Royals \|16–8 \|0 \|2.16 \|242 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Seattle Mariners \|13–12 \|0 \|2.27 \|232 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Detroit Tigers \|24–5 \|0 \|2.40 \|250 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Tampa Bay Rays \|20–5 \|0 \|2.56 \|205 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Detroit Tigers \|21–3 \|0 \|2.90 \|240 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Cleveland Indians \|18–9 \|0 \|2.44 \|269 \|-Rick Porcello \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Houston Astros \|20–8 \|0 \|2.48 \|216 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Boston Red Sox \|22–4 \|0 \|3.15 \|189 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| <small>(2)</small> \|Cleveland Indians \|18–4 \|0 \|2.25 \|265 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Tampa Bay Rays \|21–5 \|0 \|1.89 \|221 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| <small>(2)</small> \|Houston Astros \|21–6 \|0 \|2.58 \|300 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Cleveland Indians \|8–1 \|0 \|1.63 \|122 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Toronto Blue Jays \|13–7 \|0 \|2.84 \|248 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| <small>(3)</small> \|Houston Astros \|18–4 \|0 \|1.75 \|185 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|New York Yankees \|15–4 \|0 \|2.63 \|222 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Detroit Tigers \|18–4 \|0 \|2.39 \|228 \|} National League (1967–present) {\|class"wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style"text-align:center" \|- !scope="col" \|Year !scope="col" \|Pitcher !scope="col" \|Team !data-sort-type="number"\|Record\|\|Saves\|\|ERA\|\|K's \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|San Francisco Giants \|22–10 \|0 \|2.85 \|150 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} \|St. Louis Cardinals \|22–9 \|0 \|1.12 \|268 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} \|New York Mets \|25–7 \|0 \|2.21 \|208 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} <small>(2)</small> \|St. Louis Cardinals \|23–7 \|0 \|3.12 \|274 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} \|Chicago Cubs \|24–13 \|0 \|2.77 \|263 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} \|Philadelphia Phillies \|27–10 \|0 \|1.98 \|310 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} <small>(2)</small> \|New York Mets \|19–10 \|0 \|2.08 \|251 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Los Angeles Dodgers \|15–12 \|21 \|2.42 \|143 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} <small>(3)</small> \|New York Mets \|22–9 \|0 \|2.38 \|243 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|San Diego Padres \|22–14 \|0 \|2.74 \|93 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} <small>(2)</small> \|Philadelphia Phillies \|23–10 \|0 \|2.64 \|198 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} <small>(2)</small> \|San Diego Padres \|21–6 \|0 \|2.73 \|154 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} \|Chicago Cubs \|6–6 \|37 \|2.22 \|110 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} <small>(3)</small> \|Philadelphia Phillies \|24–9 \|0 \|2.34 \|286 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\|* \|Los Angeles Dodgers \|13–7 \|0 \|2.48 \|180 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} <small>(4)</small> \|Philadelphia Phillies \|23–11 \|0 \|3.11 \|286 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Philadelphia Phillies \|19–6 \|0 \|2.37 \|139 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Chicago Cubs \|16–1 \|0 \|2.69 \|155 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|New York Mets \|24–4 \|0 \|1.53 \|268 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Houston Astros \|18–10 \|0 \|2.22 \|306 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Philadelphia Phillies \|5–3 \|40 \|2.83 \|74 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Los Angeles Dodgers \|23–8 \|1 \|2.26 \|178 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|San Diego Padres \|4–3 \|44 \|1.85 \|92 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Pittsburgh Pirates \|22–6 \|0 \|2.76 \|131 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} \|Atlanta Braves \|20–11 \|0 \|2.55 \|192 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} \|Chicago Cubs \|20–11 \|0 \|2.18 \|199 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} <small>(2)</small> \|Atlanta Braves \|20–10 \|0 \|2.36 \|197 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} <small>(3)</small> \|Atlanta Braves \|16–6 \|0 \|1.56 \|156 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} <small>(4)</small> \|Atlanta Braves \|19–2 \|0 \|1.63 \|181 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} \|Atlanta Braves \|24–8 \|0 \|2.94 \|276 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} \|Montreal Expos \|17–8 \|0 \|1.90 \|305 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} <small>(2)</small> \|Atlanta Braves \|20–6 \|0 \|2.47 \|157 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} <small>(2)</small> \|Arizona Diamondbacks \|17–9 \|0 \|2.49 \|364 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} <small>(3)</small> \|Arizona Diamondbacks \|19–7 \|0 \|2.64 \|347 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} <small>(4)</small> \|Arizona Diamondbacks \|21–6 \|0 \|2.49 \|372 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} <small>(5)</small> \|Arizona Diamondbacks \|24–5 \|0 \|2.32 \|334 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Los Angeles Dodgers \|2–3 \|55 \|1.20 \|137 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| <small>(7)</small> \|Houston Astros \|18–4 \|0 \|2.98 \|218 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|St. Louis Cardinals \|21–5 \|0 \|2.83 \|213 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Arizona Diamondbacks \|16–8 \|0 \|3.10 \|178 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|San Diego Padres \|19–6 \|0 \|2.54 \|240 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|San Francisco Giants \|18–5 \|0 \|2.62 \|265 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| <small>(2)</small> \|San Francisco Giants \|15–7 \|0 \|2.48 \|261 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\|}} <small>(2)</small> \|Philadelphia Phillies \|21–10 \|0 \|2.44 \|219 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Los Angeles Dodgers \|21–5 \|0 \|2.28 \|248 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|New York Mets \|20–6 \|0 \|2.73 \|230 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| <small>(2)</small> \|Los Angeles Dodgers \|16–9 \|0 \|1.83 \|232 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\|* <small>(3)</small> \|Los Angeles Dodgers \|21–3 \|0 \|1.77 \|239 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Chicago Cubs \|22–6 \|0 \|1.77 \|236 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| <small>(2)</small> \|Washington Nationals \|20–7 \|0 \|2.96 \|284 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| <small>(3)</small> \|Washington Nationals \|16–6 \|0 \|2.51 \|268 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|New York Mets \|10–9 \|0 \|1.70 \|269 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| <small>(2)</small> \|New York Mets \|11–8 \|0 \|2.43 \|255 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Cincinnati Reds \|5–4 \|0 \|1.73 \|100 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Milwaukee Brewers \|11–5 \|0 \|2.43 \|234 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|Miami Marlins \|14–9 \|0 \|2.28 \|207 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\|Blake Snell <small>(2)</small> \|San Diego Padres \|14–9 \|0 \|2.25 \|234 \|- \| !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\|Chris Sale \|Atlanta Braves \|18–3 \|0 \|2.38 \|225 \|} Multiple winners Twenty-two (22) pitchers have won the award multiple times. Roger Clemens currently holds the record for the most awards won, with seven – his first and last wins separated by eighteen years. Greg Maddux (1992–1995) and Randy Johnson (1999–2002) share the record for the most consecutive awards won with four. Clemens, Johnson, Pedro Martínez, Gaylord Perry, Roy Halladay, Max Scherzer, and Blake Snell are the only pitchers to have won the award in both the American League and National League; Sandy Koufax is the only pitcher who won multiple awards during the period when only one award was presented for all of Major League Baseball. Roger Clemens was the youngest pitcher to win a second Cy Young Award, while Tim Lincecum is the youngest pitcher to do so in the National League, and Clayton Kershaw is the youngest left-hander to do so. Clayton Kershaw is the youngest pitcher to win a third Cy Young Award. Clemens is also the only pitcher to win the Cy Young Award with four different teams; nobody else has done so with more than two different teams. Justin Verlander has the most seasons separating his first (2011) and second (2019) Cy Young Awards. {\| class"wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style"text-align:center" \|- ! Pitcher ! # of Awards ! Years \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|7 \| 1986, 1987, 1991, 1997, 1998, 2001, 2004 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\| }} \|5 \| 1995, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\| }} \|rowspan2 style"text-align:center;" \|4 \| 1972, 1977, 1980, 1982 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\| }} \| 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\| }} \|rowspan7 style"text-align:center;" \|3 \| 1963, 1965, 1966 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\| }} \| 1969, 1973, 1975 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\| }} \| 1973, 1975, 1976 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\| }} \| 1997, 1999, 2000 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \| 2011, 2013, 2014 \|- ! scope"row" style"text-align:center" \| \| 2013, 2016, 2017 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \| 2011, 2019, 2022 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|rowspan11 style"text-align:center;" \|2 \| 1968, 1969 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\| }} \| 1968, 1970 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\| }} \| 1972, 1978 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \| 1985, 1989 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\| }} \| 1991, 1998 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \| 2004, 2006 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \| 2008, 2009 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center; background:#ffb;"\| }} \| 2003, 2010 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \| 2014, 2017 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \| 2018, 2019 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| \|2018, 2023 \|} Wins by teams Only two teams have never had a pitcher win the Cy Young Award. The Brooklyn/Los Angeles Dodgers have won more than any other team with 12. {\| class"wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style"text-align:center" \|- !scope="col\| Team !scope="col\| # of Awards !scope="col\| Years \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| Brooklyn/Los Angeles Dodgers \|12 \| 1956, 1962, 1963, 1965, 1966, 1974, 1981, 1988, 2003, 2011, 2013, 2014 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| Milwaukee/Atlanta Braves \|8 \| 1957, 1991, 1993–1996, 1998, 2024 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| Philadelphia Phillies \| rowspan="3" \|7 \| 1972, 1977, 1980, 1982, 1983, 1987, 2010 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| Boston Red Sox \| 1967, 1986, 1987, 1991, 1999, 2000, 2016 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| New York Mets \| 1969, 1973, 1975, 1985, 2012, 2018, 2019 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| Baltimore Orioles \|rowspan=4\|6 \| 1969, 1973, 1975, 1976, 1979, 1980 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| Cleveland Indians \| 1972, 2007, 2008, 2014, 2017, 2020 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| Detroit Tigers \| 1968, 1969, 1984, 2011, 2013, 2024 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| New York Yankees \| 1958, 1961, 1977, 1978, 2001, 2023 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| Arizona Diamondbacks \|rowspan=6\|5 \| 1999–2002, 2006 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| Oakland Athletics \| 1971, 1974, 1990, 1992, 2002 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| Chicago Cubs \| 1971, 1979, 1984, 1992, 2015 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| Toronto Blue Jays \| 1996–1998, 2003, 2021 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| Houston Astros \| 1986, 2004, 2015, 2019, 2022 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| San Diego Padres \| 1976, 1978, 1989, 2007, 2023 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| Kansas City Royals \|rowspan=2\|4 \| 1985, 1989, 1994, 2009 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| Minnesota Twins \| 1970, 1988, 2004, 2006 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| Chicago White Sox \|rowspan=5\|3 \| 1959, 1983, 1993 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| San Francisco Giants \| 1967, 2008, 2009 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| St. Louis Cardinals \| 1968, 1970, 2005 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| Montreal Expos/Washington Nationals \| 1997, 2016, 2017 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| Milwaukee Brewers \| 1981, 1982, 2021 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| Los Angeles Angels \|rowspan=4\|2 \| 1964, 2005 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| Pittsburgh Pirates \| 1960, 1990 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| Seattle Mariners \| 1995, 2010 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| Tampa Bay Rays \| 2012, 2018 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| Cincinnati Reds \|rowspan=2\|1 \| 2020 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| Miami Marlins \| 2022 \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| Colorado Rockies \|rowspan=3\|0 \| none \|- !scope"row" style"text-align:center"\| Texas Rangers \| none \|} Unanimous winners There have been 21 players who unanimously won the Cy Young Award, for a total of 28 wins. Six of these unanimous wins were accompanied by a win of the Most Valuable Player award (marked with * below; ** denotes that the player's unanimous win was accompanied by a unanimous win of the MVP Award). In the National League, 12 players have unanimously won the Cy Young Award, for a total of 15 wins. Sandy Koufax (1963, 1965, 1966) Greg Maddux (1994, 1995) Bob Gibson (1968) Steve Carlton (1972) Rick Sutcliffe (1984) Dwight Gooden (1985) Orel Hershiser (1988) Randy Johnson (2002) Jake Peavy (2007) Roy Halladay (2010) Clayton Kershaw (2014) Sandy Alcántara (2022) In the American League, nine players have unanimously won the Cy Young Award, for a total of 13 wins. Denny McLain (1968*) Ron Guidry (1978) Roger Clemens (1986, 1998) Pedro Martínez (1999, 2000) Johan Santana (2004, 2006) Justin Verlander (2011, 2022) Shane Bieber (2020) Gerrit Cole (2023) Tarik Skubal (2024) See also Triple Crown (pitching) Pitcher of the Month Major League Baseball Reliever of the Year Award ** also known as the Mariano Rivera AL Reliever of the Year Award and Trevor Hoffman NL Reliever of the Year Award "Esurance MLB Awards" Best Pitcher (in MLB) Baseball Digest Pitcher of the Year (in MLB) "Players Choice Awards" Outstanding Pitcher (in each league) Sporting News Starting Pitcher (in each league) Baseball Prospectus Internet Baseball Awards Pitcher of the Year (in each league) NLBM Wilbur "Bullet" Rogan Legacy Award ("Pitchers of the Year") (in each league) Sporting News Relief Pitcher of the Year (in each league) NLBM Hilton Smith Legacy Award ("Relievers of the Year") (in each league) TSN Reliever of the Year (in each league) (discontinued) Rolaids Relief Man Award (in each league) (discontinued) Warren Spahn Award (best left-handed pitcher) Major League Baseball All-Century Team Major League Baseball All-Time Team "Pitching Wall of Great Achievement" (in the Ted Williams Museum and Hitters Hall of Fame) Eiji Sawamura Award (top starting pitcher in NPB) Choi Dong-won Award (top starting pitcher in KBO) Baseball awards Notes The formula is: <code>Score 7F + 4S + 3T + 2FO + FI</code>, where F is the number of first-place votes, S is second-place votes, T is third-place votes, FO is fourth-place votes and FI is fifth-place votes.<ref name"BASEALM" /> * See: Decision (baseball) * In baseball, a save is credited to a pitcher who finishes a game for the winning team under certain prescribed circumstances. It became an official statistic in Major League Baseball in 1969. References Specific General * * * * * Category:1956 establishments in the United States Category:Awards established in 1956 Category:Major League Baseball trophies and awards Category:Most valuable player awards	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cy_Young_Award	2025-04-05T18:27:56.298181
6728	Antisemitism in Christianity	Some Christian Churches, Christian groups, and ordinary Christians express antisemitism towards Jews and Judaism. These can be thought of as examples of antisemitism expressed by Christians or by Christian communities. However, the term Christian antisemitism has also been used to refer to anti-Jewish sentiments that arise out of Christian doctrinal or theological stances (by thinkers such as Jules Isaac, for example, especially in his book Jésus et Israël). The term is also used to suggest that to some degree, contempt for Jews and Judaism inhere to Christianity as a religion, itself and that centralized institutions of Christian power (such as the Catholic Church or the Church of England), as well as governments with strong Christian influence (such as the Catholic Monarchs of Spain) have generated societal structures that survive to this day which perpetuate antisemitism. This usage appears particularly in discussions of Christian structures of power within society, which are referred to as Christian hegemony or Christian privilege; these are part of larger discussions of structural inequality and power dynamics. Antisemitic Christian rhetoric and the resulting antipathy towards Jews date back to the early years of Christianity and resemble pagan anti-Jewish attitudes that were reinforced by the belief that Jews are responsible for the crucifixion of Jesus of Nazareth. Christians imposed ever-increasing anti-Jewish measures over the ensuing centuries, including acts of ostracism, humiliation, expropriation, violence, and murder—measures which culminated in the Holocaust. For two millennia, these attitudes were reinforced in Christian preaching, art, and popular teachings, as well as statutes designed to humiliate and stigmatise Jews. Modern antisemitism has primarily been described as hatred of Jews as a race and its most recent expression is rooted in 18th-century racial theories. Anti-Judaism is rooted in hostility towards Judaism the religion; in Western Christianity, anti-Judaism effectively merged with anti-Semitism during the 12th century. The Holocaust forced many Christians to reflect on the role(s) Christian theology and practice played and still play in anti-Judaism and antisemitism. Early differences between Christianity and Judaism The legal status of Christianity and Judaism differed within the Roman Empire: because the practice of Judaism was restricted to the Jewish people and Jewish proselytes, its followers were generally exempt from following the obligations that were imposed on followers of other religions by the Roman imperial cult. Since the reign of Julius Caesar, Judaism enjoyed the status of a "licit religion", but occasional persecutions still occurred, such as Tiberius' conscription and expulsion of Jews in 19 AD followed by Claudius' expulsion of Jews from Rome. Christianity however was not restricted to one people, and because Jewish Christians were excluded from the synagogue (see Council of Jamnia), they also lost the protected status that was granted to Judaism, even though that protection still had its limits (see Titus Flavius Clemens (consul), Rabbi Akiva, and Ten Martyrs). From the reign of Nero onwards, who is said by Tacitus to have blamed the Great Fire of Rome on Christians, the practice of Christianity was criminalized and Christians were frequently persecuted, but the persecution differed from region to region. Comparably, Judaism suffered setbacks due to the Jewish–Roman wars, and these setbacks are remembered in the legacy of the Ten Martyrs. Robin Lane Fox traces the origin of much of the later hostility to this early period of persecution, when the Roman authorities commonly tested the faith of suspected Christians by forcing them to pay homage to the deified emperor. Jews were exempt from this requirement as long as they paid the , and Christians (many or mostly of Jewish origin) would say that they were Jewish but refused to pay the tax. This had to be confirmed by the local Jewish authorities, who were likely to refuse to accept the Christians as fellow Jews, often leading to their execution. The was often brought forward as support for this charge that the Jews were responsible for the Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. In the 3rd century systematic persecution of Christians began and lasted until Constantine's conversion to Christianity. In 390 Theodosius I made Christianity the state church of the Roman Empire. While pagan cults and Manichaeism were suppressed, Judaism retained its legal status as a licit religion, though anti-Jewish violence still occurred. In the 5th century, some legal measures worsened the status of the Jews in the Roman Empire.Issues arising from the New Testament Jesus as the Messiah In Judaism, Jesus was not recognized as the Messiah, which Christians interpreted as his rejection, as a failed Jewish Messiah claimant and a false prophet. Since Jews traditionally believe that the messiah has not yet come and the Messianic Age is not yet present, the total rejection of Jesus as either the messiah or a deity has never been a central issue in Judaism. However, it is interesting to note that the first 'Christian' church in Jerusalem was almost exclusively Jewish in its congregational makeup, with this early Christian church (through the years 40–60 AD) being made up of approximately 1,000 Jews who had decided to believe in and worship Jesus.Criticism of the Pharisees Many New Testament passages criticise the Pharisees, a Jewish social movement and school of thought during the Second Temple period (516 BCE–70 CE), and it has been argued that these passages have shaped the way that Christians viewed Jews. Like most Bible passages, however, they can be and have been interpreted in a variety of ways. Mainstream Talmudic Rabbinical Judaism today directly descends from the Pharisaical tradition, which Jesus often criticized. During Jesus' life and at the time of his execution, the Pharisees were only one of several Jewish groups such as the Sadducees, Zealots, and Essenes who mostly died out not long after the period; Jewish scholars such as Harvey Falk and Hyam Maccoby have suggested that Jesus was himself a Pharisee. In the Sermon on the Mount, for example, Jesus says "The Pharisees sit in Moses' seat, therefore do what they say". Arguments by Jesus and his disciples against certain groups of Pharisees and what he saw as their hypocrisy were most likely examples of disputes among Jews and internal to Judaism that were common at the time (see for example Hillel and Shammai). Recent studies of anti-Semitism in the New Testament Professor Lillian C. Freudmann, author of Antisemitism in the New Testament (University Press of America, 1994) has published a detailed study of the description of Jews in the New Testament and the historical effects that such passages have had in the Christian community throughout history. Similar studies of such verses have been made by both Christian and Jewish scholars, including Professors Clark Williamsom (Christian Theological Seminary), Hyam Maccoby (The Leo Baeck Institute), Norman A. Beck (Texas Lutheran College), and Michael Berenbaum (Georgetown University). Most rabbis feel that these verses are anti-Semitic, and many Christian scholars, in America and Europe, have reached the same conclusion. Another example is John Dominic Crossan's 1995 book, titled Who Killed Jesus? Exposing the Roots of Anti-Semitism in the Gospel Story of the Death of Jesus. Some biblical scholars have also been accused of holding anti-Semitic beliefs. Bruce J. Malina, a founding member of The Context Group, has come under criticism for going as far as to deny the Semitic ancestry of modern Israelis. He then ties this back to his work on first-century cultural anthropology. Jewish deicide Jewish deicide is the belief that Jews to this day will always be collectively responsible for the killing of Jesus, also known as the blood curse. A justification of this charge is derived from the Gospel of Matthew (27:24–25), alleging a crowd of Jews told Pilate that they and their children would be responsible for Jesus' death. Most members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints accept the Jewish deicide, and several other Christian denominations have repudiated it.Church Fathers <!----> After Paul's death, Christianity emerged as a separate religion, and Pauline Christianity emerged as the dominant form of Christianity, especially after Paul, James and the other apostles agreed on a compromise set of requirements. Some Christians continued to adhere to aspects of Jewish law, but they were few and often considered heretics by the Church. One example is the Ebionites, who seemed to have denied the virgin birth of Jesus, the physical Resurrection of Jesus, and most of the books that were later canonized as the New Testament. For example, the Ethiopian Orthodox continue Old Testament practices such as the Sabbath. As late as the 4th century Church Father John Chrysostom complained that some Christians were still attending Jewish synagogues. The Church Fathers identified Jews and Judaism with heresy and declared the people of Israel to be ('outside of God'). Peter of Antioch Peter of Antioch referred to Christians that refused to venerate religious images as having "Jewish minds".Marcion of SinopeIn the early second century AD, the heretic Marcion of Sinope () declared that the Jewish God was a different God, inferior to the Christian one, and rejected the Jewish scriptures as the product of a lesser deity. having studied Hebrew, met Rabbi Hillel the Younger, consulted and debated with Jewish scholars, and been influenced by the allegorical interpretations of Philo of Alexandria. Augustine of Hippo Patristic bishops of the patristic era such as Augustine of Hippo argued that the Jews should be left alive and suffering as a perpetual reminder of their murder of Christ. Like his anti-Jewish teacher, Ambrose of Milan, he defined Jews as a special subset of those damned to hell. As "Witness People", he sanctified collective punishment for the Jewish deicide and enslavement of Jews to Catholics: "Not by bodily death, shall the ungodly race of carnal Jews perish[...] 'Scatter them abroad, take away their strength. And bring them down O Lord. Augustine claimed to "love" the Jews but as a means to convert them to Christianity. Sometimes he identified all Jews with the evil of Judas Iscariot and developed the doctrine (together with Cyprian) that there was "no salvation outside the Church". John Chrysostom John Chrysostom and other church fathers went further in their condemnation; the Catholic editor Paul Harkins wrote that St. John Chrysostom's anti-Jewish theology "is no longer tenable[...] For these objectively unchristian acts, he cannot be excused, even if he is the product of his times." John Chrysostom held, as most Church Fathers did, that the sins of all Jews were communal and endless; to Chrysostom, his Jewish neighbors were the collective representation of all alleged crimes of all preexisting Jews. All Church Fathers applied the passages of the New Testament concerning the alleged advocation of the crucifixion of Christ to all Jews of their day, holding that the Jews were the ultimate evil. However, Chrysostom went so far as to say that because Jews rejected the Christian God in human flesh, Christ, they therefore deserved to be killed: "grew fit for slaughter." In citing the New Testament, he claimed that Jesus was speaking about Jews when he said, "as for these enemies of mine who did not want me to reign over them, bring them here and slay them before me."Middle Ages depicting the expulsion of Jews from France in 1182]] Bernard of Clairvaux said "For us the Jews are Scripture's living words, because they remind us of what Our Lord suffered. They are not to be persecuted, killed, or even put to flight." According to Anna Sapir Abulafia, most scholars agree that Jews and Christians in Latin Christendom lived in relative peace with one another until the 13th century. Jews were subjected to a wide range of legal disabilities and restrictions in medieval Europe. Jews were excluded from many trades, the occupations varying with place and time, and determined by the influence of various non-Jewish competing interests. Often Jews were barred from all occupations but money-lending and peddling, with even these at times forbidden. Jews' association to money lending would carry on throughout history in the stereotype of Jews being greedy and perpetuating capitalism. In the later medieval period, the number of Jews who were permitted to reside in certain places was limited; they were concentrated in ghettos, and they were also not allowed to own land; they were forced to pay discriminatory taxes whenever they entered cities or districts other than their own. The Oath More Judaico, the form of oath required from Jewish witnesses, developed bizarre or humiliating forms in some places, e.g. in the Swabian law of the 13th century, the Jew would be required to stand on the hide of a sow or a bloody lamb. The Fourth Lateran Council which was held in 1215 was the first council to proclaim that Jews were required to wear something that distinguished them as Jews (the same requirement was also imposed on Muslims). On many occasions, Jews were accused of blood libels, the supposed drinking of the blood of Christian children in mockery of the Christian Eucharist. (the "Constitution for the Jews") was the official position of the papacy regarding Jews throughout the Middle Ages and later. The first papal bull was issued in about 1120 by Calixtus II, intended to protect Jews who suffered during the First Crusade, and was reaffirmed by many popes, even until the 15th century although they were not always strictly upheld. The bull forbade, besides other things, Christians from coercing Jews to convert, or to harm them, or to take their property, or to disturb the celebration of their festivals, or to interfere with their cemeteries, on pain of excommunication: [...] Without the judgment of the political authority of the land, no Christian shall presume to wound them or kill them or rob them of their money or change the good customs that they have thus far enjoyed in the place where they live.}} Popular anti-Semitism in Deggendorf, Bavaria, in 1337]] Anti-Semitism in popular European Christian culture escalated beginning in the 13th century. Blood libels and host desecration drew popular attention and led to many cases of persecution against Jews. Many believed Jews poisoned wells to cause plagues. In the case of blood libel, it was widely believed that the Jews would kill a child before Easter and needed Christian blood to bake matzo. Throughout history, if a Christian child was murdered accusations of blood libel would arise no matter how small the Jewish population. The Church often added to the fire by portraying the dead child as a martyr who had been tortured, and who had powers like Jesus was believed to. Sometimes the children were even made into saints. Anti-Semitic imagery such as Judensau and Ecclesia et Synagoga recurred in Christian art and architecture. Anti-Jewish Easter holiday customs such as the Burning of Judas continue to the present time. In Iceland, one of the hymns repeated in the days leading up to Easter includes the lines: Persecutions and expulsions in 1506]] in Europe from 1100 to 1600]] During the Middle Ages in Europe persecutions and formal expulsions of Jews were liable to occur at intervals, although this was also the case for other minority communities, regardless of whether they were religious or ethnic. There were particular outbursts of riotous persecution during the Rhineland massacres of 1096 in Germany accompanying the lead-up to the First Crusade, many involving the crusaders as they traveled to the East. There were many local expulsions from cities by local rulers and city councils. In Germany, the Holy Roman Emperor generally tried to restrain persecution, if only for economic reasons, but was often unable to exert much influence. In the Edict of Expulsion, King Edward I expelled all the Jews from England in 1290 (only after ransoming some 3,000 among the most wealthy of them), on the accusation of usury and undermining loyalty to the dynasty. In 1306 there was a wave of persecution in France, and there were widespread Black Death Jewish persecutions as the Jews were blamed by many Christians for the plague, or for spreading it. As late as 1519, the Imperial city of Regensburg took advantage of the recent death of Emperor Maximilian I to expel its 500 Jews. "Officially, the medieval Catholic church never advocated the expulsion of all the Jews from Christendom or repudiated Augustine's doctrine of Jewish witness... Still, late medieval Christendom frequently ignored its mandates". Expulsion of Jews from Spain The largest expulsion of Jews followed the Reconquista or the reunification of Spain, and it preceded the expulsion of the Muslims who would not convert, despite the protection of their religious rights promised by the Treaty of Granada (1491). On 31 March 1492 Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, the rulers of Spain who financed Christopher Columbus' voyage to the New World just a few months later in 1492, declared that all Jews in their territories should either convert to Christianity or leave the country. While some converted, many others left for Portugal, France, Italy (including the Papal States), Netherlands, Poland, the Ottoman Empire, and North Africa. Many of those who had fled to Portugal were later expelled by King Manuel in 1497 or left to avoid forced conversion and persecution. From the Renaissance to the 17th century Cum Nimis Absurdum On 14 July 1555, Pope Paul IV issued papal bull Cum nimis absurdum which revoked all the rights of the Jewish community and placed religious and economic restrictions on Jews in the Papal States, renewed anti-Jewish legislation and subjected Jews to various degradations and restrictions on their freedom. The bull established the Roman Ghetto and required Jews of Rome, which had existed as a community since before Christian times and which numbered about 2,000 at the time, to live in it. The Ghetto was a walled quarter with three gates that were locked at night. Jews were also restricted to one synagogue per city. Paul IV's successor, Pope Pius IV, enforced the creation of other ghettos in most Italian towns, and his successor, Pope Pius V, recommended them to other bordering states. Protestant Reformation '']] Martin Luther at first made overtures towards the Jews, believing that the "evils" of Catholicism had prevented their conversion to Christianity. When his call to convert to his version of Christianity was unsuccessful, he became hostile to them. In his book On the Jews and Their Lies, Luther excoriates them as "venomous beasts, vipers, disgusting scum, canders, devils incarnate." He provided detailed recommendations for a pogrom against them, calling for their permanent oppression and expulsion, writing "Their private houses must be destroyed and devastated, they could be lodged in stables. Let the magistrates burn their synagogues and let whatever escapes be covered with sand and mud. Let them be forced to work, and if this avails nothing, we will be compelled to expel them like dogs in order not to expose ourselves to incurring divine wrath and eternal damnation from the Jews and their lies." At one point he wrote: "...we are at fault in not slaying them..." a passage that "may be termed the first work of modern anti-Semitism, and a giant step forward on the road to the Holocaust." Luther's harsh comments about the Jews are seen by many as a continuation of medieval Christian anti-Semitism. In his final sermon shortly before his death, however, Luther preached: "We want to treat them with Christian love and to pray for them so that they might become converted and would receive the Lord," but also in the same sermon stated that Jews were "our public enemy" and if they refused conversion were "malicious," guilty of blasphemy and would work to kill gentile believers in Christ.18th century , Poland, depicts Jews murdering Christian children for their blood, ~ 1750.]] In accordance with the anti-Jewish precepts of the Russian Orthodox Church, Russia's discriminatory policies towards Jews intensified when the partition of Poland in the 18th century resulted, for the first time in Russian history, in the possession of land with a large Jewish population. 19th century Throughout the 19th century and into the 20th, the Roman Catholic Church still incorporated strong anti-Semitic elements, despite increasing attempts to separate anti-Judaism (opposition to the Jewish religion on religious grounds) and racial anti-Semitism. Brown University historian David Kertzer, working from the Vatican archive, has argued in his book The Popes Against the Jews that in the 19th and early 20th centuries the Roman Catholic Church adhered to a distinction between "good anti-Semitism" and "bad anti-Semitism". The "bad" kind promoted hatred of Jews because of their descent. This was considered un-Christian because the Christian message was intended for all of humanity regardless of ethnicity; anyone could become a Christian. The "good" kind criticized alleged Jewish conspiracies to control newspapers, banks, and other institutions, to care only about the accumulation of wealth, etc. Many Catholic bishops wrote articles criticizing Jews on such grounds, and, when they were accused of promoting hatred of Jews, they would remind people that they condemned the "bad" kind of anti-Semitism. Kertzer's work is not without critics. Jewish-Christian relations scholar Rabbi David G. Dalin, for example, criticized Kertzer in the Weekly Standard for using evidence selectively.Opposition to the French RevolutionThe counter-revolutionary Catholic royalist Louis de Bonald stands out among the earliest figures to explicitly call for the reversal of Jewish emancipation in the wake of the French Revolution. Bonald's attacks on the Jews are likely to have influenced Napoleon's decision to limit the civil rights of Alsatian Jews. Bonald's article (1806) was one of the most venomous screeds of its era and furnished a paradigm which combined anti-liberalism, a defense of a rural society, traditional Christian anti-Semitism, and the identification of Jews with bankers and finance capital, which would in turn influence many subsequent right-wing reactionaries such as Roger Gougenot des Mousseaux, Charles Maurras, and Édouard Drumont, nationalists such as Maurice Barrès and Paolo Orano, and anti-Semitic socialists such as Alphonse Toussenel. Bonald furthermore declared that the Jews were an "alien" people, a "state within a state", and should be forced to wear a distinctive mark to more easily identify and discriminate against them. Gougenot des Mousseaux's (1869) has been called a "Bible of modern anti-Semitism" and was translated into German by Nazi ideologue Alfred Rosenberg. Pope Pius VII (1800–1823) had the walls of the Jewish ghetto in Rome rebuilt after the Jews were emancipated by Napoleon, and Jews were restricted to the ghetto through the end of the Papal States in 1870. Official Catholic organizations, such as the Jesuits, banned candidates "who are descended from the Jewish race unless it is clear that their father, grandfather, and great-grandfather have belonged to the Catholic Church" until 1946. 20th century In Russia, under the Tsarist regime, anti-Semitism intensified in the early years of the 20th century and was given official favor when the secret police forged the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, a fabricated document purported to be a transcription of a plan by Jewish elders to achieve global domination. Violence against the Jews in the Kishinev pogrom in 1903 was continued after the 1905 revolution by the activities of the Black Hundreds. The Beilis Trial of 1913 showed that it was possible to revive the blood libel accusation in Russia. Catholic writers such as Ernest Jouin, who published the Protocols'' in French, seamlessly blended racial and religious anti-Semitism, as in his statement that "from the triple viewpoint of race, of nationality, and of religion, the Jew has become the enemy of humanity." Pope Pius XI praised Jouin for "combating our mortal [Jewish] enemy" and appointed him to high papal office as a protonotary apostolic. The Nazis used Martin Luther's book, On the Jews and Their Lies (1543), to justify their claim that their ideology was morally righteous. Luther seems to advocate the murder of Jews who refused to convert to Christianity by writing that "we are at fault in not slaying them." Archbishop Robert Runcie asserted that: "Without centuries of Christian anti-Semitism, Hitler's passionate hatred would never have been so fervently echoed... because for centuries Christians have held Jews collectively responsible for the death of Jesus. On Good Friday in times past, Jews have cowered behind locked doors with fear of a Christian mob seeking 'revenge' for deicide. Without the poisoning of Christian minds through the centuries, the Holocaust is unthinkable." The dissident Catholic priest Hans Küng has written that "Nazi anti-Judaism was the work of godless, anti-Christian criminals. But it would not have been possible without the almost two thousand years' pre-history of 'Christian' anti-Judaism..." The consensus among historians is that Nazism as a whole was either unrelated or actively opposed to Christianity, although Germany remained mostly Christian during the Nazi era. The document Dabru Emet was issued by over 220 rabbis and intellectuals from all branches of Judaism in 2000 as a statement about Jewish-Christian relations. This document states,<blockquote> Nazism was not a Christian phenomenon. Without the long history of Christian anti-Judaism and Christian violence against Jews, Nazi ideology could not have taken hold nor could it have been carried out. Too many Christians participated in, or were sympathetic to, Nazi atrocities against Jews. Other Christians did not protest sufficiently against these atrocities. But Nazism itself was not an inevitable outcome of Christianity.</blockquote> According to American historian Lucy Dawidowicz, anti-Semitism has a long history within Christianity. The line of "anti-Semitic descent" from Luther, the author of On the Jews and Their Lies, to Hitler is "easy to draw." In her The War Against the Jews, 1933–1945, she contends that Luther and Hitler were obsessed by the "demonologized universe" inhabited by Jews. Dawidowicz writes that the similarities between Luther's anti-Jewish writings and modern anti-Semitism are no coincidence because they derived from a common history of Judenhass, which can be traced to Haman's advice to Ahasuerus. Although modern German anti-Semitism also has its roots in German nationalism and the liberal revolution of 1848, Christian anti-Semitism she writes is a foundation that was laid by the Roman Catholic Church and "upon which Luther built."Collaborating Christians * German Christians (movement) * Gleichschaltung * Hanns Kerrl, Minister for Ecclesiastical Affairs * Positive Christianity (the approved Nazi version of Christianity) * Protestant Reich Church Opposition to the Holocaust The Confessing Church was, in 1934, the first Christian opposition group. The Catholic Church officially condemned the Nazi theory of racism in Germany in 1937 with the encyclical "Mit brennender Sorge", signed by Pope Pius XI, and Cardinal Michael von Faulhaber led the Catholic opposition, preaching against racism. Many individual Christian clergy and laypeople of all denominations had to pay for their opposition with their lives, including: * the Catholic priest Maximilian Kolbe. * the Lutheran pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer * the Catholic parson of the Berlin Cathedral, Bernhard Lichtenberg. * the mostly Catholic members of the Munich-based resistance group the White Rose which was led by Hans and Sophie Scholl. By the 1940s, few Christians were willing to publicly oppose Nazi policy, but many Christians secretly helped save the lives of Jews. There are many sections of Israel's Holocaust Remembrance Museum, Yad Vashem, which are dedicated to honoring these "Righteous Among the Nations". Pope Pius XII Before he became Pope, Cardinal Pacelli addressed the International Eucharistic Congress in Budapest on 25–30 May 1938 during which he referred to the Jews "whose lips curse [Christ] and whose hearts reject him even today"; at this time anti-Semitic laws were in the process of being formulated in Hungary. The 1937 encyclical Mit brennender Sorge was issued by Pope Pius XI, but drafted by the future Pope Pius XII and read from the pulpits of all German Catholic churches, it condemned Nazi ideology and has been characterized by scholars as the "first great official public document to dare to confront and criticize Nazism" and "one of the greatest such condemnations ever issued by the Vatican." In the summer of 1942, Pius explained to his college of Cardinals the reasons for the great gulf that existed between Jews and Christians at the theological level: "Jerusalem has responded to His call and to His grace with the same rigid blindness and stubborn ingratitude that has led it along the path of guilt to the murder of God." Historian Guido Knopp describes these comments of Pius as being "incomprehensible" at a time when "Jerusalem was being murdered by the million". This traditional adversarial relationship with Judaism would be reversed in Nostra aetate, which was issued during the Second Vatican Council starting from 1962, during the papacy of John XXIII. Prominent members of the Jewish community have contradicted the criticisms of Pius and spoke highly of his efforts to protect Jews. The Israeli historian Pinchas Lapide interviewed war survivors and concluded that Pius XII "was instrumental in saving at least 700,000, but probably as many as 860,000 Jews from certain death at Nazi hands". Some historians dispute this estimate. "White Power" movement from Heroes of the Fiery Cross'' (1928), by Bishop Alma White and published by the Pillar of Fire Church in Zarephath, New Jersey.]] The Christian Identity movement, the Ku Klux Klan, and other White supremacist groups have expressed anti-Semitic views. They claim that their anti-Semitism is based on purported Jewish control of the media, control of international banks, involvement in radical left-wing politics, and the Jews' promotion of multiculturalism, anti-Christian groups, liberalism and perverse organizations. They rebuke charges of racism by claiming that Jews who share their views maintain membership in their organizations. A racial belief that is common among these groups, but not universal among them, is an alternative history doctrine concerning the descendants of the Lost Tribes of Israel. In some of its forms, this doctrine absolutely denies the view that modern Jews have any ethnic connection to the Israel of the Bible. Instead, according to extreme forms of this doctrine, the true Israelites and the true humans are the members of the Adamic (white) race. These groups are often rejected and they are not even considered Christian groups by mainstream Christian denominations and the vast majority of Christians around the world. Post World War II anti-Semitism Anti-Semitism remains a substantial problem in Europe and to a greater or lesser degree, it also exists in many other nations, including Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, and tensions between some Muslim immigrants and Jews have increased across Europe. The US State Department reports that anti-Semitism has increased dramatically in Europe and Eurasia since 2000. While it has been on the decline since the 1940s, a measurable amount of anti-Semitism still exists in the United States, although acts of violence are rare. For example, the influential Evangelical preacher Billy Graham and the then-president Richard Nixon were caught on tape in the early 1970s while they were discussing matters like how to address the Jews' control of the American media. This belief in Jewish conspiracies and domination of the media was similar to those of Graham's former mentors: William Bell Riley chose Graham to succeed him as the second president of Northwestern Bible and Missionary Training School and evangelist Mordecai Ham led the meetings where Graham first believed in Christ. Both held strongly anti-Semitic views. The 2001 survey by the Anti-Defamation League (ADL), a Jewish group which is devoted to fighting anti-Semitism and other forms of racism, reported 1432 acts of anti-Semitism in the United States that year. The figure included 877 acts of harassment, including verbal intimidation, threats, and physical assaults. Many Christian Zionists are also accused of anti-Semitism, such as John Hagee, who argued that the Jews brought the Holocaust upon themselves by angering God. Relations between Jews and Christians have dramatically improved since the 20th century. According to a global poll which was conducted in 2014 by the ADL, data was collected from 102 countries concerning their population's attitudes towards Jews and it revealed that only 24% of the world's Christians held views that were considered anti-Semitic according to the ADL's index, compared to 49% of the world's Muslims.Anti-Judaism Many Christians do not consider anti-Judaism anti-Semitism. They regard anti-Judaism as a disagreement with the tenets of Judaism by religiously sincere people, while they regard anti-Semitism as an emotional bias or hatred which does not specifically target the religion of Judaism. Under this approach, anti-Judaism is not regarded as anti-Semitism because it does not involve actual hostility towards the Jewish people, instead, anti-Judaism only rejects the religious beliefs of Judaism. Others believe that anti-Judaism is the rejection of Judaism as a religion or opposition to Judaism's beliefs and practices essentially because of their source in Judaism or because a belief or practice is associated with the Jewish people. (But see supersessionism) Several scholars, including Susannah Heschel, and Uriel Tal The Southern Baptist Convention (SBC), the largest Protestant Christian denomination in the U.S., has explicitly rejected suggestions that it should back away from seeking to convert Jews, a position which critics have called anti-Semitic, but a position which Baptists believe is consistent with their view that salvation is solely found through faith in Christ. In 1996 the SBC approved a resolution calling for efforts to seek the conversion of Jews "as well as the salvation of 'every kindred and tongue and people and nation.'" Most Evangelicals agree with the SBC's position, and some of them also support efforts that specifically seek the Jews' conversion. Additionally, these Evangelical groups are among the most pro-Israel groups. (For more information, see Christian Zionism.) One controversial group which has received a considerable amount of support from some Evangelical churches is Jews for Jesus, which claims that Jews can "complete" their Jewish faith by accepting Jesus as the Messiah. The Presbyterian Church (USA), the United Methodist Church, and the United Church of Canada have ended their efforts to convert Jews. While Anglicans do not, as a rule, seek converts from other Christian denominations, the General Synod has affirmed that "the good news of salvation in Jesus Christ is for all and must be shared with all including people from other faiths or of no faith and that to do anything else would be to institutionalize discrimination". The Roman Catholic Church formerly operated religious congregations that specifically aimed to convert Jews. Some of these congregations were founded by Jewish converts, like the Congregation of Our Lady of Sion, whose members were nuns and ordained priests. Many Catholic saints were specifically noted for their missionary zeal to convert Jews, such as Vincent Ferrer. After the Second Vatican Council, many missionary orders that aimed to convert Jews to Christianity no longer actively sought to missionize (or proselytize) them. However, Traditionalist Roman Catholic groups, congregations, and clergymen continue to advocate the missionizing of Jews according to traditional patterns, sometimes with success (e.g., the Society of St. Pius X which has notable Jewish converts among its faithful, many of whom have become traditionalist priests). The Church's Ministry Among Jewish People (CMJ) is one of the ten official mission agencies of the Church of England. [https://www.sdhs.co.uk/ The Society for Distributing Hebrew Scriptures] is another organization, but it is not affiliated with the established Church. There are several prophecies concerning the conversion of the Jewish people to Christianity in the scriptures of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS). The Book of Mormon teaches that the Jewish people need to believe in Jesus to be gathered to Israel. The Doctrine & Covenants teaches that the Jewish people will be converted to Christianity during the second coming when Jesus appears to them and shows them his wounds. It teaches that if the Jewish people do not convert to Christianity, then the world would be cursed. Early LDS prophets, such as Brigham Young and Wildord Woodruff, However, after the establishment of the state of Israel, many LDS members felt that it was time for the Jewish people to start converting to Mormonism. During the 1950s, the LDS Church established several missions that specifically targeted Jewish people in several cities in the United States. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has also been criticized for baptizing deceased Jewish Holocaust victims. In 1995, in part as a result of public pressure, church leaders promised to put new policies into place that would help the church to end the practice, unless it was specifically requested or approved by the surviving spouses, children or parents of the victims. However, the practice has continued, including the baptism of the parents of Holocaust survivor and Jewish rights advocate Simon Wiesenthal. Reconciliation between Judaism and Christian groups In recent years, there has been much to note in the way of reconciliation between some Christian groups and the Jews. See also * Christianity and Judaism * Christian–Jewish reconciliation * Geography of antisemitism References Further reading * Beck, Norman A. Mature Christianity: The Recognition and Repudiation of the Anti-Jewish Polemic in the New Testament (Expanded Edition). Crossroad Pub Co 1994. * Boyarin, Daniel. [http://nes.berkeley.edu/Web_Boyarin/BoyarinArticles/70%20Subversion%20of%20the%20Jews%20(1993).pdf ''The Subversion of the Jews: Moses's Veil and the Hermeneutics of Supersession] diacritics 23.2: 16–35 Summer 1993. * Boys, Mary (Ed.). Seeing Judaism Anew: Christianity's Sacred Obligation. Sheed & Ward, 2005 * Carmichael, Joel. The Satanizing of the Jews: Origin and development of mystical anti-Semitism. Fromm, 1993 * Eckhardt, A. Roy. Elder and Younger Brothers: The Encounter of Jews and Christians, Schocken Books (1973) * Eckhardt, A. Roy. Your People, My People: The Meeting of Christians & Jews, Crown Publishing Group (1974); * Gager, John C. The Origins of Anti-Semitism: Attitudes Toward Judaism in Pagan and Christian Antiquity. Oxford Univ. Press, 1983 * Gould, Allan, (Ed.). What Did They Think of the Jews?, Jason Aronson Inc., 1991 * Hall III, Sidney G. Christian Anti-Semitism and Paul's Theology. Fortress Press, 1993. * Johnson, Luke. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3267112 The New Testament's Anti-Jewish Slander and Conventions of Ancient Polemic] Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 108, No. 3, Autumn, 1989 * Lapide, Pinchas E, Three Popes and the Jews. Hawthorne Books, 1967 * Micklem, Nathaniel. [https://archive.org/details/nationalsocialis009929mbp National Socialism and the Roman Catholic Church: Being an Account of the Conflict between the National Socialist Government of Germany and the Roman Catholic Church, 1933–1938]. London: Oxford University Press, 1939. * Nicholls, William, Christian Antisemitism: A History of Hate. Jason Aronson Inc., 1993. * Ruether, Rosemary Radford Faith and fratricide: the theological roots of anti-Semitism. New York 1974, Seabury Press, . * * Synan, Edward A. The Popes and the Jews in the Middle Ages. Macmillan, New York, 1965 * Tausch, Arno, The Effects of 'Nostra Aetate:' Comparative Analyses of Catholic Antisemitism More Than Five Decades after the Second Vatican Council, 2018. Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3098079 * Utz, Richard. "Remembering Ritual Murder: The Anti-Semitic Blood Accusation Narrative in Medieval and Contemporary Cultural Memory". pp. 145–162 in Genre and Ritual: The Cultural Heritage of Medieval Rituals. Ed. Eyolf Østrem. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press/University of Copenhagen, 2005. * Wilken, Robert L. John Chrysostom and the Jews : Rhetoric and Reality in the Late 4th Century, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1983 * S. J. Greenstein [https://wearenotgoingtoburninhell.com/ We Are Not Going to Burn in Hell, A Jewish Response to Christianity''] (Biblically Speaking Publishing Company) External links [https://www.ushmm.org/ United States Holocaust Memorial Museum] [https://www.yadvashem.org Yad Vashem] Category:Christianity and race Category:Early Christianity Category:New Testament Category:Religion and race	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Christianity	2025-04-05T18:27:56.358706
6731	Boeing C-17 Globemaster III	<!-- This article is a part of Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft. Please see Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout, and guidelines. --> million in ) \|developed_from= McDonnell Douglas YC-15 \|variants= }} The McDonnell Douglas/Boeing C-17 Globemaster III is a large military transport aircraft developed for the United States Air Force (USAF) between the 1980s to the early 1990s by McDonnell Douglas. The C-17 carries forward the name of two previous piston-engined military cargo aircraft, the Douglas C-74 Globemaster and the Douglas C-124 Globemaster II. The C-17 is based upon the YC-15, a smaller prototype airlifter designed during the 1970s. It was designed to replace the Lockheed C-141 Starlifter, and also fulfill some of the duties of the Lockheed C-5 Galaxy. The redesigned airlifter differs from the YC-15 in that it is larger and has swept wings and more powerful engines. Development was protracted by a series of design issues, causing the company to incur a loss of nearly US$1.5 billion on the program's development phase. On 15 September 1991, roughly one year behind schedule, the first C-17 performed its maiden flight. The C-17 formally entered USAF service on 17 January 1995. Boeing, which merged with McDonnell Douglas in 1997, continued to manufacture the C-17 for almost two decades. The final C-17 was completed at the Long Beach, California, plant and flown on 29 November 2015. The C-17 commonly performs tactical and strategic airlift missions, transporting troops and cargo throughout the world; additional roles include medical evacuation and airdrop duties. The transport is in service with the USAF along with air arms of India, the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, and the Europe-based multilateral organization Heavy Airlift Wing. The type played a key logistical role during both Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan and Operation Iraqi Freedom in Iraq, as well as in providing humanitarian aid in the aftermath of various natural disasters, including the 2010 Haiti earthquake, the 2011 Sindh floods and the 2023 Turkey-Syria earthquake. Development design was used as the basis for the C-17.\|altTop view of cargo aircraft in-flight, trailed by a fighter chase aircraft. Under each un-swept wing are two engines suspended forward ahead the leading edge.]]Background and design phaseIn the 1970s, the U.S. Air Force began looking for a replacement for its Lockheed C-130 Hercules tactical cargo aircraft. The Advanced Medium STOL Transport (AMST) competition was held, with Boeing proposing the YC-14, and McDonnell Douglas proposing the YC-15. Though both entrants exceeded specified requirements, the AMST competition was canceled before a winner was selected. The USAF started the C-X program in November 1979 to develop a larger AMST with longer range to augment its strategic airlift. By 1980, the USAF had a large fleet of aging C-141 Starlifter cargo aircraft. Compounding matters, increased strategic airlift capabilities were needed to fulfill its rapid-deployment airlift requirements. The USAF set mission requirements and released a request for proposals (RFP) for C-X in October 1980. McDonnell Douglas chose to develop a new aircraft based on the YC-15. Boeing bid an enlarged three-engine version of its AMST YC-14. Lockheed submitted both a C-5-based design and an enlarged C-141 design. On 28 August 1981, McDonnell Douglas was chosen to build its proposal, then designated C-17. Compared to the YC-15, the new aircraft differed in having swept wings, increased size, and more powerful engines. This would allow it to perform the work done by the C-141, and to fulfill some of the duties of the Lockheed C-5 Galaxy, freeing the C-5 fleet for outsize cargo. At this time, first flight was planned for 1990. The USAF had formed a requirement for 210 aircraft. Development problems and limited funding caused delays in the late 1980s. Criticisms were made of the developing aircraft and questions were raised about more cost-effective alternatives during this time. In April 1990, Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney reduced the order from 210 to 120 aircraft. The maiden flight of the C-17 took place on 15 September 1991 from the McDonnell Douglas's plant in Long Beach, California, about a year behind schedule. Two complete airframes were built for static and repeated load testing.Development difficultiesA static test of the C-17 wing in October 1992 resulted in its failure at 128% of design limit load, below the 150% requirement. Both wings buckled rear to the front and failures occurred in stringers, spars, and ribs. Some $100 million was spent to redesign the wing structure; the wing failed at 145% during a second test in September 1993. A review of the test data, however, showed that the wing was not loaded correctly and did indeed meet the requirement. The C-17 received the "Globemaster III" name in early 1993. By accepting the 1993 terms, McDonnell Douglas incurred a loss of nearly US$1.5 billion on the program's development phase. The NDAA program was initiated after the C-17 program was temporarily capped at a 40-aircraft buy (in December 1993) pending further evaluation of C-17 cost and performance and an assessment of commercial airlift alternatives. Problems were found with the mission software, landing gear, and other areas. In May 1994, it was proposed to cut production to as few as 32 aircraft; these cuts were later rescinded. A July 1994 Government Accountability Office (GAO) report revealed that USAF and DoD studies from 1986 and 1991 stated the C-17 could use 6,400 more runways outside the U.S. than the C-5, but these studies had only considered runway dimensions, but not runway strength or load classification numbers (LCN). The C-5 has a lower LCN, but the USAF classifies both in the same broad load classification group. When considering runway dimensions and load ratings, the C-17's worldwide runway advantage over the C-5 shrank from 6,400 to 911 airfields. The report also stated "current military doctrine that does not reflect the use of small, austere airfields", thus the C-17's short field capability was not considered. A January 1995 GAO report stated that the USAF originally planned to order 210 C-17s at a cost of $41.8 billion, and that the 120 aircraft on order were to cost $39.5 billion based on a 1992 estimate. In March 1994, the U.S. Army decided it did not need the low-altitude parachute-extraction system delivery with the C-17 and that the C-130's capability was sufficient. The YC-15 was transferred to AMARC to be made flightworthy again for further flight tests for the C-17 program in March 1997. By September 1995, most of the prior issues were reportedly resolved and the C-17 was meeting all performance and reliability targets. The first USAF squadron was declared operational in January 1995. Production and deliveries s dropping from a C-17 during a training exercise in 2010\|alt=Two paratroopers dropping from a C-17 during an exercise]] In 1996, the DoD ordered another 80 aircraft for a total of 120. In 1997, McDonnell Douglas merged with domestic competitor Boeing. In April 1999, Boeing offered to cut the C-17's unit price if the USAF bought 60 more; in August 2002, the order was increased to 180 aircraft. In 2007, 190 C-17s were on order for the USAF. On 6 February 2009, Boeing was awarded a $2.95 billion contract for 15 additional C-17s, increasing the total USAF fleet to 205 and extending production from August 2009 to August 2010. On 6 April 2009, U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert Gates stated that there would be no more C-17s ordered beyond the 205 planned. However, on 12 June 2009, the House Armed Services Air and Land Forces Subcommittee added a further 17 C-17s. Debate arose over follow-on C-17 orders, the USAF requested line shutdown while Congress called for further production. In FY2007, the USAF requested $1.6 billion (~$}} in ) in response to "excessive combat use" on the C-17 fleet. In 2008, USAF General Arthur Lichte, Commander of Air Mobility Command, indicated before a House of Representatives subcommittee on air and land forces a need to extend production to another 15 aircraft to increase the total to 205, and that C-17 production may continue to satisfy airlift requirements. The USAF finally decided to cap its C-17 fleet at 223 aircraft; the final delivery was on 12 September 2013. In 2010, Boeing reduced the production rate to 10 aircraft per year from a high of 16 per year, due to dwindling orders and to extend the production line's life while additional orders were sought. The workforce was reduced by about 1,100 through 2012, a second shift at the Long Beach plant was also eliminated. By April 2011, 230 production C-17s had been delivered, including 210 to the USAF. The C-17 prototype "T-1" was retired in 2012 after use as a testbed by the USAF. In January 2010, the USAF announced the end of Boeing's performance-based logistics contracts to maintain the type. On 19 June 2012, the USAF ordered its 224th and final C-17 to replace one that crashed in Alaska in July 2010. In September 2013, Boeing announced that C-17 production was starting to close down. In October 2014, the main wing spar of the 279th and last aircraft was completed; this C-17 was delivered in 2015, after which Boeing closed the Long Beach plant. Production of spare components was to continue until at least 2017. The C-17 is projected to be in service for several decades. In February 2014, Boeing was engaged in sales talks with "five or six" countries for the remaining 15 C-17s; thus Boeing decided to build ten aircraft without confirmed buyers in anticipation of future purchases. {\|style"text-align: center; font-size:95%;" class"wikitable" \|+ C-17 yearly deliveries \|- ! 1991!! 1992!! 1993!! 1994!! 1995!! 1996!! 1997!! 1998!! 1999!! 2000!! 2001!! 2002!! 2003!! 2004!! 2005!! 2006!! 2007!! 2008!! 2009!! 2010!! 2011!! 2012!! 2013!! 2014!! 2015!! 2016!! 2017!! 2018!! 2019 \|- \| 1\|\| 4\|\| 5\|\| 8\|\| 6\|\| 6\|\| 7\|\| 10\|\| 11\|\| 13\|\| 14\|\| 16\|\| 16\|\| 16\|\| 16\|\| 16\|\| 16\|\| 16\|\| 16\|\| 14\|\| 12\|\| 10\|\| 10\|\| 7\|\| 5\|\| 4\|\| 0\|\| 0\|\| 1 \|} Design The C-17 Globemaster III is a strategic transport aircraft, able to airlift cargo close to a battle area. The size and weight of U.S. mechanized firepower and equipment have grown in recent decades from increased air mobility requirements, particularly for large or heavy non-palletized outsize cargo. It has a length of and a wingspan of , The aircraft features an anhedral wing configuration, providing pitch and roll stability to the aircraft. The aircraft's stability is furthered by its T-tail design, raising the center of pressure even higher above the center of mass. Drag is also lowered, as the horizontal stabilizer is far removed from the vortices generated by the two wings of the aircraft.[https://monroeaerospace.com/blog/the-pros-and-cons-of-a-t-tail-empennage/] The C-17 is powered by four Pratt & Whitney F117-PW-100 turbofan engines, which are based on the commercial Pratt & Whitney PW2040 used on the Boeing 757. Each engine is rated at of thrust. The engine's thrust reversers direct engine exhaust air upwards and forward, reducing the chances of foreign object damage by ingestion of runway debris, and providing enough reverse thrust to back up the aircraft while taxiing. The thrust reversers can also be used in flight at idle-reverse for added drag in maximum-rate descents. In vortex surfing tests performed by two C-17s, up to 10% fuel savings were reported. C-17 landing at Kharkiv International Airport, showing its landing gear]] For cargo operations the C-17 requires a crew of three: pilot, copilot, and loadmaster. The cargo compartment is long by wide by high. The cargo floor has rollers for palletized cargo but it can be flipped to provide a flat floor suitable for vehicles and other rolling stock. Cargo is loaded through a large aft ramp that accommodates rolling stock, such as a 69-ton (63-metric ton) M1 Abrams main battle tank, other armored vehicles, trucks, and trailers, along with palletized cargo. Maximum payload of the C-17 is , and its maximum takeoff weight is . With a payload of and an initial cruise altitude of , the C-17 has an unrefueled range of about on the first 71 aircraft, and on all subsequent extended-range models that include a sealed center wing bay as a fuel tank. Boeing informally calls these aircraft the C-17 ER. The C-17's cruise speed is about (Mach 0.74). It is designed to airdrop 102 paratroopers and their equipment. The C-17 is designed to operate from runways as short as and as narrow as . The C-17 can also operate from unpaved, unimproved runways (although with a higher probability to damage the aircraft). It has broken 22 records for oversized payloads. The C-17 was awarded U.S. aviation's most prestigious award, the Collier Trophy, in 1994. A Congressional report on operations in Kosovo and Operation Allied Force noted "One of the great success stories...was the performance of the Air Force's C-17A" It flew half of the strategic airlift missions in the operation, the type could use small airfields, easing operations; rapid turnaround times also led to efficient utilization. In 2006, eight C-17s were delivered to March Joint Air Reserve Base, California; controlled by the Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC), assigned to the 452nd Air Mobility Wing and subsequently assigned to AMC's 436th Airlift Wing and its AFRC "associate" unit, the 512th Airlift Wing, at Dover Air Force Base, Delaware, supplementing the Lockheed C-5 Galaxy. The Mississippi Air National Guard's 172 Airlift Group received their first of eight C-17s in 2006. In 2011, the New York Air National Guard's 105th Airlift Wing at Stewart Air National Guard Base transitioned from the C-5 to the C-17. C-17s delivered military supplies during Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan and Operation Iraqi Freedom in Iraq as well as humanitarian aid in the aftermath of the 2010 Haiti earthquake, and the 2011 Sindh floods, delivering thousands of food rations, tons of medical and emergency supplies. On 26 March 2003, 15 USAF C-17s participated in the biggest combat airdrop since the United States invasion of Panama in December 1989: the night-time airdrop of 1,000 paratroopers from the 173rd Airborne Brigade occurred over Bashur, Iraq. These airdrops were followed by C-17s ferrying M1 Abrams, M2 Bradleys, M113s and artillery. USAF C-17s have also assisted allies in their airlift needs, such as Canadian vehicles to Afghanistan in 2003 and Australian forces for the Australian-led military deployment to East Timor in 2006. In 2006, USAF C-17s flew 15 Canadian Leopard C2 tanks from Kyrgyzstan into Kandahar in support of NATO's Afghanistan mission. In 2013, five USAF C-17s supported French operations in Mali, operating with other nations' C-17s (RAF, NATO and RCAF deployed a single C-17 each). Flight crews have nicknamed the aircraft "the Moose", because during ground refueling, the pressure relief vents make a sound like the call of a female moose in heat. Since 1999, C-17s have flown annually to Antarctica on Operation Deep Freeze in support of the US Antarctic Research Program, replacing the C-141s used in prior years. The initial flight was flown by the USAF 62nd Airlift Wing. The C-17s fly round trip between Christchurch Airport and McMurdo Station around October each year and take 5 hours to fly each way. In 2006, the C-17 flew its first Antarctic airdrop mission, delivering 70,000 pounds of supplies. Further air drops occurred during subsequent years. is transported by a C-17 for long-distance trips.]] A C-17 accompanies the President of the United States on his visits to both domestic and foreign arrangements, consultations, and meetings. It is used to transport the Presidential Limousine, Marine One, and security detachments. On several occasions, a C-17 has been used to transport the President himself, using the Air Force One call sign while doing so.Rapid Dragon missile launcher testingIn 2015, as part of a missile-defense test at Wake Island, simulated medium-range ballistic missiles were launched from C-17s against THAAD missile defense systems and the USS John Paul Jones (DDG-53). In early 2020, palletized munitions–"Combat Expendable Platforms"– were tested from C-17s and C-130Js with results the USAF considered positive. In 2021, the Air Force Research Laboratory further developed the concept into tests of the Rapid Dragon system, which transforms the C-17 into a lethal cruise missile arsenal ship capable of mass launching 45 JASSM-ER with 500 kg warheads from a standoff distance of . Anticipated improvements included support for JDAM-ER, mine laying, drone dispersal as well as improved standoff range when full production of the JASSM-XR was expected to deliver large inventories in 2024. Evacuation of Afghanistan On 15 August 2021, USAF C-17 02-1109 from the 62nd Airlift Wing and 446th Airlift Wing at Joint Base Lewis-McChord departed Hamid Karzai International Airport in Kabul, Afghanistan, while crowds of people trying to escape the 2021 Taliban offensive ran alongside the aircraft. The C-17 lifted off with people holding on to the outside, and at least two died after falling from the aircraft. There were an unknown number possibly crushed and killed by the landing gear retracting, with human remains found in the landing-gear stowage. Also that day, C-17 01-0186 from the 816th Expeditionary Airlift Squadron at Al Udeid Air Base transported 823 Afghan citizens from Hamid Karzai International Airport on a single flight, setting a new record for the type, which was previously over 670 people during a 2013 typhoon evacuation from Tacloban, Philippines. Royal Air Force Boeing marketed the C-17 to many European nations including Belgium, Germany, France, Italy, Spain and the United Kingdom. The Royal Air Force (RAF) has established an aim of having interoperability and some weapons and capabilities commonality with the USAF. The 1998 Strategic Defence Review identified a requirement for a strategic airlifter. The Short-Term Strategic Airlift competition commenced in September of that year, but the tender was canceled in August 1999 with some bids identified by ministers as too expensive, including the Boeing/BAe C-17 bid, and others unsuitable. The project continued, with the C-17 seen as the favorite. The first C-17 was delivered to the RAF at Boeing's Long Beach facility on 17 May 2001 and flown to RAF Brize Norton by a crew from No. 99 Squadron. The RAF's fourth C-17 was delivered on 24 August 2001. The RAF aircraft were some of the first to take advantage of the new center wing fuel tank found in Block 13 aircraft. In RAF service, the C-17 has not been given an official service name and designation (for example, C-130J referred to as Hercules C4 or C5), but is referred to simply as the C-17 or "C-17A Globemaster". Although it was to be a fallback for the A400M, the Ministry of Defence (MoD) announced on 21 July 2004 that they had elected to buy their four C-17s at the end of the lease, though the A400M appeared to be closer to production. The C-17 gives the RAF strategic capabilities that it would not wish to lose, for example a maximum payload of compared to the A400M's . Another C-17 was ordered in August 2006, and delivered on 22 February 2008. The four leased C-17s were to be purchased later in 2008. Due to fears that the A400M may suffer further delays, the MoD announced in 2006 that it planned to acquire three more C-17s, for a total of eight, with delivery in 2009–2010. On 3 December 2007, the MoD announced a contract for a sixth C-17, which was received on 11 June 2008. On 18 December 2009, Boeing confirmed that the RAF had ordered a seventh C-17, which was delivered on 16 November 2010. The UK announced the purchase of its eighth C-17 in February 2012. The RAF showed interest in buying a ninth C-17 in November 2013. On 13 January 2013, the RAF deployed two C-17s from RAF Brize Norton to the French Évreux Air Base, transporting French armored vehicles to the Malian capital of Bamako during the French intervention in Mali. In June 2015, an RAF C-17 was used to medically evacuate four victims of the 2015 Sousse attacks from Tunisia. On 13 September 2022, C-17 ZZ177 carried the body of Queen Elizabeth II from Edinburgh Airport to RAF Northolt in London. She had been lying in state at St Giles' Cathedral in Edinburgh, Scotland.Royal Australian Air Force The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) began investigating an acquisition of strategic transport aircraft in 2005. In late 2005, the then Minister for Defence Robert Hill stated that such aircraft were being considered due to the limited availability of strategic airlift aircraft from partner nations and air freight companies. The C-17 was considered to be favored over the A400M as it was a "proven aircraft" and in production. One major RAAF requirement was the ability to airlift the Army's M1 Abrams tanks; another requirement was immediate delivery. Though unstated, commonality with the USAF and the RAF was also considered advantageous. RAAF aircraft were ordered directly from the USAF production run and are identical to American C-17s even in paint scheme, the only difference being the national markings, allowing deliveries to commence within nine months of commitment to the program. On 2 March 2006, the Australian government announced the purchase of three aircraft and one option with an entry into service date of 2006. Australia also signed a US$80.7M contract to join the global 'virtual fleet' C-17 sustainment program; RAAF C-17s receive the same upgrades as the USAF's fleet. The RAAF took delivery of its first C-17 in a ceremony at Boeing's plant at Long Beach, California on 28 November 2006. Several days later the aircraft flew from Hickam Air Force Base, Hawaii to Defence Establishment Fairbairn, Canberra, arriving on 4 December 2006. The aircraft was formally accepted in a ceremony at Fairbairn shortly after arrival. The second aircraft was delivered to the RAAF on 11 May 2007 and the third was delivered on 18 December 2007. The fourth Australian C-17 was delivered on 19 January 2008. All the Australian C-17s are operated by No. 36 Squadron and are based at RAAF Base Amberley in Queensland. On 18 April 2011, Boeing announced that Australia had signed an agreement with the U.S. government to acquire a fifth C-17 due to an increased demand for humanitarian and disaster relief missions. The aircraft was delivered to the RAAF on 14 September 2011. On 23 September 2011, Australian Minister for Defence Materiel Jason Clare announced that the government was seeking information from the U.S. about the price and delivery schedule for a sixth Globemaster. In November 2011, Australia requested a sixth C-17 through the U.S. Foreign Military Sales program; it was ordered in June 2012, and was delivered on 1 November 2012. In August 2014, Defence Minister David Johnston announced the intention to purchase one or two additional C-17s. On 3 October 2014, Johnston announced the government's approval to buy two C-17s at a total cost of (). The United States Congress approved the sale under the Foreign Military Sales program. Prime Minister Tony Abbott confirmed in April 2015 that two additional aircraft were to be ordered, with both delivered by 4 November 2015; these added to the six C-17s it had . A combination of leased Ruslans, Ilyushins and USAF C-17s was also used to move heavy equipment to Afghanistan. In 2002, the Canadian Forces Future Strategic Airlifter Project began to study alternatives, including long-term leasing arrangements. On 5 July 2006, the Canadian government issued a notice of intent to negotiate with Boeing to procure four airlifters for the Canadian Forces Air Command (Royal Canadian Air Force after August 2011). On 1 February 2007, Canada awarded a contract for four C-17s with delivery beginning in August 2007. Like Australia, Canada was granted airframes originally slated for the USAF to accelerate delivery. The official Canadian designation is CC-177 Globemaster III. On 23 July 2007, the first Canadian C-17 made its initial flight. It was turned over to Canada on 8 August, and participated at the Abbotsford International Airshow on 11 August prior to arriving at its new home base at 8 Wing, CFB Trenton, Ontario on 12 August. Its first operational mission was to deliver disaster relief to Jamaica following Hurricane Dean that month. The last of the initial four aircraft was delivered in April 2008. On 19 December 2014, it was reported that Canada intended to purchase one more C-17. On 30 March 2015, Canada's fifth C-17 arrived at CFB Trenton. The aircraft are assigned to 429 Transport Squadron based at CFB Trenton. On 14 April 2010, a Canadian C-17 landed for the first time at CFS Alert, the world's most northerly airport. Canadian Globemasters have been deployed in support of numerous missions worldwide, including Operation Hestia after the 2010 Haiti earthquake, providing airlift as part of Operation Mobile and support to the Canadian mission in Afghanistan. After Typhoon Haiyan hit the Philippines in 2013, Canadian C-17s established an air bridge between the two nations, deploying Canada's DART and delivering humanitarian supplies and equipment. In 2014, they supported Operation Reassurance and Operation Impact. Strategic Airlift Capability program C-17s]] At the 2006 Farnborough Airshow, a number of NATO member nations signed a letter of intent to jointly purchase and operate several C-17s within the Strategic Airlift Capability (SAC). The purchase was for two C-17s, and a third was contributed by the U.S. On 14 July 2009, Boeing delivered the first C-17 for the SAC program with the second and third C-17s delivered in September and October 2009. SAC members are Bulgaria, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Romania, Slovenia, Sweden and the U.S. as of 2024. The SAC C-17s are based at Pápa Air Base, Hungary. The Heavy Airlift Wing is hosted by Hungary, which acts as the flag nation. The aircraft are crewed in similar fashion as the NATO E-3 AWACS aircraft. The C-17 flight crew are multi-national, but each mission is assigned to an individual member nation based on the SAC's annual flight hour share agreement. The NATO Airlift Management Programme Office (NAMPO) provides management and support for the Heavy Airlift Wing. NAMPO is a part of the NATO Support Agency (NSPA). In September 2014, Boeing stated that the three C-17s supporting SAC missions had achieved a readiness rate of nearly 94 percent over the last five years and supported over 1,000 missions. Indian Air Force In June 2009, the Indian Air Force (IAF) selected the C-17 for its Very Heavy Lift Transport Aircraft requirement to replace several types of transport aircraft. the sale was approved by Congress in June 2010. On 23 June 2010, the IAF successfully test-landed a USAF C-17 at the Gaggal Airport, India to complete the IAF's C-17 trials. In February 2011, the IAF and Boeing agreed terms for the order of 10 C-17s with an option for six more; the US$4.1 billion order was approved by the Indian Cabinet Committee on Security on 6 June 2011. Deliveries began in June 2013 and were to continue to 2014. In 2012, the IAF reportedly finalized plans to buy six more C-17s in its five-year plan for 2017–2022. It provides strategic airlift, the ability to deploy special forces, and to operate in diverse terrain – from Himalayan air bases in North India at to Indian Ocean bases in South India. The C-17s are based at Hindon Air Force Station and are operated by No. 81 Squadron IAF Skylords. The first C-17 was delivered in January 2013 for testing and training; it was officially accepted on 11 June 2013. The second C-17 was delivered on 23 July 2013 and put into service immediately. IAF Chief of Air Staff Norman AK Browne called it "a major component in the IAF's modernization drive" while taking delivery of the aircraft at Boeing's Long Beach factory. On 2 September 2013, the Skylords squadron with three C-17s officially entered IAF service. The Skylords regularly fly missions within India, such as to high-altitude bases at Leh and Thoise. The IAF first used the C-17 to transport an infantry battalion's equipment to Port Blair on Andaman Islands on 1 July 2013. Foreign deployments to date include Tajikistan in August 2013, and Rwanda to support Indian peacekeepers. One C-17 was used for transporting relief materials during Cyclone Phailin. The sixth aircraft was received in July 2014. In June 2017, the U.S. Department of State approved the potential sale of one C-17 to India under a proposed $366 million (~$}} in ) U.S. Foreign Military Sale. This aircraft, the last C-17 produced, increased the IAF's fleet to 11 C-17s. On 26 August 2019, Boeing delivered the 11th C-17 Globemaster III to the Indian Air Force. On 7 February 2023, an IAF C-17 delivered humanitarian aid packages for earthquake victims in Turkey and Syria by taking a detour around Pakistan's airspace in the aftermath of 2021 Taliban takeover of Afghanistan. An IAF C-17 executed a precision airdrop of two Combat Rubberised Raiding Craft along with a platoon of 8 MARCOS commandos in an operation to rescue the ex-MV Ruen, a Maltese-flagged cargo ship hijacked by Somali pirates in December 2023. The mission was conducted on 16 March 2024 in a 10-hour round trip mission to an area 2600 km away from the Indian coast. The ship was being used as a mothership for piracy. In a joint operation carried out with the Indian Navy assets such as P-8I Neptune maritime patrol aircraft, SeaGuardian drones, destroyer INS Kolkata and patrol vessel INS Subhadra, the IAF C-17 airdropped Navy's MARCOS commandos, who boarded the hijacked ship, rescued 17 sailors and disarmed 35 pirates in the operation.QatarBoeing delivered Qatar's first C-17 on 11 August 2009 and the second on 10 September 2009 for the Qatar Emiri Air Force. Qatar received its third C-17 in 2012, and fourth C-17 was received on 10 December 2012. In June 2013, The New York Times reported that Qatar was allegedly using its C-17s to ship weapons from Libya to the Syrian opposition during the civil war via Turkey. On 15 June 2015, it was announced at the Paris Airshow that Qatar agreed to order four additional C-17s from the five remaining "white tail" C-17s to double Qatar's C-17 fleet. One Qatari C-17 bears the civilian markings of government-owned Qatar Airways, although the airplane is owned and operated by the Qatar Emiri Air Force. The head of Qatar's airlift selection committee, Ahmed Al-Malki, said the paint scheme was "to build awareness of Qatar's participation in operations around the world." In January 2010, a contract was signed for six C-17s. In May 2011, the first C-17 was handed over and the final was received in June 2012.KuwaitKuwait requested the purchase of one C-17 in September 2010 and a second in April 2013 through the U.S.'s Foreign Military Sales (FMS) program. The nation ordered two C-17s; the first was delivered on 13 February 2014.Proposed operatorsIn 2015, New Zealand's Minister of Defence, Gerry Brownlee, was considering the purchase of two C-17s for the Royal New Zealand Air Force at an estimated cost of $600 million as a heavy air transport option. However, the New Zealand Government eventually decided not to acquire the C-17. Variants * C-17A: Initial military airlifter version. * C-17A "ER": Unofficial name for C-17As with extended range due to the addition of the center wing tank. Block 16: This software/hardware upgrade was a major improvement of the improved Onboard Inert Gas-Generating System (OBIGGS II), a new weather radar, an improved stabilizer strut system and other avionics. Block 21: Adds ADS-B capability, IFF modification, communication/navigation upgrades and improved flight management. * C-17B: A proposed tactical airlifter version with double-slotted flaps, an additional main landing gear on the center fuselage, more powerful engines, and other systems for shorter landing and take-off distances. Boeing offered the C-17B to the U.S. military in 2007 for carrying the Army's Future Combat Systems (FCS) vehicles and other equipment. * KC-17: Proposed tanker variant of the C-17. * MD-17: Proposed variant for US airlines participating in the Civil Reserve Air Fleet, later redesignated as BC-17X after 1997 merger.Operators self-propelled howitzer to Afghanistan, 2006]] helicopter is loaded into a C-17.]] paratroopers seated in a C-17 as it maneuvers to a drop zone for a mass-attack airdrop]] on 15 August 2021]] ; * Royal Australian Air Force – 8 C-17A ERs in service as of January 2018. ** No. 36 Squadron ; * Royal Canadian Air Force – 5 CC-177 (C-17A ER) aircraft in use as of January 2018. ** 429 Transport Squadron, CFB Trenton ; * Indian Air Force – 11 C-17s as of August 2019. including 1 C-17 contributed by the USAF; based at Pápa Air Base, Hungary. ; * Qatar Emiri Air Force – 8 C-17As in use as of January 2018, ; * United Arab Emirates Air Force – 8 C-17As in operation as of January 2018 ; * Royal Air Force – 8 C-17A ERs in use as of May 2021 No. 24 Squadron, RAF Brize Norton – Charlotte Air National Guard Base, North Carolina * 156th Airlift Squadron 154th Wing – Hickam AFB, Hawaii * 204th Airlift Squadron (Associate) 164th Airlift Wing – Memphis ANGB, Tennessee * 155th Airlift Squadron 167th Airlift Wing – Shepherd Field ANGB, West Virginia * 167th Airlift Squadron 172d Airlift Wing – Allen C. Thompson Field ANGB, Mississippi * 183d Airlift Squadron 176th Wing – Elmendorf AFB, Alaska * 144th Airlift Squadron Accidents and notable incidents <!-- Add new items by date of notable incident/accident --> * On 10 September 1998, a USAF C-17 (AF Serial No. 96-0006) delivered Keiko the orca to Vestmannaeyjar, Iceland, a runway, and suffered a landing gear failure during landing. There were no injuries, but the landing gear sustained major damage. * On 10 December 2003, a USAF C-17 (AF Serial No. 98-0057) was hit by a surface-to-air missile after take-off from Baghdad, Iraq. One engine was disabled and the aircraft returned for a safe landing. It was repaired and returned to service. * On 6 August 2005, a USAF C-17 (AF Serial No. 01-0196) ran off the runway at Bagram Air Base in Afghanistan while attempting to land, destroying its nose and main landing gear. After two months making it flightworthy, a test pilot flew the aircraft to Boeing's Long Beach facility as the temporary repairs imposed performance limitations. In October 2006, it returned to service following repairs. , Afghanistan, on 30 January 2009 after landing with landing gear retracted]] * On 30 January 2009, a USAF C-17 (AF Serial No. 96-0002 – "Spirit of the Air Force") made a gear-up landing at Bagram Air Base. It was ferried from Bagram AB, making several stops along the way, to Boeing's Long Beach plant for extensive repairs. The USAF Aircraft Accident Investigation Board concluded the cause was the crew's failure to follow the pre-landing checklist and lower the landing gear. * On 28 July 2010, a USAF C-17 (AF Serial No. 00-0173 – "Spirit of the Aleutians") crashed at Elmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska, while practicing for the 2010 Arctic Thunder Air Show, killing all four aboard. It crashed near a railroad, disrupting rail operations. A military investigation found pilot error caused a stall. This is the C-17's only fatal crash and the only hull loss accident. * On 20 July 2012, a USAF C-17 of the 305th Air Mobility Wing, flying from McGuire AFB, New Jersey, to MacDill Air Force Base in Tampa, Florida, mistakenly landed at nearby Peter O. Knight Airport, a small municipal field without a control tower, with Gen. Jim Mattis, then commander of CENTCOM, on board. After a few hours, the Globemaster took off from the airport's runway without incident and made the short trip to MacDill AFB. The mistaken landing followed an extended duration flight from Europe to Southwest Asia to embark military passengers before returning to the U.S. The USAF investigation attributed the incident to fatigue leading to pilot error, as both airfields' main runways share the same magnetic heading and are only four miles apart along the shore of Tampa Bay. * On 9 April 2021, USAF C-17 10-0223 suffered a fire in its undercarriage after landing at Charleston AFB following a flight from RAF Mildenhall, UK. The fire spread to the fuselage before it was extinguished.Specifications (C-17A) of cargo distributed at max over 18 463L master pallets or a mix of palletized cargo and vehicles<!-- <br /> not needed with bullets --> 102 paratroopers or 134 troops with palletized and sidewall seats or 54 troops with sidewall seats (allows 13 cargo pallets) only or 36 litter and 54 ambulatory patients and medical attendants or ** Cargo, such as one M1 Abrams tank, two Bradley armored vehicles, or three Stryker armored vehicles \|length ft=174 \|length in\|length note \|span ft=169 \|span in=9.6 \|span note\|height ft55 \|height in=1 \|height note\|wing area sqft3800 \|wing area note\|aspect ratio7.165 \|airfoilroot: DLBA 142; tip: DLBA 147 \|empty weight lb=282500 \|empty weight note\|gross weight kg \|gross weight lb\|gross weight note \|max takeoff weight kg\|max takeoff weight lb585000 \|max takeoff weight note\|fuel capacity \|more general= <!-- Powerplant --> \|eng1 number=4 \|eng1 name=Pratt & Whitney PW2000 \|eng1 type=turbofan engines \|eng1 kw=<!-- prop engines --> \|eng1 hp=<!-- prop engines --> \|eng1 shp=<!-- prop engines --> \|eng1 kn=<!-- jet/rocket engines --> \|eng1 lbf=40440 \|eng1 note= (US military designation: F117-PW-100) <!-- Performance --> \|max speed kts\|max speed note \|max speed mach\|cruise speed kts450 \|cruise speed note=(Mach 0.74–0.79) \|stall speed kts\|stall speed note \|never exceed speed kts\|never exceed speed note \|minimum control speed kts\|minimum control speed note \|range nmi=2420 \|range note= with payload \|combat range nmi\|combat range note \|ferry range nmi6230 \|ferry range note\|endurance<!-- if range unknown --> \|ceiling ft=45000 \|ceiling note\|g limits<!-- aerobatic --> \|roll rate=<!-- aerobatic --> \|climb rate ftmin\|climb rate note \|time to altitude\|wing loading lb/sqft150 \|wing loading note\|fuel consumption lb/mi \|thrust/weight=0.277 (minimum) \|more performance* Takeoff run at MTOW: * Takeoff run at : * Landing distance: <ref nameAF_fact/> \|avionics=* AlliedSignal AN/APS-133(V) weather and mapping radar }} See also References Bibliography * Bonny, Danny, Barry Fryer and Martyn Swann. AMARC MASDC III, The Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Center, Davis-Monthan AFB, AZ, 1997–2005. Surrey, UK: British Aviation Research Group, 2006. . * Department of Defense. [https://books.google.com/books?id=22pQ2jPcRzsC Kosovo/Operation Allied Force After-Action Report], DIANE Publishing; 31 January 2000.. * Gertler, Jeremiah. [https://books.google.com/books?id=wyiLKkmVFHcC "Air Force C-17 Aircraft Procurement: Background and Issues for Congress."] Congressional Research Service, DIANE Publishing; 22 December 2009. . * Kennedy, Betty R. Globemaster III: Acquiring the C-17. McConnell AFB, Kansas: Air Mobility Command Office of History, 2004. * McLaughlin, Andrew. "Big Mover." Canberra: Australian Aviation (Phantom Media), September 2008. * Norton, Bill. Boeing C-17 Globemaster III (Warbird Tech, Vol. 30). North Branch, Minnesota: Specialty Press, 2001. . <!-- * C-17 aircraft: cost of spare parts higher than justified, U.S. General Accounting Office, 1996. ASIN B00010S6F0. * C-17 aircraft: cost of spare parts higher than justified, U.S. General Accounting Office, 2011. . --> External links * * [https://www.af.mil/About-Us/Fact-Sheets/Display/Article/1529726/c-17-globemaster-iii/ USAF C-17 fact sheet] * [https://www.raf.mod.uk/aircraft/globemaster-c-17/ Globemaster (C-17)] – Royal Air Force * [http://www.rcaf-arc.forces.gc.ca/en/aircraft-current/cc-177.page RCAF CC-177 Globemaster III page] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20180911114518/https://www.airhistory.net/resources/c-17.php Full C-17 production list, including manufacturer serial numbers (c/n)] * [https://blogs.chapman.edu/huell-howser-archives/2003/04/01/boeing-californias-gold-118/ Tour of the manufacturing line on ''California's Gold''] C-1017 Globemaster III C-017 Globemaster III Category:1990s United States military transport aircraft Category:Quadjets Category:High-wing aircraft Category:T-tail aircraft Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Aircraft first flown in 1991 Category:Military globalization Category:Aircraft with retractable tricycle landing gear	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_C-17_Globemaster_III	2025-04-05T18:27:56.429968
6732	Caber	Caber can refer to: Caber toss, a sport Places Caber, Çivril, a village in Çivril District, Denizli Province, Turkey Caber, Sarayköy, a village in Sarayköy District, Denizli Province, Turkey Çabër, a village in Zubin Potok, Mitrovica district, Kosovo Other uses CaBER, Capillary Breakup Extensional Rheometer Caber (comics), a deity in Marvel Comics Caber Music, a British record label founded in 1998 by Tom Bancroft See also Kaber (disambiguation)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caber	2025-04-05T18:27:56.434971
6734	Garbage collection (computer science)	: The garbage collector attempts to reclaim memory that was allocated by the program, but is no longer referenced; such memory is called garbage. Garbage collection was invented by American computer scientist John McCarthy around 1959 to simplify manual memory management in Lisp. These are said to be garbage-collected languages. Other languages, such as C and C++, were designed for use with manual memory management, but have garbage-collected implementations available. Some languages, like Ada, Modula-3, and C++/CLI, allow both garbage collection and manual memory management to co-exist in the same application by using separate heaps for collected and manually managed objects. Still others, like D, are garbage-collected but allow the user to manually delete objects or even disable garbage collection entirely when speed is required. Although many languages integrate GC into their compiler and runtime system, post-hoc GC systems also exist, such as Automatic Reference Counting (ARC). Some of these post-hoc GC systems do not require recompilation. Advantages GC frees the programmer from manually de-allocating memory. This helps avoid some kinds of errors: * Dangling pointers, which occur when a piece of memory is freed while there are still pointers to it, and one of those pointers is dereferenced. By then the memory may have been reassigned to another use, with unpredictable results. * Double free bugs, which occur when the program tries to free a region of memory that has already been freed, and perhaps already been allocated again. * Certain kinds of memory leaks, in which a program fails to free memory occupied by objects that have become unreachable, which can lead to memory exhaustion. Disadvantages GC uses computing resources to decide which memory to free. Therefore, the penalty for the convenience of not annotating object lifetime manually in the source code is overhead, which can impair program performance. }} Further reading * (511 pages) * (404 pages) * * * External links * [http://www.memorymanagement.org/ The Memory Management Reference] * [http://basen.oru.se/kurser/koi/2008-2009-p1/texter/gc/ The Very Basics of Garbage Collection] * [http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/java/javase/gc-tuning-6-140523.html Java SE 6 HotSpot Virtual Machine Garbage Collection Tuning] * [http://tinygc.sourceforge.net/ TinyGC - an independent implementation of the BoehmGC API] * [http://www.codeproject.com/KB/cpp/conservative_gc.aspx Conservative Garbage Collection Implementation for C Language] * [http://sourceforge.net/projects/meixnergc/ MeixnerGC - an incremental mark and sweep garbage collector for C++ using smart pointers] Category:Memory management * Category:Solid-state computer storage	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garbage_collection_(computer_science)	2025-04-05T18:27:56.480803
6736	Canidae	). The family includes three subfamilies: the Caninae, and the extinct Borophaginae and Hesperocyoninae. The Canidae first appeared in North America during the Late Eocene (37.8-33.9 Mya). They did not reach Eurasia until the Late Miocene or to South America until the Late Pliocene.Eocene epochCarnivorans evolved after the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs 66 million years ago. Around 50 million years ago, or earlier, in the Paleocene, the Carnivora split into two main divisions: caniform (dog-like) and feliform (cat-like). By 40 Mya, the first identifiable member of the dog family had arisen. Named Prohesperocyon wilsoni, its fossils have been found in southwest Texas. The chief features which identify it as a canid include the loss of the upper third molar (part of a trend toward a more shearing bite), and the structure of the middle ear which has an enlarged bulla (the hollow bony structure protecting the delicate parts of the ear). Prohesperocyon'' probably had slightly longer limbs than its predecessors, and also had parallel and closely touching toes which differ markedly from the splayed arrangements of the digits in bears. Canidae soon divided into three subfamilies, each of which diverged during the Eocene: Hesperocyoninae (about 39.74–15 Mya), Borophaginae (about 34–32 Mya), and Caninae (about 34–30 Mya; the only surviving subfamily). Members of each subfamily showed an increase in body mass with time and some exhibited specialized hypercarnivorous diets that made them prone to extinction.Oligocene epochBy the Oligocene, all three subfamilies (Hesperocyoninae, Borophaginae, and Caninae) had appeared in the fossil record of North America. The earliest and most primitive branch of the Canidae was Hesperocyoninae, which included the coyote-sized Mesocyon of the Oligocene (38–24 Mya). These early canids probably evolved for the fast pursuit of prey in a grassland habitat; they resembled modern viverrids in appearance. Hesperocyonines eventually became extinct in the middle Miocene. One of the early Hesperocyonines, the genus Hesperocyon, gave rise to Archaeocyon and Leptocyon. These branches led to the borophagine and canine radiations. Miocene epoch Around 8 Mya, the Beringian land bridge allowed members of the genus Eucyon a means to enter Asia from North America and they continued on to colonize Europe. Pliocene epoch The Canis, Urocyon, and Vulpes genera developed from canids from North America, where the canine radiation began. The success of these canids was related to the development of lower carnassials that were capable of both mastication and shearing. In the Pliocene, around 4–5 Mya, Canis lepophagus appeared in North America. This was small and sometimes coyote-like. Others were wolf-like. C. latrans (the coyote) is theorized to descend from C. lepophagus. The formation of the Isthmus of Panama, about 3 Mya, joined South America to North America, allowing canids to invade South America, where they diversified. However, the last common ancestor of the South American canids lived in North America some 4 Mya and more than one incursion across the new land bridge is likely given the fact that more than one lineage is present in South America. Two North American lineages found in South America are the gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargentus) and the now-extinct dire wolf (Aenocyon dirus). Besides these, there are species endemic to South America: the maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus), the short-eared dog (Atelocynus microtis), the bush dog (Speothos venaticus), the crab-eating fox (Cerdocyon thous), and the South American foxes (Lycalopex spp.). The monophyly of this group has been established by molecular means. By 0.3 Mya, a number of subspecies of the gray wolf (C. lupus) had developed and had spread throughout Europe and northern Asia. The gray wolf colonized North America during the late Rancholabrean era across the Bering land bridge, with at least three separate invasions, with each one consisting of one or more different Eurasian gray wolf clades. MtDNA studies have shown that there are at least four extant C. lupus lineages. The dire wolf shared its habitat with the gray wolf, but became extinct in a large-scale extinction event that occurred around 11,500 years ago. It may have been more of a scavenger than a hunter; its molars appear to be adapted for crushing bones and it may have gone extinct as a result of the extinction of the large herbivorous animals on whose carcasses it relied. Wild canids are found on every continent except Antarctica, and inhabit a wide range of different habitats, including deserts, mountains, forests, and grasslands. They vary in size from the fennec fox, which may be as little as in length and weigh , to the gray wolf, which may be up to long, and can weigh up to . Only a few species are arboreal—the gray fox, the closely related island fox and the raccoon dog habitually climb trees. All canids have a similar basic form, as exemplified by the gray wolf, although the relative length of muzzle, limbs, ears, and tail vary considerably between species. With the exceptions of the bush dog, the raccoon dog and some domestic dog breeds, canids have relatively long legs and lithe bodies, adapted for chasing prey. The tails are bushy and the length and quality of the pelage vary with the season. The muzzle portion of the skull is much more elongated than that of the cat family. The zygomatic arches are wide, there is a transverse lambdoidal ridge at the rear of the cranium and in some species, a sagittal crest running from front to back. The bony orbits around the eye never form a complete ring and the auditory bullae are smooth and rounded. Females have three to seven pairs of mammae. All canids are digitigrade, meaning they walk on their toes. The tip of the nose is always naked, as are the cushioned pads on the soles of the feet. These latter consist of a single pad behind the tip of each toe and a more-or-less three-lobed central pad under the roots of the digits. Hairs grow between the pads and in the Arctic fox the sole of the foot is densely covered with hair at some times of the year. With the exception of the four-toed African wild dog (Lycaon pictus), five toes are on the forefeet, but the pollex (thumb) is reduced and does not reach the ground. On the hind feet are four toes, but in some domestic dogs, a fifth vestigial toe, known as a dewclaw, is sometimes present, but has no anatomical connection to the rest of the foot. In some species, slightly curved nails are non-retractile and more-or-less blunt Young canids are born blind, with their eyes opening a few weeks after birth. All living canids (Caninae) have a ligament analogous to the nuchal ligament of ungulates used to maintain the posture of the head and neck with little active muscle exertion; this ligament allows them to conserve energy while running long distances following scent trails with their nose to the ground. However, based on skeletal details of the neck, at least some of the Borophaginae (such as Aelurodon) are believed to have lacked this ligament.DentitionDentition relates to the arrangement of teeth in the mouth, with the dental notation for the upper-jaw teeth using the upper-case letters I to denote incisors, C for canines, P for premolars, and M for molars, and the lower-case letters i, c, p and m to denote the mandible teeth. Teeth are numbered using one side of the mouth and from the front of the mouth to the back. In carnivores, the upper premolar P4 and the lower molar m1 form the carnassials that are used together in a scissor-like action to shear the muscle and tendon of prey. Canids use their premolars for cutting and crushing except for the upper fourth premolar P4 (the upper carnassial) that is only used for cutting. They use their molars for grinding except for the lower first molar m1 (the lower carnassial) that has evolved for both cutting and grinding depending on the canid's dietary adaptation. On the lower carnassial, the trigonid is used for slicing and the talonid is used for grinding. The ratio between the trigonid and the talonid indicates a carnivore's dietary habits, with a larger trigonid indicating a hypercarnivore and a larger talonid indicating a more omnivorous diet. In most foxes, and in many of the true dogs, a male and female pair work together to hunt and to raise their young. Gray wolves and some of the other larger canids live in larger groups called packs. African wild dogs have packs which may consist of 20 to 40 animals and packs of fewer than about seven individuals may be incapable of successful reproduction. Hunting in packs has the advantage that larger prey items can be tackled. Some species form packs or live in small family groups depending on the circumstances, including the type of available food. In most species, some individuals live on their own. Within a canid pack, there is a system of dominance so that the strongest, most experienced animals lead the pack. In most cases, the dominant male and female are the only pack members to breed. Communication Canids communicate with each other by scent signals, by visual clues and gestures, and by vocalizations such as growls, barks, and howls. In most cases, groups have a home territory from which they drive out other conspecifics. Canids use urine scent marks to mark their food caches or warn trespassing individuals. Social behavior is also mediated by secretions from glands on the upper surface of the tail near its root and from the anal glands, and supracaudal glands.Reproduction }} Canids as a group exhibit several reproductive traits that are uncommon among mammals as a whole. They are typically monogamous, provide paternal care to their offspring, have reproductive cycles with lengthy proestral and dioestral phases and have a copulatory tie during mating. They also retain adult offspring in the social group, suppressing the ability of these to breed while making use of the alloparental care they can provide to help raise the next generation. Most canid species are spontaneous ovulators, though maned wolves are induced ovulators. During the proestral period, increased levels of estradiol make the female attractive to the male. There is a rise in progesterone during the estral phase when female is receptive. Following this, the level of estradiol fluctuates and there is a lengthy dioestrous phase during which the female is pregnant. Pseudo-pregnancy often occurs in canids that have ovulated but failed to conceive. A period of anestrus follows pregnancy or pseudo-pregnancy, there being only one oestral period during each breeding season. Small and medium-sized canids mostly have a gestation of 50 to 60 days, while larger species average 60 to 65 days. The time of year in which the breeding season occurs is related to the length of day, as has been shown for several species that have been moved across the equator and experiences a six-month shift of phase. Domestic dogs and certain small canids in captivity may come into oestrus more often, perhaps because the photoperiod stimulus breaks down under conditions of artificial lighting. The size of a litter varies, with from one to 16 or more pups being born. The young are born small, blind and helpless and require a long period of parental care. They are kept in a den, most often dug into the ground, for warmth and protection. Young canids may take a year to mature and learn the skills they need to survive. In some species, such as the African wild dog, male offspring usually remain in the natal pack, while females disperse as a group and join another small group of the opposite sex to form a new pack. Canids and humans ]] One canid, the domestic dog, entered into a partnership with humans a long time ago. The dog was the first domesticated species. Among canids, only the gray wolf has widely been known to prey on humans. Nonetheless, at least two records of coyotes killing humans have been published, and at least two other reports of golden jackals killing children. Human beings have trapped and hunted some canid species for their fur and some, especially the gray wolf, the coyote and the red fox, for sport. Canids such as the dhole are now endangered in the wild because of persecution, habitat loss, a depletion of ungulate prey species and transmission of diseases from domestic dogs.See also List of canids Largest wild canids Canid hybrid Free-ranging dog References<!-- SystBioi46:622. ZoolScripta33:311. --> Bibliography * }}External links * Category:Mammal families Category:Bartonian first appearances Category:Extant Eocene first appearances Category:Taxa named by Gotthelf Fischer von Waldheim	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canidae	2025-04-05T18:27:56.509502
6739	Subspecies of Canis lupus	There are 38 subspecies of Canis lupus listed in the taxonomic authority Mammal Species of the World (2005, 3rd edition). These subspecies were named over the past 250 years, and since their naming, a number of them have gone extinct. The nominate subspecies is the Eurasian wolf (Canis lupus lupus). Taxonomy In 1758, the Swedish botanist and zoologist Carl Linnaeus published in his Systema Naturae the binomial nomenclature – or the two-word naming – of species. Canis is the Latin word meaning "dog", and under this genus he listed the dog-like carnivores including domestic dogs, wolves, and jackals. He classified the domestic dog as Canis familiaris, and on the next page he classified the wolf as Canis lupus. Linnaeus considered the dog to be a separate species from the wolf because of its head, body, and cauda recurvata – its upturning tail – which is not found in any other canid. In 2005, MSW3 included C. l. filchneri. \| A large, light-furred subspecies. \| Northern tundra and forest zones in the European and Asian parts of Russia and Kamchatka. Outside Russia, its range includes the extreme north of Scandinavia. \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. arabs<br />Arabian wolf \| \| Pocock, 1934 \| A small, "desert-adapted" subspecies that is around 66 cm tall and weighs, on average, about 18 kg. Its fur coat varies from short in the summer to long in the winter, possibly because of solar radiation. \| Southern Palestine, southern Israel, southern and western Iraq, Oman, Yemen, Jordan, Saudi Arabia and Egypt (Sinai Peninsula). \| \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. campestris<br />Steppe wolf \| \| Dwigubski, 1804 \| An average-sized subspecies with short, coarse and sparse fur. \| Northern Ukraine, southern Kazakhstan, the Caucasus and the Trans-Caucasus \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. chanco<br />Himalayan wolf \| \| Matschie, 1907 Fur color is mostly sandy- to reddish-brown, but can include tan patterns and can also be occasionally light brown, black or white. \| Australia and New Guinea \| <small>antarticus Kerr, 1792 [suppressed ICZN O451:1957], australasiae Desmarest, 1820, australiae Gray, 1826, dingoides Matschie, 1915, macdonnellensis Matschie, 1915, novaehollandiae Voigt, 1831, papuensis Ramsay, 1879, tenggerana Kohlbrugge, 1896, hallstromi Troughton, 1957, harappensis Prashad, 1936</small> <small>Sometimes included within Canis familiaris when the domestic dog is recognised as a species.</small> \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. familiaris<br />Domestic dog<br /><small>but refer Synonyms</small> \| \| Linnaeus, 1758 \|The domestic dog is a divergent subspecies of the gray wolf and was derived from an extinct population of Late Pleistocene wolves. \| Worldwide in association with humans \| <small>Increasingly proposed as the species Canis familiaris but debated }} \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. italicus<br />Italian wolf \| \| Altobello, 1921 \| The pelt is generally of a grey-fulvous colour, which reddens in summer. The belly and cheeks are more lightly coloured, and dark bands are present on the back and tail tip, and occasionally along the fore limbs. \| Native to the Italian Peninsula; recently expanded into Switzerland and southeastern France. \| <small>lupus Linnaeus, 1758</small> \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. lupus<br />Eurasian wolf<br />(nominate subspecies) \| \| Linnaeus, 1758 \| Generally a large subspecies with rusty ocherous or light gray fur. \| Has the largest range among wolf subspecies and is the most common subspecies in Europe and Asia, ranging through Western Europe, Scandinavia, the Caucasus, Russia, China, and Mongolia. Its habitat overlaps with the Indian wolf in some regions of Turkey. \| <small>altaicus Noack, 1911, argunensis Dybowski, 1922, canus Sélys Longchamps, 1839, communis Dwigubski, 1804, deitanus Cabrera, 1907, desertorum Bogdanov, 1882, flavus Kerr, 1792, fulvus Sélys Longchamps, 1839, kurjak Bolkay, 1925, lycaon Trouessart, 1910, major Ogérien, 1863, minor Ogerien, 1863, niger Hermann, 1804, orientalis Wagner, 1841, orientalis Dybowski, 1922</small> \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. pallipes<br />Indian wolf \| \| Sykes, 1831 \| A small subspecies with pelage shorter than that of northern wolves and with little to no underfur. Fur color ranges from grayish-red to reddish-white with black tips. The dark V-shaped stripe over the shoulders is much more pronounced than in northern wolves. The underparts and legs are more or less white. \|India, Pakistan, Iran, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, northern Israel, and northern Palestine \| \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. signatus<br />Iberian wolf \| \| Cabrera, 1907 \| A subspecies with slighter frame than C. l. lupus, white marks on the upper lips, dark marks on the tail, and a pair of dark marks on its front legs. \| Northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, which includes northwestern Spain and northern Portugal \| <small>lupus Linnaeus, 1758</small> \|- \|} North America 2005.]] For North America, in 1944 the zoologist Edward Goldman recognized as many as 23 subspecies based on morphology. In 1959, E. Raymond Hall proposed that there had been 24 subspecies of lupus in North America. In 1970, L. David Mech proposed that there was "probably far too many subspecific designations...in use", as most did not exhibit enough points of differentiation to be classified as separate subspecies. The 24 subspecies were accepted by many authorities in 1981 and these were based on morphological or geographical differences, or a unique history. In 1995, the American mammalogist Robert M. Nowak analyzed data on the skull morphology of wolf specimens from around the world. For North America, he proposed that there were only five subspecies of the wolf. These include a large-toothed Arctic wolf named C. l. arctos, a large wolf from Alaska and western Canada named C. l. occidentalis, a small wolf from southeastern Canada named C. l. lycaon, a small wolf from the southwestern U.S. named C. l. baileyi and a moderate-sized wolf that was originally found from Texas to Hudson Bay and from Oregon to Newfoundland named C. l. nubilus. \| A medium-sized, almost completely white subspecies. \| Melville Island (the Northwest Territories and Nunavut), Ellesmere Island \| <small>The current (2025) classification of the more broadly defined C. l. arctos of Nowak (1995) synonymizes C. l. orion and C. l. bernardi.</small> \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. baileyi<br />Mexican wolf \| \| Nelson and Goldman, 1929 \| The smallest of the North American subspecies, with dark fur. \| found in southwestern New Mexico and southeastern Arizona as well as northern Mexico; once ranged into western Texas \| \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. columbianus<br />British Columbian wolf \| \| Goldman, 1941 \| Smaller-sized; unique diet of fish and smaller-sized deer in temperate rainforest; similar to crassodon. \| Coastal British Columbia and coastal Yukon \| <small>Currently (2023) synonymized under C. l. crassodon.</small> \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. crassodon<br />Vancouver Island wolf \| \| Hall, 1932 \| A medium-sized subspecies with grayish fur; similar to columbianus. \| Vancouver Island, British Columbia \| <small>Currently (2023) C. l. crassodon synonymizes C. l. ligoni and C. l. columbianus.</small> \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. familiaris<br />Domestic dog<br /><small>but refer Synonyms</small> \| \| \| \| worldwide \|<small>The domestic dog is a divergent subspecies of the gray wolf and was derived from an extinct population of Late Pleistocene wolves. }} <small>Increasingly proposed as the species Canis familiaris but debated \| Northern Manitoba and the Northwest Territories \| <small>Currently (2025) synonymized under C. l. nubilus</small> \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. irremotus<br />Northern Rocky Mountain wolf \| \| Goldman, 1937 \| A medium-sized to large subspecies with pale fur. \| The northern Rocky Mountains \| <small>Currently (2025) synonymized under C. l. occidentalis</small> \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. labradorius<br />Labrador wolf \| \| Goldman, 1937 \| Labrador and northern Quebec; confirmed presence on Newfoundland \| <small>Currently (2025) synonymized under C. l. nubilus</small> \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. ligoni<br />Alexander Archipelago wolf \| \| Goldman, 1937 \| The Alexander Archipelago, Alaska \| <small>Currently (2023) synonymized under C. l. crassodon.</small> \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. lycaon<br />Eastern wolf<br /><small>but refer Synonyms</small> \| \| Schreber, 1775 \| Two forms are known – a small, reddish-brown colored form called the Algonquin wolf; and a slightly larger, more grayish-brown form called the Great Lakes wolf, which is an admixture of the Algonquin wolf and other gray wolves. \| The Algonquin form occupies central Ontario and southwestern Quebec, particularly in and nearby protected areas, such as Algonquin Provincial Park in Ontario, and possibly extreme northeastern U.S. and western New Brunswick. The Great Lakes form occupies northern Ontario, Wisconsin and Minnesota, the Upper Peninsula of Michigan and southern Manitoba. Overlaps of the two forms occur, with intermixing in the southern portions of northern Ontario. \| <small>canadensis de Blainville, 1843, ungavensis Comeau, 1940</small><br /><br /><small>The Algonquin form is currently (2025) recognized as the species Canis lycaon</small> \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. mackenzii<br />Mackenzie River wolf \| \| Anderson, 1943 \| A subspecies with variable fur and intermediate in size between occidentalis and manningi. \| The southern Northwest Territories \| <small>Currently (2025) synonymized under C. l. occidentalis</small> \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. manningi<br />Baffin Island wolf \| \| Anderson, 1943 \| The smallest subspecies of the Arctic, with buffy-white fur. \| Baffin Island \| <small>Currently (2025) synonymized under C. l. nubilus</small> \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. occidentalis<br />Northwestern wolf \| \| Richardson, 1829 \| A very large, usually light-colored subspecies, and the biggest subspecies. \| Alaska, Yukon, the Northwest Territories, British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, and the northwestern United States \| <small>ater Richardson, 1829, sticte Richardson, 1829</small> <small>The C. l. occidentalis of Nowak (1995) synonymizes alces, columbianus, griseoalbus, mackenzii, pambasileus and tundrarum, which is the currently (2025) recognized classification. \| <small>Currently (2025) synonymized under C. l. arctos</small> \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. pambasileus<br />Alaskan Interior wolf \| \| Miller, 1912 \| The second largest subspecies of wolf, second in skull and tooth proportions only to occidentalis (see chart above), with fur that is black, white or a mixture of both in color. \| The Alaskan Interior and Yukon, save for the tundra region of the Arctic Coast \| <small>Currently (2025) synonymized under C. l. occidentalis</small> \|- ! scope="row" \|C. l. nubilus<br />Great Plains wolf \| \| Say, 1823 \| A medium-sized, light-colored subspecies. \| Throughout the Great Plains from southern Manitoba and Saskatchewan southward to northern Texas \| <small>variabilis'' Wied-Neuwied, 1841</small>. <small>Previously thought extinct in 1926, the Great Plains wolf's descendants were found in the northeastern region of the United States and have become federally protected since 1974.</small> <small>As of 2025 the classification of the more broadly defined C. l. nubilus of Nowak (1995) synonymizes beothucus, fuscus, hudsonicus, irremotus, labridorius, manningi, mogollonensis, monstrabilis and youngi, in which case the subspecies is extant in Canada (see infobox map). \| Historically distributed throughout the Eastern, Southern, and Midwestern United States, from southernmost New York south to Florida and west to Texas. Modern range is eastern North Carolina. \| {{smalldiv\|Currently considered a distinct species, Canis rufus, but this proposal is still debated. \| The Barren Grounds of the Arctic Coast region from near Point Barrow eastward toward Hudson Bay and probably northwards to the Arctic Archipelago \| <small>Currently (2025) synonymized under C. l. occidentalis</small> \|} List of extinct subspecies {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Fossil subspecies of Canis lupus \|- ! scope"col" width12%\| Subspecies ! scope"col" width12%\| Image ! scope"col" width12%\| Authority ! scope"col" width20%\| Description ! scope"col" width18%\| Range ! scope"col" width26%\| Taxonomic synonyms \|- ! scope="row" \| † C. l. maximus \| \|Boudadi-Maligne, 2012 \|The largest subspecies of all known extinct and extant wolves from Western Europe. The wolf's long bones are 10% longer than those of extant European wolves, 12% larger than those of C. l. santenaisiensis and 20% longer than those of C. l. lunellensis. \|Its bone proportions are close to those of the Canadian Arctic-boreal mountain-adapted timber wolf and a little larger than those of the modern European wolf. \|Across Europe \|<small>brevis Kuzmina, 1994</small> \|- ! scope="row" \| † Unnamed Late Pleistocene Italian subspecies \| \|Berte, Pandolfi, 2014 \|Known from fragmentary remains, it was a large subspecies comparable in size and shape to C. l. maximus. \| One of the largest North American subspecies, similar to pambasileus. Its fur color is silver-gray or brindle-black. \|The Kenai Peninsula, Alaska \| <small>Currently (2025) synonymized under C. l. occidentalis</small> \|- ! scope="row" \| † C. l. beothucus<br />Newfoundland wolf \| \| G. M. Allen and Barbour, 1937 \| A medium-sized, white-furred subspecies. Its former range is slowly being claimed by its relative, the Labrador wolf (C. l. labradorius). \| Newfoundland \| <small>Currently (2025) synonymized under C. l. nubilus</small> \|- ! scope="row" \| † C. l. bernardi<br />Banks Island wolf \| \|Anderson, 1943 \| A large, slender subspecies with a narrow muzzle and large carnassials. \|Limited to Banks and Victoria Islands in the Canadian Arctic \|<small>banksianus Anderson, 1943</small> <small>Currently (2025) synonymized under C. l. arctos</small> \|- ! scope="row" \| † C. l. floridanus<br />Florida black wolf<br /><small>but refer Synonyms</small> \| \| Miller, 1912 \| A jet-black subspecies that is described as having been extremely similar to the red wolf in both size and weight. This subspecies became extinct in 1908. \| Florida \|<small>Currently (2025) recognized as a subspecies of Canis rufus \| The Cascade Range \| <small>gigas Townsend, 1850</small> <small>Currently (2025) synonymized under C. l. nubilus</small> \|- ! scope="row" \| † C. l. gregoryi<br />Mississippi Valley wolf<br /><small>but refer Synonyms</small> \| \| Goldman, 1937 \|In and around the lower Mississippi River basin \| <small>Currently (2025) recognized as a subspecies of Canis rufus <small>Currently (2025) synonymized under C. l. occidentalis</small> \|- ! scope="row" \| † C. l. hattai<br />Hokkaidō wolf \| \| Kishida, 1931 \| Similar in size, and related to, the wolves of North America. \| Hokkaido, Sakhalin, \| <small>rex Pocock, 1935</small> \|- ! scope="row" \| † C. l. hodophilax<br />Japanese wolf \| \| Temminck, 1839 \| Smaller in size compared to other subspecies, except for the Arabian wolf (C. l. arabs). \| <small>japonicus Nehring, 1885</small> \|- ! scope="row" \| † C. l. mogollonensis<br />Mogollon Mountains wolf \| \| Goldman, 1937 \| Arizona and New Mexico \| <small>Currently (2025) synonymized under C. l. nubilus</small> \|- ! scope="row" \| † C. l. monstrabilis<br />Texas wolf \| \| Goldman, 1937 \| Texas, New Mexico, and northern Mexico \| <small>niger Bartram, 1791</small> <small>Currently (2025) synonymized under C. l. nubilus</small> \|- ! scope="row" \| † C. l. youngi<br />Southern Rocky Mountain wolf \| \| Goldman, 1937 \| Southeastern Idaho, southwestern Wyoming, northeastern Nevada, Utah, western and central Colorado, northwestern Arizona and northwestern New Mexico \| <small>Currently (2025) synonymized under C. l. nubilus</small> \|} Subspecies discovered since the publishing of MSW3 in 2005 which have gone extinct over the past 150 years: {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Extinct subspecies of Canis lupus \|- ! scope"col" width12%\| Subspecies ! scope"col" width12%\| Image ! scope"col" width12%\| Authority ! scope"col" width20%\| Description ! scope"col" width18%\| Range ! scope"col" width26%\| Taxonomic synonyms \|- ! scope="row" \| † Canis lupus cristaldii<br />Sicilian wolf \| \| Angelici and Rossi, 2018 \| A slender, short-legged subspecies with light, tawny-colored fur. The dark bands present on the forelimbs of the mainland Italian wolf were absent or poorly defined in the Sicilian wolf. \| Sicily \| \|} Disputed subspecies Global In 2019, a workshop hosted by the IUCN/SSC Canid Specialist Group considered the New Guinea singing dog and the dingo to be feral dogs (Canis familiaris). In 2020, a literature review of canid domestication stated that modern dogs were not descended from the same Canis lineage as modern wolves, and proposed that dogs may be descended from a Pleistocene wolf closer in size to a village dog. In 2021, the American Society of Mammalogists also considered dingos a feral dog (Canis familiaris) population. Altobello's classification was later rejected by several authors, including Reginald Innes Pocock, who synonymised C. l. italicus with C. l. lupus. In 2002, the noted paleontologist R.M. Nowak reaffirmed the morphological distinctiveness of the Italian wolf and recommended the recognition of Canis lupus italicus. In 2004, the genetic distinction of the Italian wolf subspecies was supported by analysis which consistently assigned all the wolf genotypes of a sample in Italy to a single group. This population also showed a unique mitochondrial DNA control-region haplotype, the absence of private alleles and lower heterozygosity at microsatellite loci, as compared to other wolf populations. In 2010, a genetic analysis indicated that a single wolf haplotype (w22) unique to the Apennine Peninsula and one of the two haplotypes (w24, w25), unique to the Iberian Peninsula, belonged to the same haplogroup as the prehistoric wolves of Europe. Another haplotype (w10) was found to be common to the Iberian peninsula and the Balkans. These three populations with geographic isolation exhibited a near lack of gene flow and spatially correspond to three glacial refugia.Iberian wolf The Iberian wolf was first recognised as a distinct subspecies (Canis lupus signatus) in 1907 by zoologist Ángel Cabrera. The wolves of the Iberian peninsula have morphologically distinct features from other Eurasian wolves and each are considered by their researchers to represent their own subspecies. The taxonomic reference Mammal Species of the World (3rd edition, 2005) does not recognize Canis lupus signatus; however, NCBI/Genbank does list it.Himalayan wolf \|cladogram \|2=Late Pleistocene wolf† }} \|2=Indian plains wolf }} \|2=Himalayan wolf }} }} }} The Himalayan wolf is distinguished by its mitochondrial DNA, which is basal to all other wolves. The taxonomic name of this wolf is disputed, with the species Canis himalayensis being proposed based on two limited DNA studies. Indian plains wolf The Indian plains wolf is a proposed clade within the Indian wolf (Canis lupus pallipes) that is distinguished by its mitochondrial DNA, which is basal to all other wolves except for the Himalayan wolf. The taxonomic status of this wolf clade is disputed, with the separate species Canis indica being proposed based on two limited DNA studies.Southern Chinese wolfIn 2017, a comprehensive study found that the gray wolf was present across all of mainland China, both in the past and today. It exists in southern China, which refutes claims made by some researchers in the Western world that the wolf had never existed in southern China. In 2021, the American Society of Mammalogists also considered Canis lycaon a valid species.Red wolf The red wolf is an enigmatic taxon, of which there are two proposals over its origin. One is that the red wolf is a distinct species (C. rufus) that has undergone human-influenced admixture with coyotes. The other is that it was never a distinct species but was derived from past admixture between coyotes and gray wolves, due to the gray wolf population being eliminated by humans. The taxonomic reference Mammal Species of the World (3rd edition, 2005) does not recognize Canis rufus; however, NCBI/Genbank does list it. In 2021, the American Society of Mammalogists also considered Canis rufus a valid species.See also * List of gray wolf populations by country * Wolf distribution * Cave wolf * Pleistocene wolf Notes References External links * [https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topicTSN&search_value180596 Canis lupus on the ITIS] (Integrated Taxonomic Information System) Canis lupus	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subspecies_of_Canis_lupus	2025-04-05T18:27:56.601310
6742	Central Asia	\| population 75,897,577 (2021) (16th) \| density \| GDP_nominal $446 billion (2023) \| GDP_PPP $1.25 trillion (2023) The countries as a group are also colloquially referred to as the "-stans" as all have names ending with the Persian suffix "-stan" (meaning ) in both respective native languages and most other languages. The region is bounded by the Caspian Sea to the southwest, European Russia to the northwest, China and Mongolia to the east, Afghanistan and Iran to the south, and Siberia to the north. In the pre-Islamic and early Islamic eras ( and earlier) Central Asia was inhabited predominantly by Iranian peoples, populated by Eastern Iranian-speaking Bactrians, Sogdians, Chorasmians, and the semi-nomadic Scythians and Dahae. As the result of Turkic migration, Central Asia also became the homeland for the Kazakhs, Kyrgyzs, Tatars, Turkmens, Uyghurs, and Uzbeks; Turkic languages largely replaced the Iranian languages spoken in the area, with the exception of Tajikistan and areas where Tajik is spoken. The Silk Road trade routes crossed through Central Asia, leading to the rise of prosperous trade cities. acting as a crossroads for the movement of people, goods, and ideas between Europe and the Far East. Most countries in Central Asia are still integral to parts of the world economy. From the mid-19th century until near the end of the 20th century, Central Asia was colonised by the Russians, and incorporated into the Russian Empire, and later the Soviet Union, which led to Russians and other Slavs migrating into the area. Modern-day Central Asia is home to a large population of descendants of European settlers, who mostly live in Kazakhstan: 7 million Russians, 500,000 Ukrainians, and about 170,000 Germans. During the Stalinist period, the forced deportation of Koreans in the Soviet Union resulted in a population of over 300,000 Koreans in the region. Central Asia has a population of about 72<!-- not including the population of Afghanistan--> million, in five countries: Kazakhstan (\|,\|\|}}/1e6 round 0}} million), Kyrgyzstan (\|,\|\|}}/1e6 round 0}} million), Tajikistan (\|,\|\|}}/1e6 round 0}} million), Turkmenistan (\|,\|\|}}/1e6 round 0}} million), and Uzbekistan (35million). Definitions One of the first geographers to mention Central Asia as a distinct region of the world was Alexander von Humboldt. The borders of Central Asia are subject to multiple definitions. Historically, political geography and culture have been two significant parameters widely used in scholarly definitions of Central Asia. Humboldt's definition comprised every country between 5° North and 5° South of the latitude 44.5°N. Humboldt mentions some geographic features of this region, which include the Caspian Sea in the west, the Altai mountains in the north and the Hindu Kush and Pamir mountains in the South. He did not give an eastern border for the region. His legacy is still seen: Humboldt University of Berlin, named after him, offers a course in Central Asian studies. The Russian geographer Nikolaĭ Khanykov questioned the latitudinal definition of Central Asia and preferred a physical one of all countries located in the region landlocked from water, including Afghanistan, Khorasan (Northeast Iran), Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uyghuristan (Xinjiang), Mongolia, and Uzbekistan. , the most commonly added country to Central Asia, in green. Regions that are sometimes considered part of Central Asia in light green.]] Russian culture has two distinct terms: Средняя Азия (Srednyaya Aziya or "Middle Asia", the narrower definition, which includes only those traditionally non-Slavic, Central Asian lands that were incorporated within those borders of historical Russia) and Центральная Азия (Tsentralnaya Aziya or "Central Asia", the wider definition, which includes Central Asian lands that have never been part of historical Russia). The latter definition includes Afghanistan and 'East Turkestan'. The most limited definition was the official one of the Soviet Union, which defined Middle Asia as consisting solely of Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan, omitting Kazakhstan. Soon after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the leaders of the four former Soviet Central Asian Republics met in Tashkent and declared that the definition of Central Asia should include Kazakhstan as well as the original four included by the Soviets. Since then, this has become the most common definition of Central Asia. In 1978, UNESCO defined the region as "Afghanistan, north-eastern Iran, Pakistan, northern India, western China, Mongolia and the Soviet Central Asian Republics". An alternative method is to define the region based on ethnicity, and in particular, areas populated by Eastern Turkic, Eastern Iranian, or Mongolian peoples. These areas include Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, the Turkic regions of southern Siberia, the five republics, and Afghan Turkestan. Afghanistan as a whole, the northern and western areas of Pakistan and the Kashmir Valley of India may also be included. The Tibetans and Ladakhis are also included. Most of the mentioned peoples are considered the "indigenous" peoples of the vast region. Central Asia is sometimes referred to as Turkestan. Geography ]] Central Asia is a region of varied geography, including high passes and mountains (Tian Shan), vast deserts (Kyzyl Kum, Taklamakan), and especially treeless, grassy steppes. The vast steppe areas of Central Asia are considered together with the steppes of Eastern Europe as a homogeneous geographical zone known as the Eurasian Steppe. Much of the land of Central Asia is too dry or too rugged for farming. The Gobi Desert extends from the foot of the Pamirs, 77°E, to the Great Khingan (Da Hinggan) Mountains, 116°–118°E. in Kazakhstan has a semi-arid, continental climate]] Central Asia has the following geographic extremes: * The world's northernmost desert (sand dunes), at Buurug Deliin Els, Mongolia, 50°18'N. * The Northern Hemisphere's southernmost permafrost, at Erdenetsogt sum, Mongolia, 46°17'N. * The world's shortest distance between non-frozen desert and permafrost: . * The Eurasian pole of inaccessibility. A majority of the people earn a living by herding livestock. Industrial activity centers in the region's cities. Major rivers of the region include the Amu Darya, the Syr Darya, Irtysh, the Hari River and the Murghab River. Major bodies of water include the Aral Sea and Lake Balkhash, both of which are part of the huge west-central Asian endorheic basin that also includes the Caspian Sea. Both of these bodies of water have shrunk significantly in recent decades due to the diversion of water from rivers that feed them for irrigation and industrial purposes. Water is an extremely valuable resource in arid Central Asia and can lead to rather significant international disputes. Historical regions }} }} }} Central Asia is bounded on the north by the forests of Siberia. The northern half of Central Asia (Kazakhstan) is the middle part of the Eurasian steppe. Westward the Kazakh steppe merges into the Russian-Ukrainian steppe and eastward into the steppes and deserts of Dzungaria and Mongolia. Southward the land becomes increasingly dry and the nomadic population increasingly thin. The south supports areas of dense population and cities wherever irrigation is possible. The main irrigated areas are along the eastern mountains, along the Oxus and Jaxartes Rivers and along the north flank of the Kopet Dagh near the Persian border. East of the Kopet Dagh is the important oasis of Merv and then a few places in Afghanistan like Herat and Balkh. Two projections of the Tian Shan create three "bays" along the eastern mountains. The largest, in the north, is eastern Kazakhstan, traditionally called Jetysu or Semirechye which contains Lake Balkhash. In the center is the small but densely-populated Ferghana valley. In the south is Bactria, later called Tocharistan, which is bounded on the south by the Hindu Kush mountains of Afghanistan. The Syr Darya (Jaxartes) rises in the Ferghana valley and the Amu Darya (Oxus) rises in Bactria. Both flow northwest into the Aral Sea. Where the Oxus meets the Aral Sea it forms a large delta called Khwarazm and later the Khanate of Khiva. North of the Oxus is the less-famous but equally important Zarafshan River which waters the great trading cities of Bokhara and Samarkand. The other great commercial city was Tashkent northwest of the mouth of the Ferghana valley. The land immediately north of the Oxus was called Transoxiana and also Sogdia, especially when referring to the Sogdian merchants who dominated the silk road trade. To the east, Dzungaria and the Tarim Basin were united into the Manchu-Chinese province of Xinjiang (Sinkiang; Hsin-kiang) about 1759. Caravans from China usually went along the north or south side of the Tarim basin and joined at Kashgar before crossing the mountains northwest to Ferghana or southwest to Bactria. A minor branch of the silk road went north of the Tian Shan through Dzungaria and Zhetysu before turning southwest near Tashkent. Nomadic migrations usually moved from Mongolia through Dzungaria before turning southwest to conquer the settled lands or continuing west toward Europe. The Kyzyl Kum Desert or semi-desert is between the Oxus and Jaxartes, and the Karakum Desert is between the Oxus and Kopet Dagh in Turkmenistan. Khorasan meant approximately northeast Persia and northern Afghanistan. Margiana was the region around Merv. The Ustyurt Plateau is between the Aral and Caspian Seas. To the southwest, across the Kopet Dagh, lies Persia. From here Persian and Islamic civilisation penetrated Central Asia and dominated its high culture until the Russian conquest. In the southeast is the route to India. In early times Buddhism spread north and throughout much of history warrior kings and tribes would move southeast to establish their rule in northern India. Most nomadic conquerors entered from the northeast. After 1800 western civilisation in its Russian and Soviet form penetrated from the northwest. ;Names of historical regions * Ariana * Bactria * Dahistan * Khorasan * Khwarazm * Margiana * Parthia * Sogdia * Tokharistan * Transoxiana * Turan * Turkestan Climate Because Central Asia is landlocked and not buffered by a large body of water, temperature fluctuations are often severe, excluding the hot, sunny summer months. In most areas, the climate is dry and continental, with hot summers and cool to cold winters, with occasional snowfall. Outside high-elevation areas, the climate is mostly semi-arid to arid. In lower elevations, summers are hot with blazing sunshine. Winters feature occasional rain or snow from low-pressure systems that cross the area from the Mediterranean Sea. Average monthly precipitation is very low from July to September, rises in autumn (October and November) and is highest in March or April, followed by swift drying in May and June. Winds can be strong, producing dust storms sometimes, especially toward the end of the summer in September and October. Specific cities that exemplify Central Asian climate patterns include Tashkent and Samarkand, Uzbekistan, Ashgabat, Turkmenistan, and Dushanbe, Tajikistan. The last of these represents one of the wettest climates in Central Asia, with an average annual precipitation of over . Biogeographically, Central Asia is part of the Palearctic realm. The largest biome in Central Asia is the temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome. Central Asia also contains the montane grasslands and shrublands, deserts and xeric shrublands and temperate coniferous forests biomes. Climate change . Mid-range scenarios are currently considered more likely]] As of 2022, there has been a scarcity of research on climate impacts in Central Asia, even though it experiences faster warming than the global average and is generally considered to be one of the more climate-vulnerable regions in the world. Along with West Asia, it has already had greater increases in hot temperature extremes than the other parts of Asia, History Although, during the golden age of Orientalism the place of Central Asia in the world history was marginalised, contemporary historiography has rediscovered the "centrality" of the Central Asia. The history of Central Asia is defined by the area's climate and geography. The aridness of the region made agriculture difficult, and its distance from the sea cut it off from much trade. Thus, few major cities developed in the region; instead, the area was for millennia dominated by the nomadic horse peoples of the steppe. from the Pontic steppes and across Central Asia. The Andronovo culture existed in Central Asia in the 2nd millennium BC.]] speaking populations in Central Asia during the Iron Age (highlighted in green)]] Relations between the steppe nomads and the settled people in and around Central Asia were long marked by conflict. The nomadic lifestyle was well suited to warfare, and the steppe horse riders became some of the most militarily potent people in the world, limited only by their lack of internal unity. Any internal unity that was achieved was most probably due to the influence of the Silk Road, which traveled along Central Asia. Periodically, great leaders or changing conditions would organise several tribes into one force and create an almost unstoppable power. These included the Hun invasion of Europe, the Five Barbarians rebellions in China and most notably the Mongol conquest of much of Eurasia. During pre-Islamic and early Islamic times, Central Asia was inhabited predominantly by speakers of Iranian languages. Among the ancient sedentary Iranian peoples, the Sogdians and Chorasmians played an important role, while Iranian peoples such as Scythians and the later on Alans lived a nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle. The main migration of Turkic peoples occurred between the 6th and 11th centuries, when they spread across most of Central Asia. The Eurasian Steppe slowly transitioned from Indo European and Iranian-speaking groups with dominant West-Eurasian ancestry to a more heterogeneous region with increasing East Asian ancestry through Turkic and Mongolian groups in the past thousands years, including extensive Turkic and later Mongol migrations out of Mongolia and slow assimilation of local populations. In the 8th century AD, the Islamic expansion reached the region but had no significant demographic impact. In the 13th century AD, the Mongolian invasion of Central Asia brought most of the region under Mongolian influence, which had "enormous demographic success", but did not impact the cultural or linguistic landscape. Invasion routes through Central Asia at its greatest extent. The gray area is the later Timurid Empire.]] Once populated by Iranian tribes and other Indo-European speaking people, Central Asia experienced numerous invasions emanating out of Southern Siberia and Mongolia that would drastically affect the region. Genetic data shows that the different Central Asian Turkic-speaking peoples have between ~22% and ~70% East Asian ancestry (represented by "Baikal hunter-gatherer ancestry" shared with other Northeast Asians and Eastern Siberians), in contrast to Iranian-speaking Central Asians, specifically Tajiks, which display genetic continuity to Indo-Iranians of the Iron Age. Certain Turkic ethnic groups, specifically the Kazakhs, display even higher East Asian ancestry. This is explained by substantial Mongolian influence on the Kazakh genome, through significant admixture between blue eyes, blonde hair, the medieval Kipchaks of Central Asia and the invading medieval Mongolians. The data suggests that the Mongol invasion of Central Asia had lasting impacts onto the genetic makeup of Kazakhs. , –1880]] According to recent genetic genealogy testing, the genetic admixture of the Uzbeks clusters somewhere between the Iranian peoples and the Mongols. Another study shows that the Uzbeks are closely related to other Turkic peoples of Central Asia and rather distant from Iranian people. The study also analysed the maternal and paternal DNA haplogroups and shows that Turkic speaking groups are more homogenous than Iranian speaking groups. Genetic studies analyzing the full genome of Uzbeks and other Central Asian populations found that about ~27-60% of the Uzbek ancestry is derived from East Asian sources, with the remainder ancestry (~40–73%) being made up by European and Middle Eastern components. According to a recent study, the Kyrgyz, Kazakhs, Uzbeks, and Turkmens share more of their gene pool with various East Asian and Siberian populations than with West Asian or European populations, though the Turkmens have a large percentage from populations to the east, their main components are Central Asian. The study further suggests that both migration and linguistic assimilation helped to spread the Turkic languages in Eurasia. Medieval to modern history was the last great nomadic empire in Central Asia.]] The Tang dynasty of China expanded westwards and controlled large parts of Central Asia, directly and indirectly through their Turkic vassals. Tang China actively supported the Turkification of Central Asia, while extending its cultural influence. The Tang Chinese were defeated by the Abbasid Caliphate at the Battle of Talas in 751, marking the end of the Tang dynasty's western expansion and the 150 years of Chinese influence. The Tibetan Empire would take the chance to rule portions of Central Asia and South Asia. During the 13th and 14th centuries, the Mongols conquered and ruled the largest contiguous empire in recorded history. Most of Central Asia fell under the control of the Chagatai Khanate. The dominance of the nomads ended in the 16th century, as firearms allowed settled peoples to gain control of the region. Russia, China, and other powers expanded into the region and had captured the bulk of Central Asia by the end of the 19th century. The Qing dynasty gained control of East Turkestan in the 18th century as a result of a long struggle with the Dzungars. The Russian Empire conquered the lands of the nomadic Kazakhs, Turkmens, Kyrgyz and Central Asian khanates in the 19th century. A major revolt known as the Dungan Revolt occurred in the 1860s and 1870s in the eastern part of Central Asia, and Qing rule almost collapsed in all of East Turkestan. After the Russian Revolution, the western Central Asian regions were incorporated into the Soviet Union. The eastern part of Central Asia, known as Xinjiang, was incorporated into the People's Republic of China, having been previously ruled by the Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Mongolia gained its independence from China and has remained independent but became a Soviet satellite state until the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Afghanistan remained relatively independent of major influence by the Soviet Union until the Saur Revolution of 1978. during the Russian conquest of Bukhara, 1868]] The Soviet areas of Central Asia saw much industrialisation and construction of infrastructure, but also the suppression of local cultures, hundreds of thousands of deaths from failed collectivisation programmes, and a lasting legacy of ethnic tensions and environmental problems. Soviet authorities deported millions of people, including entire nationalities, from western areas of the Soviet Union to Central Asia and Siberia. According to Touraj Atabaki and Sanjyot Mehendale, "From 1959 to 1970, about two million people from various parts of the Soviet Union migrated to Central Asia, of which about one million moved to Kazakhstan." After the collapse of the Soviet Union With the collapse of the Soviet Union, five countries gained independence, that is, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. The historian and Turkologist Peter B. Golden explains that without the imperial manipulations of the Russian Empire but above all the Soviet Union, the creation of said republics would have been impossible. In nearly all the new states, former Communist Party officials retained power as local strongmen. None of the new republics could be considered functional democracies in the early days of independence, although in recent years Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan and Mongolia have made further progress towards more open societies, unlike Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan, which have maintained many Soviet-style repressive tactics. Beginning in the early 2000s, the Chinese government engaged in a series of human rights abuses against Uyghurs and other ethnic and religious minorities in Xinjiang. Culture Arts ovsk, Kazakhstan]] At the crossroads of Asia, shamanistic practices live alongside Buddhism. Thus, Yama, Lord of Death, was revered in Tibet as a spiritual guardian and judge. Mongolian Buddhism, in particular, was influenced by Tibetan Buddhism. The Qianlong Emperor of Qing China in the 18th century was Tibetan Buddhist and would sometimes travel from Beijing to other cities for personal religious worship. during a forum in Bukhara.]] Central Asia also has an indigenous form of improvisational oral poetry that is over 1000 years old. It is principally practiced in Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan by akyns, lyrical improvisationalists. They engage in lyrical battles, the aytysh or the alym sabak. The tradition arose out of early bardic oral historians. They are usually accompanied by a stringed instrument—in Kyrgyzstan, a three-stringed komuz, and in Kazakhstan, a similar two-stringed instrument, the dombra. Photography in Central Asia began to develop after 1882, when a Russian Mennonite photographer named Wilhelm Penner moved to the Khanate of Khiva during the Mennonite migration to Central Asia led by Claas Epp, Jr. Upon his arrival to Khanate of Khiva, Penner shared his photography skills with a local student Khudaybergen Divanov, who later became the founder of Uzbek photography. in Hazrat-e Turkestan, Kazakhstan. Timurid architecture consisted of Persian art.]] Some also learn to sing the Manas, Kyrgyzstan's epic poem (those who learn the Manas exclusively but do not improvise are called manaschis). During Soviet rule, akyn performance was co-opted by the authorities and subsequently declined in popularity. With the fall of the Soviet Union, it has enjoyed a resurgence, although akyns still do use their art to campaign for political candidates. A 2005 The Washington Post article proposed a similarity between the improvisational art of akyns and modern freestyle rap performed in the West. As a consequence of Russian colonisation, European fine arts – painting, sculpture and graphics – have developed in Central Asia. The first years of the Soviet regime saw the appearance of modernism, which took inspiration from the Russian avant-garde movement. Until the 1980s, Central Asian arts had developed along with general tendencies of Soviet arts. In the 90s, arts of the region underwent some significant changes. Institutionally speaking, some fields of arts were regulated by the birth of the art market, some stayed as representatives of official views, while many were sponsored by international organisations. The years of 1990–2000 were times for the establishment of contemporary arts. In the region, many important international exhibitions are taking place, Central Asian art is represented in European and American museums, and the Central Asian Pavilion at the Venice Biennale has been organised since 2005. Sports man on a horse with golden eagle]] Equestrian sports are traditional in Central Asia, with disciplines like endurance riding, buzkashi, dzhigit and kyz kuu. The traditional game of Buzkashi is played throughout the Central Asian region, the countries sometimes organise Buzkashi competition amongst each other. The First regional competition among the Central Asian countries, Russia, Chinese Xinjiang and Turkey was held in 2013. The first world title competition was played in 2017 and won by Kazakhstan. Association football is popular across Central Asia. Most countries are members of the Central Asian Football Association, a region of the Asian Football Confederation. However, Kazakhstan is a member of the UEFA. Wrestling is popular across Central Asia, with Kazakhstan having claimed 14 Olympic medals, Uzbekistan seven, and Kyrgyzstan three. As former Soviet states, Central Asian countries have been successful in gymnastics. Mixed Martial Arts is one of more common sports in Central Asia, Kyrgyz athlete Valentina Shevchenko holding the UFC Flyweight Champion title. Cricket is the most popular sport in Afghanistan. The Afghanistan national cricket team, first formed in 2001, has claimed wins over Bangladesh, West Indies and Zimbabwe. Notable Kazakh competitors include cyclists Alexander Vinokourov and Andrey Kashechkin, boxer Vassiliy Jirov and Gennady Golovkin, runner Olga Shishigina, decathlete Dmitriy Karpov, gymnast Aliya Yussupova, judoka Askhat Zhitkeyev and Maxim Rakov, skier Vladimir Smirnov, weightlifter Ilya Ilyin, and figure skaters Denis Ten and Elizabet Tursynbaeva. Notable Uzbekistani competitors include cyclist Djamolidine Abdoujaparov, boxer Ruslan Chagaev, canoer Michael Kolganov, gymnast Oksana Chusovitina, tennis player Denis Istomin, chess player Rustam Kasimdzhanov, and figure skater Misha Ge. Economy Since gaining independence in the early 1990s, the Central Asian republics have gradually been moving from a state-controlled economy to a market economy. However, reform has been deliberately gradual and selective, as governments strive to limit the social cost and ameliorate living standards. All five countries are implementing structural reforms to improve competitiveness. Kazakhstan is the only CIS country to be included in the 2020 and 2019 IWB World Competitiveness rankings. In particular, they have been modernizing the industrial sector and fostering the development of service industries through business-friendly fiscal policies and other measures, to reduce the share of agriculture in GDP. Between 2005 and 2013, the share of agriculture dropped in all but Tajikistan, where it increased while industry decreased. The fastest growth in industry was observed in Turkmenistan, whereas the services sector progressed most in the other four countries. Although both exports and imports have grown significantly over the past decade, Central Asian republics countries remain vulnerable to economic shocks, owing to their reliance on exports of raw materials, a restricted circle of trading partners and a negligible manufacturing capacity. Kyrgyzstan has the added disadvantage of being considered resource poor, although it does have ample water. Most of its electricity is generated by hydropower. In terms of the economic influence of big powers, China is viewed as one of the key economic players in Central Asia, especially after Beijing launched its grand development strategy known as the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in 2013. The Central Asian countries attracted $378.2billion of foreign direct investment (FDI) between 2007 and 2019. Kazakhstan accounted for 77.7% of the total FDI directed to the region. Kazakhstan is also the largest country in Central Asia accounting for more than 60 percent of the region's gross domestic product (GDP). Central Asian nations fared better economically throughout the COVID-19 pandemic. Many variables are likely to have been at play, but disparities in economic structure, the intensity of the pandemic, and accompanying containment efforts may all be linked to part of the variety in nations' experiences. Central Asian countries are, however, predicted to be hit the worst in the future. Only 4% of permanently closed businesses anticipate to return in the future, with huge differences across sectors, ranging from 3% in lodging and food services to 27% in retail commerce. In 2022, experts assessed that global climate change is likely to pose multiple economic risks to Central Asia and may possibly result in many billions of losses unless proper adaptation measures are developed to counter growing temperatures across the region. Education, science and technology Modernisation of research infrastructure Bolstered by strong economic growth in all but Kyrgyzstan, national development strategies are fostering new high-tech industries, pooling resources and orienting the economy towards export markets. Many national research institutions established during the Soviet era have since become obsolete with the development of new technologies and changing national priorities. This has led countries to reduce the number of national research institutions since 2009 by grouping existing institutions to create research hubs. Several of the Turkmen Academy of Sciences's institutes were merged in 2014: the Institute of Botany was merged with the Institute of Medicinal Plants to become the Institute of Biology and Medicinal Plants; the Sun Institute was merged with the Institute of Physics and Mathematics to become the Institute of Solar Energy; and the Institute of Seismology merged with the State Service for Seismology to become the Institute of Seismology and Atmospheric Physics. In Uzbekistan, more than 10 institutions of the Academy of Sciences have been reorganised, following the issuance of a decree by the Cabinet of Ministers in February 2012. The aim is to orient academic research towards problem-solving and ensure continuity between basic and applied research. For example, the Mathematics and Information Technology Research Institute has been subsumed under the National University of Uzbekistan and the Institute for Comprehensive Research on Regional Problems of Samarkand has been transformed into a problem-solving laboratory on environmental issues within Samarkand State University. Other research institutions have remained attached to the Uzbek Academy of Sciences, such as the Centre of Genomics and Bioinformatics. Kazakhstan and Tajikistan participated in the Innovative Biotechnologies Programme (2011–2015) launched by the Eurasian Economic Community, the predecessor of the Eurasian Economic Union, The programme also involved Belarus and the Russian Federation. Within this programme, prizes were awarded at an annual bio-industry exhibition and conference. In 2012, 86 Russian organisations participated, plus three from Belarus, one from Kazakhstan and three from Tajikistan, as well as two scientific research groups from Germany. At the time, Vladimir Debabov, scientific director of the Genetika State Research Institute for Genetics and the Selection of Industrial Micro-organisms in the Russian Federation, stressed the paramount importance of developing bio-industry. "In the world today, there is a strong tendency to switch from petrochemicals to renewable biological sources", he said. "Biotechnology is developing two to three times faster than chemicals." Four of the five Central Asian republics have also been involved in a project launched by the European Union in September 2013, IncoNet CA. The aim of this project is to encourage Central Asian countries to participate in research projects within Horizon 2020, the European Union's eighth research and innovation funding programme. The focus of this research projects is on three societal challenges considered as being of mutual interest to both the European Union and Central Asia, namely: climate change, energy and health. IncoNet CA builds on the experience of earlier projects which involved other regions, such as Eastern Europe, the South Caucasus and the Western Balkans. IncoNet CA focuses on twinning research facilities in Central Asia and Europe. It involves a consortium of partner institutions from Austria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Germany, Hungary, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Poland, Portugal, Tajikistan, Turkey and Uzbekistan. In May 2014, the European Union launched a 24-month call for project applications from twinned institutions – universities, companies and research institutes – for funding of up to €10, 000 to enable them to visit one another's facilities to discuss project ideas or prepare joint events like workshops. \| style="text-align:right;" \| 69.1 \| style="text-align:right;" \| $92.332billion \| style="text-align:right;" \| $2,563 \| style="text-align:right;" \| 0.727 \| style="text-align:left;" \| Tashkent \| style="text-align:left;" \| Uzbek \|} Demographics ]] By a broad definition including Mongolia and Afghanistan, more than 90 million people live in Central Asia, about 2% of Asia's total population. Of the regions of Asia, only North Asia has fewer people. It has a population density of 9 people per km<sup>2</sup>, vastly less than the 80.5 people per km<sup>2</sup> of the continent as a whole. Kazakhstan is one of the least densely populated countries in the world. Languages Russian, as well as being spoken by around six million ethnic Russians and Ukrainians of Central Asia, is the de facto lingua franca throughout the former Soviet Central Asian Republics. Mandarin Chinese has an equally dominant presence in Inner Mongolia, Qinghai and Xinjiang. The languages of the majority of the inhabitants of the former Soviet Central Asian Republics belong to the Turkic language group. Turkmen is mainly spoken in Turkmenistan, and as a minority language in Afghanistan, Russia, Iran and Turkey. Kazakh and Kyrgyz are related languages of the Kypchak group of Turkic languages and are spoken throughout Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and as a minority language in Tajikistan, Afghanistan and Xinjiang. Uzbek and Uyghur are spoken in Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Afghanistan and Xinjiang. Middle Iranian languages were once spoken throughout Central Asia, such as the once prominent Sogdian, Khwarezmian, Bactrian and Scythian, which are now extinct and belonged to the Eastern Iranian family. The Eastern Iranian Pashto language is still spoken in Afghanistan and northwestern Pakistan. Other minor Eastern Iranian languages such as Shughni, Munji, Ishkashimi, Sarikoli, Wakhi, Yaghnobi and Ossetic are also spoken at various places in Central Asia. Varieties of Persian are also spoken as a major language in the region, locally known as Dari (in Afghanistan), Tajik (in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan), and Bukhori (by the Bukharan Jews of Central Asia). Tocharian, another Indo-European language group, which was once predominant in oases on the northern edge of the Tarim Basin of Xinjiang, is now extinct. Other language groups include the Tibetic languages, spoken by around six million people across the Tibetan Plateau and into Qinghai, Sichuan (Szechwan), Ladakh and Baltistan, and the Nuristani languages of northeastern Afghanistan. Korean is spoken by the Koryo-saram minority, mainly in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. Religions in Uzbekistan]] Islam is the religion most common in the Central Asian Republics, Afghanistan, Xinjiang, and the peripheral western regions, such as Bashkortostan. Most Central Asian Muslims are Sunni, although there are sizable Shia minorities in Afghanistan and Tajikistan. Buddhism and Zoroastrianism were the major faiths in Central Asia before the arrival of Islam. Zoroastrian influence is still felt today in such celebrations as Nowruz, held in all five of the Central Asian states. The transmission of Buddhism along the Silk Road eventually brought the religion to China. Amongst the Turkic peoples, Tengrism was the leading religion before Islam. Tibetan Buddhism is most common in Tibet, Mongolia, Ladakh, and the southern Russian regions of Siberia. The form of Christianity most practiced in the region in previous centuries was Nestorianism, but now the largest denomination is the Russian Orthodox Church, with many members in Kazakhstan, where about 25% of the population of 19 million identify as Christian, 17% in Uzbekistan and 5% in Kyrgyzstan. Pew Research Center estimates indicate that in 2010, around 6 million Christians lived in Central Asian countries, the Pew Forum study finds that Kazakhstan (4.1 million) has the largest Christian population in the region, followed by Uzbekistan (710,000), Kyrgyzstan (660,000), Turkmenistan (320,000) and Tajikistan (100,000). The Bukharan Jews were once a sizable community in Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, but nearly all have emigrated since the dissolution of the Soviet Union. In Siberia, shaministic practices persist, including forms of divination such as Kumalak. Contact and migration with Han people from China has brought Confucianism, Daoism, Mahayana Buddhism, and other Chinese folk beliefs into the region. Central Asia is where many integral beliefs and elements in various religious traditions of Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Buddhism.]] showing the Afghan Amir Sher Ali with his "friends" Imperial Russia and the United Kingdom (1878)]] (President, Uzbekistan) in the Pentagon, March 2002]] Central Asia has long been a strategic location merely because of its proximity to several great powers on the Eurasian landmass. The region itself never held a dominant stationary population nor was able to make use of natural resources. Thus, it has rarely throughout history become the seat of power for an empire or influential state. Central Asia has been divided, redivided, conquered out of existence, and fragmented time and time again. Central Asia has served more as the battleground for outside powers than as a power in its own right. Central Asia had both the advantage and disadvantage of a central location between four historical seats of power. From its central location, it has access to trade routes to and from all the regional powers. On the other hand, it has been continuously vulnerable to attack from all sides throughout its history, resulting in political fragmentation or outright power vacuum, as it is successively dominated. * To the North, the steppe allowed for rapid mobility, first for nomadic horseback warriors like the Huns and Mongols, and later for Russian traders, eventually supported by railroads. As the Russian Empire expanded to the East, it would also push down into Central Asia towards the sea, in a search for warm water ports. The Soviet bloc would reinforce dominance from the North and attempt to project power as far south as Afghanistan. * To the East, the demographic and cultural weight of Chinese empires continually pushed outward into Central Asia since the Silk Road period of Han dynasty. However, with the Sino-Soviet split and collapse of Soviet Union, China would project its soft power into Central Asia, most notably in the case of Afghanistan, to counter Russian dominance of the region. * To the Southeast, the demographic and cultural influence of India was felt in Central Asia, notably in Tibet, the Hindu Kush, and slightly beyond. From its base in India, the British Empire competed with the Russian Empire for influence in the region in the 19th and 20th centuries. * To the Southwest, West Asian powers have expanded into the southern areas of Central Asia (usually Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, and Turkmenistan). Several Persian empires would conquer and reconquer parts of Central Asia; Alexander the Great's Hellenic empire would extend into Central Asia; two Islamic empires would exert substantial influence throughout the region; and the modern state of Iran has projected influence throughout the region as well. Turkey, through a common Turkic nation identity, has gradually increased its ties and influence as well in the region. Furthermore, since Uzbekistan announced their intention to join in April 2018, Turkey and all of the Central Asian Turkic-speaking states except Turkmenistan are together part of the Turkic Council. In the post–Cold War era, Central Asia is an ethnic cauldron, prone to instability and conflicts, without a sense of national identity, but rather a mess of historical cultural influences, tribal and clan loyalties, and religious fervor. Projecting influence into the area is no longer just Russia, but also Turkey, Iran, China, Pakistan, India and the United States: * Russia continues to dominate political decision-making throughout the former SSRs; although, as other countries move into the area, Russia's influence has begun to wane though Russia still maintains military bases in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. * The United States, with its military involvement in the region and oil diplomacy, is also significantly involved in the region's politics. * India has geographic proximity to the Central Asian region and, in addition, enjoys considerable influence on Afghanistan. India maintains a military base at Farkhor, Tajikistan, and also has extensive military relations with Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. summit in Samarkand, Uzbekistan, in 2022 ]] * Turkey also exerts considerable influence in the region on account of its ethnic and linguistic ties with the Turkic peoples of Central Asia and its involvement in the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oil pipeline. Political and economic relations are growing rapidly (e.g., Turkey recently eliminated visa requirements for citizens of the Central Asian Turkic republics). * Iran, the seat of historical empires that controlled parts of Central Asia, has historical and cultural links to the region and is vying to construct an oil pipeline from the Caspian Sea to the Persian Gulf. * Pakistan, a nuclear-armed Islamic state, has a history of political relations with neighbouring Afghanistan and is termed capable of exercising influence. For some Central Asian nations, the shortest route to the ocean lies through Pakistan. Pakistan seeks natural gas from Central Asia and supports the development of pipelines from its countries. According to an independent study, Turkmenistan is supposed to be the fifth largest natural gas field in the world. The mountain ranges and areas in northern Pakistan lie on the fringes of Greater Central Asia; the Gilgit–Baltistan region of Pakistan lies adjacent to Tajikistan, separated only by the narrow Afghan Wakhan Corridor. Being located on the northwest of South Asia, the area forming modern-day Pakistan maintained extensive historical and cultural links with the central Asian region. * Japan has an important and growing influence in Central Asia, with the master plan of the capital city of Astana in Kazakhstan being designed by Japanese architect Kisho Kurokawa, and the Central Asia plus Japan initiative designed to strengthen ties between them and promote development and stability of the region. Russian historian Lev Gumilev wrote that Xiongnu, Mongols (Mongol Empire, Zunghar Khanate) and Turkic peoples (First Turkic Khaganate, Uyghur Khaganate) played a role to stop Chinese aggression to the north. The Turkic Khaganate had special policy against Chinese assimilation policy. The region, along with Russia, is also part of "the great pivot" as per the Heartland Theory of Halford Mackinder, which says that the power which controls Central Asia—richly endowed with natural resources—shall ultimately be the "empire of the world". For example, the region is endowed with various mineral resources such as chromium, cobalt, zinc, copper, silver, lithium, lead, molybdenum and many others making it a potential major global supplier of critical materials for clean energy technologies. War on Terror In the context of the United States' War on Terror, Central Asia has once again become the center of geostrategic calculations. Pakistan's status has been upgraded by the U.S. government to Major non-NATO ally because of its central role in serving as a staging point for the invasion of Afghanistan, providing intelligence on Al-Qaeda operations in the region, and leading the hunt on Osama bin Laden. Afghanistan, which had served as a haven and source of support for Al-Qaeda under the protection of Mullah Omar and the Taliban, was the target of a U.S. invasion in 2001 and ongoing reconstruction and drug-eradication efforts. U.S. military bases have also been established in Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan, causing both Russia and the People's Republic of China to voice their concern over a permanent U.S. military presence in the region. Western governments have accused Russia, China and the former Soviet republics of justifying the suppression of separatist movements, and the associated ethnics and religion with the War on Terror. Major cultural, scientific and economic centres Cities in Central Asia {\| class="wikitable sortable" ! style="width:80px;" \| City ! style="width:90px;" \| Country ! style="width:60px;" \| Population ! style"width:200px;" classunsortable\|Image ! class=unsortable\|Information \|- \| Astana \| Kazakhstan \| <br />(2017) \| \| The capital and second largest city in Kazakhstan. After Kazakhstan gained its independence in 1991, the city and the region were renamed from Tselinograd to Aqmola. The name was often translated as "White Tombstone", but actually means "Holy Place" or "Holy Shrine". The "White Tombstone" literal translation was too appropriate for many visitors to escape notice in almost all guide books and travel accounts. In 1994, the city was designated as the future capital of the newly independent country and again renamed to the Astana after the capital was officially moved from Almaty in 1997. In 2019 the city was renamed to Nur-Sultan to honor the resigned president, but was reverted to Astana in 2022. \|- \| Almaty \| Kazakhstan \| <br />(2017) \| \| It was the capital of Kazakhstan (and its predecessor, the Kazakh SSR) from 1929 to 1998. Despite losing its status as the capital, Almaty remains the major commercial center of Kazakhstan. It is a recognised financial center of Kazakhstan and the Central Asian region. \|- \| Bishkek \| Kyrgyzstan \| <br />(2019) \| \| The capital and the largest city of Kyrgyzstan. Bishkek is also the administrative center of Chüy Region, which surrounds the city, even though the city itself is not part of the region, but rather a region-level unit of Kyrgyzstan. \|- \| Osh \| Kyrgyzstan \| <br />(2009) \| \| The second largest city of Kyrgyzstan. Osh is also the administrative center of Osh Region, which surrounds the city, even though the city itself is not part of the region, but rather a region-level unit of Kyrgyzstan. \|- \| Dushanbe \| Tajikistan \| <br />(2014) \| \| The capital and largest city of Tajikistan. Dushanbe means "Monday" in Tajik and Persian, and the name reflects the fact that the city grew on the site of a village that originally was a popular Monday marketplace. \|- \| Ashgabat \| Turkmenistan \| <br />(2014) \| \| The capital and largest city of Turkmenistan. Ashgabat is a relatively young city, growing out of a village of the same name established by Russians in 1818. It is not far from the site of Nisa, the ancient capital of the Parthians, and it grew on the ruins of the Silk Road city of Konjikala, which was first mentioned as a wine-producing village in the 2nd century BC and was leveled by an earthquake in the 1st century BC (a precursor of the 1948 Ashgabat earthquake). Konjikala was rebuilt because of its advantageous location on the Silk Road, and it flourished until its destruction by Mongols in the 13th century AD. After that, it survived as a small village until the Russians took over in the 19th century. \|- \| Bukhara \| Uzbekistan \| <br />(1999) \| \| The nation's fifth-largest city and the capital of the Bukhara Region of Uzbekistan. Bukhara has been one of the main centers of Persian civilisation from its early days in the 6th century BC, and, since the 12th century AD, Turkic speakers gradually moved in. Its architecture and archaeological sites form one of the pillars of Central Asian history and art. \|- \| Kokand \| Uzbekistan \| <br />(2011) \| \| Kokand (; ; ; Chagatai: خوقند; ) is a city in Fergana Region in eastern Uzbekistan, at the southwestern edge of the Fergana Valley. It has a population of 192,500 (1999 census estimate). Kokand is 228km southeast of Tashkent, 115km west of Andijan, and 88km west of Fergana. It is nicknamed "City of Winds", or sometimes "Town of the Boar". \|- \| Samarkand \| Uzbekistan \| <br />(2008) \| \| The second largest city in Uzbekistan and the capital of Samarqand Region. The city is most noted for its central position on the Silk Road between China and the West, and for being an Islamic center for scholarly study. It was here that the ruler Ulugh Beg (1394–1449) built a gigantic astronomical observatory. \|- \| Tashkent \| Uzbekistan \| <br />(2020) \| \| The capital and largest city of Uzbekistan. In pre-Islamic and early Islamic times, the town and the region were known as Chach. Tashkent started as an oasis on the Chirchik River, near the foothills of the Golestan Mountains. In ancient times, this area contained Beitian, probably the summer "capital" of the Kangju confederacy. \|} See also * Central Asia Regional Economic Cooperation Program * Central Asian Football Federation * Central Asian Games * Central Asian Union * Central Asians in ancient Indian literature * Chinese Central Asia * Chinese Turkestan * Continental pole of inaccessibility * Hindutash * Inner Asia * Mountains of Central Asia * Russian Turkestan References Citations Sources * Further reading * * Chow, Edward. "Central Asia's Pipelines: Field of Dreams and Reality", in [http://www.nbr.org/publications/element.aspx?id=456 Pipeline Politics in Asia: The Intersection of Demand, Energy Markets, and Supply Routes]. National Bureau of Asian Research, 2010. * Farah, Paolo Davide, Energy Security, Water Resources and Economic Development in Central Asia, World Scientific Reference on Globalisation in Eurasia and the Pacific Rim, Imperial College Press (London, UK) & World Scientific Publishing, November 2015. Available at SSRN: [http://ssrn.com/abstract=2701215 Energy Security, Water Resources and Economic Development in Central Asia] * Dani, A.H. and V.M. Masson, eds. [http://www.unesco.org/culture/asia/index-en.html History of Civilizations of Central Asia]. Paris: UNESCO, 1992.* Gorshunova. Olga V. Svjashennye derevja Khodzhi Barora..., (Sacred Trees of Khodzhi Baror: Phytolatry and the Cult of Female Deity in Central Asia) in Etnoragraficheskoe Obozrenie, 2008, n° 1, pp.71–82. . . * * * Mandelbaum, Michael, ed. Central Asia and the World: Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Turkmenistan. New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1994. * Marcinkowski, M. Ismail. Persian Historiography and Geography: Bertold Spuler on Major Works Produced in Iran, the Caucasus, Central Asia, Pakistan and Early Ottoman Turkey. Singapore: Pustaka Nasional, 2003. * Menga, Filippo (2020). [https://www.routledge.com/Power-and-Water-in-Central-Asia/Menga/p/book/9780367667351 Power and Water in Central Asia]. Routledge. * Olcott, Martha Brill. ''Central Asia's New States: Independence, Foreign policy, and Regional security. Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1996. * * Hasan Bulent Paksoy. ALPAMYSH: Central Asian Identity under Russian Rule. Hartford: AACAR, 1989. [http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/paksoy-1/ alpamysh: central asian identity under Russian rule] * Soucek, Svatopluk. A History of Inner Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. * Rall, Ted. Silk Road to Ruin: Is Central Asia the New Middle East? New York: NBM Publishing, 2006. * Stone, L.A. The International Politics of Central Eurasia'' (272 pp). Central Eurasian Studies On Line: Accessible via the Web Page of the International Eurasian Institute for Economic and Political Research: [https://web.archive.org/web/20071103154944/http://www.iicas.org/forumen.htm IEI_forum / International Eurasian Institute for Economic and Political Research] * Trochev, Alexei; Slade, Gavin (2019), in Caron, Jean-François (ed.), [https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-13-6693-2_5 "Trials and Tribulations: Kazakhstan's Criminal Justice Reforms"], Kazakhstan and the Soviet Legacy, Singapore: Springer Singapore, pp.75–99, , retrieved 4 December 2020. * Vakulchuk, Roman (2014) Kazakhstan's Emerging Economy: Between State and Market, Peter Lang: Frankfurt/Main. Available at: www.researchgate.net/publication/299731455 * Weston, David. [http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9211/asia.htm Teaching about Inner Asia] , Bloomington, Indiana: ERIC Clearinghouse for Social Studies, 1989. * Yellinek, Roie, [https://www.e-ir.info/2020/02/14/opinion-the-impact-of-chinas-belt-and-road-initiative-on-central-asia-and-the-south-caucasus/ The Impact of China's Belt and Road Initiative on Central Asia and the South Caucasus], E-International Relations, 14 February 2020. External links * * [https://gulf2000.columbia.edu/maps.shtml Central Asia ethnicity, languages, and religious composition maps] at Columbia University * [http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11743/ General Map of Central Asia I – World Digital Library] a historic map from 1874 * [https://thecentralasianchronicles.asia/ The Central Asian Chronicles] }} Category:Regions of Asia	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Asia	2025-04-05T18:27:56.704233
6744	Constantine II	Constantine II may refer to: Constantine II (emperor) (317–340), Roman Emperor 337–340 Constantine III (usurper) (died 411), known as Constantine II of Britain in British legend Patriarch Constantine II of Constantinople, Patriarch of Constantinople from 754 to 766 Antipope Constantine II (died 768), antipope from 767 to 768 Constantine II of Scotland (c.878 – 952), King of Scotland 900–942 or 943 Constantine II, Prince of Armenia (died 1129) Constantine II of Cagliari (c. 1100 – 1163) Constantine II of Torres (died 1198), called de Martis, was the giudice of Logudoro Constantine II the Woolmaker (died 1322), Catholicos of the Armenian Apostolic Church Constantine II, King of Armenia (died 1344), first Latin King of Armenian Cilicia of the Lusignan dynasty Constantine II of Bulgaria (early 1370s–1422), last emperor of Bulgaria 1396–1422. Eskender (1471–1494), Emperor of Ethiopia sometimes known as Constantine II Constantine II of Georgia (c. 1447 – 1505) Constantine II, Prince of Mukhrani (died 1716), Georgian nobleman Constantine II of Kakheti (died 1732), King of Kakheti 1722–1732 Constantine II of Greece (1940–2023), Olympic champion (1960) and formerly King of the Hellenes March 6, 1964 – June 1, 1973 See also Constantius II (317–361), Roman Emperor from 337 to 361 Constans II (630–668), Byzantine emperor from 641 to 668	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_II	2025-04-05T18:27:56.709705
6745	Couscous	Couscous () is a traditional North African dish of small in diameter, though a finer (1 mm) and larger varieties (3 mm or more) also exist in North Africa.}} steamed granules of rolled semolina that is often served with a stew spooned on top. Pearl millet, sorghum, bulgur, and other cereals are sometimes cooked in a similar way in other regions, and the resulting dishes are also sometimes called couscous. Couscous is a staple food throughout the Maghrebi cuisines of Algeria, Tunisia, Mauritania, Morocco, and Libya. It was integrated into French and European cuisine at the beginning of the twentieth century, through the French colonial empire and the Pieds-Noirs of Algeria. In 2020, couscous was added to UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage list. Etymology The word "couscous" (alternately cuscus or kuskus) was first noted in early 17th century French, from Arabic kuskus, from kaskasa 'to pound', and is probably of Berber origin. The term seksu is attested in various Berber dialects such as Kabyle and Rifain, while Saharan Berber dialects such as Touareg and Ghadames have a slightly different form, keskesu. This widespread geographical dispersion of the term strongly suggests its local Berber origin, lending further support to its likely Berber roots as Algerian linguist Salem Chaker suggests. History n couscous from Kabylia.\|left]] It is unclear when couscous originated. Food historian Lucie Bolens believes couscous originated millennia ago, during the reign of Masinissa in the ancient kingdom of Numidia in present-day Algeria. Traces of cooking vessels akin to couscoussiers have been found in graves from the 3rd century BC, from the time of the berber kings of Numidia, in the city of Tiaret, Algeria. Couscoussiers dating back to the 12th century were found in the ruins of Igiliz, located in the Sous valley of Morocco. According to food writer Charles Perry, couscous originated among the Berbers of Algeria and Morocco between the end of the 11th-century Zirid dynasty, modern-day Algeria, and the rise of the 13th-century Almohad Caliphate. The historian Maxime Rodinson found three recipes for couscous from the 13th century Arabic cookbook Kitab al-Wusla ila al-Habib, written by an Ayyubid author, Known in France since the 16th century, it was brought into French cuisine at the beginning of the 20th century via the French colonial empire and the Pieds-Noirs. Preparation Couscous is traditionally made from semolina, the hardest part of the grain of durum wheat (the hardest of all forms of wheat), which resists the grinding of the millstone. The semolina is sprinkled with water and rolled with the hands to form small pellets, sprinkled with dry flour to keep them separate, and then sieved. Any pellets that are too small to be finished, granules of couscous fall through the sieve and are again rolled and sprinkled with dry semolina and rolled into pellets. This labor-intensive process continues until all the semolina has been formed into tiny couscous granules. In the traditional method of preparing couscous, groups of people come together to make large batches over several days, which are then dried in the sun and used for several months. Handmade couscous may need to be rehydrated as it is prepared; this is achieved by a process of moistening and steaming over stew until the couscous reaches the desired light and fluffy consistency. In some regions, couscous is made from farina or coarsely ground barley or pearl millet. ), a traditional steamer for couscous.]] In modern times, couscous production is largely mechanized, and the product is sold worldwide. This couscous can be sauteed before it is cooked in water or another liquid. and voted the third most popular dish in a 2011 survey. Recognition In December 2020, Algeria, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia obtained official recognition for the knowledge, know-how, and practices pertaining to the production and consumption of couscous on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO. The joint submission by the four countries was hailed as an "example of international cooperation." Local variations and roasted chicken.]] Couscous proper is about 2 mm in diameter, but there also exists a larger variety (3 mm more) known as berkoukes, as well as an ultra-fine version (around 1 mm). Tunisia In Tunisia, couscous is usually spicy, made with harissa sauce, and served commonly with vegetables and meat, including lamb, fish, seafood, beef, and sometimes (in southern regions) camel. Fish couscous is a Tunisian specialty and can also be made with octopus, squid or other seafood in a hot, red, spicy sauce. Couscous can also be served as a dessert. It is then called Masfuf. Masfuf can also contain raisins, grapes, or pomegranate seeds. Libya In Libya, couscous is mostly served with lamb (but sometimes camel meat or, rarely, beef) in Tripoli and the western parts of Libya, but not during official ceremonies or weddings. Another way to eat couscous is as a dessert; it is prepared with dates, sesame, and pure honey and is locally referred to as maghrood. Malta In Malta, small round pasta slightly larger than typical couscous is known as kusksu. It is commonly used in a dish of the same name, which includes broad beans (known in Maltese as ful) and ġbejniet, a local type of cheese. Mauritania In Mauritania, the couscous uses large wheat grains (mabroum) and is darker than the yellow couscous of Morocco. It is cooked with lamb, beef, or camel meat together with vegetables, primarily onion, tomato, and carrots, then mixed with a sauce and served with ghee, locally known as dhen. Similar foods Couscous is made from crushed wheat flour rolled into its constituent granules or pearls, making it distinct from pasta, even pasta such as orzo and risoni of similar size, which is made from ground wheat and either molded or extruded. Couscous and pasta have similar nutritional value, although pasta is usually more refined. In the state of São Paulo, a speciality known as , is made with cornmeal, tomato sauce, tomato pieces, olive oil, boiled egg and other ingredients, such as peas, sweetcorn, hearts of palm and sardines. It is also possible to find the dish made with shredded chicken, tuna or shrimp. All the ingredients are cooked in a pan and then placed and left to set in a mould with a hole in the middle. The Mould is then inverted onto a serving dish. * Dambou is a couscous-like dish from Niger. It may be made from semolina for special occasions but is often made with rice, millet, or other grain. Moringa leaves are traditionally included in the dish. In France, this Nigerien dish has been adapted as a specific variant (called couscous aux épinards) of the Maghreb-syle couscous commonly found there, often using spinach in place of the moringa. * Fregula is a type of pasta from Sardinia. It is similar to North African Berkoukes and Middle Eastern Moghrabieh. Fregula comes in varying sizes but typically consists of semolina dough rolled into balls 2–3 mm in diameter and toasted in an oven. * Kouskousaki (Κουσκουσάκι (in Greek) or kuskus (in Turkish) is a pasta from Greece and Turkey, that is boiled and served with cheese and walnuts. * In the Levant, the dish known as moghrabieh (a reference to the Maghreb region) uses the same durum-based semolina flour but rolled into larger ( in diameter) 'pearls' to create a dish that is popular across Jordan, Lebanon and Syria. The pearls are either cooked as part of a stew or flavored with cinnamon and served alongside a chicken and chickpea broth. Palestinian maftoul uses granules that are larger than the North African variety but smaller than moghrabieh pearls ( in diameter) and made with bulgur or Semolina, or a mix of both, white or whole wheat flour are sometimes used in place of semolina, which can sometimes be expensive. It is similarly served alongside a chicken and chickpea broth. "Maftoul" is an Arabic word derived from the root "fa-ta-la," which means to roll or to twist, describing the hand-rolling method used to make the granules. Dishes with similar names Israeli couscous is an extruded and toasted pasta and does not share main ingredients or method of production with couscous. See also North African cuisine: Moroccan cuisine, Berber cuisine, Algerian cuisine, Tunisian cuisine, Libyan cuisine and Egyptian cuisine * List of Middle Eastern dishes * List of African dishes Notes References Category:Algerian cuisine Category:Arab cuisine Category:Beninese cuisine Category:Berber cuisine Category:Cape Verdean cuisine Category:Egyptian cuisine Category:French cuisine Category:Gambian cuisine Category:Greek cuisine Category:Guinean cuisine Category:Israeli cuisine Category:Italian cuisine Category:Jewish cuisine Category:Jordanian cuisine Category:Libyan cuisine Category:Maghrebi cuisine Category:Mauritanian cuisine Category:Mediterranean cuisine Category:Middle Eastern cuisine Category:Moroccan cuisine Category:Nigerien cuisine Category:Palestinian cuisine Category:Senegalese cuisine Category:Sephardi Jewish cuisine Category:Syrian cuisine Category:Tunisian cuisine Category:Turkish cuisine Category:West African cuisine Category:Vegan cuisine Category:Staple foods Category:Steamed foods Category:Wheat dishes Category:National dishes Category:Semolina dishes Category:Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Couscous	2025-04-05T18:27:56.728108
6746	Constantius II	Constantine II\|Julius Constantius\|Constantius III}} \| reign-type = Augustus \| predecessor = Constantine I \| successor = Julian \| regent \|Constans I (337–350) \|Magnentius (350–353) \|Vetranio (350) \|Nepotianus (350) \|Julian (360–361)}} }} \| reg-type = \| reign1 = 8 November 324 – \| reign-type1 = Caesar \| birth_date = 7 August 317 \| birth_place = Sirmium, Pannonia Inferior \| death_date = 3 November 361 (aged 44) \| death_place = Mopsuestia, Cilicia \| burial_place = Church of the Holy Apostles \| spouse = Daughter of Julius Constantius<br/>Eusebia<br/>Faustina \| issue = Constantia (wife of Gratian) \| full name Flavius Julius Constantius \| regnal name = Imperator Caesar Flavius Julius Constantius Augustus \| dynasty = Constantinian \| father = Constantine the Great \| mother = Fausta \| religion = Semi-Arianism }} Constantius II (; ; 7 August 317 – 3 November 361) was Roman emperor from 337 to 361. His reign saw constant warfare on the borders against the Sasanian Empire and Germanic peoples, while internally the Roman Empire went through repeated civil wars, court intrigues, and usurpations. His religious policies inflamed domestic conflicts that would continue after his death. Constantius was a son of Constantine the Great, who elevated him to the imperial rank of Caesar on 8 November 324 and after whose death Constantius became Augustus together with his brothers, Constantine II and Constans on 9 September 337. He promptly oversaw the massacre of his father-in-law, an uncle, and several cousins, consolidating his hold on power. The brothers divided the empire among themselves, with Constantius receiving Greece, Thrace, the Asian provinces, and Egypt in the east. For the following decade a costly and inconclusive war against Persia took most of Constantius's time and attention. In the meantime, his brothers Constantine and Constans warred over the western provinces of the empire, leaving the former dead in 340 and the latter as sole ruler of the west. The two remaining brothers maintained an uneasy peace with each other until, in 350, Constans was overthrown and assassinated by the usurper Magnentius. Unwilling to accept Magnentius as co-ruler, Constantius waged a civil war against the usurper, defeating him at the battles of Mursa Major in 351 and Mons Seleucus in 353. Magnentius died by suicide after the latter battle, leaving Constantius as sole ruler of the empire. In 351, Constantius elevated his cousin Constantius Gallus to the subordinate rank of Caesar to rule in the east, but had him executed three years later after receiving scathing reports of his violent and corrupt nature. Shortly thereafter, in 355, Constantius promoted his last surviving cousin, Gallus's younger half-brother Julian, to the rank of Caesar. As emperor, Constantius promoted Arianism, banned pagan sacrifices, and issued laws against Jews. His military campaigns against Germanic tribes were successful: he defeated the Alamanni in 354 and campaigned across the Danube against the Quadi and Sarmatians in 357. The war against the Sasanians, which had been in a lull since 350, erupted with renewed intensity in 359 and Constantius travelled to the east in 360 to restore stability after the loss of several border fortresses. However, Julian claimed the rank of Augustus in 360, leading to war between the two after Constantius's attempts to persuade Julian to back down failed. No battle was fought, as Constantius became ill and died of fever on 3 November 361 in Mopsuestia, allegedly naming Julian as his rightful successor before his death. Early life of Siscia , AD 327]] , Cologne]] Flavius Julius Constantius was born in 317 at Sirmium, Pannonia, now Serbia. He was the third son of Constantine the Great, and second by his second wife Fausta, the daughter of Maximian. Constantius was made caesar by his father on 8 November 324. In 336, religious unrest in Armenia and tense relations between Constantine and king Shapur II caused war to break out between Rome and Sassanid Persia. Though he made initial preparations for the war, Constantine fell ill and sent Constantius east to take command of the eastern frontier. Before Constantius arrived, the Persian general Narses, who was possibly the king's brother, overran Mesopotamia and captured Amida. Constantius promptly attacked Narses, and after suffering minor setbacks defeated and killed Narses at the Battle of Narasara. Constantius captured Amida and initiated a major refortification of the city, enhancing the city's circuit walls and constructing large towers. He also built a new stronghold in the hinterland nearby, naming it Antinopolis. Augustus in the east , before the death of Dalmatius]] ]] ]] . A paternal cousin of Constantius, he was made Caesar by Constantius in 350 and was married to the emperor's sister, Constantina. However, his mismanagement of the eastern provinces led to his death in 354.]] In early 337, Constantius hurried to Constantinople after receiving news that his father was near death. After Constantine died, Constantius buried him with lavish ceremony in the Church of the Holy Apostles. Soon after his father's death, the army massacred his relatives descended from the marriage of his paternal grandfather Constantius Chlorus to Flavia Maximiana Theodora, though the details are unclear. Two of Constantius's uncles (Julius Constantius and Flavius Dalmatius) and seven of his cousins were killed, including Hannibalianus and Dalmatius, rulers of Pontus and Moesia respectively, leaving Constantius, his two brothers Constantine II and Constans, and three cousins Gallus, Julian and Nepotianus as the only surviving male relatives of Constantine the Great. While the “official version” was that Constantius's relatives were merely the victims of a mutinous army, Ammianus Marcellinus, Zosimus, Libanius, Athanasius and Julian all blamed Constantius for the event. While Constantius was away from the eastern frontier in early 337, King Shapur II assembled a large army, which included war elephants, and launched an attack on Roman territory, laying waste to Mesopotamia and putting the city of Nisibis under siege. Despite initial success, Shapur lifted his siege after his army missed an opportunity to exploit a collapsed wall. However, the Romans won a decisive victory at the Battle of Narasara, killing Shapur's brother, Narses. Ultimately, Constantius was able to push back the invasion, and Shapur failed to make any significant gains. Meanwhile, Constantine II desired to retain control of Constans's realm, leading the brothers into open conflict. Constantine was killed in 340 near Aquileia during an ambush. As a result, Constans took control of his deceased brother's realms and became sole ruler of the Western two-thirds of the empire. This division lasted until January 350, when Constans was assassinated by forces loyal to the usurper Magnentius. War against Magnentius Constantius was determined to march west to fight the usurper. However, feeling that the east still required some sort of imperial presence, he elevated his cousin Constantius Gallus to caesar of the eastern provinces. As an extra measure to ensure the loyalty of his cousin, he married the elder of his two sisters, Constantina, to him. Before facing Magnentius, Constantius first came to terms with Vetranio, a loyal general in Illyricum who had recently been acclaimed emperor by his soldiers. Vetranio immediately sent letters to Constantius pledging his loyalty, which Constantius may have accepted simply in order to stop Magnentius from gaining more support. These events may have been spurred by the action of Constantina, who had since traveled east to marry Gallus. Constantius subsequently sent Vetranio the imperial diadem and acknowledged the general's new position as augustus. However, when Constantius arrived, Vetranio willingly resigned his position and accepted Constantius's offer of a comfortable retirement in Bithynia. In 351, Constantius clashed with Magnentius in Pannonia with a large army. The ensuing Battle of Mursa Major was one of the largest and bloodiest battles ever between two Roman armies. The result was a victory for Constantius, but a costly one. Magnentius survived the battle and, determined to fight on, withdrew into northern Italy. Rather than pursuing his opponent, however, Constantius turned his attention to securing the Danubian border, where he spent the early months of 352 campaigning against the Sarmatians along the middle Danube. After achieving his aims, Constantius advanced on Magnentius in Italy. This action led the cities of Italy to switch their allegiance to him and eject the usurper's garrisons. Again, Magnentius withdrew, this time to southern Gaul. In 353, Constantius and Magnentius met for the final time at the Battle of Mons Seleucus in southern Gaul, and again Constantius emerged the victor. Magnentius, realizing the futility of continuing his position, committed suicide on 10 August 353. Solo reign struck at Mediolanum in 354–357. The reverse reads gloria rei publicae, "glory of the republic".]] Constantius spent much of the rest of 353 and early 354 on campaign against the Alamanni on the Danube frontier. The campaign was successful and raiding by the Alamanni ceased temporarily. In the meantime, Constantius had been receiving disturbing reports regarding the actions of his cousin Gallus. Possibly as a result of these reports, Constantius concluded a peace with the Alamanni and traveled to Mediolanum (Milan). In Mediolanum, Constantius first summoned Ursicinus, Gallus's magister equitum, for reasons that remain unclear. Constantius then summoned Gallus and Constantina. Although Gallus and Constantina complied with the order at first, when Constantina died in Bithynia, Gallus continued his journey west, passing through Constantinople and Thrace to Poetovio (Ptuj) in Pannonia. In Poetovio, Gallus was arrested by the soldiers of Constantius under the command of Barbatio. Gallus was then moved to Pola and interrogated. Gallus claimed that it was Constantina who was to blame for all the trouble while he was in charge of the eastern provinces. This angered Constantius so greatly that he immediately ordered Gallus's execution. He soon changed his mind, however, and recanted the order. Unfortunately for Gallus, this second order was delayed by Eusebius, one of Constantius's eunuchs, and Gallus was executed. The Walters Art Museum]] Paganism Laws dating from the 350s prescribed the death penalty for those who performed or attended pagan sacrifices, and for the worshipping of idols. Pagan temples were shut down, There were also frequent episodes of ordinary Christians destroying, pillaging and desecrating many ancient pagan temples, tombs and monuments. Paganism was still popular among the population at the time. The emperor's policies were passively resisted by many governors and magistrates. In spite of this, Constantius never made any attempt to disband the various Roman priestly colleges or the Vestal Virgins. He never acted against the various pagan schools. At times, he actually made some effort to protect paganism. In fact, he even ordered the election of a priest for Africa. Also, he remained pontifex maximus and was deified by the Roman Senate after his death. His relative moderation toward paganism is reflected by the fact that it was over twenty years after his death, during the reign of Gratian, that any pagan senator protested his treatment of their religion. Christianity Although often considered an Arian, Constantius ultimately preferred a third, compromise version that lay somewhere in between Arianism and the Nicene Creed, retrospectively called Semi-Arianism. During his reign he attempted to mold the Christian church to follow this compromise position, convening several Christian councils. "Unfortunately for his memory the theologians whose advice he took were ultimately discredited and the malcontents whom he pressed to conform emerged victorious," writes the historian A. H. M. Jones. "The great councils of 359–60 are therefore not reckoned ecumenical in the tradition of the church, and Constantius II is not remembered as a restorer of unity, but as a heretic who arbitrarily imposed his will on the church." According to the Greek historian Philostorgius (d. 439) in his Ecclesiastical History, Constantius sent an Arian bishop known as Theophilus the Indian (also known as "Theophilus of Yemen") to Tharan Yuhanim, then the king of the South Arabian Himyarite Kingdom to convert the people to Christianity. According to the report, Theophilus succeeded in establishing three churches, one of them in the capital Zafar. Judaism Judaism faced some severe restrictions under Constantius, who seems to have followed an anti-Jewish policy in line with that of his father. This included edicts to limit the ownership of slaves by Jewish people and banning marriages between Jews and Christian women. However, Constantius's actions in this regard may not have been so much to do with Jewish religion as with Jewish business—apparently, privately owned Jewish businesses were often in competition with state-owned businesses. As a result, Constantius may have sought to provide an advantage to state-owned businesses by limiting the skilled workers and slaves available to Jewish businesses.Further crisesOn 11 August 355, the magister militum Claudius Silvanus revolted in Gaul. Silvanus had surrendered to Constantius after the Battle of Mursa Major. Constantius had made him magister militum in 353 with the purpose of blocking the German threats, a feat that Silvanus achieved by bribing the German tribes with the money he had collected. A plot organized by members of Constantius's court led the emperor to recall Silvanus. After Silvanus revolted, he received a letter from Constantius recalling him to Milan, but which made no reference to the revolt. Ursicinus, who was meant to replace Silvanus, bribed some troops, and Silvanus was killed. Constantius realised that too many threats still faced the Empire, however, and he could not possibly handle all of them by himself. So on 6 November 355, he elevated his last remaining male relative, Julian, to the rank of caesar. A few days later, Julian was married to Helena, the last surviving sister of Constantius. Constantius soon sent Julian off to Gaul. In the winter of 357–58, Constantius received ambassadors from Shapur II who demanded that Rome restore the lands surrendered by Narseh. Despite rejecting these terms, Constantius tried to avert war with the Sassanid Empire by sending two embassies to Shapur II. Shapur II nevertheless launched another invasion of Roman Mesopotamia. In 360, when news reached Constantius that Shapur II had destroyed Singara (Sinjar), and taken Kiphas (Hasankeyf), Amida (Diyarbakır), and Ad Tigris (Cizre), he decided to travel east to face the re-emergent threat. Usurpation of Julian and crises in the east ).]] In the meantime, Julian had won some victories against the Alamanni, who had once again invaded Roman Gaul. However, when Constantius requested reinforcements from Julian's army for the eastern campaign, the Gallic legions revolted and proclaimed Julian augustus. while Potter dismissed the idea, believing that the necessity of Constantius's act for his plan was sufficient explanation.}} On account of the immediate Sassanid threat, Constantius was unable to directly respond to his cousin's usurpation, other than by sending missives in which he tried to convince Julian to resign the title of augustus and be satisfied with that of caesar. By 361, Constantius saw no alternative but to face the usurper with force, and yet the threat of the Sassanids remained. Constantius had already spent part of early 361 unsuccessfully attempting to re-take the fortress of Ad Tigris. After a time he had withdrawn to Antioch to regroup and prepare for a confrontation with Shapur II. The campaigns of the previous year had inflicted heavy losses on the Sassanids, however, and they did not attempt another round of campaigns that year. This temporary respite in hostilities allowed Constantius to turn his full attention to facing Julian.DeathConstantius immediately gathered his forces and set off west. However, by the time he reached Mopsuestia in Cilicia, it was clear that he was fatally ill and would not survive to face Julian. The sources claim that realising his death was near, Constantius had himself baptised by Euzoius, the Semi-Arian bishop of Antioch, and then declared that Julian was his rightful successor. Kelly considered it to be true, observing that the act prevented civil war and protected his posthumous reputation, as well as his wife’s unborn child. Errington and Crawford also accepted it as true, viewing it as a display of pragmatism and dynastic solidarity.}} Constantius II died of fever on 3 November 361. Like Constantine the Great, he was buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles, in a porphyry sarcophagus that was described in the 10th century by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in the De Ceremoniis.Marriages and children ), from an exhibition at the Colosseum, 2013]] Constantius II was married three times: First to a daughter of his half-uncle Julius Constantius, whose name is unknown. She was a full-sister of Gallus and a half-sister of Julian. She died c. 352/3. Second, to Eusebia, a woman of Macedonian origin, originally from the city of Thessalonica, whom Constantius married before his defeat of Magnentius in 353. She died before 361. Third and lastly, in 361, to Faustina, who gave birth to Constantius's only child, a posthumous daughter named Constantia, who later married Emperor Gratian. Family tree Emperors are shown with a rounded-corner border with their dates as Augusti, names with a thicker border appear in both sections '''1: Constantine's parents and half-siblings' \|boxstyle_CGOTHborder:2px solid; border-radius:1em}} \|boxstyle_CCHLOborder:2px solid; border-radius:1em\|THEO1=Flavia Maximiana Theodora}} \|boxstyle_CONSTborder:3px solid; border-radius:1em\|FLAVDFlavius Dalmatius\|HANN1Hannibalianus\|CONS2Flavia Julia Constantia\|LICI1\|boxstyle_LICI1border:2px solid; border-radius:1em\|ANASTAnastasia\|BASSI=Bassianus}} \|boxstyle_JULIAborder:3px solid; border-radius:1em\|HELE2Helena\|boxstyle_HELE2border:3px solid\|NEPO2=Nepotianus}} '''2: Constantine's children \|boxstyle_CONSTborder:3px solid; border-radius:1em\|FAUS1Fausta}} \|boxstyle_CONS3border:2px solid; border-radius:1em\|CONS5\|boxstyle_CONS5border:2px solid; border-radius:1em\|HANN2Hannibalianus\|boxstyle_HANN2border:3px solid\|CONS6Constantina\|boxstyle_CONS6border:3px solid\|GALLUConstantius Gallus\|boxstyle_GALLU=border:3px solid}} \|boxstyle_CONS4border:2px solid; border-radius:1em\|JULIA\|boxstyle_JULIAborder:3px solid; border-radius:1em\|HELE2Helena\|boxstyle_HELE2=border:3px solid}} \|boxstyle_GRATIborder:2px solid; border-radius:1em\|CONS7=Constantia}} Reputation later served as the model for most Byzantine coinage after 395.]] According to DiMaio and Frakes, “...Constantius is hard for the modern historian to fully understand both due to his own actions and due to the interests of the authors of primary sources for his reign.” A. H. M. Jones writes that he "appears in the pages of Ammianus as a conscientious emperor but a vain and stupid man, an easy prey to flatterers. He was timid and suspicious, and interested persons could easily play on his fears for their own advantage." However, Kent and M. and A. Hirmer suggest that the emperor "has suffered at the hands of unsympathetic authors, ecclesiastical and civil alike. To orthodox churchmen he was a bigoted supporter of the Arian heresy, to Julian the Apostate and the many who have subsequently taken his part he was a murderer, a tyrant and inept as a ruler". They go on to add, "Most contemporaries seem in fact to have held him in high esteem, and he certainly inspired loyalty in a way his brother could not". Eutropius wrote of him,<blockquote>He was a man of a remarkably tranquil disposition, good-natured, trusting too much to his friends and courtiers, and at last too much in the power of his wives. He conducted himself with great moderation in the commencement of his reign; he enriched his friends, and suffered none, whose active services he had experienced, to go unrewarded. He was however somewhat inclined to severity, whenever any suspicion of an attempt on the government was excited in him; otherwise he was gentle. His fortune is more to be praised in civil than in foreign wars.</blockquote> See also Persian wars of Constantius II Itineraries of the Roman emperors, 337–363 Notes References Sources Ancient sources Ammianus Marcellinus. Res Gestae. Yonge, Charles Duke, trans. Roman History. London: Bohn, 1862. Online at [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/ammianus_00_eintro.htm Tertullian]. Accessed 15 August 2009. Rolfe, J.C., trans. History. 3 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1939–52. Online at [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Ammian/home.html LacusCurtius]. Accessed 15 August 2009. Hamilton, Walter, trans. The Later Roman Empire (A.D. 354–378). Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986. [Abridged edition] Athanasius of Alexandria. Festal Index. Atkinson, M., and Archibald Robertson, trans. Festal Letters. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204.xxv.iii.iii.html Christian Classics Ethereal Library]. Accessed 15 August 2009. Epistula encyclica (Encyclical letter). Summer 339. Atkinson, M., and Archibald Robertson, trans. Encyclical letter. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2807.htm New Advent] and [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204.xii.ii.i.html Christian Classics Ethereal Library]. Accessed 15 August 2009. Apologia Contra Arianos (Defense against the Arians). 349. *Atkinson, M., and Archibald Robertson, trans. Apologia Contra Arianos. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2808.htm New Advent]. Accessed 14 August 2009. Apologia ad Constantium (Defense before Constantius). 353. *Atkinson, M., and Archibald Robertson, trans. Apologia ad Constantium. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2813.htm New Advent]. Accessed 14 August 2009. Historia Arianorum (History of the Arians). 357. *Atkinson, M., and Archibald Robertson, trans. Historia Arianorum. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2815.htm New Advent]. Accessed 14 August 2009. De Synodis (On the Councils of Arminium and Seleucia). Autumn 359. *Newman, John Henry and Archibald Robertson, trans. De Synodis. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2817.htm New Advent]. Accessed 15 August 2009. Historia acephala. 368 – c. 420. **Robertson, Archibald, trans. Historia Acephala. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2820.htm New Advent] and [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204.xxv.ii.ii.html Christian Classics Ethereal Library]. Accessed 15 August 2009. Chronica minora 1, 2. *Mommsen, T., ed. Chronica Minora saec. IV, V, VI, VII 1, 2 (in Latin). Monumenta Germaniae Historia, Auctores Antiquissimi 9, 11. Berlin, 1892, 1894. Online at . Accessed 25 August 2009. Codex Theodosianus. Mommsen, T. and Paul M. Meyer, eds. Theodosiani libri XVI cum Constitutionibus Sirmondianis et Leges novellae ad Theodosianum pertinentes<sup>2</sup> (in Latin). Berlin: Weidmann, [1905] 1954. Complied by Nicholas Palmer, revised by Tony Honoré for Oxford Text Archive, 1984. Prepared for online use by R.W.B. Salway, 1999. Preface, books 1–8. Online at [https://web.archive.org/web/20090826174516/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/history2/volterra/texts/cthinfo.htm University College London] and the [http://web.upmf-grenoble.fr/Haiti/Cours/Ak/Constitutiones/codtheod.html University of Grenoble] . Accessed 25 August 2009. Unknown edition (in Latin). Online at [http://ancientrome.ru/ius/library/codex/theod/ AncientRome.ru]. Accessed 15 August 2009. Codex Justinianus. Scott, Samuel P., trans. The Code of Justinian, in The Civil Law. 17 vols. 1932. Online at the [http://www.constitution.org/sps/sps.htm Constitution Society]. Accessed 14 August 2009. Ephraem the Syrian. Carmina Nisibena (Songs of Nisibis). Stopford, J.T. Sarsfield, trans. The Nisibene Hymns. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 13. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3702.htm New Advent]. Accessed 16 August 2009. Bickell, Gustav, trans. S. Ephraemi Syri Carmina Nisibena: additis prolegomenis et supplemento lexicorum Syriacorum (in Latin). Lipetsk: Brockhaus, 1866. Online at [https://books.google.com/books†id=FNECZJZEUVUC Google Books]. Accessed 15 August 2009. Epitome de Caesaribus. Banchich, Thomas M., trans. A Booklet About the Style of Life and the Manners of the Imperatores. Canisius College Translated Texts 1. Buffalo, NY: Canisius College, 2009. Online at [http://www.roman-emperors.org/epitome.htm De Imperatoribus Romanis] . Accessed 15 August 2009. Eunapius. Lives of the Sophists. Eusebius of Caesarea. Oratio de Laudibus Constantini (Oration in Praise of Constantine, sometimes the Tricennial Oration). Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Oration in Praise of Constantine. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2504.htm New Advent]. Accessed 16 August 2009. Vita Constantini (Life of Constantine). **Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Life of Constantine. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2502.htm New Advent]. Accessed 25 August 2009. Eutropius. Historiae Romanae Breviarium. *Watson, John Selby, trans. Abridgment of Roman History. London: George Bell & Sons, 1886. Revised and edited for Tertullian by Roger Pearse, 2003. Online at [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/eutropius_breviarium_2_text.htm Tertullian]. Accessed 11 June 2010. Festus. Breviarium. *Banchich, Thomas M., and Jennifer A. Meka, trans. Breviarium of the Accomplishments of the Roman People. Canisius College Translated Texts 2. Buffalo, NY: Canisius College, 2001. Online at [http://www.roman-emperors.org/festus.htm De Imperatoribus Romanis](). Accessed 15 August 2009. Firmicus Maternus. De errore profanarum religionum (On the error of profane religions). *Baluzii and Rigaltii, eds. Divi Cæcilii Cypriani, Carthaginensis Episcopi, Opera Omnia; accessit J. Firmici Materni, Viri Clarissimi, De Errore Profanarum Religionum (in Latin). Paris: Gauthier Brothers and the Society of Booksellers, 1836. Online at [https://books.google.com/books†id=Zow7AAAAcAAJ Google Books]. Accessed 15 August 2009. Hilary of Poitiers. Ad Constantium (To Constantius). *Feder, Alfred Leonhard, ed. S. Hilarii episcopi Pictaviensis Tractatus mysteriorum. Collectanea Antiariana Parisina (fragmenta historica) cum appendice (liber I Ad Constantium). Liber ad Constantium imperatorem (Liber II ad Constantium). Hymni. Fragmenta minora. Spuria (in Latin). In the Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum, Vol. 65. Vienna: Tempsky, 1916. Itinerarium Alexandri (Itinerary of Alexander). Mai, Angelo, ed. Itinerarium Alexandri ad Constantium Augustum, Constantini M. Filium (in Latin). Regiis Typis, 1818. Online at [https://books.google.com/books†id=LaB9JC1Fm6kC Google Books]. Accessed 15 August 2009. Davies, Iolo, trans. Itinerary of Alexander. 2009. Online at [http://papyri.info/idp_static/current/ddb-citations-p+abinn.html DocStoc]. Accessed 15 August 2009. Jerome. Chronicon (Chronicle). Pearse, Roger, et al., trans. The Chronicle of St. Jerome, in Early Church Fathers: Additional Texts. Tertullian, 2005. Online at [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/jerome_chronicle_00_eintro.htm Tertullian]. Accessed 14 August 2009. de Viris Illustribus (On Illustrious Men). **Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. De Viris Illustribus (On Illustrious Men). From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 3. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2708.htm New Advent]. Accessed 15 August 2009. Julian. *Wright, Wilmer Cave, trans. Works of the Emperor Julian. 3 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1913. Online at the Internet Archive: [https://archive.org/details/workswithenglish01juliuoft Vol. 1], [https://archive.org/details/workswithenglish02juliuoft 2], [https://archive.org/details/workswithenglish03juliuoft 3]. Libanius. Oratio 59 (Oration 59). *M.H. Dodgeon, trans. The Sons of Constantine: Libanius Or. LIX. In From Constantine to Julian: Pagan and Byzantine Views, A Source History, edited by S.N.C. Lieu and Dominic Montserrat, 164–205. London: Routledge, 1996. Origo Constantini Imperatoris. *Rolfe, J.C., trans. Excerpta Valesiana'', in vol. 3 of Rolfe's translation of Ammianus Marcellinus's History. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1952. Online at [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Excerpta_Valesiana/1.html LacusCurtius]. Accessed 16 August 2009. Papyri Abinnaeus. The Abinnaeus Archive: Papers of a Roman Officer in the Reign of Constantius II (in Greek). Duke Data Bank of Documentary Papyri. Online at [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?docPerseus:text:1999.05.0052&querydocument%3D%231 Perseus] and the [http://papyri.info/idp_static/current/ddb-citations-p+abinn.html Duke Data Bank]. Accessed 15 August 2009. Papyri Laurentius. *Dai Papiri della Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana (in Greek). Duke Data Bank of Documentary Papyri. Online at [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text;jsessionidAC847D304432C05A3A6019E311003F54?docPerseus:text:1999.05.0147 Perseus] and the [http://papyri.info/idp_static/current/ddb-citations-p+laur.html Duke Data Bank]. Accessed 15 August 2009. Philostorgius. Historia Ecclesiastica. *Walford, Edward, trans. Epitome of the Ecclesiastical History of Philostorgius, Compiled by Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople. London: Henry G. Bohn, 1855. Online at [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/philostorgius.htm Tertullian]. Accessed 15 August 2009. Socrates. Historia Ecclesiastica (History of the Church). *Zenos, A.C., trans. Ecclesiastical History. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2601.htm New Advent]. Accessed 14 August 2009. Sozomen. Historia Ecclesiastica (History of the Church). *Hartranft, Chester D. Ecclesiastical History. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2602.htm New Advent]. Accessed 15 August 2009. Sulpicius Severus. Sacred History. *Roberts, Alexander, trans. Sacred History. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 11. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1894. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3505.htm New Advent]. Accessed 14 August 2009. Theodoret. Historia Ecclesiastica (History of the Church). *Jackson, Blomfield, trans. Ecclesiastical History. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 3. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2702.htm New Advent]. Accessed 15 August 2009. Themistius. Orationes (Orations). Theophanes. Chronicle. Zonaras. Extracts of History. Zosimus. Historia Nova (New History). Unknown trans. The History of Count Zosimus. London: Green and Champlin, 1814. Online at [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/zosimus00_intro.htm Tertullian]. Accessed 15 August 2009. [An unsatisfactory edition.] Unknown trans. Histoire Nouvelle and ΖΩΣΙΜΟΥ ΚΟΜΙΤΟΣ ΚΑΙ ΑΠΟΦΙΣΚΟΣΥΝΗΓΟΡΟΥ (in French and Greek). Online at the [http://pot-pourri.fltr.ucl.ac.be/files/aclassftp/TEXTES/Zosimus/ Catholic University of Louvain] . Accessed 16 November 2009. Modern sources Baker-Brian, N. and Tougher, S., The Sons of Constantine, AD 337–361: In the Shadows of Constantine and Julian (Palgrave Macmillan, 2020) * * Banchich, T. M., 'DIR-Gallus' from De Imperatoribus Romanis [http://www.roman-emperors.org/gallus.htm] * * * * * DiMaio, M., and Frakes, R., [http://www.roman-emperors.org/constaii.htm "Constantius II,"] from De Imperatoribus Romanis * * }} * * * \|referenceGaddis, Michael. There Is No Crime for Those Who Have Christ. Religious violence in the Christian Roman Empire. University of California Press, 2005. .}} * * \|referenceJones, A. H. M. The Later Roman Empire, 284–602: A Social, Economic, and Administrative Survey [Paperback, vol. 1] Basil Blackwell Ltd. 1964.}} * \|name-list-styleamp \|author-linkA. H. M. Jones \|author-link2John Robert Martindale \|author-link3John Morris (historian) \|ref= }} * Kent, J.P.C., Hirmer, M. & Hirmer, A. Roman Coins (Thames and Hudson, 1978) * * Moser, Muriel. 2018. Emperor and Senators in the Reign of Constantius II. Cambridge University Press. * Pelikan, J.J., The Christian Tradition (University of Chicago, 1989) * * }} * * }} * * External links * This [https://web.archive.org/web/20081025063840/http://www.fourthcentury.com/index.php/imperial-laws-chart-364 list of Roman laws of the fourth century] shows laws passed by Constantius II relating to Christianity. Category:317 births Category:361 deaths Category:4th-century Christians Category:4th-century Roman emperors Category:4th-century Roman consuls Category:Arian Christians Category:Constantinian dynasty Category:Flavii Category:Illyrian people Category:Infectious disease deaths in Turkey Category:Julii Category:People of the Roman–Sasanian Wars Category:People from Sirmium Category:Sons of Roman emperors Category:Burials at the Church of the Holy Apostles Category:Illyrian emperors Category:Romans from Pannonia	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantius_II	2025-04-05T18:27:56.771317
6747	Constans	\| reg-type = Co-rulers \| reign1 = 25 December 333 – \| reign-type1 = Caesar \| birth_date = 322 or 323 \| birth_place \| death_date January 350 (aged 27) \| death_place = Vicus Helena, southwestern Gaul \| burial_place \| full name Flavius Julius Constans \| regnal name = Imperator Caesar Flavius Julius Constans Augustus \| dynasty = Constantinian \| father = Constantine I \| mother = Fausta \| religion = Nicene Christianity }} Flavius Julius Constans (<!--, Kónstas; --> 323 – 350), also called Constans I, was Roman emperor from 337 to 350. He held the imperial rank of caesar from 333, and was the youngest son of Constantine the Great. After his father's death, he was made augustus alongside his brothers in September 337. Constans was given the administration of the praetorian prefectures of Italy, Illyricum, and Africa. He defeated the Sarmatians in a campaign shortly afterwards. In the following years he campaigned against the Franks, and in 343 he visited Roman Britain, Magnentius overthrew and killed Constans. According to the works of both Ausonius and Libanius, he was educated at Constantinople under the tutelage of the poet Aemilius Magnus Arborius, who instructed him in Latin. On 25 December 333, Constans was elevated to the imperial rank of caesar at Constantinople by his father. Prior to 337, Constans became engaged to Olympias, the daughter of the praetorian prefect Ablabius, although the two never actually married.]] '' of Constans marked: .]] After Constantine's death, Constans and his two brothers, Constantine II and Constantius II were proclaimed augusti and divided the Roman empire among themselves on 9 September 337. Constans was left with Italy, Africa and Illyricum. In 338, he campaigned against the Sarmatians. Meanwhile, Constans came into conflict with his eldest brother Constantine II over the latter's presumed authority over Constans' territory. After attempting to issue legislation to Africa in 339, which was part of Constans' realm, Constantine led his army into an invasion of Italy only a year later. However, he was ambushed and killed by Constans' troops, and Constans then took control of his brother's territories. . Aquileia, 342 AD – Bode Museum\|alt=]] Constans began his reign in an energetic fashion. From 341 to 342, he led a campaign against the Franks where, after an initial setback, the military operation concluded with a victory and a favorable peace treaty. Eutropius wrote that he "had performed many gallant actions in the field, and had made himself feared by the army through the whole course of his life, though without exercising any extraordinary severity," while Ammianus Marcellinus remarked that Julian was the only person the Alamanni feared after the death of Constans. In the early months of 343, he visited Britain, an event celebrated enough for Libanius to dedicate several sections of his panegyric to explaining it. Although the reasons for the visit remain unclear, the ancient writers were primarily interested in Constans' precarious journey to the province, rather than his actions within it. One theory considers it to have involved the northern frontier, based on Ammianus' remark that he had discussed the Areani in his now-lost coverage of Constans' reign. Additionally, after recording attacks "near the frontiers" in 360, the historian wrote that the Alamanni were too much of a threat for Julian to confront the problem, in contrast to what Constans was able to do. Constans was accused of employing corrupt ministers during his reign, due to his purported personal greed. One example included the magister officiorum (master of the offices) Flavius Eugenius, who remained in his position throughout most of the 340s. Despite Eugenius being alleged to have misused his power to seize property, the emperor continued to support him, his trust going as far as to honor him with a statue in the Forum of Trajan in Rome. with a chi-rho and crowned by Victory on the reverse, marked: ("the hope of the Republic''")\|alt]]ReligionConstans issued an edict banning superstition and pagan sacrifices in 341, his justification being that he was following the precedent set by his father. Only a short while later though, he tried to moderate his stance by legislating against the destruction of temple buildings. Constans' support of Nicene orthodoxy and the bishop Athanasius of Alexandria brought him into conflict with his brother Constantius. Although the two emperors called the Council of Serdica in 343 to settle the conflict, it was a complete failure, and by 345 Constans was outright threatening civil war against his brother. Eventually, Constantius agreed to allow Athanasius to return to his position, as the bishop's replacement had recently died. Constans also used the military to suppress Donatism in Africa, where the church was split between Donatists and Catholics. Alleged homosexuality Unlike Constantius, Constans was targeted with gossip over his personal life. Numerous sources suspected him of homosexuality, presumably based on the fact that he never married. Aurelius Victor charged Constans with "rabid" pederasty towards young barbarian hostages, though Hunt remarked that "the allegation that he kept a coterie of captive barbarians to gratify his homosexual tastes sounds more like hostile folklore." Constans' legislation against homosexuality has been cited to dispute the rumor.Death '' issue of 347/348]] On 18 January 350, the general Magnentius declared himself emperor at Augustodunum (Autun) with the support of a number of court officials such as Marcellinus, Constans' comes rerum privatarum, as well as Fabius Titianus, who had previously served as the praetorian prefect of Gaul. At the time, Constans was distracted by a hunting trip. As he was trying to reach Hispania, supporters of Magnentius cornered him in a fortification in Helena (Elne) in the eastern Pyrenees of southwestern Gaul, where he was killed after seeking sanctuary in a temple.<ref name"ReferenceA" /> Harries has disputed this, believing that the location of Constans' death indicates he was unaware of the revolt.}} An alleged prophecy at his birth had said Constans would die "in the arms of his grandmother". His place of death happens to have been named after Helena, mother of Constantine and his own grandmother, thus realizing the prophecy. Constans' name would later be erased from inscriptions in places that recognized Magnentius as emperor. Regarding possible motives for Constans' overthrow, ancient sources assert that he was widely unpopular, and attribute his downfall to his own failings. Along with the accusation of corruption, he is also accused of neglecting portions of the empire and treating his soldiers with contempt. Ammianus lamented the emperor's failure to listen to wise counsel, referencing one man he believed could have saved Constans from his own faults. However, some modern scholars have questioned this portrayal. According to historian Jill Harries, "The detail that Constans was in the habit of making journeys with only a small escort may account for his vulnerability in 350." Based on several factors - the small number of people behind the plot, how the setting for Magnentius' coup was not a military centre, Vetranio's proclamation as emperor in opposition to Magnentius, and Julian's report that the usurper had to murder several of Constans' generals to take control of the Gallic army – she concluded that Magnentius' revolt was "the result of a private grudge on the part of an apprehensive official and not the outcome of widespread discontent among the military or the wider population." This view is supported by Peter Crawford, who considered the explanation from the ancient sources to be a misconception caused by the rapid success of the coup. Harries does, however, acknowledge how the Gallic army accepted Magnentius seemingly without difficulty, and how according to Zosimus, Constantius' official Philippus emphasized Constantine, rather than Constans, when addressing Magnentius' troops. On speculating the basis for Constans' overthrow, she suggested that one reason may have been regarding financial difficulties in Gaul by the end of his reign, which could have been related to the finance officer Marcellinus' support of him. After Magnentius took power, he levied taxes, sold imperial estates in Gaul and debased the coinage. Nicholas Baker-Brian also observed how Magnentius sent his brother Decentius to defend the region after Constans had neglected it, writing that, "it is apparent that among the reasons for Magnentius' rebellion was a desire to remedy Constans' governmental failings in Gaul." Family tree Emperors are shown with a rounded-corner border with their dates as Augusti, names with a thicker border appear in both sections '''1: Constantine's parents and half-siblings' \|boxstyle_CGOTHborder:2px solid; border-radius:1em}} \|boxstyle_CCHLOborder:2px solid; border-radius:1em\|THEO1=Flavia Maximiana Theodora}} \|boxstyle_CONSTborder:3px solid; border-radius:1em\|FLAVDFlavius Dalmatius\|HANN1Hannibalianus\|CONS2Flavia Julia Constantia\|LICI1\|boxstyle_LICI1border:2px solid; border-radius:1em\|ANASTAnastasia\|BASSI=Bassianus}} \|boxstyle_JULIAborder:3px solid; border-radius:1em\|HELE2Helena\|boxstyle_HELE2border:3px solid\|NEPO2=Nepotianus}} <br /> '''2: Constantine's children \|boxstyle_CONSTborder:3px solid; border-radius:1em\|FAUS1Fausta}} \|boxstyle_CONS3border:2px solid; border-radius:1em\|CONS5\|boxstyle_CONS5border:2px solid; border-radius:1em\|HANN2Hannibalianus\|boxstyle_HANN2border:3px solid\|CONS6Constantina\|boxstyle_CONS6border:3px solid\|GALLUConstantius Gallus\|boxstyle_GALLU=border:3px solid}} \|boxstyle_CONS4border:2px solid; border-radius:1em\|JULIA\|boxstyle_JULIAborder:3px solid; border-radius:1em\|HELE2Helena\|boxstyle_HELE2=border:3px solid}} \|boxstyle_GRATIborder:2px solid; border-radius:1em\|CONS7=Constantia}} See also Itineraries of the Roman emperors, 337–361 Notes References Sources Primary sources Zosimus, [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/zosimus02_book2.htm Historia Nova] II * Aurelius Victor, [https://web.archive.org/web/20220304140031/http://www.roman-emperors.org/epitome.htm Epitome de Caesaribus] * Eutropius, Breviarium ab urbe condita Secondary sources * * * * * * DiMaio, Michael; Frakes, Robert, [http://www.roman-emperors.org/consi.htm Constans I (337–350 A.D.)] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20220304140020/http://www.roman-emperors.org/consi.htm Archive]), De Imperatoribus Romanis'' * * * \|name-list-styleamp \|author-linkA. H. M. Jones \|author-link2John Robert Martindale \|author-link3John Morris (historian) \|ref= }} * * External links * Category:320s births Category:350 deaths Category:4th-century Christians Category:4th-century murdered monarchs Category:4th-century Roman consuls Category:4th-century Roman emperors Category:Constantine the Great Category:Constantinian dynasty Category:Flavii Category:Julii Category:Murdered Roman emperors Category:People executed by the Roman Empire Category:Sons of Roman emperors Category:Damnatio memoriae	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constans	2025-04-05T18:27:56.814083
6749	Cheerleading	during the recording of the Fox NFL Sunday Pre-game Show in December 2020 }} Cheerleading is an activity in which the participants (called cheerleaders) cheer for their team as a form of encouragement. It can range from chanting slogans to intense physical activity. It can be performed to motivate sports teams, to entertain the audience, or for competition. Cheerleading routines typically range anywhere from one to three minutes, and contain components of tumbling, dance, jumps, cheers, and stunting. Cheerleading originated in the United States, where it has become a tradition. It is less prevalent in the rest of the world, except via its association with American sports or organized cheerleading contests. Modern cheerleading is very closely associated with American football and basketball. Sports such as association football (soccer), ice hockey, volleyball, baseball, and wrestling will sometimes sponsor cheerleading squads. The ICC Twenty20 Cricket World Cup in South Africa in 2007 was the first international cricket event to have cheerleaders. Some Brazilian association football (soccer) teams that plays in the Brazilian Serie A have cheerleading squads, such as Bahia, Fortaleza and Botafogo. In baseball, the Florida Marlins were the first Major League Baseball team to have a cheerleading team. Cheerleading originated as an all-male activity in the United States, and is popular predominantly in America, with an estimated 3.85 million participants in 2017. The global presentation of cheerleading was led by the 1997 broadcast of ESPN's International cheerleading competition, and the worldwide release of the 2000 film Bring It On. The International Cheer Union (ICU) now claims 116 member nations with an estimated 7.5 million participants worldwide. Around the end of the 2000s the sport had gained traction outside of the United States in countries like Australia, Canada, Mexico, China, Colombia, Finland, France, Germany, Japan, the Netherlands, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. However, the sport does not have the international popularity of other American sports, such as baseball or basketball, despite efforts being made to popularize the sport at an international level. In 2016, the IOC (International Olympic Committee) recognized the ICU (International Cheer Union) as part of the sports federations; in practice this means that the modality is considered a sport by the IOC, and in the future, depending on negotiations and international popularization, it could become part of the Olympic Games. Scientific studies of cheerleading show that it carries the highest rate of catastrophic injuries to female athletes in sports, with most injuries associated with stunting, also known as pyramids. One 2011 study of American female athletes showed that cheerleading resulted in 65% of all catastrophic injuries in female sports. On November 6, 1869, the United States witnessed its first intercollegiate football game. It took place between Princeton University and Rutgers University, and marked the day the original "Sis Boom Rah!" cheer was shouted out by student fans. Beginning of organized cheerleading cheerleader Johnny Campbell]] Organized cheerleading began as an all-male activity. As early as 1877, Princeton University had a "Princeton Cheer", documented in the February 22, 1877, March 12, 1880, and November 4, 1881, issues of The Daily Princetonian. This cheer was yelled from the stands by students attending games, as well as by the athletes themselves. The cheer, "Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah! Tiger! S-s-s-t! Boom! A-h-h-h!" remains in use with slight modifications today, where it is now referred to as the "Locomotive". Princeton class of 1882 graduate Thomas Peebles moved to Minnesota in 1884. He transplanted the idea of organized crowds cheering at football games to the University of Minnesota. The term "Cheer Leader" had been used as early as 1897, with Princeton's football officials having named three students as Cheer Leaders: Thomas, Easton, and Guerin from Princeton's classes of 1897, 1898, and 1899, respectively, on October 26, 1897. These students would cheer for the team also at football practices, and special cheering sections were designated in the stands for the games themselves for both the home and visiting teams. It was not until 1898 that University of Minnesota student Johnny Campbell directed a crowd in cheering "Rah, Rah, Rah! Ski-u-mah, Hoo-Rah! Hoo-Rah! Varsity! Varsity! Varsity, Minn-e-So-Tah!", making Campbell the very first cheerleader. November 2, 1898, is the official birth date of organized cheerleading. Soon after, the University of Minnesota organized a "yell leader" squad of six male students, who still use Campbell's original cheer today. Early 20th century cheerleading and female participation in 1948]] In 1903, the first cheerleading fraternity, Gamma Sigma, was founded. In 1923, at the University of Minnesota, women were permitted to participate in cheerleading. However, it took time for other schools to follow. In the late 1920s, many school manuals and newspapers that were published still referred to cheerleaders as "chap", "fellow", and "man". Women cheerleaders were overlooked until the 1940s when collegiate men were drafted for World War II, creating the opportunity for more women to make their way onto sporting event sidelines. As noted by Kieran Scott in Ultimate Cheerleading: "Girls really took over for the first time." In 1949, Lawrence Herkimer, a former cheerleader at Southern Methodist University and inventor of the herkie jump, founded his first cheerleading camp in Huntsville, Texas. 52 girls were in attendance. The clinic was so popular that Herkimer was asked to hold a second, where 350 young women were in attendance. Herkimer also patented the pom-pom.Growth in popularity (1950–1979)In 1951, Herkimer created the National Cheerleading Association to help grow the activity and provide cheerleading education to schools around the country. An overview written on behalf of cheerleading in 1955 explained that in larger schools, "occasionally boys as well as girls are included", and in smaller schools, "boys can usually find their place in the athletic program, and cheerleading is likely to remain solely a feminine occupation". Cheerleading could be found at almost every school level across the country; even pee wee and youth leagues began to appear. In the 1950s, professional cheerleading also began. The first recorded cheer squad in National Football League (NFL) history was for the Baltimore Colts. Professional cheerleaders put a new perspective on American cheerleading. Women were exclusively chosen for dancing ability as well as to conform to the male gaze, as heterosexual men were the targeted marketing group. By the 1960s, college cheerleaders employed by the NCA were hosting workshops across the nation, teaching fundamental cheer skills to tens of thousands of high-school-age girls. and creating the "Spirit Stick". In 1978, America was introduced to competitive cheerleading by the first broadcast of Collegiate Cheerleading Championships on CBS. In 2003, the National Council for Spirit Safety and Education (NCSSE) was formed to offer safety training for youth, school, all-star, and college coaches. The NCAA now requires college cheer coaches to successfully complete a nationally recognized safety-training program. Even with its athletic and competitive development, cheerleading at the school level has retained its ties to its spirit leading traditions. Cheerleaders are quite often seen as ambassadors for their schools, and leaders among the student body. At the college level, cheerleaders are often invited to help at university fundraisers and events. Debuting in 2003, the "Marlin Mermaids" gained national exposure, and have influenced other MLB teams to develop their own cheer/dance squads. In 2005, overall statistics show around 97% of all modern cheerleading participants are female, although at the collegiate level, cheerleading is co-ed with about 50% of participants being male. Safety regulation changes Kristi Yamaoka, a cheerleader for Southern Illinois University, suffered a fractured vertebra when she hit her head after falling from a human pyramid. She also suffered from a concussion, and a bruised lung. The fall occurred when Yamaoka lost her balance during a basketball game between Southern Illinois University and Bradley University at the Savvis Center in St. Louis on March 5, 2006. On July 11, 2006, the bans were made permanent by the AACCA rules committee: <blockquote> The committee unanimously voted for sweeping revisions to cheerleading safety rules, the most major of which restricts specific upper-level skills during basketball games. Basket tosses, high pyramids, one-arm stunts, stunts that involve twisting or flipping, and twisting tumbling skills may be performed only during halftime and post-game on a matted surface and are prohibited during game play or time-outs.Middle schoolMiddle school cheerleading evolved shortly after high school squads were created and is set at the district level. In middle school, cheerleading squads serve the same purpose, but often follow a modified set of rules from high school squads with possible additional rules. Squads can cheer for basketball teams, football teams, and other sports teams in their school. Squads may also perform at pep rallies and compete against other local schools from the area. Cheerleading in middle school sometimes can be a two-season activity: fall and winter. However, many middle school cheer squads will go year-round like high school squads. Middle school cheerleaders use the same cheerleading movements as their older counterparts, yet may perform less extreme stunts and tumbling elements, depending on the rules in their area..High school in Mercer Island, Washington in December 2005]] In high school, there are usually two squads per school: varsity and a junior varsity. High school cheerleading contains aspects of school spirit as well as competition. These squads have become part of a year-round cycle. Starting with tryouts in the spring, year-round practice, cheering on teams in the fall and winter, and participating in cheerleading competitions. Most squads practice at least three days a week for about two hours each practice during the summer. Many teams also attend separate tumbling sessions outside of practice. During the school year, cheerleading is usually practiced five- to six-days-a-week. During competition season, it often becomes seven days with practice twice a day sometimes. The school spirit aspect of cheerleading involves cheering, supporting, and "hyping up" the crowd at football games, basketball games, and even at wrestling meets. Along with this, cheerleaders usually perform at pep rallies, and bring school spirit to other students. In May 2009, the National Federation of State High School Associations released the results of their first true high school participation study. They estimated that the number of high school cheerleaders from public high schools is around 394,700. There are different cheerleading organizations that put on competitions; some of the major ones include state and regional competitions. Many high schools will often host cheerleading competitions, bringing in IHSA judges. The regional competitions are qualifiers for national competitions, such as the UCA (Universal Cheerleaders Association) in Orlando, Florida, every year. Many teams have a professional choreographer that choreographs their routine in order to ensure they are not breaking rules or regulations and to give the squad creative elements. College in Gainesville, Florida perform a high splits pyramid during a Florida Gators football game in January 2009]] Most American universities have a cheerleading squad to cheer for football, basketball, volleyball, wrestling, and soccer. Most college squads tend to be larger coed teams, although in recent years; all-girl squads and smaller college squads have increased rapidly. Cheerleading is not recognized by NCAA, NAIA, and NJCAA as athletics; therefore, there are few to no scholarships offered to athletes wanting to pursue cheerleading at the collegiate level. However, some community colleges and universities offer scholarships directly from the program or sponsorship funds. Some colleges offer scholarships for an athlete's talents, academic excellence, and/or involvement in community events. College squads perform more difficult stunts which include multi-level pyramids, as well as flipping and twisting basket tosses. Not only do college cheerleaders cheer on the other sports at their university, many teams at universities compete with other schools at either UCA College Nationals or NCA College Nationals. This requires the teams to choreograph a 2-minute and 30 second routine that includes elements of jumps, tumbling, stunting, basket tosses, pyramids, and a crowd involvement section. Winning one of these competitions is a very prestigious accomplishment, and is seen as another national title for most schools. Youth leagues and athletic associations . Youth cheer—high school ages and younger—make up the vast majority of cheerleaders and cheer teams.]] Organizations that sponsor youth cheer teams usually sponsor either youth league football or basketball teams as well. This allows for the two, under the same sponsor, to be intermingled. Both teams have the same mascot name and the cheerleaders will perform at their football or basketball games. Examples of such sponsors include Pop Warner, American Youth Football, and the YMCA. The purpose of these squads is primarily to support their associated football or basketball players, but some teams do compete at local or regional competitions. The Pop Warner Association even hosts a national championship each December for teams in their program who qualify.All-star or club cheerleading "All-star" or club cheerleading differs from school or sideline cheerleading because all-star teams focus solely on performing a competition routine and not on leading cheers for other sports teams. All-star cheerleaders are members of a privately owned gym or club which they typically pay dues or tuition to, similar to a gymnastics gym. During the early 1980s, cheerleading squads not associated with a school or sports league, whose main objective was competition, began to emerge. The first organization to call themselves all-stars were the Q94 Rockers from Richmond, Virginia, founded in 1982. All-star teams competing prior to 1987 were placed into the same divisions as teams that represented schools and sports leagues. In 1986, the National Cheerleaders Association (NCA) addressed this situation by creating a separate division for teams lacking a sponsoring school or athletic association, calling it the All-Star Division and debuting it at their 1987 competitions. As the popularity of this type of team grew, more and more of them were formed, attending competitions sponsored by many different organizations and companies, each using its own set of rules, regulations, and divisions. This situation became a concern to coaches and gym owners, as the inconsistencies caused coaches to keep their routines in a constant state of flux, detracting from time that could be better utilized for developing skills and providing personal attention to their athletes. More importantly, because the various companies were constantly vying for a competitive edge, safety standards had become more and more lax. In some cases, unqualified coaches and inexperienced squads were attempting dangerous stunts as a result of these expanded sets of rules. The United States All Star Federation (USASF) was formed in 2003 by the competition companies to act as the national governing body for all star cheerleading and to create a standard set of rules and judging criteria to be followed by all competitions sanctioned by the Federation. Eager to grow the sport and create more opportunities for high-level teams, The USASF hosted the first Cheerleading Worlds on April 24, 2004. In addition to cheering at games and competing, professional cheerleaders often do a lot of philanthropy and charity work, modeling, motivational speaking, television performances, and advertising.Injuries and accidentsCheerleading carries the highest rate of catastrophic injuries to female athletes in high school and collegiate sports. Of the United States' 2.9 million female high school athletes, only 3% are cheerleaders, yet cheerleading accounts for nearly 65% of all catastrophic injuries in girls' high school athletics. In data covering the 1982–83 academic year through the 2018–19 academic year in the US, the rate of serious, direct traumatic injury per 100,000 participants was 1.68 for female cheerleaders at the high school level, the highest for all high school sports surveyed. The college rate could not be determined, as the total number of collegiate cheerleaders was unknown, but the total number of traumatic, direct catastrophic injuries over this period was 33 (28 female, 5 male), higher than all sports at this level aside from football. The main source of injuries comes from stunting, also known as pyramids. These stunts are performed at games and pep rallies, as well as competitions. Sometimes competition routines are focused solely around the use of difficult and risky stunts. These stunts usually include a flyer (the person on top), along with one or two bases (the people on the bottom), and one or two spotters in the front and back on the bottom. The most common cheerleading related injury is a concussion. 96% of those concussions are stunt related. Sometimes, however, injuries can be as serious as whiplash, broken necks, broken vertebrae, and death. The journal Pediatrics has reportedly said that the number of cheerleaders suffering from broken bones, concussions, and sprains has increased by over 100 percent between the years of 1990 and 2002, and that in 2001, there were 25,000 hospital visits reported for cheerleading injuries dealing with the shoulder, ankle, head, and neck. Meanwhile, in the US, cheerleading accounted for 65.1% of all major physical injuries to high school females, and to 66.7% of major injuries to college students due to physical activity from 1982 to 2007, with 22,900 minors being admitted to hospital with cheerleading-related injuries in 2002. The risks of cheerleading were highlighted at the death of Lauren Chang. Chang died on April 14, 2008, after competing in a competition where her teammate had kicked her so hard in the chest that her lungs collapsed. Cheerleading (for both girls and boys) was one of the sports studied in the Pediatric Injury Prevention, Education and Research Program of the Colorado School of Public Health in 2009/10–2012/13. Data on cheerleading injuries is included in the report for 2012–13.Associations, federations, and organizations , Japan]] International Cheer Union (ICU): Established on April 26, 2004, the ICU is recognized by the SportAccord as the world governing body of cheerleading and the authority on all matters with relation to it. Including participation from its 105-member national federations reaching 3.5 million athletes globally, the ICU continues to serve as the unified voice for those dedicated to cheerleading's positive development around the world. Following a positive vote by the SportAccord General Assembly on May 31, 2013, in Saint Petersburg, the International Cheer Union (ICU) became SportAccord's 109th member, and SportAccord's 93rd international sports federation to join the international sports family. In accordance with the SportAccord statutes, the ICU is recognized as the world governing body of cheerleading and the authority on all matters related to it. The ICU has introduced a Junior aged team (12–16) to compete at the Cheerleading Worlds, because cheerleading is now in provisional status to become a sport in the Olympics. For cheerleading to one day be in the Olympics, there must be a junior and senior team that competes at the world championships. The first junior cheerleading team that was selected to become the junior national team was Eastside Middle School, located in Mount Washington Kentucky and will represent the United States in the inaugural junior division at the world championships. The ICU holds training seminars for judges and coaches, global events and the World Cheerleading Championships. The ICU is also fully applied to the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and is compliant under the code set by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). International Federation of Cheerleading (IFC): Established on July 5, 1998, the International Federation of Cheerleading (IFC) is a non-profit federation based in Tokyo, Japan, and is a world governing body of cheerleading, primarily in Asia. The IFC objectives are to promote cheerleading worldwide, to spread knowledge of cheerleading, and to develop friendly relations among the member associations and federations. USA Cheer: The USA Federation for Sport Cheering (USA Cheer) was established in 2007 to serve as the national governing body for all types of cheerleading in the United States and is recognized by the ICU. "The USA Federation for Sport Cheering is a not-for profit 501(c)(6) organization that was established in 2007 to serve as the National Governing Body for Sport Cheering in the United States. USA Cheer exists to serve the cheer community, including club cheering (all star) and traditional school based cheer programs, and the growing sport of STUNT. USA Cheer has three primary objectives: help grow and develop interest and participation in cheer throughout the United States; promote safety and safety education for cheer in the United States; and represent the United States of America in international cheer competitions." Additionally, they organize the USA National Team. Universal Cheerleading Association: UCA is an association owned by the company brand Varsity. "Universal Cheerleaders Association was founded in 1974 by Jeff Webb to provide the best educational training for cheerleaders with the goal of incorporating high-level skills with traditional crowd leading. It was Jeff's vision that would transform cheerleading into the dynamic, athletic combination of high energy entertainment and school leadership that is loved by so many." "Today, UCA is the largest cheerleading camp company in the world, offering the widest array of dates and locations of any camp company. We also celebrate cheerleader's incredible hard work and athleticism through the glory of competition at over 50 regional events across the country and our Championships at the Walt Disney World Resort every year." Organised by the Cheerleading Association of Thailand (CAT) in accordance with the rules and regulations of the International Federation of Cheerleading (IFC). The ATCI is held every year since 2009. At the ATCI, many teams from all over Thailand compete, joining them are many invited neighbouring nations who also send cheer squads. Cheerleading Asia International Open Championships (CAIOC): Hosted by the Foundation of Japan Cheerleading Association (FJCA) in accordance with the rules and regulations of the IFC. The CAIOC has been a yearly event since 2007. Every year, many teams from all over Asia converge in Tokyo to compete. Cheerleading World Championships (CWC): Organised by the IFC. The IFC is a non-profit organisation founded in 1998 and based in Tokyo, Japan. The CWC has been held every two years since 2001, and to date, the competition has been held in Japan, the United Kingdom, Finland, Germany, and Hong Kong. The 6th CWC was held at the Hong Kong Coliseum on November 26–27, 2011. ICU World Championships: The International Cheer Union currently encompasses 105 National Federations from countries across the globe. Every year, the ICU host the World Cheerleading Championship. This competition uses a more collegiate style performance and rulebook. Countries assemble and send only one team to represent them. National Cheerleading Championships (NCC): The NCC is the annual IFC-sanctioned national cheerleading competition in Indonesia organised by the Indonesian Cheerleading Community (ICC). Since NCC 2010, the event is now open to international competition, representing a significant step forward for the ICC. Teams from many countries such as Japan, Thailand, the Philippines, and Singapore participated in the ground breaking event. Pan-American Cheerleading Championships (PCC): The PCC was held for the first time in 2009 in the city of Latacunga, Ecuador and is the continental championship organised by the Pan-American Federation of Cheerleading (PFC). The PFC, operating under the umbrella of the IFC, is the non-profit continental body of cheerleading whose aim it is to promote and develop cheerleading in the Americas. The PCC is a biennial event, and was held for the second time in Lima, Peru, in November 2010. USASF/IASF Worlds: Many United States cheerleading organizations form and register the not-for-profit entity the United States All Star Federation (USASF) and also the International All Star Federation (IASF) to support international club cheerleading and the World Cheerleading Club Championships. The first World Cheerleading Championships, or Cheerleading Worlds, were hosted by the USASF/IASF at the Walt Disney World Resort and taped for an ESPN global broadcast in 2004. This competition is only for All-Star/Club cheer. Only level 6 and 7 teams may attend and must receive a bid from a partner company. Varsity: Varsity Spirit, a branch of Varsity Brands is a parent company which, over the past 10 years, has absorbed or bought most other cheerleading event production companies. The following is a list of subsidiary competition companies owned by Varsity Spirit: All Star Challenge All Star Championships All Things Cheer Aloha Spirit Championships '''America's Best Championships American Cheer and Dance American Cheer Power American Cheerleaders Association * AmeriCheer: Americheer was founded in 1987 by Elizabeth Rossetti. It is the parent company to Ameridance and Eastern Cheer and Dance Association. In 2005, Americheer became one of the founding members of the NLCC. This means that Americheer events offer bids to The U.S. Finals: The Final Destination. AmeriCheer InterNational Championship competition is held every March at the Walt Disney World Resort in Orlando, Florida. Athletic Championships Champion Cheer and Dance Champion Spirit Group Cheer LTD CHEERSPORT: CHEERSPORT was founded in 1993 by all star coaches who believed they could conduct competitions that would be better for the athletes, coaches and spectators. Their main event is CHEERSPORT Nationals, held each February at the Georgia World Congress Center in Atlanta, Georgia CheerStarz COA Cheer and Dance Coastal Cheer and Dance Encore Championships GLCC Events Golden State Spirit Association The JAM Brands: The JAM Brands, headquartered in Louisville, Kentucky, provides products and services for the cheerleading and dance industry. It was previously made up of approximately 12 different brands that produce everything from competitions to camps to uniforms to merchandise and apparel, but is now owned by the parent company Varsity. JAMfest, the original brand of The JAM Brands, has been around since 1996 and was founded by Aaron Flaker and Emmitt Tyler. Mardi Gras Spirit Events Mid Atlantic Championships Nation's Choice National Cheerleaders Association (NCA): The NCA was founded in 1948 by Lawrence Herkimer. Every year, the NCA hosts a variety of competitions all across the United States, most notably the NCA High School Cheerleading Nationals and the NCA All-Star Cheerleading Nationals in Dallas, Texas. They also host the NCA/NDA Collegiate Cheer & Dance Championship in Daytona Beach, Florida. In addition to competitions, they also provide summer camps for school cheerleaders. Their sister organization is the National Dance Alliance (NDA). The National Cheerleaders Association was the first company in cheerleading and also is accredited with many other firsts in cheerleading. These firsts include the first All Star National Championship, cheer camp, uniform company, and more. One Up Championships PacWest Sea to Sky Spirit Celebration Spirit Cheer Spirit Sports Spirit Unlimited Spirit Xpress The American Championships The U.S. Finals:''' This event was formerly hosted by Nation's Leading Cheer Companies which was a multi brand company, partnered with other companies such as: Americheer/Ameridance, American Cheer & Dance Academy, Eastern Cheer & Dance Association, and Spirit Unlimited before they were all acquired by Varsity. Every year, starting in 2006, the NLCC hosted The US Finals: The Final Destination of Cheerleading and Dance. Every team that attends must qualify and receive a bid at a partner company's competition. In May 2008, the NLCC and The JAM Brands announced a partnership to produce The U.S. Finals - Final Destination. This event is still produced under the new parent company, Varsity. There are nine Final Destination locations across the country. After the regional events, videos of all the teams that competed are sent to a new panel of judges and rescored to rank teams against those against whom they may never have had a chance to compete. Universal Cheerleaders Association (UCA): Universal Cheerleaders Association was founded in 1974 by Jeff Webb. Since 1980, UCA has hosted the National High School Cheerleading Championship in Walt Disney World Resort. They also host the National All-Star Cheerleading Championship, and the College Cheerleading National Championship at Walt Disney World Resort. All of these events air on ESPN. United Spirit Association: In 1950, Robert Olmstead directed his first summer training camp, and USA later sprouted from this. USA's focus is on the game day experience as a way to enhance audience entertainment. This focus led to the first American football half-time shows to reach adolescences from around the world and expose them to American style cheerleading. USA provides competitions for cheerleading squads without prior qualifications needed in order to participate. The organization also allows the opportunity for cheerleaders to become an All-American, participate in the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade, and partake in London's New Year's Day Parade and other special events much like UCA and NCA allow participants to do. Universal Spirit Association World Spirit Federation Title IX sports status In the United States, the designation of a "sport" is important because of Title IX. There is a large debate on whether or not cheerleading should be considered a sport for Title IX (a portion of the United States Education Amendments of 1972 forbidding discrimination under any education program on the basis of sex) purposes. These arguments have varied from institution to institution and are reflected in how they treat and organize cheerleading within their schools. Some institutions have been accused of not providing equal opportunities to their male students or for not treating cheerleading as a sport, which reflects on the opportunities they provide to their athletes. The Office for Civil Rights (OCR) issued memos and letters to schools that cheerleading, both sideline and competitive, may not be considered "athletic programs" for the purposes of Title IX. Supporters consider cheerleading, as a whole, a sport, citing the heavy use of athletic talents while critics see it as a physical activity because a "sport" implies a competition among all squads and not all squads compete, along with subjectivity of competitions where—as with gymnastics, diving, and figure skating—scores are assessed based on human judgment and not an objective goal or measurement of time. The Office for Civil Rights' primary concern was ensuring that institutions complied with Title IX, which means offering equal opportunities to all students despite their gender. In their memos, their main point against cheerleading being a sport was that the activity is underdeveloped and unorganized to have varsity-level athletic standing among students. This claim was not universal and the Office for Civil Rights would review cheerleading on a case-by-case basis. Due to this the status of cheerleading under Title IX has varied from region to region based on the institution and how they organize their teams. However, within their decisions, the Office for Civil Rights never clearly stated any guidelines on what was and was not considered a sport under Title IX. On January 27, 2009, in a lawsuit involving an accidental injury sustained during a cheerleading practice, the Wisconsin Supreme Court ruled that cheerleading is a full-contact sport in that state, not allowing any participants to be sued for accidental injury. In contrast, on July 21, 2010, in a lawsuit involving whether college cheerleading qualified as a sport for purposes of Title IX, a federal court, citing a current lack of program development and organization, ruled that it is not a sport at all. The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) does not recognize cheerleading as a sport. In 2014, the American Medical Association adopted a policy that, as the leading cause of catastrophic injuries of female athletes both in high school and college, cheerleading should be considered a sport. While there are cheerleading teams at the majority of the NCAA's Division I schools, they are still not recognized as a sport. This results in many teams not being properly funded. Additionally, there are little to no college programs offering scholarships because their universities cannot offer athletic scholarships to "spirit" team members. Title IX Guidelines for Sports ports In 2010, Quinnipiac University was sued for not providing equal opportunities for female athletes as required by Title IX. The university disbanded its volleyball team and created a new competitive cheerleading sports team. The issue with Biediger v. Quinnipiac University is centered around whether competitive cheerleading could be considered a sport for Title IX. The university had not provided additional opportunities for their female athletes which led to the court ruling in favor that cheerleading could not count as a varsity sport. This case established clear guidelines on what qualifies as a sport under Title IX, these guidelines are known as the three-pronged approach. The three-pronged approach is as follows: * Prong 1. Whether the number of female and male student participation within the intercollegiate sport is at a sustainable ratio based on the number of students enrolled at the institution * Prong 2. Whether the institution has provided, both in the past and ongoing, opportunities to intercollegiate athletes that are members of a sex that is currently underrepresented in their sport. * Prong 3. Whether intercollegiate athletes of an underrepresented sex have been fully accommodated by their institution based on their athlete's interests in sports. The three-pronged approach was the first official guideline that clearly stated what criteria were necessary when deciding what activity was considered a sport or not under Title IX. Competition and governance in Canada Cheer Canada acts as the Canadian national governing body for cheer, as recognised by the International Cheer Union. There are a number of provincial sports organizations that also exist in Canada under Cheer Canada, each governing cheer within their province which BC Sport Cheer, Alberta Cheerleading Association, Saskatchewan Cheerleading Association, Cheer Manitoba, Ontario Cheerleading Federation, Federation de Cheerleading du Quebec, Newfoundland and Labrador Cheerleading Athletics, Cheer New Brunswick and Cheer Nova Scotia. Cheer Canada and the provincial organizations utilise the IASF divisions and rules for all star cheer and performance cheer (all star dance) and the ICU divisions and rules for scholastic cheer. Canadian Cheer (previously known as Cheer Evolution) is the largest cheer and dance organization for Canada, and currently comply to Cheer Canada's rules and guidelines for their 15 events. Varsity Spirit also hosts events within Canada utilising the Cheer Canada/IASF rules. There are currently over 400 clubs and schools recognised by Cheer Canada, with over 25,000 participants in 2023. Although athletes can compete in both International Cheer Union (ICU) and IASF championships, crossovers between teams at each individual competition are not permitted. Teams compete against the other teams from their countries on the first day of competition and the top three teams from each country in each division continue to finals. At the end of finals, the top team scoring the highest for their country earns the "Nations Cup". Canada has multiple teams across their country that compete in the IASF Cheerleading Worlds Championship. In total, Canada has had 98 International podium finishes at cheer events. who are eligible to field teams to compete against one another at the ICU World Championships in a number of divisions in both cheerleading and performance cheer, with special divisions for youth, junior and adaptive abilities athletes. Cheer Canada fields a national team, with up to 40 athletes from around the country for both a senior national all girl and senior national coed team training at three training camps across the season in Canada before 28 athletes per team are selected to train in Florida, with 24 athletes going on to compete on the competition floor at ICU Worlds. In the 2023 ICU World Championships, Canada won a total of 4 medals (1 gold and 3 silver) with teams entered in the Youth All Girl, Youth Coed, Unified Median, Unified Advanced, Premier All Girl, Premier Coed, Performance Cheer Hip Hop doubles, Performance Cheer Pom Doubles and Performance Cheer Pom divisions. In total, Team Canada holds podium placements at the ICU World Championships from the following years/divisions: {\| class="wikitable" \|+ ! !Year !Place !Team !Source \|- \| \|2023 \|1st \|Adaptive Abilities Unified \| \|- \| \|2022 \|2nd \|Youth All Girl Median \| \|- \| \|2019 \|2nd \|Special Abilities Traditional \| \|- \| \|2018 \|3rd \|Coed Premier \| \|- \| \|2017 \|2nd \|Junior Coed Advanced \| \|- \| \|2012 \|1st \|All Girl Elite \| \|- \| \|2012 \|1st \|Coed Elite \| \|- \| \|2011 \|1st \|Coed Elite \| \|- \| \|2010 \|1st \|Coed Elite \| \|- \| \|2009 \|1st \|Coed Elite \| Competition in Mexico , called "Borreguitas" at the Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education, Mexico City.]]In Mexico, this sport is endorsed by the Mexican Federation of Cheerleaders and Cheerleading Groups (Federación Mexicana de Porristas y Grupos de Animación) (FMPGA), a body that regulates competitions in Mexico and subdivisions such as the Olympic Confederation of Cheerleaders (COP Brands), National Organization of Cheerleaders (Organización Nacional de Porristas) (ONP) and the Mexican Organization of Trainers and Animation Groups (Organización Mexicana de Entrenadores y Grupos de Animación) (OMEGA Mexico), these being the largest in the country. In 2021, the third edition of the National Championship of State Teams was held and organized by The Mexican Federation of Cheerleaders and Cheerleading Groups, on this occasion, the event was held virtually, broadcasting live, through the Vimeo platform. Mexican Cheer of the Global Stage In Mexico there are more than 500 teams and almost 10,000 athletes who practice this sport, in addition to a representative national team of Mexico, which won first place in the cheerleading world championship organized by the ICU (International Cheer Union) on April 24, 2015, receiving a gold medal; In 2016, Mexico became the second country with the most medals in the world in this sport. With 27 medals, it is considered the second world power in this sport, only behind the United States. In the 2019 Coed Premier World Cheerleading Championship Mexico ranked 4th just behind the United States, Canada and Taiwan. In 2021, the Mexican team won 3rd place at the Junior Boom category in World Cheerleading Championship 2021 hosted by international cheerleading federation. Cheerleading in the United Kingdom This section has a link to a separate Wikipedia page that talks about the history and growth of cheerleading in the United Kingdom. This can be used to compare and contrast the activity in the U.S. and in Australia. Cheerleading in Australia This section has a link to a separate Wikipedia page that talks about the history and growth of cheerleading in Australia. This can be used to compare and contrast the activity in the U.S. and in Australia. Notable former cheerleaders This section has a link to a separate Wikipedia page that lists former cheerleaders and well-known cheerleading squads. See also * Basket toss * Cheerleader Nation * Cheerleader effect * Cheerleading in Japan * Cheerleading Philippines * Color guard * Dance squad * List of cheerleading jumps * List of cheerleading stunts * Majorette (dancer) * National Basketball Association Cheerleading * National Football League Cheerleading * Pep squad * Pom-pom * UAAP Cheerdance Competition * Varsity Brands References External links Category:Sports culture Category:Sports entertainment Category:Concert dance	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheerleading	2025-04-05T18:27:56.862656
6751	Cottingley Fairies	The Cottingley Fairies appear in a series of five photographs taken by Elsie Wright (1901–1988) and Frances Griffiths (1907–1986), two young cousins who lived in Cottingley, near Bradford in England. In 1917, when the first two photographs were taken, Elsie was 16 years old and Frances was 9. The pictures came to the attention of writer Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, who used them to illustrate an article on fairies he had been commissioned to write for the Christmas 1920 edition of The Strand Magazine. Doyle was enthusiastic about the photographs, and interpreted them as clear and visible evidence of supernatural phenomena. Public reaction was mixed; some accepted the images as genuine, others believed that they had been faked. Interest in the Cottingley Fairies gradually declined after 1921. Both girls married and lived abroad for a time after they grew up, and yet the photographs continued to hold the public imagination. In 1966 a reporter from the Daily Express newspaper traced Elsie, who had by then returned to the United Kingdom. Elsie left open the possibility that she believed she had photographed her thoughts, and the media once again became interested in the story. In the early 1980s Elsie and Frances admitted that the photographs were faked, using cardboard cutouts of fairies copied from a popular children's book of the time, but Frances maintained that the fifth and final photograph was genuine. As of 2019 the photographs and the cameras used are in the collections of the National Science and Media Museum in Bradford, England. 1917 photographs In mid-1917 nine-year-old Frances Griffiths and her motherboth newly arrived in England from South Africawere staying with Frances's aunt, Elsie Wright's mother, Polly, in the village of Cottingley in West Yorkshire; Elsie was then 16 years old. The two girls often played together beside the beck at the bottom of the garden, much to their mothers' annoyance, because they frequently came back with wet feet and clothes. Frances and Elsie said they only went to the beck to see the fairies, and to prove it, Elsie borrowed her father's camera, a Midg quarter-plate. The girls returned about 30 minutes later, "triumphant". Elsie's father, Arthur, was a keen amateur photographer, and had set up his own darkroom. The picture on the photographic plate he developed showed Frances behind a bush in the foreground, on which four fairies appeared to be dancing. Knowing his daughter's artistic ability, and that she had spent some time working in a photographer's studio, he dismissed the figures as cardboard cutouts. Two months later the girls borrowed his camera again, and this time returned with a photograph of Elsie sitting on the lawn holding out her hand to a gnome. Exasperated by what he believed to be "nothing but a prank", and convinced that the girls must have tampered with his camera in some way, Arthur Wright refused to lend it to them again. His wife Polly, however, believed the photographs to be authentic. }} Towards the end of 1918, Frances sent a letter to Johanna Parvin, a friend in Cape Town, South Africa, where Frances had lived for most of her life, enclosing the photograph of herself with the fairies. On the back she wrote "It is funny, I never used to see them in Africa. It must be too hot for them there." The photographs became public in mid-1919, after Elsie's mother attended a meeting of the Theosophical Society in Bradford. The lecture that evening was on "fairy life", and at the end of the meeting Polly Wright showed the two fairy photographs taken by her daughter and niece to the speaker. As a result, the photographs were displayed at the society's annual conference in Harrogate, held a few months later. There they came to the attention of a leading member of the society, Edward Gardner. One of the central beliefs of theosophy is that humanity is undergoing a cycle of evolution, towards increasing "perfection", and Gardner recognised the potential significance of the photographs for the movement: }} Initial examinations Gardner sent the prints along with the original glass-plate negatives to Harold Snelling, a photography expert. Snelling's opinion was that "the two negatives are entirely genuine, unfaked photographs ... [with] no trace whatsoever of studio work involving card or paper models".<!--important to retain the big difference between unretouched and 'showing faries'--> He did not go so far as to say that the photographs showed fairies, stating only that "these are straight forward photographs of whatever was in front of the camera at the time". Gardner had the prints "clarified" by Snelling, and new negatives produced, "more conducive to printing", for use in the illustrated lectures he gave around Britain. Snelling supplied the photographic prints which were available for sale at Gardner's lectures. As it turned out, Iris with the Gnome sold for a hammer price of £5,400 (plus 24% buyer's premium incl. VAT), while Alice and the Fairies sold for a hammer price of £15,000 (plus 24% buyer's premium incl. VAT). 1920 photographs Doyle was preoccupied with organising an imminent lecture tour of Australia, and in July 1920, sent Gardner to meet the Wright family. By this point, Frances was living with her parents in Scarborough, but Elsie's father told Gardner that he had been so certain the photographs were fakes that while the girls were away he searched their bedroom and the area around the beck (stream), looking for scraps of pictures or cutouts, but found nothing "incriminating". Gardner believed the Wright family to be honest and respectable. To place the matter of the photographs' authenticity beyond doubt, he returned to Cottingley at the end of July with two W. Butcher & Sons Cameo folding plate cameras and 24 secretly marked photographic plates. Frances was invited to stay with the Wright family during the school summer holiday so that she and Elsie could take more pictures of the fairies. Gardner described his briefing in his 1945 Fairies: A Book of Real Fairies: An enthusiastic and committed spiritualist, Doyle hoped that if the photographs convinced the public of the existence of fairies then they might more readily accept other psychic phenomena. He ended his article with the words: The London newspaper Truth'' on 5 January 1921 expressed a similar view; "For the true explanation of these fairy photographs what is wanted is not a knowledge of occult phenomena but a knowledge of children." In a letter to Gardner he wrote: "Look at Alice's [Frances'] face. Look at Iris's [Elsie's] face. There is an extraordinary thing called Truth which has 10 million faces and forms – it is God's currency and the cleverest coiner or forger can't imitate it." Major John Hall-Edwards, a keen photographer and pioneer of medical X-ray treatments in Britain, was a particularly vigorous critic: But the cousins disagreed about the fifth and final photograph, which Doyle in his The Coming of the Fairies described in this way: }} Elsie maintained it was a fake, just like all the others, but Frances insisted that it was genuine. In an interview given in the early 1980s Frances said: The 1997 films FairyTale: A True Story and Photographing Fairies were inspired by the events surrounding the Cottingley Fairies. The photographs were parodied in a 1994 book written by Terry Jones and Brian Froud, ''Lady Cottington's Pressed Fairy Book''. In A. J. Elwood's 2021 novel, The Cottingley Cuckoo, a series of letters were written soon after the Cottingley fairy photographs were published claiming further sightings of fairies and proof of their existence. In 2017 a further two fairy photographs were presented as evidence that the girls' parents were part of the conspiracy. Dating from 1917 and 1918, both photographs are poorly executed copies of two of the original fairy photographs. One was published in 1918 in The Sphere newspaper, which was before the originals had been seen by anyone outside the girls' immediate family. In 2019, a print of the first of the five photographs sold for £1,050. A print of the second was also put up for sale but failed to sell as it did not meet its £500 reserve price. The pictures previously belonged to the Reverend George Vale Owen. In December 2019, the third camera used to take the images was acquired by the National Science and Media Museum. References Bibliography * * * * * Further reading * Bihet, Francesca (2013). "[http://eprints.chi.ac.uk/1167/ Sprites, spiritualists and sleuths: the intersecting ownership of transcendent proofs in the Cottingley Fairy Fraud]". In: Afterlife: 18th Postgraduate Religion and Theology Conference, 8–9 March 2013, University of Bristol. (Unpublished) * * * Homer, Michael W. and Massimo Introvigne, 'The Recoming of the Fairies', Theosophical History 6 (1996), 59–76. * Inuma, Kaori “Fairies to Be Photographed!: Press Reactions in ‘Scrapbooks’ to the Cottingley Fairies,” Correspondence: Hitotsubashi Journal of Arts and Literature 4 (2019), 53–84. * * Maher, F. R., Sir Arthur Conan Doyle and the Secret of the Cottingley Fairies (NP, 2021), ISBN 1548818941. * Owen, Alex <nowiki>''</nowiki>Borderland Forms': Arthur Conan Doyle, Albion's Daughters, and the Politics of the Cottingley Fairies', History Workshop 38 (1994), 48–85. * , pp. 89–103, * Sugg, Richard 'Cottingley Revisited', Fairy Investigation Society Newsletter 6 (2017), 19–25 External links * [https://archive.org/details/comingoffairies00doylrich The Coming of the Fairies] – scans of the original version of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's book (1922) * [https://gutenberg.org/ebooks/47506 The Coming of the Fairies] – Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's book as an eBook in different formats at Project Gutenberg * [https://gutenberg.org/ebooks/39592 ''Princess Mary's Gift Book''] (the original source of the drawings) – eBook in different formats at Project Gutenberg * [http://web.randi.org/uploads/3/7/3/7/37377621/jref13edmod_fairies_teacher_print.pdf The Case of the Cottingley Fairies] at The James Randi Educational Foundation * [https://web.archive.org/web/20031205042903/http://www.cottingley.net/fairies.shtml Cottingley Fairies] at Cottingley.Net – The Cottingley Network * [http://www.cottingleyconnect.org.uk/fairies.htm Cottingley Fairies] at Cottingley Connect * Category:Bradford Category:Fairies Category:Paranormal hoaxes Category:Arthur Conan Doyle Category:Hoaxes in England Category:Black-and-white photographs Category:Photography forgeries Category:Photography in the United Kingdom Category:1917 in England Category:Works originally published in The Strand Magazine Category:1910s hoaxes Category:1917 works Category:1917 in art Category:1910s photographs	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cottingley_Fairies	2025-04-05T18:27:56.882600
6752	Cheka	\| nativename_a \| nativename_r \| logo = GPU 5th anniversary emblem.png \| logo_width = 150px \| logo_caption = Badge commemorating 5 years of the Cheka–GPU, issued in 1922 \| seal \| seal_width \| seal_caption \| formed \| preceding1 \| preceding2 \| dissolved = \| superseding = GPU \| jurisdiction \| headquarters 2 Gorokhovaya Street, Petrograd Lubyanka Square, Moscow \| latd \| longd \| region_code \| employees \| budget \| minister1_name \| minister1_pfo \| minister2_name \| minister2_pfo \| chief1_name Felix Dzerzhinsky \| chief1_position \| chief2_name \| chief2_position \| agency_type Secret police \| parent_agency = Council of People's Commissars \| child1_agency \| child2_agency \| keydocument1 \| website \| footnotes \| chief3_name \| chief3_position \| chief4_name \| chief4_position \| chief5_name \| chief5_position \| chief6_name \| chief6_position \| chief7_name \| chief7_position \| chief8_name \| chief8_position \| chief9_name \| chief9_position \| parent_department }} The All-Russian Extraordinary Commission (), abbreviated as VChK (), and commonly known as the Cheka (), was the first Soviet secret police organization. It was established on by the Council of People's Commissars of the Russian SFSR, and was led by Felix Dzerzhinsky. By the end of the Russian Civil War in 1921, the Cheka had at least 200,000 personnel. Ostensibly created to protect the October Revolution from "class enemies" such as the bourgeoisie and members of the clergy, the Cheka soon became a tool of repression wielded against all political opponents of the Bolshevik regime. The organization had responsibility for counterintelligence, oversight of the loyalty of the Red Army, and protection of the country's borders, as well as the collection of human and technical intelligence. At the direction of Vladimir Lenin, the Cheka performed mass arrests, imprisonments, torture, and executions without trial in what came to be known as the "Red Terror". It policed the Gulag system of labor camps, conducted requisitions of food, and put down rebellions by workers and peasants. The Cheka was responsible for executing at least 50,000 to as many as 200,000 people, though estimates vary widely. The Cheka, the first in a long succession of Soviet secret police agencies, established the security service as a major player in Soviet politics. It was dissolved in February 1922, and succeeded by the State Political Directorate (GPU). Throughout the Soviet era, members of the secret police were referred to as "Chekists". Name The official designation was All-Russian Extraordinary (or Emergency) '''Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution and Sabotage under the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR' (, Vserossiyskaya chrezvychaynaya komissiya po borbe s kontrrevolyutsiyey i sabotazhem pri Sovete narodnykh komisarov RSFSR). In 1918 its name was changed, becoming All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution, Profiteering and Corruption. A member of Cheka was called a chekist (). Also, the term chekist often referred to Soviet secret police throughout the Soviet period, despite official name changes over time. In The Gulag Archipelago, Alexander Solzhenitsyn recalls that zeks in the labor camps used old chekist as a mark of special esteem for particularly experienced camp administrators. The term is still found in use in Russia today (for example, President Vladimir Putin has been referred to in the Russian media as a chekist due to his career in the KGB and as head of the KGB's successor, FSB). The Chekists commonly dressed in black leather, including long flowing coats, reportedly after being issued such distinctive coats early in their existence. Western communists adopted this clothing fashion. The Chekists also often carried with them Greek-style worry beads made of amber, which had become "fashionable among high officials during the time of the 'cleansing'". History In 1921, the Troops for the Internal Defense of the Republic (a branch of the Cheka) numbered at least 200,000. These troops policed labor camps, ran the Gulag system, conducted requisitions of food, and subjected political opponents to secret arrest, detention, torture and summary execution. They also put down rebellions and riots by workers or peasants, and mutinies in the desertion-plagued Red Army. After 1922 Cheka groups underwent the first of a series of reorganizations; however the theme of a government dominated by "the organs" persisted indefinitely afterward, and Soviet citizens continued to refer to members of the various organs as Chekists. Creation of VCheKa (left to right) Yakov Peters, Józef Unszlicht, Abram Belenky (standing), Felix Dzerzhinsky, Vyacheslav Menzhinsky, 1921]] In the first month and a half after the October Revolution (1917), the duty of "extinguishing the resistance of exploiters" was assigned to the Petrograd Military Revolutionary Committee (or PVRK). It represented a temporary body working under directives of the Council of People's Commissars (Sovnarkom) and Central Committee of RDSRP(b). The VRK created new bodies of government, organized food delivery to cities and the Army, requisitioned products from bourgeoisie, and sent its emissaries and agitators into provinces. One of its most important functions was the security of revolutionary order, and the fight against counterrevolutionary activity (see: Anti-Soviet agitation). On December 1, 1917, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee (VTsIK or TsIK) reviewed a proposed reorganization of the VRK, and possible replacement of it. On December 5, the Petrograd VRK published an announcement of dissolution and transferred its functions to the department of TsIK for the fight against "counterrevolutionaries". On December 6, the Council of People's Commissars (Sovnarkom) strategized how to persuade government workers to strike across Russia. They decided that a special commission was needed to implement the "most energetically revolutionary" measures. Felix Dzerzhinsky (the Iron Felix) was appointed as Director and invited the participation of the following individuals: V. K. Averin, V.V Yakovlev, D. G. Yevseyev, N. A. Zhydelev, I. K. Ksenofontov, G. K. Ordjonikidze, Ya. Kh. Peters, K. A. Peterson, V. A. Trifonov. On December 7, 1917, all invited except Zhydelev and Vasilevsky gathered in the Smolny Institute to discuss the competence and structure of the commission to combat counterrevolution and sabotage. The obligations of the commission were: "to liquidate to the root all of the counterrevolutionary and sabotage activities and all attempts to them in all of Russia, to hand over counter-revolutionaries and saboteurs to the revolutionary tribunals, develop measures to combat them and relentlessly apply them in real-world applications. The commission should only conduct a preliminary investigation". The commission should also observe the press and counterrevolutionary parties, sabotaging officials and other criminals. , the seat of the Soviet government, 1917]] Three sections were created: informational, organizational, and a unit to combat counter-revolution and sabotage. Upon the end of the meeting, Dzerzhinsky reported to the Sovnarkom with the requested information. The commission was allowed to apply such measures of repression as 'confiscation, deprivation of ration cards, publication of lists of enemies of the people etc.'". On December 8, 1917, some of the original members of the VCheka were replaced. Averin, Ordzhonikidze, and Trifonov were replaced by V. V. Fomin, S. E. Shchukin, Ilyin, and Chernov. and "corruption" was raised at the same meeting, which was assigned to Peters to address and report with results to one of the next meetings of the commission. A circular, published on , gave the address of VCheka's first headquarters as "Petrograd, Gorokhovaya 2, 4th floor". The Left SRs were expelled or arrested later in 1918, following the attempted assassination of Lenin by an SR, Fanni Kaplan. Consolidation of VCheKa and National Establishment By the end of January 1918, the Investigatory Commission of Petrograd Soviet (probably same as of Revtribunal) petitioned Sovnarkom to delineate the role of detection and judicial-investigatory organs. It offered to leave, for the VCheKa and the Commission of Bonch-Bruyevich, only the functions of detection and suppression, while investigative functions entirely transferred to it. The Investigatory Commission prevailed. On January 31, 1918, Sovnarkom ordered to relieve VCheKa of the investigative functions, leaving for the commission only the functions of detection, suppression, and prevention of anti revolutionary crimes. At the meeting of the Council of People's Commissars on January 31, 1918, a merger of VCheKa and the Commission of Bonch-Bruyevich was proposed. The existence of both commissions, VCheKa of Sovnarkom and the Commission of Bonch-Bruyevich of VTsIK, with almost the same functions and equal rights, became impractical. A decision followed two weeks later. On February 23, 1918, VCheKa sent a radio telegram to all Soviets with a petition to immediately organize emergency commissions to combat counter-revolution, sabotage and speculation, if such commissions had not been yet organized. February 1918 saw the creation of local Extraordinary Commissions. One of the first founded was the Moscow Cheka. Sections and commissariats to combat counterrevolution were established in other cities. The Extraordinary Commissions arose, usually in the areas during the moments of the greatest aggravation of political situation. On February 25, 1918, as the counterrevolutionary organization Union of Front-liners was making advances, the executive committee of the Saratov Soviet formed a counter-revolutionary section. On March 7, 1918, because of the move from Petrograd to Moscow, the Petrograd Cheka was created. On March 9, a section for combating counterrevolution was created under the Omsk Soviet. Extraordinary commissions were also created in Penza, Perm, Novgorod, Cherepovets, Rostov, Taganrog. On March 18, VCheKa adopted a resolution, The Work of VCheKa on the All-Russian Scale, foreseeing the formation everywhere of Extraordinary Commissions after the same model, and sent a letter that called for the widespread establishment of the Cheka in combating counterrevolution, speculation, and sabotage. Establishment of provincial Extraordinary Commissions was largely completed by August 1918. In the Soviet Republic, there were 38 gubernatorial Chekas (Gubcheks) by this time. On June 12, 1918, the All-Russian Conference of Cheka adopted the Basic Provisions on the Organization of Extraordinary Commissions. They set out to form Extraordinary Commissions not only at Oblast and Guberniya levels, but also at the large Uyezd Soviets. In August 1918, in the Soviet Republic had accounted for some 75 Uyezd-level Extraordinary Commissions. By the end of the year, 365 Uyezd-level Chekas were established. In 1918, the All-Russia Extraordinary Commission and the Soviets managed to establish a local Cheka apparatus. It included Oblast, Guberniya, Raion, Uyezd, and Volost Chekas, with Raion and Volost Extraordinary Commissioners. In addition, border security Chekas were included in the system of local Cheka bodies. In the autumn of 1918, as consolidation of the political situation of the republic continued, a move toward elimination of Uyezd-, Raion-, and Volost-level Chekas, as well as the institution of Extraordinary Commissions was considered. On January 20, 1919, VTsIK adopted a resolution prepared by VCheKa, On the abolition of Uyezd Extraordinary Commissions. On January 16 the presidium of VCheKa approved the draft on the establishment of the Politburo at Uyezd militsiya. This decision was approved by the Conference of the Extraordinary Commission IV, held in early February 1920. Other types of Cheka on a Soviet postage stamp.]] On August 3, a VCheKa section for combating counterrevolution, speculation and sabotage on railways was created. On August 7, 1918, Sovnarkom adopted a decree on the organization of the railway section at VCheKa. Combating counterrevolution, speculation, and crimes on railroads was passed under the jurisdiction of the railway section of VCheKa and local Cheka. In August 1918, railway sections were formed under the Gubcheks. Formally, they were part of the non-resident sections, but in fact constituted a separate division, largely autonomous in their activities. The gubernatorial and oblast-type Chekas retained in relation to the transportation sections only control and investigative functions. The beginning of a systematic work of organs of VCheKa in RKKA refers to July 1918, the period of extreme tension of the civil war and class struggle in the country. On July 16, 1918, the Council of People's Commissars formed the Extraordinary Commission for combating counterrevolution at the Czechoslovak (Eastern) Front, led by M. I. Latsis. In the fall of 1918, Extraordinary Commissions to combat counterrevolution on the Southern (Ukraine) Front were formed. In late November, the Second All-Russian Conference of the Extraordinary Commissions accepted a decision after a report from I. N. Polukarov to establish at all frontlines, and army sections of the Cheka and granted them the right to appoint their commissioners in military units. On December 9, 1918, the collegiate (or presidium) of VCheKa had decided to form a military section, headed by M. S. Kedrov, to combat counterrevolution in the Army. In early 1919, the military control and the military section of VCheKa were merged into one body, the Special Section of the Republic, with Kedrov as head. On January 1, he issued an order to establish the Special Section. The order instructed agencies everywhere to unite the Military control and the military sections of Chekas and to form special sections of frontlines, armies, military districts, and guberniyas. In November 1920 the Soviet of Labor and Defense created a Special Section of VCheKa for the security of the state border. On February 6, 1922, after the Ninth All-Russian Soviet Congress, the Cheka was dissolved by VTsIK, "with expressions of gratitude for heroic work." It was replaced by the State Political Administration or GPU, a section of the NKVD of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR). Dzerzhinsky remained as chief of the new organization. Operations Suppression of political opposition , Ukrainian SSR, The Black Book of Communism]] , Ukrainian SSR, The Black Book of Communism]] As its name implied, the Extraordinary Commission had virtually unlimited powers and could interpret them in any way it wished. No standard procedures were ever set up, except that the commission was supposed to send the arrested to the Military-Revolutionary tribunals if outside of a war zone. This left an opportunity for a wide range of interpretations, as the whole country was in total chaos. At the direction of Lenin, the Cheka performed mass arrests, imprisonments, and executions of "enemies of the people". In this, the Cheka said that they targeted "class enemies" such as the bourgeoisie, and members of the clergy. Within a month, the Cheka had extended its repression to all political opponents of the communist government, including anarchists and others on the left. On April 11/12, 1918, some 26 anarchist political centres in Moscow were attacked. Forty anarchists were killed by Cheka forces, and about 500 were arrested and jailed after a pitched battle took place between the two groups. In response to the anarchists' resistance, the Cheka orchestrated a massive retaliatory campaign of repression, executions, and arrests against all opponents of the Bolshevik government, in what came to be known as "Red Terror". The Red Terror, implemented by Dzerzhinsky on September 5, 1918, was vividly described by the Red Army journal Krasnaya Gazeta: <blockquote>Without mercy, without sparing, we will kill our enemies in scores of hundreds. Let them be thousands, let them drown themselves in their own blood. For the blood of Lenin and Uritsky … let there be floods of blood of the bourgeoisie – more blood, as much as possible..."</blockquote> An early Bolshevik, Victor Serge described in his book Memoirs of a Revolutionary: The Cheka was also used against Nestor Makhno's Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine. After the Insurgent Army had served its purpose in aiding the Red Army to stop the Whites under Denikin, the Soviet communist government decided to eliminate the anarchist forces. In May 1919, two Cheka agents sent to assassinate Makhno were caught and executed. executing an Orthodox priest in Moscow, White Russian anti-Bolshevik propaganda poster, c. 1920]] Many victims of Cheka repression were "bourgeois hostages" rounded up and held in readiness for summary execution in reprisal for any alleged counter-revolutionary act. Wholesale, indiscriminate arrests became an integral part of the system. The Cheka used trucks disguised as delivery trucks, called "Black Marias", for the secret arrest and transport of prisoners. It was during the Red Terror that the Cheka, hoping to avoid the bloody aftermath of having half-dead victims writhing on the floor, developed a technique for execution known later by the German words "Nackenschuss or "Genickschuss, a shot to the nape of the neck, which caused minimal blood loss and instant death. The victim's head was bent forward, and the executioner fired slightly downward at point-blank range. This had become the standard method used later by the NKVD to liquidate Joseph Stalin's purge victims and others. Persecution of deserters It is believed that there were more than three million deserters from the Red Army in 1919 and 1920 . Approximately 500,000 deserters were arrested in 1919 and close to 800,000 in 1920, by troops of the 'Special Punitive Department' of the Cheka, created to punish desertions. These troops were used to forcibly repatriate deserters, taking and shooting hostages to force compliance or to set an example. In September 1918, according to The Black Book of Communism, in only twelve provinces of Russia, 48,735 deserters and 7,325 "bandits" were arrested, 1,826 were killed and 2,230 were executed. The exact identity of these individuals is confused by the fact that the Soviet Bolshevik government used the term 'bandit' to cover ordinary criminals as well as armed and unarmed political opponents, such as the anarchists. Repression Number of victims Estimates on Cheka executions vary widely. The lowest figures (disputed below) are provided by Dzerzhinsky's lieutenant Martyn Latsis, limited to RSFSR over the period 1918–1920: For the period 1918 – July 1919, covering only twenty provinces of central Russia: ::In 1918: 6,300; in 1919 (up to July): 2,089; Total: 8,389 For the whole period 1918–19: ::In 1918: 6,185; in 1919: 3,456; Total: 9,641 For the whole period 1918–20: ::In January–June 1918: 22; in July–December 1918: more than 6,000; in 1918–20: 12,733. Experts generally agree these semi-official figures are vastly understated. Pioneering historian of the Red Terror Sergei Melgunov claims that this was done deliberately in an attempt to demonstrate the government's humanity. For example, he refutes the claim made by Latsis that only 22 executions were carried out in the first six months of the Cheka's existence by providing evidence that the true number was 884 executions. W. H. Chamberlin claims, "It is simply impossible to believe that the Cheka only put to death 12,733 people in all of Russia up to the end of the civil war." Donald Rayfield concurs, noting that, "Plausible evidence reveals that the actual numbers … vastly exceeded the official figures." Chamberlin provides the "reasonable and probably moderate" estimate of 50,000, Several scholars put the number of executions at about 250,000. Some believe it is possible more people were murdered by the Cheka than died in battle. Historian James Ryan gives a modest estimate of 28,000 executions per year from December 1917 to February 1922. Lenin himself seemed unfazed by the killings. On 12 January 1920, while addressing trade union leaders, he said: "We did not hesitate to shoot thousands of people, and we shall not hesitate, and we shall save the On 14 May 1921, the Politburo, chaired by Lenin, passed a motion "broadening the rights of the [Cheka] in relation to the use of the [death penalty]." Scholarly estimates There is no consensus among the Western historians on the number of deaths from the Red Terror. One source gives estimates of 28,000 executions per year from December 1917 to February 1922. Estimates for the number of people shot during the initial period of the Red Terror are at least 10,000. Estimates for the whole period go for a low of 50,000 to highs of 140,000 and 200,000 executed. Most estimations for the number of executions in total put the number at about 100,000. According to Vadim Erlikhman's investigation, the number of the Red Terror's victims is at least 1,200,000 people. According to Robert Conquest, a total of 140,000 people were shot in 1917–1922. Candidate of Historical Sciences Nikolay Zayats states that the number of people shot by the Cheka in 1918–1922 is about 37,300 people, shot in 1918–1921 by the verdicts of the tribunals – 14,200, i.e. about 50,000–55,000 people in total, although executions and atrocities were not limited to the Cheka, having been organized by the Red Army as well. According to anti-Bolshevik Socialist Revolutionary Sergei Melgunov (1879–1956), at the end of 1919, the Special Investigation Commission to investigate the atrocities of the Bolsheviks estimated the number of deaths at 1,766,188 people in 1918–1919 only. Atrocities The Cheka engaged in the widespread practice of torture. Depending on Cheka committees in various cities, the methods included: being skinned alive, scalped, "crowned" with barbed wire, impaled, crucified, hanged, stoned to death, tied to planks and pushed slowly into furnaces or tanks of boiling water, or rolled around naked in internally nail-studded barrels. Chekists reportedly poured water on naked prisoners in the winter-bound streets until they became living ice statues. Others beheaded their victims by twisting their necks until their heads could be torn off. The Cheka detachments stationed in Kiev would attach an iron tube to the torso of a bound victim and insert a rat in the tube closed off with wire netting, while the tube was held over a flame until the rat began gnawing through the victim's guts in an effort to escape. All of these atrocities were published on numerous occasions in Pravda and Izvestiya: January 26, 1919 Izvestiya #18 article Is it really a medieval imprisonment? («Неужели средневековый застенок?»); February 22, 1919 Pravda #12 publishes details of the Vladimir Cheka's tortures, September 21, 1922 Socialist Herald publishes details of series of tortures conducted by the Stavropol Cheka (hot basement, cold basement, skull measuring, etc.). The Chekists were also supplemented by the militarized Units of Special Purpose (the Party's Spetsnaz or ). Cheka was actively and openly utilizing kidnapping methods. With kidnapping methods, Cheka was able to extinguish numerous cases of discontent especially among the rural population. Among the notorious ones was the Tambov rebellion. Villages were bombarded to complete annihilation, as in the case of Tretyaki, Novokhopersk uyezd, Voronezh Governorate. As a result of this relentless violence, more than a few Chekists ended up with psychopathic disorders, which Nikolai Bukharin said were "an occupational hazard of the Chekist profession." Many hardened themselves to the executions by heavy drinking and drug use. Some developed a gangster-like slang for the verb to kill in an attempt to distance themselves from the killings, such as 'shooting partridges', or 'sealing' a victim, or giving him a natsokal (onomatopoeia of the trigger action). On November 30, 1992, by the initiative of the President of the Russian Federation the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation recognized the Red Terror as unlawful, which in turn led to the suspension of Communist Party of the RSFSR. Regional Chekas Cheka departments were organized not only in big cities and guberniya seats, but also in each uyezd, at any front-lines and military formations. Nothing is known on what resources they were created. Many who were hired to head those departments were so-called "nestlings of Alexander Kerensky". ;Moscow Cheka (1918–1919) Chairman – Felix Dzerzhynsky, Deputy – Yakov Peters (initially heading the Petrograd Department), other members – Shklovsky, Kneyfis, Tseystin, Razmirovich, Kronberg, Khaikina, Karlson, Shauman, Lentovich, Rivkin, Antonov, Delafabr, Tsytkin, G.Sverdlov, Bizensky, Yakov Blumkin, Aleksandrovich, Fines, Zaks, Yakov Goldin, Galpershtein, Kniggisen, Martin Latsis (later transfer (chief of jail), Fogel, Zakis, Shillenkus, Yanson). ;Petrograd Cheka (1918–1919) * Chairman – Meinkman, Moisei Uritsky (reiller, Kozlovsky, Model, Rozmirovich, I.Diesporov, Iselevich, Krassikov, Bukhan, Merbis, Paykis, Anvelt. ;Kharkov Cheka * Deych, Vikhman, Timofey, Vera (Dora) Grebenshchikova, Aleksandra (ag * Ashykin. Popular culture * The Cheka were popular staples in Soviet film and literature. This was partly due to a romanticization of the organisation in the post-Stalin period, and also because they provided a useful action/detection template. Films featuring the Cheka include Ostern's Miles of Fire, Nikita Mikhalkov's At Home among Strangers, the miniseries The Adjutant of His Excellency, and also Dead Season (starring Donatas Banionis), and the 1992 Russian drama film The Chekist. * In Spain, during the Spanish Civil War, the detention and torture centers operated by the Republicans were named "checas" after the Soviet organization. Alfonso Laurencic was their promoter, ideologist and builder. * Dzerzhinsky, who rarely drank, is said to have told Lenin – on an occasion in which he did so excessively – that secret police work could be done by "only saints or scoundrels ... but now the saints are running away from me and I am left with the scoundrels". * The Chekist, directed by Aleksandr Rogozhkin, is a 1992 French–Russian film based on a 1923 short story by Vladimir Zazubrin. It tells the story of a bloody work and downfall of a Soviet Cheka security official involved in mass executions during the Russian Civil War. * The Soviet Story, a 2008 Latvian film, mentioned that Cheka is the Soviet terror machine, and Cheka is the "teacher" of Nazi gestapo. Legacy Konstantin Preobrazhenskiy criticised the continuing celebration of the professional holiday of the old and the modern Russian security services on the anniversary of the creation of the Cheka, , with the assent of the Presidents of Russia. (Vladimir Putin, former KGB officer, chose not to change the date to another): "The successors of the KGB still haven't renounced anything; they even celebrate their professional holiday the same day, as during repression, on the 20th of December. It is as if the present intelligence and counterespionage services of Germany celebrated Gestapo Day. I can imagine how indignant our press would be!" See also * Chekism * Commanders of the border troops USSR and RF * Central Case Examination Group * Chronology of Soviet secret police agencies * Great Purge * Ministry for State Security (Soviet Union) * Okhrana * People's Commissariat for State Security (Soviet Union) * Russian Revolution of 1917 References Sources * Andrew, Christopher M. and Vasili Mitrokhin (1999) The Sword and the Shield : The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB. New York: Basic Books. . * Carr, E. H. (1958) The Origin and Status of the Cheka. Soviet Studies, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 1–11. * Chamberlin, W. H. (1935) The Russian Revolution 1917–1921, 2 vols. London and New York. The Macmillan Company. * Dziak, John. (1988) Chekisty: A History of the KGB. Lexington, Massachusetts Lexington Books. * Figes, Orlando (1997) ''A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution 1891–1924. Penguin Books. . * Leggett, George (1986) The Cheka: Lenin's Political Police. Oxford University Press, New York. * Lincoln, W. Bruce (1999) Red Victory: A History of the Russian Civil War. Da Capo Press. * * Melgounov, Sergey Petrovich (1925) The Red Terror in Russia. London & Toronto: J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd. * Overy, Richard (2004) The Dictators: Hitler's Germany, Stalin's Russia. W. W. Norton & Company; 1st American edition. * Rummel, Rudolph Joseph (1990) Lethal Politics: Soviet Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1917.'' Transaction Publishers. * * Schapiro, Leonard B. (1984) The Russian Revolutions of 1917 : The Origins of Modern Communism. New York: Basic Books. * Volkogonov, Dmitri (1994) Lenin: A New Biography. Free Press. * Volkogonov, Dmitri (1998) Autopsy of an Empire: The Seven Leaders Who Built the Soviet Regime Free Press. External links * * [http://www.spartacus-educational.com/RUScheka.htm The Cheka] – Spartacus Schoolnet collection of primary source extracts relating to the Cheka * [http://www.hrono.ru/organ/ukazatel/gulag.php Development of the Soviet system of punitive organs] Category:Defunct law enforcement agencies of Russia Category:Russian intelligence agencies Category:Defunct intelligence agencies Category:Organizations of the Russian Revolution Category:Law enforcement in communist states Category:Law enforcement agencies of the Soviet Union Category:Paramilitary organizations based in Russia Category:Political repression in Russia Category:Political repression in the Soviet Union Category:Anti-anarchism Category:Secret police Category:Soviet intelligence agencies Category:State-sponsored terrorism Category:Communist terrorism Category:Soviet war crimes in the Russian Civil War Category:1917 establishments in Russia Category:1922 disestablishments in Russia Category:Government agencies established in 1917 Category:Government agencies disestablished in 1922	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheka	2025-04-05T18:27:56.905451
6753	Clitic	In morphology and syntax, a clitic ( , backformed from Greek "leaning" or "enclitic") is a morpheme that has syntactic characteristics of a word, but depends phonologically on another word or phrase. In this sense, it is syntactically independent but phonologically dependent—always attached to a host. A clitic is pronounced like an affix, but plays a syntactic role at the phrase level. In other words, clitics have the form of affixes, but the distribution of function words. Clitics can belong to any grammatical category, although they are commonly pronouns, determiners, or adpositions. Note that orthography is not always a good guide for distinguishing clitics from affixes: clitics may be written as separate words, but sometimes they are joined to the word they depend on (like the Latin clitic , meaning "and") or separated by special characters such as hyphens or apostrophes (like the English clitic s in "it's" for "it has" or "it is"). Classification Clitics fall into various categories depending on their position in relation to the word they connect to. Endoclitics have also been claimed for Pashto and Degema. However, other authors treat such forms as a sequence of clitics docked to the stem. Mesoclitic A mesoclitic is a type of clitic that occurs between the stem of a verb and its affixes. Mesoclisis is rare outside of formal standard Portuguese, where it is predominantly found. In Portuguese, mesoclitic constructions are typically formed with the infinitive form of the verb, a clitic pronoun, and a lexicalized tense affix. For example, in the sentence conquistar-se-á ("it will be conquered"), the reflexive pronoun "se" appears between the stem conquistar and the future tense affix á. This placement of the clitic is characteristic of mesoclisis. Other examples include dá-lo-ei ("I will give it") and matá-la-ia ("he/she/it would kill her"). These forms are typically found much more frequently in written Portuguese than in spoken varieties. Additionally, it is possible to use two clitics within a verb, as in dar-no-lo-á ("he/she/it will give it to us") and dar-ta-ei (ta = te + a, "I will give it/her to you"). This phenomenon is possible due to the historical evolution of the Portuguese synthetic future tense, which comes from the fusion of the infinitive form of the verb and the finite forms of the auxiliary verb haver (from Latin habēre). This origin explains why the clitic can appear between the verb stem and its tense marker, as the future tense was originally a separate word. Colloquial Turkish exhibits an instance of a mesoclitic where the conjunction enclitic de ("also, as well") is inserted after the gerundive suffix -e connecting the verb stem to the potential suffix -(e)bilmek, effectively rendering it in its original auxiliary verb form bilmek (to know). Suffixed auxiliary verbs cannot be converted into individual verbs in Standard Turkish, and the gerundive suffix is considered an inseparable part of them. Distinction One distinction drawn by some scholars divides the broad term "clitics" into two categories, simple clitics and special clitics. This distinction is, however, disputed. Simple clitics Simple clitics are free morphemes: can stand alone in a phrase or sentence. They are unaccented and thus phonologically dependent upon a nearby word. They derive meaning only from that "host". lexical item → clitic → affix According to this model from Judith Klavans, an autonomous lexical item in a particular context loses the properties of a fully independent word over time and acquires the properties of a morphological affix (prefix, suffix, infix, etc.). At any intermediate stage of this evolutionary process, the element in question can be described as a "clitic". As a result, this term ends up being applied to a highly heterogeneous class of elements, presenting different combinations of word-like and affix-like properties. Given this basic definition, further criteria are needed to establish a dividing line between clitics and affixes. There is no natural, clear-cut boundary between the two categories (since from a diachronic point of view, a given form can move gradually from one to the other by morphologization). However, by identifying clusters of observable properties that are associated with core examples of clitics on the one hand, and core examples of affixes on the other, one can pick out a battery of tests that provide an empirical foundation for a clitic-affix distinction. An affix syntactically and phonologically attaches to a base morpheme of a limited part of speech, such as a verb, to form a new word. A clitic syntactically functions above the word level, on the phrase or clause level, and attaches only phonetically to the first, last, or only word in the phrase or clause, whichever part of speech the word belongs to. The results of applying these criteria sometimes reveal that elements that have traditionally been called "clitics" actually have the status of affixes (e.g., the Romance pronominal clitics discussed below). Comparison with words Similar to the discussion above, clitics must be distinguishable from words. Linguists have proposed a number of tests to differentiate between the two categories. Some tests, specifically, are based upon the understanding that when comparing the two, clitics resemble affixes, while words resemble syntactic phrases. Clitics and words resemble different categories, in the sense that they share certain properties. Six such tests are described below. These are not the only ways to differentiate between words and clitics. If a morpheme is bound to a word and can never occur in complete isolation, then it is likely a clitic. In contrast, a word is not bound and can appear on its own. If the addition of a morpheme to a word prevents further affixation, then it is likely a clitic. If a morpheme combines with single words to convey a further degree of meaning, then it is likely a clitic. A word combines with a group of words or phrases to denote further meaning. If a morpheme must be in a certain order with respect to other morphemes within the construction, then it is likely a clitic. Independent words enjoy free ordering with respect to other words, within the confines of the word order of the language. If a morpheme's allowable behavior is determined by one principle, it is likely a clitic. For example, "a" precedes indefinite nouns in English. Words can rarely be described with one such description. In general, words are more morphologically complex than clitics. Clitics are rarely composed of more than one morpheme. Latin had three enclitics that appeared in second or third position of a clause: -enim 'indeed, for', -autem 'but, moreover', -vero 'however'. For example, quis enim (quisenim) potest negare? (from Martial's epigram LXIV, literally "who indeed can deny [her riches]?"). Spevak (2010) reports that in her corpus of Caesar, Cicero and Sallust, these three words appear in such position in 100% of the cases. Russian has one: ли (li) which acts as a general question marker. It always appears in second position in its sentence or proposition, and if the interrogation concerns one word in particular, that word is placed before it: Он завтра придёт (on zavtra pridyot), He'll arrive tomorrow. Придёт ли он завтра?, Will he arrive tomorrow? Завтра ли он придёт?, Is it tomorrow that he'll arrive? Он ли завтра придёт?, Is it he who'll arrive tomorrow? Я не знаю, придёт ли он завтра (Ya nye znayu, pridyot li on zavtra), I don't know if he'll arrive tomorrow. Indo-European languages Germanic languages English English enclitics include the contracted versions of auxiliary verbs, as in I'm and we've. Some also regard the possessive marker, as in The Queen of England's crown as an enclitic, rather than a (phrasal) genitival inflection. Some consider the infinitive marker to and the English articles a, an, the to be proclitics. The negative marker -n't as in couldn't etc. is typically considered a clitic that developed from the lexical item not. Linguists Arnold Zwicky and Geoffrey Pullum argue, however, that the form has the properties of an affix rather than a syntactically independent clitic. Other Germanic languages Old Norse: The definite article was the enclitic , , (masculine, feminine and neuter nominative singular), as in ("the elf"), ("the gift"), and ("the tree"), an abbreviated form of the independent pronoun , cognate of the German pronoun . It was fully declined for gender, case and number. Since both the noun and enclitic were declined, this led to "double declension". The situation remains similar in modern Faroese and Icelandic, but in Danish, Norwegian and Swedish, the enclitics have become endings. Old Norse had also some enclitics of personal pronouns that were attached to verbs. These were (from ), (from ), (from ), and (from ). These could even be stacked up, e.g. (Hávamál, stanza 116). Dutch: definite article of neuter nouns and third person singular neuter pronoun, first person pronoun, second person singular pronoun, third person masculine singular pronoun, third person plural pronoun Plautdietsch: ("Will he do it today?") Gothic: Sentence clitics appear in 2nd position in accordance with Wackernagel's Law, including (yes–no question), ("and"), ("then"), ("anything"), for example ("of thyself?"). Multiple clitics could be stacked up, and split a preverb from its rest of the verb if the preverb comes at the beginning of the clause, e.g. ("and then he seized them (fem.)"), ("whether he saw anything"). Yiddish: The unspecified pronoun can be contracted to . Celtic languages In Cornish, the clitics ma / na are used after a noun and definite article to express "this" / "that" (singular) and "these" / "those" (plural). For example: an lyver "the book", an lyver ma "this book", an lyver na "that book" an lyvrow "the books", an lyvrow ma "these books", an lyvrow na "those books" Irish Gaelic uses seo / sin as clitics in a similar way, also to express "this" / "that" and "these" / "those". For example: an leabhar "the book", an leabhar seo "this book", an leabhar sin "that book" na leabhair "the books", na leabhair seo "these books", na leabhair sin "those books" Romance languages In Romance languages, some have treated the object personal pronoun forms as clitics, though they only attach to the verb they are the object of and so are affixes by the definition used here. There is no general agreement on the issue. For the Spanish object pronouns, for example: lo atamos ("it tied-1PL" = "we tied it" or "we tied him"; can only occur with the verb it is the object of) dámelo ("give me it") Portuguese allows object suffixes before the conditional and future suffixes of the verbs: Ela levá-lo-ia ("She take-it-would" – "She would take it"). Eles dar-no-lo-ão ("They give-us-it-will" – "They will give it to us"). Colloquial Portuguese allows ser to be conjugated as a verbal clitic adverbial adjunct to emphasize the importance of the phrase compared to its context, or with the meaning of "really" or "in truth": Ele estava era gordo ("He was was fat" – "He was very fat"). Ele ligou é para Paula ("He phoned is Paula" – "He phoned Paula (with emphasis)"). Note that this clitic form is only for the verb ser and is restricted to only third-person singular conjugations. It is not used as a verb in the grammar of the sentence but introduces prepositional phrases and adds emphasis. It does not need to concord with the tense of the main verb, as in the second example, and can be usually removed from the sentence without affecting the simple meaning. Proto-Indo-European In the Indo-European languages, some clitics can be traced back to Proto-Indo-European: for example, is the original form of Sanskrit च (-ca), Greek τε (-te), and Latin -que. Latin: -que "and", -ve "or", -ne (yes–no question) Greek: τε "and", δέ "but", γάρ "for" (in a logical argument), οὖν "therefore" Slavic languages Russian: ли (yes–no question), же (emphasis), то (emphasis), не "not" (proclitic), бы (subjunctive) Czech: special clitics: weak personal and reflexive pronouns (mu, "him"), certain auxiliary verbs (by, "would"), and various short particles and adverbs (tu, "here"; ale, "though"). "Nepodařilo by se mi mu to dát" "I would not succeed in giving it to him". In addition there are various simple clitics including short prepositions. Polish: -by (conditional mood particle), się (reflexive, also modifies meaning of certain verbs), no and -że (emphasis), -m, -ś, -śmy, -ście (personal auxiliary), mi, ci, cię, go, mu &c. (unstressed personal pronouns in oblique cases) Serbo-Croatian Serbo-Croatian: the reflexive pronoun forms si and se, li (yes–no question), unstressed present and aorist tense forms of biti ("to be"; sam, si, je, smo, ste, su; and bih, bi, bi, bismo, biste, bi, for the respective tense), unstressed personal pronouns in genitive (me, te, ga, je, nas, vas, ih), dative (mi, ti, mu, joj, nam, vam, im) and accusative (me, te, ga (nj), je (ju), nas, vas, ih), and unstressed present tense of htjeti ("want/will"; ću, ćeš, će, ćemo, ćete, će) These clitics follow the first stressed word in the sentence or clause in most cases, which may have been inherited from Proto-Indo-European (see Wackernagel's Law), even though many of the modern clitics became cliticised much more recently in the language (e.g. auxiliary verbs or the accusative forms of pronouns). In subordinate clauses and questions, they follow the connector and/or the question word respectively. Examples (clitics – sam "I am", biste "you would (pl.)", mi "to me", vam "to you (pl.)", ih "them"): Pokažite mi ih. "Show (pl.) them to me." Pokazao sam vam ih jučer. "I showed them to you (pl.) yesterday." Sve sam vam ih (jučer) pokazao. / Sve sam vam ih pokazao (jučer). "I showed all of them to you (yesterday)." (focus on "all") Jučer sam vam ih (sve) pokazao. "I showed (all of) them to you yesterday." (focus on "yesterday") Znam da sam vam ih već pokazao. "I know that I have already shown them to you." Zašto sam vam ih jučer pokazao? "Why did I show them to you yesterday?" Zar sam vam ih jučer pokazao? "Did I (really) show them to you yesterday?" Kad biste mi ih sada dali... "If you (pl.) gave them to me now..." (lit. If you-would to-me them now give-participle...) Što sam god vidio... "Whatever I saw..." (lit. What I-am ever see-participle...) In certain rural dialects this rule is (or was until recently) very strict, whereas elsewhere various exceptions occur. These include phrases containing conjunctions (e. g. Ivan i Ana "Ivan and Ana"), nouns with a genitival attribute (e. g. vrh brda "the top of the hill"), proper names and titles and the like (e. g. (gospođa) Ivana Marić "(Mrs) Ivana Marić", grad Zagreb "the city (of) Zagreb"), and in many local varieties clitics are hardly ever inserted into any phrases (e. g. moj najbolji prijatelj "my best friend", sutra ujutro "tomorrow morning"). In cases like these, clitics normally follow the initial phrase, although some Standard grammar handbooks recommend that they should be placed immediately after the verb (many native speakers find this unnatural). Examples: Ja smo i on otišli u grad. "He and I went to town." (lit. I are and him gone to town) – this is dialectal. Ja i on smo otišli u grad. – commonly heard Ja i on otišli smo u grad. – prescribed by some standard grammars Moja mu je starija sestra to rekla. "My elder sister told him that." (lit. my to-him is elder sister that say-participle) – standard and usual in many dialects Moja starija sestra mu je to rekla. – common in many dialects Clitics are however never inserted after the negative particle ne, which always precedes the verb in Serbo-Croatian, or after prefixes (earlier preverbs), and the interrogative particle li always immediately follows the verb. Colloquial interrogative particles such as da li, dal, jel appear in sentence-initial position and are followed by clitics (if there are any). Examples: Ne vidim te. "I don't (or can't) see you." Dovedite ih. "Bring them (over here)!" (a prefixed verb: do+vedite) Vidiš li me? "Do/can you see me?" Vidiš li sestru? "Do you see the sister?" (It is impossible to say, e. g. **Sestru li vidiš?, although Sestru vidiš. "It's the sister that you see." is natural) Jel (me) vidiš? "Do/Can you see (me)?" (colloquial) Other languages Arabic: Suffixes standing for direct object pronouns and/or indirect object pronouns (as found in Indo-European languages) are suffixed to verbs, possessive determiners are suffixed to nouns, and pronouns are suffixed to particles. Australian Aboriginal languages: Many Australian languages use bound pronoun enclitics to mark inanimate arguments and, in many pro-drop languages like Warlpiri, animate arguments as well. Pronominal enclitics may also mark possession and other less common argument structures like causal and reciprocal arguments (see Pintupi). In some Australian languages, case markers also seem to operate like special clitics since they are distributed at the phrasal instead of word level (indeed, clitics have been referred to as "phrasal affixes") see for example in Wangkatja. Finnish: Finnish has seven clitics, which change according to the vowel harmony: -kO (-ko ~ -kö), -kA (-ka ~ -kä), -kin, -kAAn (-kaan ~ -kään), -pA (-pa ~ -pä), -hAn (-han ~ -hän) and -s. One word can have multiple clitics attached to it: onkohan? "I wonder if it is?" -kO attached to a verb makes it a question. It is used in yes/no questions: Katsot televisiota "You are watching television" → Katsotko televisiota? "Are you watching television?". It can also be added to words that are not verbs but the emphasis changes: Televisiotako katsot? "Is it television you're watching?", Sinäkö katsot televisiota? "Is it you who is watching television?" -kA gives the host word a colloquial tone: miten ~ mitenkä ("how"). When attached to a negative verb it corresponds with "and": En pidä mansikoista enkä mustikoista "I don't like strawberries nor blueberries". It can also make a negative verb stronger: Enkä tule! "I definitely won't come!" -kin is a focus particle, often used instead of myös ("also" / "as well"): Minäkin olin siellä "I was there, too". Depending on the context when attached to a verb it can also express that something happened according to the plan or as a surprise and not according to the plan. It can also make exclamations stronger. It can be attached to several words in the same sentence, changing the focus of the host word, but can only appear once per sentence: Minäkin olin siellä ("I, too, was there"), Minä olinkin siellä ("Surprisingly, I was there" or "As expected, I was there"), Minä olin sielläkin ("I was there as well") -kAAn is also a focus particle and it corresponds with -kin in negative sentences: Minäkään en ollut siellä "I wasn't there either". Like -kin it can be attached to several host words in the same sentence. The only word it cannot be attached to is a negative verb. In questions it acts as a confirmation, like the word again in English: Missä sanoitkaan asuvasi? "Where did you say you lived again?" -pA is a tone particle which can either add an arguing or patronising tone, or strengthen the host word: Minäpä tiedän paremmin! "Well, I know better!", Onpa kaunis kissa! "Wow what a beautiful cat!", No, kerropa, miksi teit sen! "Well, go ahead and tell why you did it" -hAn is also a tone particle. In interrogative sentences it can make the question more polite and not as pressing: Onkohan isäsi kotona? "(I wonder if your dad is at home?" In command phrases it makes the command softer: Tulehan tänne "Come here you". It can also make a sentence more explanatory, make a claim more self-evident, express that something happened according to one's expectations, or that something came as a surprise etc. Pekka tuntee minut, onhan hän minun opettajani "Pekka knows me, he is my teacher after all", Kaikkihan niin tekevät "Everyone does that after all", Maijahan se siinä! "Well, if it isn't Maija!" Luulin, ettette osaisi, mutta tehän puhutte suomea hyvin "I thought you wouldn't be able to, but you speak Finnish well" -s is a tone particle as well. It can also be used as a mitigating or softening phrase like -hAn: Annikos se on? "Oh, but isn't it Anni?", Tules tänne "Come here, you", Miksikäs ei? "Well, why not?", Paljonkos kello on? "Say, what time it is?" Ganda: -nga attached to a verb to form the progressive; -wo 'in' (also attached to a verb) Georgian: -o (2nd and 3rd person speakers) and -metki (1st person speakers) is added to the end of a sentence to show reported speech. Examples: K'atsma miutxra, xval gnaxe-o The man told me that he would see you tomorrow (Literally, "The man told me, tomorrow I see you [reported]") vs. K'atss vutxari, xval gnaxe-metki I told the man that I would see you tomorrow (Literally, "To man I told, tomorrow I see you [first person reported]). Hungarian: the marker of indirect questions is -e: Nem tudja még, jön-e. "He doesn't know yet if he'll come." This clitic can also mark direct questions with a falling intonation. Is ("as well") and se ("not... either") also function as clitics: although written separately, they are pronounced together with the preceding word, without stress: Ő is jön. "He'll come too." Ő sem jön. "He won't come, either." Korean: The copula 이다 (ida) and the adjectival 하다 (hada), as well as some nominal and verbal particles (e.g. 는, neun). However, alternative analysis suggests that the nominal particles do not function as clitics, but as phrasal affixes. Somali: pronominal clitics, either subject or object clitics, are required in Somali. These exist as simple clitics postponed to the noun they apply to. Lexical arguments can be omitted from sentences, but pronominal clitics cannot be. Turkish: there are some clitics which are independent words, while others are suffixes: the clitic mI (realised as mi, mı, mu, or mü depending on vowel harmony) is used to form yes/no questions, such as iyi mi? "is it good?". It can be inflected by person: iyi misin? "are you good?". The clitic dA (realised as da or de) means "too", "as well" or "also": Sen de iyi misin? means "are you also good?". However, this word must be pronounced and written carefully, as the -dA (another clitic) suffix creates the locative case: o da means "him too", but oda means "room"; oda da means "the room too" and odada means in the room. Verbal clitics also exist, for pronouns as well as for certain meanings like "if" (-sa) or "can" (-Abil). Pronominal clitics make pronouns redundant in most situations. See also Clitic climbing Clitic doubling Functional item Genitive case Grammatical particle Possessive case Separable affix Tmesis V2 word order Weak and strong forms in English Weak pronoun References Category:Syntax Category:Morphophonology Category:Morphemes Category:Linguistics terminology	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clitic	2025-04-05T18:27:56.972125
6759	Context-free grammar	(left), and a derivation of a piece of C code (right) from the nonterminal symbol <math>\langle\text{Stmt}\rangle</math>. Nonterminal symbols are blue and terminal symbols are red.]] In formal language theory, a context-free grammar (CFG) is a formal grammar whose production rules can be applied to a nonterminal symbol regardless of its context. In particular, in a context-free grammar, each production rule is of the form :<math>A\ \to\ \alpha</math> with <math>A</math> a single nonterminal symbol, and <math>\alpha</math> a string of terminals and/or nonterminals (<math>\alpha</math> can be empty). Regardless of which symbols surround it, the single nonterminal <math>A</math> on the left hand side can always be replaced by <math>\alpha</math> on the right hand side. This distinguishes it from a context-sensitive grammar, which can have production rules in the form <math>\alpha A \beta \rightarrow \alpha \gamma \beta</math> with <math>A</math> a nonterminal symbol and <math>\alpha</math>, <math>\beta</math>, and <math>\gamma</math> strings of terminal and/or nonterminal symbols. A formal grammar is essentially a set of production rules that describe all possible strings in a given formal language. Production rules are simple replacements. For example, the first rule in the picture, :<math>\langle\text{Stmt}\rangle \to \langle\text{Id}\rangle = \langle\text{Expr}\rangle ;</math> replaces <math>\langle\text{Stmt}\rangle</math> with <math>\langle\text{Id}\rangle = \langle\text{Expr}\rangle ;</math>. There can be multiple replacement rules for a given nonterminal symbol. The language generated by a grammar is the set of all strings of terminal symbols that can be derived, by repeated rule applications, from some particular nonterminal symbol ("start symbol"). Nonterminal symbols are used during the derivation process, but do not appear in its final result string. Languages generated by context-free grammars are known as context-free languages (CFL). Different context-free grammars can generate the same context-free language. It is important to distinguish the properties of the language (intrinsic properties) from the properties of a particular grammar (extrinsic properties). The language equality question (do two given context-free grammars generate the same language?) is undecidable. Context-free grammars arise in linguistics where they are used to describe the structure of sentences and words in a natural language, and they were invented by the linguist Noam Chomsky for this purpose. By contrast, in computer science, as the use of recursively-defined concepts increased, they were used more and more. In an early application, grammars are used to describe the structure of programming languages. In a newer application, they are used in an essential part of the Extensible Markup Language (XML) called the document type definition. In linguistics, some authors use the term phrase structure grammar to refer to context-free grammars, whereby phrase-structure grammars are distinct from dependency grammars. In computer science, a popular notation for context-free grammars is Backus–Naur form, or BNF. Background Since at least the time of the ancient Indian scholar Pāṇini, linguists have described the grammars of languages in terms of their block structure, and described how sentences are recursively built up from smaller phrases, and eventually individual words or word elements. An essential property of these block structures is that logical units never overlap. For example, the sentence: : John, whose blue car was in the garage, walked to the grocery store. can be logically parenthesized (with the logical metasymbols [ ]) as follows: : [John[, [whose [blue car]] [was [in [the garage]]],]] [walked [to [the [grocery store]]]]. A context-free grammar provides a simple and mathematically precise mechanism for describing the methods by which phrases in some natural language are built from smaller blocks, capturing the "block structure" of sentences in a natural way. Its simplicity makes the formalism amenable to rigorous mathematical study. Important features of natural language syntax such as agreement and reference are not part of the context-free grammar, but the basic recursive structure of sentences, the way in which clauses nest inside other clauses, and the way in which lists of adjectives and adverbs are swallowed by nouns and verbs, is described exactly. Context-free grammars are a special form of Semi-Thue systems that in their general form date back to the work of Axel Thue. The formalism of context-free grammars was developed in the mid-1950s by Noam Chomsky, and also their classification as a special type of formal grammar (which he called phrase-structure grammars). Some authors, however, reserve the term for more restricted grammars in the Chomsky hierarchy: context-sensitive grammars or context-free grammars. In a broader sense, phrase structure grammars are also known as constituency grammars. The defining trait of phrase structure grammars is thus their adherence to the constituency relation, as opposed to the dependency relation of dependency grammars. In Chomsky's generative grammar framework, the syntax of natural language was described by context-free rules combined with transformation rules. Block structure was introduced into computer programming languages by the Algol project (1957–1960), which, as a consequence, also featured a context-free grammar to describe the resulting Algol syntax. This became a standard feature of computer languages, and the notation for grammars used in concrete descriptions of computer languages came to be known as Backus–Naur form, after two members of the Algol language design committee. The "block structure" aspect that context-free grammars capture is so fundamental to grammar that the terms syntax and grammar are often identified with context-free grammar rules, especially in computer science. Formal constraints not captured by the grammar are then considered to be part of the "semantics" of the language. Context-free grammars are simple enough to allow the construction of efficient parsing algorithms that, for a given string, determine whether and how it can be generated from the grammar. An Earley parser is an example of such an algorithm, while the widely used LR and LL parsers are simpler algorithms that deal only with more restrictive subsets of context-free grammars. Formal definitions A context-free grammar is defined by the 4-tuple <math>G = (V, \Sigma, R, S)</math>, where. define context-free grammars as 4-tuples in the same way, but with different variable names.}} # is a finite set; each element <math> v\in V</math> is called a nonterminal character or a variable. Each variable represents a different type of phrase or clause in the sentence. Variables are also sometimes called syntactic categories. Each variable defines a sub-language of the language defined by . # is a finite set of terminals, disjoint from , which make up the actual content of the sentence. The set of terminals is the alphabet of the language defined by the grammar . # is a finite relation in <math>V\times(V\cup\Sigma)^{}</math>, where the asterisk represents the Kleene star operation. The members of are called the (rewrite) rules or productions of the grammar. (also commonly symbolized by a ) # is the start variable (or start symbol), used to represent the whole sentence (or program). It must be an element of . Production rule notation A production rule in is formalized mathematically as a pair <math>(\alpha, \beta)\in R</math>, where <math>\alpha \in V</math> is a nonterminal and <math>\beta \in (V\cup\Sigma)^{}</math> is a string of variables and/or terminals; rather than using ordered pair notation, production rules are usually written using an arrow operator with <math>\alpha</math> as its left hand side and as its right hand side: <math>\alpha\rightarrow\beta</math>. It is allowed for to be the empty string, and in this case it is customary to denote it by ε. The form <math>\alpha\rightarrow\varepsilon</math> is called an -production. It is common to list all right-hand sides for the same left-hand side on the same line, using \| (the vertical bar) to separate them. Rules <math>\alpha\rightarrow \beta_1</math> and <math>\alpha\rightarrow\beta_2</math> can hence be written as <math>\alpha\rightarrow\beta_1\mid\beta_2</math>. In this case, <math>\beta_1</math> and <math>\beta_2</math> are called the first and second alternative, respectively. Rule application For any strings <math>u, v\in (V\cup\Sigma)^{}</math>, we say directly yields , written as <math>u\Rightarrow v\,</math>, if <math>\exists (\alpha, \beta)\in R</math> with <math>\alpha \in V</math> and <math>u_{1}, u_{2}\in (V\cup\Sigma)^{}</math> such that <math>u\,u_{1}\alpha u_{2}</math> and <math>v\,u_{1}\beta u_{2}</math>. Thus, is a result of applying the rule <math>(\alpha, \beta)</math> to . Repetitive rule application For any strings <math>u, v\in (V\cup\Sigma)^{}, </math> we say yields or is derived from if there is a positive integer and strings <math>u_{1}, \ldots, u_{k}\in (V\cup\Sigma)^{}</math> such that <math>u u_{1} \Rightarrow u_{2} \Rightarrow \cdots \Rightarrow u_{k} v</math>. This relation is denoted <math>u\stackrel{}{\Rightarrow} v</math>, or <math>u\Rightarrow\Rightarrow v</math> in some textbooks. If <math>k\geq 2</math>, the relation <math>u\stackrel{+}{\Rightarrow} v</math> holds. In other words, <math>(\stackrel{}{\Rightarrow})</math> and <math>(\stackrel{+}{\Rightarrow})</math> are the reflexive transitive closure (allowing a string to yield itself) and the transitive closure (requiring at least one step) of <math>(\Rightarrow)</math>, respectively. Context-free language The language of a grammar <math>G = (V, \Sigma, R, S)</math> is the set :<math>L(G) = \{ w\in\Sigma^{} : S\stackrel{}{\Rightarrow} w\}</math> of all terminal-symbol strings derivable from the start symbol. A language is said to be a context-free language (CFL), if there exists a CFG , such that <math>L\,=\,L(G)</math>. Non-deterministic pushdown automata recognize exactly the context-free languages. Examples Words concatenated with their reverse The grammar <math>G (\{S\}, \{a, b\}, P, S)</math>, with productions :, :, :, is context-free. It is not proper since it includes an ε-production. A typical derivation in this grammar is :. This makes it clear that <math>L(G) = \{ww^R:w\in\{a,b\}^\}</math>. The language is context-free; however, it can be proved that it is not regular. If the productions :, :, are added, a context-free grammar for the set of all palindromes over the alphabet {{math\| { a, b } }} is obtained. Well-formed parentheses The canonical example of a context-free grammar is parenthesis matching, which is representative of the general case. There are two terminal symbols "(" and ")" and one nonterminal symbol S. The production rules are :, :, : The first rule allows the S symbol to multiply; the second rule allows the S symbol to become enclosed by matching parentheses; and the third rule terminates the recursion. Well-formed nested parentheses and square brackets A second canonical example is two different kinds of matching nested parentheses, described by the productions: : : : : : with terminal symbols [ ] ( ) and nonterminal S. The following sequence can be derived in that grammar: : Matching pairs In a context-free grammar, we can pair up characters the way we do with brackets. The simplest example: : : This grammar generates the language <math> \{ a^n b^n : n \ge 1 \} </math>, which is not regular (according to the pumping lemma for regular languages). The special character ε stands for the empty string. By changing the above grammar to : : we obtain a grammar generating the language <math> \{ a^n b^n : n \ge 0 \} </math> instead. This differs only in that it contains the empty string while the original grammar did not. Distinct number of a's and b's A context-free grammar for the language consisting of all strings over {a,b} containing an unequal number of a's and b's: : U}} : VaV TaV}} : VbV UbV}} : bVaV ε}} Here, the nonterminal T can generate all strings with more a's than b's, the nonterminal U generates all strings with more b's than a's and the nonterminal V generates all strings with an equal number of a's and b's. Omitting the third alternative in the rules for T and U does not restrict the grammar's language. Second block of b's of double size Another example of a non-regular language is <math> \{ \text{b}^n \text{a}^m \text{b}^{2n} : n \ge 0, m \ge 0 \} </math>. It is context-free as it can be generated by the following context-free grammar: : A}} : ε}} First-order logic formulas The formation rules for the terms and formulas of formal logic fit the definition of context-free grammar, except that the set of symbols may be infinite and there may be more than one start symbol. Examples of languages that are not context free In contrast to well-formed nested parentheses and square brackets in the previous section, there is no context-free grammar for generating all sequences of two different types of parentheses, each separately balanced disregarding the other, where the two types need not nest inside one another, for example: : or : The fact that this language is not context free can be proven using pumping lemma for context-free languages and a proof by contradiction, observing that all words of the form <math> {(}^n {[}^n {)}^n {]}^n </math> should belong to the language. This language belongs instead to a more general class and can be described by a conjunctive grammar, which in turn also includes other non-context-free languages, such as the language of all words of the form <math> \text{a}^n \text{b}^n \text{c}^n </math>. Regular grammars Every regular grammar is context-free, but not all context-free grammars are regular. The following context-free grammar, for example, is also regular. : : : The terminals here are and , while the only nonterminal is . The language described is all nonempty strings of <math>a</math>s and <math>b</math>s that end in <math>a</math>. This grammar is regular: no rule has more than one nonterminal in its right-hand side, and each of these nonterminals is at the same end of the right-hand side. Every regular grammar corresponds directly to a nondeterministic finite automaton, so we know that this is a regular language. Using vertical bars, the grammar above can be described more tersely as follows: : aS bS}} Derivations and syntax trees <!-- This section is linked from LR parser --> A derivation of a string for a grammar is a sequence of grammar rule applications that transform the start symbol into the string. A derivation proves that the string belongs to the grammar's language. A derivation is fully determined by giving, for each step: the rule applied in that step * the occurrence of its left-hand side to which it is applied For clarity, the intermediate string is usually given as well. For instance, with the grammar: # # # the string : can be derived from the start symbol with the following derivation: : : (by rule 1. on ) : (by rule 1. on the second ) : (by rule 2. on the first ) : (by rule 2. on the second ) : (by rule 3. on the third ) Often, a strategy is followed that deterministically chooses the next nonterminal to rewrite: * in a leftmost derivation, it is always the leftmost nonterminal; * in a rightmost derivation, it is always the rightmost nonterminal. Given such a strategy, a derivation is completely determined by the sequence of rules applied. For instance, one leftmost derivation of the same string is : : (by rule 1 on the leftmost ) : (by rule 2 on the leftmost ) : (by rule 1 on the leftmost ) : (by rule 2 on the leftmost ) : (by rule 3 on the leftmost ), which can be summarized as :rule 1 :rule 2 :rule 1 :rule 2 :rule 3. One rightmost derivation is: : : (by rule 1 on the rightmost ) : (by rule 1 on the rightmost ) : (by rule 3 on the rightmost ) : (by rule 2 on the rightmost ) : (by rule 2 on the rightmost ), which can be summarized as :rule 1 :rule 1 :rule 3 :rule 2 :rule 2. The distinction between leftmost derivation and rightmost derivation is important because in most parsers the transformation of the input is defined by giving a piece of code for every grammar rule that is executed whenever the rule is applied. Therefore, it is important to know whether the parser determines a leftmost or a rightmost derivation because this determines the order in which the pieces of code will be executed. See for an example LL parsers and LR parsers. A derivation also imposes in some sense a hierarchical structure on the string that is derived. For example, if the string "1 + 1 + a" is derived according to the leftmost derivation outlined above, the structure of the string would be: :{{Math\|<nowiki>{{</nowiki>1}<sub>S</sub> + <nowiki>{{</nowiki>1}<sub>S</sub> + {a}<sub>S</sub>}<sub>S</sub>}<sub>S</sub>}} where {{Math\|{...}<sub>S</sub>}} indicates a substring recognized as belonging to . This hierarchy can also be seen as a tree: This tree is called a parse tree or "concrete syntax tree" of the string, by contrast with the abstract syntax tree. In this case the presented leftmost and the rightmost derivations define the same parse tree; however, there is another rightmost derivation of the same string : : (by rule 1 on the rightmost ) : (by rule 3 on the rightmost ) : (by rule 1 on the rightmost ) : (by rule 2 on the rightmost ) : (by rule 2 on the rightmost ), which defines a string with a different structure :{{Math\|<nowiki>{{{</nowiki>1}<sub>S</sub> + {1}<sub>S</sub>}<sub>S</sub> + {a}<sub>S</sub>}<sub>S</sub>}} and a different parse tree: Note however that both parse trees can be obtained by both leftmost and rightmost derivations. For example, the last tree can be obtained with the leftmost derivation as follows: : : (by rule 1 on the leftmost ) : (by rule 1 on the leftmost ) : (by rule 2 on the leftmost ) : (by rule 2 on the leftmost ) : (by rule 3 on the leftmost ), If a string in the language of the grammar has more than one parsing tree, then the grammar is said to be an ambiguous grammar. Such grammars are usually hard to parse because the parser cannot always decide which grammar rule it has to apply. Usually, ambiguity is a feature of the grammar, not the language, and an unambiguous grammar can be found that generates the same context-free language. However, there are certain languages that can only be generated by ambiguous grammars; such languages are called inherently ambiguous languages. Normal forms Every context-free grammar with no ε-production has an equivalent grammar in Chomsky normal form, and a grammar in Greibach normal form. "Equivalent" here means that the two grammars generate the same language. The especially simple form of production rules in Chomsky normal form grammars has both theoretical and practical implications. For instance, given a context-free grammar, one can use the Chomsky normal form to construct a polynomial-time algorithm that decides whether a given string is in the language represented by that grammar or not (the CYK algorithm). Closure properties Context-free languages are closed under the various operations, that is, if the languages K and L are context-free, so is the result of the following operations: * union K ∪ L; concatenation K ∘ L; Kleene star L<sup></sup> substitution (in particular homomorphism) * inverse homomorphism * intersection with a regular language They are not closed under general intersection (hence neither under complementation) and set difference. Decidable problems The following are some decidable problems about context-free grammars. Parsing The parsing problem, checking whether a given word belongs to the language given by a context-free grammar, is decidable, using one of the general-purpose parsing algorithms: * CYK algorithm (for grammars in Chomsky normal form) * Earley parser * GLR parser * LL parser (only for the proper subclass of LL(k) grammars) Context-free parsing for Chomsky normal form grammars was shown by Leslie G. Valiant to be reducible to Boolean matrix multiplication, thus inheriting its complexity upper bound of O(n<sup>2.3728639</sup>). Conversely, Lillian Lee has shown O(n<sup>3−ε</sup>) Boolean matrix multiplication to be reducible to O(n<sup>3−3ε</sup>) CFG parsing, thus establishing some kind of lower bound for the latter. Reachability, productiveness, nullability {\| style="border: 1px solid grey; float: right; margin: 1em 1em;" !- COLSPAN=4 \| Example grammar: \|- \| \| S → Bb \| Cc \| Ee \|- \| \| B → Bb \| b \|- \| \| C → C \|- \| \| D → Bd \| Cd \| d \|- \| \| E → Ee \|} A nonterminal symbol <math>X</math> is called productive, or generating, if there is a derivation <math>X \stackrel{}{\Rightarrow} w</math> for some string <math>w</math> of terminal symbols. <math>X</math> is called reachable if there is a derivation <math>S \stackrel{}{\Rightarrow} \alpha X \beta</math> for some strings <math>\alpha,\beta</math> of nonterminal and terminal symbols from the start symbol. <math>X</math> is called useless if it is unreachable or unproductive. <math>X</math> is called nullable if there is a derivation <math>X \stackrel{}{\Rightarrow} \varepsilon</math>. A rule <math>X \rightarrow \varepsilon</math> is called an ε-production. A derivation <math>X \stackrel{+}{\Rightarrow} X</math> is called a cycle. Algorithms are known to eliminate from a given grammar, without changing its generated language, unproductive symbols, * unreachable symbols, * ε-productions, with one possible exception, and * cycles..}} In particular, an alternative containing a useless nonterminal symbol can be deleted from the right-hand side of a rule. Such rules and alternatives are called useless. In the depicted example grammar, the nonterminal D is unreachable, and E is unproductive, while C → C causes a cycle. Hence, omitting the last three rules does not change the language generated by the grammar, nor does omitting the alternatives "\| Cc \| Ee" from the right-hand side of the rule for S. A context-free grammar is said to be proper if it has neither useless symbols nor ε-productions nor cycles. Combining the above algorithms, every context-free grammar not generating ε can be transformed into a weakly equivalent proper one. Regularity and LL(k) checks It is decidable whether a given grammar is a regular grammar, as well as whether it is an LL(k) grammar for a given k≥0. If k is not given, the latter problem is undecidable. nor whether it is an LL(k) language for a given k. Grammar ambiguity Given a CFG, is it ambiguous? The undecidability of this problem follows from the fact that if an algorithm to determine ambiguity existed, the Post correspondence problem could be decided, which is known to be undecidable. This may be proved by Ogden's lemma. Language disjointness Given two CFGs, is there any string derivable from both grammars? If this problem was decidable, the undecidable Post correspondence problem (PCP) could be decided, too: given strings <math>\alpha_1, \ldots, \alpha_N, \beta_1, \ldots, \beta_N</math> over some alphabet <math>\{a_1, \ldots, a_k\}</math>, let the grammar consist of the rule :<math>S \to \alpha_1 S \beta_1^{rev} \| \cdots \| \alpha_N S \beta_N^{rev} \| b</math>; where <math>\beta_i^{rev}</math> denotes the reversed string <math>\beta_i</math> and <math>b</math> does not occur among the <math>a_i</math>; and let grammar consist of the rule :<math>T \to a_1 T a_1^{rev} \| \cdots \| a_k T a_k^{rev} \| b</math>; Then the PCP instance given by <math>\alpha_1, \ldots, \alpha_N, \beta_1, \ldots, \beta_N</math> has a solution if and only if and share a derivable string. The left of the string (before the <math> b </math>) will represent the top of the solution for the PCP instance while the right side will be the bottom in reverse. Extensions An obvious way to extend the context-free grammar formalism is to allow nonterminals to have arguments, the values of which are passed along within the rules. This allows natural language features such as agreement and reference, and programming language analogs such as the correct use and definition of identifiers, to be expressed in a natural way. E.g. we can now easily express that in English sentences, the subject and verb must agree in number. In computer science, examples of this approach include affix grammars, attribute grammars, indexed grammars, and Van Wijngaarden two-level grammars. Similar extensions exist in linguistics. An extended context-free grammar (or regular right part grammar) is one in which the right-hand side of the production rules is allowed to be a regular expression over the grammar's terminals and nonterminals. Extended context-free grammars describe exactly the context-free languages. Another extension is to allow additional terminal symbols to appear at the left-hand side of rules, constraining their application. This produces the formalism of context-sensitive grammars. Subclasses There are a number of important subclasses of the context-free grammars: * LR(k) grammars (also known as deterministic context-free grammars) allow parsing (string recognition) with deterministic pushdown automata (PDA), but they can only describe deterministic context-free languages. * Simple LR, Look-Ahead LR grammars are subclasses that allow further simplification of parsing. SLR and LALR are recognized using the same PDA as LR, but with simpler tables, in most cases. * LL(k) and LL() grammars allow parsing by direct construction of a leftmost derivation as described above, and describe even fewer languages. Simple grammars are a subclass of the LL(1) grammars mostly interesting for its theoretical property that language equality of simple grammars is decidable, while language inclusion is not. * Bracketed grammars have the property that the terminal symbols are divided into left and right bracket pairs that always match up in rules. * Linear grammars have no rules with more than one nonterminal on the right-hand side. * Regular grammars are a subclass of the linear grammars and describe the regular languages, i.e. they correspond to finite automata and regular expressions. LR parsing extends LL parsing to support a larger range of grammars; in turn, generalized LR parsing extends LR parsing to support arbitrary context-free grammars. On LL grammars and LR grammars, it essentially performs LL parsing and LR parsing, respectively, while on nondeterministic grammars, it is as efficient as can be expected. Although GLR parsing was developed in the 1980s, many new language definitions and parser generators continue to be based on LL, LALR or LR parsing up to the present day. Linguistic applications Chomsky initially hoped to overcome the limitations of context-free grammars by adding transformation rules. although his specific examples regarding the inadequacy of context-free grammars in terms of their weak generative capacity were later disproved. Gerald Gazdar and Geoffrey Pullum have argued that despite a few non-context-free constructions in natural language (such as cross-serial dependencies in Swiss German), the vast majority of forms in natural language are indeed context-free.<ref name"pullum-gazdar1982"/> See also * Parsing expression grammar * Stochastic context-free grammar * Algorithms for context-free grammar generation * Pumping lemma for context-free languages References Notes Further reading * Chapter 4: Context-Free Grammars, pp. 77–106; Chapter 6: Properties of Context-Free Languages, pp. 125–137. * <!-- Both version are in use in referencing, don't remove this without changing the refs.--> * Chapter 2: Context-Free Grammars, pp. 91–122; Section 4.1.2: Decidable problems concerning context-free languages, pp. 156–159; Section 5.1.1: Reductions via computation histories: pp. 176–183. * External links * Computer programmers may find the [https://stackoverflow.com/questions/6713240/what-is-a-context-free-grammar stack exchange answer] to be useful. * [https://web.stanford.edu/class/archive/cs/cs103/cs103.1156/tools/cfg/ CFG Developer] created by Christopher Wong at Stanford University in 2014; modified by Kevin Gibbons in 2015. Category:1956 in computing Category:Compiler construction Category:Formal languages Category:Programming language topics Category:Wikipedia articles with ASCII art	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Context-free_grammar	2025-04-05T18:27:57.030356
6760	Cryonics	Cryonics (from kryos, meaning "cold") is the low-temperature freezing (usually at ) and storage of human remains in the hope that resurrection may be possible in the future. Cryonics is regarded with skepticism by the mainstream scientific community. It is generally viewed as a pseudoscience, and use cryoprotectants to try to prevent ice formation during cryopreservation. It is not possible to reanimate a corpse that has undergone vitrification, as this damages the brain, including its neural circuits. The first corpse to be frozen was that of James Bedford, in 1967. As of 2014, remains from about 250 bodies had been cryopreserved in the United States, and 1,500 people had made arrangements for cryopreservation of theirs. Even if the resurrection promised by cryonics were possible, economic considerations make it unlikely cryonics corporations could remain in business long enough deliver. Cryonics uses temperatures below −130 °C, called cryopreservation, in an attempt to preserve enough brain information to permit the revival of the cryopreserved person. Cryopreservation is accomplished by freezing with or without cryoprotectant to reduce ice damage, or by vitrification to avoid ice damage. Even using the best methods, cryopreservation of whole bodies or brains is very damaging and irreversible with current technology. Cryonicists call the human remains packed into low-temperature vats "patients". They hope that some kind of presently nonexistent nanotechnology will be able to bring the dead back to life and treat the diseases that killed them. Mind uploading has also been proposed.Cryonics in practiceCryonics is expensive. , the cost of preparing and storing corpses using cryonics ranged from US$28,000 to $200,000. At high concentrations, cryoprotectants can stop ice formation completely. Cooling and solidification without crystal formation is called vitrification. In the late 1990s, cryobiologists Gregory Fahy and Brian Wowk developed the first cryoprotectant solutions that could vitrify at very slow cooling rates while still allowing whole organ survival, for the purpose of banking transplantable organs. This has allowed animal brains to be vitrified, thawed, and examined for ice damage using light and electron microscopy. No ice crystal damage was found; cellular damage was due to dehydration and toxicity of the cryoprotectant solutions. Costs can include payment for medical personnel to be on call for death, vitrification, transportation in dry ice to a preservation facility, and payment into a trust fund intended to cover indefinite storage in liquid nitrogen and future revival costs. As of 2011, U.S. cryopreservation costs can range from $28,000 to $200,000, and are often financed via life insurance. A more recent development is Tomorrow Biostasis GmbH, a Berlin-based firm offering cryonics and standby and transportation services in Europe. Founded in 2019 by Emil Kendziorra and Fernando Azevedo Pinheiro, it partners with the European Biostasis Foundation in Switzerland for long-term corpse storage. The facility was completed in 2022. It seems extremely unlikely that any cryonics company could exist long enough to take advantage of the supposed benefits offered; historically, even the most robust corporations have only a one-in-a-thousand chance of lasting 100 years. Many cryonics companies have failed; , all but one of the pre-1973 batch had gone out of business, and their stored corpses have been defrosted and disposed of. Obstacles to success Preservation damage Medical laboratories have long used cryopreservation to maintain animal cells, human embryos, and even some organized tissues, for periods as long as three decades. But recovering large animals and organs from a frozen state is not considered possible now. Large vitrified organs tend to develop fractures during cooling, a problem worsened by the large tissue masses and very low temperatures of cryonics. Without cryoprotectants, cell shrinkage and high salt concentrations during freezing usually prevent frozen cells from functioning again after thawing. Ice crystals can also disrupt connections between cells that are necessary for organs to function. Some cryonics organizations use vitrification without a chemical fixation step, sacrificing some structural preservation quality for less damage at the molecular level. Some scientists, like João Pedro Magalhães, have questioned whether using a deadly chemical for fixation eliminates the possibility of biological revival, making chemical fixation unsuitable for cryonics. Outside of cryonics firms and cryonics-linked interest groups, many scientists are very skeptical about cryonics methods. Cryobiologist Dayong Gao has said, "we simply don't know if [subjects have] been damaged to the point where they've 'died' during vitrification because the subjects are now inside liquid nitrogen canisters." Based on experience with organ transplants, biochemist Ken Storey argues that "even if you only wanted to preserve the brain, it has dozens of different areas which would need to be cryopreserved using different protocols". This revival technology remains speculative. But secular courts began to exercise jurisdiction over corpses and use discretion in carrying out deceased people's wishes. In France, cryonics is not considered a legal mode of body disposal; only burial, cremation, and formal body donation to science are allowed, though bodies may legally be shipped to other countries for cryonic freezing. As of 2015, British Columbia prohibits the sale of arrangements for cryonic body preservation. In Russia, cryonics falls outside both the medical industry and the funeral services industry, making it easier than in the U.S. to get hospitals and morgues to release cryonics candidates. In Alcor Life Extension Foundation v. Richardson, the Iowa Court of Appeals ordered the disinterment of Richardson, who was buried against his wishes, for cryopreservation. A detailed legal examination by Jochen Taupitz concludes that cryonic storage is legal in Germany for an indefinite period. Ethics Writing in Bioethics in 2009, David Shaw examined cryonics. The arguments he cited against it included changing the concept of death, the expense of preservation and revival, lack of scientific advancement to permit revival, temptation to use premature euthanasia, and failure due to catastrophe. Arguments in favor of cryonics include the potential benefit to society, the prospect of immortality, and the benefits associated with avoiding death. Shaw explores the expense and the potential payoff, and applies an adapted version of Pascal's Wager to the question. He argues that someone who bets on the success of cryonic preservation risks losing ‘a bit of money’ but potentially gains a longer life and perhaps immortality. Shaun Pattinson responds that Shaw’s calculation is incomplete, because “being revived only equates to winning the wager if the revived life is worth living. A longer life of unremitting suffering, perhaps due to irreparable nerve damage or even the actions of an evil reviver, is unlikely to be considered preferable to non-revival”. In 2016, Charles Tandy wrote in support of cryonics, arguing that honoring someone's last wishes is seen as a benevolent duty in American and many other cultures.History Cryopreservation was applied to human cells beginning in 1954 with frozen sperm, which was thawed and used to inseminate three women. The freezing of humans was first scientifically proposed by Michigan professor Robert Ettinger in The Prospect of Immortality (1962). In 1966, the first human body was frozen—though it had been embalmed for two months—by being placed in liquid nitrogen and stored at just above freezing. The middle-aged woman from Los Angeles, whose name is unknown, was soon thawed and buried by relatives. The first body to be cryopreserved and then frozen in hope of future revival was that of James Bedford. Alcor's Mike Darwin says Bedford's body was cryopreserved around two hours after his death by cardiorespiratory arrest (secondary to metastasized kidney cancer) on January 12, 1967. Bedford's corpse is the only one frozen before 1974 still preserved today. In 2018, a Y-Combinator startup called Nectome was recognized for developing a method of preserving brains with chemicals rather than by freezing. The method is fatal, performed as euthanasia under general anesthesia, but the hope is that future technology will allow the brain to be physically scanned into a computer simulation, neuron by neuron. Demographics According to The New York Times, cryonicists are predominantly non-religious white men, outnumbering women by about three to one. According to The Guardian, as of 2008, while most cryonicists used to be young, male, and "geeky", recent demographics have shifted slightly toward whole families. Reception Cryonics is generally regarded as a fringe pseudoscience. Between 1982 and November 2018, the Society for Cryobiology rejected members who practiced cryonics, Russian company KrioRus is the first non-U.S. vendor of cryonics services. Yevgeny Alexandrov, chair of the Russian Academy of Sciences commission against pseudoscience, said there was "no scientific basis" for cryonics, and that the company was based on "unfounded speculation". Scientists have expressed skepticism about cryonics in media sources, few will comment directly on cryonics due to its speculative nature. People who intend to be frozen are often "looked at as a bunch of kooks". Cryobiologist Kenneth B. Storey said in 2004 that cryonics is impossible and will never be possible, as cryonics proponents are proposing to "overturn the laws of physics, chemistry, and molecular science". Neurobiologist Michael Hendricks has said, "Reanimation or simulation is an abjectly false hope that is beyond the promise of technology and is certainly impossible with the frozen, dead tissue offered by the 'cryonics' industry". William T. Jarvis has written, "Cryonics might be a suitable subject for scientific research, but marketing an unproven method to the public is quackery". According to cryonicist Aschwin de Wolf and others, cryonics can often produce intense hostility from spouses who are not cryonicists. James Hughes, the executive director of the pro-life-extension Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies, has not personally signed up for cryonics, calling it a worthy experiment but saying, "I value my relationship with my wife." While it is universally agreed that personal identity is uninterrupted when brain activity temporarily ceases during incidents of accidental drowning (where people have been restored to normal functioning after being completely submerged in cold water for up to 66 minutes), one argument against cryonics is that a centuries-long absence from life might interrupt personal identity, such that the revived person would "not be themself".In popular cultureThe town of Nederland, Colorado, hosts an annual Frozen Dead Guy Days festival to commemorate a substandard attempt at cryopreservation. Notable people Corpses subjected to the cryonics process include those of baseball players Ted Williams and his son John Henry Williams (in 2002 and 2004, respectively), engineer and doctor L. Stephen Coles (in 2014), economist and entrepreneur Phil Salin, and software engineer Hal Finney (in 2014). People known to have arranged for cryonics upon death include PayPal founders Luke Nosek and Peter Thiel, Oxford transhumanists Nick Bostrom and Anders Sandberg, and transhumanist philosopher David Pearce. Larry King once arranged for cryonics but, according to Inside Edition, changed his mind. Sex offender and financier Jeffrey Epstein wanted to have his head and penis frozen after death. The corpses of some are mistakenly believed to have undergone cryonics. The urban legend that Walt Disney's remains were cryopreserved is false; it was cremated and interred at Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery. Timothy Leary was a long-time cryonics advocate and signed up with a major cryonics provider, but changed his mind shortly before his death and was not cryopreserved. See also <!-- PLEASE RESPECT ALPHABETICAL ORDER --> * Aldehyde-stabilized cryopreservation * Brain in a vat * Cryptobiosis * Deep hypothermic circulatory arrest * Emergency Preservation and Resuscitation * Extropianism * Hibernation * Life extension * Supercooling * Targeted temperature management * Technological utopianism References Footnotes Citations Further reading * External links Category:Cooling technology Category:Death customs Category:Fictional technology Category:Life extension Category:Pseudoscience Category:Scientific speculation Category:Funeral-related industry	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryonics	2025-04-05T18:27:57.075430
6761	Unitary patent	{\|class"wikitable" width340px style="float:right" \|+ European patent with unitary effect \| \|- \| style="border:none"\| \|- \| style="border:none"\|<hr> \|- \| style="border:none"\|<hr> \|- \| style="border:none"\|<hr> \|} The European patent with unitary effect, also known as the unitary patent, is a European patent which benefits from unitary effect in the participating member states of the European Union. Unitary effect means the patent has a common legal status throughout all the participating states, eliminating scenarios in which a patent may be invalidated by courts in one participating member state yet upheld by courts in another. Unitary effect may be requested by the proprietor within one month of grant of a European patent, replacing validation of the European patent in the individual countries concerned. Infringement and revocation proceedings are conducted before the Unified Patent Court (UPC), which decisions have a uniform effect for the unitary patent in the participating member states as a whole rather than in each country individually. The unitary patent may be only limited, transferred or revoked, or lapse, in respect of all the participating Member States. Licensing is however possible for part of the unitary territory. The unitary patent may coexist with nationally enforceable patents ("classical" patents) in the non-participating states. The unitary patent's stated aims are to make access to the patent system "easier, less costly and legally secure within the European Union" and "the creation of uniform patent protection throughout the Union". and "COMPAT". On 17 December 2012, agreement was reached between the European Council and European Parliament on the two EU regulations that made the unitary patent possible through enhanced cooperation at EU level. The legality of the two regulations was challenged by Spain and Italy, but all their claims were rejected by the European Court of Justice. Italy subsequently joined the unitary patent regulation in September 2015, Background Legislative history , Polish Minister for European and Economic Affairs, said: "We have our backs to the wall: one or two member states are not willing to compromise and there will not be a breakthrough before the end of our Presidency."]] In 2009, three draft documents were published regarding a community patent: a European patent in which the European Community was designated: # Council regulation on the community patent, # Agreement on the European and Community Patents Court (open to the European Community and all states of the European Patent Convention) # Decision to open negotiations regarding this Agreement Based on those documents, the European Council requested on 6 July 2009 an opinion from the Court of Justice of the European Union, regarding the compatibility of the envisioned Agreement with EU law: "'Is the envisaged agreement creating a Unified Patent Litigation System (currently named European and Community Patents Court) compatible with the provisions of the Treaty establishing the European Community?’" In December 2010, the use of the enhanced co-operation procedure, under which Articles 326–334 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union provides that a group of member states of the European Union can choose to co-operate on a specific topic, was proposed by twelve Member States to set up a unitary patent applicable in all participating European Union Member States. The use of this procedure had only been used once in the past, for harmonising rules regarding the applicable law in divorce across several EU Member States. and on 10 March 2011 the Council gave their authorisation. Two days earlier, on 8 March 2011, the Court of Justice of the European Union had issued its opinion, stating that the draft Agreement creating the European and Community Patent Court would be incompatible with EU law. The same day, the Hungarian Presidency of the Council insisted that this opinion would not affect the enhanced co-operation procedure. In November 2011, negotiations on the enhanced co-operation system were reportedly advancing rapidly—too fast, in some views. It was announced that implementation required an enabling European Regulation, and a Court agreement between the states that elect to take part. The European Parliament approved the continuation of negotiations in September. A draft of the agreement was issued on 11 November 2011 and was open to all member states of the European Union, but not to other European Patent Convention states. However, serious criticisms of the proposal remained mostly unresolved. A meeting of the Competitiveness Council on 5 December failed to agree on the final text. In particular, there was no agreement on where the Central Division of a Unified Patent Court should be located, "with London, Munich and Paris the candidate cities." The Polish Presidency acknowledged on 16 December 2011 the failure to reach an agreement "on the question of the location of the seat of the central division." According to the President of the European Commission in January 2012, the only question remaining to be settled was the location of the Central Division of the Court. However, evidence presented to the UK House of Commons European Scrutiny Committee in February suggested that the position was more complicated. At an EU summit at the end of January 2012, participants agreed to press on and finalise the system by June. On 26 April, Herman Van Rompuy, President of the European Council, wrote to members of the council, saying "This important file has been discussed for many years and we are now very close to a final deal,.... This deal is needed now, because this is an issue of crucial importance for innovation and growth. I very much hope that the last outstanding issue will be sorted out at the May Competitiveness Council. If not, I will take it up at the June European Council." The Competitiveness Council met on 30 May and failed to reach agreement. A compromise agreement on the seat(s) of the unified court was eventually reached at the June European Council (28–29 June 2012), splitting the central division according to technology between Paris (the main seat), London and Munich. However, on 2 July 2012, the European Parliament decided to postpone the vote following a move by the European Council to modify the arrangements previously approved by MEPs in negotiations with the European Council. The modification was considered controversial and included the deletion of three key articles (6–8) of the legislation, seeking to reduce the competence of the European Union Court of Justice in unitary patent litigation. On 9 July 2012, the Committee on Legal Affairs of the European Parliament debated the patent package following the decisions adopted by the General Council on 28–29 June 2012 in camera in the presence of MEP Bernhard Rapkay. A later press release by Rapkay quoted from a legal opinion submitted by the Legal Service of the European Parliament, which affirmed the concerns of MEPs to approve the decision of a recent EU summit to delete said articles as it "nullifies central aspects of a substantive patent protection". A Europe-wide uniform protection of intellectual property would thus not exist with the consequence that the requirements of the corresponding EU treaty would not be met and that the European Court of Justice could therefore invalidate the legislation. By the end of 2012 a new compromise was reached between the European Parliament and the European Council, including a limited role for the European Court of Justice. The Unified Court will apply the Unified Patent Court Agreement, which is considered national patent law from an EU law point of view, but still is equal for each participant. [However the [http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukdsi/2016/9780111142899 draft statutory instrument] aimed at implementation of the Unified Court and UPC in the UK provides for different infringement laws for: European patents (unitary or not) litigated through the Unified Court; European patents (UK) litigated before UK courts; and national patents]. The legislation for the enhanced co-operation mechanism was approved by the European Parliament on 11 December 2012 and the regulations were signed by the European Council and European Parliament officials on 17 December 2012. On 30 May 2011, Italy and Spain challenged the council's authorisation of the use of enhanced co-operation to introduce the trilingual (English, French, German) system for the unitary patent, which they viewed as discriminatory to their languages, with the CJEU on the grounds that it did not comply with the EU treaties. In January 2013, Advocate General Yves Bot delivered his recommendation that the court reject the complaint. Suggestions by the Advocate General are advisory only, but are generally followed by the court. The case was dismissed by the court in April 2013, however Spain launched two new challenges with the EUCJ in March 2013 against the regulations implementing the unitary patent package. The court hearing for both cases was scheduled for 1 July 2014. Advocate-General Yves Bot published his opinion on 18 November 2014, suggesting that both actions be dismissed ( and ). The court handed down its decisions on 5 May 2015 as and fully dismissing the Spanish claims. Following a request by its government, European patents European patents are granted in accordance with the provisions of the European Patent Convention (EPC), via a unified procedure before the European Patent Office (EPO). While upon filing of a European patent application, all 39 Contracting States are automatically designated, a European patent becomes a bundle of "national" European patents upon grant. In contrast to the unified character of a European patent application, a granted European patent has, in effect, no unitary character, except for the centralized opposition procedure (which can be initiated within 9 months from grant, by somebody else than the patent proprietor), and the centralized limitation and revocation procedures (which can only be instituted by the patent proprietor). In other words, a European patent in one Contracting State, i.e. a "national" European patent, is effectively independent of the same European patent in each other Contracting State, except for the opposition, limitation and revocation procedures. The enforcement of a European patent is dealt with by national law. The abandonment, revocation or limitation of the European patent in one state does not affect the European patent in other states. While the EPC already provided the possibility for a group of member states to allow European patents to have a unitary character also after grant, until now, only Liechtenstein and Switzerland have opted to create a unified protection area (see Unitary patent (Switzerland and Liechtenstein)). By requesting unitary effect within one month of grant, the patent proprietor is now able to obtain uniform protection in the participating members states of the European Union in a single step, considerably simplifying obtaining patent protection in a large part of the EU. The unitary patent system co-exists with national patent systems and European patent without unitary effects. The unitary patent does not cover EPC countries that are not member of the European Union, such as UK or Turkey. Legal basis and implementation The implementation of the unitary patent is based on three legal instruments: * Regulation (EU) No 1257/2012 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 December 2012 implementing enhanced cooperation in the area of the creation of unitary patent protection; * Council Regulation (EU) No 1260/2012 of 17 December 2012 implementing enhanced cooperation in the area of the creation of unitary patent protection with regard to the applicable translation arrangements; * Agreement on a Unified Patent Court. Thus the unitary patent is based on EU law as well as the European Patent Convention (EPC). provides the legal basis for establishing a common system of patents for Parties to the EPC. Previously, only Liechtenstein and Switzerland had used this possibility to create a unified protection area (see Unitary patent (Switzerland and Liechtenstein)). \|implementation=1 June 2023 \|CommProp\|ESCOpin \|ParlOpin\|Reports \|replaces\|amends \|amendedby\|replacedby \|status=Pending }} The first two regulations were approved by the European Parliament on 11 December 2012, with future application set for the 25 member states then participating in the enhanced cooperation for a unitary patent (all then EU member states except Croatia, Italy and Spain). The instruments were adopted as regulations EU 1257/2012 on 17 December 2012, and entered into force in January 2013. Following a request by its government, Italy became a participant of the unitary patent regulations in September 2015. The unitary effect of unitary patents means a single renewal fee, a single ownership, a single object of property, a single court (the Unified Patent Court) and uniform protection, which means that revocation as well as infringement proceedings are to be decided for the unitary patent as a whole rather than for each country individually. Licensing is however to remain possible for part of the unitary territory. as authorized by . These tasks include the collection of renewal fees and registration of unitary effect upon grant, recording licenses and statements that licenses are available to any person. Translation requirements for the participating states in the enhanced cooperation for a unitary patent are shown below: {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|- ! Participating member State (bold: unitary patents apply) !! Translation requirements for a European patent without unitary effect Slovenia \|\| Claims in the official language of the concerned State \|- \| Denmark, Finland, Hungary, Netherlands, Sweden \|\| Description in English, claims in the official language of the concerned State \|- \| Austria, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Greece, Malta, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia \|\| Translation of the complete patent in an official language of the concerned State \|} Unitary patent as an object of property Article 7 of Regulation 1257/2012 provides that, as an object of property, a European patent with unitary effect will be treated "in its entirety and in all participating Member States as a national patent of the participating Member State in which that patent has unitary effect and in which the applicant had her/his residence or principal place of business or, by default, had a place of business on the date of filing the application for the European patent." When the applicant had no domicile in a participating Member State, German law will apply.PartiesThe UPC Agreement was signed on 19 February 2013 by 24 EU member states, including all states then participating in the enhanced co-operation measures except Bulgaria and Poland. Bulgaria signed the agreement on 5 March 2013 following internal administrative procedures. Italy, which did not originally join the enhanced co-operation measures but subsequently signed up, did sign the UPC agreement. The agreement remains open to accession for all remaining EU member states, with all European Union Member States except Spain and Poland having signed the Agreement. States which do not participate in the unitary patent regulations can still become parties to the UPC agreement, which would allow the new court to handle European patents validated in the country. On 18 January 2019, Kluwer Patent Blog wrote, "a recurring theme for some years has been that 'the UPC will start next year'". Then, Brexit and German constitutional court complaint were considered as the main obstacles. The German constitutional court first decided in a decision of 13 February 2020 against the German ratification of the Agreement on the ground that the German Parliament did not vote with the required majority (2/3 according to the judgement). After a second vote and further, this time unsuccessful, constitutional complaints, Germany formally ratified the UPC Agreement on 7 August 2021. While the UK ratified the agreement in April 2018, the UK later withdrew from the Agreement following Brexit. As of the entry into force of the UPC on 1 June 2023, 17 countries had ratified the Agreement. Romania ratified the agreement in May 2024, and will join as the 18th participating member on 1 September 2024. Jurisdiction The Unified Patent Court has exclusive jurisdiction in infringement and revocation proceedings involving European patents with unitary effect, and during a transition period non-exclusive jurisdiction regarding European patents without unitary effect in the states where the Agreement applies, unless the patent proprietor decides to opt out. It furthermore has jurisdiction to hear cases against decisions of the European Patent Office regarding unitary patents. As a court of several member states of the European Union it may (Court of First Instance) or must (Court of Appeal) ask prejudicial questions to the European Court of Justice when the interpretation of EU law (including the two unitary patent regulations, but excluding the UPC Agreement) is not obvious.OrganizationThe court has two instances: a court of first instance and a court of appeal. The court of appeal and the registry have their seats in Luxembourg, while the central division of the court of first instance would have its seat in Paris. The central division has a thematic branch in Munich (the London location has yet to be replaced by a new location within the EU). The court of first instance may further have local and regional divisions in all member states that wish to set up such divisions. Geographical scope of and request for unitary effect While the regulations formally apply to all 25 member states participating in the enhanced cooperation for a unitary patent, from the date the UPC agreement has entered into force for the first group of ratifiers, unitary patents will only extend to the territory of those participating member states where the UPC Agreement had entered into force when the unitary effect was registered. If the unitary effect territory subsequently expands to additional participating member states for which the UPC Agreement later enters into force, this will be reflected for all subsequently registered unitary patents, but the territorial scope of the unitary effect of existing unitary patents will not be extended to these states. although designations may be withdrawn before grant. It was not possible to designate Malta before it became a party to the EPC on 1 March 2007.\|groupnotes}} whether the unitary effect applies to them or not. European patents automatically become a bundle of "national" European patents upon grant. Upon the grant of unitary effect, the "national" European patents will retroactively be considered to never have existed in the territories where the unitary patent has effect. The unitary effect does not affect "national" European patents in states where the unitary patent does not apply. Any "national" European patents applying outside the "unitary effect" zone will co-exist with the unitary patent. In following of those territories, the unitary patent is de facto extended through application of national (French, or Dutch) law: * France: French Southern and Antarctic Lands, Saint Barthélemy, Saint-Pierre and Miquelon and Wallis and Futuna However, the unitary patent does not apply in the French territories French Polynesia and New Caledonia as implementing legislation would need to be passed by those jurisdictions (rather than the French national legislation required in the other territories) and this has not been done. Costs <div class="floatright"> {\| style"border:solid 1px #aaa;" cellpadding"10" cellspacing="0" \|+Yearly renewal fee for the unitary patent \|- \| <timeline> ImageSize = width:auto height:180 barincrement:40 PlotArea = left:50 bottom:15 top:10 right:18 AlignBars = justify DateFormat = yyyy Period = from:0 till:5000 TimeAxis = orientation:vertical ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:1000 start:0 PlotData= color:skyblue width:40 bar:2 from:start till:35 text:€ 35 bar:3 from:start till:105 text:€ 105 bar:4 from:start till:145 text:€ 145 bar:5 from:start till:315 text:€ 315 bar:6 from:start till:475 text:€ 475 bar:7 from:start till:630 text:€ 630 bar:8 from:start till:815 text:€ 815 bar:9 from:start till:990 text:€ 990 bar:10 from:start till:1175 text:€ 1175 bar:11 from:start till:1460 text:€ 1460 bar:12 from:start till:1775 text:€ 1775 bar:13 from:start till:2105 text:€ 2105 bar:14 from:start till:2455 text:€ 2455 bar:15 from:start till:2830 text:€ 2830 bar:16 from:start till:3240 text:€ 3240 bar:17 from:start till:3640 text:€ 3640 bar:18 from:start till:4055 text:€ 4055 bar:19 from:start till:4455 text:€ 4455 bar:20 from:start till:4855 text:€ 4855 </timeline> \|} </div>The renewal fees are planned to be based on the cumulative renewal fees due in the four countries where European patents were most often validated in 2015 (Germany, France, the UK and the Netherlands). This is despite the UK leaving the unitary patent system following Brexit. The renewal fees of the unitary patent would thus be ranging from 35 Euro in the second year to 4855 in the 20th year. The renewal fees will be collected by the EPO, with the EPO keeping 50% of the fees and the other 50% being redistributed to the participating member states. Translation requirements as well as the requirement to pay yearly patent maintenance fees in individual countries presently renders the European patent system costly to obtain protection in the whole of the European Union. In an impact assessment from 2011, the European Commission estimated that the costs of obtaining a patent in all 27 EU countries would drop from over 32 000 euro (mainly due to translation costs) to 6 500 euro (for the combination of an EU, Spanish and Italian patent) due to introduction of the Unitary patent. Per capita costs of an EU patent were estimated at just 6 euro/million in the original 25 participating countries (and 12 euro/million in the 27 EU countries for protection with a Unitary, Italian and Spanish patent). How the EU Commission has presented the expected cost savings has however been sharply criticized as exaggerated and based on unrealistic assumptions. The EU Commission has notably considered the costs for validating a European patent in 27 countries while in reality only about 1% of all granted European patents are currently validated in all 27 EU states. Based on more realistic assumptions, the cost savings are expected to be much lower than actually claimed by the commission. For example, the EPO calculated that for an average EP patent validated and maintained in 4 countries, the overall savings to be between 3% and 8%.Earlier attempts1970s and 1980s: proposed Community Patent Convention Work on a Community patent started in the 1970s, but the resulting Community Patent Convention (CPC) was a failure. The "Luxembourg Conference on the Community Patent" took place in 1975 and the Convention for the European Patent for the common market, or (Luxembourg) Community Patent Convention (CPC), was signed at Luxembourg on 15 December 1975, by the 9 member states of the European Economic Community at that time. However, the CPC never entered into force. It was not ratified by enough countries. Fourteen years later, the Agreement relating to Community patents was made at Luxembourg on 15 December 1989. It attempted to revive the CPC project, but also failed. This Agreement consisted of an amended version of the original Community Patent Convention. Twelve states signed the Agreement: Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, and United Kingdom. All of those states would need to have ratified the Agreement to cause it to enter into force, but only seven did so: Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and United Kingdom. Nevertheless, a majority of member states of the EEC at that time introduced some harmonisation into their national patent laws in anticipation of the entry in force of the CPC. A more substantive harmonisation took place at around the same time to take account of the European Patent Convention and the Strasbourg Convention. 2000 to 2004: EU Regulation proposal In 2000, renewed efforts from the European Union resulted in a Community Patent Regulation proposal, sometimes abbreviated as CPR. It provides that the patent, once it has been granted by the European Patent Office (EPO) in one of its procedural languages (English, German or French) and published in that language, with a translation of the claims into the two other procedural languages, will be valid without any further translation. This proposal is aimed to achieve a considerable reduction in translation costs. Nevertheless, additional translations could become necessary in legal proceedings against a suspected infringer. In such a situation, a suspected infringer who has been unable to consult the text of the patent in the official language of the Member State in which he is domiciled, is presumed, until proven otherwise, not to have knowingly infringed the patent. To protect a suspected infringer who, in such a situation, has not acted in a deliberate manner, it is provided that the proprietor of the patent will not be able to obtain damages in respect of the period prior to the translation of the patent being notified to the infringer. The proposed Community Patent Regulation should also establish a court holding exclusive jurisdiction to invalidate issued patents; thus, a Community Patent's validity will be the same in all EU member states. This court will be attached to the present European Court of Justice and Court of First Instance through use of provisions in the Treaty of Nice. Discussion regarding the Community patent had made clear progress in 2003 when a political agreement was reached on 3 March 2003. However, one year later in March 2004 under the Irish presidency, the Competitiveness Council failed to agree on the details of the Regulation. In particular the time delays for translating the claims and the authentic text of the claims in case of an infringement remained problematic issues throughout discussions and in the end proved insoluble. In view of the difficulties in reaching an agreement on the community patent, other legal agreements have been proposed outside the European Union legal framework to reduce the cost of translation (of patents when granted) and litigation, namely the London Agreement, which entered into force on 1 May 2008—and which has reduced the number of countries requiring translation of European patents granted nowadays under the European Patent Convention, and the corresponding costs to obtain a European patent—and the European Patent Litigation Agreement (EPLA), a proposal that has now lapsed. Reactions to the failure (here on a picture taken in 2006) cited the failure to agree on a Europewide patent as a weak point of his five-year term as President of the European Commission.]] After the council in March 2004, EU Commissioner Frits Bolkestein said that "The failure to agree on the Community Patent I am afraid undermines the credibility of the whole enterprise to make Europe the most competitive economy in the world by 2010." Adding: Jonathan Todd, Commission's Internal Market spokesman, declared: European Commission President Romano Prodi, asked to evaluate his five-year term, cited as his weak point the failure of many EU governments to implement the "Lisbon Agenda", agreed in 2001. In particular, he cited the failure to agree on a Europewide patent, or even the languages to be used for such a patent, "because member states did not accept a change in the rules; they were not coherent". Since 2005: stalemate and new debate was quoted as saying that the proposal for an EU-wide patent was stuck in the mud.]] Thus, in 2005, the Community patent looked unlikely to be implemented in the near future. However, on 16 January 2006 the European Commission "launched a public consultation on how future action in patent policy to create an EU-wide system of protection can best take account of stakeholders' needs." The Community patent was one of the issues the consultation focused on. More than 2500 replies were received. }} The European Commission released a white paper in April 2007 seeking to "improve the patent system in Europe and revitalise the debate on this issue." On 18 April 2007, at the European Patent Forum in Munich, Germany, Günter Verheugen, vice-president of the European Commission, said that his proposal to support the European economy was "to have the London Agreement ratified by all member states, and to have a European patent judiciary set up, in order to achieve rapid implementation of the Community patent, which is indispensable". He further said that he believed this could be done within five years. In October 2007, the Portuguese presidency of the Council of the European Union proposed an EU patent jurisdiction, "borrowing heavily from the rejected draft European Patent Litigation Agreement (EPLA)". In November 2007, EU ministers were reported to have made some progress towards a community patent legal system, with "some specific results" expected in 2008. In 2008, the idea of using machine translations to translate patents was proposed to solve the language issue, which is partially responsible for blocking progress on the community patent. Meanwhile, European Commissioner for Enterprise and Industry Günter Verheugen declared at the European Patent Forum in May 2008 that there was an "urgent need" for a community patent. Agreement in December 2009, and language issue In December 2009, it was reported that the Swedish EU presidency had achieved a breakthrough in negotiations concerning the community patent. The breakthrough was reported to involve setting up a single patent court for the EU, however ministers conceded much work remained to be done before the community patent would become a reality. According to the agreed plan, the EU would accede to the European Patent Convention as a contracting state, and patents granted by the European Patent Office will, when validated for the EU, have unitary effect in the territory of the European Union. On 10 November 2010, it was announced that no agreement had been reached and that, "in spite of the progress made, [the Competitiveness Council of the European Union had] fallen short of unanimity by a small margin," with commentators reporting that the Spanish representative, citing the aim to avoid any discrimination, had "re-iterated at length the stubborn rejection of the Madrid Government of taking the 'Munich' three languages regime (English, German, French) of the European Patent Convention (EPC) as a basis for a future EU Patent." See also * Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property * Strasbourg Convention (1963) Notes ReferencesFurther reading * * L. McDonagh, 'Exploring perspectives of the Unified Patent Court and the Unitary Patent within the Business and Legal Communities' A Report Commissioned by the Intellectual Property Office (July 2014) available at [https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/exploring-perspectives-of-the-up-and-upc UKIPO] External links * [https://www.epo.org/law-practice/unitary/unitary-patent.html Unitary patent] on the European Patent Office web site * [https://ec.europa.eu/growth/industry/strategy/intellectual-property/patent-protection-eu/unitary-patent_en European Commission official website] (Patents, Patent reform) ;Formal texts of the European Union Patent and status of adoption * * * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130320003759/http://www.upc.documents.eu.com/PDFs/2013-01-31_Rules_of_Procedure_Draft_14_(15829021_1).pdf Rules of procedure], draft version 14 (published 31 January 2013) * [http://www.bristowsupc.com/assets/files/Draft%20Unitary%20Patent%20rules%20-%20June%202014.PDF Rules Relating to Unitary Patent Protection] , Draft of 6 June 2014 ;Non implemented instruments * Amended Community Patent Convention (1989) Protocols related to , , and ; Proposal for a Council Regulation on the Community patent (2000) [http://ec.europa.eu/prelex/detail_dossier_real.cfm?CLen&DosId158078 Current state of the legislation process] ; Positions by various organisations April: [https://www.unitary-patent.eu/ Unitary patent: For a democratic innovation policy in Europe] EPO: [http://www.epo.org/law-practice/legislative-initiatives/eu-patent.html on the EU patent] FFII: [http://consultation.ffii.org/ The Community Patent Consultation] FSFE: [http://fsfe.org/campaigns/swpat/current/unitary-patent.en.html EU: the unitary patent] [https://web.archive.org/web/20060924145334/http://www.eurolinux.org/news/cpat01B/ Eurolinux 2001: Appeal for a Lean and Balanced Community Patent] patent Category:Patent law of the European Union Category:Multi-speed Europe	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitary_patent	2025-04-05T18:27:57.121619
6763	Cistron	A cistron is a region of DNA that is conceptually equivalent to some definitions of a gene, such that the terms are synonymous from certain viewpoints, especially with regard to the molecular gene as contrasted with the Mendelian gene. The question of which scope of a subset of DNA (that is, how large a segment of DNA) constitutes a unit of selection is the question that governs whether cistrons are the same thing as genes. The word cistron is used to emphasize that molecular genes exhibit a specific behavior in a complementation test (cis-trans test); distinct positions (or loci) within a genome are cistronic. History The words cistron and gene were coined before the advancing state of biology made it clear to many people that the concepts they refer to, at least in some senses of the word gene, are either equivalent or nearly so. The same historical naming practices are responsible for many of the synonyms in the life sciences. The term cistron was coined by Seymour Benzer in an article entitled The elementary units of heredity. The cistron was defined by an operational test applicable to most organisms that is sometimes referred to as a cis-trans test, but more often as a complementation test. Richard Dawkins in his influential book The Selfish Gene argues against the cistron being the unit of selection and against it being the best definition of a gene. (He also argues against group selection.) He does not argue against the existence of cistrons, or their being elementary, but rather against the idea that natural selection selects them; he argues that it used to, back in earlier eras of life's development, but not anymore. He defines a gene as a larger unit, which others may now call gene clusters, as the unit of selection. He also defines replicators, more general than cistrons and genes, in this gene-centered view of evolution. Definition Defining a Cistron as a segment of DNA coding for a polypeptide, the structural gene in a transcription unit could be said as monocistronic (mostly in eukaryotes) or polycistronic (mostly in bacteria and prokaryotes). For example, suppose a mutation at a chromosome position x is responsible for a change in recessive trait in a diploid organism (where chromosomes come in pairs). We say that the mutation is recessive because the organism will exhibit the wild type phenotype (ordinary trait) unless both chromosomes of a pair have the mutation (homozygous mutation). Similarly, suppose a mutation at another position, y, is responsible for the same recessive trait. The positions x and y are said to be within the same cistron when an organism that has the mutation at x on one chromosome and has the mutation at position y on the paired chromosome exhibits the recessive trait even though the organism is not homozygous for either mutation. When instead the wild type trait is expressed, the positions are said to belong to distinct cistrons / genes. Or simply put, mutations on the same cistrons will not complement; as opposed to mutations on different cistrons may complement (see Benzer's T4 bacteriophage experiments T4 rII system). For example, an operon is a stretch of DNA that is transcribed to create a contiguous segment of RNA, but contains more than one cistron / gene. The operon is said to be polycistronic, whereas ordinary genes are said to be monocistronic. References Category:Genes	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cistron	2025-04-05T18:27:57.129960
6766	Commonwealth	A commonwealth is a traditional English term for a political community founded for the common good. The noun "commonwealth", meaning "public welfare, general good or advantage", dates from the 15th century. Originally a phrase (the common-wealth or the common wealth – echoed in the modern synonym "public wealth"), it comes from the old meaning of "wealth", which is "well-being", and was deemed analogous to the Latin res publica. The term literally meant "common well-being". In the 17th century, the definition of "commonwealth" expanded from its original sense of "public welfare" or "commonweal" to mean "a state in which the supreme power is vested in the people; a republic or democratic state". The term evolved to become a title to a number of political entities. Three countries – Australia, the Bahamas, and Dominica – have the official title "Commonwealth", as do four U.S. states and two U.S. territories. Since the early 20th century, the term has been used to name some fraternal associations of states, most notably the Commonwealth of Nations, an organisation primarily of former territories of the British Empire. It is also used in the translation for the organisation made up of formerly Soviet states, the Commonwealth of Independent States. Historical use Rome Translations of Ancient Roman writers' works to English have on occasion translated "Res publica", and variants thereof, to "the commonwealth", a term referring to the Roman state as a whole. England The Commonwealth of England was the official name of the political unit (de facto military rule in the name of parliamentary supremacy) that replaced the Kingdom of England (after the English Civil War) from 1649 to 1653 and 1659 to 1660, under the rule of Oliver Cromwell and his son and successor Richard. From 1653 to 1659, although still legally known as a Commonwealth, the republic, united with the former Kingdom of Scotland, operated under different institutions (at times as a de facto monarchy) and is known by historians as the Protectorate. In a British context, it is sometimes referred to as the "Old Commonwealth". In the later 20th century a socialist political party known as the Common Wealth Party was active. Previously a similarly named party, the Commonwealth Land Party, was in existence. Iceland The period of Icelandic history from the establishment of the Althing in 930 to the pledge of fealty to the Norwegian king in 1262 is usually called the Icelandic Nation () in Icelandic and the Icelandic Commonwealth in English. In this period Iceland was colonized by a public consisting largely of recent immigrants from Norway who had fled the unification of that country under King Harald Fairhair. Philippines The Commonwealth of the Philippines was the administrative body that governed the Philippines from 1935 to 1946, aside from a period of exile in the Second World War from 1942 to 1945 when Japan occupied the country. It replaced the Insular Government, a United States territorial government, and was established by the Tydings–McDuffie Act. The Commonwealth was designed as a transitional administration in preparation for the country's full achievement of independence, which was achieved in 1946. The Commonwealth of the Philippines was a founding member of the United Nations. Poland–Lithuania Republic is still an alternative translation of the traditional name Rzeczpospolita of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Wincenty Kadłubek (Vincent Kadlubo, 1160–1223) used for the first time the original Latin term res publica in the context of Poland in his "Chronicles of the Kings and Princes of Poland". The name was used officially for the confederal union formed by Poland and Lithuania (1569–1795). It is also often referred as "Nobles' Commonwealth" (1505–1795, i.e., before the union). In the contemporary political doctrine of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, "our state is a Republic (or Commonwealth) under the presidency of the King". The Commonwealth introduced a doctrine of religious tolerance called Warsaw Confederation, had its own parliament Sejm (although elections were restricted to nobility and elected kings, who were bound to certain contracts Pacta conventa from the beginning of the reign). "A commonwealth of good counsaile" was the title of the 1607 English translation of the work of Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki "De optimo senatore" that presented to English readers many of the ideas present in the political system of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Catalonia Between 1914 and 1925, Catalonia was an autonomous region of Spain. Its government during that time was given the title mancomunidad (Catalan: mancomunitat), which is translated into English as "commonwealth". The Commonwealth of Catalonia had limited powers and was formed as a federation of the four Catalan provinces. A number of Catalan-language institutions were created during its existence. Liberia Between 1838 and 1847, Liberia was officially known as the "Commonwealth of Liberia". It changed its name to the "Republic of Liberia" when it declared independence (and adopted a new constitution) in 1847. Current use Australia "Commonwealth" was first proposed as a term for a federation of the six Australian crown colonies at the 1891 constitutional convention in Sydney. Its adoption was initially controversial, as it was associated by some with the republicanism of Oliver Cromwell (see above), but it was retained in all subsequent drafts of the constitution. The term was finally incorporated into law in the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900, which established the federation. Australia operates under a federal system, in which power is divided between the federal (national) government and the state governments (the successors of the six colonies). So, in an Australian context, the term "Commonwealth" (capitalised), which is often abbreviated to Cth, refers to the federal government, and "Commonwealth of Australia" is the official name of the country. The Bahamas The Bahamas, a Commonwealth realm, has used the official style Commonwealth of The Bahamas since its independence in 1973. Dominica The small Caribbean republic of Dominica has used the official style Commonwealth of Dominica since 1978. Certain U.S. states and territories States Four states of the United States of America officially designate themselves as "commonwealths". All four were part of Great Britain's possessions along the Atlantic coast of North America prior to the American Revolution. As such, they share a strong influence of English common law in some of their laws and institutions. The four are: Kentucky is designated a commonwealth by the Kentucky Constitution as the "Commonwealth of Kentucky". Massachusetts is a commonwealth, declaring itself as such in its constitution, which states: "[T]he body politic is formed by a voluntary association of individuals: it is a social compact, by which the whole people covenants with each citizen, and each citizen with the whole people, that all shall be governed by certain laws for the common good." Pennsylvania uses the "Commonwealth of Pennsylvania" constitutionally and in its official title. Virginia has been known as the "Commonwealth of Virginia" since before the American Revolutionary War, and is referred to as a commonwealth in its constitution. Territories Two organized but unincorporated U.S. territories are called commonwealths. The two are: Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, since 1952 Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, since 1978 In 2016, the Washington, D.C. city council also selected "Douglass Commonwealth" as the potential name of State of Washington, D.C., following the 2016 statehood referendum, at least partially in order to retain the initials "D.C." as the state's abbreviation. International bodies Commonwealth of Nations The Commonwealth of Nations—formerly the British Commonwealth—is a voluntary association of 56 independent sovereign states, most of which were once part of the British Empire. The Commonwealth's membership includes both republics and monarchies. The Head of the Commonwealth is King Charles III, who also reigns as monarch directly in the 15 member states known as Commonwealth realms since his accession in 2022. Commonwealth of Independent States The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) is a loose alliance or confederation consisting of nine of the 15 former Soviet Republics, the exceptions being Turkmenistan (a CIS associate member), Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Ukraine, and Georgia. Georgia left the CIS in August 2008 following the 2008 invasion of the Russian military into South Ossetia and Abkhazia. Its creation signalled the dissolution of the Soviet Union, its purpose being to "allow a civilised divorce" between the Soviet Republics. The CIS has developed as a forum by which the member-states can co-operate in economics, defence, and foreign policy. Proposed use United Kingdom Labour MP Tony Benn sponsored a Commonwealth of Britain Bill several times between 1991 and 2001, intended to abolish the monarchy and establish a British republic. It never reached second reading. See also Confederation Democracy Federation League References External links Commonwealth of Nations The Commonwealth—UK government site Commonwealth of Nations Secretariat Commonwealth Foundation Royal Commonwealth Society Commonwealth of Independent States CIS Executive Committee CIS Statistical Committee Countries Commonwealth of Australia United States Commonwealth of Kentucky Commonwealth of Massachusetts Commonwealth of Pennsylvania Commonwealth of Virginia Commonwealth of Puerto Rico Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Commonwealth of Diverse Cultures: Poland's Heritage Commonwealth New The Commonwealth Secretariat Commonwealth News at YOCOMM NEWS Category:15th-century neologisms Category:Democracy	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth	2025-04-05T18:27:57.148139
6767	Commodore 1541	\| power 100, 120, 220, or 240 V 50/60 Hz 25 W (30 W max) \| memory 2 KB RAM, 16 KB ROM and ''Compute!'s Gazette'' reported in December 1983 that four of the magazine's seven drives had failed; "COMPUTE! Publications sorely needs additional 1541s for in-house use, yet we can't find any to buy. After numerous phone calls over several days, we were able to locate only two units in the entire continental United States", reportedly because of Commodore's attempt to resolve a manufacturing issue that caused the high failures. The early (1982 to 1983) 1541s have a spring-eject mechanism (Alps drive), and the disks often fail to release. This style of drive has the popular nickname "Toaster Drive", because it requires the use of a knife or other hard thin object to pry out the stuck media, just like a piece of toast stuck in an actual toaster. This was fixed later when Commodore changed the vendor of the drive mechanism (Mitsumi) and adopted the flip-lever Newtronics mechanism, greatly improving reliability. In addition, Commodore made the drive's controller board smaller and reduced its chip count compared to the early 1541s (which had a large PCB running the length of the case, with dozens of TTL chips). The beige-case Newtronics 1541 was produced from 1984 to 1986. Versions and third-party clones All but the very earliest non-II model 1541s can use either the Alps or Newtronics mechanism. Visually, the first models, of the VIC-1541 denomination, have an off-white color like the VIC-20 and VIC-1540. Then, to match the look of the C64, CBM changed the drive's color to brown-beige and the name to Commodore 1541. The 1541's numerous shortcomings opened a market for a number of third-party clones of the disk drive. Examples include the Oceanic OC-118 a.k.a. Excelerator+, the MSD Super Disk single and dual drives, the Enhancer 2000, the Indus GT, Blue Chip Electronics's BCD/5.25, and CMDs FD-2000 and FD-4000. Nevertheless, the 1541 became the first disk drive to see widespread use in the home and Commodore sold millions of the units. In 1986, Commodore released the 1541C, a revised version that offers quieter and slightly more reliable operation and a light beige case matching the color scheme of the Commodore 64C. It was replaced in 1988 by the 1541-II, which uses an external power supply to provide cooler operation and allows the drive to have a smaller desktop footprint (the power supply "brick" being placed elsewhere, typically on the floor). Later ROM revisions fixed assorted problems, including a software bug that causes the save-and-replace command to corrupt data. Successors The Commodore 1570 is an upgrade from the 1541 for use with the Commodore 128, available in Europe. It offers MFM capability for accessing CP/M disks, improved speed, and somewhat quieter operation, but was only manufactured until Commodore got its production lines going with the 1571, the double-sided drive. Finally, the small, external-power-supply-based, MFM-based Commodore 1581 3½-inch drive was made, giving 800 KB access to the C128 and C64. Design Hardware The 1541 does not have DIP switches to change the device number. If a user adds more than one drive to a system, the user has to cut a trace in the circuit board to permanently change the drive's device number, or hand-wire an external switch to allow it to be changed externally. It is also possible to change the drive number via a software command, which is temporary and would be erased as soon as the drive was powered off. 1541 drives at power up always default to device #8. If multiple drives in a chain are used, then the startup procedure is to power on the first drive in the chain, alter its device number via a software command to the highest number in the chain (if three drives were used, then the first drive in the chain would be set to device #10), then power on the next drive, alter its device number to the next lowest, and repeat the procedure until the final drive at the end of the chain was powered on and left as device #8. Unlike the Apple II, where support for two drives is normal, it is relatively uncommon for Commodore software to support this setup, and the CBM DOS copy file command is not able to copy files between drives – a third party copy utility is necessary. The pre-II 1541s also have an internal power source, which generates a lot of heat. The heat generation was a frequent source of humour. For example, Compute! stated in 1988 that "Commodore 64s used to be a favorite with amateur and professional chefs since they could compute and cook on top of their 1500-series disk drives at the same time". A series of humorous tips in MikroBitti in 1989 said "When programming late, coffee and kebab keep nicely warm on top of the 1541." The MikroBitti review of the 1541-II said that its external power source "should end the jokes about toasters". The drive-head mechanism installed in the early production years is notoriously easy to misalign. The most common cause of the 1541's drive head knocking and subsequent misalignment is copy-protection schemes on commercial software. The main cause of the problem is that the disk drive itself does not feature any means of detecting when the read/write head reaches track zero. Accordingly, when a disk is not formatted or a disk error occurs, the unit tries to move the head 40 times in the direction of track zero (although the 1541 DOS only uses 35 tracks, the drive mechanism itself is a 40-track unit, so this ensured track zero would be reached no matter where the head was before). Once track zero is reached, every further attempt to move the head in that direction would cause it to be rammed against a solid stop: for example, if the head happened to be on track 18 (where the directory is located) before this procedure, the head would be actually moved 18 times, and then rammed against the stop 22 times. This ramming gives the characteristic "machine gun" noise and sooner or later throws the head out of alignment. A defective head-alignment part likely caused many of the reliability issues in early 1541 drives; one dealer told Compute!s Gazette in 1983 that the part had caused all but three of several hundred drive failures that he had repaired. The drives were so unreliable that Info magazine joked, "Sometimes it seems as if one of the original design specs ... must have said 'Mean time between failure: 10 accesses.'" Users can realign the drive themselves with a software program and a calibration disk. The user can remove the drive from its case and then loosen the screws holding the stepper motor that move the head, then with the calibration disk in the drive gently turn the stepper motor back and forth until the program shows a good alignment. The screws are then tightened and the drive is put back into its case. A third-party fix for the 1541 appeared in which the solid head stop was replaced by a sprung stop, giving the head a much easier life. The later 1571 drive (which is 1541-compatible) incorporates track-zero detection by photo-interrupter and is thus immune to the problem. Also, a software solution, which resides in the drive controller's ROM, prevents the rereads from occurring, though this can cause problems when genuine errors do occur. Due to the alignment issues on the Alps drive mechanisms, Commodore switched suppliers to Newtronics in 1984. The Newtronics mechanism drives have a lever rather than a pull-down tab to close the drive door. Although the alignment issues were resolved after the switch, the Newtronics drives add a new reliability problem in that many of the read/write heads are improperly sealed, causing moisture to penetrate the head and short it out. The 1541's PCB consists mainly of a 6502 CPU, two 6522 VIA chips, and 2k of work RAM. Up to 48k of RAM can be added; this is mainly useful for defeating copy protection schemes since an entire disk track could be loaded into drive RAM, while the standard 2k only accommodates a few sectors (theoretically eight, but some of the RAM was used by CBM DOS as work space). Some Commodore users use 1541s as an impromptu math coprocessor by uploading math-intensive code to the drive for background processing. Interface The 1541 uses a proprietary serialized derivative of the IEEE-488 parallel interface, found in previous disk drives for the PET/CBM range of personal and business computers, but when the VIC-20 was in development, a cheaper alternative to the expensive IEEE-488 cables was sought. To ensure a ready supply of inexpensive cabling for its home computer peripherals, Commodore chose standard DIN connectors for the serial interface. Disk drives and other peripherals such as printers connect to the computer via a daisy chain setup, necessitating only a single connector on the computer itself. Control Throughput and software IEEE Spectrum in 1985 stated that: The C-64's designers blamed the 1541's slow speed on the marketing department's insistence that the computer be compatible with the 1540, which is slow because of a flaw in the 6522 VIA interface controller. Initially, Commodore intended to use a hardware shift register (one component of the 6522) to maintain fast drive speeds with the new serial interface. However, a hardware bug with this chip prevents the initial design from working as anticipated, and the ROM code was hastily rewritten to handle the entire operation in software. According to Jim Butterfield, this causes a speed reduction by a factor of five; had 1540 compatibility not been a requirement, the disk interface would have been much faster. In any case, the C64 normally cannot work with a 1540 unless the VIC-II display output is disabled via a register write to the DEN bit (register $D011, bit 4), which stops the halting of the CPU during certain video lines to ensure correct serial timing. As implemented on the VIC-20 and C64, Commodore DOS transfers 512 bytes per second, compared to the Atari 810's 1,000 bytes per second, the Apple Disk II's 15,000 bytes per second, and the 300-baud data rate of the Commodore Datasette storage system. About 20 minutes are needed to copy one disk—10 minutes of reading time, and 10 minutes of writing time. However, since both the computer and the drive can easily be reprogrammed, third parties quickly wrote more efficient firmware that would speed up drive operations drastically. Without hardware modifications, some "fast loader" utilities (which bypassed routines in the 1541's onboard ROM) managed to achieve speeds of up to 2.5 kilobytes per second. The most common of these products are the Epyx Fast Load, the Final Cartridge, and the Action Replay plug-in ROM cartridges, which all have machine code monitor and disk editor software on board as well. The popular Commodore computer magazines of the era also entered the arena with type-in fast-load utilities, with ''Compute!'s Gazette publishing TurboDisk in 1985 and RUN publishing Sizzle'' in 1987. Even though each 1541 has its own on-board disk controller and disk operating system, it is not possible for a user to command two 1541 drives to copy a disk (one drive reading and the other writing) as with older dual drives like the 4040 that was often found with the PET computer, and which the 1541 is backward-compatible with (it can read 4040 disks but not write to them as a minor difference in the number of header bytes makes the 4040 and 1541 only read-compatible). Originally, to copy from drive to drive, software running on the C64 was needed and it would first read from one drive into computer memory, then write out to the other. Only when Fast Hack'em and, later, other disk backup programs were released, was true drive-to-drive copying possible for a pair of 1541s. The user could, if they wished, unplug the C64 from the drives (i.e., from the first drive in the daisy chain) and do something else with the computer as the drives proceeded to copy the entire disk. Media The 1541 drive uses standard 5¼-inch double-density floppy media; high-density media will not work due to its different magnetic coating requiring a higher magnetic coercivity. As the GCR encoding scheme does not use the index hole, the drive was also compatible with hard-sectored disks. The standard CBM DOS format is 170 KB with 35 tracks and 256-byte sectors. It is similar to the format used on the PET 2031, 2040 & 4040 drives, but a minor difference in the number of header bytes makes these drives and the 1541 only read-compatible; disks formatted with one drive cannot be written to by the other. The drives will allow writes to occur, but the inconsistent header size will damage the data in the data portions of each track. The 4040 drives use Shugart SA-400s, which were 35-track units, thus the format there is due to physical limitations of the drive mechanism. The 1541 uses 40 track mechanisms, but Commodore intentionally limited the CBM DOS format to 35 tracks because of reliability issues with the early units. It is possible via low-level programming to move the drive head to tracks 36–40 and write on them, this is sometimes done by commercial software for copy protection purposes and/or to get additional data on the disk. However, one track is reserved by DOS for directory and file allocation information (the BAM, block availability map). And since for normal files, two bytes of each physical sector are used by DOS as a pointer to the next physical track and sector of the file, only 254 out of the 256 bytes of a block are used for file contents. If the disk side is not otherwise prepared with a custom format, (e.g. for data disks), 664 blocks would be free after formatting, giving 664254 (or almost ) for user data. By using custom formatting and load/save routines (sometimes included in third-party DOSes, see below), all of the mechanically possible 40 tracks can be used. Owing to the drive's non-use of the index hole, it is also possible to make "flippy floppies" by inserting the diskette upside-down and formatting the other side, and it is commonplace and normal for commercial software to be distributed on such disks. {\| class="wikitable" \|- !Tracks !! Sectors<br/>(256 bytes) !! bits/s \|- \|align=right \|1–17 \|aligncenter\| 21 \|\| 16M/4/(13+0) 307,692 \|- \|align=right \| 18–24 \|aligncenter\| 19 \|\| 16M/4/(13+1) 285,714 \|- \|align=right \| 25–30 \|aligncenter\| 18 \|\| 16M/4/(13+2) 266,667 \|- \|align=right \| 31–35 \|aligncenter\| 17 \|\| 16M/4/(13+3) 250,000 \|- \|align=right \| 36–42 \|aligncenter\| 17 \|\| 16M/4/(13+3) 250,000<!--Unsure, but considering the number of sectors/track it should be ok.--> \|} Tracks 36–42 are non-standard. The bitrate is the raw one between the read/write head and signal circuitry so actual useful data rate is a factor 5/4 less due to GCR encoding. The 1541 disk typically has 35 tracks. Track 18 is reserved; the remaining tracks are available for data storage. The header is on 18/0 (track 18, sector 0) along with the BAM, and the directory starts on 18/1 (track 18, sector 1). The file interleave is 10 blocks, while the directory interleave is 3 blocks. Header contents: The header is similar to other Commodore disk headers, the structural differences being the BAM offset () and size, and the label+ID+type offset (). $00–01 T/S reference to first directory sector (18/1) 02 DOS version ('A') 04-8F BAM entries (4 bytes per track: Free Sector Count + 24 bits for sectors) 90-9F Disk Label, $A0 padded A2-A3 Disk ID A5-A6 DOS type ('2A') Uses Early copy protection schemes deliberately introduce read errors on the disk, the software refusing to load unless the correct error message is returned. The general idea is that simple disk-copy programs are incapable of copying the errors. When one of these errors is encountered, the disk drive (as do many floppy disk drives) will attempt one or more reread attempts after first resetting the head to track zero. Few of these schemes have much deterrent effect, as various software companies soon released "nibbler" utilities that enable protected disks to be copied and, in some cases, the protection removed. Commodore copy protection sometimes fails on specific hardware configurations. Gunship, for example, does not load if a second disk drive or printer is connected to the computer. Similarly ''Roland's Ratrace will crash if additional hardware is detected. The tape version will even crash if a floppy drive is switched on while the game is running. See also * Commodore 64 * Commodore 64 peripherals * 1541 Ultimate References Further reading * CBM (1982). VIC-1541 Single Drive Floppy Disk User's Manual. 2nd ed. Commodore Business Machines, Inc. P/N 1540031-02. * Neufeld, Gerald G. (1985). 1541 User's Guide. The Complete Guide to Commodore's 1541 Disk Drive. Second Printing, June 1985. 413 pp. Copyright © 1984 by DATAMOST, Inc. (Brady). . * Immers, Richard; Neufeld, Gerald G. (1984). Inside Commodore DOS. The Complete Guide to the 1541 Disk Operating System. DATAMOST, Inc & Reston Publishing Company, Inc. (Prentice-Hall). . * Englisch, Lothar; Szczepanowski, Norbert (1984). The Anatomy of the 1541 Disk Drive''. Grand Rapids, MI: Abacus Software (translated from the original 1983 German edition, Düsseldorf: Data Becker GmbH). . External links * [http://diskpreservation.com Disk Preservation Project]: internal drive mechanics and copy protection * [https://web.archive.org/web/20050709013437/http://project64.c64.org/hw/1541_tricks.txt Undocumented 1541 drive functions] from the Project 64 website * [https://archive.org/stream/run-magazine-64/Run_Issue_64_1989_Apr#page/n53/mode/2up RUN Magazine Issue 64] * [http://www.devili.iki.fi/Computers/Commodore/articles/Beyond_the_1541/ devili.iki.fi: Beyond the 1541, Mass Storage For The 64 And 128], COMPUTE!'s Gazette, issue 32, February 1986 (market overview) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20140422213009/http://bitsavers.trailing-edge.com/pdf/commodore/1541_Maintenance_Guide_1984.pdf 1541 Maintenance Guide from Bitsavers] * [http://www.quiss.org/freespin/ Freespin], the Commodore 1541 graphical demo running on the floppy drive * [https://www.pagetable.com/?p=1595 The Ultimate Commodore 1541 Disk Drive Talk (video)], a recording of a talk in Aug 2021 at the VCF West 2021 Category:CBM floppy disk drives Category:Commodore 64	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_1541	2025-04-05T18:27:57.161309
6769	Commodore 1581	\| price <!--intro--> (1987) \| discontinued = 1990 \| media 3½" floppy disk DS DD or WD1772 \| memory 8 kB RAM 32 kB ROM \| storage 790 KB \|connectivity Commodore proprietary serial IEEE-488 burst mode <!--de:Commodore 128 says 8500 bytes/s--> \| dimensions but formats different from the MS-DOS (720 kB), Amiga (880 kB), and Mac Plus (800 kB) formats. With special software it's possible to read C1581 disks on an x86 PC system, and likewise, read MS-DOS and other formats of disks in the C1581 (using Big Blue Reader), provided that the PC or other floppy handles the size format. The WD1770<!--assumed it was the 1770 version that caused problems, and the 1772 was ok--> controller chip, however, was the seat of some early problems with 1581 drives when the first production runs were recalled due to a high failure rate; the problem was quickly corrected. Later versions of the 1581 drive have a smaller, more streamlined-looking external power supply provided with them. Specifications {\| class=wikitable ! Quantity !! Value \|- \| Onboard CPU \|\| MOS Technology 6502 @ 2 MHz \|- \| RAM \|\| 8 kB \|- \| ROM \|\| 32 kB \|- \| Disk controller \|\| WD1770 or WD1772 \|- \| Communications controller \|\| MOS Technology 8520A }} Further reading * * * External links [http://www.d81.de/ d81.de: Permanent home of 1581-Copy], A MS-Windows based Tool uses any standard x86-PC 3.5" drive to WRITE & READ 1581 disk images (d81). [http://members.optusnet.com.au/spacetaxi64/MAIN/1581-GAMES.htm optusnet.com.au: 1581 Games, Commodore 1581 Games, D81, CMD FD2000 & FD4000 Games], Tools & Games specifically for the 1581 disk drive. [http://members.optusnet.com.au/spacetaxi64/MAIN/1581-PC-35-DRIVE.htm optusnet.com.au: SEGA SF-7000 with PC 3.5" Floppy Drive, Copy disk to PC and vice versa], How to use a PC 3.5" floppy drive in the 1581 device [https://web.archive.org/web/20140203142211/http://vice-emu.sourceforge.net/plain/drive_info.txt vice-emu: Commodore compatible Disk Drives], drive info *[https://web.archive.org/web/20141030024210/http://www.students.tut.fi/~leinone3/dcn2692/index.html tut.fi: DCN-2692 floppy controller board], C1581 clone (complete)<!--/Links.shtml--> Category:Products introduced in 1987 Category:Commodore 64 Category:CBM floppy disk drives	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_1581	2025-04-05T18:27:57.172036
6771	College football	NCAA Football (video game series)}} \| country \| sport American football, Canadian football \| noncountry \| nickname \| first = 1869 \| registered \| clubs <!-- COMPETITIONS --> \| national_list \| club_list \| intl_list = <!-- AUDIENCE RECORDS --> \| match 156,990 (Tennessee 45–24 Virginia Tech at Bristol Motor Speedway), 10 Sep 2016 \| league = <!-- FAN GROUPS --> \| fan_org = }} College football is gridiron football that is played by teams of amateur student-athletes at universities and colleges. It was through collegiate competition that gridiron football first gained popularity in the United States. Like gridiron football generally, college football is most popular in the United States and Canada. While no single governing body exists for college football in the United States, most schools, especially those at the highest levels of play, are members of the NCAA. In Canada, collegiate football competition is governed by U Sports for universities. The Canadian Collegiate Athletic Association (for colleges) governs soccer and other sports but not gridiron football. Other countries, such as Mexico, Japan and South Korea, also host college football leagues with modest levels of support. Unlike most other major sports in North America, no official minor league farm organizations exist for American football or Canadian football. Therefore, college football is generally considered to be the second tier of American and Canadian football; ahead of high school competition, but below professional competition. In some parts of the United States, especially the South and Midwest, college football is more popular than professional football. For much of the 20th century, college football was generally considered to be more prestigious than professional football. The overwhelming majority of professional football players in the NFL and other leagues previously played college football. The NFL draft each spring sees 224 players selected and offered a contract to play in the league, with the vast majority coming from the NCAA. Other professional leagues, such as the CFL and UFL, additionally hold their own drafts each year which also see primarily college players selected. Players who are not selected can still attempt to obtain a professional roster spot as an undrafted free agent. Despite these opportunities, only around 1.6% of NCAA college football players end up playing professionally in the NFL.History Even after the emergence of the professional National Football League (NFL), college football has remained extremely popular throughout the U.S. Although the college game has a much larger margin for talent than its pro counterpart, the sheer number of fans following major colleges provides a financial equalizer for the game, with Division I programs – the highest level – playing in huge stadiums, six of which have seating capacity exceeding 100,000 people. In many cases, college stadiums employ bench-style seating, as opposed to individual seats with backs and arm rests (although many stadiums do have a small number of chair back seats in addition to the bench seating). This allows them to seat more fans in a given amount of space than the typical professional stadium, which tends to have more features and comforts for fans. Only three stadiums owned by U.S. colleges or universities, L&N Stadium at the University of Louisville, Center Parc Stadium at Georgia State University, and FAU Stadium at Florida Atlantic University, consist entirely of chair back seating. College athletes, unlike players in the NFL, are not permitted by the NCAA to be paid salaries. Colleges are only allowed to provide non-monetary compensation such as athletic scholarships that provide for tuition, housing, and books. With new bylaws made by the NCAA, college athletes can now receive "name, image, and likeness" (NIL) deals, a way to get sponsorships and money before their pro debut.Rugby football in Great Britain and Canada Modern North American football has its origins in various games, all known as "football", played at public schools in Great Britain in the mid-19th century. By the 1840s, students at Rugby School were playing a game in which players were able to pick up the ball and run with it, a sport later known as rugby football. The game was taken to Canada by British soldiers stationed there and was soon being played at Canadian colleges. The first documented gridiron football game was played at University College, a college of the University of Toronto, on November 9, 1861. One of the participants in the game involving University of Toronto students was William Mulock, later chancellor of the school. A football club was formed at the university soon afterward, although its rules of play then are unclear. In 1864, at Trinity College, also a college of the University of Toronto, F. Barlow Cumberland and Frederick A. Bethune devised rules based on rugby football. Modern Canadian football is widely regarded as having originated with a game played in Montreal, in 1865, when British Army officers played local civilians. The game gradually gained a following, and the Montreal Football Club was formed in 1868, the first recorded non-university football club in Canada. American college football Early games appear to have had much in common with the traditional "mob football" played in Great Britain. The games remained largely unorganized until the 19th century, when intramural games of football began to be played on college campuses. Each school played its own variety of football. Princeton University students played a game called "ballown" as early as 1820. In 1827, a Harvard tradition known as "Bloody Monday" began, which consisted of a mass ballgame between the freshman and sophomore classes. In 1860, both the town police and the college authorities agreed the Bloody Monday had to go. Harvard students responded by going into mourning for a mock figure called "Football Fightum", for whom they conducted funeral rites. The authorities held firm, and it was another dozen years before football was once again played at Harvard. Dartmouth played its own version called "Old division football", the rules of which were first published in 1871, though the game dates to at least the 1830s. All of these games, and others, shared certain commonalities. They remained largely "mob" style games, with huge numbers of players attempting to advance the ball into a goal area, often by any means necessary. Rules were simple, and violence and injury were common. The violence of these mob-style games led to widespread protests and a decision to abandon them. Yale, under pressure from the city of New Haven, banned the play of all forms of football in 1860. Princeton–Columbia–Yale–Rutgers On November 6, 1869, Rutgers University faced Princeton University, then known as the College of New Jersey, in the first collegiate football game. The game more closely resembled soccer than football as it is played in the 21st century. It was played with a round ball, and used a set of rules suggested by Rutgers captain William J. Leggett, based on The Football Association's first set of rules, which were an early attempt by the former pupils of England's public schools, to unify the rules of their various public schools. The game was played at a Rutgers Field in New Brunswick, New Jersey. Two teams of 25 players attempted to score by kicking the ball into the opposing team's goal. Throwing or carrying the ball was not allowed, but there was plenty of physical contact between players. The first team to reach six goals was declared the winner. Rutgers won by a score of six to four. A rematch was played at Princeton a week later under Princeton's own set of rules (one notable difference was the awarding of a "free kick" to any player that caught the ball on the fly, which was a feature adopted from The Football Association's rules; the fair catch kick rule has survived through to modern American game). Princeton won that game by a score of 8 – 0. Columbia joined the series in 1870 and by 1872 several schools were fielding intercollegiate teams, including Yale and Stevens Institute of Technology. The games featured a round ball instead of a rugby-style oblong ball. In October 1874, the Harvard team once again traveled to Montreal to play McGill in rugby, where they won by three tries. In as much as Rugby football had been transplanted to Canada from England, the McGill team played under a set of rules which allowed a player to pick up the ball and run with it whenever he wished. Another rule, unique to McGill, was to count tries (the act of grounding the football past the opposing team's goal line; there was no end zone during this time), as well as goals, in the scoring. In the Rugby rules of the time, a try only provided the attempt to kick a free goal from the field. If the kick was missed, the try did not score any points itself. Harvard–Tufts, Harvard–Yale (1875) Harvard quickly took a liking to the rugby game, and its use of the try which, until that time, was not used in American football. The try would later evolve into the score known as the touchdown. On June 4, 1875, Harvard faced Tufts University in the first game between two American colleges played under rules similar to the McGill/Harvard contest, which was won by Tufts 1–0. The rules included each side fielding 11 men at any given time, the ball was advanced by kicking or carrying it, and tackles of the ball carrier stopped play – actions of which have carried over to the modern version of football played today. Harvard later challenged its closest rival, Yale, to which the Bulldogs accepted. The two teams agreed to play under a set of rules called the "Concessionary Rules", which involved Harvard conceding something to Yale's soccer and Yale conceding a great deal to Harvard's rugby. They decided to play with 15 players on each team. On November 13, 1875, Yale and Harvard played each other for the first time ever, where Harvard won 4–0. At the first The Game (as the annual contest between Harvard and Yale came to be named) the future "father of American football" Walter Camp was among the 2000 spectators in attendance. Walter, a native of New Britain, Connecticut, would enroll at Yale the next year. He was torn between an admiration for Harvard's style of play and the misery of the Yale defeat, and became determined to avenge Yale's defeat. Spectators from Princeton also carried the game back home, where it quickly became the most popular version of football. Walter Camp: Father of American football , the "Father of American Football", then the captain of the Yale University football team, in 1878]] Walter Camp is widely considered to be the most important figure in the development of American football. Scoring table {\| class"wikitable" style"margin:auto;" \|+Historical college football scoring \|- ! Era !! Touchdown !! Field goal !! Conversion (kick) !! Conversion (touchdown)!! Safety !! Conversion safety !! Defensive conversion \|- \| 1883 \|\| 2 \|\| rowspan"3" \| 5 \|\| 4 \|\| rowspan"6" \| – \|\| 1 \|\| rowspan"6" \| – \|\| rowspan"7" \| – \|- \| 1883–1897 \|\| 4 \|\| 2 \|\| rowspan="7" \| 2 \|- \| 1898–1903 \|\| rowspan"3" \| 5 \|\| rowspan"6" \| 1 \|- \| 1904–1908 \|\| 4 \|- \| 1909–1911 \|\| rowspan="4" \| 3 \|- \| 1912–1957 \|\| rowspan="3" \| 6 \|- \| 1958–1987 \|\| rowspan"2" \| 2 \|\| rowspan"2" \| 1 \|- \| 1988–present \|\| 2 \|- \| colspan="8" \| Note: For brief periods in the late 19th century, some penalties awarded one or more points for the opposing teams, and some teams in the late 19th and early 20th centuries chose to negotiate their own scoring system for individual games. \|} Expansion College football expanded greatly during the last two decades of the 19th century. Several major rivalries date from this time period. November 1890 was an active time in the sport. In Baldwin City, Kansas, on November 22, 1890, college football was first played in the state of Kansas. Baker beat Kansas 22–9. On the 27th, Vanderbilt played Nashville (Peabody) at Athletic Park and won 40–0. It was the first time organized football played in the state of Tennessee. The 29th also saw the first instance of the Army–Navy Game. Navy won 24–0. East Rutgers was first to extend the reach of the game. An intercollegiate game was first played in the state of New York when Rutgers played Columbia on November 2, 1872. It was also the first scoreless tie in the history of the fledgling sport. Yale football starts the same year and has its first match against Columbia, the nearest college to play football. It took place at Hamilton Park in New Haven and was the first game in New England. The game was essentially soccer with 20-man sides, played on a field 400 by 250 feet. Yale wins 3–0, Tommy Sherman scoring the first goal and Lew Irwin the other two. After the first game against Harvard, Tufts took its squad to Bates College in Lewiston, Maine for the first football game played in Maine. This occurred on November 6, 1875. Penn's Athletic Association was looking to pick "a twenty" to play a game of football against Columbia. This "twenty" never played Columbia, but did play twice against Princeton. Princeton won both games 6 to 0. The first of these happened on November 11, 1876, in Philadelphia and was the first intercollegiate game in the state of Pennsylvania. Brown entered the intercollegiate game in 1878. The first game where one team scored over 100 points happened on October 25, 1884, when Yale routed Dartmouth 113–0. It was also the first time one team scored over 100 points and the opposing team was shut out. The next week, Princeton outscored Lafayette 140 to 0. The first intercollegiate game in the state of Vermont happened on November 6, 1886, between Dartmouth and Vermont at Burlington, Vermont. Dartmouth won 91 to 0. Penn State played its first season in 1887, but had no head coach for their first five years, from 1887 to 1891. The Army–Navy game of 1893 saw the first documented use of a football helmet by a player in a game. Joseph M. Reeves had a crude leather helmet made by a shoemaker in Annapolis and wore it in the game after being warned by his doctor that he risked death if he continued to play football after suffering an earlier kick to the head.Middle West and the University of Michigan]] football team in 1903]] In 1879, the University of Michigan became the first school west of Pennsylvania to establish a college football team. On May 30, 1879, Michigan beat Racine College 1–0 in a game played in Chicago. The Chicago Daily Tribune called it "the first rugby-football game to be played west of the Alleghenies." Other Midwestern schools soon followed suit, including the University of Chicago, Northwestern University, and the University of Minnesota. The first western team to travel east was the 1881 Michigan team, which played at Harvard, Yale and Princeton. The nation's first college football league, the Intercollegiate Conference of Faculty Representatives (also known as the Western Conference), a precursor to the Big Ten Conference, was founded in 1895. Led by coach Fielding H. Yost, Michigan became the first "western" national power. From 1901 to 1905, Michigan had a 56-game undefeated streak that included a 1902 trip to play in the first college football bowl game, which later became the Rose Bowl Game. During this streak, Michigan scored 2,831 points while allowing only 40. Organized intercollegiate football was first played in the state of Minnesota on September 30, 1882, when Hamline was convinced to play Minnesota. Minnesota won 2 to 0. It was the first game west of the Mississippi River. November 30, 1905, saw Chicago defeat Michigan 2 to 0. Dubbed "The First Greatest Game of the Century", it broke Michigan's 56-game unbeaten streak and marked the end of the "Point-a-Minute" years.South and Georgia]] between VMI and Virginia Tech]] 's 1899 "Iron Men"]] team in action; note the grid pattern on the field]] Organized collegiate football was first played in the state of Virginia and the south on November 2, 1873, in Lexington between Washington and Lee and VMI. Washington and Lee won 4–2. Some industrious students of the two schools organized a game for October 23, 1869, but it was rained out. Students of the University of Virginia were playing pickup games of the kicking-style of football as early as 1870, and some accounts even claim it organized a game against Washington and Lee College in 1871; but no record has been found of the score of this contest. Due to scantiness of records of the prior matches some will claim Virginia v. Pantops Academy November 13, 1887, as the first game in Virginia. On April 9, 1880, at Stoll Field, Transylvania University (then called Kentucky University) beat Centre College by the score of –0 in what is often considered the first recorded game played in the South. The first game of "scientific football" in the South was the first instance of the Victory Bell rivalry between North Carolina and Duke (then known as Trinity College) held on Thanksgiving Day, 1888, at the North Carolina State Fairgrounds in Raleigh, North Carolina. On November 13, 1887, the Virginia Cavaliers and Pantops Academy fought to a scoreless tie in the first organized football game in the state of Virginia. Students at UVA were playing pickup games of the kicking-style of football as early as 1870, and some accounts even claim that some industrious ones organized a game against Washington and Lee College in 1871, just two years after Rutgers and Princeton's historic first game in 1869. But no record has been found of the score of this contest. Washington and Lee also claims a 4 to 2 win over VMI in 1873. On December 14, 1889, Wofford defeated Furman 5 to 1 in the first intercollegiate game in the state of South Carolina. The game featured no uniforms, no positions, and the rules were formulated before the game. January 30, 1892, saw the first football game played in the Deep South when the Georgia Bulldogs defeated Mercer 50–0 at Herty Field. The beginnings of the contemporary Southeastern Conference and Atlantic Coast Conference start in 1894. The Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association (SIAA) was founded on December 21, 1894, by William Dudley, a chemistry professor at Vanderbilt. The original members were Alabama, Auburn, Georgia, Georgia Tech, North Carolina, Sewanee, and Vanderbilt. Clemson, Cumberland, Kentucky, LSU, Mercer, Mississippi, Mississippi A&M (Mississippi State), Southwestern Presbyterian University, Tennessee, Texas, Tulane, and the University of Nashville joined the following year in 1895 as invited charter members. The conference was originally formed for "the development and purification of college athletics throughout the South". The first forward pass in football likely occurred on October 26, 1895, in a game between Georgia and North Carolina when, out of desperation, the ball was thrown by the North Carolina back Joel Whitaker instead of punted and George Stephens caught the ball. On November 9, 1895, John Heisman executed a hidden ball trick using quarterback Reynolds Tichenor to get Auburn's only touchdown in a 6 to 9 loss to Vanderbilt. It was the first game in the south decided by a field goal. Heisman later used the trick against Pop Warner's Georgia team. Warner picked up the trick and later used it at Cornell against Penn State in 1897. He then used it in 1903 at Carlisle against Harvard and garnered national attention. The 1899 Sewanee Tigers are one of the all-time great teams of the early sport. The team went 12–0, outscoring opponents 322 to 10. Known as the "Iron Men", with just 13 men they had a six-day road trip with five shutout wins over Texas A&M; Texas; Tulane; LSU; and Ole Miss. It is recalled memorably with the phrase "... and on the seventh day they rested." Grantland Rice called them "the most durable football team I ever saw." Organized intercollegiate football was first played in the state of Florida in 1901. A 7-game series between intramural teams from Stetson and Forbes occurred in 1894. The first intercollegiate game between official varsity teams was played on November 22, 1901. Stetson beat Florida Agricultural College at Lake City, one of the four forerunners of the University of Florida, 6–0, in a game played as part of the Jacksonville Fair. On September 27, 1902, Georgetown beat Navy 4 to 0. It is claimed by Georgetown authorities as the game with the first ever "roving center" or linebacker when Percy Given stood up, in contrast to the usual tale of Germany Schulz. The first linebacker in the South is often considered to be Frank Juhan. On Thanksgiving Day 1903, a game was scheduled in Montgomery, Alabama between the best teams from each region of the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association for an "SIAA championship game", pitting Cumberland against Heisman's Clemson. The game ended in an 11–11 tie causing many teams to claim the title. Heisman pressed hardest for Cumberland to get the claim of champion. It was his last game as Clemson head coach. 1904 saw big coaching hires in the south: Mike Donahue at Auburn, John Heisman at Georgia Tech, and Dan McGugin at Vanderbilt were all hired that year. Both Donahue and McGugin just came from the north that year, Donahue from Yale and McGugin from Michigan, and were among the initial inductees of the College Football Hall of Fame. The undefeated 1904 Vanderbilt team scored an average of 52.7 points per game, the most in college football that season, and allowed just four points. Southwest The first college football game in Oklahoma Territory occurred on November 7, 1895, when the "Oklahoma City Terrors" defeated the Oklahoma Sooners 34 to 0. The Terrors were a mix of Methodist college and high school students. The Sooners did not manage a single first down. By next season, Oklahoma coach John A. Harts had left to prospect for gold in the Arctic. Organized football was first played in the territory on November 29, 1894, between the Oklahoma City Terrors and Oklahoma City High School. The high school won 24 to 0. USC faced its first collegiate opponent the following year in fall 1889, playing St. Vincent's College to a 40–0 victory. In 1891, the first Stanford football team was hastily organized and played a four-game season beginning in January 1892 with no official head coach. Following the season, Stanford captain John Whittemore wrote to Yale coach Walter Camp asking him to recommend a coach for Stanford. To Whittemore's surprise, Camp agreed to coach the team himself, on the condition that he finish the season at Yale first. As a result of Camp's late arrival, Stanford played just three official games, against San Francisco's Olympic Club and rival California. The team also played exhibition games against two Los Angeles area teams that Stanford does not include in official results. Camp returned to the East Coast following the season, then returned to coach Stanford in 1894 and 1895. On December 25, 1894, Amos Alonzo Stagg's Chicago Maroons agreed to play Camp's Stanford football team in San Francisco in the first postseason intersectional contest, foreshadowing the modern bowl game. Future president Herbert Hoover was Stanford's student financial manager. Chicago won 24 to 4. Stanford won a rematch in Los Angeles on December 29 by 12 to 0. The Big Game between Stanford and California is the oldest college football rivalry in the West. The first game was played on San Francisco's Haight Street Grounds on March 19, 1892, with Stanford winning 14–10. The term "Big Game" was first used in 1900, when it was played on Thanksgiving Day in San Francisco. During that game, a large group of men and boys, who were observing from the roof of the nearby S.F. and Pacific Glass Works, fell into the fiery interior of the building when the roof collapsed, resulting in 13 dead and 78 injured. On December 4, 1900, the last victim of the disaster (Fred Lilly) died, bringing the death toll to 22; and, to this day, the "Thanksgiving Day Disaster" remains the deadliest accident to kill spectators at a U.S. sporting event. The University of Oregon began playing American football in 1894 and played its first game on March 24, 1894, defeating Albany College 44–3 under head coach Cal Young. Cal Young left after that first game and J.A. Church took over the coaching position in the fall for the rest of the season. Oregon finished the season with two additional losses and a tie, but went undefeated the following season, winning all four of its games under head coach Percy Benson. In 1899, the Oregon football team left the state for the first time, playing the California Golden Bears in Berkeley, California. Bloss's son William started the first team, on which he served as both coach and quarterback. The team's first game was an easy 63–0 defeat over the home team, Albany College. In May 1900, Yost was hired as the football coach at Stanford University, and, after traveling home to West Virginia, he arrived in Palo Alto, California, on August 21, 1900. Yost led the 1900 Stanford team to a 7–2–1, outscoring opponents 154 to 20. The next year in 1901, Yost was hired by Charles A. Baird as the head football coach for the Michigan Wolverines football team. On January 1, 1902, Yost's dominating 1901 Michigan Wolverines football team agreed to play a 3–1–2 team from Stanford University in the inaugural "Tournament East-West football game" what is now known as the Rose Bowl Game by a score of 49–0 after Stanford captain Ralph Fisher requested to quit with eight minutes remaining. The 1905 season marked the first meeting between Stanford and USC. Consequently, Stanford is USC's oldest existing rival. The Big Game between Stanford and Cal on November 11, 1905, was the first played at Stanford Field, with Stanford winning 12–5. At the time, the future of American football was very much in doubt and these schools believed that rugby union would eventually be adopted nationwide. During 12 seasons of playing rugby union, Stanford was remarkably successful: the team had three undefeated seasons, three one-loss seasons, and an overall record of 94 wins, 20 losses, and 3 ties for a winning percentage of .816. However, after a few years, the school began to feel the isolation of its newly adopted sport, which was not spreading as many had hoped. Students and alumni began to clamor for a return to American football to allow wider intercollegiate competition.}} In 1909, the Rocky Mountain Athletic Conference was founded, featuring four members: Colorado, Colorado College, Colorado School of Mines, and Colorado Agricultural College. The University of Denver and the University of Utah joined the RMAC in 1910. For its first thirty years, the RMAC was considered a major conference equivalent to today's Division I, before 7 larger members left and formed the Mountain States Conference (also called the Skyline Conference). Violence, formation of NCAA College football increased in popularity through the remainder of the 19th and early 20th century. It also became increasingly violent. Between 1890 and 1905, 330 college athletes died as a direct result of injuries sustained on the football field. These deaths could be attributed to the mass formations and gang tackling that characterized the sport in its early years. The 1894 Harvard–Yale game, known as the "Hampden Park Blood Bath", resulted in crippling injuries for four players; the contest was suspended until 1897. The annual Army–Navy game was suspended from 1894 to 1898 for similar reasons. One of the major problems was the popularity of mass-formations like the flying wedge, in which a large number of offensive players charged as a unit against a similarly arranged defense. The resultant collisions often led to serious injuries and sometimes even death. Georgia fullback Richard Von Albade Gammon notably died on the field from concussions received against Virginia in 1897, causing Georgia, Georgia Tech, and Mercer to suspend their football programs. The situation came to a head in 1905 when there were 19 fatalities nationwide. President Theodore Roosevelt reportedly threatened to shut down the game if drastic changes were not made. However, the threat by Roosevelt to eliminate football is disputed by sports historians. What is absolutely certain is that on October 9, 1905, Roosevelt held a meeting of football representatives from Harvard, Yale, and Princeton. Though he lectured on eliminating and reducing injuries, he never threatened to ban football. He also lacked the authority to abolish football and was, in fact, actually a fan of the sport and wanted to preserve it. The President's sons were also playing football at the college and secondary levels at the time. Meanwhile, John H. Outland held an experimental game in Wichita, Kansas that reduced the number of scrimmage plays to earn a first down from four to three in an attempt to reduce injuries. The Los Angeles Times reported an increase in punts and considered the game much safer than regular play but that the new rule was not "conducive to the sport". In 1906, President Roosevelt organized a meeting among thirteen school leaders at the White House to find solutions to make the sport safer for the athletes. Because the college officials could not agree upon a change in rules, it was decided over the course of several subsequent meetings that an external governing body should be responsible. Finally, on December 28, 1905, 62 schools met in New York City to discuss rule changes to make the game safer. As a result of this meeting, the Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States was formed in 1906. The IAAUS was the original rule-making body of college football, but would go on to sponsor championships in other sports. The IAAUS would get its current name of National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) in 1910, and still sets rules governing the sport. The rules committee considered widening the playing field to "open up" the game, but Harvard Stadium (the first large permanent football stadium) had recently been built at great expense; it would be rendered useless by a wider field. The rules committee legalized the forward pass instead. Though it was underused for years, this proved to be one of the most important rule changes in the establishment of the modern game. Another rule change banned "mass momentum" plays (many of which, like the infamous "flying wedge", were sometimes literally deadly).Modernization and innovation (1906–1930) '' photograph of Brad Robinson, who threw the first legal forward pass and was the sport's first triple threat]] As a result of the 1905–1906 reforms, mass formation plays became illegal and forward passes legal. Bradbury Robinson, playing for visionary coach Eddie Cochems at Saint Louis University, threw the first legal pass in a September 5, 1906, game against Carroll College at Waukesha. Other important changes, formally adopted in 1910, were the requirements that at least seven offensive players be on the line of scrimmage at the time of the snap, that there be no pushing or pulling, and that interlocking interference (arms linked or hands on belts and uniforms) was not allowed. These changes greatly reduced the potential for collision injuries. Several coaches emerged who took advantage of these sweeping changes. Amos Alonzo Stagg introduced such innovations as the huddle, the tackling dummy, and the pre-snap shift. Other coaches, such as Pop Warner and Knute Rockne, introduced new strategies that still remain part of the game. Besides these coaching innovations, several rules changes during the first third of the 20th century had a profound impact on the game, mostly in opening up the passing game. In 1914, the first roughing-the-passer penalty was implemented. In 1918, the rules on eligible receivers were loosened to allow eligible players to catch the ball anywhere on the field—previously strict rules were in place allowing passes to only certain areas of the field. Scoring rules also changed during this time: field goals were lowered to three points in 1909 Star players that emerged in the early 20th century include Jim Thorpe, Red Grange, and Bronko Nagurski; these three made the transition to the fledgling NFL and helped turn it into a successful league. Sportswriter Grantland Rice helped popularize the sport with his poetic descriptions of games and colorful nicknames for the game's biggest players, including Notre Dame's "Four Horsemen" backfield and Fordham University's linemen, known as the "Seven Blocks of Granite". In 1907 at Champaign, Illinois Chicago and Illinois played in the first game to have a halftime show featuring a marching band. Chicago won 42–6. On November 25, 1911 Kansas played at Missouri in the first homecoming football game. The game was "broadcast" play-by-play over telegraph to at least 1,000 fans in Lawrence, Kansas. It ended in a 3–3 tie. The game between West Virginia and Pittsburgh on October 8, 1921, saw the first live radio broadcast of a college football game when Harold W. Arlin announced that year's Backyard Brawl played at Forbes Field on KDKA. Pitt won 21–13. On October 28, 1922, Princeton and Chicago played the first game to be nationally broadcast on radio. Princeton won 21–18 in a hotly contested game which had Princeton dubbed the "Team of Destiny".Rise of the SouthOne publication claims "The first scouting done in the South was in 1905, when Dan McGugin and Captain Innis Brown, of Vanderbilt went to Atlanta to see Sewanee play Georgia Tech." Fuzzy Woodruff claims Davidson was the first in the south to throw a legal forward pass in 1906. The following season saw Vanderbilt execute a double pass play to set up the touchdown that beat Sewanee in a meeting of the unbeaten for the SIAA championship. Grantland Rice cited this event as the greatest thrill he ever witnessed in his years of watching sports. Vanderbilt coach Dan McGugin in ''Spalding's Football Guide'' summation of the season in the SIAA wrote "The standing. First, Vanderbilt; second, Sewanee, a might good second;" and that Aubrey Lanier "came near winning the Vanderbilt game by his brilliant dashes after receiving punts." Bob Blake threw the final pass to center Stein Stone, catching it near the goal among defenders. Honus Craig then ran in the winning touchdown.Heisman shiftUsing the "jump shift" offense, John Heisman's Georgia Tech Golden Tornado won 222 to 0 over Cumberland on October 7, 1916, at Grant Field in the most lopsided victory in college football history. Tech went on a 33-game winning streak during this period. The 1917 team was the first national champion from the South, led by a powerful backfield. It also had the first two players from the Deep South selected first-team All-American in Walker Carpenter and Everett Strupper. Pop Warner's Pittsburgh Panthers were also undefeated, but declined a challenge by Heisman to a game. When Heisman left Tech after 1919, his shift was still employed by protégé William Alexander. Notable intersectional games runs against undefeated and unscored upon Georgia Tech in the 1918 game at Forbes Field]] In 1906, Vanderbilt defeated Carlisle 4 to 0, the result of a Bob Blake field goal. In 1907 Vanderbilt fought Navy to a 6 to 6 tie. In 1910 Vanderbilt held defending national champion Yale to a scoreless tie. Commodore fans celebrated by throwing some 3,000 seat cushions onto the field. The game features prominently in Vanderbilt's history. That same year, Alabama upset Penn 9 to 7. Vanderbilt's line coach then was Wallace Wade, who coached Alabama to the South's first Rose Bowl victory in 1925. This game is commonly referred to as "the game that changed the south". Wade followed up the next season with an undefeated record and Rose Bowl tie. Georgia's 1927 "dream and wonder team" defeated Yale for the first time. Georgia Tech, led by Heisman protégé William Alexander, gave the dream and wonder team its only loss, and the next year were national and Rose Bowl champions. The Rose Bowl included Roy Riegels' wrong-way run. On October 12, 1929, Yale lost to Georgia in Sanford Stadium in its first trip to the south. Wade's Alabama again won a national championship and Rose Bowl in 1930. Coaches of the era Glenn "Pop" Warner Glenn "Pop" Warner coached at several schools throughout his career, including the University of Georgia, Cornell University, University of Pittsburgh, Stanford University, Iowa State University, and Temple University. One of his most famous stints was at the Carlisle Indian Industrial School, where he coached Jim Thorpe, who went on to become the first president of the National Football League, an Olympic Gold Medalist, and is widely considered one of the best overall athletes in history. Warner wrote one of the first important books of football strategy, Football for Coaches and Players, published in 1927. Though the shift was invented by Stagg, Warner's single wing and double wing formations greatly improved upon it; for almost 40 years, these were among the most important formations in football. As part of his single and double wing formations, Warner was one of the first coaches to effectively use the forward pass. Among his other innovations are modern blocking schemes, the three-point stance, and the reverse play. The youth football league, Pop Warner Little Scholars, was named in his honor.Knute Rockne Knute Rockne rose to prominence in 1913 as an end for the University of Notre Dame, then a largely unknown Midwestern Catholic school. When Army scheduled Notre Dame as a warm-up game, they thought little of the small school. Rockne and quarterback Gus Dorais made innovative use of the forward pass, still at that point a relatively unused weapon, to defeat Army 35–13 and helped establish the school as a national power. Rockne returned to coach the team in 1918, and devised the powerful Notre Dame Box offense, based on Warner's single wing. He is credited with being the first major coach to emphasize offense over defense. Rockne is also credited with popularizing and perfecting the forward pass, a seldom used play at the time. The 1924 team featured the Four Horsemen backfield. In 1927, his complex shifts led directly to a rule change whereby all offensive players had to stop for a full second before the ball could be snapped. Rather than simply a regional team, Rockne's "Fighting Irish" became famous for barnstorming and played any team at any location. It was during Rockne's tenure that the annual Notre Dame-University of Southern California rivalry began. He led his team to an impressive 105–12–5 record before his premature death in a plane crash in 1931. He was so famous at that point that his funeral was broadcast nationally on radio. From a regional to a national sport (1930–1958) in 1940]] In the early 1930s, the college game continued to grow, particularly in the South, bolstered by fierce rivalries such as the "South's Oldest Rivalry", between Virginia and North Carolina and the "Deep South's Oldest Rivalry", between Georgia and Auburn. Although before the mid-1920s most national powers came from the Northeast or the Midwest, the trend changed when several teams from the South and the West Coast achieved national success. Wallace William Wade's 1925 Alabama team won the 1926 Rose Bowl after receiving its first national title and William Alexander's 1928 Georgia Tech team defeated California in the 1929 Rose Bowl. College football quickly became the most popular spectator sport in the South. Several major modern college football conferences rose to prominence during this time period. The Southwest Athletic Conference had been founded in 1915. Consisting mostly of schools from Texas, the conference saw back-to-back national champions with Texas Christian University (TCU) in 1938 and Texas A&M in 1939. The Pacific Coast Conference (PCC), a precursor to the Pac-12 Conference (Pac-12), had its own back-to-back champion in the University of Southern California which was awarded the title in 1931 and 1932. The Southeastern Conference (SEC) formed in 1932 and consisted mostly of schools in the Deep South. As in previous decades, the Big Ten continued to dominate in the 1930s and 1940s, with Minnesota winning 5 titles between 1934 and 1941, and Michigan (1933, 1947, and 1948) and Ohio State (1942) also winning titles. As it grew beyond its regional affiliations in the 1930s, college football garnered increased national attention. Four new bowl games were created: the Orange Bowl, Sugar Bowl, the Sun Bowl in 1935, and the Cotton Bowl in 1937. In lieu of an actual national championship, these bowl games, along with the earlier Rose Bowl, provided a way to match up teams from distant regions of the country that did not otherwise play. In 1936, the Associated Press began its weekly poll of prominent sports writers, ranking all of the nation's college football teams. Since there was no national championship game, the final version of the AP poll was used to determine who was crowned the National Champion of college football. The 1930s saw growth in the passing game. Though some coaches, such as General Robert Neyland at Tennessee, continued to eschew its use, several rules changes to the game had a profound effect on teams' ability to throw the ball. In 1934, the rules committee removed two major penalties—a loss of five yards for a second incomplete pass in any series of downs and a loss of possession for an incomplete pass in the end zone—and shrunk the circumference of the ball, making it easier to grip and throw. Players who became famous for taking advantage of the easier passing game included Alabama end Don Hutson and TCU passer "Slingin" Sammy Baugh. In 1935, New York City's Downtown Athletic Club awarded the first Heisman Trophy to University of Chicago halfback Jay Berwanger, who was also the first ever NFL draft pick in 1936. The trophy was designed by sculptor Frank Eliscu and modeled after New York University player Ed Smith. The trophy recognizes the nation's "most outstanding" college football player and has become one of the most coveted awards in all of American sports. During World War II, college football players enlisted in the armed forces, some playing in Europe during the war. As most of these players had eligibility left on their college careers, some of them returned to college at West Point, bringing Army back-to-back national titles in 1944 and 1945 under coach Red Blaik. Doc Blanchard (known as "Mr. Inside") and Glenn Davis (known as "Mr. Outside") both won the Heisman Trophy, in 1945 and 1946. On the coaching staff of those 1944–1946 Army teams was future Pro Football Hall of Fame coach Vince Lombardi. The 1950s saw the rise of yet more dynasties and power programs. Oklahoma, under coach Bud Wilkinson, won three national titles (1950, 1955, 1956) and all ten Big Eight Conference championships in the decade while building a record 47-game winning streak. Woody Hayes led Ohio State to two national titles, in 1954 and 1957, and won three Big Ten titles. The Michigan State Spartans were known as the "football factory" during the 1950s, where coaches Biggie Munn and Duffy Daugherty led the Spartans to two national titles and two Big Ten titles after joining the Big Ten athletically in 1953. Wilkinson and Hayes, along with Robert Neyland of Tennessee, oversaw a revival of the running game in the 1950s. Passing numbers dropped from an average of 18.9 attempts in 1951 to 13.6 attempts in 1955, while teams averaged just shy of 50 running plays per game. Nine out of ten Heisman Trophy winners in the 1950s were runners. Notre Dame, one of the biggest passing teams of the decade, saw a substantial decline in success; the 1950s were the only decade between 1920 and 1990 when the team did not win at least a share of the national title. Paul Hornung, Notre Dame quarterback, did, however, win the Heisman in 1956, becoming the only player from a losing team ever to do so. The 1956 Sugar Bowl also gained international attention when Georgia's pro-segregationist Gov. Griffin publicly threatened Georgia Tech and its President Blake Van Leer over allowing the first African American player to play in a collegiate bowl game in the south. Modern college football (since 1958) (orange and blue home uniforms) playing Penn State Nittany Lions (all-white away uniforms) in 2012 at Scott Stadium]] Following the enormous success of the 1958 NFL Championship Game, college football no longer enjoyed the same popularity as the NFL, at least on a national level. While both games benefited from the advent of television, since the late 1950s, the NFL has become a nationally popular sport while college football has maintained strong regional ties. As professional football became a national television phenomenon, college football did as well. In the 1950s, Notre Dame, which had a large national following, formed its own network to broadcast its games, but by and large the sport still retained a mostly regional following. In 1952, the NCAA claimed all television broadcasting rights for the games of its member institutions, and it alone negotiated television rights. This situation continued until 1984, when several schools brought a suit under the Sherman Antitrust Act; the Supreme Court ruled against the NCAA and schools are now free to negotiate their own television deals. ABC Sports began broadcasting a national Game of the Week in 1966, bringing key matchups and rivalries to a national audience for the first time. New formations and play sets continued to be developed. Emory Bellard, an assistant coach under Darrell Royal at the University of Texas, developed a three-back option style offense known as the wishbone. The wishbone is a run-heavy offense that depends on the quarterback making last second decisions on when and to whom to hand or pitch the ball to. Royal went on to teach the offense to other coaches, including Bear Bryant at Alabama, Chuck Fairbanks at Oklahoma and Pepper Rodgers at UCLA; who all adapted and developed it to their own tastes. The strategic opposite of the wishbone is the spread offense, developed by professional and college coaches throughout the 1960s and 1970s. Though some schools play a run-based version of the spread, its most common use is as a passing offense designed to "spread" the field both horizontally and vertically. Some teams have managed to adapt with the times to keep winning consistently. In the rankings of the most victorious programs, Michigan, Ohio State, and Alabama ranked first, second, and third in total wins. Growth of bowl games {\| class"wikitable" style"float:right; text-align: center; width: 200px; font-size: 0.9em;" \| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;"\| Growth of bowl<br />games 1930–2022 \|- ! width=90 \| Year ! # of games \|- \| 1930 \| 1 \|- \| 1940 \| 5 \|- \| 1950 \| 8 \|- \| 1960 \| 8 \|- \| 1970 \| 8 \|- \| 1980 \| 15 \|- \| 1990 \| 19 \|- \| 2000 \| 25 \|- \| 2010 \| 35 \|- \|2022 \|42 (Plus CFP national championship game) \|} In 1940, for the highest level of college football, there were only five bowl games (Rose, Orange, Sugar, Sun, and Cotton). By 1950, three more had joined that number and in 1970, there were still only eight major college bowl games. The number grew to eleven in 1976. At the birth of cable television and cable sports networks like ESPN, there were fifteen bowls in 1980. With more national venues and increased available revenue, the bowls saw an explosive growth throughout the 1980s and 1990s. In the thirty years from 1950 to 1980, seven bowl games were added to the schedule. From 1980 to 2008, an additional 20 bowl games were added to the schedule. Some have criticized this growth, claiming that the increased number of games has diluted the significance of playing in a bowl game. Yet others have countered that the increased number of games has increased exposure and revenue for a greater number of schools, and see it as a positive development. Teams participating in bowl games also get to practice up to four hours per day or 20 hours per week until their bowl game concludes. There is no limit on the number of practices during the bowl season, so teams that play later in the season (usually ones with more wins) get more opportunity to practice than ones that play earlier. This bowl practice period can be compared to the spring practice schedule when teams can have 15 on-field practice sessions. Many teams that play late in the bowl season use the first few practices for evaluation and development of younger players while resting the starters. Determination of national champion Currently, the NCAA Division I football teams are divided into two divisions – the "football bowl subdivision" (FBS) and the "football championship subdivision"(FCS). As indicated by the name, the FBS teams are eligible to play in post-season bowls. The FCS teams, Division II, Division III, National Junior College teams play in sanctioned tournaments to determine their annual champions. There is not now, and never has been, an NCAA-sanctioned tournament to determine the champion of the top-level football teams. With the growth of bowl games, it became difficult to determine a national champion in a fair and equitable manner. As conferences became contractually bound to certain bowl games (a situation known as a tie-in), match-ups that guaranteed a consensus national champion became increasingly rare. Bowl Coalition In 1992, seven conferences and independent Notre Dame formed the Bowl Coalition, which attempted to arrange an annual No. 1 versus No. 2 matchup based on the final AP poll standings. The Coalition lasted for three years; however, several scheduling issues prevented much success; tie-ins still took precedence in several cases. For example, the Big Eight and SEC champions could never meet, since they were contractually bound to different bowl games. The coalition also excluded the Rose Bowl, arguably the most prestigious game in the nation, and two major conferences—the Pac-10 and Big Ten—meaning that it had limited success. Bowl Alliance In 1995, the Coalition was replaced by the Bowl Alliance, which reduced the number of bowl games to host a national championship game to three—the Fiesta, Sugar, and Orange Bowls—and the participating conferences to five—the ACC, SEC, Southwest, Big Eight, and Big East. It was agreed that the No.1 and No.2 ranked teams gave up their prior bowl tie-ins and were guaranteed to meet in the national championship game, which rotated between the three participating bowls. The system still did not include the Big Ten, Pac-10, or the Rose Bowl, and thus still lacked the legitimacy of a true national championship. However, one positive side effect is that if there were three teams at the end of the season vying for a national title, but one of them was a Pac-10/Big Ten team bound to the Rose Bowl, then there would be no difficulty in deciding which teams to place in the Bowl Alliance "national championship" bowl; if the Pac-10 / Big Ten team won the Rose Bowl and finished with the same record as whichever team won the other bowl game, they could have a share of the national title. This happened in the final year of the Bowl Alliance, with Michigan winning the 1998 Rose Bowl and Nebraska winning the 1998 Orange Bowl. Without the Pac-10/Big Ten team bound to a bowl game, it would be difficult to decide which two teams should play for the national title.Bowl Championship Series ; the 2013 championship game marked the end of the BCS era.]] In 1998, a new system was put into place called the Bowl Championship Series. For the first time, it included all major conferences (ACC, Big East, Big 12, Big Ten, Pac-10, and SEC) and four major bowl games (Rose, Orange, Sugar and Fiesta). The champions of these six conferences, along with two "at-large" selections, were invited to play in the four bowl games. Each year, one of the four bowl games served as a national championship game. Also, a complex system of human polls, computer rankings, and strength of schedule calculations was instituted to rank schools. Based on this ranking system, the No.1 and No.2 teams met each year in the national championship game. Traditional tie-ins were maintained for schools and bowls not part of the national championship. For example, in years when not a part of the national championship, the Rose Bowl still hosted the Big Ten and Pac-10 champions. * A player is considered down when any part of his body other than the feet or hands touches the ground or when the ball carrier is tackled or otherwise falls and loses possession of the ball as he contacts the ground with any part of his body, with the sole exception of the holder for field goal and extra point attempts. In the NFL a player is active until he is tackled or forced down by a member of the opposing team (down by contact). * Before the 2023 season, the clock stopped after the offense completed a first down and began again—assuming it is following a play in which the clock would not normally stop—once the referee declared the ball ready for play. Since 2023, this has only been the case in the last two minutes of a half in NCAA Divisions I and II; Division III adopted this rule in 2024. In the NFL the clock does not explicitly stop for a first down. * Overtime was introduced in 1996, eliminating most ties except in the regular season. Since 2021, during each of the first two overtime periods, each team is given one possession from its opponent's 25-yard line with no game clock. The play clock remains in use, and each team is allowed one timeout per period. Any team that scores a touchdown in either of the first two overtimes must attempt a two-point conversion. Beginning with the third overtime, each team takes possession at the opponent's 3-yard line and can only score by conversion. A coin toss determines which team will have possession first at the start of each overtime period. Play continues until one team leads the other at the end of a period. [In the NFL overtime is decided by a modified sudden-death period of 10 minutes in regular-season games (no overtime in preseason up to & since ) and 15 minutes in playoff games, and regular-season games can still end in a tie if neither team scores. Overtime for regular-season games in the NFL began with the 1974 season; the overtime period for all games was 15 minutes until it was shortened for non-playoff games effective in . In the postseason, if the teams are still tied, teams will play multiple overtime periods until either team scores.] ** A tie game is still possible, per NCAA Rule 3–3–3 (c) and (d). If a game is suspended because of inclement weather while tied, typically in the second half or at the end of regulation, and the game is unable to be continued, the game ends in a tie. Similar to baseball, if one team has scored in its possession and the other team has not completed its possession, the score during the overtime can be wiped out and the game ruled a tie. Some conferences may enforce a curfew for the safety of the players. If, because of numerous overtimes or weather, the game reaches the time-certain finish imposed by the curfew tied, the game is ruled a tie. * Extra point tries are attempted from the three-yard line. Kicked tries count as one point. Teams can also go for "the two-point conversion" which is when a team will line up at the three-yard line and try to score. If they are successful, they receive two points, if they are not, then they receive zero points. Starting with the 2015 season, the NFL uses the 15-yard line as the line of scrimmage for placekick attempts, but the two-yard line for two-point attempts. The two-point conversion was not implemented in the NFL until 1994, but it had been previously used in the old American Football League (AFL) before it merged with the NFL in 1970. * The defensive team may score two points on a point-after touchdown attempt by returning a blocked kick, fumble, or interception into the opposition's end zone. In addition, if the defensive team gains possession, but then moves backward into the end zone and is stopped, a one-point safety will be awarded to the offense, although, unlike a real safety, the offense kicks off, opposed to the team charged with the safety. This college rule was added in 1988. The NFL, which previously treated the ball as dead during a conversion attempt—meaning that the attempt ended when the defending team gained possession of the football—adopted the college rule in 2015. * Through 2023, the two-minute warning was not used in college football, except in rare cases where the scoreboard clock has malfunctioned and is not being used. The NCAA adopted the two-minute warning (under the name "two-minute timeout") in 2024. * There is an option to use instant replay review of officiating decisions. Division I FBS schools use replay in virtually all games; replay is rarely used in lower division games. Every play is subject to booth review with coaches only having one challenge. In the NFL, only scoring plays, turnovers, the final 2:00 of each half and all overtime periods are reviewed, and coaches are issued two challenges (with the option for a third if one of the two challenges was successful). * Since the 2012 season, the ball is placed on the 25-yard line following a touchback on either a kickoff or a free kick following a safety. The NFL adopted this rule in 2018. In all other touchback situations at all levels of the game, the ball is placed on the 20. * Among other rule changes in 2007, kickoffs were moved from the 35-yard line back five yards to the 30-yard line, matching a change that the NFL had made in 1994. Some coaches and officials questioned this rule change as it could lead to more injuries to the players as there will likely be more kickoff returns. The rationale for the rule change was to help reduce dead time in the game. The NFL returned its kickoff location to the 35-yard line effective in 2011; college football did not do so until 2012. * Several changes were made to college rules in 2011, all of which differ from NFL practice: If a player is penalized for unsportsmanlike conduct for actions that occurred during a play ending in a touchdown by that team, but before the goal line was crossed, the touchdown will be nullified. In the NFL, the same foul would result in a penalty on the conversion attempt or ensuing kickoff, at the option of the non-penalized team. If a team is penalized in the final minute of a half and the penalty causes the clock to stop, the opposing team now has the right to have 10 seconds run off the clock in addition to the yardage penalty. The NFL has a similar rule in the final minute of the half, but it applies only to specified violations against the offensive team. The new NCAA rule applies to penalties on both sides of the ball. Players lined up outside the tackle box—more specifically, those lined up more than 7 yards from the center—will now be allowed to block below the waist only if they are blocking straight ahead or toward the nearest sideline. On placekicks, each offensive lineman can be engaged by no more than two defensive players. The defenders risk a 5-yard penalty upon violation. * In 2018, the NCAA made a further change to touchback rules that the NFL adopted in ; a fair catch on a kickoff or a free kick following a safety that takes place between the receiving team's goal line and 25-yard lines is treated as a touchback, with the ball placed at the 25. * Yards lost on quarterback sacks are included in individual rushing yardage under NCAA rules. In the NFL, yards lost on sacks are included in team passing yardage, but are not included in individual passing statistics. Organization College teams mostly play other similarly sized schools through the NCAA's divisional system. Division I generally consists of the major collegiate athletic powers with larger budgets, more elaborate facilities, and (with the exception of a few conferences such as the Pioneer Football League) more athletic scholarships. Division II primarily consists of smaller public and private institutions that offer fewer scholarships than those in Division I. Division III institutions also field teams, but do not offer any scholarships. Football teams in Division I are further divided into the Bowl Subdivision (consisting of the largest programs) and the Championship Subdivision. The Bowl Subdivision has historically not used an organized tournament to determine its champion, and instead teams compete in post-season bowl games. That changed with the debut of the four-team College Football Playoff at the end of the 2014 season, However, the NCAA does not operate that tournament, and its winner is not automatically crowned National Champion. Teams in each of these four divisions are further divided into various regional conferences. Several organizations operate college football programs outside the jurisdiction of the NCAA: * The National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics has jurisdiction over more than 80 college football teams, mostly in the Midwest. * The National Junior College Athletic Association has jurisdiction over two-year institutions, except in California. * The California Community College Athletic Association governs sports, including football, at that state's two-year institutions. CCCAA members compete for their own championships and do not participate in the NJCAA. * Club football, a sport in which student clubs run the teams instead of the colleges themselves, is overseen by two organizations: the National Club Football Association and the Intercollegiate Club Football Federation. The two competing sanctioning bodies have some overlap, and several clubs are members of both organizations. * As of the most recent 2024 season, 16 schools play sprint football, played under standard NCAA rules but with a requirement that all players must weigh less than the average college student (that threshold is set, , at , with the added requirement of a minimum body fat content of 5%). Nine schools, all in the northeastern quadrant of the U.S., play in the Collegiate Sprint Football League, which has operated since 1934. The Midwest Sprint Football League started play in 2022 with six members, all in the Midwest and Upper South, added two members in that region in 2023, and lost one of its charter members after the 2023 season due to the school's impending closure. A college that fields a team in the NCAA is not restricted from fielding teams in club or sprint football, and several colleges field two teams, a varsity (NCAA) squad and a club or sprint squad (no schools, , field both club and sprint teams at the same time).CoachingNational championships * College football national championships in NCAA Division I FBS – Overview of systems for determining national champions at the highest level of college football from 1869 to present. College Football Playoff – Four-team playoff for determining national champions at the highest level of college football beginning in 2014. After a vote by the College Football Playoff's Board of Managers, the Playoff was expanded to 12 teams in 2024. Bowl Championship Series – The primary method of determining the national champion at the highest level of college football from 1998 to 2013; preceded by the Bowl Alliance (1995–1997) and the Bowl Coalition (1992–1994). * NCAA Division I Football Championship – Playoff for determining the national champion at the second highest level of college football, Division I FCS, from 1978 to present. ** NCAA Division I FCS Consensus Mid-Major Football National Championship – Awarded by poll from 2001 to 2007 for a subset of the second-highest level of play in college football, FCS. * NCAA Division II Football Championship – Playoff for determining the national champion at the third highest level of college football from 1973 to present. * NCAA Division III Football Championship – Playoff for determining the national champion at the fourth highest level of college football from 1973 to present. * NAIA National Football Championship – Playoff for determining the national champions of college football governed by the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics. * NJCAA National Football Championship – Playoff for determining the national champions of college football governed by the National Junior College Athletic Association. * CSFL Championship – Champions of the Collegiate Sprint Football League, a conference that plays the weight-restricted variant of sprint football. * MSFL Championship – Launched in 2022 as the championship for the Midwest Sprint Football League, another sprint football league. Team maps <gallery> File:NCAA FBS programs.png\|Map of Division I (A) FBS File:NCAA FCS programs.png\|Map of Division I (AA) FCS File:NCAA D2 programs.png\|Map of NCAA Division II File:NCAA D3 programs.png\|Map of NCAA Division III File:NAIA programs.png\|Map of NAIA File:NJCAA fb.png\|Map of NJCAA File:CCCAA fb.png\|Map of CCCAA </gallery> Playoff games Started in the 2014 season, four Division I FBS teams are selected at the end of regular season to compete in a playoff for the FBS national championship. The inaugural champion was Ohio State University. The College Football Playoff replaced the Bowl Championship Series, which had been used as a selection method to determine the national championship game participants since in the 1998 season. The Ohio State Buckeyes won the most recent playoff 34–23 over the Notre Dame Fighting Irish in the 2025 College Football Playoff. At the Division I FCS level, the teams participate in a 24-team playoff (most recently expanded from 20 teams in 2013) to determine the national championship. Under the current playoff structure, the top eight teams are all seeded, and receive a bye week in the first round. The highest seed receives automatic home field advantage. Starting in 2013, non-seeded teams can only host a playoff game if both teams involved are unseeded; in such a matchup, the schools must bid for the right to host the game. Selection for the playoffs is determined by a selection committee, although usually a team must have an 8–4 record to even be considered. Losses to an FBS team count against their playoff eligibility, while wins against a Division II opponent do not count towards playoff consideration. Thus, only Division I wins (whether FBS, FCS, or FCS non-scholarship) are considered for playoff selection. The Division I National Championship game is held in Frisco, Texas. Division II and Division III of the NCAA also participate in their own respective playoffs, crowning national champions at the end of the season. The National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics also holds a playoff. Bowl games Unlike other college football divisions and most other sports—collegiate or professional—the Football Bowl Subdivision, formerly known as Division I-A college football, has historically not employed a playoff system to determine a champion. Instead, it has a series of postseason "bowl games". The annual National Champion in the Football Bowl Subdivision is then instead traditionally determined by a vote of sports writers and other non-players. This system has been challenged often, beginning with an NCAA committee proposal in 1979 to have a four-team playoff following the bowl games. However, little headway was made in instituting a playoff tournament until 2014, given the entrenched vested economic interests in the various bowls. Although the NCAA publishes lists of claimed FBS-level national champions in its official publications, it has never recognized an official FBS national championship; this policy continues even after the establishment of the College Football Playoff (which is not directly run by the NCAA) in 2014. As a result, the official Division I National Champion is the winner of the Football Championship Subdivision, as it is the highest level of football with an NCAA-administered championship tournament. (This also means that FBS student-athletes are the only NCAA athletes who are ineligible for the Elite 90 Award, an academic award presented to the upper class player with the highest grade-point average among the teams that advance to the championship final site.) The first bowl game was the 1902 Rose Bowl, played between Michigan and Stanford; Michigan won 49–0. It ended when Stanford requested and Michigan agreed to end it with 8 minutes on the clock. That game was so lopsided that the game was not played annually until 1916, when the Tournament of Roses decided to reattempt the postseason game. The term "bowl" originates from the shape of the Rose Bowl stadium in Pasadena, California, which was built in 1923 and resembled the Yale Bowl, built in 1915. This is where the name came into use, as it became known as the Rose Bowl Game. Other games came along and used the term "bowl", whether the stadium was shaped like a bowl or not. At the Division I FBS level, teams must earn the right to be bowl eligible by winning at least 6 games during the season (teams that play 13 games in a season, which is allowed for Hawaii and any of its home opponents, must win 7 games). They are then invited to a bowl game based on their conference ranking and the tie-ins that the conference has to each bowl game. For the 2009 season, there were 34 bowl games, so 68 of the 120 Division I FBS teams were invited to play at a bowl. These games are played from mid-December to early January and most of the later bowl games are typically considered more prestigious. After the Bowl Championship Series, additional all-star bowl games round out the post-season schedule through the beginning of February. Division I FBS National Championship Games Partly as a compromise between both bowl game and playoff supporters, the NCAA created the Bowl Championship Series (BCS) in 1998 to create a definitive national championship game for college football. The series included the four most prominent bowl games (Rose Bowl, Orange Bowl, Sugar Bowl, Fiesta Bowl), while the national championship game rotated each year between one of these venues. The BCS system was slightly adjusted in 2006, as the NCAA added a fifth game to the series, called the National Championship Game. This allowed the four other BCS bowls to use their normal selection process to select the teams in their games while the top two teams in the BCS rankings would play in the new National Championship Game. The BCS selection committee used a complicated, and often controversial, computer system to rank all Division I-FBS teams and the top two teams at the end of the season played for the national championship. This computer system, which factored in newspaper polls, online polls, coaches' polls, strength of schedule, and various other factors of a team's season, led to much dispute over whether the two best teams in the country were being selected to play in the National Championship Game. The BCS ended after the 2013 season and, since the 2014 season, the FBS national champion has been determined by a four-team tournament known as the College Football Playoff (CFP). A selection committee of college football experts decides the participating teams. Six major bowl games known as the New Year's Six (NY6)—the Rose, Sugar, Cotton, Orange, Peach, and Fiesta Bowls—rotate on a three-year cycle as semi-final games, with the winners advancing to the College Football Playoff National Championship. This arrangement was contractually locked in until the 2026 season, but an agreement was reached on CFP expansion to 12 teams effective with the 2024 season. In the new CFP format, no conferences will receive automatic bids. Playoff berths will be awarded to the top six conference champions in the CFP rankings, plus the top six remaining teams (which may include other conference champions). The top four conference champions receive first-round byes. All first-round games will be played at the home field of the higher seed. The winners of these games advance to meet the top four seeds in the quarterfinals. The NY6 games will host the quarterfinals and semi-finals, rotating so that each bowl game will host two quarterfinals and one semi-final in a three-year cycle. The CFP National Championship will continue to be held at a site determined by open bidding several years in advance. Controversy College football is a controversial institution within American higher education, where the amount of money involved—what people will pay for the entertainment provided—is a corrupting factor within universities that they are usually ill-equipped to deal with. According to William E. Kirwan, chancellor of the University of Maryland System and co-director of the Knight Commission on Intercollegiate Athletics, "We've reached a point where big-time intercollegiate athletics is undermining the integrity of our institutions, diverting presidents and institutions from their main purpose." Football coaches often make more than the presidents of the universities which employ them. Athletes are alleged to receive preferential treatment both in academics and when they run afoul of the law. Although in theory football is an extra-curricular activity engaged in as a sideline by students, it is widely believed to turn a substantial profit, from which the athletes receive no direct benefit. There has been serious discussion about making student-athletes university employees to allow them to be paid. In reality, the majority of major collegiate football programs operated at a financial loss in 2014. There had been discussions on changing rules that prohibited compensation for the use of a player's name, image, and likeness (NIL), but change did not start to come until the mid-2010s. This reform first took place in the NAIA, which initially allowed all student-athletes at its member schools to receive NIL compensation in 2014, and beginning in 2020 specifically allowed these individuals to reference their athletic participation in their endorsement deals. The NCAA passed its own NIL reform, very similar to the NAIA's most recent reform, in July 2021, after its hand was forced by multiple states that had passed legislation allowing NIL compensation, most notably California. On June 3 of 2021, "The NCAA's board of directors adopted a temporary rule change that opened the door for NIL activity, instructing schools to set their own policy for what should be allowed with minimal guidelines" (Murphy 2021). On July 1 of 2021, the new rules set in and student athletes could start signing endorsements using their name, image and likeness. "The NCAA has asked Congress for help in creating a federal NIL law. While several federal options have been proposed, it's becoming increasingly likely that state laws will start to go into effect before a nationwide change is made. There are 28 states with NIL laws already in place and multiple others that are actively pursuing legislation" (Murphy 2021). Charlie Baker called for a ban on all college football betting (and betting on college sports in general) because of prop bets for student athletes. With past scandals and threats to college athletes, Baker requested states with sports betting to adjust their regulations to remove these bet types. While some were quick to do so (including Louisiana, Colorado, Ohio), others rejected the notion and continued to offer sports betting the same way.College football outside the United States Canadian football, which parallels American football, is played by university teams in Canada under the auspices of U Sports. (Unlike in the United States, no junior colleges play football in Canada, and the sanctioning body for junior college athletics in Canada, CCAA, does not sanction the sport.) However, amateur football outside of colleges is played in Canada, such as in the Canadian Junior Football League. Organized competition in American football also exists at the collegiate level in Mexico (ONEFA), the UK (British Universities American Football League), Japan (Japan American Football Association, Koshien Bowl), and South Korea (Korea American Football Association). Injuries According to 2017 study on brains of deceased gridiron football players, 99% of tested brains of NFL players, 88% of CFL players, 64% of semi-professional players, 91% of college football players, and 21% of high school football players had various stages of CTE. The study noted it has limitations due to "selection bias" in that the brains donated are from families who suspected CTE, but "The fact that we were able to gather so many instances of a disease that was previously considered quite rare, in eight years, speaks volumes."AwardsDivision I FBS * Heisman Trophy * Maxwell Award * Walter Camp Award * Outland Trophy * Associated Press Player of the Year * Johnny Rodgers Award * Fred Biletnikoff Award * Lou Groza Award * Lombardi Award * Bronko Nagurski Trophy * Dick Butkus Award * Jim Thorpe Award * Doak Walker Award * Campbell Trophy * Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award * Home Depot Award * Ray Guy Award * John Mackey Award * Burlsworth Trophy * Jet Award * Paul Hornung Award * Jon Cornish Trophy * Patrick Mannelly Award Division I FCS * Walter Payton Award * Buck Buchanan Award * Jerry Rice Award See also * Concussions in American football * College athletics in the United States * College athletics College rugby College basketball College baseball College ice hockey College soccer College lacrosse * Helmet stickers * Homosexuality in American football * List of nicknamed college football games and plays * List of sports attendance figures * Sports injury References Sources * * * Further reading * "The Invention Of Football". Current Events, 00113492, November 14, 2011, Vol. 111, Issue 8 * Anderson, Christian K., and Amber C. Fallucca, eds. The history of American college football: institutional policy, culture, and reform (Routledge, 2021) [https://books.google.com/books?idy74lEAAAQBAJ&dqfootball&pg=PT8 online]. * Chiles, Marvin T. "Gideon Edward Smith: The Player and Coach Who Gave Meaning to Black College Football, 1892–1942". Journal of African American Studies (2023): 1–19. * De Oca, Jeffrey Montez. Discipline and indulgence: College football, media, and the American way of life during the cold war (Rutgers University Press, 2013) [https://books.google.com/books?idCboKAQAAQBAJ&dqfootball&pg=PR7 online]. * Harrison, Emily A. "The first concussion crisis: head injury and evidence in early American football". American journal of public health 104.5 (2014): 822–833. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3987576/ online] * Hobson, J. Hardin. "Football Culture at New South Universities: Lost Cause and Old South Memory, Modernity, and Martial Manhood". in The History of American College Football ed Christian K. Anderson, and Amber C. Fallucca, (Routledge, 2021) pp. 37–63. * Hunter, Bob. Saint Woody: The History and Fanaticism of Ohio State Football (U of Nebraska Press, 2022); on Woody Hayes * Ingrassia, Brian M. ''The Rise of Gridiron University: Higher Education's Uneasy Alliance with Big-Time Football. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas, 2012. * McGregor, Andrew. "The Anti-Intellectual Coach: The Cultural Politics of College Football Coaching from the New Left to the Present". Journal of Sport and Social Issues (2022): 01937235221098915. * Nite, Calvin, and Marvin Washington. "Institutional adaptation to technological innovation: Lessons from the NCAA’s regulation of football television broadcasts (1938–1984)". Journal of Sport Management 31.6 (2017): 575–590. * Rowley, Christopher. The Shared Origins of Football, Rugby, and Soccer (Rowman & Littlefield, 2015) [Rowley, Christopher. The Shared Origins of Football, Rugby, and Soccer. Rowman & Littlefield, 2015. online]. * Smith, Ronald A. "American football becomes the dominant intercollegiate national pastime". International Journal of the History of Sport 31.1–2 (2014): 109–119. [https://doi.org/10.1080/09523367.2013.861420 online] * Tutka, Patrick, and Chad Seifried. "An Innovation Diffusion Ideal-type on the History of American College Football Stadia". Journal of Issues in Intercollegiate Athletics'' (2020). [http://csri-jiia.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/RA_2020_15.pdf online] * VanOverbeke, Marc A. " 'Out of the Quietness, a Clamor: "We Want Football!"’ The California State Colleges, Educational Opportunity, and Athletics". History of Education Quarterly 53.4 (2013): 430–454. [http://jvlone.com/sportsdocs/CalStateCollegesFootball2014.pdf online] * Watterson, John Sayle. College football: History, spectacle, controversy (JHU Press, 2000) online in project MUSE. * White, Derrick E. Blood, sweat, and tears: Jake Gaither, Florida A&M, and the history of black college football (UNC Press Books, 2019). External links * College football at [https://www.ncaa.com/sports/football/fbs NCAA], [https://www.naia.org/sports/fball/index NAIA], [https://www.cccaasports.org/sports/fball/index CCCAA], [https://thenccaa.org/sports/football NCCAA], [https://www.njcaa.org/sports/fball/index NJCAA], [https://www.theuscaa.com/sports/fball/index USCAA] Statistics * [https://www.sports-reference.com/cfb/ College Football] at Sports-Reference.com * [http://football.stassen.com/ Stassen College Football], comprehensive college football database * [https://web.archive.org/web/20121108223720/http://www.cfbdatawarehouse.com/index.php College Football Data Warehouse] Rules * [http://www.ncaapublications.com/productdownloads/FR12.pdf NCAA Football 2011 and 2012 Rules and Interpretations]	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_football	2025-04-05T18:27:57.260802
6773	Ciprofloxacin	\| MedlinePlus = a688016 \| DailyMedID = Ciprofloxacin \| pregnancy_AU = B3 \| pregnancy_AU_comment \| pregnancy_category \| routes_of_administration By mouth, intravenous, topical (ear drops, eye drops) \| class = Fluoroquinolone \| ATCvet \| ATC_prefix J01 \| ATC_suffix = MA02 \| ATC_supplemental = <!-- Legal status --> \| legal_AU = S4 \| legal_AU_comment \| legal_BR <!-- OTC, A1, A2, A3, B1, B2, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, D1, D2, E, F --> \| legal_BR_comment \| legal_CA Rx-only \| legal_CA_comment \| legal_DE <!-- Anlage I, II, III or Unscheduled --> \| legal_DE_comment \| legal_NZ <!-- Class A, B, C --> \| legal_NZ_comment \| legal_UK POM \| legal_UK_comment \| legal_US Rx-only \| legal_US_comment \| legal_EU \| legal_EU_comment \| legal_UN = <!-- N I, II, III, IV / P I, II, III, IV--> \| legal_UN_comment \| legal_status <!-- For countries not listed above --> <!-- Pharmacokinetic data --> \| bioavailability 70% \| protein_bound 30% This includes bone and joint infections, intra-abdominal infections, certain types of infectious diarrhea, respiratory tract infections, skin infections, typhoid fever, and urinary tract infections, among others. <!-- Side effects and mechanism--> Common side effects include nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Studies in other animals raise concerns regarding use in pregnancy. It appears to be safe during breastfeeding. <!-- History, society and culture --> Ciprofloxacin was patented in 1980 and introduced by Bayer in 1987. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. The World Health Organization classifies ciprofloxacin as critically important for human medicine. It is available as a generic medication. In 2022, it was the 181st most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 2million prescriptions.Medical usesCiprofloxacin is used to treat a wide variety of infections, including infections of bones and joints, endocarditis, bacterial gastroenteritis, malignant otitis externa, bubonic plague, respiratory tract infections, cellulitis, urinary tract infections, prostatitis, anthrax, and chancroid. It also features prominently in treatment guidelines for acute pyelonephritis, complicated or hospital-acquired urinary tract infection, acute or chronic prostatitis, certain types of endocarditis, certain skin infections, and prosthetic joint infections. In other cases, treatment guidelines are more restrictive, recommending in most cases that older, narrower-spectrum drugs be used as first-line therapy for less severe infections to minimize fluoroquinolone-resistance development. For example, the Infectious Diseases Society of America recommends the use of ciprofloxacin and other fluoroquinolones in urinary tract infections be reserved to cases of proven or expected resistance to narrower-spectrum drugs such as nitrofurantoin or trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole. The European Association of Urology recommends ciprofloxacin as an alternative regimen for the treatment of uncomplicated urinary tract infections, but cautions that the potential for "adverse events have to be considered". "Respiratory quinolones" such as levofloxacin, having greater activity against this pathogen, are recommended as first line agents for the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia in patients with important co-morbidities and in patients requiring hospitalization (Infectious Diseases Society of America 2007). Similarly, ciprofloxacin is not recommended as a first-line treatment for acute sinusitis. Ciprofloxacin is approved for the treatment of gonorrhea in many countries, but this recommendation is widely regarded as obsolete due to resistance development. Pregnancy An expert review of published data on experiences with ciprofloxacin use during pregnancy concluded therapeutic doses during pregnancy are unlikely to pose a substantial teratogenic risk (quantity and quality of datafair), but the data is insufficient to state that no risks exist. Exposure to quinolones, including levofloxacin, during the first-trimester is not associated with an increased risk of stillbirths, premature births, birth defects, or low birth weight. Two small post-marketing epidemiology studies of mostly short-term, first-trimester exposure found that fluoroquinolones did not increase risk of major malformations, spontaneous abortions, premature birth, or low birth weight.BreastfeedingFluoroquinolones have been reported as present in a mother's milk and thus passed on to the nursing child.Children Oral and intravenous ciprofloxacin are approved by the FDA for use in children for only two indications due to the risk of permanent injury to the musculoskeletal system: # Inhalational anthrax (postexposure) # Complicated urinary tract infections and pyelonephritis due to Escherichia coli, but never as first-line agents. Spectrum of activity Its spectrum of activity includes most strains of bacterial pathogens responsible for community-acquired pneumonias, bronchitis, urinary tract infections, and gastroenteritis. Ciprofloxacin is particularly effective against Gram-negative bacteria (such as Escherichia coli, Haemophilus influenzae, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Legionella pneumophila, Moraxella catarrhalis, Proteus mirabilis, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa), but is less effective against Gram-positive bacteria (such as methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Enterococcus faecalis) than newer fluoroquinolones.Bacterial resistance As a result of its widespread use to treat minor infections readily treatable with older, narrower-spectrum antibiotics, many bacteria have developed resistance to this drug, leaving it significantly less effective than it would have been otherwise. Resistance to ciprofloxacin and other fluoroquinolones may evolve rapidly, even during a course of treatment. Numerous pathogens, including enterococci, Streptococcus pyogenes, and Klebsiella pneumoniae (quinolone-resistant) now exhibit resistance. Widespread veterinary usage of fluoroquinolones, particularly in Europe, has been implicated. Meanwhile, some Burkholderia cepacia, Clostridium innocuum, and Enterococcus faecium strains have developed resistance to ciprofloxacin to varying degrees. Fluoroquinolones had become the class of antibiotics most commonly prescribed to adults in 2002. Nearly half (42%) of those prescriptions in the US were for conditions not approved by the FDA, such as acute bronchitis, otitis media, and acute upper respiratory tract infection. Ciprofloxacin is also considered to be contraindicated in children (except for the indications outlined above), in pregnancy, to nursing mothers, and in people with epilepsy or other seizure disorders. Caution may be required in people with Marfan syndrome or Ehlers–Danlos syndrome.Adverse effectsAdverse effects can involve the tendons, muscles, joints, nerves, and the central nervous system. Rates of adverse effects appear to be higher than with some groups of antibiotics such as cephalosporins but lower than with others such as clindamycin. while others find no difference. In clinical trials most of the adverse events were described as mild or moderate in severity, abated soon after the drug was discontinued, and required no treatment. Tendon problems Ciprofloxacin includes a boxed warning in the United States due to an increased risk of tendinitis and tendon rupture, especially in people who are older than 60 years, people who also use corticosteroids, and people with kidney, lung, or heart transplants. Tendon rupture can occur during therapy or even months after discontinuation of the medication. One study found that fluoroquinolone use was associated with a 1.9-fold increase in tendon problems. The risk increased to 3.2 in those over 60 years of age and to 6.2 in those over the age of 60 who were also taking corticosteroids. Among the 46,766 quinolone users in the study, 38 (0.08%) cases of Achilles tendon rupture were identified.Cardiac arrhythmiaThe fluoroquinolones, including ciprofloxacin, are associated with an increased risk of cardiac toxicity, including QT interval prolongation, torsades de pointes, ventricular arrhythmia, and sudden death. The 2013 FDA label warns of nervous system effects. Ciprofloxacin, like other fluoroquinolones, is known to trigger seizures or lower the seizure threshold, and may cause other central nervous system adverse effects. Headache, dizziness, and insomnia have been reported as occurring fairly commonly in postapproval review articles, along with a much lower incidence of serious CNS adverse effects such as tremors, psychosis, anxiety, hallucinations, paranoia, and suicide attempts, especially at higher doses. Fluoroquinolones have already been reported for movement disorders. A wide range of rare but potentially fatal adverse effects reported to the US FDA or the subject of case reports includes aortic dissection, toxic epidermal necrolysis, Stevens–Johnson syndrome, low blood pressure, allergic pneumonitis, bone marrow suppression, hepatitis or liver failure, and sensitivity to light. The medication should be discontinued if a rash, jaundice, or other sign of hypersensitivity occurs. Overdose Overdose of ciprofloxacin may result in reversible renal toxicity. Treatment of overdose includes emptying of the stomach by induced vomiting or gastric lavage, as well as administration of antacids containing magnesium, aluminium, or calcium to reduce drug absorption. Renal function and urinary pH should be monitored. Important support includes adequate hydration and urine acidification if necessary to prevent crystalluria. Hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis can only remove less than 10% of ciprofloxacin. Ciprofloxacin may be quantified in plasma or serum to monitor for drug accumulation in patients with hepatic dysfunction or to confirm a diagnosis of poisoning in acute overdose victims. Interactions Ciprofloxacin interacts with certain foods and several other drugs leading to undesirable increases or decreases in the serum levels or distribution of one or both drugs. Ciprofloxacin should not be taken with antacids containing magnesium or aluminum, highly buffered drugs (sevelamer, lanthanum carbonate, sucralfate, didanosine), or with supplements containing calcium, iron, or zinc. It should be taken two hours before or six hours after these products. Magnesium or aluminum antacids turn ciprofloxacin into insoluble salts that are not readily absorbed by the intestinal tract, reducing peak serum concentrations by 90% or more, leading to therapeutic failure. Additionally, it should not be taken with dairy products or calcium-fortified juices alone, as peak serum concentration and the area under the serum concentration-time curve can be reduced up to 40%. However, ciprofloxacin may be taken with dairy products or calcium-fortified juices as part of a meal. Ciprofloxacin inhibits the drug-metabolizing enzyme CYP1A2 and thereby can reduce the clearance of drugs metabolized by that enzyme. CYP1A2 substrates that exhibit increased serum levels in ciprofloxacin-treated patients include tizanidine, theophylline, caffeine, methylxanthines, clozapine, olanzapine, and ropinirole. Co-administration of ciprofloxacin with the CYP1A2 substrate tizanidine (Zanaflex) is contraindicated due to a 583% increase in the peak serum concentrations of tizanidine when administered with ciprofloxacin as compared to administration of tizanidine alone. Use of ciprofloxacin is cautioned in patients on theophylline due to its narrow therapeutic index. The authors of one review recommended that patients being treated with ciprofloxacin reduce their caffeine intake. Evidence for significant interactions with several other CYP1A2 substrates such as cyclosporine is equivocal or conflicting. The Committee on Safety of Medicines and the FDA warn that central nervous system adverse effects, including seizure risk, may be increased when NSAIDs are combined with quinolones. The mechanism for this interaction may involve a synergistic increased antagonism of GABA neurotransmission. Altered serum levels of the antiepileptic drugs phenytoin and carbamazepine (increased and decreased) have been reported in patients receiving concomitant ciprofloxacin. Ciprofloxacin is a potent inhibitor of CYP1A2, CYP2D6, and CYP3A4.Mechanism of actionCiprofloxacin is a broad-spectrum antibiotic of the fluoroquinolone class. It is active against some Gram-positive and many Gram-negative bacteria. It functions by inhibiting a type II topoisomerase (DNA gyrase) and topoisomerase IV, necessary to separate bacterial DNA, thereby inhibiting cell division. Bacterial DNA fragmentation will occur as a result of inhibition of the enzymes. Pharmacokinetics Ciprofloxacin for systemic administration is available as immediate-release tablets, extended-release tablets, an oral suspension, and as a solution for intravenous administration. When administered over one hour as an intravenous infusion, allow once-daily administration by releasing the drug more slowly in the gastrointestinal tract. These tablets contain 35% of the administered dose in an immediate-release form and 65% in a slow-release matrix. Maximum serum concentrations are achieved between 1 and 4 hours after administration. Compared to the 250- and 500-mg immediate-release tablets, the 500-mg and 1000-mg XR tablets provide higher C<sub>max</sub>, but the 24‑hour AUCs are equivalent. Ciprofloxacin immediate-release tablets contain ciprofloxacin as the hydrochloride salt, and the XR tablets contain a mixture of the hydrochloride salt and the free base. In 2010, over 20 million prescriptions were written, making it the 35th-most-commonly prescribed generic drug and the 5th-most-commonly prescribed antibacterial in the US. History The first members of the quinolone antibacterial class were relatively low-potency drugs such as nalidixic acid, used mainly in the treatment of urinary tract infections owing to their renal excretion and propensity to be concentrated in urine. In 1979, the publication of a patent filed by the pharmaceutical arm of Kyorin Seiyaku Kabushiki Kaisha disclosed the discovery of norfloxacin, and the demonstration that certain structural modifications including the attachment of a fluorine atom to the quinolone ring leads to dramatically enhanced antibacterial potency. In the aftermath of this disclosure, several other pharmaceutical companies initiated research and development programs with the goal of discovering additional antibacterial agents of the fluoroquinolone class. The fluoroquinolone program at Bayer focused on examining the effects of very minor changes to the norfloxacin structure. In 1983, the company published in vitro potency data for ciprofloxacin, a fluoroquinolone antibacterial having a chemical structure differing from that of norfloxacin by the presence of a single carbon atom. This small change led to a two- to 10-fold increase in potency against most strains of Gram-negative bacteria. Importantly, this structural change led to a four-fold improvement in activity against the important Gram-negative pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa, making ciprofloxacin one of the most potent known drugs for the treatment of this intrinsically antibiotic-resistant pathogen. The oral tablet form of ciprofloxacin was approved in October 1987, just one year after the approval of norfloxacin. In 1991, the intravenous formulation was introduced. Ciprofloxacin sales reached a peak of about 2 billion euros in 2001, before Bayer's patent expired in 2004, after which annual sales have averaged around €200 million. The name probably originates from the International Scientific Nomenclature: ci- (alteration of cycl-) + propyl + fluor- + ox- + az- + -mycin. Society and culture Economics It is available as a generic medication and not very expensive. in effect upholding Bayer's agreement with its competitors.Available formsCiprofloxacin for systemic administration is available as immediate-release tablets, as extended-release tablets, as an oral suspension, and as a solution for intravenous infusion. It is available for local administration as eye drops and ear drops. It is available in combination with dexamethasone, with celecoxib, with hydrocortisone, and with fluocinolone acetonide.LitigationA class action was filed against Bayer AG on behalf of employees of the Brentwood Post Office in Washington, D.C., and workers at the U.S. Capitol, along with employees of American Media, Inc. in Florida and postal workers in general who alleged they developed serious adverse effects from taking ciprofloxacin in the aftermath of the anthrax attacks in 2001. The action alleged Bayer failed to warn class members of the potential side effects of the drug, thereby violating the Pennsylvania Unfair Trade Practices and Consumer Protection Laws. The class action was defeated and the litigation abandoned by the plaintiffs. A similar action was filed in 2003 in New Jersey by four New Jersey postal workers but was withdrawn for lack of grounds, as workers had been informed of the risks of ciprofloxacin when they were given the option of taking the drug. Research As resistance to ciprofloxacin has grown since its introduction, research has been conducted to discover and develop analogs that can be effective against resistant bacteria; some have been looked at in antiviral models as well. References External links * Category:1,4-di-hydro-7-(1-piperazinyl)-4-oxo-3-quinolinecarboxylic acids Category:Drugs developed by Bayer Category:Cyclopropyl compounds Category:CYP1A2 inhibitors Category:CYP3A4 inhibitors Category:Dermatoxins Category:Fluoroquinolone antibiotics Category:GABAA receptor negative allosteric modulators Category:Nephrotoxins Category:Drugs developed by Novartis Category:Ophthalmology drugs Category:Otologicals Category:World Health Organization essential medicines Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate Category:1-Piperazinyl compounds	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciprofloxacin	2025-04-05T18:27:57.295083
6774	Consubstantiation	Consubstantiation is a Christian theological doctrine that (like transubstantiation) describes the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. It holds that during the sacrament, the substance of the body and blood of Christ are present alongside the substance of the bread and wine, which remain present. It was part of the doctrines of Lollardy, It was later championed by Edward Pusey of the Oxford Movement, and is therefore held by many high church Anglicans,DevelopmentIn England in the late 14th century, there was a political and religious movement known as Lollardy. Among much broader goals, the Lollards affirmed a form of consubstantiation—that the Eucharist remained physically bread and wine, while becoming spiritually the body and blood of Christ. Lollardy survived up until the time of the English Reformation. Whilst ultimately rejected by him on account of the authority of the Church of Rome, William of Ockham entertains a version of consubstantiation in his Fourth Quodlibet, Question 30, where he claims that "the substance of the bread and the substance of the wine remain there and that the substance of the body of Christ remains in the same place, together with the substance of the bread". Literary critic Kenneth Burke's dramatism takes this concept and utilizes it in secular rhetorical theory to look at the dialectic of unity and difference within the context of logology. The doctrine of consubstantiation is often held in contrast to the doctrine of transubstantiation. To explain the manner of Christ's presence in Holy Communion, many high church Anglicans teach the philosophical explanation of consubstantiation. A major leader in the Anglo-Catholic Oxford Movement, Edward Pusey, championed the view of consubstantiation. Pusey's view is that:}} The Irvingian Churches adhere to the doctrine of consubstantiation; for example, The Catechism of the New Apostolic Church states: Lutheran theologians reject the term because it refers to a philosophical construct that they believe differs from the Lutheran doctrine of the sacramental union, denotes a mixing of substances (bread and wine with body and blood), and suggests a "gross, Capernaitic, carnal" presence of the body and blood of Christ.See also Eucharistic theology Impanation Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist Transignification References Category:Lutheran Eucharistic theology Category:Eucharist Category:Christian terminology	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consubstantiation	2025-04-05T18:27:57.304946
6775	Chlorophyta	}} \| image = Haeckel Siphoneae.jpg \| image_caption = "Siphoneae" from Ernst Haeckel's Kunstformen der Natur, 1904 \| display_parents = 5 \| taxon = Chlorophyta \| authority Reichenbach, 1828, emend. Pascher, 1914, emend. Lewis & McCourt, 2004 \| subdivision_ranks = Classes \| subdivision_ref = \| subdivision = * Chloropicophyceae * Chuariophyceae * Mamiellophyceae * Nephroselmidophyceae * Picocystophyceae * Pyramimonadophyceae * Chlorophytina Chlorodendrophyceae Pedinophyceae Ulvophyceae Trebouxiophyceae ** Chlorophyceae \| synonyms = * Chlorophycophyta * Chlorophycota * Chlorophytina * Chlorophyllophyceae * Isokontae * Stephanokontae \| diversity 7,934 species (6,851 living, 1,083 fossil) }} Chlorophyta () is a division of green algae informally called chlorophytes. Description Chlorophytes are eukaryotic organisms composed of cells with a variety of coverings or walls, and usually a single green chloroplast in each cell. They are structurally diverse: most groups of chlorophytes are unicellular, such as the earliest-diverging prasinophytes, but in two major classes (Chlorophyceae and Ulvophyceae) there is an evolutionary trend toward various types of complex colonies and even multicellularity. Chloroplasts Chlorophyte cells contain green chloroplasts surrounded by a double-membrane envelope. These contain chlorophylls a and b, and the carotenoids carotin, lutein, zeaxanthin, antheraxanthin, violaxanthin, and neoxanthin, which are also present in the leaves of land plants. Some special carotenoids are present in certain groups, or are synthesized under specific environmental factors, such as siphonaxanthin, prasinoxanthin, echinenon, canthaxanthin, loroxanthin, and astaxanthin. They accumulate carotenoids under nitrogen deficiency, high irradiance of sunlight, or high salinity. In addition, they store starch inside the chloroplast as carbohydrate reserves. The thylakoids can appear single or in stacks. In contrast to other divisions of algae such as Ochrophyta, chlorophytes lack a chloroplast endoplasmic reticulum. Flagellar apparatus Chlorophytes often form flagellate cells that generally have two or four flagella of equal length, although in prasinophytes heteromorphic (i.e. differently shaped) flagella are common because different stages of flagellar maturation are displayed in the same cell. Flagella have been independently lost in some groups, such as the Chlorococcales. Flagellate chlorophyte cells have symmetrical cross-shaped ('cruciate') root systems, in which ciliary rootlets with a variable high number of microtubules alternate with rootlets composed of just two microtubules; this forms an arrangement known as the "X-2-X-2" arrangement, unique to chlorophytes. They are also distinguished from streptophytes by the place where their flagella are inserted: directly at the cell apex, whereas streptophyte flagella are inserted at the sides of the cell apex (sub-apically). Below the flagellar apparatus of prasinophytes are rhizoplasts, contractile muscle-like structures that sometimes connect with the chloroplast or the cell membrane. In core chlorophytes, this structure connects directly with the surface of the nucleus. The surface of flagella lacks microtubular hairs, but some genera present scales or fibrillar hairs. The earliest-branching groups have flagella often covered in at least one layer of scales, if not naked. Metabolism Chlorophytes and streptophytes differ in the enzymes and organelles involved in photorespiration. Chlorophyte algae use a dehydrogenase inside the mitochondria to process glycolate during photorespiration. In contrast, streptophytes (including land plants) use peroxisomes that contain glycolate oxidase, which converts glycolate to glycoxylate, and the hydrogen peroxide created as a subproduct is reduced by catalases located in the same organelles. Reproduction and life cycle Asexual reproduction is widely observed in chlorophytes. Among core chlorophytes, both unicellular groups can reproduce asexually through autospores, wall-less zoospores, fragmentation, plain cell division, and exceptionally budding. Multicellular thalli can reproduce asexually through motile zoospores, non-motile aplanospores, autospores, filament fragmentation, differentiated resting cells, and even unmated gametes. Colonial groups can reproduce asexually through the formation of autocolonies, where each cell divides to form a colony with the same number and arrangement of cells as the parent colony. Many chlorophytes exclusively conduct asexual reproduction, but some display sexual reproduction, which may be isogamous (i.e., gametes of both sexes are identical), anisogamous (gametes are different) or oogamous (gametes are sperm and egg cells), with an evolutionary tendency towards oogamy. Their gametes are usually specialized cells differentiated from vegetative cells, although in unicellular Volvocales the vegetative cells can function simultaneously as gametes. Most chlorophytes have a diplontic life cycle (also known as zygotic), where the gametes fuse into a zygote which germinates, grows and eventually undergoes meiosis to produce haploid spores (gametes), similarly to ochrophytes and animals. Some exceptions display a haplodiplontic life cycle, where there is an alternation of generations, similarly to land plants. These generations can be isomorphic (i.e., of similar shape and size) or heteromorphic. The formation of reproductive cells usually does not occur in specialized cells, but some Ulvophyceae have specialized reproductive structures: gametangia, to produce gametes, and sporangia, to produce spores. The earliest-diverging unicellular chlorophytes (prasinophytes) produce walled resistant stages called cysts or 'phycoma' stages before reproduction; in some groups the cysts are as large as 230 μm in diameter. To develop them, the flagellate cells form an inner wall by discharging mucilage vesicles to the outside, increase the level of lipids in the cytoplasm to enhance buoyancy, and finally develop an outer wall. Inside the cysts, the nucleus and cytoplasm undergo division into numerous flagellate cells that are released by rupturing the wall. In some species these daughter cells have been confirmed to be gametes; otherwise, sexual reproduction is unknown in prasinophytes. Ecology Free-living in Taiwan]] Chlorophytes are an important portion of the phytoplankton in both freshwater and marine habitats, fixating more than a billion tons of carbon every year. They also live as multicellular macroalgae, or seaweeds, settled along rocky ocean shores. Most species of Chlorophyta are aquatic, prevalent in both marine and freshwater environments. About 90% of all known species live in freshwater. Some species have adapted to a wide range of terrestrial environments. For example, Chlamydomonas nivalis lives on summer alpine snowfields, and Trentepohlia species, live attached to rocks or woody parts of trees. Several species have adapted to specialised and extreme environments, such as deserts, arctic environments, hypersaline habitats, marine deep waters, deep-sea hydrothermal vents and habitats that experience extreme changes in temperature, light and salinity. Some groups, such as the Trentepohliales, are exclusively found on land. Symbionts Several species of Chlorophyta live in symbiosis with a diverse range of eukaryotes, including fungi (to form lichens), ciliates, forams, cnidarians and molluscs. Some species of Chlorophyta are heterotrophic, either free-living or parasitic. Others are mixotrophic bacterivores through phagocytosis. Two common species of the heterotrophic green alga Prototheca are pathogenic and can cause the disease protothecosis in humans and animals. With the exception of the three classes Ulvophyceae, Trebouxiophyceae and Chlorophyceae in the UTC clade, which show various degrees of multicellularity, all the Chlorophyta lineages are unicellular. Some members of the group form symbiotic relationships with protozoa, sponges, and cnidarians. Others form symbiotic relationships with fungi to form lichens, but the majority of species are free-living. All members of the clade have motile flagellated swimming cells. Monostroma kuroshiense, an edible green alga cultivated worldwide and most expensive among green algae, belongs to this group. Systematics Taxonomic history The first mention of Chlorophyta belongs to German botanist Heinrich Gottlieb Ludwig Reichenbach in his 1828 work Conspectus regni vegetabilis. Under this name, he grouped all algae, mosses ('musci') and ferns ('filices'), as well as some seed plants (Zamia and Cycas). This usage did not gain popularity. In 1914, Bohemian botanist Adolf Pascher modified the name to encompass exclusively green algae, that is, algae which contain chlorophylls a and b and store starch in their chloroplasts. Pascher established a scheme where Chlorophyta was composed of two groups: Chlorophyceae, which included algae now known as Chlorophyta, and Conjugatae, which are now known as Zygnematales and belong to the Streptophyta clade from which land plants evolved. During the 20th century, many different classification schemes for the Chlorophyta arose. The Smith system, published in 1938 by American botanist Gilbert Morgan Smith, distinguished two classes: Chlorophyceae, which contained all green algae (unicellular and multicellular) that did not grow through an apical cell; and Charophyceae, which contained only multicellular green algae that grew via an apical cell and had special sterile envelopes to protect the sex organs. With the advent of electron microscopy studies, botanists published various classification proposals based on finer cellular structures and phenomena, such as mitosis, cytokinesis, cytoskeleton, flagella and cell wall polysaccharides. British botanist proposed in 1971 a scheme which distinguishes Chlorophyta from other green algal divisions Charophyta, Prasinophyta and Euglenophyta. He included four classes of chlorophytes: Zygnemaphyceae, Oedogoniophyceae, Chlorophyceae and Bryopsidophyceae. Other proposals retained the Chlorophyta as containing all green algae, and varied from one another in the number of classes. For example, the 1984 proposal by Mattox & Stewart included five classes, while the 1985 proposal by Bold & Wynne included only two, and the 1995 proposal by Christiaan van den Hoek and coauthors included up to eleven classes. The modern usage of the name 'Chlorophyta' was established in 2004, when phycologists Lewis & McCourt firmly separated the chlorophytes from the streptophytes on the basis of molecular phylogenetics. All green algae that were more closely related to land plants than to chlorophytes were grouped as a paraphyletic division Charophyta. Within the green algae, the earliest-branching lineages were grouped under the informal name of "prasinophytes", and they were all believed to belong to the Chlorophyta clade. However, in 2020 a study recovered a new clade and division known as Prasinodermophyta, which contains two prasinophyte lineages previously considered chlorophytes. Below is a cladogram representing the current state of green algal classification: }} \|2= \|2= }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} \|label2Streptophyta\|2 \|2= }} }} }} }} }} }} \|grouplabel1= }} Classification (Ulvophyceae) \| header = }} Currently eleven chlorophyte classes are accepted, here presented in alphabetical order with some of their characteristics and biodiversity: * Chlorodendrophyceae (60 species, 15 extinct): unicellular flagellates (monadoids) surrounded by an outer cell covering or theca of organic extracellular scales composed of proteins and ketosugars. Some of these scales make up hair-like structures. Capable of asexual reproduction through cell division inside the theca. No sexual reproduction has been described. Each cell contains a single chloroplast and exhibits two flagella. Present in marine and freshwater habitats. * Chlorophyceae (3,974 species): either unicellular monadoids (flagellated) or coccoids (without flagella) living solitary or in varied colonial forms (including coenobial), or multicellular filamentous (branch-like) thalli that may be ramified, or foliose (leaf-like) thalli. Cells are surrounded by a crystalline covering composed of glycoproteins abundant in glycine and hydroxyproline, as well as pectins, arabinogalactan proteins, and extensin. They exhibit a haplontic life cycle with isogamy, anisogamy or oogamy. They are capable of asexual reproduction through flagellated zoospores, aplanospores, or autospores. Each cell contains a single chloroplast, a variable number of pyrenoids (including lack thereof), and from one to hundreds of flagella without mastigonemes. Present in marine, freshwater and terrestrial habitats. * Chloropicophyceae (8 species): unicellular solitary coccoids. Cells are surrounded by a multi-layered cell wall. No sexual or asexual reproduction has been described. Each cell contains a single chloroplast with astaxanthin and loroxanthin, and lacks pyrenoids or flagella. They are exclusively marine. * Chuariophyceae (3 extinct species): exclusively fossil group containing carbonaceous megafossils found in Ediacaran rocks, such as Tawuia. * Mamiellophyceae (25 species): unicellular solitary monadoids. Cells are naked or covered by one or two layers of flat scales, mainly with spiderweb-like or reticulate ornamentation. Each cell contains one or rarely two chloroplasts, almost always with prasinoxanthin; two equal or unequal flagella, or just one flagellum, or lacking any flagella. If flagella are present, they can be either smooth or covered in scales in the same manner as the cells. Present in marine and freshwater habitats. * Nephroselmidophyceae (29 species): unicellular monadoids. Cells are covered by scales. They are capable of sexual reproduction through hologamy (fusion of entire cells), and of asexual reproduction through binary fission. Each cell contains a single cloroplast, a pyrenoid, and two flagella covered by scales. Present in marine and freshwater habitats. * Pedinophyceae (24 species): unicellular asymmetrical monadoids that undergo a coccoid palmelloid phase covered by mucilage. Cells lack extracellular scales, but in rare cases are covered on the posterior side by a theca. Each cell contains a single chloroplast, a pyrenoid, and a single flagellum usually covered in mastigonemes. Present in marine, freshwater and terrestrial habitats. * Picocystophyceae (1 species): unicellular coccoids, ovoid and trilobed in shape. Cells are surrounded by a multi-layered cell wall of poly-arabinose, mannose, galactose and glucose. No sexual reproduction has been described. They are capable of asexual reproduction through autosporulation, resulting in two or rarely four daughter cells. Each cell contains a single bilobed chloroplast with diatoxanthin and monadoxanthin, without any pyrenoid or flagella. Present in saline lakes. * Pyramimonadophyceae (166 species, 59 extinct): unicellular monadoids or coccoids. Cells are covered by two or more layers of organic scales. No sexual reproduction has been described, but some cells with only one flagellum have been interpreted as potential gametes. Asexual reproduction has only been observed in the coccoid forms, via zoospores. Each cell contains a single chloroplast, a pyrenoid, and between 4 and 16 flagella. The flagella are covered in at least two layers of organic scales: a bottom layer of pentagonal scales organized in 24 rows, and a top layer of limuloid scales distributed in 11 rows. They are exclusively marine. * Trebouxiophyceae (926 species, 1 extinct): unicellular monadoids occasionally without flagella, or colonial, or ramified filamentous thalli, or living as the photobionts of lichen. Cells are covered by a cell wall of cellulose, algaenans, and β-galactofuranane. No sexual reproduction has been described with the exception of some observations of gamete fusion and presence of meiotic genes. They are capable of asexual reproduction through autospores or zoospores. Each cell contains a single chloroplast, a pyrenoid, and one or two pairs of smooth flagella. They are present in marine, freshwater and terrestrial habitats. * Ulvophyceae (2,695 species, 990 extinct): macroscopic thalli, either filamentous (which may be ramified) or foliose (composed of monostromatic or distromatic layers) or even compact tubular forms, generally multinucleate. Cells surrounded by a cell wall that may be calcified, composed of cellulose, β-manane, β-xilane, sulphated or piruvilated polysaccharides or sulphated ramnogalacturonanes, arabinogalactan proteins, and extensin. They exhibit a haplodiplontic life cycle where the alternating generations can be isomorphic or heteromorphic. They reproduce asexually via zoospores that may be covered in scales. Each cell contains a single chloroplast, and one or two pairs of flagella without mastigonemes but covered in scales. They are present in marine, freshwater and terrestrial habitats. Evolution In February 2020, the fossilized remains of a green alga, named Proterocladus antiquus were discovered in the northern province of Liaoning, China. At around a billion years old, it is believed to be one of the oldest examples of a multicellular chlorophyte. It is currently classified as a member of order Siphonocladales, class Ulvophyceae. In 2023, a study calculated the molecular age of green algae as calibrated by this fossil. The study estimated the origin of Chlorophyta within the Mesoproterozoic era, at around 2.04–1.23 billion years ago. Usage Model organisms Among chlorophytes, a small group known as the volvocine green algae is being researched to understand the origins of cell differentiation and multicellularity. In particular, the unicellular flagellate Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and the colonial organism Volvox carteri are object of interest due to sharing homologous genes that in Volvox are directly involved in the development of two different cell types with full division of labor between swimming and reproduction, whereas in Chlamydomonas only one cell type exists that can function as a gamete. Other volvocine species, with intermediate characters between these two, are studied to further understand the transition towards the cellular division of labor, namely Gonium pectorale, Pandorina morum, Eudorina elegans and Pleodorina starrii. Industrial uses Chlorophyte microalgae are a valuable source of biofuel and various chemicals and products in industrial amounts, such as carotenoids, vitamins and unsaturated fatty acids. The genus Botryococcus is an efficient producer of hydrocarbons, which are converted into biodiesel. Various genera (Chlorella, Scenedesmus, Haematococcus, Dunaliella and Tetraselmis) are used as cellular factories of biomass, lipids and different vitamins for either human or animal consumption, and even for usage as pharmaceuticals. Some of their pigments are employed for cosmetics.References Citations Cited literature * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Further reading * * Chlorophyta Category:Plant divisions Category:Taxa named by Ludwig Reichenbach Category:Protist phyla	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorophyta	2025-04-05T18:27:57.366363
6776	Capybara	}} The capybara or greater capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) is the largest living rodent, native to South America. It is a member of the genus Hydrochoerus. The only other extant member is the lesser capybara (Hydrochoerus isthmius). Its close relatives include guinea pigs and rock cavies, and it is more distantly related to the agouti, the chinchilla, and the nutria. The capybara inhabits savannas and dense forests, and lives near bodies of water. It is a highly social species and can be found in groups as large as 100 individuals, but usually live in groups of 10–20 individuals. The capybara is hunted for its meat and hide and also for grease from its thick fatty skin. Etymology Its common name is derived from Tupi , a complex agglutination of (leaf) + (slender) + (eat) + (a suffix for agent nouns), meaning "one who eats slender leaves", or "grass-eater". The genus name, hydrochoerus, comes from Greek ( "water") and ( "pig, hog") and the species name, hydrochaeris, comes from Greek ( "water") and ( "feel happy, enjoy").Classification and phylogenyThe capybara and the lesser capybara both belong to the subfamily Hydrochoerinae along with the rock cavies. The living capybaras and their extinct relatives were previously classified in their own family Hydrochoeridae. The taxonomy of fossil hydrochoerines is also in a state of flux. In recent years, the diversity of fossil hydrochoerines has been substantially reduced. Adult capybaras grow to in length, stand tall at the withers, and typically weigh , with an average in the Venezuelan llanos of . The dental formula is . Capybaras have slightly webbed feet and vestigial tails. Their muzzles are blunt, with nostrils, and the eyes and ears are near the top of their heads. Its karyotype has 2n 66 and FN 102, meaning it has 66 chromosomes with a total of 102 arms. In 2011, one specimen was spotted on the Central Coast of California. These escaped populations occur in areas where prehistoric capybaras inhabited; late Pleistocene capybaras inhabited Florida and Hydrochoerus hesperotiganites in California and Hydrochoerus gaylordi in Grenada, and feral capybaras in North America may actually fill the ecological niche of the Pleistocene species.Diet and predation , Boston, Massachusetts]] Capybaras are herbivores, grazing mainly on grasses and aquatic plants, In addition, a female alerts males she is in estrus by whistling through her nose. Conservation and human interaction Capybaras are not considered a threatened species; The European Association of Zoos and Aquaria asked Drusillas Park in Alfriston, Sussex, England, to keep the studbook for capybaras, to monitor captive populations in Europe. The studbook includes information about all births, deaths and movements of capybaras, as well as how they are related. Capybaras are farmed for meat and skins in South America. There is widespread perception in Venezuela that consumption of capybaras is exclusive to rural people. Brazilian Lyme-like borreliosis likely involves capybaras as reservoirs and Amblyomma and Rhipicephalus ticks as vectors. In popular culture Izu Shaboten Zoo and other zoos in Japan have prepared hot spring baths for capybaras. Video clips of the bathing capybaras have gained millions of views. A Capybara café has been opened in Tokyo. Capybaras have long been a figure in meme culture, particularly in the 2020s. In 2022, Peronists in Argentina presented them as figures of class struggle after the disturbances in Nordelta.See also * Josephoartigasia monesi, an extinct species identified as the largest known rodent ever * Kurloff cell, a type of cell found in capybaras and guinea pigs * Capybara Walking, a historical animal locomotion film by Eadweard Muybridge Notes }} External links * * [https://animaldiversity.org/site/accounts/information/Hydrochoerus_hydrochaeris.html Animal Diversity Web Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris] * [https://capybarafacts.com Capybara information] Category:Mammals described in 1766 Category:Cavies Category:Herbivorous mammals Category:Mammals of Argentina Category:Mammals of Bolivia Category:Rodents of Brazil Category:Mammals of Colombia Category:Mammals of Ecuador Category:Mammals of French Guiana Category:Mammals of Guyana Category:Mammals of Paraguay Category:Mammals of Peru Category:Mammals of Uruguay Category:Mammals of Venezuela Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Semiaquatic mammals Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus Category:2020s in Internet culture Category:Internet memes introduced in the 2020s	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capybara	2025-04-05T18:27:57.388539
6777	Computer animation	right\|thumb\|300px\|An example of computer animation which is produced from the "motion capture" technique Computer animation is the process used for digitally generating moving images. The more general term computer-generated imagery (CGI) encompasses both still images and moving images, while computer animation refers to moving images. Modern computer animation usually uses 3D computer graphics. Computer animation is a digital successor to stop motion and traditional animation. Instead of a physical model or illustration, a digital equivalent is manipulated frame-by-frame. Also, computer-generated animations allow a single graphic artist to produce such content without using actors, expensive set pieces, or props. To create the illusion of movement, an image is displayed on the computer monitor and repeatedly replaced by a new similar image but advanced slightly in time (usually at a rate of 24, 25, or 30 frames/second). This technique is identical to how the illusion of movement is achieved with television and motion pictures. To trick the visual system into seeing a smoothly moving object, the pictures should be drawn at around 12 frames per second or faster (a frame is one complete image). With rates above 75 to 120 frames per second, no improvement in realism or smoothness is perceivable due to the way the eye and the brain both process images. At rates below 12 frames per second, most people can detect jerkiness associated with the drawing of new images that detracts from the illusion of realistic movement. Conventional hand-drawn cartoon animation often uses 15 frames per second in order to save on the number of drawings needed, but this is usually accepted because of the stylized nature of cartoons. To produce more realistic imagery, computer animation demands higher frame rates. Films seen in theaters in the United States run at 24 frames per second, which is sufficient to create the illusion of continuous movement. Computer-generated animation Computer-generated animation is an umbrella term for three-dimensional (3D) animation, and 2D computer animation. These also include subcategories like asset driven, hybrid, and digital drawn animation. Creators animate using code or software instead of pencil-to-paper drawings. There are many techniques and disciplines in computer generated animation, some of which are digital representations of traditional animation - such as key frame animation - and some of which are only possible with a computer - such fluid simulation. 'CG' Animators can break physical laws by using mathematical algorithms to cheat mass, force and gravity, and more. Fundamentally, computer-generated animation is a powerful tool which can improve the quality of animation by using the power of computing to unleash the animator's imagination. This is because Computer Generated Animation allows for things like onion skinning which allows 2D animators to see the flow of their work all at once, and interpolation which allows 3D animators to automate the process of inbetweening. +Examples of computer-generated animation in moviesMovieType of Computer Generated AnimationImpactToy Story 2Stylized 3D computer animationPixar developed cutting-edge technology for fully 3D animation. 'Toy Story' is considered a turning point for 3D animation in general.Godzilla Minus OneDigital VFX, photorealisticToho studios won an Oscar for its ground breaking VFX on a small budget relative to most box-office movies.The Breadwinner2D computer animationWas praised for its 2D animated style, showing the possibilities of what the format could portray.InterstellarHyper photorealistic CGI following scientific principlesThe VFX artists working on Interstellar published a paper about the science and mathematics that were used to create the famous 'Gargantua' black hole.The use of 3D lighting for 2D animation in this movie opened up a door to many new animation styles for 2D animators. 3D computer animation thumb\|303x303px\|A frame of animation before and after rendering Overview For 3D computer animations, objects (models) are built on the computer monitor (modeled) and 3D figures are rigged with a virtual skeleton. Then the limbs, eyes, mouth, clothes, etc. of the figure are moved by the animator on key frames. Normally, the differences between key frames are drawn in a process known as tweening. However, in 3D computer animation, this is done automatically, and is called interpolation. Finally, the animation is rendered and composited. Before becoming a final product, 3D computer animations only exist as a series of moving shapes and systems within 3d software, and must be rendered. This can happen as a separate process for animations developed for movies and short films, or it can be done in real-time when animated for videogames. After an animation is rendered, it can be composited into a final product. Animation attributes For 3D models, attributes can describe any characteristic of the object that can be animated. This includes transformation (movement from one point to another), scaling, rotation, and more complex attributes like blend shape progression (morphing from one shape to another). Each attribute gets a channel on which keyframes can be set. These keyframes can be used in more complex ways such as animating in layers (combining multiple sets of key frame data), or keying control objects to deform or control other objects. For instance, a character's arms can have a skeleton applied, and the joints can have transformation and rotation keyframes set. The movement of the arm joints will then cause the arm shape to deform. Interpolation 3D animation software interpolates between keyframes by generating a spline between keys plotted on a graph which represents the animation. Additionally, these splines can follow Bézier curves to control how the spline curves relative to the keyframes. Using interpolation allows 3D animators to dynamically change animations without having to redo all the in-between animation. This also allows the creation of complex movements such as ellipses with only a few keyframes. Lastly, interpolation allows the animator to change the framerate, timing, and even scale of the movements at any point in the animation process. Procedural and node-based Animation Another way to automate 3D animation is to use procedural tools such as 4D noise. Noise is any algorithm that plots pseudo-random values within a dimensional space. 4D noise can be used to do things like move a swarm of bees around; the first three dimensions correspond to the position of the bees in space, and the fourth is used to change the bee's position over time. Noise can also be used as a cheap replacement for simulation. For example, smoke and clouds can be animated using noise. Node-based animation is useful for animating organic and chaotic shapes. By using nodes, an animator can build up a complex set of animation rules that can be applied either to many objects at once, or one very complex object. A good example of this would be setting the movement of particles to match the beat of a song. Disciplines of 3D animation There are many different disciplines of 3D animation, some of which include entirely separate artforms. For example, hair simulation for computer animated characters in and of itself is a career path which involves separate workflows, and different software and tools. The combination of all or some 3D computer animation disciplines is commonly referred to within the animation industry as the 3D animation pipeline. +Examples of disciplines within the 3D animation pipelineDisciplineExplanationToolsExamplesFace RiggingA facial rig is a rig that includes muscles, deformation, mesh displacement, and other techniques to enable the animation of facial expressions, and phonemes for lip syncing.Autodesk Maya, BlenderIn 'Avatar, Way of Water', WETA workshops meticulously designed the digital muscles in the faces of their characters so that their emotional range could be comparable to that of a human.Facial AnimationThis is the process of animating facial animations, lip-syncing, and animating phoneme blend-shapes (shapes that the face morphs into)Autodesk Maya, Blender, Autodesk 3DS MaxIn Pixar's 'Turning Red', animators took influence from anime style facial expressions to inform their animation.Character AnimationSpecifically the animation of characters. 3D character animation is its own specialty do to the complexity required to animated dancing, running, fighting, or high fidelity motion such as playing basketball.Autodesk Maya, BlenderPixar's 'Incredibles' won the 2004 Visual Effects Society Award for Outstanding Animated Character in an Animated FeatureCloth SimulationCloth simulation is a subset of simulation but specifically for things like clothes. In modern 3D computer animation, cloth simulation is becoming more and more advanced and widely used.Houdini, BlenderPixar's 'Coco' advanced the use of high fidelity clothes by designing new tools to combine cloth simulation with character animation. 2D computer animation 2D computer graphics are still used for stylistic, low bandwidth, and faster real-time renderings. Computer animation is essentially a digital successor to stop motion techniques, but using 3D models, and traditional animation techniques using frame-by-frame animation of 2D illustrations. For 2D figure animations, separate objects (illustrations) and separate transparent layers are used with or without that virtual skeleton. 2D sprites and pseudocode In 2D computer animation, moving objects are often referred to as "sprites." A sprite is an image that has a location associated with it. The location of the sprite is changed slightly, between each displayed frame, to make the sprite appear to move. The following pseudocode makes a sprite move from left to right: var int x :0, y : screenHeight / 2; while x Animal Logic – Films include Happy Feet (2006), Legend of the Guardians: The Owls of Ga'Hoole (2010), Walking with Dinosaurs (2013), and The Lego Movie (2014) Aardman Animations – Films include Flushed Away (2006) and Arthur Christmas (2011) Big Idea Entertainment – Jonah: A VeggieTales Movie (2002) and The Pirates Who Don't Do Anything: A VeggieTales Movie (2008) Bron Animation – Films include The Addams Family (2019) and The Willoughbys (2020) Blue Sky Studios – Films include Ice Age (2002), Robots (2005), Horton Hears a Who! (2008), Rio (2011), Epic (2013), and The Peanuts Movie (2015) DNA Productions – Films include Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius (2001), Santa vs. the Snowman 3D (2002), and The Ant Bully (2006) DreamWorks Animation – Films include Shrek (2001), Shark Tale (2004), Madagascar (2005), Over the Hedge (2006), Bee Movie (2007), Kung Fu Panda (2008), Monsters vs. Aliens (2009), How to Train Your Dragon (2010), Rise of the Guardians (2012), The Croods (2013), Trolls (2016), The Boss Baby (2017), Captain Underpants: The First Epic Movie (2017), The Bad Guys (2022), and Ruby Gillman, Teenage Kraken (2023) Framestore - Films include The Tale of Despereaux (2008) ImageMovers – Films include The Polar Express (2004), Monster House (2006), Beowulf (2007), A Christmas Carol (2009), and Mars Needs Moms (2011) Imagi Animation Studios – Films include TMNT (2007) and Astro Boy (2009) Ilion Animation Studios — Films include Planet 51 (2009), Mortadelo and Filemon: Mission Implausible (2014), and Wonder Park (2019) Illumination — Films include Despicable Me (2010), The Lorax (2012), Minions (2015), The Secret Life of Pets (2016), Sing (2016), The Grinch (2018), The Secret Life of Pets 2 (2019), and The Super Mario Bros. Movie (2023) Industrial Light & Magic – Films include Rango (2011) and Strange Magic (2015) Locksmith Animation - Films include Ron's Gone Wrong (2021) and That Christmas (2024) Omation Animation Studios – Films include Barnyard (2006) Pacific Data Images – Films include Antz (1998), Shrek (2001), Shrek 2 (2004), Madagascar (2005), Megamind (2010), and Mr. Peabody and Sherman (2014) Paramount Animation – Films include The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water (2015), Monster Trucks (2017), Sherlock Gnomes (2018), Wonder Park (2019), The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run (2020), and Under the Boardwalk (2023) Pixar Animation Studios – Films include Toy Story (1995), Monsters, Inc. (2001), Finding Nemo (2003), The Incredibles (2004), Cars (2006), Ratatouille (2007), WALL-E (2008), Up (2009), Inside Out (2015), Coco (2017), Soul (2020), and Luca (2021) Rainmaker Studios – Films include Escape from Planet Earth (2013) and Ratchet & Clank (2016) Reel FX Animation Studios – Films include Free Birds (2013) and The Book of Life (2014) Wizart Animation – Films include The Snow Queen (2012) and Sheep and Wolves (2016) Shirogumi – Films include Friends: Mononoke Shima no Naki (2011), Stand by Me Doraemon (2014), and Dragon Quest: Your Story (2019) Skydance Animation – Films include Luck (2022) and Spellbound (2024) Square Pictures - Films include Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within (2001) Sony Pictures Animation – Films include Open Season (2006), Surf's Up (2007), Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs (2009), Hotel Transylvania (2012), Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse (2018), and The Mitchells vs. the Machines (2021) Sony Pictures Imageworks – Films include The Angry Birds Movie (2016) and Over the Moon (2020) Triggerfish Animation Studios – Films include Zambezia (2013) and Khumba (2014) Vanguard Animation - Films include Valiant (2005), Space Chimps (2008), and Gnome Alone (2017) Walt Disney Animation Studios – Films include Chicken Little (2005), Meet the Robinsons (2007), Bolt (2008), Tangled (2010), Wreck-It Ralph (2012), Frozen (2013), Big Hero 6 (2014), Zootopia (2016), Moana (2016), and Encanto (2021) Warner Bros. Pictures Animation – Films include The Lego Movie (2014), Storks (2016), The Lego Batman Movie (2017), Smallfoot (2018), and Scoob! (2020) Weta Digital – Films include The Adventures of Tintin (2011) See also Animation Animation database Autodesk Avar (animation variable) Computer facial animation Computer-generated imagery (CGI) New York Institute of Technology Computer Graphics Lab Computer representation of surfaces Hand-Over Humanoid animation List of animation studios List of computer-animated films List of computer-animated television series Medical animation Morph target animation Machinima (recording video from games and virtual worlds) Motion capture Procedural animation Ray tracing Rich Representation Language Skeletal animation Stop motion Traditional animation Timeline of computer animation in film and television Virtual artifact Wire-frame model Twelve basic principles of animation References Citations Works cited External links Animation Category:Animation techniques Category:Articles containing video clips	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_animation	2025-04-05T18:27:57.477913
6778	Ceawlin of Wessex	Ceawlin ( ; also spelled Ceaulin, Caelin, Celin, died ca. 593) was a King of Wessex. He may have been the son of Cynric of Wessex and the grandson of Cerdic of Wessex, whom the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle represents as the leader of the first group of Saxons to come to the land which later became Wessex. Ceawlin was active during the last years of the Anglo-Saxon expansion, with little of southern England remaining in the control of the native Britons by the time of his death. The chronology of Ceawlin's life is highly uncertain. The historical accuracy and dating of many of the events in the later Anglo-Saxon Chronicle have been called into question, and his reign is variously listed as lasting seven, seventeen, or thirty-two years. The Chronicle records several battles of Ceawlin's between the years 556 and 592, including the first record of a battle between different groups of Anglo-Saxons, and indicates that under Ceawlin Wessex acquired significant territory, some of which was later to be lost to other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Ceawlin is also named as one of the eight "bretwaldas", a title given in the Chronicle to eight rulers who had overlordship over southern Britain, although the extent of Ceawlin's control is not known. Ceawlin died in 593, having been deposed the year before, possibly by his successor, Ceol. He is recorded in various sources as having two sons, Cutha and Cuthwine, but the genealogies in which this information is found are known to be unreliable. Historical context The history of the sub-Roman period in Britain is poorly sourced and the subject of a number of important disagreements among historians. It appears, however, that in the fifth century, raids on Britain by continental peoples developed into migrations. The newcomers included Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians. These peoples captured territory in the east and south of England, but at about the end of the fifth century, a British victory at the battle of Mons Badonicus halted the Anglo-Saxon advance for fifty years. Near the year 550, however, the British began to lose ground once more, and within twenty-five years, it appears that control of almost all of southern England was in the hands of the invaders. The peace following the battle of Mons Badonicus is attested partly by Gildas, a monk, who wrote De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae or On the Ruin and Conquest of Britain during the middle of the sixth century. This essay is a polemic against corruption and Gildas provides little in the way of names and dates. He appears, however, to state that peace had lasted from the year of his birth to the time he was writing. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is the other main source that bears on this period, in particular in an entry for the year 827 that records a list of the kings who bore the title "bretwalda", or "Britain-ruler". That list shows a gap in the early sixth century that matches Gildas's version of events. Ceawlin's reign belongs to the period of Anglo-Saxon expansion at the end of the sixth century. Though there are many unanswered questions about the chronology and activities of the early West Saxon rulers, it is clear that Ceawlin was one of the key figures in the final Anglo-Saxon conquest of southern Britain. Early West Saxon sources The two main written sources for early West Saxon history are the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and the West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List. The Chronicle is a set of annals which were compiled near the year 890, during the reign of King Alfred the Great of Wessex. They record earlier material for the older entries, which were assembled from earlier annals that no longer survive, as well as from saga material that might have been transmitted orally. The Chronicle dates the arrival of the future "West Saxons" in Britain to 495, when Cerdic and his son, Cynric, land at Cerdices ora, or Cerdic's shore. Almost twenty annals describing Cerdic's campaigns and those of his descendants appear interspersed through the next hundred years of entries in the Chronicle. Although these annals provide most of what is known about Ceawlin, the historicity of many of the entries is uncertain. The West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List is a list of rulers of Wessex, including the lengths of their reigns. It survives in several forms, including as a preface to the [B] manuscript of the Chronicle. Like the Chronicle, the List was compiled in its present form during the reign of Alfred the Great, but an earlier version of the List was also one of the sources of the Chronicle itself. Both the list and the Chronicle are influenced by the desire of their writers to use a single line of descent to trace the lineage of the Kings of Wessex through Cerdic to Gewis, the legendary eponymous ancestor of the West Saxons, who is made to descend from Woden. The result served the political purposes of the scribe but is riddled with contradictions for historians. The contradictions may be seen clearly by calculating dates by different methods from various sources. The first event in West Saxon history whose date can be regarded as reasonably certain is the baptism of Cynegils, which occurred in the late 630s, perhaps as late as 640. The Chronicle dates Cerdic's arrival to 495, but adding up the lengths of the reigns as given in the West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List leads to the conclusion that Cerdic's reign might have started in 532, a difference of 37 years. Neither 495 nor 532 may be treated as reliable; however, the latter date relies on the presumption that the Regnal List is correct in presenting the Kings of Wessex as having succeeded one another, with no omitted kings, and no joint kingships, and that the durations of the reigns are correct as given. None of these presumptions may be made safely. The sources do agree that Ceawlin is the son of Cynric and he usually is named as the father of Cuthwine. There is one discrepancy in this case: the entry for 685 in the [A] version of the Chronicle assigns Ceawlin a son, Cutha, but in the 855 entry in the same manuscript, Cutha is listed as the son of Cuthwine. Cutha also is named as Ceawlin's brother in the [E] and [F] versions of the Chronicle, in the 571 and 568 entries, respectively. Whether Ceawlin is a descendant of Cerdic is a matter of debate. Subgroupings of different West Saxon lineages give the impression of separate groups, of which Ceawlin's line is one. Some of the problems in the Wessex genealogies may have come about because of efforts to integrate Ceawlin's line with the other lineages: it became very important to the West Saxons to be able to trace the ancestors of their rulers back to Cerdic. Another reason for doubting the literal nature of these early genealogies is that the etymology of the names of several early members of the dynasty does not appear to be Germanic, as would be expected in the names of leaders of an apparently Anglo-Saxon dynasty. The name Ceawlin has no convincing Old English etymology; it seems more likely to be of British origin. The earliest sources do not use the term "West Saxon". According to Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People, the term is interchangeable with the Gewisse. The term "West Saxon" appears only in the late seventh century, after the reign of Cædwalla. West Saxon expansion thumb\|right\|A map of places mentioned by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in annals relating to Ceawlin; modern versions of the place names are given here, rather than the Anglo-Saxon names used in the chronicle. These records are in direct conflict with Bede, who states that the Isle of Wight was settled by Jutes, not Saxons; the archaeological record is somewhat in favour of Bede on this. Subsequent entries in the Chronicle give details of some of the battles by which the West Saxons won their kingdom. Ceawlin's campaigns are not given as near the coast. They range along the Thames Valley and beyond, as far as Surrey in the east and the mouth of the Severn in the west. Ceawlin clearly is part of the West Saxon expansion, but the military history of the period is difficult to understand. 568: Wibbandun The first battle Ceawlin fought as king is dated by the Chronicle to 568 when he and Cutha fought with Æthelberht, the king of Kent. The entry says "Here Ceawlin and Cutha fought against Aethelberht and drove him into Kent; and they killed two ealdormen, Oslaf and Cnebba, on Wibbandun." The location of "Wibbandun", which can be translated as "Wibba's Mount", has not been identified definitely; it was at one time thought to be Wimbledon, but this now is known to be incorrect. David Cooper proposes Wyboston, a small village 8 miles north-east of Bedford on the west bank of the Great Ouse. Wibbandun is often written as Wibba's Dun, which is close phonetically to Wyboston and Æthelberht's dominance, from Kent to the Humber according to Bede, extended across those Anglian territories south of the Wash. It was this region that came under threat from Ceawlin as he looked to establish a defensible boundary on the Great Ouse River in the easternmost part of his territory. In addition, Cnebba, named as slain in this battle, has been associated with Knebworth, which lies 20 miles to the south of Wyboston. Half a mile south of Wyboston is a village called Chawston. The origin of the place name is unknown but might be derived from the Old English Ceawston or Ceawlinston. A defeat at Wyboston for Æthelberht would have damaged his overlord status and diminished his influence over the Anglians. The idea that he was driven or "pursued" into Kent (depending on which Anglo-Saxon Chronicle translation is preferred) should not be taken literally. Similar phraseology is often found in the Chronicle when one king bests another. A defeat suffered as part of an expedition to help his Anglian clients would have caused Æthelberht to withdraw into Kent to recover. This battle is notable as the first recorded conflict between the invading peoples: previous battles recorded in the Chronicle are between the Anglo-Saxons and the native Britons. 571: Bedcanford The annal for 571 reads: "Here Cuthwulf fought against the Britons at Bedcanford, and took four settlements: Limbury and Aylesbury, Benson and Eynsham; and in the same year he passed away." Cuthwulf's relationship with Ceawlin is unknown, but the alliteration common to Anglo-Saxon royal families suggests Cuthwulf may be part of the West Saxon royal line. The location of the battle itself is unidentified. It has been suggested that it was Bedford, but what is known of the early history of Bedford's names does not support this. This battle is of interest because it is surprising that an area so far east should still be in Briton hands this late: there is ample archaeological evidence of early Saxon and Anglian presence in the Midlands, and historians generally have interpreted Gildas's De Excidio as implying that the Britons had lost control of this area by the mid-sixth century. One possible explanation is that this annal records a reconquest of land that was lost to the Britons in the campaigns ending in the battle of Mons Badonicus. This entry is all that is known of these Briton kings; their names are in an archaic form that makes it very likely that this annal derives from a much older written source. The battle itself has long been regarded as a key moment in the Saxon advance, since in reaching the Bristol Channel, the West Saxons divided the Britons west of the Severn from land communication with those in the peninsula to the south of the Channel. Wessex almost certainly lost this territory to Penda of Mercia in 628, when the Chronicle records that "Cynegils and Cwichelm fought against Penda at Cirencester and then came to an agreement." It is possible that when Ceawlin and Cuthwine took Bath, they found the Roman baths still operating to some extent. Nennius, a ninth-century historian, mentions a "Hot Lake" in the land of the Hwicce, which was along the Severn, and adds "It is surrounded by a wall, made of brick and stone, and men may go there to bathe at any time, and every man can have the kind of bath he likes. If he wants, it will be a cold bath; and if he wants a hot bath, it will be hot". Bede also describes hot baths in the geographical introduction to the Ecclesiastical History in terms very similar to those of Nennius. Wansdyke, an early-medieval defensive linear earthwork, runs from south of Bristol to near Marlborough, Wiltshire, passing not far from Bath. It probably was built in the fifth or sixth centuries, perhaps by Ceawlin. 584: Fethan leag Ceawlin's last recorded victory is in 584. The entry reads "Here Ceawlin and Cutha fought against the Britons at the place which is named Fethan leag, and Cutha was killed, and Ceawlin took many towns and countless war-loot, and in anger, he turned back to his own [territory]." The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, in an entry for the year 827, repeats Bede's list, adds Egbert of Wessex, and also mentions that they were known as "bretwalda", or "Britain-ruler". but there also is evidence that it implied a definite role of military leadership. Bede says that these kings had authority "south of the Humber", but the span of control, at least of the earlier bretwaldas, likely was less than this. In Ceawlin's case the range of control is hard to determine accurately, but Bede's inclusion of Ceawlin in the list of kings who held imperium, and the list of battles he is recorded as having won, indicates an energetic and successful leader who, from a base in the upper Thames valley, dominated much of the surrounding area and held overlordship over the southern Britons for some period. The gap between Ælle and Ceawlin, on the other hand, has been taken as supporting evidence for the story told by Gildas in De Excidio of a peace lasting a generation or more following a Briton victory at Mons Badonicus. Æthelberht of Kent succeeds Ceawlin on the list of bretwaldas, but the reigns may overlap somewhat: recent evaluations give Ceawlin a likely reign of 581–588, and place Æthelberht's accession near to the year 589, but these analyses are no more than scholarly guesses. Ceawlin's eclipse in 592, probably by Ceol, may have been the occasion for Æthelberht to rise to prominence; Æthelberht very likely was the dominant Anglo-Saxon king by 597. Æthelberht's rise may have been earlier: the 584 annal, even if it records a victory, is the last victory of Ceawlin's in the Chronicle, and the period after that may have been one of Æthelberht's ascent and Ceawlin's decline. Alternatively, it may have been Ceol, who is supposed to have been the next king of Wessex, ruling for six years according to the West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List. According to the Regnal List, Ceol was a son of Cutha, who was a son of Cynric; and Ceolwulf, his brother, reigned for seventeen years after him. It is possible that some fragmentation of control among the West Saxons occurred at Ceawlin's death: Ceol and Ceolwulf may have been based in Wiltshire, as opposed to the upper Thames valley. This split also may have contributed to Æthelberht's ability to rise to dominance in southern England. The West Saxons remained influential in military terms, however: the Chronicle and Bede record continued military activity against Essex and Sussex within twenty or thirty years of Ceawlin's death. See also List of monarchs of Wessex Notes References Primary sources Secondary sources (2003 edition: ) External links – separate PASE entry for "Celm" (Celin ?), a variant for Ceawlin found in the genealogical preface of Anglo-Saxon Chronicle texts A and G Category:590s deaths Category:Year of birth unknown Category:Year of death uncertain Category:Anglo-Saxon warriors Category:West Saxon monarchs Category:6th-century English monarchs Category:House of Wessex	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceawlin_of_Wessex	2025-04-05T18:27:57.510444
6779	Christchurch (disambiguation)	Christchurch is the largest city in the South Island of New Zealand. Christchurch may also refer to: Places New Zealand Christchurch, New Zealand Christchurch (New Zealand electorate), a former electorate in New Zealand, also called Town (or City) of Christchurch Christchurch Central, the current electorate of Christchurch in New Zealand Christchurch mosque shootings, a 2019 terrorist attack in Christchurch, New Zealand United Kingdom Christchurch, Cambridgeshire, in England Christchurch, Dorset, town on the south coast of England RAF Christchurch, a WW II airfield near the town Christchurch (UK Parliament constituency), England, centred on the town Christchurch (Dorset) railway station, a railway station serving the town Christchurch, Gloucestershire, hamlet in the west of the Forest of Dean, Gloucestershire, England Christchurch, Newport, in Wales Christchurch Mansion, a stately home in Ipswich, Suffolk Christchurch Park, a park surrounding Christchurch Mansion Southwark Christchurch, England Other countries Christchurch, Virginia, United States Christ Church, Barbados, Barbados Educational institutions Canterbury Christ Church University Christchurch School, Christchurch, Virginia, U.S. Christchurch Boys' High School, Christchurch, New Zealand Christchurch Girls' High School, Christchurch, New Zealand Christ Church, Oxford University of Otago Christchurch School of Medicine, one of three medical schools of University of Otago, New Zealand Christchurch Anglo-Indian Higher Secondary School, Christchurch, Chennai, India Sports teams Christchurch F.C., England Christchurch United, New Zealand Christchurch Technical, New Zealand Christchurch High School Old Boys, New Zealand Other uses Christchurch-Campbell, an automobile made in 1922 ChristChurch London, an evangelic church in London, England Christchurch, Ilkley, a church in West Yorkshire, England See also History of Christchurch (disambiguation) Christ Church (disambiguation) Christ Church Cathedral (disambiguation) Church of Christ (disambiguation) Christian Church (disambiguation) Christchurch railway station (disambiguation)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christchurch_(disambiguation)	2025-04-05T18:27:57.514973
6780	CD-R	CDR\|Carbon dioxide removal}} classskin-invert \| image = OD Compact disc.svg \| caption \| type Optical disc \| encoding = Various \| capacity = Typically up to 700 MB (up to 80 minutes audio) \| read = 600-780 nm wavelength (infrared and red edge) semiconductor laser, 1200 Kbit/s (1×) to 100 Mb/s (56x) \| write = 780 nm wavelength (infrared and red edge) semiconductor laser \| released \| standard = Rainbow Books \| owner = Philips, Sony \| use = Audio and data storage \| extended from = Recordable LaserDisc<br/>CD-ROM \| extended to = CD-RW<br/>DVD-R }} CD-R (Compact disc-recordable) is a digital optical disc storage format. A CD-R disc is a compact disc that can only be written once and read arbitrarily many times. CD-R discs (CD-Rs) are readable by most CD readers manufactured prior to the introduction of CD-R, unlike CD-RW discs. History Originally named CD Write-Once (WO), the CD-R specification was first published in 1988 by Philips and Sony in the Orange Book, which consists of several parts that provide details of the CD-WO, CD-MO (Magneto-Optic), and later CD-RW (Re Writable). The latest editions have abandoned the use of the term CD-WO in favor of CD-R, while CD-MO was rarely used. Written CD-Rs and CD-RWs are, in the aspect of low-level encoding and data format, fully compatible with the audio CD (Red Book CD-DA) and data CD (Yellow Book CD-ROM) standards. The Yellow Book standard for CD-ROM only specifies a high-level data format and refers to the Red Book for all physical format and low-level code details, such as track pitch, linear bit density, and bitstream encoding. This means they use Eight-to-Fourteen Modulation, CIRC error correction, and, for CD-ROM, the third error correction layer defined in the Yellow Book. Properly written CD-R discs on blanks of less than 80 minutes in length are fully compatible with the audio CD and CD-ROM standards in all details including physical specifications. 80-minute CD-R discs marginally violate the Red Book physical format specifications, and longer discs are non-compliant. CD-RW discs have lower reflectivity than CD-R or pressed (non-writable) CDs and for this reason cannot meet the Red Book standard. Some hardware compatible with Red Book CDs may have difficulty reading CD-Rs and, because of their lower reflectivity, especially CD-RWs. To the extent that CD hardware can read extended-length discs or CD-RW discs, it is because that hardware has capability beyond the minimum required by the Red Book and Yellow Book standards (the hardware is more capable than it needs to be to bear the Compact Disc logo). CD-R recording systems available in 1990 were similar to the washing machine-sized Meridian CD Publisher, based on the two-piece rack mount Yamaha PDS audio recorder costing $35,000, not including the required external ECC circuitry for data encoding, SCSI hard drive subsystem, and MS-DOS control computer. On July 3, 1991, the first recording of a concert directly to CD was made using a Yamaha YPDR 601. The concert was performed by Claudio Baglioni at the Stadio Flaminio in Rome, Italy. At that time, it was generally anticipated that recordable CDs would have a lifetime of no more than 10 years. However, as of July 2020 the CD from this live recording still plays back with no uncorrectable errors. In the same year, the first company to successfully & professionally duplicate CD-R media was CDRM Recordable Media. With quality technical media being limited from Taiyo Yuden, Early CD-R Media used Phthalocyanine dye for duplication, which has a light aqua color. By 1992, the cost of typical recorders was down to $10,000–12,000, and in September 1995, Hewlett-Packard introduced its model 4020i manufactured by Philips, which, at $995, was the first recorder to cost less than $1000. As of the 2010s, devices capable of writing to CD-Rs and other types of writable CDs could be found under $20. The dye materials developed by Taiyo Yuden made it possible for CD-R discs to be compatible with Audio CD and CD-ROM discs. In the United States, there is a market separation between "music" CD-Rs and "data" CD-Rs, the former being notably more expensive than the latter due to industry copyright arrangements with the RIAA. Specifically, the price of every music CD-R includes a mandatory royalty disbursed to RIAA members by the disc manufacturer; this grants the disc an "application flag" indicating that the royalty has been paid. Consumer standalone music recorders refuse to burn CD-Rs that are missing this flag. Professional CD recorders are not subject to this restriction and can record music to data discs. The two types of discs are functionally and physically identical other than this, and computer CD burners can record data and/or music to either. New music CD-Rs are still being manufactured as of the late 2010s, although demand for them has declined as CD-based music recorders have been supplanted by other devices incorporating the same or similar functionality. Prior to CD-R, Tandy Corporation had announced a rewritable CD system known as the Tandy High-Density Optical Recording (THOR) system, claiming to offer support for erasable and rewritable discs, made possible by a "secret coating material" on which Tandy had applied for patents, and reportedly based partly on a process developed by Optical Data Inc., Known also as the Tandy High-Intensity Optical Recording system, THOR-CD media was intended to be playable in existing CD players, being compatible with existing CD audio and CD-ROM equipment, with the discs themselves employing a layer in which the "marks", "bumps" or "pits" readable by a conventional CD player could be established in, and removed from, the medium by a laser operating at a different frequency. Tandy's announcement was surprising enough to "catch half a dozen industries off guard", claiming availability of consumer-level audio and video products below $500 by the end of 1990, The announcement attracted enthusiasm but also skepticism of Tandy's capability to deliver the system, Physical characteristics A standard CD-R is a thick disc made of polycarbonate about 120 mm (5") in diameter. The 120 mm (5") disc has a storage capacity of 74 minutes of audio or 650 Megabytes (MBs) of data. CD-R/RWs are available with capacities of 80 minutes of audio or 737,280,000 bytes (703.125 MiB), which they achieve by molding the disc at the tightest allowable tolerances specified in the Orange Book CD-R/CD-RW standards. The engineering margin that was reserved for manufacturing tolerance has been used for data capacity instead, leaving no tolerance for manufacturing; for these discs to be truly compliant with the Orange Book standard, the manufacturing process must be perfect. Despite the foregoing, most CD-Rs on the market have an 80-minute capacity. There are also 90 minute/790 MB and 99 minute/870 MB discs, although they are less common and depart from the Orange Book standard. Due to the limitations of the data structures in the ATIP, 90 and 99-minute blanks will identify as 80-minute ones. As the ATIP is part of the Orange Book standard, its design does not support some nonstandard disc configurations. In order to use the additional capacity, these discs have to be burned using overburn options in the CD recording software. Overburning itself is so named because it is outside the written standards, but, due to market demand, it has nonetheless become a de facto standard function in most CD writing drives and software for them. Some drives use special techniques, such as Plextor's GigaRec or Sanyo's HD-BURN, to write more data onto a given disc; these techniques are deviations from the compact disc (Red, Yellow, and/or Orange Book) standards, making the recorded discs proprietary-formatted and not fully compatible with standard CD players and drives. In certain applications where discs will not be distributed or exchanged outside a private group and will not be archived for a long time, a proprietary format may be an acceptable way to obtain greater capacity (up to 1.2 GB with GigaRec or 1.8 GB with HD-BURN on 99-minute media). The greatest risk in using such a proprietary data storage format, assuming that it works reliably as designed, is that it may be difficult or impossible to repair or replace the hardware used to read the media if it fails, is damaged, or is lost after its original vendor discontinues it. Nothing in the Red, Yellow, or Orange Book standards prohibits disc reading/writing devices from having the capacity to read/write discs beyond the compact disc standards. The standards do require discs to meet precise requirements in order to be called compact discs, but the other discs may be called by other names; if this were not true, no DVD drive could legally bear the compact disc logo. While disc players and drives may have capabilities beyond the standards, enabling them to read and write nonstandard discs, there is no assurance, in the absence of explicit additional manufacturer specifications beyond normal compact disc logo certification, that any particular player or drive will perform beyond the standards at all or consistently. If the same device with no explicit performance specs beyond the compact disc logo initially handles nonstandard discs reliably, there is no assurance that it will not later stop doing so, and in that case, there is no assurance that it can be made to do so again by service or adjustment. Discs with capacities larger than 650 MB, and especially those larger than 700 MB, are less interchangeable among players/drives than standard discs and are not very suitable for archival use, as their readability on future equipment, or even on the same equipment at a future time, is not assured unless specifically tested and certified in that combination, even under the assumption that the discs will not degrade at all. The polycarbonate disc contains a spiral groove, called the pregroove because it is molded in before data are written to the disc; it guides the laser beam upon writing and reading information. The pregroove is molded into the top side of the polycarbonate disc, where the pits and lands would be molded if it were a pressed, nonrecordable Red Book CD. The bottom side, which faces the laser beam in the player or drive, is flat and smooth. The polycarbonate disc is coated on the pregroove side with a very thin layer of organic dye. Then, on top of the dye is coated a thin, reflecting layer of silver, a silver alloy, or gold. Finally, a protective coating of a photo-polymerizable lacquer is applied on top of the metal reflector and cured with UV light. A blank CD-R is not "empty"; the pregroove has a wobble (the ATIP), which helps the writing laser to stay on track and to write the data to the disc at a constant rate. Maintaining a constant rate is essential to ensure the proper size and spacing of the pits and lands burned into the dye layer. As well as providing timing information, the ATIP (absolute time in pregroove) is also a data track containing information about the CD-R manufacturer, the dye used, and media information (disc length and so on). The pregroove is not destroyed when the data are written to the CD-R, a point which some copy protection schemes use to distinguish copies from an original CD. Dyes There are three basic formulations of dye used in CD-Rs: # Cyanine dye CD-Rs were the earliest ones developed, and their formulation is patented by Taiyo Yuden. CD-Rs based on this dye are mostly green in color. The earlier models were very chemically unstable and this made cyanine-based discs unsuitable for archival use; they could fade and become unreadable in a few years. Many manufacturers like Taiyo Yuden use proprietary chemical additives, typically a metal atom bonded to the cyanine molecule, to make more stable cyanine discs ("metal-stabilized Cyanine", "Super Cyanine"). Older cyanine dye-based CD-Rs, as well as all the hybrid dyes based on cyanine, are very sensitive to UV-rays and can become unreadable after only a few days if they were exposed to direct sunlight. Although the additives used have made cyanine more stable, it is still the most sensitive of the dyes in UV rays (showing signs of degradation within a week of direct sunlight exposure). A common mistake users make is to leave the CD-Rs with the "clear" (recording) surface upwards, in order to protect it from scratches, as this lets the sun hit the recording surface directly. # Phthalocyanine dye CD-Rs are usually silver, gold, or light green. The patents on phthalocyanine CD-Rs are held by Mitsui and Ciba Specialty Chemicals. Phthalocyanine is a natively stable dye (has no need for stabilizers) and CD-Rs based on this are often given a rated lifetime of hundreds of years. Unlike cyanine, phthalocyanine is more resistant to UV rays, and CD-Rs based on this dye show signs of degradation only after two weeks of direct sunlight exposure. However, phthalocyanine is more sensitive than cyanine to writing laser power calibration, meaning that the power level used by the writing laser has to be more accurately adjusted for the disc in order to get a good recording; this may erode the benefits of dye stability, as marginally written discs (with higher correctable error rates) will lose data (i.e. have uncorrectable errors) after less dye degradation than well-written discs (with lower correctable error rates). # Azo dye CD-Rs are dark blue in color, and their formulation is patented by Mitsubishi Chemical Corporation. Azo dyes are also chemically stable, and Azo CD-Rs are typically rated with a lifetime of decades. Azo is the most resistant dye against UV light and begins to degrade only after the third or fourth week of direct sunlight exposure. More modern implementations of this kind of dye include Super Azo which is not as deep blue as the earlier Metal Azo. This change of composition was necessary in order to achieve higher writing speeds. There are many hybrid variations of the dye formulations, such as Formazan by Kodak (a hybrid of cyanine and phthalocyanine). Many manufacturers have added additional coloring to disguise their unstable cyanine CD-Rs in the past, so the formulation of a disc cannot be determined based purely on its color. Similarly, a gold reflective layer does not guarantee the use of phthalocyanine dye. The quality of the disc is also not only dependent on the dye used, it is also influenced by sealing, the top layer, the reflective layer, and the polycarbonate. Simply choosing a disc based on its dye type may be problematic. Furthermore, correct power calibration of the laser in the writer, as well as correct timing of the laser pulses, stable disc speed, and so on, is critical to not only the immediate readability but the longevity of the recorded disc, so for archiving it is important to have not only a high-quality disc but a high-quality writer. In fact, a high-quality writer may produce adequate results with medium-quality media, but high-quality media cannot compensate for a mediocre writer, and discs written by such a writer cannot achieve their maximum potential archival lifetime. Speed {\| class="wikitable" \|- !Data writing speed !Data writing rate !Write time for 80 minute/700 MB CD-R \|- \|1×\|\|150 kB/s\|\|80 minutes \|- \|2×\|\|300 kB/s\|\|40 minutes \|- \|4×\|\|600 kB/s\|\|20 minutes \|- \|8×\|\|1.2 MB/s\|\|10 minutes \|- \|12×\|\|1.8 MB/s\|\|7 minutes \|- \|16×\|\|2.4 MB/s\|\|5 minutes \|- \|20×\|\|3.0 MB/s\|\|4 minutes \|- \|24×\|\|3.6 MB/s\|\|3.4 minutes (see below) \|- \|32×\|\|4.8 MB/s\|\|2.5 minutes (see below) \|- \|40×\|\|6.0 MB/s\|\|2 minutes (see below) \|- \|48×\|\|7.2 MB/s\|\|1.7 minutes (see below) \|- \|52×\|\|7.8 MB/s\|\|1.5 minutes (see below) \|} These times only include the actual optical writing pass over the disc. For most disc recording operations, additional time is used for overhead processes, such as organizing the files and tracks, which adds to the theoretical minimum total time required to produce a disc. (An exception might be making a disc from a prepared ISO image, for which the overhead would likely be trivial.) At the lowest write speeds, this overhead takes so much less time than the actual disc writing pass that it may be negligible, but at higher write speeds, the overhead time becomes a larger proportion of the overall time taken to produce a finished disc and may add significantly to it. Also, above 20× speed, drives use a Zoned-CLV or CAV strategy, where the advertised maximum speed is only reached near the outer rim of the disc. This is not taken into account by the above table. (If this were not done, the faster rotation that would be required at the inner tracks could cause the disc to fracture and/or could cause excessive vibration which would make accurate and successful writing impossible.) Writing methods The blank disc has a pre-groove track onto which the data are written. The pre-groove track, which also contains timing information, ensures that the recorder follows the same spiral path as a conventional CD. A CD recorder writes data to a CD-R disc by pulsing its laser to heat areas of the organic dye layer. The writing process does not produce indentations (pits); instead, the heat permanently changes the optical properties of the dye, changing the reflectivity of those areas. Using a low power laser, so as not to further alter the dye, the disc is read back in the same way as a CD-ROM. However, the reflected light is modulated not by pits, but by the alternating regions of heated and unaltered dye. The change of the intensity of the reflected laser radiation is transformed into an electrical signal, from which the digital information is recovered ("decoded"). Once a section of a CD-R is written, it cannot be erased or rewritten, unlike a CD-RW. A CD-R can be recorded in multiple sessions. A CD recorder can write to a CD-R using several methods including: # Disc At Once – the whole CD-R is written in one session with no gaps and the disc is "closed" meaning no more data can be added and the CD-R effectively becomes a standard read-only CD. With no gaps between the tracks, the Disc At Once format is useful for "live" audio recordings. # Track At Once – data are written to the CD-R one track at a time but the CD is left "open" for further recording at a later stage. It also allows data and audio to reside on the same CD-R. # Packet Writing – used to record data to a CD-R in "packets", allowing extra information to be appended to a disc at a later time, or for information on the disc to be made "invisible". In this way, CD-R can emulate CD-RW; however, each time information on the disc is altered, more data has to be written to the disc. There can be compatibility issues with this format and some CD drives. With careful examination, the written and unwritten areas can be distinguished by the naked eye. CD-Rs are written from the center outwards, so the written area appears as an inner band with slightly different shading. CDs have a Power Calibration Area, used to calibrate the writing laser before and during recording. CDs contain two such areas: one close to the inner edge of the disc, for low-speed calibration, and another on the outer edge on the disc, for high-speed calibration. The calibration results are recorded on a Recording Management Area (RMA) that can hold up to 99 calibrations. The disc cannot be written after the RMA is full, however, the RMA may be emptied in CD-RW discs. Formatting CD-R into CD-ROM Choosing a finalize disc or close disc option during a burn setup, it will no longer accept any future writes, and become read-only. Lifespan Real-life (not accelerated aging) tests have revealed that some CD-Rs degrade quickly even if stored normally. The quality of a CD-R disc has a large and direct influence on longevity—low-quality discs should not be expected to last very long. According to research conducted by J. Perdereau, CD-Rs are expected to have an average life expectancy of 10 years. Branding is not a reliable guide to quality, because many brands (major as well as no name) do not manufacture their own discs. Instead, they are sourced from different manufacturers of varying quality. For best results, the actual manufacturer and material components of each batch of discs should be verified. Burned CD-Rs suffer from material degradation, just like most writable media. CD-R media have an internal layer of dye used to store data. In a CD-RW disc, the recording layer is made of an alloy of silver and other metals—indium, antimony, and tellurium. In CD-R media, the dye itself can degrade, causing data to become unreadable. As well as degradation of the dye, failure of a CD-R can be due to the reflective surface. While silver is less expensive and more widely used, it is more prone to oxidation, resulting in a non-reflecting surface. Gold, on the other hand, although more expensive and no longer widely used, is an inert material, so gold-based CD-Rs do not suffer from this problem. Manufacturers have estimated the longevity of gold-based CD-Rs to be as high as 100 years. By measuring the rate of correctable data errors, the data integrity and/or manufacturing quality of CD-R media can be measured, allowing for a reliable prediction of future data losses caused by media degradation. Labeling It is recommended if using adhesive-backed paper labels that the labels be specially made for CD-Rs. A balanced CD vibrates only slightly when rotated at high speed. Bad or improperly made labels, or labels applied off-center, unbalance the CD and can cause it to vibrate when it spins, which causes read errors and even risks damaging the drive. A professional alternative to CD labels is pre-printed CDs using a 5-color silkscreen or offset press. Using a permanent marker pen is also a common practice. However, solvents from such pens can affect the dye layer. Disposal Data confidentiality Since CD-Rs, in general, cannot be logically erased to any degree, the disposal of CD-Rs presents a possible security issue if they contain sensitive/private data. Destroying the data requires physically destroying the disc or data layer. Heating the disc in a microwave oven for 10–15 seconds effectively destroys the data layer by causing arcing in the metal reflective layer, but this same arcing may cause damage or excessive wear to the microwave oven. Many office paper shredders are also designed to shred CDs. Some recent burners (Plextor, LiteOn) support erase operations on -R media, by "overwriting" the stored data with strong laser power, although the erased area cannot be overwritten with new data. Recycling The polycarbonate material and possible gold or silver in the reflective layer would make CD-Rs highly recyclable. However, the polycarbonate is of very little value and the quantity of precious metals is so small that it is not profitable to recover them. Consequently, recyclers that accept CD-Rs typically do not offer compensation for donating or transporting the materials.See also * Absolute Time In Pregroove * Blu-ray Disc * CD recorder * CD-R caddy * CD-ROM, GD-ROM * CD-RW, DVD-RW * DVD, DVD-R, DVD+R, DVD+R DL * HD DVD * Labelflash * LightScribe * MultiLevel Recording, an obsolete technology (with non-binary modulation) * Optical disc authoring * Rainbow Books * GD-ROM * MIL-CD * List of optical disc manufacturers References External links * [http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-394.htm ECMA-394: Recordable Compact Disc Systems CD-R Multi-Speed] (standardized Orange Book, Part II, Volume 2) * [http://www.cdrfaq.org/ The CD-R FAQ] * [http://www.osta.org/technology/cdqa.htm Understanding CD-R & CD-RW] at the Optical Storage Technology Association site. Category:Audiovisual introductions in 1988 Category:Compact disc Category:Optical computer storage media Category:Audio storage Category:Video storage Category:Japanese inventions Category:Dutch inventions Category:Information technology in the Netherlands Category:Science and technology in the Netherlands Category:Information technology in Japan Category:Science and technology in Japan	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD-R	2025-04-05T18:27:57.529173
6781	Cytosol	thumb\|right\|300px\|The cytosol is a crowded solution of many different types of molecules that occupy up to 30% of the cytoplasmic volume. is one of the liquids found inside cells (intracellular fluid (ICF)). It is separated into compartments by membranes. For example, the mitochondrial matrix separates the mitochondrion into many compartments. In the eukaryotic cell, the cytosol is surrounded by the cell membrane and is part of the cytoplasm, which also comprises the mitochondria, plastids, and other organelles (but not their internal fluids and structures); the cell nucleus is separate. The cytosol is thus a liquid matrix around the organelles. In prokaryotes, most of the chemical reactions of metabolism take place in the cytosol, while a few take place in membranes or in the periplasmic space. In eukaryotes, while many metabolic pathways still occur in the cytosol, others take place within organelles. The cytosol is a complex mixture of substances dissolved in water. Although water forms the large majority of the cytosol, its structure and properties within cells is not well understood. The concentrations of ions such as sodium and potassium in the cytosol are different to those in the extracellular fluid; these differences in ion levels are important in processes such as osmoregulation, cell signaling, and the generation of action potentials in excitable cells such as endocrine, nerve and muscle cells. The cytosol also contains large amounts of macromolecules, which can alter how molecules behave, through macromolecular crowding. Although it was once thought to be a simple solution of molecules, the cytosol has multiple levels of organization. These include concentration gradients of small molecules such as calcium, large complexes of enzymes that act together and take part in metabolic pathways, and protein complexes such as proteasomes and carboxysomes that enclose and separate parts of the cytosol. Definition The term "cytosol" was first introduced in 1965 by H. A. Lardy, and initially referred to the liquid that was produced by breaking cells apart and pelleting all the insoluble components by ultracentrifugation. This excludes any part of the cytoplasm that is contained within organelles. were used for the cell fluid, not always synonymously, as its nature was not well understood (see protoplasm). The cytosol consists mostly of water, dissolved ions, small molecules, and large water-soluble molecules (such as proteins). The majority of these non-protein molecules have a molecular mass of less than 300 Da. This mixture of small molecules is extraordinarily complex, as the variety of molecules that are involved in metabolism (the metabolites) is immense. For example, up to 200,000 different small molecules might be made in plants, although not all these will be present in the same species, or in a single cell. Estimates of the number of metabolites in single cells such as E. coli and baker's yeast predict that under 1,000 are made. Water Most of the cytosol is water, which makes up about 70% of the total volume of a typical cell. The pH of the intracellular fluid is 7.4. while mouse cell cytosolic pH ranges between 7.0 and 7.4, and is usually higher if a cell is growing. The viscosity of cytoplasm is roughly the same as pure water, although diffusion of small molecules through this liquid is about fourfold slower than in pure water, due mostly to collisions with the large numbers of macromolecules in the cytosol. Studies in the brine shrimp have examined how water affects cell functions; these saw that a 20% reduction in the amount of water in a cell inhibits metabolism, with metabolism decreasing progressively as the cell dries out and all metabolic activity halting when the water level reaches 70% below normal. Although water is vital for life, the structure of this water in the cytosol is not well understood, mostly because methods such as nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy only give information on the average structure of water, and cannot measure local variations at the microscopic scale. Even the structure of pure water is poorly understood, due to the ability of water to form structures such as water clusters through hydrogen bonds. However, others argue that the effects of the high concentrations of macromolecules in cells extend throughout the cytosol and that water in cells behaves very differently from the water in dilute solutions. These ideas include the proposal that cells contain zones of low and high-density water, which could have widespread effects on the structures and functions of the other parts of the cell. However, the use of advanced nuclear magnetic resonance methods to directly measure the mobility of water in living cells contradicts this idea, as it suggests that 85% of cell water acts like that pure water, while the remainder is less mobile and probably bound to macromolecules. Ions The concentrations of the other ions in cytosol are quite different from those in extracellular fluid and the cytosol also contains much higher amounts of charged macromolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids than the outside of the cell structure. + Typical ion concentrations in mammalian cytosol and plasma. Ion Concentration (millimolar) In cytosol In plasma Potassium 139–150 4 Sodium 12 145 Chloride 4 116 Bicarbonate 12 29 Amino acids in proteins 138 9 Magnesium 0.8 1.5 Calcium <0.0002 1.8 In contrast to extracellular fluid, cytosol has a high concentration of potassium ions and a low concentration of sodium ions. This difference in ion concentrations is critical for osmoregulation, since if the ion levels were the same inside a cell as outside, water would enter constantly by osmosis - since the levels of macromolecules inside cells are higher than their levels outside. Instead, sodium ions are expelled and potassium ions taken up by the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase, potassium ions then flow down their concentration gradient through potassium-selection ion channels, this loss of positive charge creates a negative membrane potential. To balance this potential difference, negative chloride ions also exit the cell, through selective chloride channels. The loss of sodium and chloride ions compensates for the osmotic effect of the higher concentration of organic molecules inside the cell. In this state the cytosol and osmoprotectants become a glass-like solid that helps stabilize proteins and cell membranes from the damaging effects of desiccation. The low concentration of calcium in the cytosol allows calcium ions to function as a second messenger in calcium signaling. Here, a signal such as a hormone or an action potential opens calcium channel so that calcium floods into the cytosol. This sudden increase in cytosolic calcium activates other signalling molecules, such as calmodulin and protein kinase C. Other ions such as chloride and potassium may also have signaling functions in the cytosol, but these are not well understood. Macromolecules Protein molecules that do not bind to cell membranes or the cytoskeleton are dissolved in the cytosol. The amount of protein in cells is extremely high, and approaches 200 mg/ml, occupying about 20–30% of the volume of the cytosol. However, measuring precisely how much protein is dissolved in cytosol in intact cells is difficult, since some proteins appear to be weakly associated with membranes or organelles in whole cells and are released into solution upon cell lysis. However, the idea that the majority of the proteins in cells are tightly bound in a network called the microtrabecular lattice is now seen as unlikely. In prokaryotes the cytosol contains the cell's genome, within a structure known as a nucleoid. This is an irregular mass of DNA and associated proteins that control the transcription and replication of the bacterial chromosome and plasmids. In eukaryotes the genome is held within the cell nucleus, which is separated from the cytosol by nuclear pores that block the free diffusion of any molecule larger than about 10 nanometres in diameter. This high concentration of macromolecules in cytosol causes an effect called macromolecular crowding, which is when the effective concentration of other macromolecules is increased, since they have less volume to move in. This crowding effect can produce large changes in both the rates and the position of chemical equilibrium of reactions in the cytosol. Organization Although the components of the cytosol are not separated into regions by cell membranes, these components do not always mix randomly and several levels of organization can localize specific molecules to defined sites within the cytosol. Concentration gradients Although small molecules diffuse rapidly in the cytosol, concentration gradients can still be produced within this compartment. A well-studied example of these are the "calcium sparks" that are produced for a short period in the region around an open calcium channel. These are about 2 micrometres in diameter and last for only a few milliseconds, although several sparks can merge to form larger gradients, called "calcium waves". Concentration gradients of other small molecules, such as oxygen and adenosine triphosphate may be produced in cells around clusters of mitochondria, although these are less well understood. Protein complexes Proteins can associate to form protein complexes, these often contain a set of proteins with similar functions, such as enzymes that carry out several steps in the same metabolic pathway. This organization can allow substrate channeling, which is when the product of one enzyme is passed directly to the next enzyme in a pathway without being released into solution. Channeling can make a pathway more rapid and efficient than it would be if the enzymes were randomly distributed in the cytosol, and can also prevent the release of unstable reaction intermediates. Although a wide variety of metabolic pathways involve enzymes that are tightly bound to each other, others may involve more loosely associated complexes that are very difficult to study outside the cell. Consequently, the importance of these complexes for metabolism in general remains unclear. thumb\|right\|400px\|Carboxysomes are protein-enclosed bacterial microcompartments within the cytosol. On the left is an electron microscope image of carboxysomes, and on the right a model of their structure. Protein compartments Some protein complexes contain a large central cavity that is isolated from the remainder of the cytosol. One example of such an enclosed compartment is the proteasome. Here, a set of subunits form a hollow barrel containing proteases that degrade cytosolic proteins. Since these would be damaging if they mixed freely with the remainder of the cytosol, the barrel is capped by a set of regulatory proteins that recognize proteins with a signal directing them for degradation (a ubiquitin tag) and feed them into the proteolytic cavity. Another large class of protein compartments are bacterial microcompartments, which are made of a protein shell that encapsulates various enzymes. These compartments are typically about 100–200 nanometres across and made of interlocking proteins. A well-understood example is the carboxysome, which contains enzymes involved in carbon fixation such as RuBisCO. Biomolecular condensates Non-membrane bound organelles can form as biomolecular condensates, which arise by clustering, oligomerisation, or polymerisation of macromolecules to drive colloidal phase separation of the cytoplasm or nucleus. Cytoskeletal sieving Although the cytoskeleton is not part of the cytosol, the presence of this network of filaments restricts the diffusion of large particles in the cell. For example, in several studies tracer particles larger than about 25 nanometres (about the size of a ribosome) were excluded from parts of the cytosol around the edges of the cell and next to the nucleus. These "excluding compartments" may contain a much denser meshwork of actin fibres than the remainder of the cytosol. These microdomains could influence the distribution of large structures such as ribosomes and organelles within the cytosol by excluding them from some areas and concentrating them in others. Function The cytosol is the site of multiple cell processes. Examples of these processes include signal transduction from the cell membrane to sites within the cell, such as the cell nucleus, or organelles. This compartment is also the site of many of the processes of cytokinesis, after the breakdown of the nuclear membrane in mitosis. Another major function of cytosol is to transport metabolites from their site of production to where they are used. This is relatively simple for water-soluble molecules, such as amino acids, which can diffuse rapidly through the cytosol. Molecules taken into the cell by endocytosis or on their way to be secreted can also be transported through the cytosol inside vesicles, which are small spheres of lipids that are moved along the cytoskeleton by motor proteins. The cytosol is the site of most metabolism in prokaryotes, and a large proportion of the metabolism of eukaryotes. For instance, in mammals about half of the proteins in the cell are localized to the cytosol. The most complete data are available in yeast, where metabolic reconstructions indicate that the majority of both metabolic processes and metabolites occur in the cytosol. Major metabolic pathways that occur in the cytosol in animals are protein biosynthesis, the pentose phosphate pathway, glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. The localization of pathways can be different in other organisms, for instance fatty acid synthesis occurs in chloroplasts in plants and in apicoplasts in apicomplexa. References Further reading Category:Cell anatomy Category:Cytoplasm	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytosol	2025-04-05T18:27:57.576263
6782	Compound	Compound may refer to: Architecture and built environments Compound (enclosure), a cluster of buildings having a shared purpose, usually inside a fence or wall Compound (fortification), a version of the above fortified with defensive structures Compound (migrant labour), a hostel for migrant workers such as those historically connected with mines in South Africa The Compound, an area of Palm Bay, Florida, US Komboni or compound, a type of slum in Zambia Government and law Composition (fine), a legal procedure in use after the English Civil War Committee for Compounding with Delinquents, an English Civil War institution that allowed Parliament to compound the estates of Royalists Compounding treason, an offence under the common law of England Compounding a felony, a previous offense under the common law of England Linguistics Compound (linguistics), a word that consists of more than one radical element Compound sentence (linguistics), a type of sentence made up of two or more independent clauses and no subordinate (dependent) clauses Science, technology, and mathematics Biology and medicine Compounding, the mixing of drugs in pharmacy Compound fracture, a complete fractures of bone where at least one fragment has damaged the skin, soft tissue or surrounding body cavity Compound leaf, a type of leaf being divided into smaller leaflets Chemistry and materials science Chemical compound, combination of two or more elements Plastic compounding, a method of preparing plastic formulations Vehicles and engines Compound engine, a steam engine in which steam is expanded through a series of two or three cylinders before exhaust Turbo-compound engine, an internal combustion engine where exhaust gases expand through power-turbines Compounding pressure, a method in which pressure in a steam turbine is made to drop in a number of stages Other uses in science, technology, and mathematics Compound bow, a type of bow for archery Polyhedral compound, a polyhedron composed of multiple polyhedra sharing the same centre Other uses Common names Compound (music), an attribute of a time signature Compound interest, in finance, unpaid interest that is added to the principal Compound chocolate, an inexpensive chocolate substitute that uses cocoa but excludes cocoa butter Proper names The Compound (book), a 2008 young adult novel by S. A. Bodeen Compound (company), a venture capital firm previously known as Metamorphic Ventures Eisenhuth Horseless Vehicle Company, or Compound, a former US automobile manufacturer See also Compound operation (disambiguation) Composite (disambiguation)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compound	2025-04-05T18:27:57.580390
6784	Citizenship	Citizenship is a membership and allegiance to a sovereign state. Though citizenship is often conflated with nationality in today's English-speaking world, international law does not usually use the term citizenship to refer to nationality; these two notions are conceptually different dimensions of collective membership. Generally citizenships have no expiration and allow persons to work, reside and vote in the polity, as well as identify with the polity, possibly acquiring a passport. Though through discriminatory laws, like disfranchisement and outright apartheid, citizens have been made second-class citizens. Historically, populations of states were mostly subjects, * Place of residence. In some countries, non-citizens can vote. * Citizenship by honorary conferment. This type of citizenship is conferred to an individual as a sign of honour. * Excluded categories. In most countries, minors are not considered as full citizens. In the past, there have been exclusions on entitlement to citizenship on grounds such as skin color, ethnicity, sex, land ownership status, and free status (not being a slave). Most of these exclusions no longer apply in most places. Modern examples include some Gulf countries which rarely grant citizenship to non-Muslims, e.g. Qatar is known for granting citizenship to foreign athletes, but they all have to profess the Islamic faith in order to receive citizenship. The United States grants citizenship to those born as a result of reproductive technologies, and internationally adopted children born after February 27, 1983. Some exclusions still persist for internationally adopted children born before February 27, 1983, even though their parents meet citizenship criteria. Responsibilities of a citizen Every citizen has obligations that are required by law and some responsibilities that benefit the community. Obeying the laws of a country and paying taxes are some of the obligations required of citizens by law. Voting and community services form part of responsibilities of a citizen that benefits the community. The Constitution of Ghana (1992), Article 41, obligates citizens to promote the prestige and good name of Ghana and respect the symbols of Ghana. Examples of national symbols includes the Ghanaian flag, coat of arms, money, and state sword. These national symbols must be treated with respect and high esteem by citizens since they best represent Ghanaians. Apart from responsibilities, citizens also have rights. Some of the rights are the right to pursue life, liberty and happiness, the right to worship, right to run for elected office and right to express oneself. Polis Many thinkers such as Giorgio Agamben in his work extending the biopolitical framework of Foucault's History of Sexuality in the book, Homo Sacer, point to the concept of citizenship beginning in the early city-states of ancient Greece, although others see it as primarily a modern phenomenon dating back only a few hundred years and, for humanity, that the concept of citizenship arose with the first laws. Polis meant both the political assembly of the city-state as well as the entire society. Citizenship concept has generally been identified as a western phenomenon. There is a general view that citizenship in ancient times was a simpler relation than modern forms of citizenship, although this view has come under scrutiny. Citizenship was also contingent on a variety of biopolitical assemblages, such as the bioethics of emerging Theo-Philosophical traditions. It was necessary to fit Aristotle's definition of the besouled (the animate) to obtain citizenship: neither the sacred olive tree nor spring would have any rights. An essential part of the framework of Greco-Roman ethics is the figure of Homo Sacer or the bare life. Historian Geoffrey Hosking in his 2005 Modern Scholar lecture course suggested that citizenship in ancient Greece arose from an appreciation for the importance of freedom. Hosking explained: The 1918 constitution of revolutionary Russia granted citizenship to any foreigners who were living within the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, so long as they were "engaged in work and [belonged] to the working class." It recognized "the equal rights of all citizens, irrespective of their racial or national connections" and declared oppression of any minority group or race "to be contrary to the fundamental laws of the Republic." The 1918 constitution also established the right to vote and be elected to soviets for both men and women "irrespective of religion, nationality, domicile, etc. [...] who shall have completed their eighteenth year by the day of the election." The later constitutions of the USSR would grant universal Soviet citizenship to the citizens of all member republics in concord with the principles of non-discrimination laid out in the original 1918 constitution of Russia. Nazi Germany Nazism, the German variant of twentieth-century fascism, classified inhabitants of the country into three main hierarchical categories, each of which would have different rights in relation to the state: citizens, subjects, and aliens. The first category, citizens, were to possess full civic rights and responsibilities. Citizenship was conferred only on males of German (or so-called "Aryan") heritage who had completed military service, and could be revoked at any time by the state. The Reich Citizenship Law of 1935 established racial criteria for citizenship in the German Reich, and because of this law Jews and others who could not "prove German racial heritage" were stripped of their citizenship. The second category, subjects, referred to all others who were born within the nation's boundaries who did not fit the racial criteria for citizenship. Subjects would have no voting rights, could not hold any position within the state, and possessed none of the other rights and civic responsibilities conferred on citizens. All women were to be conferred "subject" status upon birth, and could only obtain "citizen" status if they worked independently or if they married a German citizen (see women in Nazi Germany). The final category, aliens, referred to those who were citizens of another state, who also had no rights. In 2021, the German government passed a law that entitled victims of Nazi persecution and their descendants to become naturalised German citizens.Israel The primary principles of Israeli citizenship is jus sanguinis (citizenship by descent) for Jews and jus soli (citizenship by place of birth) for others.India Indian Citizenship Act, 1955, the first law in Indian history to establish rules for citizenship are jus soli (citizenship by place of birth), jus sanguinis (citizenship by descent), citizenship by registration, citizenship by naturalization and citizenship by incorporation of territory.Different sensesMany theorists suggest that there are two opposing conceptions of citizenship: an economic one, and a political one. For further information, see History of citizenship. Citizenship status, under social contract theory, carries with it both rights and duties. In this sense, citizenship was described as "a bundle of rights -- primarily, political participation in the life of the community, the right to vote, and the right to receive certain protection from the community, as well as obligations." Citizenship is seen by most scholars as culture-specific, in the sense that the meaning of the term varies considerably from culture to culture, and over time. In China, for example, there is a cultural politics of citizenship which could be called "peopleship", argued by an academic article. How citizenship is understood depends on the person making the determination. The relation of citizenship has never been fixed or static, but constantly changes within each society. While citizenship has varied considerably throughout history, and within societies over time, there are some common elements but they vary considerably as well. As a bond, citizenship extends beyond basic kinship ties to unite people of different genetic backgrounds. It usually signifies membership in a political body. It is often based on or was a result of, some form of military service or expectation of future service. It usually involves some form of political participation, but this can vary from token acts to active service in government. It generally describes a person with legal rights within a given political order. It almost always has an element of exclusion, meaning that some people are not citizens and that this distinction can sometimes be very important, or not important, depending on a particular society. Citizenship as a concept is generally hard to isolate intellectually and compare with related political notions since it relates to many other aspects of society such as the family, military service, the individual, freedom, religion, ideas of right, and wrong, ethnicity, and patterns for how a person should behave in society. Modern citizenship has often been looked at as two competing underlying ideas: * The liberal-individualist or sometimes liberal conception of citizenship suggests that citizens should have entitlements necessary for human dignity. It assumes people act for the purpose of enlightened self-interest. According to this viewpoint, citizens are sovereign, morally autonomous beings with duties to pay taxes, obey the law, engage in business transactions, and defend the nation if it comes under attack, Scholars suggest that the concept of citizenship contains many unresolved issues, sometimes called tensions, existing within the relation, that continue to reflect uncertainty about what citizenship is supposed to mean. One last distinction within citizenship is the so-called consent descent distinction, and this issue addresses whether citizenship is a fundamental matter determined by a person choosing to belong to a particular nation––by their consent––or is citizenship a matter of where a person was born––that is, by their descent.International Some intergovernmental organizations have extended the concept and terminology associated with citizenship to the international level, where it is applied to the totality of the citizens of their constituent countries combined. Citizenship at this level is a secondary concept, with rights deriving from national citizenship. European Union The Maastricht Treaty introduced the concept of citizenship of the European Union. Article 17 (1) of the Treaty on European Union stated that: <blockquote>Citizenship of the Union is hereby established. Every person holding the nationality of a Member State shall be a citizen of the Union. Citizenship of the Union shall be additional to and not replace national citizenship.</blockquote> An agreement is known as the amended EC Treaty which predate the introduction of Union citizenship. Mercosur Citizenship of the Mercosur is granted to eligible citizens of the Southern Common Market member states. It was approved in 2010 through the Citizenship Statute and should be fully implemented by the member countries in 2021 when the program will be transformed in an international treaty incorporated into the national legal system of the countries, under the concept of "Mercosur Citizen".Commonwealth The concept of "Commonwealth Citizenship" has been in place ever since the establishment of the Commonwealth of Nations. As with the EU, one holds Commonwealth citizenship only by being a citizen of a Commonwealth member state. This form of citizenship offers certain privileges within some Commonwealth countries: * Some such countries do not require tourist visas of citizens of other Commonwealth countries or allow some Commonwealth citizens to stay in the country for tourism purposes without a visa for longer than citizens of other countries. * In some Commonwealth countries, resident citizens of other Commonwealth countries are entitled to political rights, e.g., the right to vote in local and national elections and in some cases even the right to stand for election. * In some instances the right to work in any position (including the civil service) is granted, except for certain specific positions, such as in the defense departments, Governor-General or President or Prime Minister. In the United Kingdom, all Commonwealth citizens legally residing in the country can vote and stand for office at all elections. Although Ireland was excluded from the Commonwealth in 1949 because it declared itself a republic, Ireland is generally treated as if it were still a member. Legislation often specifically provides for equal treatment between Commonwealth countries and Ireland and refers to "Commonwealth countries and Ireland". Ireland's citizens are not classified as foreign nationals in the United Kingdom. Canada departed from the principle of nationality being defined in terms of allegiance in 1921. In 1935 the Irish Free State was the first to introduce its own citizenship. However, Irish citizens were still treated as subjects of the Crown, and they are still not regarded as foreign, even though Ireland is not a member of the Commonwealth. The Canadian Citizenship Act of 1946 provided for a distinct Canadian Citizenship, automatically conferred upon most individuals born in Canada, with some exceptions, and defined the conditions under which one could become a naturalized citizen. The concept of Commonwealth citizenship was introduced in 1948 in the British Nationality Act 1948. Other dominions adopted this principle such as New Zealand, by way of the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948. Subnational Citizenship most usually relates to membership of the nation-state, but the term can also apply at the subnational level. Subnational entities may impose requirements, of residency or otherwise, which permit citizens to participate in the political life of that entity or to enjoy benefits provided by the government of that entity. But in such cases, those eligible are also sometimes seen as "citizens" of the relevant state, province, or region. An example of this is how the fundamental basis of Swiss citizenship is a citizenship of an individual commune, from which follows citizenship of a canton and of the Confederation. Another example is Åland where the residents enjoy special provincial citizenship within Finland, hembygdsrätt. The United States has a federal system in which a person is a citizen of their specific state of residence, such as New York or California, as well as a citizen of the United States. State constitutions may grant certain rights above and beyond what is granted under the United States Constitution and may impose their own obligations including the sovereign right of taxation and military service; each state maintains at least one military force subject to national militia transfer service, the state's national guard, and some states maintain a second military force not subject to nationalization. Education "Active citizenship" is the philosophy that citizens should work towards the betterment of their community through economic participation, public, volunteer work, and other such efforts to improve life for all citizens. In this vein, citizenship education is taught in schools, as an academic subject in some countries. By the time children reach secondary education there is an emphasis on such unconventional subjects to be included in an academic curriculum. While the diagram on citizenship to the right is rather facile and depthless, it is simplified to explain the general model of citizenship that is taught to many secondary school pupils. The idea behind this model within education is to instill in young pupils that their actions (i.e. their vote) affect collective citizenship and thus in turn them. Republic of Ireland It is taught in the Republic of Ireland as an exam subject for the Junior Certificate. It is known as Civic, Social and Political Education (CSPE). A new Leaving Certificate exam subject with the working title 'Politics & Society' is being developed by the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA) and is expected to be introduced to the curriculum sometime after 2012.United Kingdom Citizenship is offered as a General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) course in many schools in the United Kingdom. As well as teaching knowledge about democracy, parliament, government, the justice system, human rights and the UK's relations with the wider world, students participate in active citizenship, often involving a social action or social enterprise in their local community. Citizenship is a compulsory subject of the National Curriculum in state schools in England for all pupils aged 11–16. Some schools offer a qualification in this subject at GCSE and A level. All state schools have a statutory requirement to teach the subject, assess pupil attainment and report student's progress in citizenship to parents. In Wales the model used is personal and social education. Citizenship is not taught as a discrete subject in Scottish schools, but is a cross-curricular strand of the Curriculum for Excellence. However they do teach a subject called "Modern Studies" which covers the social, political and economic study of local, national and international issues. Citizenship is taught as a standalone subject in all state schools in Northern Ireland and most other schools in some forms from year 8 to 10 prior to GCSEs. Components of Citizenship are then also incorporated into GCSE courses such as 'Learning for Life and Work'. Criticism The concept of citizenship is criticized by open borders advocates, who argue that it functions as a caste, feudal, or apartheid system in which people are assigned dramatically different opportunities based on the accident of birth. It is also criticized by some libertarians, especially anarcho-capitalists. In 1987, moral philosopher Joseph Carens argued that "citizenship in Western liberal democracies is the modern equivalent of feudal privilege—an inherited status that greatly enhances one's life chances. Like feudal birthright privileges, restrictive citizenship is hard to justify when one thinks about it closely". See also Citizen's dividend * Citizenship Studies * Civic virtue * Credit score * Honorary citizenship * Loss of citizenship * Nationalism * Non-citizens (Latvia) * Peoples * Spatial citizenship * Transnational citizenship Notes References Further reading * * * * * * * * * * * Beaven, Brad, and John Griffiths. "Creating the Exemplary Citizen: The Changing Notion of Citizenship in Britain 1870–1939," Contemporary British History'' (2008) 22#2 pp 203–225 * * * * * * * * * * * * * * External links * * * * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/pshe_and_citizenship/ BBC PSHE & Citizenship] * [https://ssrn.com/abstract=2280329 The Life in the UK Citizenship Test Report by Thom Brooks] * * Category:Human migration Category:Government Category:Immigration law	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizenship	2025-04-05T18:27:57.629974
6787	Chiapas	<br />}}<br />}} \| native_name_lang \| settlement_type State \| image_skyline = UsumacintaYaxchilan16.JPG \| image_alt \| image_caption View of the Usumacinta River \| image_flag = <!--As per the consensus reached at Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Mexico (oldid: 1007177146), this article should not use a flag because none is officially recognized by the government of the state--> \| flag_size = 155px \| flag_alt \| image_shield Coat of arms of Chiapas.svg \| shield_size = 75px \| nickname = <small>Espíritu del Mundo Maya<br/>(Spirit of the Mayan World)</small> \| motto = <!-- NO --> \| image_map = }} }} \| map_caption \| coordinates \| coor_pinpoint \| coordinates_footnotes \| subdivision_type = Country \| subdivision_name = Mexico \| subdivision_type1 = Capital<br> \| subdivision_name1 = Tuxtla Gutiérrez \| subdivision_type2 = Municipalities \| subdivision_name2 = 124 \| established_title = Admission \| established_date September 14, 1824 \| established_title2 = Order \| established_date2 = 19th \| founder \| seat_type \| seat \| government_footnotes \| leader_party \| leader_title Governor \| leader_name = Óscar Eduardo Ramírez Aguilar \| leader_title1 Senators \| leader_name1 = \| leader_title2 Deputies \| leader_name2 = \|2 = \|3 = \|4 = \|5 = \|6 = \|7 = \|8 = \|9 = \|10 = \|11 = \|12 = \|13 = }} \| unit_pref = Metric<!-- or US or UK --> \| area_footnotes \| area_total_km2 = 73311 \| area_land_km2 \| area_water_km2 \| area_water_percent \| area_note Ranked 10th \| elevation_m \| elevation_max_point Volcán Tacaná \| elevation_max_footnotes \| elevation_max_m = 4080 \| elevation_max_ft \| elevation_min_m \| elevation_min_ft \| population_footnotes \| population_total = 5,543,828 \| population_as_of = 2020 \| population_density_km2 = auto \| population_density_rank = 15th \| population_demonym \| demographics_type2 GDP \| demographics2_footnotes \| demographics2_title1 = Total \| demographics2_info1 = MXN 455 billion<br />(US$22.7 billion) (2022) \| demographics2_title2 = Per capita \| demographics2_info2 = (US$3,989) (2022) \| postal_code_type = Postal codes \| postal_code = 29–30 \| area_code_type = Area codes \| area_code = \| iso_code = MX-CHP \| blank_name_sec1 = HDI \| blank_info_sec1 0.697 <span style"color:#fc0">medium</span> <small>Ranked 32nd of 32</small> \| website = \| footnotes = a. By the will of the people of Chiapas expressed by direct vote for incorporation into the Federation. }} Chiapas,; Nahuatl Chiapan}} officially the Free and Sovereign State of Chiapas,}} is one of the states that make up the 32 federal entities of Mexico. It comprises 124 municipalities and its capital and largest city is Tuxtla Gutiérrez. Other important population centers in Chiapas include Ocosingo, Tapachula, San Cristóbal de las Casas, Comitán, and Arriaga. Chiapas is the southernmost state in Mexico, and it borders the states of Oaxaca to the west, Veracruz to the northwest, and Tabasco to the north, and the Petén, Quiché, Huehuetenango, and San Marcos departments of Guatemala to the east and southeast. Chiapas has a significant coastline on the Pacific Ocean to the southwest. In general, Chiapas has a humid, tropical climate. In the northern area bordering Tabasco, near Teapa, rainfall can average more than per year. In the past, natural vegetation in this region was lowland, tall perennial rainforest, but this vegetation has been almost completely cleared to allow agriculture and ranching. Rainfall decreases moving towards the Pacific Ocean, but it is still abundant enough to allow the farming of bananas and many other tropical crops near Tapachula. On the several parallel sierras or mountain ranges running along the center of Chiapas, the climate can be quite moderate and foggy, allowing the development of cloud forests like those of Reserva de la Biosfera El Triunfo, home to a handful of horned guans, resplendent quetzals, and azure-rumped tanagers. Chiapas is home to the ancient Mayan ruins of Palenque, Yaxchilán, Bonampak, Lacanha, Chinkultic, El Lagartero and Toniná. It is also home to one of the largest indigenous populations in the country, with twelve federally recognized ethnicities. Etymology The official name of the state is Chiapas, which is believed to have come from the ancient city of Chiapan, which in Náhuatl means "the place where the chia sage grows." After the Spanish arrived (1522), they established two cities called Chiapas de los Indios and Chiapas de los Españoles (1528), with the name of Provincia de Chiapas for the area around the cities. The first coat of arms of the region dates from 1535 as that of the Ciudad Real (San Cristóbal de las Casas). Chiapas painter Javier Vargas Ballinas designed the modern coat of arms. History Pre-Columbian Era Hunter gatherers began to occupy the central valley of the state around 7000 BCE, but little is known about them. In the pre Classic period from 1800 BCE to 300 CE, agricultural villages appeared all over the state although hunter gather groups would persist for long after the era. Recent excavations in the Soconusco region of the state indicate that the oldest civilization to appear in what is now modern Chiapas is that of the Mokaya, which were cultivating corn and living in houses as early as 1500 BCE, making them one of the oldest in Mesoamerica. There is speculation that these were the forefathers of the Olmec, migrating across the Grijalva Valley and onto the coastal plain of the Gulf of Mexico to the north, which was Olmec territory. The descendants of Mokaya are the Mixe-Zoque..]] ]] Mayan civilization began in the pre-Classic period as well, but did not come into prominence until the Classic period (300–900 CE). Development of this culture was agricultural villages during the pre-Classic period with city building during the Classic as social stratification became more complex. In Chiapas, Mayan sites are mostly concentrated along the state's borders with Tabasco and Guatemala, near Mayan sites in those entities. Most of this area belongs to the Lacandon Jungle. Mayan civilization in the Lacandon area is marked by rising exploitation of rain forest resources, rigid social stratification, fervent local identity, waging war against neighboring peoples. The Spanish introduced new crops such as sugar cane, wheat, barley and indigo as main economic staples along native ones such as corn, cotton, cacao and beans. Livestock such as cattle, horses and sheep were introduced as well. Regions would specialize in certain crops and animals depending on local conditions and for many of these regions, communication and travel were difficult. Initially, "Chiapas" referred to the first two cities established by the Spanish in what is now the center of the state and the area surrounding them. Two other regions were also established, the Soconusco and Tuxtla, all under the regional colonial government of Guatemala. Chiapas, Soconusco and Tuxla regions were united to the first time as an intendencia during the Bourbon Reforms in 1790 as an administrative region under the name of Chiapas. However, within this intendencia, the division between Chiapas and Soconusco regions would remain strong and have consequences at the end of the colonial period. Following the end of Spanish rule in New Spain, it was unclear what new political arrangements would emerge. The isolation of Chiapas from centers of power, along with the strong internal divisions in the intendencia caused a political crisis after the royal government collapsed in Mexico City in 1821, ending the Mexican War of Independence. In 1821, a number of cities in Chiapas, starting in Comitán, declared the state's separation from the Spanish empire. In 1823, Guatemala became part of the United Provinces of Central America, which united to form a federal republic that would last from 1823 to 1839. With the exception of the pro-Mexican Ciudad Real (San Cristóbal) and some others, many Chiapanecan towns and villages favored a Chiapas independent of Mexico and some favored unification with Guatemala. Elites in highland cities pushed for incorporation into Mexico. Guatemala would not recognize Mexico's annexation of the Soconusco region until 1895, even though the border between Chiapas and Guatemala had been agreed upon in 1882. These families split into Liberals in the lowlands, who wanted further reform and Conservatives in the highlands who still wanted to keep some of the traditional colonial and church privileges. For most of the early and mid 19th century, Conservatives held most of the power and were concentrated in the larger cities of San Cristóbal de las Casas, Chiapa (de Corzo), Tuxtla and Comitán. As Liberals gained the upper hand nationally in the mid-19th century, one Liberal politician Ángel Albino Corzo gained control of the state. Corzo became the primary exponent of Liberal ideas in the southeast of Mexico and defended the Palenque and Pichucalco areas from annexation by Tabasco. However, Corzo's rule would end in 1875, when he opposed the regime of Porfirio Díaz.Porfiriato, 1876–1911The Porfirio Díaz era at the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th was initially thwarted by regional bosses called caciques, bolstered by a wave of Spanish and mestizo farmers who migrated to the state and added to the elite group of wealthy landowning families. He modernized public administration, transportation and promoted education. He also changed state policies to favor foreign investment, favored large land mass consolidation for the production of cash crops such as henequen, rubber, guayule, cochineal and coffee. Agricultural production boomed, especially coffee, which induced the construction of port facilities in Tonalá. The economic expansion and investment in roads also increased access to tropical commodities such as hardwoods, rubber and chicle.Early 20th century to 1960 .]] In the early 20th century and into the Mexican Revolution, the production of coffee was particularly important but labor-intensive. This would lead to a practice called enganche (hook), where recruiters would lure workers with advanced pay and other incentives such as alcohol and then trap them with debts for travel and other items to be worked off. This practice would lead to a kind of indentured servitude and uprisings in areas of the state, although they never led to large rebel armies as in other parts of Mexico. Since the 1930s, many indigenous and mestizos have migrated from the highland areas into the Lacandon Jungle with the populations of Altamirano, Las Margaritas, Ocosingo and Palenque rising from less than 11,000 in 1920 to over 376,000 in 2000. These migrants came to the jungle area to clear forest and grow crops and raise livestock, especially cattle. In Chiapas poor farmland and severe poverty afflict the Mayan Indians which led to unsuccessful non violent protests and eventually armed struggle started by the Zapatista Army of National Liberation in January 1994. These events began to lead to political crises in the 1970s, with more frequent land invasions and takeovers of municipal halls. The arrival of thousands of refugees from Central America stressed Mexico's relationship with Guatemala, at one point coming close to war as well as a politically destabilized Chiapas. Although Mexico is not a signatory to the UN Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, international pressure forced the government to grant official protection to at least some of the refugees. Camps were established in Chiapas and other southern states, and mostly housed Mayan peoples. However, most Central American refugees from that time never received any official status, estimated by church and charity groups at about half a million from El Salvador alone. The Mexican government resisted direct international intervention in the camps, but eventually relented somewhat because of finances. By 1990, it was estimated that there were over 200,000 Guatemalans and half a million from El Salvador, almost all peasant farmers and most under age twenty. In the 1980s, the politization of the indigenous and rural populations of the state that began in the 1960s and 1970s continued. In 1980, several ejido (communal land organizations) joined to form the Union of Ejidal Unions and United Peasants of Chiapas, generally called the Union of Unions, or UU. By 1988, this organization joined with other to form the ARIC-Union of Unions (ARIC-UU) and took over much of the Lacandon Jungle portion of the state. However, the movement was an economic one as well. Although the area has extensive resources, much of the local population of the state, especially in rural areas, did not benefit from this bounty. In the 1990s, two thirds of the state's residents did not have sewage service, only a third had electricity and half did not have potable water. Over half of the schools offered education only to the third grade and most pupils dropped out by the end of first grade. Grievances, strongest in the San Cristóbal and Lacandon Jungle areas, were taken up by a small leftist guerrilla band led by a man called only "Subcomandante Marcos." This small band, called the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional, EZLN), came to the world's attention when on January 1, 1994 (the day the NAFTA treaty went into effect) EZLN forces occupied and took over the towns of San Cristobal de las Casas, Las Margaritas, Altamirano, Ocosingo and three others. They read their proclamation of revolt to the world and then laid siege to a nearby military base, capturing weapons and releasing many prisoners from the jails. There was some ambiguity about the relationship between Ruiz and Marcos and it was a constant feature of news coverage, with many in official circles using such to discredit Ruiz. Eventually, the activities of the Zapatistas began to worry the Roman Catholic Church in general and to upstage the diocese's attempts to re establish itself among Chiapan indigenous communities against Protestant evangelization. This would lead to a breach between the Church and the Zapatistas. The Zapatista story remained in headlines for a number of years. One reason for this was the December 1997 massacre of forty-five unarmed Tzotzil peasants, mostly women and children, by a government-backed paramilitary in the Zapatista-controlled village of Acteal in the Chenhaló municipality just north of San Cristóbal. This allowed many media outlets in Mexico to step up their criticisms of the government. The Zapatista movement has had some successes. The agricultural sector of the economy now favors ejidos and other commonly-owned land. Its economy is important to Mexico as a whole as well, producing coffee, corn, cacao, tobacco, sugar, fruit, vegetables and honey for export. It is also a key state for the nation's petrochemical and hydroelectric industries. A significant percentage of PEMEX's drilling and refining takes place in Chiapas and Tabasco, and Chiapas produces fifty-five percent of Mexico's hydroelectric energy. Chiapas is still considered isolated and distant from the rest of Mexico, both culturally and geographically. It has significantly underdeveloped infrastructure compared to the rest of the country, and its significant indigenous population with isolationist tendencies keep the state distinct culturally. Caracoles will remain open to locals but remain closed to outsiders, and the previous MAREZ system will be reorganized into a new autonomous system. Major cities include Tuxtla Gutiérrez, San Cristóbal de las Casas, Tapachula, Palenque, Comitán, and Chiapa de Corzo. The Sierra Madre de Chiapas runs parallel to the Pacific coastline of the state, northwest to southeast as a continuation of the Sierra Madre del Sur. This area has the highest altitudes in Chiapas including the Tacaná Volcano, which rises above sea level. Most of these mountains are volcanic in origin although the nucleus is metamorphic rock. It has a wide range of climates but little arable land. It is mostly covered in middle altitude rainforest, high altitude rainforest, and forests of oaks and pines. The main commercial center of the sierra is the town of Motozintla, also near the Guatemalan border. The Central Depression is in the center of the state. It is an extensive semi flat area bordered by the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, the Central Highlands and the Northern Mountains. Within the depression there are a number of distinct valleys. The climate here can be very hot and humid in the summer, especially due to the large volume of rain received in July and August. The original vegetation was lowland deciduous forest with some rainforest of middle altitudes and some oaks above above sea level. The Eastern Mountains (Montañas del Oriente) are in the east of the state, formed by various parallel mountain chains mostly made of limestone and sandstone. Its altitude varies from . This area receives moisture from the Gulf of Mexico with abundant rainfall and exuberant vegetation, which creates the Lacandon Jungle, one of the most important rainforests in Mexico. The Northern Mountains (Montañas del Norte) are in the north of the state. They separate the flatlands of the Gulf Coast Plains from the Central Depression. Its rock is mostly limestone. These mountains also receive large amounts of rainfall with moisture from the Gulf of Mexico giving it a mostly hot and humid climate with rains year round. In the highest elevations around , temperatures are somewhat cooler and do experience a winter. The terrain is rugged with small valleys whose natural vegetation is high altitude rainforest. The ecosystem covers an area of approximately <!-- --> extending from Chiapas into northern Guatemala and southern Yucatán Peninsula and into Belize. This area contains as much as 25% of Mexico's total species diversity, most of which has not been researched. It has a predominantly hot and humid climate (Am w" i g) with most rain falling from summer to part of fall, with an average of between 2300 and 2600 mm per year. There is a short dry season from March to May. The predominant wild vegetation is perennial high rainforest. During the 20th century, the Lacandon has had a dramatic increase in population and along with it, severe deforestation. The population of municipalities in this area, Altamirano, Las Margaritas, Ocosingo and Palenque have risen from 11,000 in 1920 to over 376,000 in 2000. Migrants include Ch'ol, Tzeltal, Tzotzil, Tojolabal indigenous peoples along with mestizos, Guatemalan refugees and others. Most of these migrants are peasant farmers, who cut forest to plant crops. However, the soil of this area cannot support annual crop farming for more than three or four harvests. Of this remaining portion, Mexico is losing over five percent each year. The best preserved portion of the Lacandon is within the Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve. It is centered on what was a commercial logging grant by the Porfirio Díaz government, which the government later nationalized. However, this nationalization and conversion into a reserve has made it one of the most contested lands in Chiapas, with the already existing ejidos and other settlements within the park along with new arrivals squatting on the land. The highest peak in Chiapas is the Tacaná Volcano at above sea level. In accordance with an 1882 treaty, the dividing line between Mexico and Guatemala goes right over the summit of this volcano. The Sumidero Canyon was once the site of a battle between the Spaniards and Chiapanecan Indians. Many Chiapanecans chose to throw themselves from the high edges of the canyon rather than be defeated by Spanish forces. Today, the canyon is a popular destination for ecotourism. Visitors can take boat trips down the river that runs through the canyon and see the area's many birds and abundant vegetation. The El Ocote Biosphere Reserve was decreed in 1982 located in the Northern Mountains at the boundary with the Sierra Madre del Sur in the municipalities of Ocozocoautla, Cintalapa and Tecpatán. It has a surface area of and preserves a rainforest area with karst formations. The Lagunas de Montebello National Park was decreed in 1959 and consists of near the Guatemalan border in the municipalities of La Independencia and La Trinitaria. It contains two of the most threatened ecosystems in Mexico the "cloud rainforest" and the Soconusco rainforest. The El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve, decreed in 1990, is located in the Sierra Madre de Chiapas in the municipalities of Acacoyagua, Ángel Albino Corzo, Montecristo de Guerrero, La Concordia, Mapastepec, Pijijiapan, Siltepec and Villa Corzo near the Pacific Ocean with . It conserves areas of tropical rainforest and many freshwater systems endemic to Central America. <div align=center> <!-- galería de mapas --> {\|width"800" class"toc" style"float:center; margin: 0.5em 0.5em 0.5em 1em; padding: 0.5e" cellspacing"2" cellpadding="0" \|colspan8 style"background:#green; color:white; font-size:100%" aligncenter bgcolor"green"\|Flora and fauna of Chiapas \|- \|aligncenter valigncenter bgcolor="white"\| \|aligncenter valigncenter bgcolor="white"\| \|aligncenter valigncenter bgcolor="white"\| \|aligncenter valigncenter bgcolor="white"\| \|aligncenter valigncenter bgcolor="white"\| \|- \|style"background:#e9e9e9;" aligncenter\|Cuniculus paca \|style"background:#e9e9e9;" aligncenter\|Alouatta palliata \|style"background:#e9e9e9;" aligncenter\|Eretmochelys imbricata \|style"background:#e9e9e9;" aligncenter\|Pharomachrus mocinno \|style"background:#e9e9e9;" aligncenter\|Tapirus bairdii \|- \|aligncenter valigncenter bgcolor="white"\| \|aligncenter valigncenter bgcolor="white"\| \|aligncenter valigncenter bgcolor="white"\| \|aligncenter valigncenter bgcolor="white"\| \|aligncenter valigncenter bgcolor="white"\| \|- \|style"background:#e9e9e9;" aligncenter\|Panthera onca \|style"background:#e9e9e9;" aligncenter\|Ramphastidae \|style"background:#e9e9e9;" aligncenter\|Tayassu pecari \|style"background:#e9e9e9;" aligncenter\|Leopardus pardalis \|style"background:#e9e9e9;" aligncenter\|Boa constrictor \|- \|- \|aligncenter valigncenter bgcolor="white"\| \|aligncenter valigncenter bgcolor="white"\| \|aligncenter valigncenter bgcolor="white"\| \|aligncenter valigncenter bgcolor="white"\| \|aligncenter valigncenter bgcolor="white"\| \|- \|style"background:#e9e9e9;" aligncenter\|Ceiba pentandra \|style"background:#e9e9e9;" aligncenter\|Abies religiosa \|style"background:#e9e9e9;" aligncenter\|Cedrela odorata \|style"background:#e9e9e9;" aligncenter\|Bursera simaruba \|- \|} </div> Demographics Largest cities Municipality \| city_1 Tuxtla Gutiérrez\| div_1Tuxtla Gutiérrez\| pop_1 578,830\| img_1 Tuxtla05.jpg \| city_2 Tapachula\| div_2Tapachula\| pop_2 217,550\| img_2 Encuentro_Nal._Artesanos_2011_(01).jpg \| city_3 San Cristóbal de las Casas\| div_3San Cristóbal de las Casas\| pop_3 183,509\| img_3 Sancris08.jpg \| city_4 Comitán de Domínguez\| div_4 Comitán\| pop_4 113,479\|img_4 Teatro_de_la_Ciudad_Comitán_2.jpg \| city_5 Chiapa de Corzo, ChiapasChiapa de Corzo\| div_5 Chiapa de Corzo, ChiapasChiapa de Corzo\| pop_5 =55,931 \| city_6 Palenque, ChiapasPalenque\| div_6 Palenque, ChiapasPalenque\| pop_6 = 51,797 \| city_7 Cintalapa \| div_7 Cintalapa\| pop_7 = 49,201 \| city_8 Ocosingo \| div_8Ocosingo\| pop_8 = 47,688 \| city_9 Ocozocoautla de Espinosa\| div_9Ocozocoautla de Espinosa\| pop_9 = 43,247 \| city_10 Tonalá, ChiapasTonalá\| div_10Tonalá, ChiapasTonalá\| pop_10 = 38,087 }} General statistics }} As of 2010, the population is 4,796,580, the eighth most populous state in Mexico. The 20th century saw large population growth in Chiapas. From fewer than one million inhabitants in 1940, the state had about two million in 1980, and over 4 million in 2005. Overcrowded land in the highlands was relieved when the rainforest to the east was subject to land reform. Cattle ranchers, loggers, and subsistence farmers migrated to the rain forest area. The population of the Lacandon was only one thousand people in 1950, but by the mid-1990s this had increased to 200 thousand. As of 2010, 78% lives in urban communities with 22% in rural communities. While birthrates are still high in the state, they have come down in recent decades from 7.4 per woman in 1950. However, these rates still mean significant population growth in raw numbers. About half of the state's population is under age 20, with an average age of 19. In 2005, there were 924,967 households, 81% headed by men and the rest by women. Most households were nuclear families (70.7%) with 22.1% consisting of extended families. More migrate out of Chiapas than migrate in, with emigrants leaving for Tabasco, Oaxaca, Veracruz, State of Mexico and the Federal District (Mexico City) primarily. There are a number of people in the state with African features. These are the descendants of slaves brought to the state in the 16th century. There are also those with predominantly European features who are the descendants of the original Spanish colonizers as well as later immigrants to Mexico. The latter mostly came at the end of the 19th and early 20th century under the Porfirio Díaz regime to start plantations. According to the 2020 Census, 1.02% of Chiapas's population identified as Black, Afro-Mexican, or of African descent.Indigenous populationNumbers and influenceOver the history of Chiapas, there have been three main indigenous groups: the Mixes-Zoques, the Mayas and the Chiapas. Out of Chiapas's 111 municipios, 99 have majority indigenous populations. 22 municipalities have indigenous populations over 90%, and 36 municipalities have native populations exceeding 50%. However, despite population growth in indigenous villages, the percentage of indigenous to non indigenous continues to fall with less than 35% indigenous. Indian populations are concentrated in a few areas, with the largest concentration of indigenous-language-speaking individuals is living in 5 of Chiapas's 9 economic regions: Los Altos, Selva, Norte, Fronteriza, and Sierra. The remaining three regions, Soconusco, Centro and Costa, have populations that are considered to be predominantly mestizo. The state has about 13.5% of all of Mexico's indigenous population, These indigenous peoples have been historically resistant to assimilation into the broader Mexican society, with it best seen in the retention rates of indigenous languages and the historic demands for autonomy over geographic areas as well as cultural domains. Much of the latter has been prominent since the Zapatista uprising in 1994. Most of Chiapas's indigenous groups are descended from the Mayans, speaking languages that are closely related to one another, belonging to the Western Maya language group. The state was part of a large region dominated by the Mayans during the Classic period. The most common Western Maya languages are Tzeltal and Tzotzil along with Chontal, Ch’ol, Tojolabal, Chuj, Kanjobal, Acatec, Jacaltec and Motozintlec. Most indigenous communities are found in the municipalities of the Centro, Altos, Norte and Selva regions, with many having indigenous populations of over fifty percent. These include Bochil, Sitalá, Pantepec, Simojovel to those with over ninety percent indigenous such as San Juan Cancuc, Huixtán, Tenejapa, Tila, Oxchuc, Tapalapa, Zinacantán, Mitontic, Ocotepec, Chamula, and Chalchihuitán. Although most indigenous language speakers are bilingual, especially in the younger generations, many of these languages have shown resilience. Four of Chiapas's indigenous languages, Tzeltal, Tzotzil, Tojolabal and Chol, are high-vitality languages, meaning that a high percentage of these ethnicities speak the language and that there is a high rate of monolingualism in it. It is used in over 80% of homes. Zoque is considered to be of medium-vitality with a rate of bilingualism of over 70% and home use somewhere between 65% and 80%. Maya is considered to be of low-vitality with almost all of its speakers bilingual with Spanish. The most spoken indigenous languages as of 2010 are Tzeltal with 461,236 speakers, Tzotzil with 417,462, Ch’ol with 191,947 and Zoque with 53,839. In total, there are 1,141,499 who speak an indigenous language or 27% of the total population. Of these, 14% do not speak Spanish. Studies done between 1930 and 2000 have indicated that Spanish is not dramatically displacing these languages. In raw number, speakers of these languages are increasing, especially among groups with a long history of resistance to Spanish/Mexican domination. The state's rich indigenous tradition along with its associated political uprisings, especially that of 1994, has great interest from other parts of Mexico and abroad. One major exception to the separatist, indigenous identity has been the case of the Chiapa people, from whom the state's name comes, who have mostly been assimilated and intermarried into the mestizo population. The raising of livestock, particularly chicken and turkey and to a lesser extent beef and farmed fish is also a major economic activity. Many indigenous people, in particular the Maya, are employed in the production of traditional clothing, fabrics, textiles, wood items, artworks and traditional goods such as jade and amber works. Tourism has provided a number of a these communities with markets for their handcrafts and works, some of which are very profitable. Relations between the indigenous ethnic groups is complicated. While there has been inter-ethnic political activism such as that promoted by the Diocese of Chiapas in the 1970s and the Zapatista movement in the 1990s, there has been inter-indigenous conflict as well. Tzeltals The Tzeltals call themselves Winik atel, which means "working men." This is the largest ethnicity in the state, mostly living southeast of San Cristóbal with the largest number in Amatenango. Tzotzils are found in the highlands or Los Altos and spread out towards the northeast near the border with Tabasco. However, Tzotzil communities can be found in almost every municipality of the state. They are concentrated in Chamula, Zinacantán, Chenalhó, and Simojovel. Their language is closely related to Tzeltal and distantly related to Yucatec Mayan and Lacandon. Men dress in short pants tied with a red cotton belt and a shirt that hangs down to their knees. They also wear leather huaraches and a hat decorated with ribbons. The women wear a red or blue skirt, a short huipil as a blouse, and use a chal or rebozo to carry babies and bundles. Tzotzil communities are governed by a katinab who is selected for life by the leaders of each neighborhood. The Tzotzils are also known for their continued use of the temazcal for hygiene and medicinal purposes. According to oral tradition, the Tojolabales came north from Guatemala. They are mostly located in the communities of Lacanjá Chansayab, Najá, and Mensabak in the Lacandon Jungle. They live near the ruins of Bonampak and Yaxchilan and local lore states that the gods resided here when they lived on Earth. They inhabit about a million hectares of rainforest but from the 16th century to the present, migrants have taken over the area, most of which are indigenous from other areas of Chiapas. This dramatically altered their lifestyle and worldview. Traditional Lacandon shelters are huts made with fonds and wood with an earthen floor, but this has mostly given way to modern structures.MamsThe Mams are a Mayan ethnicity that numbers about 20,000 found in thirty municipalities, especially Tapachula, Motozintla, El Porvenir, Cacahoatán and Amatenango in the southeastern Sierra Madre of Chiapas. The state is divided into nine economic regions. These regions were established in the 1980s in order to facilitate statewide economic planning. Many of these regions are based on state and federal highway systems. These include Centro, Altos, Fronteriza, Frailesca, Norte, Selva, Sierra, Soconusco and Istmo-Costa. Despite being rich in resources, Chiapas, along with Oaxaca and Guerrero, lags behind the rest of the country in almost all socioeconomic indicators. , there were 889,420 residential units; 71% had running water, 77.3% sewerage, and 93.6% electricity. Because of its high rate of economic marginalization, more people migrate from Chiapas than migrate to it. Most of its socioeconomic indicators are the lowest in the country including income, education, health and housing. It has a significantly higher percentage of illiteracy than the rest of the country, although that situation has improved since the 1970s when over 45% were illiterate and 1980s, about 32%. The tropical climate presents health challenges, with most illnesses related to the gastro-intestinal tract and parasites. Although until the 1960s, many indigenous communities were considered by scholars to be autonomous and economically isolated, this was never the case. Economic conditions began forcing many to migrate to work, especially in agriculture for non-indigenous. However, unlike many other migrant workers, most indigenous in Chiapas have remained strongly tied to their home communities. The production of bananas, cacao and corn make Chiapas Mexico's second largest agricultural producer overall. Main power stations are located at Malpaso, La Angostura, Chicoasén and Peñitas, which produce about eight percent of Mexico's hydroelectric energy. One commercial reason is the market for crafts provided by the tourism industry. Another is that most indigenous communities can no longer provide for their own needs through agriculture. The need to generate outside income has led to many indigenous women producing crafts communally, which has not only had economic benefits but also involved them in the political process as well. One of the main minerals of the state is amber, much of which is 25 million years old, with quality comparable to that found in the Dominican Republic. Chiapan amber has a number of unique qualities, including much that is clear all the way through and some with fossilized insects and plants. Most Chiapan amber is worked into jewelry including pendants, rings and necklaces. Colors vary from white to yellow/orange to a deep red, but there are also green and pink tones as well. Since pre-Hispanic times, native peoples have believed amber to have healing and protective qualities. The largest amber mine is in Simojovel, a small village 130 km from Tuxtla Gutiérrez, which produces 95% of Chiapas's amber. Other mines are found in Huitiupán, Totolapa, El Bosque, Pueblo Nuevo Solistahuacán, Pantelhó and San Andrés Duraznal. According to the Museum of Amber in San Cristóbal, almost 300 kg of amber is extracted per month from the state. Prices vary depending on quality and color. The most traditional ceramic in Amatenango and Aguacatenango is a type of large jar called a cantaro used to transport water and other liquids. In addition to the sites on the Mayan Route, there are others within the state away from the border such as Toniná, near the city of Ocosingo. Other attractions along this route include Comitán de Domínguez and Chiapa de Corzo, along with small indigenous communities such as San Juan Chamula. The Coffee Route begins in Tapachula and follows a mountainous road into the Suconusco regopm. The route passes through Puerto Chiapas, a port with modern infrastructure for shipping exports and receiving international cruises. Others are based on the state's lakes and rivers. Laguna Verde is a lake in the Coapilla municipality. The lake is generally green but its tones constantly change through the day depending on how the sun strikes it. In the early morning and evening hours there can also be blue and ochre tones as well. The El Chiflón Waterfall is part of an ecotourism center located in a valley with reeds, sugarcane, mountains and rainforest. It is formed by the San Vicente River and has pools of water at the bottom popular for swimming. The Las Nubes Ecotourism center is located in the Las Margaritas municipality near the Guatemalan border. The area features a number of turquoise blue waterfalls with bridges and lookout points set up to see them up close. It is one of the most elaborately decorated in Mexico. The churches and former monasteries of Santo Domingo, La Merced and San Francisco have ornamentation similar to that of the cathedral. The main structures in Chiapa de Corzo are the Santo Domingo monastery and the La Pila fountain. Santo Domingo has indigenous decorative details such as double headed eagles as well as a statue of the founding monk. In San Cristóbal, the Diego de Mazariegos house has a Plateresque facade, while that of Francisco de Montejo, built later in the 18th century has a mix of Baroque and Neoclassical. Art Deco structures can be found in San Cristóbal and Tapachula in public buildings as well as a number of rural coffee plantations from the Porfirio Díaz era. The two best-known poets from the state are Jaime Sabines and Rosario Castellanos, both from prominent Chiapan families. The first was a merchant and diplomat and the second was a teacher, diplomat, theatre director and the director of the Instituto Nacional Indigenista. Jaime Sabines is widely regarded as Mexico's most influential contemporary poet. His work celebrates everyday people in common settings. Chiapan dishes do not incorporate many chili peppers as part of their dishes. Rather, chili peppers are most often found in the condiments. One reason for that is that a local chili pepper, called the simojovel, is far too hot to use except very sparingly. Chiapan cuisine tends to rely more on slightly sweet seasonings in their main dishes such as cinnamon, plantains, prunes and pineapple are often found in meat and poultry dishes. The Diocese of Chiapas comprises almost the entire state, and centered on San Cristobal de las Casas. It was founded in 1538 by Pope Paul III to evangelize the area with its most famous bishop of that time Bartolomé de las Casas. Evangelization focused on grouping indigenous peoples into communities centered on a church. This bishop not only graciously evangelized the people in their own language, he worked to introduce many of the crafts still practiced today. While still a majority, only 53.9% percent of Chiapas residents profess the Catholic faith as of 2020, Some indigenous people mix Christianity with Indian beliefs. One particular area where this is strong is the central highlands in small communities such as San Juan Chamula. In one church in San Cristobal, Mayan rites including the sacrifice of animals is permitted inside the church to ask for good health or to "ward off the evil eye." By 2015, many indigenous Mayans and more than 700 Tzotzils have converted to Islam. In San Cristóbal, the Murabitun established a pizzeria, a carpentry workshop and a Quranic school (madrasa) where children learned Arabic and prayed five times a day in the backroom of a residential building, and women in head scarves have become a common sight.Archaeology The earliest population of Chiapas was in the coastal Soconusco region, where the Chantuto peoples appeared, going back to 5500 BC. This was the oldest Mesoamerican culture discovered to date. The largest and best-known archaeological sites in Chiapas belong to the Mayan civilization. Apart from a few works by Franciscan friars, knowledge of Maya civilisation largely disappeared after the Spanish Conquest. In the mid-19th century, John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood traveled though the sites in Chiapas and other Mayan areas and published their writings and illustrations. This led to serious work on the culture including the deciphering of its hieroglyphic writing. In Chiapas, principal Mayan sites include Palenque, Toniná, Bonampak, Lacanja, Sak Tz'i, Chinkultic and Tenam Puente, all or near in the Lacandon Jungle. They are technically more advanced than earlier Olmec sites, which can best be seen in the detailed sculpting and novel construction techniques, including structures of four stories in height. Mayan sites are not only noted for large numbers of structures, but also for glyphs, other inscriptions, and artwork that has provided a relatively complete history of many of the sites. Today, Palenque is a World Heritage Site and one of the best-known sites in Mexico. The site contains impressive ruins, with palaces and temples bordering a large plaza upon a terrace above the Usumacinta River. Yaxchilan is known for the large quantity of excellent sculpture at the site, such as the monolithic carved stelae and the narrative stone reliefs carved on lintels spanning the temple doorways. Over 120 inscriptions have been identified on the various monuments from the site. The major groups are the Central Acropolis, the West Acropolis and the South Acropolis. The South Acropolis occupies the highest part of the site. The city of Bonampak features some of the finest remaining Maya murals. The realistically rendered paintings depict human sacrifices, musicians and scenes of the royal court. Multiple domestic constructions used by the population for religious purposes. “Plaza Muk’ul Ton” or Monuments Plaza where people used to gather for ceremonies was also unearthed by the team.Pre-Mayan cultures While the Mayan sites are the best-known, there are a number of other important sites in the state, including many older than the Maya civilization. The oldest sites are in the coastal Soconusco region. This includes the Mokaya culture, the oldest ceramic culture of Mesoamerica. Later, Paso de la Amada became important, in this site is built the oldest Mesoamerican ballcourt. Many of these sites are in Mazatan, Chiapas area. Izapa became an important pre-Mayan site as well. There are also other ancient sites including Tapachula and Tecpatán, and Pijijiapan. These sites contain numerous embankments and foundations that once lay beneath pyramids and other buildings. Some of these buildings have disappeared and others have been covered by jungle for about 3,000 years, unexplored. Pijijiapan and Izapa are on the Pacific coast and were the most important pre Hispanic cities for about 1,000 years, as the most important commercial centers between the Mexican Plateau and Central America. Sima de las Cotorras is a sinkhole 140 meters deep with a diameter of 160 meters in the municipality of Ocozocoautla. It contains ancient cave paintings depicting warriors, animals and more. It is best known as a breeding area for parrots, thousands of which leave the area at once at dawn and return at dusk. The state as its Museo Regional de Antropologia e Historia located in Tuxtla Gutiérrez focusing on the pre Hispanic peoples of the state with a room dedicated to its history from the colonial period. Most of Chiapas's illiterate population are indigenous women, who are often prevented from going to school. School absenteeism and dropout rates are highest among indigenous girls. Infrastructure Transport The state has approximately of highway with 10,857 federally maintained and 11,660 maintained by the state. Almost all of these kilometers are paved. Major highways include the Las Choapas-Raudales-Ocozocoautla, which links the state to Oaxaca, Veracruz, Puebla and Mexico City. Major airports include Llano San Juan in Ocozocoautla, Francisco Sarabia National Airport (which was replaced by Ángel Albino Corzo International Airport) in Tuxtla Gutiérrez and Corazón de María Airport (which closed in 2010) in San Cristóbal de las Casas. These are used for domestic flights with the airports in Palenque and Tapachula providing international service into Guatemala. There are 22 other airfields in twelve other municipalities. Rail lines extend over 547.8 km. There are two major lines: one in the north of the state that links the center and southeast of the country, and the Costa Panamericana route, which runs from Oaxaca to the Guatemalan border. The port serves the state of Chiapas and northern Guatemala. Puerto Chiapas serves to import and export products across the Pacific to Asia, the United States, Canada and South America. It also has connections with the Panama Canal. A marina serves yachts in transit. There is an international airport located away as well as a railroad terminal ending at the port proper. 2010, the port gained a terminal for cruise ships with tours to the Izapa site, the Coffee Route, the city of Tapachula, Pozuelos Lake and an Artesanal Chocolate Tour. Principal exports through the port include banana and banana trees, corn, fertilizer and tuna. <gallery widths"200px" heights"155px" class="center"> File:Puertochis1.JPG\|View of Port Chiapas File:TGZ Airport.jpg\|Ángel Albino Corzo International Airport </gallery> Media There are thirty-six AM radio stations and sixteen FM stations. There are thirty-seven local television stations and sixty-six repeaters. See also 2017 Chiapas earthquake Ciudad Hidalgo Notes References Further reading Benjamin, Thomas. A Rich Land, a Poor People: Politics and Society in Modern Chiapas. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. 1996. Benjamin, Thomas. "A Time of Reconquest: History, the Maya Revival, and the Zapatista Rebellion." The American Historical Review, Vol. 105, no. 2 (April 2000): pp. 417–450. Collier, George A, and Elizabeth Lowery Quaratiello. Basta! Land and the Zapatista Rebellion in Chiapas. Oakland: The Institute for Food and Development Policy, 1994. Collier, George A. "The Rebellion in Chiapas and the Legacy of Energy Development." Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos, Vol. 10, no. 2 (Summer 1994): pp. 371–382 García, María Cristina. Seeking Refuge: Central American Migration to Mexico, the United States, and Canada. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 2006 Hamnett, Brian R. Concise History of Mexico. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1999. Hidalgo, Margarita G. (Editor). Contributions to the Sociology of Language: Mexican Indigenous Languages at the Dawn of the Twenty-First Century. Berlin: DEU: Walter de Gruyter & Co. kg Publishers, Berlin, 2009. Higgins, Nicholas P. Understanding the Chiapas Rebellion: Modernist Visions and the Invisible Indian. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2004, Jiménez González, Victor Manuel (Editor). Chiapas: Guía para descubrir los encantos del estado. Mexico City: Editorial Océano de México, SA de CV 2009. Lowe, G. W., “Chiapas de Corzo”, in Evans, Susan, ed., Archaeology of Ancient Mexico and Central America, Taylor & Francis, London. Whitmeyer, Joseph M. and Hopcroft, Rosemary L. "Community, Capitalism, and Rebellion in Chiapas." Sociological Perspectives Vol. 39, no. 4 (Winter 1996): pp. 517–538. External links [http://www.chiapas.gob.mx/ Chiapas State Government] [http://www.ezln.org.mx/index.html Zapatista National Army of Liberation] [https://web.archive.org/web/20120119081719/http://www.sipaz.org/crono/proceng.htm brief history of the conflict in Chiapas (1994–2007)] Acosta et al., 2018. [http://boletinsgm.igeolcu.unam.mx/bsgm/index.php/component/content/article/368-sitio/articulos/cuarta-epoca/7001/1857-7001-1-acosta "Climate change and peopling of the Neotropics during the Pleistocene-Holocene transition"]. Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana. *[https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/scrc/findingaids/view.php?eadid=ICU.SPCL.ANTHROCHIAPAS Guide to the University of Chicago Department of Anthropology Chiapas Project Records 1942-circa 1990s] at the [https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/scrc/ University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center] Category:1824 establishments in Mexico Category:States and territories established in 1824 Category:States of Mexico Category:Former countries of Mexico Category:Former countries in Central America Category:Former republics	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiapas	2025-04-05T18:27:57.701498
6788	Chrysler Building	\| groundbreaking_date <!--September 19, 1928 \| embedded = \| designation4_number 0992 \| designation4_free1name = Designated entity \| designation4_free1value = Facade \| designation5 = NYCL \| designation5_date September 12, 1978 \| designation5_number 0996 \| designation5_free1name = Designated entity \| designation5_free1value = Interior: Lobby }} }} The Chrysler Building is an Art Deco skyscraper on the East Side of Manhattan in New York City, at the intersection of 42nd Street and Lexington Avenue in Midtown Manhattan. At , it is the tallest brick building in the world with a steel framework. It was both the world's first supertall skyscraper and the world's tallest building for 11 months after its completion in 1930. , the Chrysler is the 12th-tallest building in the city, tied with The New York Times Building. Originally a project of real estate developer and former New York State Senator William H. Reynolds, the building was commissioned by Walter Chrysler, the head of the Chrysler Corporation. The construction of the Chrysler Building, an early skyscraper, was characterized by a competition with 40 Wall Street and the Empire State Building to become the world's tallest building. The Chrysler Building was designed and funded by Walter Chrysler personally as a real estate investment for his children, but it was not intended as the Chrysler Corporation's headquarters. An annex was completed in 1952, and the building was sold by the Chrysler family the next year, with numerous subsequent owners. When the Chrysler Building opened, there were mixed reviews of the building's design, some calling it inane and unoriginal, others hailing it as modernist and iconic. Reviewers in the late 20th and early 21st centuries regarded the building as a paragon of the Art Deco architectural style. In 2007, it was ranked ninth on the American Institute of Architects' list of America's Favorite Architecture. The facade and interior became New York City designated landmarks in 1978, and the structure was added to the National Register of Historic Places as a National Historic Landmark in 1976. Site The Chrysler Building is on the eastern side of Lexington Avenue between 42nd and 43rd streets in Midtown Manhattan in New York City. The land was donated to The Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art in 1902. The site is roughly a trapezoid with a frontage on Lexington Avenue; a frontage on 42nd Street; and a frontage on 43rd Street. The site bordered the old Boston Post Road, which predated, and ran aslant of, the Manhattan street grid established by the Commissioners' Plan of 1811. As a result, the east side of the building's base is similarly aslant. The building is assigned its own ZIP Code, 10174. It is one of 41 buildings in Manhattan that have their own ZIP Codes, . The Grand Hyatt New York hotel and the Graybar Building are across Lexington Avenue, while the Socony–Mobil Building is across 42nd Street. In addition, the Chanin Building is to the southwest, diagonally across Lexington Avenue and 42nd Street. The building is constructed of a steel frame infilled with masonry, with areas of decorative metal cladding. The structure contains 3,862 exterior windows. and the 61st-floor is adorned with eagles as a nod to America's national bird. The design of the Chrysler Building makes extensive use of bright "Nirosta" stainless steel, an austenitic alloy developed in Germany by Krupp. It was the first use of this "18-8 stainless steel" in an American project, composed of 18% chromium and 8% nickel. Nirosta was used in the exterior ornaments, the window frames, the crown, and the needle. The steel was an integral part of Van Alen's design, as E.E. Thum explains: "The use of permanently bright metal was of greatest aid in the carrying of rising lines and the diminishing circular forms in the roof treatment, so as to accentuate the gradual upward swing until it literally dissolves into the sky...." Stainless steel producers used the Chrysler Building to evaluate the durability of the product in architecture. In 1929, the American Society for Testing Materials created an inspection committee to study its performance, which regarded the Chrysler Building as the best location to do so; a subcommittee examined the building's panels every five years until 1960, when the inspections were canceled because the panels had shown minimal deterioration. Form The Chrysler Building's height and legally mandated setbacks influenced Van Alen in his design. The walls of the lowermost sixteen floors rise directly from the sidewalk property lines, except for a recess on one side that gives the building a U-shaped floor plan above the fourth floor. There are setbacks on floors 16, 18, 23, 28, and 31, making the building compliant with the 1916 Zoning Resolution. This gives the building the appearance of a ziggurat on one side and a U-shaped palazzo on the other. Above the 31st floor, there are no more setbacks until the 60th floor, above which the structure is funneled into a Maltese cross shape that "blends the square shaft to the finial", according to author and photographer Cervin Robinson. The floor plans of the first sixteen floors were made as large as possible to optimize the amount of rental space nearest ground level, which was seen as most desirable. The U-shaped cut above the fourth floor served as a shaft for air flow and illumination. The area between floors 28 and 31 added "visual interest to the middle of the building, preventing it from being dominated by the heavy detail of the lower floors and the eye-catching design of the finial. They provide a base to the column of the tower, effecting a transition between the blocky lower stories and the lofty shaft." Facade Base and shaft The ground floor exterior is covered in polished black granite from Shastone, while the three floors above it are clad in white marble from Georgia. There are two main entrances, on Lexington Avenue and on 42nd Street, each three floors high with Shastone granite surrounding each proscenium-shaped entryway. At some distance into each main entryway, there are revolving doors "beneath intricately patterned metal and glass screens", designed so as to embody the Art Deco tenet of amplifying the entrance's visual impact. A smaller side entrance on 43rd Street is one story high. There are storefronts consisting of large Nirosta-steel-framed windows at ground level. Office windows penetrate the second through fourth floors. The west and east elevations contain the air shafts above the fourth floor, while the north and south sides contain the receding setbacks. Below the 16th floor, the facade is clad with white brick, interrupted by white-marble bands in a manner similar to basket weaving. The inner faces of the brick walls are coated with a waterproof grout mixture measuring about thick. The windows, arranged in grids, do not have window sills, the frames being flush with the facade. Between the 16th and 24th floors, the exterior exhibits vertical white brick columns that are separated by windows on each floor. This visual effect is made possible by the presence of aluminum spandrels between the columns of windows on each floor. There are abstract reliefs on the 20th through 22nd-floor spandrels, while the 24th floor contains decorative pineapples. Above the third setback, consisting of the 24th through 27th floors, the facade contains horizontal bands and zigzagged gray-and-black brick motifs. The section above the fourth setback, between the 27th and 31st floors, serves as a podium for the main shaft of the building. There are Nirosta-steel decorations above the setbacks. At each corner of the 31st floor, large car-hood ornaments were installed to make the base look larger. These corner extensions help counter a common optical illusion seen in tall buildings with horizontal bands, whose taller floors would normally look larger. The 31st floor also contains a gray and white frieze of hubcaps and fenders, which both symbolize the Chrysler Corporation and serves as a visual signature of the building's Art Deco design. The entire crown is clad with Nirosta steel, ribbed and riveted in a radiating sunburst pattern with many triangular vaulted windows, reminiscent of the spokes of a wheel. According to Robinson, the terraced crown "continue[s] the wedding-cake layering of the building itself. This concept is carried forward from the 61st floor, whose eagle gargoyles echo the treatment of the 31st, to the spire, which extends the concept of 'higher and narrower' forward to infinite height and infinitesimal width. This unique treatment emphasizes the building's height, giving it an other worldly atmosphere reminiscent of the fantastic architecture of Coney Island or the Far East." Television station WCBS-TV (Channel 2) originated its transmission from the top of the Chrysler Building in 1938. WCBS-TV transmissions were shifted to the Empire State Building in 1960 in response to competition from RCA's transmitter on that building. For many years WPAT-FM and WTFM (now WKTU) also transmitted from the Chrysler Building, but their move to the Empire State Building by the 1970s ended commercial broadcasting from the structure. – was added in 1981, although it had been part of the original design. Until 1998, the lights were turned off at 2 a.m., but The New York Observer columnist Ron Rosenbaum convinced Tishman Speyer to keep the lights on until 6 a.m. Since 2015, the Chrysler Building and other city skyscrapers have been part of the Audubon Society's Lights Out program, turning off their lights during bird migration seasons. Interior The interior of the building has several elements that were innovative when the structure was constructed. The partitions between the offices are soundproofed and divided into interchangeable sections, so the layout of any could be changed quickly and comfortably. Pipes under the floors carry both telephone and electricity cables. The topmost stories are the smallest in the building and have about each. Lobby The lobby is triangular in plan, connecting with entrances on Lexington Avenue, 42nd Street, and 43rd Street. The lobby was the only publicly accessible part of the Chrysler Building by the 2000s. The three entrances contain Nirosta steel doors, above which are etched-glass panels that allow natural light to illuminate the space. The floors contain bands of yellow travertine from Siena, which mark the path between the entrances and elevator banks. The writer Eric Nash described the lobby as a paragon of the Art Deco style, with clear influences of German Expressionism. Chrysler wanted the design to impress other architects and automobile magnates, so he imported various materials regardless of the extra costs incurred. Vertical bars of fluorescent light are covered with Belgian blue marble and Mexican amber onyx bands, which soften and diffuse the light. The marble and onyx bands are designed as inverted chevrons. Opposite the Lexington Avenue entrance is a security guard's desk topped by a digital clock. The panel behind the desk is made of marble, surrounded by Nirosta steel. The lobby connects to four elevator banks, each of a different design. To the north and south of the security desk are terrazzo staircases leading to the second floor and basement. The stairs contain marble walls and Nirosta-steel railings. The outer walls are flat but are clad with marble strips that are slightly angled to each other, which give the impression of being curved. The inner railings of each stair are designed with zigzagging Art Deco motifs, ending at red-marble newel posts on the ground story. Above each stair are aluminum-leaf ceilings with etched-glass chandeliers. The ceiling contains a mural, Transport and Human Endeavor, designed by Edward Trumbull. The mural's theme is "energy and man's application of it to the solution of his problems", and it pays homage to the Golden Age of Aviation and the Machine Age. The mural is painted in the shape of a "Y" with ocher and golden tones. The central image of the mural is a "muscled giant whose brain directs his boundless energy to the attainment of the triumphs of this mechanical era", according to a 1930 pamphlet that advertised the building. The mural's Art Deco style is manifested in characteristic triangles, sharp angles, slightly curved lines, chrome ornaments, and numerous patterns. The exhibition, known as the Chrysler Automobile Salon, was near the corner of Lexington Avenue and 42nd Streets, and opened in 1936. The ground floor featured "invisible glass" display windows, a diameter turntable upon which automobiles were displayed, and a ceiling with lights arranged in concentric circles. Escalators led to the showroom's second floor where Plymouths, Dodges, and DeSotos were sold. The Chrysler Salon remained operational through at least the 1960s. Elevators There are 32 elevators in the skyscraper, clustered into four banks. At the time of opening, 28 of the elevators were for passenger use. Each bank serves different floors within the building, with several "express" elevators going from the lobby to a few landings in between, while "local" elevators connect the landings with the floors above these intermediate landings. As per Walter Chrysler's wishes, the elevators were designed to run at a rate of , despite the speed restriction enforced in all city elevators at the time. This restriction was loosened soon after the Empire State Building opened in 1931, as that building had also been equipped with high-speed elevators. The Chrysler Building also had three of the longest elevator shafts in the world at the time of completion. Over the course of a year, Van Alen painstakingly designed these elevators with the assistance of L.T.M. Ralston, who was in charge of developing the elevator cabs' mechanical parts. The cabs were manufactured by the Otis Elevator Company, while the doors were made by the Tyler Company. The dimensions of each elevator were deep by wide. Within the lobby, there are ziggurat-shaped Mexican onyx panels above the elevator doors. The doors are designed in a lotus pattern and are clad with steel and wood. When the doors are closed, they resemble "tall fans set off by metallic palm fronds rising through a series of silver parabolas, whose edges were set off by curved lilies" from the outside, as noted by Curcio. However, when a set of doors is open, the cab behind the doors resembles "an exquisite Art Deco room". These elements were influenced by ancient Egyptian designs, which significantly impacted the Art Deco style. According to Vincent Curcio, "these elevator interiors were perhaps the single most beautiful and, next to the dome, the most important feature of the entire building." Even though the woods in the elevator cabs were arranged in four basic patterns, each cab had a unique combination of woods. Curcio stated that "if anything the building is based on patterned fabrics, [the elevators] certainly are. Three of the designs could be characterized as having 'geometric', 'Mexican' and vaguely 'art nouveau' motifs, which reflect the various influences on the design of the entire building." The roof of each elevator was covered with a metal plate whose design was unique to that cab, which in turn was placed on a polished wooden pattern that was also customized to the cab. Hidden behind these plates were ceiling fans. Curcio wrote that these elevators "are among the most beautiful small enclosed spaces in New York, and it is fair to say that no one who has seen or been in them has forgotten them". Curcio compared the elevators to the curtains of a Ziegfeld production, noting that each lobby contains lighting that peaks in the middle and slopes down on either side. The decoration of the cabs' interiors was also a nod to the Chrysler Corporation's vehicles: cars built during the building's early years had dashboards with wooden moldings. Both the doors and cab interiors were considered to be works of extraordinary marquetry. Basement <span class"anchor" id"Subway entrance"></span>On the 42nd Street side of the Chrysler Building, a staircase from the street leads directly under the building to the New York City Subway's at Grand Central–42nd Street station. It is part of the structure's original design. The Interborough Rapid Transit Company, which at the time was the operator of all the routes serving the 42nd Street station, originally sued to block construction of the new entrance because it would cause crowding, but the New York City Board of Transportation pushed to allow the corridor anyway. Chrysler eventually built and paid for the building's subway entrance. Work on the new entrance started in March 1930 and it opened along with the Chrysler Building two months later. The basement also had a "hydrozone water bottling unit" that would filter tap water into drinkable water for the building's tenants. The drinkable water would then be bottled and shipped to higher floors. Upper stories Cloud Club The private Cloud Club formerly occupied the 66th through 68th floors. Its creation was spurred by Texaco's wish for a proper restaurant for its executives prior to renting fourteen floors in the building. The Cloud Club was a compromise between William Van Alen's modern style and Walter Chrysler's stately and traditional tastes. There was a Tudor-style foyer on the 66th floor with oak paneling, as well as an old English-style grill room with wooden floors, wooden beams, wrought-iron chandeliers, and glass and lead doors. and the club closed two years later. as then-owner Cooke reportedly did not want a "conventional" restaurant operating within the old club. Tishman Speyer rented the top two floors of the old Cloud Club. The office had a medieval ambience with leaded windows, elaborate wooden doors, and heavy plaster. Chrysler did not use his gym much, instead choosing to stay at the Chrysler Corporation's headquarters in Detroit. The office still had the suite's original bathroom and gymnasium. Observation deck and attic From the building's opening until 1945, it contained a observation deck on the 71st floor, called "Celestial". For fifty cents visitors could transit its circumference through a corridor with vaulted ceilings painted with celestial motifs and bedecked with small hanging glass planets. The center of the observatory contained the toolbox that Walter P. Chrysler used at the beginning of his career as a mechanic; Since 1986, the old observatory has housed the office of architects Harvey Morse and Cowperwood Interests. The stories above the 71st floor are designed mostly for exterior appearance, functioning mainly as landings for the stairway to the spire and do not contain office space. They are very narrow, have low and sloping roofs, and are only used to house radio transmitters and other mechanical and electrical equipment. and its population exceeded ten million by the early 1930s. The era was characterized by profound social and technological changes. Consumer goods such as radio, cinema, and the automobile became widespread. The following year, Chrysler was named Time magazine's "Person of the Year". Following the end of World War I, European and American architects came to see simplified design as the epitome of the modern era and Art Deco skyscrapers as symbolizing progress, innovation, and modernity. The 1916 Zoning Resolution restricted the height that street-side exterior walls of New York City buildings could rise before needing to be setback from the street. This law was superseded by the 1961 Zoning Resolution.\|namezoning}} This led to the construction of Art Deco structures in New York City with significant setbacks, large volumes, and striking silhouettes that were often elaborately decorated. Art Deco buildings were constructed for only a short period of time; but because that period was during the city's late-1920s real estate boom, the numerous skyscrapers built in the Art Deco style predominated in the city skyline, giving it the romantic quality seen in films and plays. The Chrysler Building project was shaped by these circumstances. Reynolds hired the architect William Van Alen to design a forty-story building there in 1927. Van Alen's original design featured many Modernist stylistic elements, with glazed, curved windows at the corners. with the United Nations headquarters in the background ]] Van Alen was respected in his field for his work on the Albemarle Building at Broadway and 24th Street, designing it in collaboration with his partner H. Craig Severance. Van Alen and Severance complemented each other, with Van Alen being an original, imaginative architect and Severance being a shrewd businessperson who handled the firm's finances. The relationship between them became tense over disagreements on how best to run the firm. The proposal was changed again two weeks later, with official plans for a 63-story building. A little more than a week after that, the plan was changed for the third time, with two additional stories added. By this time, 42nd Street and Lexington Avenue were both hubs for construction activity, due to the removal of the Third Avenue Elevated's 42nd Street spur, which was seen as a blight on the area. The adjacent 56-story Chanin Building was also under construction. Because of the elevated spur's removal, real estate speculators believed that Lexington Avenue would become the "Broadway of the East Side", causing a ripple effect that would spur developments farther east. In April 1928, Reynolds signed a 67-year lease for the plot and finalized the details of his ambitious project. Van Alen's original design for the skyscraper called for a base with first-floor showroom windows that would be triple-height, and above would be 12 stories with glass-wrapped corners, to create the impression that the tower was floating in mid-air. Reynolds's main contribution to the building's design was his insistence that it have a metallic crown, despite Van Alen's initial opposition; the metal-and-crystal crown would have looked like "a jeweled sphere" at night. Originally, the skyscraper would have risen , with 67 floors. Van Alen's drawings were unveiled in the following August and published in a magazine run by the American Institute of Architects (AIA). Reynolds ultimately devised an alternate design for the Reynolds Building, which was published in August 1928. The new design was much more conservative, with an Italianate dome that a critic compared to Governor Al Smith's bowler hat, and a brick arrangement on the upper floors that simulated windows in the corners, a detail that remains in the current Chrysler Building. This design almost exactly reflected the shape, setbacks, and the layout of the windows of the current building, but with a different dome.<!--The groundbreaking date may not be correct; see talk.--> but by late 1928, Reynolds did not have the means to carry on construction. Walter Chrysler offered to buy the building in early October 1928, and Reynolds sold the plot, lease, plans, and architect's services to Chrysler on October 15, 1928, That day, the Goodwin Construction Company began demolition of what had been built. and demolition was completed on November 9. Chrysler's initial plans for the building were similar to Reynolds's, but with the 808-foot building having 68 floors instead of 67. The plans entailed a ground-floor pedestrian arcade; a facade of stone below the fifth floor and brick-and-terracotta above; and a three-story bronze-and-glass "observation dome" at the top. Meanwhile, excavation of the new building's foundation began in mid-November 1928 and was completed in mid-January 1929, when bedrock was reached. A total of of rock and of soil were excavated for the foundation, equal to 63% of the future building's weight. Construction of the building proper began on January 21, 1929. The Carnegie Steel Company provided the steel beams, the first of which was installed on March 27; and by April 9, the first upright beams had been set into place. The steel structure was "a few floors" high by June 1929, 35 floors high by early August, and completed by September. no workers died during the construction of the skyscraper's steelwork. Chrysler lauded this achievement, saying, "It is the first time that any structure in the world has reached such a height, yet the entire steel construction was accomplished without loss of life". and approximately 3,826,000 bricks were laid to create the non-loadbearing walls of the skyscraper. Walter Chrysler personally financed the construction with his income from his car company. The Chrysler Building's height officially surpassed the Woolworth's on October 16, 1929, thereby becoming the world's tallest structure. Competition for "world's tallest building" title The same year that the Chrysler Building's construction started, banker George L. Ohrstrom proposed the construction of a 47-story office building at 40 Wall Street downtown, designed by Van Alen's former partner Severance. Shortly thereafter, Ohrstrom expanded his project to 60 floors, but it was still shorter than the Woolworth and Chrysler buildings. The Empire State Building, on 34th Street and Fifth Avenue, entered the competition in 1929. The race was defined by at least five other proposals, although only the Empire State Building would survive the Wall Street Crash of 1929. tower built by Abraham E. Lefcourt at Broadway and 49th Street; a 100-story tower developed by the Fred F. French Company on Sixth Avenue between 43rd and 44th Streets; an 85-story tower to be developed on the site of the Belmont Hotel near Grand Central Terminal; and the Noyes-Schulte Company's proposed tower on Broadway between Duane and Worth Streets. Only one of these projects was even partially completed: the base of the Metropolitan Life North Building.}} The "Race into the Sky", as popular media called it at the time, was representative of the country's optimism in the 1920s, which helped fuel the building boom in major cities. Van Alen expanded the Chrysler Building's height to , prompting Severance to increase the height of 40 Wall Street to in April 1929. Construction of 40 Wall Street began that May and was completed twelve months later. Two days later, the Empire State Building's co-developer, former governor Al Smith, announced the updated plans for that skyscraper, with an observation deck on the 86th-floor roof at a height of , higher than the Chrysler's 71st-floor observation deck at . Completion In January 1930, it was announced that the Chrysler Corporation would maintain satellite offices in the Chrysler Building during Automobile Show Week. The skyscraper was never intended to become the Chrysler Corporation's headquarters, which remained in Detroit. The first leases by outside tenants were announced in April 1930, before the building was officially completed. The building was formally opened on May 27, 1930, in a ceremony that coincided with the 42nd Street Property Owners and Merchants Association's meeting that year. In the lobby of the building, a bronze plaque that read "in recognition of Mr. Chrysler's contribution to civic advancement" was unveiled. Former Governor Smith, former Assemblyman Martin G. McCue, and 42nd Street Association president George W. Sweeney were among those in attendance. By June, it was reported that 65% of the available space had been leased. By August, the building was declared complete, but the New York City Department of Construction did not mark it as finished until February 1932. The added height of the spire allowed the Chrysler Building to surpass 40 Wall Street as the tallest building in the world and the Eiffel Tower as the tallest structure. The Chrysler Building was thus the first man-made structure to be taller than and, by extension, the world's first supertall skyscraper. The tower remained the world's tallest for 11 months after its completion. The Chrysler Building was appraised at $14 million, but was exempt from city taxes per an 1859 law that gave tax exemptions to sites owned by the Cooper Union. The city had attempted to repeal the tax exemption, but Cooper Union had opposed that measure. Because the Chrysler Building retains the tax exemption, it has paid Cooper Union for the use of their land since opening. By contrast, Empire State had only leased 23 percent of its space and was popularly derided as the "Empty State Building". <span class"anchor" id"Ownership"></span><span class"anchor" id"Later history"></span> Use <span class"anchor" id"20th century"></span> 1940s to 1960sThe Chrysler family inherited the property after the death of Walter Chrysler in 1940, with the property being under the ownership of W.P. Chrysler Building Corporation. In 1944, the corporation filed plans to build a 38-story annex to the east of the building, at 666 Third Avenue. In 1949, this was revised to a 32-story annex costing $9 million. The annex building, designed by Reinhard, Hofmeister & Walquist, had a facade similar to that of the original Chrysler Building. The stone for the original building was no longer manufactured, and had to be specially replicated. Construction started on the annex in June 1950, and the first tenants started leasing in June 1951. The building itself was completed by 1952, The family sold the building in 1953 to William Zeckendorf for its assessed price of $18 million. The 1953 deal included the annex and the nearby Graybar Building, which, along with the Chrysler Building, sold for a combined $52 million. The new owners were Zeckendorf's company Webb and Knapp, who held a 75% interest in the sale, and the Graysler Corporation, who held a 25% stake. At the time, it was reported to be the largest real estate sale in New York City's history. In 1957, the Chrysler Building, its annex, and the Graybar Building were sold for $66 million to Lawrence Wien's realty syndicate, setting a new record for the largest sale in the city. In 1960, the complex was purchased by Sol Goldman and Alex DiLorenzo, who received a mortgage from the Massachusetts Mutual Life Insurance Company. The next year, the building's stainless steel elements, including the needle, crown, gargoyles, and entrance doors, were polished for the first time. A group of ten workers steam-cleaned the facade below the 30th floor, and manually cleaned the portion of the tower above the 30th floor, for a cost of about $200,000. The Chrysler Building remained profitable until 1974, when the owners faced increasing taxes and fuel costs.1970s to mid-1990sForeclosure proceedings against the building began in August 1975, when Goldman and DiLorenzo defaulted on the $29 million first mortgage and a $15 million second mortgage. The building was about 17 percent vacant at the time. Texaco, one of the building's major tenants, was relocating to Westchester County, New York, by then, vacating hundreds of thousands of square feet at the Chrysler Building. In early 1978, Mass Mutual devised plans to renovate the facade, heating, ventilation, air-conditioning, elevators, lobby murals, and Cloud Club headquarters for $23 million. At a press conference announcing the renovation, mayor Ed Koch proclaimed that "the steel eagles and the gargoyles of the Chrysler Building are all shouting the renaissance of New York". After the renovation was announced, the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) considered designating the Chrysler Building as a city landmark. At the time, the building had of vacant floor space, representing 40% of the total floor area. The LPC designated the lobby and facade as city landmarks in September 1978. Massachusetts Mutual had hired Josephine Sokolski to renovate the lobby, but the LPC objected that many aspects of Sokolski's planned redesign had deviated too much from Van Alen's original design. As a result of these disputes, the renovation of the lobby was delayed. At the time, the building was 96 percent occupied. The new owners hired Kenneth Kleiman of Descon Interiors to redesign the lobby and elevator cabs in a style that was much closer to Van Alen's original design. Cooke next hired Hoffman Architects to restore the exterior and spire from 1995 to 1996. The joints in the now-closed observation deck were polished, and the facade restored, as part of a $1.5 million project. Some damaged steel strips of the needle were replaced and several parts of the gargoyles were re-welded together. Cooke died in April 1997, and his mortgage lender Fuji Bank moved to foreclose on the building the next month. Shortly after Fuji announced its intent to foreclose, several developers and companies announced that they were interested in buying the building. Ultimately, 20 potential buyers submitted bids to buy the Chrysler Building and several adjacent buildings. Late 1990s to 2010s Tishman Speyer Properties and the Travelers Insurance Group won the right to buy the building in November 1997, having submitted a bid for about $220 million (equal to $ million in ). Tishman Speyer had negotiated a 150-year lease from the Cooper Union, which continued to own the land under the Chrysler Building. In 1998, Tishman Speyer announced that it had hired Beyer Blinder Belle to renovate the building and incorporate it into a commercial complex known as the Chrysler Center. As part of this project, EverGreene Architectural Arts restored the Transport and Human Endeavor mural in the lobby, which had been covered up during the late-1970s renovation. The building was 95 percent occupied by 2005. In June 2008, it was reported that the Abu Dhabi Investment Council was in negotiations to buy TMW's 75 percent ownership stake, Tishman Speyer's 15 percent stake, and a share of the Trylons retail structure next door for US$800 million. The transaction was completed the next month, and the Abu Dhabi Investment Council assumed a 90 percent stake in the building, with Tishman Speyer retaining 10 percent. Tishman continued to manage the building and paid the Cooper Union $7.5 million a year. That March, the media reported that Aby Rosen's RFR Holding LLC, in a joint venture with the Austrian Signa Group, had reached an agreement to purchase the leasehold at a steeply discounted $150 million. In exchange, Rosen had to pay the Cooper Union $32.5 million a year, a steep increase from the rate the previous leaseholders had paid. Rosen initially planned to convert the building into a hotel, but he dropped these plans in April 2019, citing difficulties with the ground lease. Rosen then announced plans for an observation deck on the 61st-story setback, which the LPC approved in May 2020. He also wanted to reopen the Cloud Club and attract multiple restaurateurs. and he evicted storeowners from all of the building's shops in an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to renovate the retail space. To attract tenants following the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City in 2020, he converted the Chrysler Building's ground-floor space into a tenant amenity center. RFR estimated that it had spent $170 million to renovate the building. By then, according to an anonymous source cited by Curbed, RFR was losing an estimated $1 million a month from the Chrysler Building's operation. RFR offered to buy Signa's ownership stake for a nominal fee of $1. By mid-2024, the building was aging significantly, and RFR had listed about of the Chrysler Building's office space as being "immediately available for rent". Additionally, it would cost millions of dollars to upgrade the building to meet modern energy-efficiency codes. In its lawsuit, RFR claimed that the Cooper Union had driven away some tenants and had directed other tenants to make rent payments to the college rather than to RFR. Subsequently, the Cooper Union requested that RFR be evicted, and a state judge ordered tenants to pay rent to the Cooper Union that October. RFR's lease was ultimately terminated in January 2025. Chrysler Center <!--Chrysler Center links here--> Chrysler Center is the building complex consisting of the Chrysler Building to the west, Chrysler Building East to the east, and the Chrysler Trylons commercial pavilion in the middle. After Tishman Speyer had acquired the entire complex, the firm renovated it completely from 1998 to 2000. The mechanical systems were modernized and the interior was modified. which surrounded the elevator core on the western end of the original Kent Building. After the addition, the total area of the Kent building was . A new building, also designed by Philip Johnson, was built between the original skyscraper and the annex. This became the Chrysler Trylons, a commercial pavilion three stories high with a retail area of . After these modifications, the total leasable area of the complex was . a LEED Gold designation; and the Skyscraper Museum Outstanding Renovation Award of 2001. Tenants In January 1930, the Chrysler Corporation opened satellite offices in the Chrysler Building during Automobile Show Week. Time moved to Rockefeller Center in 1937. Texaco relocated to a more suburban workplace in Purchase, New York, in 1977. By the 21st century, many of the Chrysler Building's tenants leased space there because of the building's historical stature, rather than because of its amenities. * Clyde & Co * InterMedia Partners * IWG * PA Consulting * Troutman Sanders Impact <span class"anchor" id"Influence"></span> Reception The completed Chrysler Building garnered mixed reviews in the press. Van Alen was hailed as the "Doctor of Altitude" by Architect magazine, while architect Kenneth Murchison called Van Alen the "Ziegfeld of his profession", comparing him to popular Broadway producer Florenz Ziegfeld Jr. An anonymous critic wrote in Architectural Forum October 1930 issue: "The Chrysler...stands by itself, something apart and alone. It is simply the realization, the fulfillment in metal and masonry, of a one-man dream, a dream of such ambitions and such magnitude as to defy the comprehension and the criticism of ordinary men or by ordinary standards." or claimed it had a "Little Nemo"-like design. Lewis Mumford, a supporter of the International Style and one of the foremost architectural critics of the United States at the time, despised the building for its "inane romanticism, meaningless voluptuousness, [and] void symbolism". The public also had mixed reviews of the Chrysler Building, as Murchison wrote: "Some think it's a freak; some think it's a stunt." The architectural professor Gail Fenske said that, although the Chrysler Building was criticized as "too theatrical" at the time of its completion, the general public quickly took a liking to "the city's crowning skyscraper". Anthony W. Robins said the Chrysler Building was "one-of-a-kind, staggering, romantic, soaring, the embodiment of 1920s skyscraper pizzazz, the great symbol of Art Deco New York". Kim Velsey of Curbed said that the building "is unabashedly over the top" because of "its steel gargoyles, Moroccan marble lobby, and illuminated spire". and is widely considered one of the most positively acclaimed buildings in the city. In 2007, the building ranked ninth among 150 buildings in the AIA's ''List of America's Favorite Architecture. The Chrysler Building is widely heralded as an Art Deco icon. Fodor's New York City 2010'' described the building as being "one of the great art deco masterpieces" which "wins many a New Yorker's vote for the city's most iconic and beloved skyscraper". ''Frommer's'' states that the Chrysler was "one of the most impressive Art Deco buildings ever constructed". Insight Guides 2016 edition maintains that the Chrysler Building is considered among the city's "most beautiful" buildings. Its distinctive profile has inspired similar skyscrapers worldwide, including One Liberty Place in Philadelphia, Two Prudential Plaza in Chicago, and the Al Kazim Towers in Dubai. In addition, the New York-New York Hotel and Casino in Paradise, Nevada, contains the "Chrysler Tower", a replica of the Chrysler Building measuring 35 or 40 stories tall. A portion of the hotel's interior was also designed to resemble the Chrysler Building's interior. Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer (2007), Two Weeks Notice (2002), The Avengers (2012) and Men in Black 3 (2012). The building is mentioned in the number "It's the Hard Knock Life" for the musical Annie, and it is the setting for the post-game content in the Squaresoft video game Parasite Eve. In addition, the introductory scenes of the TV show Sex and the City depict the Chrysler Building. She was deeply inspired by the new structure and especially smitten by the massive eagle's-head figures projecting off the building. According to one account, Bourke-White wanted to live in the building for the duration of the photo shoot, but the only person able to do so was the janitor, so she was instead relegated to co-leasing a studio with Time Inc. Bourke-White worked in a 61st-floor studio designed by John Vassos On October 5, 1998, Christie's auctioned the photograph for $96,000. The Chrysler Building has been the subject of other photographs as well. During a January 1931 dance organized by the Society of Beaux-Arts, six architects, including Van Alen, were photographed while wearing costumes resembling the buildings that each architect designed. In 1991, the photographer Annie Leibovitz took pictures of the dancer David Parsons reclining on a ledge near the top of the building. See also * Architecture of New York City * List of buildings and structures * List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets * List of tallest buildings and structures in the world * List of tallest buildings in the United States * List of tallest buildings in New York City * List of tallest freestanding structures in the world * List of tallest freestanding steel structures * National Register of Historic Places listings in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets References Notes Citations Sources * * * * }} * }} * * * * }} * * * * * * * * * * * * Further reading * * * External links * * \|- }} Category:1930 establishments in New York City Category:1930s architecture in the United States Category:42nd Street (Manhattan) Category:Art Deco architecture in Manhattan Category:Art Deco skyscrapers Category:Chrysler Category:Former world's tallest buildings Category:Lexington Avenue Category:Midtown Manhattan Category:Modernist architecture in New York City Category:Motor vehicle buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places Category:National Historic Landmarks in Manhattan Category:New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan Category:New York City interior landmarks Category:New York State Register of Historic Places in New York County Category:Office buildings completed in 1930 Category:Office buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Manhattan Category:Signa Holding Category:Skyscraper office buildings in Manhattan Category:Tourist attractions in Manhattan Category:Transportation buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in New York City	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysler_Building	2025-04-05T18:27:57.825644
6790	Cape Breton (disambiguation)	Cape Breton Island is an island in the Canadian province of Nova Scotia, in Canada. Cape Breton may also refer to: Places On Cape Breton Island Cape Breton, a cape at the eastern tip of Cape Breton Island, Canada Cape Breton Highlands, a mountain range in the north of Cape Breton Island, Canada Cape Breton Highlands National Park Cape Breton Regional Municipality, a regional municipality in Nova Scotia Cape Breton—Canso, a federal electoral district Cape Breton (federal electoral district), former electoral district (1867 to 1904) Elsewhere in Canada Cape Breton, New Brunswick In France Capbreton or Cap Berton, a commune of the Landes département in southwestern France Organizations Cape Breton Eagles, a Sydney-based ice hockey team Cape Breton Post Cape Breton Development Corporation Cape Breton University Other uses Cape Breton and Central Nova Scotia Railway Jeanneau Cape Breton, a French sailboat design See also Breton (disambiguation) Cape (disambiguation)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Breton_(disambiguation)	2025-04-05T18:27:57.834622
6794	Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9	\| discoverer = Carolyn Shoemaker<br />Eugene Shoemaker<br />David Levy \| discovery_date = March 24, 1993 \| inclination = 94.2° \| dimensions This generated a large amount of coverage in the popular media, and the comet was closely observed by astronomers worldwide. The collision provided new information about Jupiter and highlighted its possible role in reducing space debris in the inner Solar System. The comet was discovered by astronomers Carolyn and Eugene M. Shoemaker, and David Levy in 1993. Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 was the ninth periodic comet (a comet whose orbital period is 200 years or less) discovered by the Shoemakers and Levy, thence its name. It was their eleventh comet discovery overall including their discovery of two non-periodic comets, which use a different nomenclature. The discovery was announced in IAU Circular 5725 on March 26, 1993. The discovery image gave the first hint that comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 was an unusual comet, as it appeared to show multiple nuclei in an elongated region about 50 arcseconds long and 10 arcseconds wide. Brian G. Marsden of the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams noted that the comet lay only about 4 degrees from Jupiter as seen from Earth, and that although this could be a line-of-sight effect, its apparent motion in the sky suggested that the comet was physically close to the planet. Several other observers found images of the comet in precovery images obtained before March 24, including Kin Endate from a photograph exposed on March 15, Satoru Otomo on March 17, and a team led by Eleanor Helin from images on March 19. An image of the comet on a Schmidt photographic plate taken on March 19 was identified on March 21 by M. Lindgren, in a project searching for comets near Jupiter. However, as his team were expecting comets to be inactive or at best exhibit a weak dust coma, and SL9 had a peculiar morphology, its true nature was not recognised until the official announcement 5 days later. No precovery images dating back to earlier than March 1993 have been found. Before the comet was captured by Jupiter, it was probably a short-period comet with an aphelion just inside Jupiter's orbit, and a perihelion interior to the asteroid belt. The volume of space within which an object can be said to orbit Jupiter is defined by Jupiter's Hill sphere. When the comet passed Jupiter in the late 1960s or early 1970s, it happened to be near its aphelion, and found itself slightly within Jupiter's Hill sphere. Jupiter's gravity nudged the comet towards it. Because the comet's motion with respect to Jupiter was very small, it fell almost straight toward Jupiter, which is why it ended up on a Jove-centric orbit of very high eccentricity—that is to say, the ellipse was nearly flattened out. The comet had apparently passed extremely close to Jupiter on July 7, 1992, just over above its cloud tops—a smaller distance than Jupiter's radius of , and well within the orbit of Jupiter's innermost moon Metis and the planet's Roche limit, inside which tidal forces are strong enough to disrupt a body held together only by gravity. More exciting for planetary astronomers was that the best orbital calculations suggested that the comet would pass within of the center of Jupiter, a distance smaller than the planet's radius, meaning that there was an extremely high probability that SL9 would collide with Jupiter in July 1994. Studies suggested that the train of nuclei would plow into Jupiter's atmosphere over a period of about five days. Astronomers estimated that the visible fragments of SL9 ranged in size from a few hundred metres (around ) to across, suggesting that the original comet may have had a nucleus up to across—somewhat larger than Comet Hyakutake, which became very bright when it passed close to the Earth in 1996. One of the great debates in advance of the impact was whether the effects of the impact of such small bodies would be noticeable from Earth, apart from a flash as they disintegrated like giant meteors. The most optimistic prediction was that large, asymmetric ballistic fireballs would rise above the limb of Jupiter and into sunlight to be visible from Earth. Other suggested effects of the impacts were seismic waves travelling across the planet, an increase in stratospheric haze on the planet due to dust from the impacts, and an increase in the mass of the Jovian ring system. However, given that observing such a collision was completely unprecedented, astronomers were cautious with their predictions of what the event might reveal.]] Anticipation grew as the predicted date for the collisions approached, and astronomers trained terrestrial telescopes on Jupiter. Several space observatories did the same, including the Hubble Space Telescope, the ROSAT X-ray-observing satellite, the W. M. Keck Observatory, and the Galileo spacecraft, then on its way to a rendezvous with Jupiter scheduled for 1995. Although the impacts took place on the side of Jupiter hidden from Earth, Galileo, then at a distance of from the planet, was able to see the impacts as they occurred. Jupiter's rapid rotation brought the impact sites into view for terrestrial observers a few minutes after the collisions. Two other space probes made observations at the time of the impact: the Ulysses spacecraft, primarily designed for solar observations, was pointed toward Jupiter from its location away, and the distant Voyager 2 probe, some from Jupiter and on its way out of the Solar System following its encounter with Neptune in 1989, was programmed to look for radio emission in the 1–390 kHz range and make observations with its ultraviolet spectrometer. from the first impact appearing over the limb of the planet]] Astronomer Ian Morison described the impacts as following: <blockquote>The first impact occurred at 20:13 UTC on July 16, 1994, when fragment A of the [[comet nucleus\|[comet's] nucleus]] slammed into Jupiter's southern hemisphere at about . Instruments on Galileo detected a fireball that reached a peak temperature of about , compared to the typical Jovian cloud-top temperature of about . It then expanded and cooled rapidly to about . The plume from the fireball quickly reached a height of over and was observed by the HST.</blockquote> A few minutes after the impact fireball was detected, Galileo measured renewed heating, probably due to ejected material falling back onto the planet. Earth-based observers detected the fireball rising over the limb of the planet shortly after the initial impact. Despite published predictions, and did not have any idea how visible the other atmospheric effects of the impacts would be from Earth. Observers soon saw a huge dark spot after the first impact; the spot was visible from Earth. This and subsequent dark spots were thought to have been caused by debris from the impacts, and were markedly asymmetric, forming crescent shapes in front of the direction of impact. Over the next six days, 21 distinct impacts were observed, with the largest coming on July 18 at 07:33 UTC when fragment G struck Jupiter. This impact created a giant dark spot over (almost one Earth diameter) across, and was estimated to have released an energy equivalent to 6,000,000 megatons of TNT (600 times the world's nuclear arsenal). Two impacts 12 hours apart on July 19 created impact marks of similar size to that caused by fragment G, and impacts continued until July 22, when fragment W struck the planet. Observations and discoveries Chemical studies 's southern hemisphere]] Observers hoped that the impacts would give them a first glimpse of Jupiter beneath the cloud tops, as lower material was exposed by the comet fragments punching through the upper atmosphere. Spectroscopic studies revealed absorption lines in the Jovian spectrum due to diatomic sulfur (S<sub>2</sub>) and carbon disulfide (CS<sub>2</sub>), the first detection of either in Jupiter, and only the second detection of S<sub>2</sub> in any astronomical object. Other molecules detected included ammonia (NH<sub>3</sub>) and hydrogen sulfide (H<sub>2</sub>S). The amount of sulfur implied by the quantities of these compounds was much greater than the amount that would be expected in a small cometary nucleus, showing that material from within Jupiter was being revealed. Oxygen-bearing molecules such as sulfur dioxide were not detected, to the surprise of astronomers. As well as these molecules, emission from heavy atoms such as iron, magnesium and silicon were detected, with abundances consistent with what would be found in a cometary nucleus. Although a substantial amount of water was detected spectroscopically, it was not as much as predicted, meaning that either the water layer thought to exist below the clouds was thinner than predicted, or that the cometary fragments did not penetrate deeply enough. Other observations images, taken several seconds apart, showing the appearance of the fireball of fragment W on the dark side of Jupiter]] Radio observations revealed a sharp increase in continuum emission at a wavelength of after the largest impacts, which peaked at 120% of the normal emission from the planet. This was thought to be due to synchrotron radiation, caused by the injection of relativistic electrons—electrons with velocities near the speed of light—into the Jovian magnetosphere by the impacts. About an hour after fragment K entered Jupiter, observers recorded auroral emission near the impact region, as well as at the antipode of the impact site with respect to Jupiter's strong magnetic field. The cause of these emissions was difficult to establish due to a lack of knowledge of Jupiter's internal magnetic field and of the geometry of the impact sites. One possible explanation was that upwardly accelerating shock waves from the impact accelerated charged particles enough to cause auroral emission, a phenomenon more typically associated with fast-moving solar wind particles striking a planetary atmosphere near a magnetic pole. Some astronomers had suggested that the impacts might have a noticeable effect on the Io torus, a torus of high-energy particles connecting Jupiter with the highly volcanic moon Io. High resolution spectroscopic studies found that variations in the ion density, rotational velocity, and temperatures at the time of impact and afterwards were within the normal limits. Voyager 2 failed to detect anything with calculations, showing that the fireballs were just below the craft's limit of detection; no abnormal levels of UV radiation or radio signals were registered after the blast. Ulysses also failed to detect any abnormal radio frequencies. These predictions were among the few that were actually confirmed by subsequent observation. One of the surprises of the impacts was the small amount of water revealed compared to predictions. Before the impact, models of Jupiter's atmosphere had indicated that the break-up of the largest fragments would occur at atmospheric pressures of anywhere from 30 kilopascals to a few tens of megapascals (from 0.3 to a few hundred bar), with some predictions that the comet would penetrate a layer of water and create a bluish shroud over that region of Jupiter. Spectroscopic observers found that ammonia and carbon disulfide persisted in the atmosphere for at least fourteen months after the collisions, with a considerable amount of ammonia being present in the stratosphere as opposed to its normal location in the troposphere. Atmospheric temperature dropped to normal levels much more quickly at the larger impact sites than at the smaller sites: at the larger impact sites, temperatures were elevated over a region wide, but dropped back to normal levels within a week of the impact. At smaller sites, temperatures 10 K (10 °C; 18 °F) higher than the surroundings persisted for almost two weeks. Global stratospheric temperatures rose immediately after the impacts, then fell to below pre-impact temperatures 2–3 weeks afterwards, before rising slowly to normal temperatures. Frequency of impacts , a chain of craters on Ganymede, probably caused by a similar impact event. The picture covers an area approximately across]] SL9 is not unique in having orbited Jupiter for a time; five comets, including 82P/Gehrels, 147P/Kushida–Muramatsu, and 111P/Helin–Roman–Crockett, are known to have been temporarily captured by the planet. Cometary orbits around Jupiter are unstable, as they will be highly elliptical and likely to be strongly perturbed by the Sun's gravity at apojove (the farthest point on the orbit from the planet). By far the most massive planet in the Solar System, Jupiter can capture objects relatively frequently, but the size of SL9 makes it a rarity: one post-impact study estimated that comets in diameter impact the planet once in approximately 500 years and those in diameter do so just once in every 6,000 years. There is very strong evidence that comets have previously been fragmented and collided with Jupiter and its satellites. During the Voyager missions to the planet, planetary scientists identified 13 crater chains on Callisto and three on Ganymede, the origin of which was initially a mystery. Crater chains seen on the Moon often radiate from large craters, and are thought to be caused by secondary impacts of the original ejecta, but the chains on the Jovian moons did not lead back to a larger crater. The impact of SL9 strongly implied that the chains were due to trains of disrupted cometary fragments crashing into the satellites. Impact of July 19, 2009 On July 19, 2009, exactly 15 years after the SL9 impacts, a new black spot about the size of the Pacific Ocean appeared in Jupiter's southern hemisphere. Thermal infrared measurements showed the impact site was warm and spectroscopic analysis detected the production of excess hot ammonia and silica-rich dust in the upper regions of Jupiter's atmosphere. Scientists have concluded that another impact event had occurred, but this time a more compact and stronger object, probably a small undiscovered asteroid, was the cause. Jupiter's role in protection of the inner Solar System The events of SL9's interaction with Jupiter greatly highlighted Jupiter's role in protecting the inner planets from both interstellar and in-system debris by acting as a "cosmic vacuum cleaner" for the Solar System (Jupiter barrier). The planet's strong gravitational influence attracts many small comets and asteroids and the rate of cometary impacts on Jupiter is thought to be between 2,000 and 8,000 times higher than the rate on Earth. The extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs at the end of the Cretaceous period is generally thought to have been caused by the Cretaceous–Paleogene impact event, which created the Chicxulub crater, demonstrating that cometary impacts are indeed a serious threat to life on Earth. Astronomers have speculated that without Jupiter's immense gravity, extinction events might have been more frequent on Earth and complex life might not have been able to develop. This is part of the argument used in the Rare Earth hypothesis. In 2009, it was shown that the presence of a smaller planet at Jupiter's position in the Solar System might increase the impact rate of comets on the Earth significantly. A planet of Jupiter's mass still seems to provide increased protection against asteroids, but the total effect on all orbital bodies within the Solar System is unclear. This and other recent models call into question the nature of Jupiter's influence on Earth impacts. See also * List of Jupiter events * Impact events on Jupiter * Atmosphere of Jupiter * 73P/Schwassmann–Wachmann, a near-Earth comet in the process of disintegrating References Notes Bibliography * * External links * [https://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/sl9/ First Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 website that collected photos submitted from observatories around the world and from Galileo spacecraft], curated by Ron Baalke, Jet Propulsion Laboratory software engineer * [http://www.midnightkite.com/sl9.html Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 FAQ] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20020603124548/http://www.seds.org/sl9/sl9.html Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 Photo Gallery] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130723035832/http://rack1.ul.cs.cmu.edu/jupiterimpact/ Downloadable gif Animation showing time course of impact and size relative to earthsize] * [http://www.cv.nrao.edu/~pmurphy/patsl9.html Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9] Dan Bruton, Texas A&M University * [https://web.archive.org/web/20180303143750/https://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap001105.html Jupiter Swallows Comet Shoemaker Levy 9] APOD: November 5, 2000 * [http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/sl9/sl9.html Comet Shoemaker–Levy Collision with Jupiter] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130219011148/http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/comet.html National Space Science Data Center information] * [http://www.orbitsimulator.com/gravity/articles/sl9.html Simulation of the orbit of SL-9 showing the passage that fragmented the comet and the collision 2 years later] * [http://universesandbox.com/ Interactive space simulator that includes accurate 3D simulation of the Shoemaker Levy 9 collision] * [https://pdssbn.astro.umd.edu/data_sb/missions/sl9/index.shtml Shoemaker-Levy 9 Jupiter Impact Observing Campaign Archive] at the NASA Planetary Data System, Small Bodies Node Category:Destroyed comets Category:Discoveries by Carolyn S. Shoemaker Category:Discoveries by Eugene Merle Shoemaker 1993 F2 Category:Collision Category:Jupiter impact events Category:1994 in science 19930324 Category:Predicted impact events	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet_Shoemaker–Levy_9	2025-04-05T18:27:57.863606
6796	Ceres Brewery	The Ceres Brewery was a beer and soft drink producing facility in Århus, Denmark, that operated from 1856 until 2008. Although the brewery was closed by its owner Royal Unibrew the Ceres brand continues, with the product brewed at other facilities. The area where the brewery stood is being redeveloped for residential and commercial use and has been named CeresByen (Ceres City). History thumb\|left\|Redevelopment of the site of the former Ceres brewery in 2014 "Ceres Brewery" was founded in 1856 by Malthe Conrad Lottrup, a grocer, with chemists "A. S. Aagard" and "Knud Redelien", as the city's seventh brewery. It was named after the Roman goddess Ceres, and its opening was announced in the local newspaper, Århus Stiftstidende. Lottrup expanded the brewery after ten years, adding a grand new building as his private residence. He was succeeded by his son-in-law, Laurits Christian Meulengracht, who ran the brewery for almost thirty years, expanding it further before selling it to "Østjyske Bryggerier", another brewing firm. The Ceres brewery was named an official purveyor to the "Royal Danish Court" in 1914. References External links Ceres Brewery Category:Royal Unibrew subsidiaries Category:Beer brands of Denmark Category:Danish brands Category:Breweries in Denmark Category:Danish companies established in 1856 Category:Purveyors to the Court of Denmark Category:Companies based in Aarhus Category:Food and drink companies established in 1856	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceres_Brewery	2025-04-05T18:27:57.867420
6799	COBOL	\| designers , , , , , , with indirect influence from Veryant isCOBOL, Wang VS COBOL, WATBOL \| influenced by = Initial: AIMACO, COMTRAN, FACT, FLOW-MATIC <br />COBOL 2002: C++, Eiffel, Smalltalk \| influenced CobolScript, EGL, PL/I, PL/B \| file_ext = <code>.cbl</code>, <code>.cob</code>, <code>.cpy</code> \| wikibooks = COBOL }} COBOL (; an acronym for <!-- do not insert bolding/italics per WP:EXPABBR -->"common business-oriented language") is a compiled English-like computer programming language designed for business use. It is an imperative, procedural, and, since 2002, object-oriented language. COBOL is primarily used in business, finance, and administrative systems for companies and governments. COBOL is still widely used in applications deployed on mainframe computers, such as large-scale batch and transaction processing jobs. Many large financial institutions were developing new systems in the language as late as 2006, COBOL was designed in 1959 by CODASYL and was partly based on the programming language FLOW-MATIC, designed by Grace Hopper. It was created as part of a U.S. Department of Defense effort to create a portable programming language for data processing. It was originally seen as a stopgap, but the Defense Department promptly pressured computer manufacturers to provide it, resulting in its widespread adoption. It was standardized in 1968 and has been revised five times. Expansions include support for structured and object-oriented programming. The current standard is ISO/IEC 1989:2023. COBOL statements have prose syntax such as , which was designed to be self-documenting and highly readable. However, it is verbose and uses over 300 reserved words compared to the succinct and mathematically inspired syntax of other languages. The COBOL code is split into four divisions (identification, environment, data, and procedure), containing a rigid hierarchy of sections, paragraphs, and sentences. Lacking a large standard library, the standard specifies 43 statements, 87 functions, and just one class. COBOL has been criticized for its verbosity, design process, and poor support for structured programming. These weaknesses result in monolithic programs that are hard to comprehend as a whole, despite their local readability. For years, COBOL has been assumed as a programming language for business operations in mainframes, although in recent years, many COBOL operations have been moved to cloud computing.History and specification{\| class"wikitable floatright" style="padding-left: 1.5em;" \|+Timeline of COBOL language \|- ! Year ! Informal name ! Official Standard \|- \| 1960 \| COBOL-60 \| \|- \| 1961 \| COBOL-61 \| \|- \| 1963 \| COBOL-61 Extended \| \|- \| 1965 \| COBOL-65 \| \|- \| 1968 \| COBOL-68 \| ANSI INCITS X3.23-1968 \|- \| 1974 \| COBOL-74 \| ANSI INCITS X3.23-1974 \|- \| 1985 \| COBOL-85 \| ANSI INCITS X3.23-1985<br />ISO/IEC 1989:1985 \|- \| 2002 \| COBOL-2002 \| ISO/IEC 1989:2002 \|- \| 2014 \| COBOL-2014 \| ISO/IEC 1989:2014 \|- \| 2023 \| COBOL-2023 \| ISO/IEC 1989:2023 \|} Background In the late 1950s, computer users and manufacturers were becoming concerned about the rising cost of programming. A 1959 survey had found that in any data processing installation, the programming cost US$800,000 on average and that translating programs to run on new hardware would cost US$600,000. At a time when new programming languages were proliferating, the same survey suggested that if a common business-oriented language were used, conversion would be far cheaper and faster. On 8 April 1959, Mary K. Hawes, a computer scientist at Burroughs Corporation, called a meeting of representatives from academia, computer users, and manufacturers at the University of Pennsylvania to organize a formal meeting on common business languages. Representatives included Grace Hopper (inventor of the English-like data processing language FLOW-MATIC), Jean Sammet, and Saul Gorn. At the April meeting, the group asked the Department of Defense (DoD) to sponsor an effort to create a common business language. The delegation impressed Charles A. Phillips, director of the Data System Research Staff at the DoD, who thought that they "thoroughly understood" the DoD's problems. The DoD operated 225 computers, had 175 more on order, and had spent over $200 million on implementing programs to run on them. Portable programs would save time, reduce costs, and ease modernization. Charles Phillips agreed to sponsor the meeting, and tasked the delegation with drafting the agenda.COBOL 60On 28 and 29 May 1959 (exactly one year after the Zürich ALGOL 58 meeting), a meeting was held at the Pentagon to discuss the creation of a common programming language for business. It was attended by 41 people and was chaired by Phillips. The Department of Defense was concerned about whether it could run the same data processing programs on different computers. FORTRAN, the only mainstream language at the time, lacked the features needed to write such programs. Representatives enthusiastically described a language that could work in a wide variety of environments, from banking and insurance to utilities and inventory control. They agreed unanimously that more people should be able to program and that the new language should not be restricted by the limitations of contemporary technology. A majority agreed that the language should make maximal use of English, be capable of change, be machine-independent, and be easy to use, even at the expense of power. The meeting resulted in the creation of a steering committee and short, intermediate, and long-range committees. The short-range committee was given until September (three months) to produce specifications for an interim language, which would then be improved upon by the other committees. Their official mission, however, was to identify the strengths and weaknesses of existing programming languages; it did not explicitly direct them to create a new language. The deadline was met with disbelief by the short-range committee. One member, Betty Holberton, described the three-month deadline as "gross optimism" and doubted that the language really would be a stopgap. The steering committee met on 4 June and agreed to name the entire activity the Committee on Data Systems Languages, or CODASYL, and to form an executive committee. The short-range committee members represented six computer manufacturers and three government agencies. The computer manufacturers were Burroughs Corporation, IBM, Minneapolis-Honeywell (Honeywell Labs), RCA, Sperry Rand, and Sylvania Electric Products. The government agencies were the U.S. Air Force, the Navy's David Taylor Model Basin, and the National Bureau of Standards (now the National Institute of Standards and Technology). The committee was chaired by Joseph Wegstein of the U.S. National Bureau of Standards. Work began by investigating data descriptions, statements, existing applications, and user experiences. The committee mainly examined the FLOW-MATIC, AIMACO, and COMTRAN programming languages. The FLOW-MATIC language was particularly influential because it had been implemented and because AIMACO was a derivative of it with only minor changes. FLOW-MATIC's inventor, Grace Hopper, also served as a technical adviser to the committee. FLOW-MATIC's major contributions to COBOL were long variable names, English words for commands, and the separation of data descriptions and instructions. Hopper is sometimes called "the mother of COBOL" or "the grandmother of COBOL", although Jean Sammet, a lead designer of COBOL, said Hopper "was not the mother, creator, or developer of Cobol." IBM's COMTRAN language, invented by Bob Bemer, was regarded as a competitor to FLOW-MATIC by a short-range committee made up of colleagues of Grace Hopper. Some of its features were not incorporated into COBOL so that it would not look like IBM had dominated the design process, and Jean Sammet said in 1981 that there had been a "strong anti-IBM bias" from some committee members (herself included). In one case, after Roy Goldfinger, author of the COMTRAN manual and intermediate-range committee member, attended a subcommittee meeting to support his language and encourage the use of algebraic expressions, Grace Hopper sent a memo to the short-range committee reiterating Sperry Rand's efforts to create a language based on English. In 1980, Grace Hopper commented that "COBOL 60 is 95% FLOW-MATIC" and that COMTRAN had had an "extremely small" influence. Furthermore, she said that she would claim that work was influenced by both FLOW-MATIC and COMTRAN only to "keep other people happy [so they] wouldn't try to knock us out.". Features from COMTRAN incorporated into COBOL included formulas, the clause, an improved <code>IF</code> statement, which obviated the need for GO TOs, and a more robust file management system. The usefulness of the committee's work was a subject of great debate. While some members thought the language had too many compromises and was the result of design by committee, others felt it was better than the three languages examined. Some felt the language was too complex; others, too simple. Controversial features included those some considered useless or too advanced for data processing users. Such features included Boolean expressions, formulas, and table (indices). Another point of controversy was whether to make keywords context-sensitive and the effect that would have on readability. Although context-sensitive keywords were rejected, the approach was later used in PL/I and partially in COBOL from 2002. Little consideration was given to interactivity, interaction with operating systems (few existed at that time), and functions (thought of as purely mathematical and of no use in data processing). The specifications were presented to the executive committee on 4 September. They fell short of expectations: Joseph Wegstein noted that "it contains rough spots and requires some additions," and Bob Bemer later described them as a "hodgepodge." The committee was given until December to improve it. At a mid-September meeting, the committee discussed the new language's name. Suggestions included "BUSY" (Business System), "INFOSYL" (Information System Language), and "COCOSYL" (Common Computer Systems Language). It is unclear who coined the name "COBOL", although Bob Bemer later claimed it had been his suggestion. In October, the intermediate-range committee received copies of the FACT language specification created by Roy Nutt. Its features impressed the committee so much that they passed a resolution to base COBOL on it. This was a blow to the short-range committee, who had made good progress on the specification. Despite being technically superior, FACT had not been created with portability in mind or through manufacturer and user consensus. It also lacked a demonstrable implementation, allowing supporters of a FLOW-MATIC-based COBOL to overturn the resolution. RCA representative Howard Bromberg also blocked FACT, so that RCA's work on a COBOL implementation would not go to waste. It soon became apparent that the committee was too large to make any further progress quickly. A frustrated Howard Bromberg bought a $15 tombstone with "COBOL" engraved on it and sent it to Charles Phillips to demonstrate his displeasure. A subcommittee was formed to analyze existing languages and was made up of six individuals: * William Selden and Gertrude Tierney of IBM, * Howard Bromberg and Howard Discount of RCA, * Vernon Reeves and Jean E. Sammet of Sylvania Electric Products. The subcommittee did most of the work creating the specification, leaving the short-range committee to review and modify their work before producing the finished specification. The specifications were approved by the executive committee on 8 January 1960, and sent to the government printing office, which printed them as COBOL 60. The language's stated objectives were to allow efficient, portable programs to be easily written, to allow users to move to new systems with minimal effort and cost, and to be suitable for inexperienced programmers. The CODASYL Executive Committee later created the COBOL Maintenance Committee to answer questions from users and vendors and to improve and expand the specifications. During 1960, the list of manufacturers planning to build COBOL compilers grew. By September, five more manufacturers had joined CODASYL (Bendix, Control Data Corporation, General Electric (GE), National Cash Register, and Philco), and all represented manufacturers had announced COBOL compilers. GE and IBM planned to integrate COBOL into their own languages, GECOM and COMTRAN, respectively. In contrast, International Computers and Tabulators planned to replace their language, CODEL, with COBOL. Meanwhile, RCA and Sperry Rand worked on creating COBOL compilers. The first COBOL program ran on 17 August on an RCA 501. On 6 and 7 December, the same COBOL program (albeit with minor changes) ran on an RCA computer and a Remington-Rand Univac computer, demonstrating that compatibility could be achieved. The relative influence of the languages that were used is still indicated in the recommended advisory printed in all COBOL reference manuals: They have specifically authorized the use of this material, in whole or in part, in the COBOL specifications. Such authorization extends to the reproduction and use of COBOL specifications in programming manuals or similar publications.}} COBOL-61 to COBOL-65 Many logical flaws were found in COBOL 60, leading General Electric's Charles Katz to warn that it could not be interpreted unambiguously. A reluctant short-term committee performed a total cleanup, and, by March 1963, it was reported that COBOL's syntax was as definable as ALGOL's, although semantic ambiguities remained. COBOL is a difficult language to write a compiler for, due to the large syntax and many optional elements within syntactic constructs, as well as the need to generate efficient code for a language with many possible data representations, implicit type conversions, and necessary set-ups for I/O operations. Early COBOL compilers were primitive and slow. A 1962 US Navy evaluation found compilation speeds of 3–11 statements per minute. By mid-1964, they had increased to 11–1000 statements per minute. It was observed that increasing memory would drastically increase speed and that compilation costs varied wildly: costs per statement were between $0.23 and $18.91. In late 1962, IBM announced that COBOL would be their primary development language and that development of COMTRAN would cease. The COBOL specification was revised three times in the five years after its publication. COBOL-60 was replaced in 1961 by COBOL-61. This was then replaced by the COBOL-61 Extended specifications in 1963, which introduced the sort and report writer facilities. The added facilities corrected flaws identified by Honeywell in late 1959 in a letter to the short-range committee. COBOL Edition 1965 brought further clarifications to the specifications and introduced facilities for handling mass storage files and tables.COBOL-68Efforts began to standardize COBOL to overcome incompatibilities between versions. In late 1962, both ISO and the United States of America Standards Institute (now ANSI) formed groups to create standards. ANSI produced USA Standard COBOL X3.23 in August 1968, which became the cornerstone for later versions. This version was known as American National Standard (ANS) COBOL and was adopted by ISO in 1972. COBOL-74 By 1970, COBOL had become the most widely used programming language in the world. Independently of the ANSI committee, the CODASYL Programming Language Committee was working on improving the language. They described new versions in 1968, 1969, 1970, and 1973, including changes such as new inter-program communication, debugging, and file merging facilities, as well as improved string handling and library inclusion features. Although CODASYL was independent of the ANSI committee, the CODASYL Journal of Development was used by ANSI to identify features that were popular enough to warrant implementing. The Programming Language Committee also liaised with ECMA and the Japanese COBOL Standard committee. The Programming Language Committee was not well-known, however. The vice president, William Rinehuls, complained that two-thirds of the COBOL community did not know of the committee's existence. It also lacked the funds to make public documents, such as minutes of meetings and change proposals, freely available. In 1974, ANSI published a revised version of (ANS) COBOL, containing new features such as file organizations, the statement and the segmentation module. Deleted features included the statement, the statement (which was replaced by ), and the implementer-defined random access module (which was superseded by the new sequential and relative I/O modules). These made up 44 changes, which rendered existing statements incompatible with the new standard. The report writer was slated to be removed from COBOL but was reinstated before the standard was published. ISO later adopted the updated standard in 1978. Later that year, the Data Processing Management Association (DPMA) said it was "strongly opposed" to the new standard, citing "prohibitive" conversion costs and enhancements that were "forced on the user". During the first public review period, the committee received 2,200 responses, of which 1,700 were negative form letters. Other responses were detailed analyses of the effect COBOL-80 would have on their systems; conversion costs were predicted to be at least 50 cents per line of code. Fewer than a dozen of the responses were in favor of the proposed standard. ISO TC97-SC5 installed in 1979 the international COBOL Experts Group, on initiative of Wim Ebbinkhuijsen. The group consisted of COBOL experts from many countries, including the United States. Its goal was to achieve mutual understanding and respect between ANSI and the rest of the world with regard to the need of new COBOL features. After three years, ISO changed the status of the group to a formal Working Group: WG 4 COBOL. The group took primary ownership and development of the COBOL standard, where ANSI made most of the proposals. In 1983, the DPMA withdrew its opposition to the standard, citing the responsiveness of the committee to public concerns. In the same year, a National Bureau of Standards study concluded that the proposed standard would present few problems. A year later, DEC released a VAX/VMS COBOL-80, and noted that conversion of COBOL-74 programs posed few problems. The new <code>EVALUATE</code> statement and inline <code>PERFORM</code> were particularly well received and improved productivity, thanks to simplified control flow and debugging. The second public review drew another 1,000 (mainly negative) responses, while the last drew just 25, by which time many concerns had been addressed. were added, such as: * Scope terminators (<code>END-IF</code>, <code>END-PERFORM</code>, <code>END-READ</code>, etc.) * Nested subprograms * <code>CONTINUE</code>, a no-operation statement * <code>EVALUATE</code>, a switch statement * <code>INITIALIZE</code>, a statement that can set groups of data to their default values * Inline <code>PERFORM</code> loop bodies – previously, loop bodies had to be specified in a separate procedure * Reference modification, which allows access to substrings * I/O status codes. The new standard was adopted by all national standard bodies, including ANSI. In the early 1990s, work began on adding object-oriented programming in the next full revision of COBOL. Object-oriented features were taken from C++ and Smalltalk. The initial estimate was to have this revision completed by 1997, and an ISO Committee Draft (CD) was available by 1997. Some vendors (including Micro Focus, Fujitsu, and IBM) introduced object-oriented syntax based on drafts of the full revision. The final approved ISO standard was approved and published in late 2002. Fujitsu/GTSoftware, Micro Focus introduced object-oriented COBOL compilers targeting the .NET Framework. There were many other new features, many of which had been in the CODASYL COBOL Journal of Development since 1978 and had missed the opportunity to be included in COBOL-85. These other features included: * Free-form code * User-defined functions * Recursion * Locale-based processing * Support for extended character sets such as Unicode * Floating-point and binary data types (until then, binary items were truncated based on their declaration's base-10 specification) * Portable arithmetic results Bit and Boolean data types Pointers and syntax for getting and freeing storage * The for text-based user interfaces * The facility * Improved interoperability with other programming languages and framework environments such as .NET and Java. Three corrigenda were published for the standard: two in 2006 and one in 2009.COBOL 2014Between 2003 and 2009, three technical reports were produced describing object finalization, XML processing and collection classes for COBOL. COBOL 2014 includes the following changes: * Portable arithmetic results have been replaced by IEEE 754 data types * Major features have been made optional, such as the <code>VALIDATE</code> facility, the report writer and the screen-handling facility * Method overloading * Dynamic capacity tables (a feature dropped from the draft of COBOL 2002) COBOL 2023 The COBOL 2023 standard added a few new features: * Asynchronous messaging syntax using the <code>SEND</code> and <code>RECEIVE</code> statements * A transaction processing facility with <code>COMMIT</code> and <code>ROLLBACK</code> * <code>XOR</code> logical operator * The <code>CONTINUE</code> statement can be extended as to pause the program for a specified duration * A <code>DELETE FILE</code> statement * <code>LINE SEQUENTIAL</code> file organization * Defined infinite looping with <code>PERFORM UNTIL EXIT</code> * <code>SUBSTITUTE</code> intrinsic function allowing for substring substitution of different length * <code>CONVERT</code> function for base-conversion * Boolean shifting operators There is as yet no known complete implementation of this standard.LegacyCOBOL programs are used globally in governments and businesses and are running on diverse operating systems such as z/OS, z/VSE, VME, Unix, NonStop OS, OpenVMS and Windows. In 1997, the Gartner Group reported that 80% of the world's business ran on COBOL with over 200 billion lines of code and 5 billion lines more being written annually. Near the end of the 20th century, the year 2000 problem (Y2K) was the focus of significant COBOL programming effort, sometimes by the same programmers who had designed the systems decades before. The particular level of effort required to correct COBOL code has been attributed to the large amount of business-oriented COBOL, as business applications use dates heavily, and to fixed-length data fields. Some studies attribute as much as "24% of Y2K software repair costs to Cobol". After the clean-up effort put into these programs for Y2K, a 2003 survey found that many remained in use. The authors said that the survey data suggest "a gradual decline in the importance of COBOL in application development over the [following] 10 years unless ... integration with other languages and technologies can be adopted". In 2006 and 2012, Computerworld surveys (of 352 readers) found that over 60% of organizations used COBOL (more than C++ and Visual Basic .NET) and that for half of those, COBOL was used for the majority of their internal software. 36% of managers said they planned to migrate from COBOL, and 25% said that they would do so if not for the expense of rewriting legacy code. Alternatively, some businesses have migrated their COBOL programs from mainframes to cheaper, faster hardware. Reuters reported in 2017 that 43% of banking systems still used COBOL with over 220 billion lines of COBOL code in use. By 2019, the number of COBOL programmers was shrinking fast due to retirements, leading to an impending skills gap in business and government organizations which still use mainframe systems for high-volume transaction processing. Efforts to rewrite systems in newer languages have proven expensive and problematic, as has the outsourcing of code maintenance, thus proposals to train more people in COBOL are advocated. During the COVID-19 pandemic and the ensuing surge of unemployment, several US states reported a shortage of skilled COBOL programmers to support the legacy systems used for unemployment benefit management. Many of these systems had been in the process of conversion to more modern programming languages prior to the pandemic, but the process was put on hold. Similarly, the US Internal Revenue Service rushed to patch its COBOL-based Individual Master File in order to disburse the tens of millions of payments mandated by the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act. Features Syntax COBOL has an English-like syntax, which is used to describe nearly everything in a program. For example, a condition can be expressed as or more concisely as or . More complex conditions can be abbreviated by removing repeated conditions and variables. For example, can be shortened to . To support this syntax, COBOL has over 300 keywords. Some of the keywords are simple alternative or pluralized spellings of the same word, which provides for more grammatically appropriate statements and clauses; e.g., the and keywords can be used interchangeably, as can and , and and . Each COBOL program is made up of four basic lexical items: words, literals, picture character-strings (see ) and separators. Words include reserved words and user-defined identifiers. They are up to 31 characters long and may include letters, digits, hyphens and underscores. Literals include numerals (e.g. ) and strings (e.g. ). Separators include the space character and commas and semi-colons followed by a space. A COBOL program is split into four divisions: the identification division, the environment division, the data division and the procedure division. The identification division specifies the name and type of the source element and is where classes and interfaces are specified. The environment division specifies any program features that depend on the system running it, such as files and character sets. The data division is used to declare variables and parameters. The procedure division contains the program's statements. Each division is sub-divided into sections, which are made up of paragraphs. Metalanguage COBOL's syntax is usually described with a unique metalanguage using braces, brackets, bars and underlining. The metalanguage was developed for the original COBOL specifications. {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Elements of COBOL's metalanguage \|- ! Element ! Appearance ! Function \|- \|- \| All capitals \| EXAMPLE \| Reserved word \|- \| Underlining \| \| The reserved word is compulsory \|- \| Braces \| { } \| Only one option may be selected \|- \| Brackets \| [] \| Zero or one options may be selected \|- \| Ellipsis \| ... \| The preceding element may be repeated \|- \| rowspan="2" \| Bars \| {<nowiki/> <nowiki/>}<!--nowiki tags prevent page from showing up on error lists--> \| One or more options may be selected. Any option may only be selected once. \|- \| [ ] \| Zero or more options may be selected. Any option may only be selected once. \|} As an example, consider the following description of an <code>ADD</code> statement: <div class"exemple-add-statement" style"max-width: 100%; overflow-x: auto; padding: 0; font-size: 85%; line-height: 0;"> <math> \begin{array}{l} \underline{\text{ADD}}\, \begin{Bmatrix} \text{identifier-1} \\ \text{literal-1} \end{Bmatrix}\dots \;\underline{\text{TO}}\,\left\{\text{identifier-2}\,\left[\,\underline{\text{ROUNDED}}\,\right]\right\}\dots \\[1em] \quad \left[\left\|\begin{array}{l} \text{ON}\,\underline{\text{SIZE}}\,\underline{\text{ERROR}}\,\text{imperative-statement-1} \\ \underline{\text{NOT}}\,\text{ON}\,\underline{\text{SIZE}}\,\underline{\text{ERROR}}\,\text{imperative-statement-2} \end{array}\right\|\right] \\[1em] \quad \left[\,\underline{\text{END-ADD}}\,\right] \end{array} </math> </div> This description permits the following variants: <syntaxhighlight lang="cobolfree"> ADD 1 TO x ADD 1, a, b TO x ROUNDED, y, z ROUNDED ADD a, b TO c ON SIZE ERROR DISPLAY "Error" END-ADD ADD a TO b NOT SIZE ERROR DISPLAY "No error" ON SIZE ERROR DISPLAY "Error" </syntaxhighlight> Code format The height of COBOL's popularity coincided with the era of keypunch machines and punched cards. The program itself was written onto punched cards, then read in and compiled, and the data fed into the program was sometimes on cards as well. COBOL can be written in two formats: fixed (the default) or free. In fixed-format, code must be aligned to fit in certain areas (a hold-over from using punched cards). Until COBOL 2002, these were: {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Name ! Column(s) ! Usage \|- \| Sequence number area \| 1–6 \| Originally used for card/line numbers (facilitating mechanical punched card sorting to assure intended program code sequence after manual editing/handling), this area is ignored by the compiler \|- \| Indicator area \| 7 \| The following characters are allowed here: * <code></code> – Comment line <code>/</code> – Comment line that will be printed on a new page of a source listing * <code>-</code> – Continuation line, where words or literals from the previous line are continued * <code>D</code> – Line enabled in debugging mode, which is otherwise ignored \|- \| Area A \| 8–11 \| This contains: <code>DIVISION</code>, <code>SECTION</code> and procedure headers; 01 and 77 level numbers and file/report descriptors \|- \| Area B \| 12–72 \| Any other code not allowed in Area A \|- \| Program name area \| 73– \| Historically up to column 80 for punched cards, it is used to identify the program or sequence the card belongs to \|} In COBOL 2002, Areas A and B were merged to form the program-text area, which now ends at an implementor-defined column. COBOL 2002 also introduced free-format code. Free-format code can be placed in any column of the file, as in newer programming languages. Comments are specified using <code>></code>, which can be placed anywhere and can also be used in fixed-format source code. Continuation lines are not present, and the <code>>>PAGE</code> directive replaces the <code>/</code> indicator.Identification divisionThe identification division identifies the following code entity and contains the definition of a class or interface.Object-oriented programmingClasses and interfaces have been in COBOL since 2002. Classes have factory objects, containing class methods and variables, and instance objects, containing instance methods and variables. Inheritance and interfaces provide polymorphism. Support for generic programming is provided through parameterized classes, which can be instantiated to use any class or interface. Objects are stored as references which may be restricted to a certain type. There are two ways of calling a method: the statement, which acts similarly to , or through inline method invocation, which is analogous to using functions. <syntaxhighlight lang="cobolfree"> > These are equivalent. INVOKE my-class "foo" RETURNING var MOVE my-class::"foo" TO var > Inline method invocation </syntaxhighlight> COBOL does not provide a way to hide methods. Class data can be hidden, however, by declaring it without a clause, which leaves external code no way to access it. Method overloading was added in COBOL 2014. Environment division The environment division contains the configuration section and the input-output section. The configuration section is used to specify variable features such as currency signs, locales and character sets. The input-output section contains file-related information. Files COBOL supports three file formats, or : sequential, indexed and relative. In sequential files, records are contiguous and must be traversed sequentially, similarly to a linked list. Indexed files have one or more indexes which allow records to be randomly accessed and which can be sorted on them. Each record must have a unique key, but other, , record keys need not be unique. Implementations of indexed files vary between vendors, although common implementations, such as C-ISAM and VSAM, are based on IBM's ISAM. Other implementations are Record Management Services on OpenVMS and Enscribe on HPE NonStop (Tandem). Relative files, like indexed files, have a unique record key, but they do not have alternate keys. A relative record's key is its ordinal position; for example, the 10th record has a key of 10. This means that creating a record with a key of 5 may require the creation of (empty) preceding records. Relative files also allow for both sequential and random access. A common non-standard extension is the organization, used to process text files. Records in a file are terminated by a newline and may be of varying length.Data divisionThe data division is split into six sections which declare different items: the file section, for file records; the working-storage section, for static variables; the local-storage section, for automatic variables; the linkage section, for parameters and the return value; the report section and the screen section, for text-based user interfaces.Aggregated dataData items in COBOL are declared hierarchically through the use of level-numbers which indicate if a data item is part of another. An item with a higher level-number is subordinate to an item with a lower one. Top-level data items, with a level-number of 1, are called . Items that have subordinate aggregate data are called ; those that do not are called . Level-numbers used to describe standard data items are between 1 and 49. <syntaxhighlight lang="cobol"> 01 some-record. > Aggregate group record item 05 num PIC 9(10). > Elementary item 05 the-date. > Aggregate (sub)group record item 10 the-year PIC 9(4). > Elementary item 10 the-month PIC 99. > Elementary item 10 the-day PIC 99. > Elementary item </syntaxhighlight> In the above example, elementary item and group item are subordinate to the record , while elementary items , , and are part of the group item . Subordinate items can be disambiguated with the (or ) keyword. For example, consider the example code above along with the following example: <syntaxhighlight lang="cobol"> 01 sale-date. 05 the-year PIC 9(4). 05 the-month PIC 99. 05 the-day PIC 99. </syntaxhighlight> The names , , and are ambiguous by themselves, since more than one data item is defined with those names. To specify a particular data item, for instance one of the items contained within the group, the programmer would use (or the equivalent ). This syntax is similar to the "dot notation" supported by most contemporary languages. Other data levels A level-number of 66 is used to declare a re-grouping of previously defined items, irrespective of how those items are structured. This data level, also referred to by the associated clause}}, is rarely used and, circa 1988, was usually found in old programs. Its ability to ignore the hierarchical and logical structure data meant its use was not recommended and many installations forbade its use. <syntaxhighlight lang="cobol"> 01 customer-record. 05 cust-key PIC X(10). 05 cust-name. 10 cust-first-name PIC X(30). 10 cust-last-name PIC X(30). 05 cust-dob PIC 9(8). 05 cust-balance PIC 9(7)V99. 66 cust-personal-details RENAMES cust-name THRU cust-dob. 66 cust-all-details RENAMES cust-name THRU cust-balance. </syntaxhighlight> A 77 level-number indicates the item is stand-alone, and in such situations is equivalent to the level-number 01. For example, the following code declares two 77-level data items, and , which are non-group data items that are independent of (not subordinate to) any other data items: <syntaxhighlight lang="cobol"> 77 property-name PIC X(80). 77 sales-region PIC 9(5). </syntaxhighlight> An 88 level-number declares a (a so-called 88-level) which is true when its parent data item contains one of the values specified in its clause. For example, the following code defines two 88-level condition-name items that are true or false depending on the current character data value of the data item. When the data item contains a value of , the condition-name is true, whereas when it contains a value of or , the condition-name is true. If the data item contains some other value, both of the condition-names are false. <syntaxhighlight lang="cobol"> 01 wage-type PIC X. 88 wage-is-hourly VALUE "H". 88 wage-is-yearly VALUE "S", "Y". </syntaxhighlight> Data types Standard COBOL provides the following data types: {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Data type ! Sample declaration ! Notes \|- \| Alphabetic \| \| May contain only letters or spaces. \|- \| Alphanumeric \| \| May contain any characters. \|- \| Boolean \| \| Data stored in the form of 0s and 1s, as a binary number. \|- \| Index \| \| Used to reference table elements. \|- \| National \| \| Similar to alphanumeric, but using an extended character set, e.g. UTF-8. \|- \| Numeric \| \| Contains exactly 7 digits (7=5+2). 'V' locates the implicit decimal in a fixed point number. \|- \| Object \| \| May reference either an object or <code>NULL</code>. \|- \| Pointer \| \| \|} Type safety is variable in COBOL. Numeric data is converted between different representations and sizes silently and alphanumeric data can be placed in any data item that can be stored as a string, including numeric and group data. In contrast, object references and pointers may only be assigned from items of the same type and their values may be restricted to a certain type. PICTURE clause A (or ) clause is a string of characters, each of which represents a portion of the data item and what it may contain. Some picture characters specify the type of the item and how many characters or digits it occupies in memory. For example, a indicates a decimal digit, and an indicates that the item is signed. Other picture characters (called and characters) specify how an item should be formatted. For example, a series of characters define character positions as well as how a leading sign character is to be positioned within the final character data; the rightmost non-numeric character will contain the item's sign, while other character positions corresponding to a to the left of this position will contain a space. Repeated characters can be specified more concisely by specifying a number in parentheses after a picture character; for example, is equivalent to . Picture specifications containing only digit () and sign () characters define purely data items, while picture specifications containing alphabetic () or alphanumeric () characters define data items. The presence of other formatting characters define or data items. {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Examples \|- ! clause ! Value in ! Value out \|- \| rowspan"2" \| \| \| \|- \| \| (this is legal, but results in undefined behavior) \|- \| \| \| <code>" -10"</code><!-- deletes one of the spaces --> (note leading spaces) \|- \| \| \| \|- \| rowspan"2" \| \| \| \|- \| <code>0</code> <!-- produces a space for some reason --> \| \|- \| \| \| \|} USAGE clause The clause declares the format in which data is stored. Depending on the data type, it can either complement or be used instead of a clause. While it can be used to declare pointers and object references, it is mostly geared towards specifying numeric types. These numeric formats are: Binary, where a minimum size is either specified by the <code>PICTURE</code> clause or by a <code>USAGE</code> clause such as <code>BINARY-LONG</code> * , where data may be stored in whatever format the implementation provides; often equivalent to * , the default format, where data is stored as a string * Floating-point, in either an implementation-dependent format or according to IEEE 754 * , where data is stored as a string using an extended character set * , where data is stored in the smallest possible decimal format (typically packed binary-coded decimal)Report writerThe report writer is a declarative facility for creating reports. The programmer need only specify the report layout and the data required to produce it, freeing them from having to write code to handle things like page breaks, data formatting, and headings and footings. Reports are associated with report files, which are files which may only be written to through report writer statements. <syntaxhighlight lang="cobol"> FD report-out REPORT sales-report. </syntaxhighlight> Each report is defined in the report section of the data division. A report is split into report groups which define the report's headings, footings and details. Reports work around hierarchical . Control breaks occur when a key variable changes it value; for example, when creating a report detailing customers' orders, a control break could occur when the program reaches a different customer's orders. Here is an example report description for a report which gives a salesperson's sales and which warns of any invalid records: <syntaxhighlight lang="cobol"> RD sales-report PAGE LIMITS 60 LINES FIRST DETAIL 3 CONTROLS seller-name. 01 TYPE PAGE HEADING. 03 COL 1 VALUE "Sales Report". 03 COL 74 VALUE "Page". 03 COL 79 PIC Z9 SOURCE PAGE-COUNTER. 01 sales-on-day TYPE DETAIL, LINE + 1. 03 COL 3 VALUE "Sales on". 03 COL 12 PIC 99/99/9999 SOURCE sales-date. 03 COL 21 VALUE "were". 03 COL 26 PIC $$$$9.99 SOURCE sales-amount. 01 invalid-sales TYPE DETAIL, LINE + 1. 03 COL 3 VALUE "INVALID RECORD:". 03 COL 19 PIC X(34) SOURCE sales-record. 01 TYPE CONTROL HEADING seller-name, LINE + 2. 03 COL 1 VALUE "Seller:". 03 COL 9 PIC X(30) SOURCE seller-name. </syntaxhighlight> The above report description describes the following layout: <pre> Sales Report Page 1 Seller: Howard Bromberg Sales on 10/12/2008 were $1000.00 Sales on 12/12/2008 were $0.00 Sales on 13/12/2008 were $31.47 INVALID RECORD: Howard Bromberg XXXXYY Seller: Howard Discount ... Sales Report Page 12 Sales on 08/05/2014 were $543.98 INVALID RECORD: William Selden 12052014FOOFOO Sales on 30/05/2014 were $0.00 </pre> Four statements control the report writer: , which prepares the report writer for printing; , which prints a report group; , which suppresses the printing of a report group; and , which terminates report processing. For the above sales report example, the procedure division might look like this: <syntaxhighlight lang="cobol"> OPEN INPUT sales, OUTPUT report-out INITIATE sales-report PERFORM UNTIL 1 <> 1 READ sales AT END EXIT PERFORM END-READ VALIDATE sales-record IF valid-record GENERATE sales-on-day ELSE GENERATE invalid-sales END-IF END-PERFORM TERMINATE sales-report CLOSE sales, report-out . </syntaxhighlight> Use of the Report Writer facility tends to vary considerably; some organizations use it extensively and some not at all. In addition, implementations of Report Writer ranged in quality, with those at the lower end sometimes using excessive amounts of memory at runtime. Procedure division Procedures The sections and paragraphs in the procedure division (collectively called procedures) can be used as labels and as simple subroutines. Unlike in other divisions, paragraphs do not need to be in sections. Execution goes down through the procedures of a program until it is terminated. To use procedures as subroutines, the verb is used. A statement somewhat resembles a procedure call in a newer languages in the sense that execution returns to the code following the statement at the end of the called code; however, it does not provide a mechanism for parameter passing or for returning a result value. If a subroutine is invoked using a simple statement like , then control returns at the end of the called procedure. However, is unusual in that it may be used to call a range spanning a sequence of several adjacent procedures. This is done with the construct: <syntaxhighlight lang="cobolfree"> PROCEDURE so-and-so. PERFORM ALPHA PERFORM ALPHA THRU GAMMA STOP RUN. ALPHA. DISPLAY 'A'. BETA. DISPLAY 'B'. GAMMA. DISPLAY 'C'. </syntaxhighlight> The output of this program will be: "A A B C". also differs from conventional procedure calls in that there is, at least traditionally, no notion of a call stack. As a consequence, nested invocations are possible (a sequence of code being 'ed may execute a statement itself), but require extra care if parts of the same code are executed by both invocations. The problem arises when the code in the inner invocation reaches the exit point of the outer invocation. More formally, if control passes through the exit point of a invocation that was called earlier but has not yet completed, the COBOL 2002 standard stipulates that the behavior is undefined. The reason is that COBOL, rather than a "return address", operates with what may be called a continuation address. When control flow reaches the end of any procedure, the continuation address is looked up and control is transferred to that address. Before the program runs, the continuation address for every procedure is initialized to the start address of the procedure that comes next in the program text so that, if no statements happen, control flows from top to bottom through the program. But when a statement executes, it modifies the continuation address of the called procedure (or the last procedure of the called range, if was used), so that control will return to the call site at the end. The original value is saved and is restored afterwards, but there is only one storage position. If two nested invocations operate on overlapping code, they may interfere which each other's management of the continuation address in several ways. The following example (taken from ) illustrates the problem: <syntaxhighlight lang="cobolfree"> LABEL1. DISPLAY '1' PERFORM LABEL2 THRU LABEL3 STOP RUN. LABEL2. DISPLAY '2' PERFORM LABEL3 THRU LABEL4. LABEL3. DISPLAY '3'. LABEL4. DISPLAY '4'. </syntaxhighlight> One might expect that the output of this program would be "1 2 3 4 3": After displaying "2", the second causes "3" and "4" to be displayed, and then the first invocation continues on with "3". In traditional COBOL implementations, this is not the case. Rather, the first statement sets the continuation address at the end of so that it will jump back to the call site inside . The second statement sets the return at the end of but does not modify the continuation address of , expecting it to be the default continuation. Thus, when the inner invocation arrives at the end of , it jumps back to the outer statement, and the program stops having printed just "1 2 3". On the other hand, in some COBOL implementations like the open-source TinyCOBOL compiler, the two statements do not interfere with each other and the output is indeed "1 2 3 4 3". Therefore, the behavior in such cases is not only (perhaps) surprising, it is also not portable. but it was deemed obsolete in the COBOL 1985 standard and deleted in 2002. The statement was poorly regarded because it undermined "locality of context" and made a program's overall logic difficult to comprehend. As textbook author Daniel D. McCracken wrote in 1976, when "someone who has never seen the program before must become familiar with it as quickly as possible, sometimes under critical time pressure because the program has failed ... the sight of a GO TO statement in a paragraph by itself, signaling as it does the existence of an unknown number of ALTER statements at unknown locations throughout the program, strikes fear in the heart of the bravest programmer." Hello, world A "Hello, World!" program in COBOL: <syntaxhighlight lang="cobol"> IDENTIFICATION DIVISION. PROGRAM-ID. hello-world. PROCEDURE DIVISION. DISPLAY "Hello, world!" . </syntaxhighlight> When the now famous "Hello, World!" program example in The C Programming Language was first published in 1978 a similar mainframe COBOL program sample would have been submitted through JCL, very likely using a punch card reader, and 80 column punch cards. The listing below, with an empty DATA DIVISION, was tested using Linux and the System/370 Hercules emulator running MVS 3.8J. The JCL, written in July 2015, is derived from the Hercules tutorials and samples hosted by Jay Moseley. In keeping with COBOL programming of that era, HELLO, WORLD is displayed in all capital letters. <syntaxhighlight lang="cobolfree"> //COBUCLG JOB (001),'COBOL BASE TEST', 00010000 // CLASSA,MSGCLASSA,MSGLEVEL=(1,1) 00020000 //BASETEST EXEC COBUCLG 00030000 //COB.SYSIN DD * 00040000 00000* VALIDATION OF BASE COBOL INSTALL 00050000 01000 IDENTIFICATION DIVISION. 00060000 01100 PROGRAM-ID. 'HELLO'. 00070000 02000 ENVIRONMENT DIVISION. 00080000 02100 CONFIGURATION SECTION. 00090000 02110 SOURCE-COMPUTER. GNULINUX. 00100000 02120 OBJECT-COMPUTER. HERCULES. 00110000 02200 SPECIAL-NAMES. 00120000 02210 CONSOLE IS CONSL. 00130000 03000 DATA DIVISION. 00140000 04000 PROCEDURE DIVISION. 00150000 04100 00-MAIN. 00160000 04110 DISPLAY 'HELLO, WORLD' UPON CONSL. 00170000 04900 STOP RUN. 00180000 //LKED.SYSLIB DD DSNAMESYS1.COBLIB,DISPSHR 00190000 // DD DSNAMESYS1.LINKLIB,DISPSHR 00200000 //GO.SYSPRINT DD SYSOUT=A 00210000 // 00220000 </syntaxhighlight> After submitting the JCL, the MVS console displayed: <syntaxhighlight lang"text" highlight"10"> 19.52.48 JOB 3 $HASP100 COBUCLG ON READER1 COBOL BASE TEST 19.52.48 JOB 3 IEF677I WARNING MESSAGE(S) FOR JOB COBUCLG ISSUED 19.52.48 JOB 3 $HASP373 COBUCLG STARTED - INIT 1 - CLASS A - SYS BSP1 19.52.48 JOB 3 IEC130I SYSPUNCH DD STATEMENT MISSING 19.52.48 JOB 3 IEC130I SYSLIB DD STATEMENT MISSING 19.52.48 JOB 3 IEC130I SYSPUNCH DD STATEMENT MISSING 19.52.48 JOB 3 IEFACTRT - Stepname Procstep Program Retcode 19.52.48 JOB 3 COBUCLG BASETEST COB IKFCBL00 RC= 0000 19.52.48 JOB 3 COBUCLG BASETEST LKED IEWL RC= 0000 19.52.48 JOB 3 +HELLO, WORLD 19.52.48 JOB 3 COBUCLG BASETEST GO PGM.DD RC 0000 19.52.48 JOB 3 $HASP395 COBUCLG ENDED </syntaxhighlight> Line 10 of the console listing above is highlighted for effect, the highlighting is not part of the actual console output. The associated compiler listing generated over four pages of technical detail and job run information, for the single line of output from the 14 lines of COBOL. Reception Lack of structure In the 1970s, adoption of the structured programming paradigm was becoming increasingly widespread. Edsger Dijkstra, a preeminent computer scientist, wrote a letter to the editor of Communications of the ACM, published in 1975 entitled "How do we tell truths that might hurt?", in which he was critical of COBOL and several other contemporary languages; remarking that "the use of COBOL cripples the mind". In a published dissent to Dijkstra's remarks, the computer scientist Howard E. Tompkins claimed that unstructured COBOL tended to be "written by programmers that have never had the benefit of structured COBOL taught well", arguing that the issue was primarily one of training. One cause of spaghetti code was the statement. Attempts to remove s from COBOL code, however, resulted in convoluted programs and reduced code quality. s were largely replaced by the statement and procedures, which promoted modular programming and gave easy access to powerful looping facilities. However, could be used only with procedures so loop bodies were not located where they were used, making programs harder to understand. COBOL programs were infamous for being monolithic and lacking modularization. COBOL code could be modularized only through procedures, which were found to be inadequate for large systems. It was impossible to restrict access to data, meaning a procedure could access and modify data item. Furthermore, there was no way to pass parameters to a procedure, an omission Jean Sammet regarded as the committee's biggest mistake. Another complication stemmed from the ability to a specified sequence of procedures. This meant that control could jump to and return from any procedure, creating convoluted control flow and permitting a programmer to break the single-entry single-exit rule. This situation improved as COBOL adopted more features. COBOL-74 added subprograms, giving programmers the ability to control the data each part of the program could access. COBOL-85 then added nested subprograms, allowing programmers to hide subprograms. Further control over data and code came in 2002 when object-oriented programming, user-defined functions and user-defined data types were included. Nevertheless, much important legacy COBOL software uses unstructured code, which has become practically unmaintainable. It can be too risky and costly to modify even a simple section of code, since it may be used from unknown places in unknown ways.Compatibility issuesCOBOL was intended to be a highly portable, "common" language. However, by 2001, around 300 dialects had been created. One source of dialects was the standard itself: the 1974 standard was composed of one mandatory nucleus and eleven functional modules, each containing two or three levels of support. This permitted 104,976 possible variants. COBOL-85 was not fully compatible with earlier versions, and its development was controversial. Joseph T. Brophy, the CIO of Travelers Insurance, spearheaded an effort to inform COBOL users of the heavy reprogramming costs of implementing the new standard. As a result, the ANSI COBOL Committee received more than 2,200 letters from the public, mostly negative, requiring the committee to make changes. On the other hand, conversion to COBOL-85 was thought to increase productivity in future years, thus justifying the conversion costs. Verbose syntax COBOL syntax has often been criticized for its verbosity. Proponents say that this was intended to make the code self-documenting, easing program maintenance. COBOL was also intended to be easy for programmers to learn and use, while still being readable to non-technical staff such as managers. The desire for readability led to the use of English-like syntax and structural elements, such as nouns, verbs, clauses, sentences, sections, and divisions. Yet by 1984, maintainers of COBOL programs were struggling to deal with "incomprehensible" code and the main changes in COBOL-85 were there to help ease maintenance. \| align=left \| width=30% \| quoted=1 }} Later, COBOL suffered from a shortage of material covering it; it took until 1963 for introductory books to appear (with Richard D. Irwin publishing a college textbook on COBOL in 1966). Donald Nelson, chair of the CODASYL COBOL committee, said in 1984 that "academics ... hate COBOL" and that computer science graduates "had 'hate COBOL' drilled into them". By the mid-1980s, there was also significant condescension towards COBOL in the business community from users of other languages, for example FORTRAN or assembler, implying that COBOL could be used only for non-challenging problems. In 2003, COBOL featured in 80% of information systems curricula in the United States, the same proportion as C++ and Java. Ten years later, a poll by Micro Focus found that 20% of university academics thought COBOL was outdated or dead and that 55% believed their students thought COBOL was outdated or dead. The same poll also found that only 25% of academics had COBOL programming on their curriculum even though 60% thought they should teach it. Concerns about the design process Doubts have been raised about the competence of the standards committee. Short-term committee member Howard Bromberg said that there was "little control" over the development process and that it was "plagued by discontinuity of personnel and ... a lack of talent." Jean Sammet and Jerome Garfunkel also noted that changes introduced in one revision of the standard would be reverted in the next, due as much to changes in who was in the standard committee as to objective evidence. COBOL standards have repeatedly suffered from delays: COBOL-85 arrived five years later than hoped, COBOL 2002 was five years late, To combat delays, the standard committee allowed the creation of optional addenda which would add features more quickly than by waiting for the next standard revision. However, some committee members raised concerns about incompatibilities between implementations and frequent modifications of the standard. Influences on other languages COBOL's data structures influenced subsequent programming languages. Its record and file structure influenced PL/I and Pascal, and the <code>REDEFINES</code> clause was a predecessor to Pascal's variant records. Explicit file structure definitions preceded the development of database management systems and aggregated data was a significant advance over Fortran's arrays. <code>PICTURE</code> data declarations were incorporated into PL/I, with minor changes. COBOL's facility, although considered "primitive", influenced the development of include directives. The focus on portability and standardization meant programs written in COBOL could be portable and facilitated the spread of the language to a wide variety of hardware platforms and operating systems. Additionally, the well-defined division structure restricts the definition of external references to the Environment Division, which simplifies platform changes in particular. See also Alphabetical list of programming languages * BLIS/COBOL * CODASYL * Comparison of programming languages * * Notes }} References Citations Sources * * * * * * * * * (Link goes to draft N 0147) * * * * * * * * * * * * * External links * * * [https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/009680799/toc.pdf COBOL Language Standard] (1991; COBOL-85 with Amendment 1), from The Open Group Category:.NET programming languages Category:1959 software Category:Class-based programming languages Category:Computer-related introductions in 1959 Category:Cross-platform software Category:Object-oriented programming languages Category:Procedural programming languages Category:Programming languages created by women Category:Programming languages created in 1959 Category:Programming languages with an ISO standard Category:Statically typed programming languages Category:Structured programming languages	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COBOL	2025-04-05T18:27:57.963145
6801	Crew	}} (Space Shuttle Atlantis, STS-112, 2002)]] A crew is a body or a group of people who work at a common activity, generally in a structured or hierarchical organization. A location in which a crew works is called a crewyard or a workyard. The word has nautical resonances: the tasks involved in operating a ship, particularly a sailing ship, providing numerous specialities within a ship's crew, often organised with a chain of command. Traditional nautical usage strongly distinguishes officers from crew, though the two groups combined form the ship's company. Members of a crew are often referred to by the titles crewmate, crewman or crew-member. Crew also refers to the sport of rowing, where teams row competitively in racing shells. Types * For a specific sporting usage, see rowing crew. * For filmmaking usage, see film crew. * For live music usage, see road crew. * For analogous entities in research on human judgment and decision-making, see team and judge–advisor system. * For stagecraft usage, see stage crew. * For video production usage, see television crew. * For crews in aviation and the airline industry, see groundcrew and aircrew. * For crews in human spaceflight, see astronaut. * Tank crew * Boat crew References External links * [http://www.onboardonline.com/industry-article-index/career-and-training/yacht-job-descriptions-and-salary-guide/ Yacht Job Descriptions and Salary Guide] Category:Social groups	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crew	2025-04-05T18:27:57.968648
6803	CCD	CCD may refer to: Science and technology Charge-coupled device, an electronic light sensor used in various devices including digital cameras .ccd, the filename extension for CloneCD's CD image file Carbonate compensation depth, a property of oceans Colony collapse disorder, a phenomenon involving the abrupt disappearance of honey bees in a beehive or Western honey bee colony centicandela (ccd), an SI unit of luminous intensity denoting one hundredth of a candela Central composite design, an experimental design in response surface methodology for building a second order model for a response variable without a complete three-level factorial Complementary cumulative distribution function Continuous collision detection, especially in rigid-body dynamics Countercurrent distribution, used for separating mixtures Core complex die, an element of AMD Zen 2 and later microprocessor architectures Medicine Canine compulsive disorder, a behavioral condition in dogs, similar to human obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) Caput-collum-diaphyseal angle, the angle between the neck and the shaft of the femur in the hip Cleidocranial dysostosis (also called cleidocranial dysplasia), a genetic abnormality in humans Central core disease, a rare neuromuscular disorder Congenital chloride diarrhea, a rare disorder in babies Continuity of Care Document, an XML-based markup standard for patient medical document exchange Cross-reactive carbohydrate determinants, protein-linked carbohydrate structures that have a role in the phenomenon of cross-reactivity in allergic patients Cortical collecting duct, a segment of the kidney Politics and government Census county division, a term used by the US Census Bureau Center City District, an economic development agency for the Center City area of Philadelphia Consular Consolidated Database, a database used for visa processing by the Bureau of Consular Affairs, US Department of State Religion Confraternity of Christian Doctrine, a religious instruction program of the Catholic Church Organizations Café Coffee Day, a chain of coffee shops in India Country Club of Detroit Centre of Cricket Development, a cricket team; see Namibia Cricket Board Cricket Club of Dhakuria; see Gopal Bose Education Community College of Denver, a public college in Denver, Colorado Cincinnati Country Day School, a non-parochial, private school in Indian Hill, Ohio Non-governmental Christian Care Foundation for Children with Disabilities, in Thailand Council for a Community of Democracies, in the US Canadian Coalition for Democracies, a former advocacy organization in Canada Politics and government Centro Cristiano Democratico (Christian Democratic Centre), a defunct Italian political party Other uses Convention Centre Dublin, Ireland	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CCD	2025-04-05T18:27:57.972951
6804	Charge-coupled device	A charge-coupled device (CCD) is an integrated circuit containing an array of linked, or coupled, capacitors. Under the control of an external circuit, each capacitor can transfer its electric charge to a neighboring capacitor. CCD sensors are a major technology used in digital imaging. Overview In a CCD image sensor, pixels are represented by p-doped metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) capacitors. These MOS capacitors, the basic building blocks of a CCD, with MOS capacitors being the basic building blocks of a CCD, and a depleted MOS structure used as the photodetector in early CCD devices. In the late 1960s, Willard Boyle and George E. Smith at Bell Labs were researching MOS technology while working on semiconductor bubble memory. They realized that an electric charge was the analogy of the magnetic bubble and that it could be stored on a tiny MOS capacitor. As it was fairly straightforward to fabricate a series of MOS capacitors in a row, they connected a suitable voltage to them so that the charge could be stepped along from one to the next. The initial paper describing the concept in April 1970 listed possible uses as memory, a delay line, and an imaging device. The device could also be used as a shift register. The essence of the design was the ability to transfer charge along the surface of a semiconductor from one storage capacitor to the next. The concept was similar in principle to the bucket-brigade device (BBD), which was developed at Philips Research Labs during the late 1960s. The first experimental device demonstrating the principle was a row of closely spaced metal squares on an oxidized silicon surface electrically accessed by wire bonds. It was demonstrated by Gil Amelio, Michael Francis Tompsett and George Smith in April 1970. This was the first experimental application of the CCD in image sensor technology, and used a depleted MOS structure as the photodetector. The first working CCD made with integrated circuit technology was a simple 8-bit shift register, reported by Tompsett, Amelio and Smith in August 1970. This device had input and output circuits and was used to demonstrate its use as a shift register and as a crude eight pixel linear imaging device. Development of the device progressed at a rapid rate. By 1971, Bell researchers led by Michael Tompsett were able to capture images with simple linear devices. Several companies, including Fairchild Semiconductor, RCA and Texas Instruments, picked up on the invention and began development programs. Fairchild's effort, led by ex-Bell researcher Gil Amelio, was the first with commercial devices, and by 1974 had a linear 500-element device and a 2D 100 × 100 pixel device. Peter Dillon, a scientist at Kodak Research Labs, invented the first color CCD image sensor by overlaying a color filter array on this Fairchild 100 x 100 pixel Interline CCD starting in 1974. Steven Sasson, an electrical engineer working for the Kodak Apparatus Division, invented a digital still camera using this same Fairchild CCD in 1975. The interline transfer (ILT) CCD device was proposed by L. Walsh and R. Dyck at Fairchild in 1973 to reduce smear and eliminate a mechanical shutter. To further reduce smear from bright light sources, the frame-interline-transfer (FIT) CCD architecture was developed by K. Horii, T. Kuroda and T. Kunii at Matsushita (now Panasonic) in 1981. Under the leadership of Kazuo Iwama, Sony started a large development effort on CCDs involving a significant investment. Eventually, Sony managed to mass-produce CCDs for their camcorders. Before this happened, Iwama died in August 1982. Subsequently, a CCD chip was placed on his tombstone to acknowledge his contribution. The first mass-produced consumer CCD video camera, the CCD-G5, was released by Sony in 1983, based on a prototype developed by Yoshiaki Hagiwara in 1981. Early CCD sensors suffered from shutter lag. This was largely resolved with the invention of the pinned photodiode (PPD). They recognized that lag can be eliminated if the signal carriers could be transferred from the photodiode to the CCD. This led to their invention of the pinned photodiode, a photodetector structure with low lag, low noise, high quantum efficiency and low dark current. The new photodetector structure invented at NEC was given the name "pinned photodiode" (PPD) by B.C. Burkey at Kodak in 1984. In 1987, the PPD began to be incorporated into most CCD devices, becoming a fixture in consumer electronic video cameras and then digital still cameras. Since then, the PPD has been used in nearly all CCD sensors and then CMOS sensors. and in 2009 they were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics for their invention of the CCD concept. Michael Tompsett was awarded the 2010 National Medal of Technology and Innovation, for pioneering work and electronic technologies including the design and development of the first CCD imagers. He was also awarded the 2012 IEEE Edison Medal for "pioneering contributions to imaging devices including CCD Imagers, cameras and thermal imagers". Basics of operation thumb\|250px\|right\|The charge packets (electrons, blue) are collected in potential wells (yellow) created by applying positive voltage at the gate electrodes (G). Applying positive voltage to the gate electrode in the correct sequence transfers the charge packets.In a CCD for capturing images, there is a photoactive region (an epitaxial layer of silicon), and a transmission region made out of a shift register (the CCD, properly speaking). An image is projected through a lens onto the capacitor array (the photoactive region), causing each capacitor to accumulate an electric charge proportional to the light intensity at that location. A one-dimensional array, used in line-scan cameras, captures a single slice of the image, whereas a two-dimensional array, used in video and still cameras, captures a two-dimensional picture corresponding to the scene projected onto the focal plane of the sensor. Once the array has been exposed to the image, a control circuit causes each capacitor to transfer its contents to its neighbor (operating as a shift register). The last capacitor in the array dumps its charge into a charge amplifier, which converts the charge into a voltage. By repeating this process, the controlling circuit converts the entire contents of the array in the semiconductor to a sequence of voltages. In a digital device, these voltages are then sampled, digitized, and usually stored in memory; in an analog device (such as an analog video camera), they are processed into a continuous analog signal (e.g. by feeding the output of the charge amplifier into a low-pass filter), which is then processed and fed out to other circuits for transmission, recording, or other processing. Detailed physics of operation thumb\|right\|Sony ICX493AQA 10.14-megapixel APS-C (23.4 × 15.6 mm) CCD from digital camera Sony α DSLR-A200 or DSLR-A300, sensor side Charge generation Before the MOS capacitors are exposed to light, they are biased into the depletion region; in n-channel CCDs, the silicon under the bias gate is slightly p-doped or intrinsic. The gate is then biased at a positive potential, above the threshold for strong inversion, which will eventually result in the creation of an n channel below the gate as in a MOSFET. However, it takes time to reach this thermal equilibrium: up to hours in high-end scientific cameras cooled at low temperature. Initially after biasing, the holes are pushed far into the substrate, and no mobile electrons are at or near the surface; the CCD thus operates in a non-equilibrium state called deep depletion. Then, when electron–hole pairs are generated in the depletion region, they are separated by the electric field, the electrons move toward the surface, and the holes move toward the substrate. Four pair-generation processes can be identified: photo-generation (up to 95% of quantum efficiency), generation in the depletion region, generation at the surface, and generation in the neutral bulk. The last three processes are known as dark-current generation, and add noise to the image; they can limit the total usable integration time. The accumulation of electrons at or near the surface can proceed either until image integration is over and charge begins to be transferred, or thermal equilibrium is reached. In this case, the well is said to be full. The maximum capacity of each well is known as the well depth, typically about 105 electrons per pixel. Design and manufacturing The photoactive region of a CCD is, generally, an epitaxial layer of silicon. It is lightly p doped (usually with boron) and is grown upon a substrate material, often p++. In buried-channel devices, the type of design utilized in most modern CCDs, certain areas of the surface of the silicon are ion implanted with phosphorus, giving them an n-doped designation. This region defines the channel in which the photogenerated charge packets will travel. Simon Sze details the advantages of a buried-channel device: Use in astronomy thumb\|right\|Array of 30 CCDs used on the Sloan Digital Sky Survey telescope imaging camera, an example of "drift-scanning".Due to the high quantum efficiencies of charge-coupled device (CCD) (the ideal quantum efficiency is 100%, one generated electron per incident photon), linearity of their outputs, ease of use compared to photographic plates, and a variety of other reasons, CCDs were very rapidly adopted by astronomers for nearly all UV-to-infrared applications. Thermal noise and cosmic rays may alter the pixels in the CCD array. To counter such effects, astronomers take several exposures with the CCD shutter closed and opened. The average of images taken with the shutter closed is necessary to lower the random noise. Once developed, the dark frame average image is then subtracted from the open-shutter image to remove the dark current and other systematic defects (dead pixels, hot pixels, etc.) in the CCD. Newer Skipper CCDs counter noise by collecting data with the same collected charge multiple times and has applications in precision light Dark Matter searches and neutrino measurements. The Hubble Space Telescope, in particular, has a highly developed series of steps ("data reduction pipeline") to convert the raw CCD data to useful images. CCD cameras used in astrophotography often require sturdy mounts to cope with vibrations from wind and other sources, along with the tremendous weight of most imaging platforms. To take long exposures of galaxies and nebulae, many astronomers use a technique known as auto-guiding. Most autoguiders use a second CCD chip to monitor deviations during imaging. This chip can rapidly detect errors in tracking and command the mount motors to correct for them. An unusual astronomical application of CCDs, called drift-scanning, uses a CCD to make a fixed telescope behave like a tracking telescope and follow the motion of the sky. The charges in the CCD are transferred and read in a direction parallel to the motion of the sky, and at the same speed. In this way, the telescope can image a larger region of the sky than its normal field of view. The Sloan Digital Sky Survey is the most famous example of this, using the technique to produce a survey of over a quarter of the sky. The Gaia space telescope is another instrument operating in this mode, rotating about its axis at a constant rate of 1 revolution in 6 hours and scanning a 360° by 0.5° strip on the sky during this time; a star traverses the entire focal plane in about 40 seconds (effective exposure time). In addition to imagers, CCDs are also used in an array of analytical instrumentation including spectrometers and interferometers. Color cameras thumb\|A Bayer filter on a CCD right\|thumb\|x80 microscope view of an RGGB Bayer filter on a 240 line Sony CCD PAL Camcorder CCD sensor Digital color cameras, including the digital color cameras in smartphones, generally use an integral color image sensor, which has a color filter array fabricated on top of the monochrome pixels of the CCD. The most popular CFA pattern is known as the Bayer filter, which is named for its inventor, Kodak scientist Bryce Bayer. In the Bayer pattern, each square of four pixels has one filtered red, one blue, and two green pixels (the human eye has greater acuity for luminance, which is more heavily weighted in green than in either red or blue). As a result, the luminance information is collected in each row and column using a checkerboard pattern, and the color resolution is lower than the luminance resolution. Better color separation can be reached by three-CCD devices (3CCD) and a dichroic beam splitter prism, that splits the image into red, green and blue components. Each of the three CCDs is arranged to respond to a particular color. Many professional video camcorders, and some semi-professional camcorders, use this technique, although developments in competing CMOS technology have made CMOS sensors, both with beam-splitters and Bayer filters, increasingly popular in high-end video and digital cinema cameras. Another advantage of 3CCD over a Bayer mask device is higher quantum efficiency (higher light sensitivity), because most of the light from the lens enters one of the silicon sensors, while a Bayer mask absorbs a high proportion (more than 2/3) of the light falling on each pixel location. For still scenes, for instance in microscopy, the resolution of a Bayer mask device can be enhanced by microscanning technology. During the process of color co-site sampling, several frames of the scene are produced. Between acquisitions, the sensor is moved in pixel dimensions, so that each point in the visual field is acquired consecutively by elements of the mask that are sensitive to the red, green, and blue components of its color. Eventually every pixel in the image has been scanned at least once in each color and the resolution of the three channels become equivalent (the resolutions of red and blue channels are quadrupled while the green channel is doubled). Sensor sizes Sensors (CCD / CMOS) come in various sizes, or image sensor formats. These sizes are often referred to with an inch fraction designation such as 1/1.8″ or 2/3″ called the optical format. This measurement originates back in the 1950s and the time of Vidicon tubes. Blooming thumb\|right\|300px\|Vertical smear When a CCD exposure is long enough, eventually the electrons that collect in the "bins" in the brightest part of the image will overflow the bin, resulting in blooming. The structure of the CCD allows the electrons to flow more easily in one direction than another, resulting in vertical streaking. Some anti-blooming features that can be built into a CCD reduce its sensitivity to light by using some of the pixel area for a drain structure. James M. Early developed a vertical anti-blooming drain that would not detract from the light collection area, and so did not reduce light sensitivity. See also References External links Journal Article On Basics of CCDs Nikon microscopy introduction to CCDs Concepts in Digital Imaging Technology More statistical properties L3CCDs used in astronomy Category:American inventions Category:Integrated circuits Category:Image processing Category:Image sensors Category:Image scanners Category:Astronomical imaging Category:MOSFETs	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge-coupled_device	2025-04-05T18:27:58.007602
6806	Computer memory	module. , over 90 percent of computer memory used in PCs and servers was of this type.]] Computer memory stores information, such as data and programs, for immediate use in the computer. The term memory is often synonymous with the terms RAM, main memory, or primary storage. Archaic synonyms for main memory include core (for magnetic core memory) and store. Main memory operates at a high speed compared to mass storage which is slower but less expensive per bit and higher in capacity. Besides storing opened programs and data being actively processed, computer memory serves as a mass storage cache and write buffer to improve both reading and writing performance. Operating systems borrow RAM capacity for caching so long as it is not needed by running software. If needed, contents of the computer memory can be transferred to storage; a common way of doing this is through a memory management technique called virtual memory. Modern computer memory is implemented as semiconductor memory, where data is stored within memory cells built from MOS transistors and other components on an integrated circuit. There are two main kinds of semiconductor memory: volatile and non-volatile. Examples of non-volatile memory are flash memory and ROM, PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM memory. Examples of volatile memory are dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) used for primary storage and static random-access memory (SRAM) used mainly for CPU cache. Most semiconductor memory is organized into memory cells each storing one bit (0 or 1). Flash memory organization includes both one bit per memory cell and a multi-level cell capable of storing multiple bits per cell. The memory cells are grouped into words of fixed word length, for example, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 or 128 bits. Each word can be accessed by a binary address of N bits, making it possible to store 2<sup>N</sup> words in the memory. History ]] , an early punch multiplying calculator]] , showing vacuum tubes ]] used as memory in the IAS computer ]] microSDHC card on top of 8bytes of magnetic-core memory (1core is 1bit.)]] In the early 1940s, memory technology often permitted a capacity of a few bytes. The first electronic programmable digital computer, the ENIAC, using thousands of vacuum tubes, could perform simple calculations involving 20 numbers of ten decimal digits stored in the vacuum tubes. The next significant advance in computer memory came with acoustic delay-line memory, developed by J. Presper Eckert in the early 1940s. Through the construction of a glass tube filled with mercury and plugged at each end with a quartz crystal, delay lines could store bits of information in the form of sound waves propagating through the mercury, with the quartz crystals acting as transducers to read and write bits. Delay-line memory was limited to a capacity of up to a few thousand bits. Two alternatives to the delay line, the Williams tube and Selectron tube, originated in 1946, both using electron beams in glass tubes as means of storage. Using cathode-ray tubes, Fred Williams invented the Williams tube, which was the first random-access computer memory. The Williams tube was able to store more information than the Selectron tube (the Selectron was limited to 256 bits, while the Williams tube could store thousands) and was less expensive. The Williams tube was nevertheless frustratingly sensitive to environmental disturbances. Efforts began in the late 1940s to find non-volatile memory. Magnetic-core memory allowed for memory recall after power loss. It was developed by Frederick W. Viehe and An Wang in the late 1940s, and improved by Jay Forrester and Jan A. Rajchman in the early 1950s, before being commercialized with the Whirlwind I computer in 1953. Magnetic-core memory was the dominant form of memory until the development of MOS semiconductor memory in the 1960s. Semiconductor memory made from discrete devices was first shipped by Texas Instruments to the United States Air Force in 1961. In the same year, the concept of solid-state memory on an integrated circuit (IC) chip was proposed by applications engineer Bob Norman at Fairchild Semiconductor. The first bipolar semiconductor memory IC chip was the SP95 introduced by IBM in 1965. MOS memory The invention of the metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) enabled the practical use of metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) transistors as memory cell storage elements. MOS memory was developed by John Schmidt at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1964. In addition to higher performance, MOS semiconductor memory was cheaper and consumed less power than magnetic core memory. In 1965, J. Wood and R. Ball of the Royal Radar Establishment proposed digital storage systems that use CMOS (complementary MOS) memory cells, in addition to MOSFET power devices for the power supply, switched cross-coupling, switches and delay-line storage. The development of silicon-gate MOS integrated circuit (MOS IC) technology by Federico Faggin at Fairchild in 1968 enabled the production of MOS memory chips. NMOS memory was commercialized by IBM in the early 1970s. MOS memory overtook magnetic core memory as the dominant memory technology in the early 1970s. Commercial use of SRAM began in 1965, when IBM introduced their SP95 SRAM chip for the System/360 Model 95. While it offered improved performance, bipolar DRAM could not compete with the lower price of the then dominant magnetic-core memory. MOS technology is the basis for modern DRAM. In 1966, Robert H. Dennard at the IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center was working on MOS memory. While examining the characteristics of MOS technology, he found it was possible to build capacitors, and that storing a charge or no charge on the MOS capacitor could represent the 1 and 0 of a bit, while the MOS transistor could control writing the charge to the capacitor. This led to his development of a single-transistor DRAM memory cell. This led to the first commercial DRAM IC chip, the Intel 1103 in October 1970. Synchronous dynamic random-access memory (SDRAM) later debuted with the Samsung KM48SL2000 chip in 1992. The term memory'' is also often used to refer to non-volatile memory including read-only memory (ROM) through modern flash memory. Programmable read-only memory (PROM) was invented by Wen Tsing Chow in 1956, while working for the Arma Division of the American Bosch Arma Corporation. In 1967, Dawon Kahng and Simon Sze of Bell Labs proposed that the floating gate of a MOS semiconductor device could be used for the cell of a reprogrammable ROM, which led to Dov Frohman of Intel inventing EPROM (erasable PROM) in 1971. EEPROM (electrically erasable PROM) was developed by Yasuo Tarui, Yutaka Hayashi and Kiyoko Naga at the Electrotechnical Laboratory in 1972. Flash memory was invented by Fujio Masuoka at Toshiba in the early 1980s. Masuoka and colleagues presented the invention of NOR flash in 1984, and then NAND flash in 1987. Toshiba commercialized NAND flash memory in 1987. Volatility categories Volatile memory Volatile memory is computer memory that requires power to maintain the stored information. Most modern semiconductor volatile memory is either static RAM (SRAM) or dynamic RAM (DRAM). DRAM dominates for desktop system memory. SRAM is used for CPU cache. SRAM is also found in small embedded systems requiring little memory. SRAM retains its contents as long as the power is connected and may use a simpler interface, but commonly uses six transistors per bit. Dynamic RAM is more complicated for interfacing and control, needing regular refresh cycles to prevent losing its contents, but uses only one transistor and one capacitor per bit, allowing it to reach much higher densities and much cheaper per-bit costs. As a second example, an STT-RAM can be made non-volatile by building large cells, but doing so raises the cost per bit and power requirements and reduces the write speed. Using small cells improves cost, power, and speed, but leads to semi-volatile behavior. In some applications, the increased volatility can be managed to provide many benefits of a non-volatile memory, for example by removing power but forcing a wake-up before data is lost; or by caching read-only data and discarding the cached data if the power-off time exceeds the non-volatile threshold. The term semi-volatile is also used to describe semi-volatile behavior constructed from other memory types, such as nvSRAM, which combines SRAM and a non-volatile memory on the same chip, where an external signal copies data from the volatile memory to the non-volatile memory, but if power is removed before the copy occurs, the data is lost. Another example is battery-backed RAM, which uses an external battery to power the memory device in case of external power loss. If power is off for an extended period of time, the battery may run out, resulting in data loss.<ref name":2" /> Management Proper management of memory is vital for a computer system to operate properly. Modern operating systems have complex systems to properly manage memory. Failure to do so can lead to bugs or slow performance. Bugs Improper management of memory is a common cause of bugs and security vulnerabilities, including the following types: * A memory leak occurs when a program requests memory from the operating system and never returns the memory when it is done with it. A program with this bug will gradually require more and more memory until the program fails as the operating system runs out. * A segmentation fault results when a program tries to access memory that it does not have permission to access. Generally, a program doing so will be terminated by the operating system. * A buffer overflow occurs when a program writes data to the end of its allocated space and then continues to write data beyond this to memory that has been allocated for other purposes. This may result in erratic program behavior, including memory access errors, incorrect results, a crash, or a breach of system security. They are thus the basis of many software vulnerabilities and can be maliciously exploited. Virtual memory Virtual memory is a system where physical memory is managed by the operating system typically with assistance from a memory management unit, which is part of many modern CPUs. It allows multiple types of memory to be used. For example, some data can be stored in RAM while other data is stored on a hard drive (e.g. in a swapfile), functioning as an extension of the cache hierarchy. This offers several advantages. Computer programmers no longer need to worry about where their data is physically stored or whether the user's computer will have enough memory. The operating system will place actively used data in RAM, which is much faster than hard disks. When the amount of RAM is not sufficient to run all the current programs, it can result in a situation where the computer spends more time moving data from RAM to disk and back than it does accomplishing tasks; this is known as thrashing. Protected memory Protected memory is a system where each program is given an area of memory to use and is prevented from going outside that range. If the operating system detects that a program has tried to alter memory that does not belong to it, the program is terminated (or otherwise restricted or redirected). This way, only the offending program crashes, and other programs are not affected by the misbehavior (whether accidental or intentional). Use of protected memory greatly enhances both the reliability and security of a computer system. Without protected memory, it is possible that a bug in one program will alter the memory used by another program. This will cause that other program to run off of corrupted memory with unpredictable results. If the operating system's memory is corrupted, the entire computer system may crash and need to be rebooted. At times programs intentionally alter the memory used by other programs. This is done by viruses and malware to take over computers. It may also be used benignly by desirable programs which are intended to modify other programs, debuggers, for example, to insert breakpoints or hooks. See also * Memory geometry * Memory hierarchy * Memory organization * Processor registers store data but normally are not considered as memory, since they only store one word and do not include an addressing mechanism. * Universal memory, memory combining both large capacity and high speed Notes References Further reading * * Category:MOSFETs Category:Digital electronics	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_memory	2025-04-05T18:27:58.030060
6809	CDC (disambiguation)	The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention is the national public health agency of the United States. CDC may also refer to: Organizations Business Caisse des dépôts et consignations ("Deposits and Consignments Fund"), a financial institution owned by the French government Cameroon Development Corporation, an agribusiness company located in Limbe, Cameroon CDC Group, formerly the Commonwealth Development Corporation and Colonial Development Corporation, a British development organisation owned by the UK Government Central Depository Company, a Pakistani central securities depository company ComfortDelGro Australia, a major Australian operator of buses formerly named ComfortDelGro Cabcharge Control Data Corporation, former supercomputer company Construction Data Company, also known as CDC News and CDC Publishing, a commercial construction reporting service Loong Air, by ICAO code Government Africa Centres for Disease Control Canadian Dairy Commission Chichester District Council, local authority in West Sussex, England Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention Civil Defence Corps, UK, 1949–1968 Colonial Defence Committee, a body advising on the military defence of the British Empire, 1885–1908 Community Development Council, Singapore Community of Democratic Choice, of Eastern European countries Hong Kong Curriculum Development Council, Hong Kong Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, a South Korean agency Taiwan Centers for Disease Control Non-profit Certified Development Company, a U.S. Small Business Administration program designed to provide financing for the purchase of fixed assets Community development corporation, any non-profit organization that promotes and supports a community Commission for Developing Countries, a Commission of the International Mathematical Union Politics California Democratic Council, US Coalition for Democratic Change, a Liberian political alliance Congress for Democratic Change, a Liberian political party Democratic Convergence of Catalonia (), a political party in Catalonia, Spain 1974–2016 Sport Cricket Discipline Commission (of the England and Wales Cricket Board) Other organizations Cult of the Dead Cow (cDc), a computer hacker and DIY media organization Places Cedar City Regional Airport, by IATA code Center Day Camp, North Windham, Maine, U.S. Communicable Disease Centre, former hospital in Novena, Singapore Science Cell-division cycle in biology cdc20 cdc25 Cdc42, cell-division cycle protein Cholesterol-dependent cytolysin, exotoxins secreted by bacteria Complement-dependent cytotoxicity Conventional dendritic cell, cDC Cross dehydrogenative coupling Technology Carbide-derived carbon Change data capture, to track changed data Clock domain crossing of a signal Communications daughter card for notebook computers Connected Device Configuration, of required Java ME features USB communications device class Other uses CDC?, a children's book by William Steig Chef de cuisine Combat Direction Center of an aircraft carrier Continuous Discharge Certificate, seafarer's identity document Cul de canard, duck feathers used in fly fishing See also Africa CDC (Centres for Disease Control and Prevention) C.DC., the Swiss botany author abbreviation of Anne Casimir de Candolle	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CDC_(disambiguation)	2025-04-05T18:27:58.039658
6811	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention	\| logo }}}\|size180px\|sizedefaultframeless\|upright1\|alt logo\|suppressplaceholder=yes}} \| logo_size = 180px \| logo_caption = Logo of the \| seal \| seal_width \| seal_caption \| formed \|MDY}} \| preceding1 = Office of National Defense Malaria Control Activities (1942) \| preceding2 = Office of Malaria Control in War Areas (1942–46) \| preceding3 = Communicable Disease Center (1946–67) \| preceding4 = National Communicable Disease Center (1967–70) \| preceding5 = Center for Disease Control (1970–80) \| preceding6 = Centers for Disease Control (1980–92) <!--\| preceding7 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1992–Present) Broken! -->\| dissolved \| superseding \| jurisdiction \| headquarters = Atlanta, Georgia, U.S. \| coordinates \| employees \| budget = US$11.581billion (FY24) \| minister1_name \| minister1_pfo \| minister2_name \| minister2_pfo \| chief1_name = Susan Monarez<!----> \| chief1_position = Acting Director \| chief2_name = \| chief2_position = Acting Principal Deputy Director \| parent_agency = \| website = \| parent_department = }} The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is the national public health agency of the United States. It is a United States federal agency under the Department of Health and Human Services, and is headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia. The agency's main goal is the protection of public health and safety through the control and prevention of disease, injury, and disability in the US and worldwide. The CDC focuses national attention on developing and applying disease control and prevention. It especially focuses its attention on infectious disease, food borne pathogens, environmental health, occupational safety and health, health promotion, injury prevention, and educational activities designed to improve the health of United States citizens. The CDC also conducts research and provides information on non-infectious diseases, such as obesity and diabetes, and is a founding member of the International Association of National Public Health Institutes. The CDC's current acting director is Susan Monarez who assumed the role on January 23, 2025.History Establishment The Communicable Disease Center was founded July 1, 1946, as the successor to the World War II Malaria Control in War Areas program of the Office of National Defense Malaria Control Activities. Preceding its founding, organizations with global influence in malaria control were the Malaria Commission of the League of Nations and the Rockefeller Foundation. The Rockefeller Foundation greatly supported malaria control, The new agency was a branch of the U.S. Public Health Service and Atlanta was chosen as the location because malaria was endemic in the Southern United States. The agency changed names (see infobox on top) before adopting the name Communicable Disease Center in 1946. Offices were located on the sixth floor of the Volunteer Building on Peachtree Street. With a budget at the time of about $1million, 59 percent of its personnel were engaged in mosquito abatement and habitat control with the objective of control and eradication of malaria in the United States (see National Malaria Eradication Program). Among its 369 employees, the main jobs at CDC were originally entomology and engineering. In CDC's initial years, more than six and a half million homes were sprayed, mostly with DDT. In 1946, there were only seven medical officers on duty and an early organization chart was drawn. Under Joseph Walter Mountin, the CDC continued to be an advocate for public health issues and pushed to extend its responsibilities to many other communicable diseases. In 1947, the CDC made a token payment of $10 to Emory University for of land on Clifton Road in DeKalb County, still the home of CDC headquarters as of 2025. CDC employees collected the money to make the purchase. The benefactor behind the "gift" was Robert W. Woodruff, chairman of the board of the Coca-Cola Company. Woodruff had a long-time interest in malaria control, which had been a problem in areas where he went hunting. The same year, the PHS transferred its San Francisco based plague laboratory into the CDC as the Epidemiology Division, and a new Veterinary Diseases Division was established. In 2020, FETP celebrated the 40th anniversary of the CDC's support for Thailand's Field Epidemiology Training Program. Thailand was the first FETP site created outside of North America and is found in numerous countries, reflecting CDC's influence in promoting this model internationally. The Training Programs in Epidemiology and Public Health Interventions Network (TEPHINET) has graduated 950 students. The mission of the CDC expanded beyond its original focus on malaria to include sexually transmitted diseases when the Venereal Disease Division of the U.S. Public Health Service (PHS) was transferred to the CDC in 1957. Shortly thereafter, Tuberculosis Control was transferred (in 1960) to the CDC from PHS, and then in 1963 the Immunization program was established. It became the National Communicable Disease Center effective July 1, 1967, and the Center for Disease Control on June 24, 1970. At the end of the Public Health Service reorganizations of 1966–1973, it was promoted to being a principal operating agency of PHS. An act of the United States Congress appended the words "and Prevention" to the name effective October 27, 1992. However, Congress directed that the initialism CDC be retained because of its name recognition. Since the 1990s, the CDC focus has broadened to include chronic diseases, disabilities, injury control, workplace hazards, environmental health threats, and terrorism preparedness. CDC combats emerging diseases and other health risks, including birth defects, West Nile virus, obesity, avian, swine, and pandemic flu, E. coli, and bioterrorism, to name a few. The organization would also prove to be an important factor in preventing the abuse of penicillin. In May 1994 the CDC admitted having sent samples of communicable diseases to the Iraqi government from 1984 through 1989 which were subsequently repurposed for biological warfare, including Botulinum toxin, West Nile virus, Yersinia pestis and Dengue fever virus. On April 21, 2005, then–CDC director Julie Gerberding formally announced the reorganization of CDC to "confront the challenges of 21st-century health threats". She established four coordinating centers. In 2009 the Obama administration re-evaluated this change and ordered them cut as an unnecessary management layer. As of 2013, the CDC's Biosafety Level 4 laboratories were among the few that exist in the world. They included one of only two official repositories of smallpox in the world, with the other one located at the State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR in the Russian Federation. In 2014, the CDC revealed they had discovered several misplaced smallpox samples while their lab workers were "potentially infected" with anthrax. The city of Atlanta annexed the property of the CDC headquarters effective January 1, 2018, as a part of the city's largest annexation within a period of 65 years; the Atlanta City Council had voted to do so the prior December. The headquarters were located in an unincorporated area, statistically in the Druid Hills census-designated place. On August 17, 2022, Dr. Walensky said the CDC would make drastic changes in the wake of mistakes during the COVID-19 pandemic. She outlined an overhaul of how the CDC would analyze and share data and how they would communicate information to the general public. In her statement to all CDC employees, she said: "For 75 years, CDC and public health have been preparing for COVID-19, and in our big moment, our performance did not reliably meet expectations." Based on the findings of an internal report, Walensky concluded that "The CDC must refocus itself on public health needs, respond much faster to emergencies and outbreaks of disease, and provide information in a way that ordinary people and state and local health authorities can understand and put to use" (as summarized by the New York Times). Around January 31, 2025, several CDC websites, pages, and datasets related to HIV and STI prevention, LGBT and youth health became unavailable for viewing after the agency was ordered to comply with Donald Trump's executive order to remove all material of "diversity, equity, and inclusion" and "gender identity". Shortly thereafter, the CDC ordered its scientists to retract or pause the publication of all research which had been submitted or accepted for publication, but not yet published, which included any of the following banned terms: "Gender, transgender, pregnant person, pregnant people, LGBT, transsexual, non-binary, nonbinary, assigned male at birth, assigned female at birth, biologically male, biologically female”. In January 2025, due to a pause in communications imposed by the second Trump administration at federal health agencies, publication of the Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) was halted, the first time that had happened since its inception in 1960. The president of the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) called the pause in publication a "disaster." Attempts to halt publication had been made by the first Trump administration after MMWR published information about COVID-19 that "conflicted with messaging from the White House." The pause in communications also caused the cancellation of a meeting between the CDC and IDSA about threats to public health regarding the H5N1 influenza virus. On February 14, 2025, around 1,300 CDC employees were laid off by the administration, which included all first-year officers of the Epidemic Intelligence Service. The cuts also terminated 16 of the 24 Laboratory Leadership Service program fellows, a program designed for early career lab scientist to address laboratory testing shortcomings of the CDC. In the following month, the Trump administration quietly withdrew its CDC director nominee, Dave Weldon, just minutes before his scheduled Senate confirmation hearing on March 13.Organization , as seen from Emory University]] The CDC is organized into centers, institutes, and offices (CIOs), with each organizational unit implementing the agency's activities in a particular area of expertise while also providing intra-agency support and resource-sharing for cross-cutting issues and specific health threats. * Director National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases * Division of Global Migration Health National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion National Center for Environmental Health / Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry National Center for Injury Prevention and Control National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Public Health Infrastructure Center Global Health Center Immediate Office of the Director * Chief of Staff * Office of the Chief Operating Officer * Office of Policy, Performance, and Evaluation * Office of Equal Employment Opportunity and Workplace Equity * Office of Communications * Office of Health Equity * Office of Science * CDC Washington Office * Office of Laboratory Science and Safety * Office of Readiness and Response ** Center for Forecasting and Outbreak Analytics * Office of Public Health Data, Surveillance, and Technology **** National Center for Health Statistics The Office of Public Health Preparedness was created during the 2001 anthrax attacks shortly after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. Its purpose was to coordinate among the government the response to a range of biological terrorism threats. Locations Most CDC centers are located in Atlanta. Building 18, which opened in 2005 at the CDC's main Roybal campus (named in honor of the late Representative Edward R. Roybal), contains the premier BSL4 laboratory in the United States. A few of the centers are based in or operate other domestic locations: * The National Center for Health Statistics is primarily located in Hyattsville, Maryland, with a branch in Research Triangle Park in North Carolina. * The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health's primary locations are Cincinnati; Morgantown, West Virginia; Pittsburgh; Spokane, Washington; and Washington, D.C., with branches in Denver; Anchorage, Alaska; and Atlanta. * The CDC Washington Office is based in Washington, D.C. * Two divisions of the National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases are based outside Atlanta. The Division of Vector-Borne Diseases is based in Fort Collins, Colorado, with a branch in San Juan, Puerto Rico. The Arctic Investigations Program is based in Anchorage. In addition, CDC operates quarantine facilities in 20 cities in the U.S.BudgetThe CDC budget for fiscal year 2024 is $11.581billion. Workforce CDC staff numbered approximately 15,000 personnel (including 6,000 contractors and 840 United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps officers) in 170 occupations. Eighty percent held bachelor's degrees or higher; almost half had advanced degrees (a master's degree or a doctorate such as a PhD, D.O., or M.D.). Common CDC job titles include engineer, entomologist, epidemiologist, biologist, physician, veterinarian, behavioral scientist, nurse, medical technologist, economist, public health advisor, health communicator, toxicologist, chemist, computer scientist, and statistician. The CDC also operates a number of notable training and fellowship programs, including those indicated below. Epidemic Intelligence Service (EIS) The Epidemic Intelligence Service (EIS) is composed of "boots-on-the-ground disease detectives" who investigate public health problems domestically and globally. When called upon by a governmental body, EIS officers may embark on short-term epidemiological assistance assignments, or "Epi-Aids", to provide technical expertise in containing and investigating disease outbreaks. The EIS program is a model for the international Field Epidemiology Training Program. Public Health Associates Program The CDC also operates the Public Health Associate Program (PHAP), a two-year paid fellowship for recent college graduates to work in public health agencies all over the United States. PHAP was founded in 2007 and currently has 159 associates in 34 states.Leadership .]] The Director of CDC is a position that currently requires Senate confirmation. The director serves at the pleasure of the President and may be fired at any time. The CDC Director concurrently serves as the Administrator of the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Prior to January 20, 2025, it was a Senior Executive Service position that could be filled either by a career employee, or as a political appointment that does not require Senate confirmation, with the latter method typically being used. The change to requiring Senate confirmation was due to a provision in the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2023. Twenty directors have served the CDC or its predecessor agencies, including three who have served during the Trump administration (including Anne Schuchat who twice served as acting director) and three who have served during the Carter administration (including one acting director not shown here). Two served under Bill Clinton, but only one under the Nixon to Ford terms. {\| classwikitable style"text-align:center" \|- ! !Portrait !Director !Term of office !Notes \|- \|1 \| \|Louis L. Williams Jr. \|1942–1943 \| \|- \|2 \| \|Mark D. Hollis \|1944–1946 \| \|- \|3 \| \|Raymond A. Vonderlehr \|1947–1951 \| \|- \|4 \| \|Justin M. Andrews \|1952–1953 \| \|- \|5 \| \|Theodore J. Bauer \|1953–1956 \| \|- \|6 \| \|Robert J. Anderson \|October 1, 1956 – June 30, 1960 \| \|- \|7 \| \|Clarence A. Smith \|1960–1962 \| \|- \|8 \| \|James L. Goddard \|1962–January 1966 \| \|- \|9 \| \|David J. Sencer \|1966–May 1977 \| \|- \|10 \| \|William H. Foege \|May 1977 – 1983 \| \|- \|11 \| \|James O. Mason \|1983–1989 \| \|- \|12 \| \|William L. Roper \|March 1, 1990 – June 30, 1993 \| \|- \|13 \| \|David Satcher \|November 15, 1993 – February 13, 1998 \| \|- \|14 \| \|Jeffrey P. Koplan \|October 5, 1998 – March 31, 2002 \| \|- bgcolor="#e6e6aa" \|– \| \|David Fleming (acting) \|April 1, 2002 – June 2, 2002 \| \|- \|15 \| \|Julie Gerberding \|June 3, 2002 – January 19, 2009 \| \|- bgcolor="#e6e6aa" \|– \| \|William Gimson (interim) \|January 20, 2009 – January 21, 2009 \| \|- bgcolor="#e6e6aa" \|– \| \|Richard Besser (acting) \|January 22, 2009 – June 7, 2009 \| \|- \|16 \| \|Thomas R. Frieden \|June 8, 2009 – January 19, 2017 \| \|- bgcolor="#e6e6aa" \|– \| \|Anne Schuchat (acting) \|January 20, 2017 – July 6, 2017 \| \|- \|17 \| \|Brenda Fitzgerald \|July 7, 2017 – January 31, 2018 \| \|- bgcolor="#e6e6aa" \|– \| \|Anne Schuchat (acting) \|February 1, 2018 – March 25, 2018 \| \|- \|18 \| \|Robert R. Redfield \|March 26, 2018 – January 19, 2021 \| \|- \|19 \| \|Rochelle Walensky \|January 20, 2021 – June 30, 2023 \| \|- bgcolor="#e6e6aa" \|– \| \|Nirav D. Shah (acting) \|July 1, 2023 – July 9, 2023 \| \|- \|20 \| \|Mandy Cohen \|July 10, 2023 – January 20, 2025 \| \|- bgcolor="#e6e6aa" \|– \| \|Susan Monarez (acting) \|January 23, 2025 – present \| \|- \|} Past DirectorsDatasets and survey systems* CDC Scientific Data, Surveillance, Health Statistics, and Laboratory Information. * Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS), the world's largest, ongoing telephone health-survey system. * [https://www.cdc.gov/prams/index.htm Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System] (PRAMS), a surveillance system on maternal and infant health with telephone and mail questionnaires in English and Spanish in 50 US jurisdictions. * Mortality Medical Data System. * Abortion statistics in the United States * CDC WONDER (Wide-ranging ONline Data for Epidemiologic Research) * Data systems of the National Center for Health Statistics Areas of focus as part of the CDC's smallpox eradication team in 1966]] Communicable diseases The CDC's programs address more than 400 diseases, health threats, and conditions that are major causes of death, disease, and disability. The CDC's website has information on various infectious (and noninfectious) diseases, including smallpox, measles, and others. Influenza The CDC targets the transmission of influenza, including the H1N1 swine flu, and launched websites to educate people about hygiene. Division of Select Agents and Toxins staff preparing to enter an Ebola treatment unit in Liberia, August 2014]] Within the division are two programs: the Federal Select Agent Program (FSAP) and the Import Permit Program. The FSAP is run jointly with an office within the U.S. Department of Agriculture, regulating agents that can cause disease in humans, animals, and plants. The Import Permit Program regulates the importation of "infectious biological materials." The CDC runs a program that protects the public from rare and dangerous substances such as anthrax and the Ebola virus. The program, called the Federal Select Agent Program, calls for inspections of labs in the U.S. that work with dangerous pathogens. During the 2014 Ebola outbreak in West Africa, the CDC helped coordinate the return of two infected American aid workers for treatment at Emory University Hospital, the home of a special unit to handle highly infectious diseases. As a response to the 2014 Ebola outbreak, Congress passed a Continuing Appropriations Resolution allocating $30,000,000 towards CDC's efforts to fight the virus. Non-communicable diseases The CDC also works on non-communicable diseases, including chronic diseases caused by obesity, physical inactivity and tobacco-use. The work of the Division for Cancer Prevention and Control, led from 2010 by Lisa C. Richardson, is also within this remit. Antibiotic resistance The CDC implemented their National Action Plan for Combating Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria as a measure against the spread of antibiotic resistance in the United States. This initiative has a budget of $161million and includes the development of the Antibiotic Resistance Lab Network. Global health Globally, the CDC works with other organizations to address global health challenges and contain disease threats at their source. They work with many international organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO) as well as ministries of health and other groups on the front lines of outbreaks. The agency maintains staff in more than 60 countries, including some from the U.S. but more from the countries in which they operate. The agency's global divisions include the Division of Global HIV and TB (DGHT), the Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria (DPDM), the Division of Global Health Protection (DGHP), and the Global Immunization Division (GID). The CDC has been working with the WHO to implement the International Health Regulations (IHR), an agreement between 196 countries to prevent, control, and report on the international spread of disease, through initiatives including the Global Disease Detection Program (GDD). The CDC has also been involved in implementing the U.S. global health initiatives President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) and President's Malaria Initiative. Travelers' health The CDC collects and publishes health information for travelers in a comprehensive book, CDC Health Information for International Travel, which is commonly known as the "yellow book." The book is available online and in print as a new edition every other year and includes current travel health guidelines, vaccine recommendations, and information on specific travel destinations. The CDC also issues travel health notices on its website, consisting of three levels: * "Watch": Level 1 (practice usual precautions) * "Alert": Level 2 (practice enhanced precautions) * "Warning": Level 3 (avoid nonessential travel) Vaccine safety The CDC uses a number of tools to monitor the safety of vaccines. The Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS), a national vaccine safety surveillance program run by CDC and the FDA. "VAERS detects possible safety issues with U.S. vaccines by collecting information about adverse events (possible side effects or health problems) after vaccination." The CDC's Safety Information by Vaccine page provides a list of the latest safety information, side effects, and answers to common questions about CDC recommended vaccines. The Vaccine Safety Datalink (VSD) works with a network of healthcare organizations to share data on vaccine safety and adverse events. The Clinical Immunization Safety Assessment (CISA) project is a network of vaccine experts and health centers that research and assist the CDC in the area of vaccine safety. CDC also runs a program called V-safe, a smartphone web application that allows COVID-19 vaccine recipients to be surveyed in detail about their health in response to getting the shot. CDC Foundation The CDC Foundation operates independently from CDC as a private, nonprofit 501(c)(3) organization incorporated in the State of Georgia. The creation of the Foundation was authorized by section 399F of the Public Health Service Act to support the mission of CDC in partnership with the private sector, including organizations, foundations, businesses, educational groups, and individuals. From 1995 to 2022, the foundation raised over $1.6 billion and launched more than 1,200 health programs. Bill Cosby formerly served as a member of the foundation's Board of Directors, continuing as an honorary member after completing his term. Activities The foundation engages in research projects and health programs in more than 160 countries every year, including in focus areas such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, emergency response, and infectious diseases, particularly HIV/AIDS, Ebola, rotavirus, and COVID-19. * Fries Prize for Improving Health: An annual prize first awarded in 1992 that "recognizes an individual who has made major accomplishments in health improvement and with the general criteria of the greatest good for the greatest number". Criticism In 2015, BMJ associate editor Jeanne Lenzer raised concerns that the CDC's recommendations and publications may be influenced by donations received through the Foundation, which includes pharmaceutical companies. Controversies Tuskegee study of untreated syphilis in Black men For 15 years, the CDC had direct oversight over the Tuskegee syphilis experiment. In the study, which lasted from 1932 to 1972, a group of Black men (nearly 400 of whom had syphilis) were studied to learn more about the disease. The disease was left untreated in the men, who had not given their informed consent to serve as research subjects. The Tuskegee Study was initiated in 1932 by the Public Health Service, with the CDC taking over the Tuskegee Health Benefit Program in 1995. Advocates for gun control oppose the amendment and have tried to overturn it. Looking at the history of the passage of the Dickey Amendment, in 1992, Mark L. Rosenberg and five CDC colleagues founded the CDC's National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, with an annual budget of approximately $260,000. They focused on "identifying causes of firearm deaths, and methods to prevent them". Their first report, published in the New England Journal of Medicine in 1993 entitled "Guns are a Risk Factor for Homicide in the Home", reported "mere presence of a gun in a home increased the risk of a firearm-related death by 2.7 percent, and suicide fivefolda "huge" increase." advocated for firearms research. Congress maintained the ban in subsequent budgets. COVID-19 The CDC has been widely criticized for its handling of the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2022, CDC director Rochelle Walensky acknowledged "some pretty dramatic, pretty public mistakes, from testing to data to communications", based on the findings of an internal examination. The first confirmed case of COVID-19 was discovered in the U.S. on January 20, 2020. However, widespread COVID-19 testing in the United States was effectively stalled until February 28, when federal officials revised a faulty CDC test, and days afterward, when the Food and Drug Administration began loosening rules that had restricted other labs from developing tests. In February 2020, as the CDC's early coronavirus test malfunctioned nationwide, CDC Director Robert R. Redfield reassured fellow officials on the White House Coronavirus Task Force that the problem would be quickly solved, according to White House officials. It took about three weeks to sort out the failed test kits, which may have been contaminated during their processing in a CDC lab. Later investigations by the FDA and the Department of Health and Human Services found that the CDC had violated its own protocols in developing its tests. In November 2020, NPR reported that an internal review document they obtained revealed that the CDC was aware that the first batch of tests which were issued in early January had a chance of being wrong 33 percent of the time, but they released them anyway. In May 2020, The Atlantic reported that the CDC was conflating the results of two different types of coronavirus tests – tests that diagnose current coronavirus infections, and tests that measure whether someone has ever had the virus. The magazine said this distorted several important metrics, provided the country with an inaccurate picture of the state of the pandemic, and overstated the country's testing ability. In July 2020, the Trump administration ordered hospitals to bypass the CDC and instead send all COVID-19 patient information to a database at the Department of Health and Human Services. Some health experts opposed the order and warned that the data might become politicized or withheld from the public. On July 15, the CDC alarmed health care groups by temporarily removing COVID-19 dashboards from its website. It restored the data a day later. In August 2020, the CDC recommended that people showing no COVID-19 symptoms do not need testing. The new guidelines alarmed many public health experts. The guidelines were crafted by the White House Coronavirus Task Force without the sign-off of Anthony Fauci of the NIH. Objections by other experts at the CDC went unheard. Officials said that a CDC document in July arguing for "the importance of reopening schools" was also crafted outside the CDC. On August 16, the chief of staff, Kyle McGowan, and his deputy, Amanda Campbell, resigned from the agency. The testing guidelines were reversed on September 18, 2020, after public controversy. In September 2020, the CDC drafted an order requiring masks on all public transportation in the United States, but the White House Coronavirus Task Force blocked the order, refusing to discuss it, according to two federal health officials. In October 2020, it was disclosed that White House advisers had repeatedly altered the writings of CDC scientists about COVID-19, including recommendations on church choirs, social distancing in bars and restaurants, and summaries of public-health reports. In the lead up to 2020 Thanksgiving, the CDC advised Americans not to travel for the holiday saying, "It's not a requirement. It's a recommendation for the American public to consider." The White House coronavirus task force had its first public briefing in months on that date but travel was not mentioned. The New York Times later concluded that the CDC's decisions to "ben[d] to political pressure from the Trump White House to alter key public health guidance or withhold it from the public [...] cost it a measure of public trust that experts say it still has not recaptured" as of 2022. In December 2021, following a request from the CEO of Delta Air Lines, CDC shortened its recommended isolation period for asymptomatic individuals infected with COVID-19 from 10 days to five. Until 2022, the CDC withheld critical data about COVID-19 vaccine boosters, hospitalizations and wastewater data. On June 10, 2022, the Biden Administration ordered the CDC to remove the COVID-19 testing requirement for air travelers entering the United States. Controversy over the Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report During the pandemic, the CDC Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) came under pressure from political appointees at the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) to modify its reporting so as not to conflict with what Trump was saying about the pandemic. Starting in June 2020, Michael Caputo, the HHS assistant secretary for public affairs, and his chief advisor Paul Alexander tried to delay, suppress, change, and retroactively edit MMR releases about the effectiveness of potential treatments for COVID-19, the transmissibility of the virus, and other issues where the president had taken a public stance. Caputo claimed this oversight was necessary because MMWR reports were being tainted by "political content"; he demanded to know the political leanings of the scientists who reported that hydroxychloroquine had little benefit as a treatment while Trump was saying the opposite. In October 2020, emails obtained by Politico showed that Alexander requested multiple alterations in a report. The published alterations included a title being changed from "Children, Adolescents, and Young Adults" to "Persons." One current and two former CDC officials who reviewed the email exchanges said they were troubled by the "intervention to alter scientific reports viewed as untouchable prior to the Trump administration" that "appeared to minimize the risks of the coronavirus to children by making the report's focus on children less clear." Eroding trust in the CDC as a result of COVID-19 controversies A poll conducted in September 2020 found that nearly 8 in 10 Americans trusted the CDC, a decrease from 87 percent in April 2020. Another poll showed an even larger drop in trust with the results dropping 16 percentage points. By January 2022, according to an NBC News poll, only 44% of Americans trusted the CDC compared to 69% at the beginning of the pandemic. As the trustworthiness eroded, so too did the information it disseminates. In addition, Mark Rosenberg, the first director of CDC's National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, also questioned Redfield's leadership and his lack of defense of the science. Politicization of the agency has continued into the Biden administration as COVID-19 guidance is contradicted by State guidance and the agency is criticized as "CDC's credibility is eroding". In 2021, the CDC, then under the leadership of the Biden administration, received criticism for its mixed messaging surrounding COVID-19 vaccines, mask-wearing guidance, and the state of the pandemic. Gender censorship On February 1, 2025, the CDC ordered its scientists to retract any not yet published research they had produced which included any of the following banned terms: "Gender, transgender, pregnant person, pregnant people, LGBT, transsexual, non-binary, nonbinary, assigned male at birth, assigned female at birth, biologically male, biologically female”. Other censored topics include DEI, climate change, and HIV. Following extensive public backlash, some, but not all, of the removed pages were reinstated. The CDC's censorship led to many researchers and journalists to preserve databases themselves, with many removed articles being uploaded to archival sites such as the Internet Archive. On February 4, Doctors for America filed a federal lawsuit against the CDC, Food and Drug Administration, and Department of Health and Human Services, asking the removed websites to be put back online. On February 11, a judge ordered removed pages to be restored temporarily while the suit is being considered, citing doctors who said the removed materials were "vital for real-time clinical decision-making". Publications * CDC publications * State of CDC report * CDC Programs in Brief * Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report * Emerging Infectious Diseases (monthly journal) * Preventing Chronic Disease * Vital statisticsPopular cultureZombie Apocalypse campaignOn May 16, 2011, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's blog published an article instructing the public on what to do to prepare for a zombie invasion. While the article did not claim that such a scenario was possible, it did use the popular culture appeal as a means of urging citizens to prepare for all potential hazards, such as earthquakes, tornadoes, and floods. According to David Daigle, the associate director for communications, public health preparedness and response, the idea arose when his team was discussing their upcoming hurricane-information campaign and Daigle mused that "we say pretty much the same things every year, in the same way, and I just wonder how many people are paying attention." A social-media employee mentioned that the subject of zombies had come up a lot on Twitter when she had been tweeting about the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster and radiation. The team realized that a campaign like this would most likely reach a different audience from the one that normally pays attention to hurricane-preparedness warnings and went to work on the zombie campaign, launching it right before hurricane season began. "The whole idea was, if you're prepared for a zombie apocalypse, you're prepared for pretty much anything," said Daigle. Once the blog article was posted, the CDC announced an open contest for YouTube submissions of the most creative and effective videos covering preparedness for a zombie apocalypse (or apocalypse of any kind), to be judged by the "CDC Zombie Task Force". Submissions were open until October 11, 2011. They also released a zombie-themed graphic novella available on their website. Zombie-themed educational materials for teachers are available on the site. See also * Gun violence in the United States * Haddon Matrix * List of national public health agencies * Safe Kids Worldwide CDC Departments * ATSDR – CDC department * NIOSH – CDC department N95 respirator – regulated by NIOSH Division of Industrial Hygiene – predecessor to NIOSH Other US Executive Departments * MSHA – co-regulator of respirators prior to 1998 ** Bureau of Mines – predecessor to MSHA * National Highway Traffic Safety Administration * OSHA References Citations Sources * Further reading * External links * * [https://www.federalregister.gov/agencies/centers-for-disease-control-and-prevention CDC] in the Federal Register * [https://www.usaspending.gov/federal_account/075-0943 CDC-Wide Activities and Program Support] account on USAspending.gov * [https://www.cdc.gov/media/ CDC Online Newsroom] * [https://phil.cdc.gov/ CDC Public Health Image Library] * [https://www.cdc.gov/gcc/ CDC Global Communications Center] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080703172216/http://www.labdesignnews.com/LaboratoryDesign/LD0605feat_3.asp CDC Emerging Infectious Diseases Laboratory – Atlanta, Georgia] (archived July 3, 2008) * [https://wonder.cdc.gov/ CDC WONDER online databases]. * [https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/83615/cdc_83615_DS1.pdf Vaccine Safety Monitoring Systems and Methods (CDC) a slide deck presented at October 2019 Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) meeting] }} Category:1946 establishments in Georgia (U.S. state) Category:Biosafety level 4 laboratories Category:Government agencies established in 1946 Category:Medical and health organizations based in Georgia (U.S. state) Category:Medical research institutes in the United States Category:Buildings and structures in DeKalb County, Georgia Category:Buildings and structures in Atlanta<!--Effective on January 1, 2018--> Category:Organizations based in Atlanta<!--Effective on January 1, 2018--> Category:Organizations based in DeKalb County, Georgia Category:Government health agencies	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention	2025-04-05T18:27:58.123314
6813	Chandrasekhar limit	The Chandrasekhar limit () is the maximum mass of a stable white dwarf star. The currently accepted value of the Chandrasekhar limit is about (). The limit was named after Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar. White dwarfs resist gravitational collapse primarily through electron degeneracy pressure, compared to main sequence stars, which resist collapse through thermal pressure. The Chandrasekhar limit is the mass above which electron degeneracy pressure in the star's core is insufficient to balance the star's own gravitational self-attraction.Physicsthumb\|upright1.95\|Radius–mass relations for a model white dwarf. ]] Normal stars fuse gravitationally compressed hydrogen into helium, generating vast amounts of heat. As the hydrogen is consumed, the stars' core compresses further allowing the helium and heavier nuclei to fuse ultimately resulting in stable iron nuclei, a process called stellar evolution. The next step depends upon the mass of the star. Stars below the Chandrasekhar limit become stable white dwarf stars, remaining that way throughout the rest of the history of the universe (assuming the absence of external forces). Stars above the limit can become neutron stars or black holes. The Chandrasekhar limit is a consequence of competition between gravity and electron degeneracy pressure. Electron degeneracy pressure is a quantum-mechanical effect arising from the Pauli exclusion principle. Since electrons are fermions, no two electrons can be in the same state, so not all electrons can be in the minimum-energy level. Rather, electrons must occupy a band of energy levels. Compression of the electron gas increases the number of electrons in a given volume and raises the maximum energy level in the occupied band. Therefore, the energy of the electrons increases on compression, so pressure must be exerted on the electron gas to compress it, producing electron degeneracy pressure. With sufficient compression, electrons are forced into nuclei in the process of electron capture, relieving the pressure. In the nonrelativistic case, electron degeneracy pressure gives rise to an equation of state of the form , where is the pressure, is the mass density, and is a constant. Solving the hydrostatic equation leads to a model white dwarf that is a polytrope of index – and therefore has radius inversely proportional to the cube root of its mass, and volume inversely proportional to its mass. As the mass of a model white dwarf increases, the typical energies to which degeneracy pressure forces the electrons are no longer negligible relative to their rest masses. The velocities of the electrons approach the speed of light, and special relativity must be taken into account. In the strongly relativistic limit, the equation of state takes the form . This yields a polytrope of index 3, which has a total mass, , depending only on . For a fully relativistic treatment, the equation of state used interpolates between the equations for small and for large . When this is done, the model radius still decreases with mass, but becomes zero at . This is the Chandrasekhar limit. or kilometers, and mass in standard solar masses. Calculated values for the limit vary depending on the nuclear composition of the mass. gives the following expression, based on the equation of state for an ideal Fermi gas: <math display"block"> M_\text{limit} \frac{\omega_3^0 \sqrt{3\pi}}{2} \left ( \frac{\hbar c}{G}\right )^\frac{3}{2} \frac{1}{(\mu_\text{e} m_\text{H})^2}</math> where: * is the reduced Planck constant * is the speed of light * is the gravitational constant * is the average molecular weight per electron, which depends upon the chemical composition of the star * is the mass of the hydrogen atom * ≈ 2.018236}} is a constant connected with the solution to the Lane–Emden equation As }} is the Planck mass, the limit is of the order of <math display="block">\frac{M_\text{Pl}^3}{m_\text{H}^2}</math> The limiting mass can be obtained formally from the Chandrasekhar's white dwarf equation by taking the limit of large central density. A more accurate value of the limit than that given by this simple model requires adjusting for various factors, including electrostatic interactions between the electrons and nuclei and effects caused by nonzero temperature. Lieb and Yau have given a rigorous derivation of the limit from a relativistic many-particle Schrödinger equation. History In 1926, the British physicist Ralph H. Fowler observed that the relationship between the density, energy, and temperature of white dwarfs could be explained by viewing them as a gas of nonrelativistic, non-interacting electrons and nuclei that obey Fermi–Dirac statistics. This Fermi gas model was then used by the British physicist Edmund Clifton Stoner in 1929 to calculate the relationship among the mass, radius, and density of white dwarfs, assuming they were homogeneous spheres. Wilhelm Anderson applied a relativistic correction to this model, giving rise to a maximum possible mass of approximately . In 1930, Stoner derived the internal energy–density equation of state for a Fermi gas, and was then able to treat the mass–radius relationship in a fully relativistic manner, giving a limiting mass of approximately (for 2.5}}). Stoner went on to derive the pressure–density equation of state, which he published in 1932. These equations of state were also previously published by the Soviet physicist Yakov Frenkel in 1928, together with some other remarks on the physics of degenerate matter. Frenkel's work, however, was ignored by the astronomical and astrophysical community. A series of papers published between 1931 and 1935 had its beginning on a trip from India to England in 1930, where the Indian physicist Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar worked on the calculation of the statistics of a degenerate Fermi gas. In these papers, Chandrasekhar solved the hydrostatic equation together with the nonrelativistic Fermi gas equation of state, Chandrasekhar reviews this work in his Nobel Prize lecture. Michael Nauenberg claims that Stoner established the mass limit first. The priority dispute has also been discussed at length by Virginia Trimble who writes that: "Chandrasekhar famously, perhaps even notoriously did his critical calculation on board ship in 1930, and ... was not aware of either Stoner's or Anderson's work at the time. His work was therefore independent, but, more to the point, he adopted Eddington's polytropes for his models which could, therefore, be in hydrostatic equilibrium, which constant density stars cannot, and real ones must be." This value was also computed in 1932 by the Soviet physicist Lev Landau, who, however, did not apply it to white dwarfs and concluded that quantum laws might be invalid for stars heavier than 1.5 solar mass. Chandrasekhar–Eddington dispute Chandrasekhar's work on the limit aroused controversy, owing to the opposition of the British astrophysicist Arthur Eddington. Eddington was aware that the existence of black holes was theoretically possible, and also realized that the existence of the limit made their formation possible. However, he was unwilling to accept that this could happen. After a talk by Chandrasekhar on the limit in 1935, he replied: Eddington's proposed solution to the perceived problem was to modify relativistic mechanics so as to make the law K<sub>1</sub>ρ<sup>5/3</sup>}} universally applicable, even for large . Although Niels Bohr, Fowler, Wolfgang Pauli, and other physicists agreed with Chandrasekhar's analysis, at the time, owing to Eddington's status, they were unwilling to publicly support Chandrasekhar. Through the rest of his life, Eddington held to his position in his writings, including his work on his fundamental theory. The drama associated with this disagreement is one of the main themes of Empire of the Stars, Arthur I. Miller's biography of Chandrasekhar. Applications The core of a star is kept from collapsing by the heat generated by the fusion of nuclei of lighter elements into heavier ones. At various stages of stellar evolution, the nuclei required for this process are exhausted, and the core collapses, causing it to become denser and hotter. A critical situation arises when iron accumulates in the core, since iron nuclei are incapable of generating further energy through fusion. If the core becomes sufficiently dense, electron degeneracy pressure will play a significant part in stabilizing it against gravitational collapse. If a main-sequence star is not too massive (less than approximately 8 solar masses), it eventually sheds enough mass to form a white dwarf having mass below the Chandrasekhar limit, which consists of the former core of the star. For more-massive stars, electron degeneracy pressure does not keep the iron core from collapsing to very great density, leading to formation of a neutron star, black hole, or, speculatively, a quark star. (For very massive, low-metallicity stars, it is also possible that instabilities destroy the star completely.) During the collapse, neutrons are formed by the capture of electrons by protons in the process of electron capture, leading to the emission of neutrinos. and the kinetic energy of the expanding shell of gas; only about 1% is emitted as optical light. This process is believed responsible for supernovae of types Ib, Ic, and II. A strong indication of the reliability of Chandrasekhar's formula is that the absolute magnitudes of supernovae of Type Ia are all approximately the same; at maximum luminosity, is approximately −19.3, with a standard deviation of no more than 0.3. may have been spinning so fast that a centrifugal tendency allowed it to exceed the limit. Alternatively, the supernova may have resulted from the merger of two white dwarfs, so that the limit was only violated momentarily. Nevertheless, they point out that this observation poses a challenge to the use of type Ia supernovae as standard candles. Since the observation of the Champagne Supernova in 2003, several more type Ia supernovae have been observed that are very bright, and thought to have originated from white dwarfs whose masses exceeded the Chandrasekhar limit. These include SN 2006gz, SN 2007if, and SN 2009dc. The super-Chandrasekhar mass white dwarfs that gave rise to these supernovae are believed to have had masses up to 2.4–2.8 solar masses.<ref name"Machisu"/> One way to potentially explain the problem of the Champagne Supernova was considering it the result of an aspherical explosion of a white dwarf. However, spectropolarimetric observations of SN 2009dc showed it had a polarization smaller than 0.3, making the large asphericity theory unlikely.<ref name"Machisu"/> Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit Stars sufficiently massive to pass the Chandrasekhar limit provided by electron degeneracy pressure do not become white dwarf stars. Instead they explode as supernovae. If the final mass is below the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit, then neutron degeneracy pressure contributes to the balance against gravity and the result will be a neutron star; but if the total mass is above the Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkhoff limit, the result will be a black hole.<ref nameIllari2019/>See also Bekenstein bound Chandrasekhar's white dwarf equation Schönberg–Chandrasekhar limit Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit References Further reading [https://www.nobelprize.org/uploads/2018/06/chandrasekhar-lecture.pdf On Stars, Their Evolution and Their Stability], Nobel Prize lecture, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, December 8, 1983. [http://www.davegentile.com/thesis/white_dwarfs.html White dwarf stars and the Chandrasekhar limit], Masters' thesis, Dave Gentile, DePaul University, 1995. *[http://www.sciencebits.com/StellarEquipartition Estimating Stellar Parameters from Energy Equipartition], sciencebits.com. Discusses how to find mass-radius relations and mass limits for white dwarfs using simple energy arguments. Category:Astrophysics Category:White dwarfs Category:Neutron stars Category:Stellar dynamics	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandrasekhar_limit	2025-04-05T18:27:58.144876
6814	Congregational polity	Congregational polity, or congregationalist polity, often known as congregationalism, is a system of ecclesiastical polity in which every local church (congregation) is independent, ecclesiastically sovereign, or "autonomous". Its first articulation in writing is the Cambridge Platform of 1648 in New England. Major Protestant Christian traditions that employ congregationalism include Baptist churches, the Congregational Methodist Church, and Congregational churches known by the Congregationalist name and having descended from the Independent Reformed wing of the Anglo-American Puritan movement of the 17th century. More recent generations have witnessed a growing number of nondenominational churches, which are often congregationalist in their governance. Although autonomous, like minded congregations may enter into voluntary associations with other congregations, sometimes called conventions, denominations, or associations. Congregationalism is distinguished from episcopal polity which is governance by a hierarchy of bishops, and is also distinct from presbyterian polity in which higher assemblies of congregational representatives can exercise considerable authority over individual congregations. Congregationalism is not limited only to organization of Christian church congregations. The principles of congregationalism have been inherited by the Unitarian Universalist Association and the Canadian Unitarian Council. Basic form The term congregational polity describes a form of church governance that is based on the local congregation. Each local congregation is independent and self-supporting, governed by its own members. Some band into loose voluntary associations with other congregations that share similar beliefs (e.g., the Willow Creek Association and the Unitarian Universalist Association). Others join "conventions", such as the Southern Baptist Convention, the National Baptist Convention or the American Baptist Churches USA (formerly the Northern Baptist Convention). These conventions generally provide stronger ties between congregations, including some doctrinal direction and pooling of financial resources. Congregations that belong to associations and conventions are still independently governed. Most non-denominational churches are organized along congregationalist lines. Many do not see these voluntary associations as "denominations", because they "believe that there is no church other than the local church, and denominations are in variance to Scripture." Denominational families These Christian traditions use forms of congregational polity. Congregational churches Congregationalism is a Protestant tradition with roots in the Puritan and Independent movements. In congregational government, the covenanted congregation exists prior to its officers, and as such the members are equipped to call and dismiss their ministers without oversight from any higher ecclesiastical body. Their churches ordinarily have at least one pastor, but may also install ruling elders. Statements of polity in the congregational tradition called "platforms". These include the Savoy Confession's platform, the Cambridge Platform, and the Saybrook Platform. Denominations in the congregational tradition include the UCC, NACCC, CCCC, and EFCC. Denominations in the tradition support but do not govern their constituent members. Baptist churches Most Baptists hold that no denominational or ecclesiastical organization has inherent authority over an individual Baptist church. Churches can properly relate to each other under this polity only through voluntary cooperation, never by any sort of coercion. Furthermore, this Baptist polity calls for freedom from governmental control. Exceptions to this local form of local governance include the Episcopal Baptists that have an episcopal system. Independent Baptist churches have no formal organizational structure above the level of the local congregation. More generally among Baptists, a variety of parachurch agencies and evangelical educational institutions may be supported generously or not at all, depending entirely upon the local congregation's customs and predilections. Usually doctrinal conformity is held as a first consideration when a church makes a decision to grant or decline financial contributions to such agencies, which are legally external and separate from the congregations they serve. These practices also find currency among non-denominational fundamentalist or charismatic fellowships, many of which derive from Baptist origins, culturally if not theologically. Most Southern Baptist and National Baptist congregations, by contrast, generally relate more closely to external groups such as mission agencies and educational institutions than do those of independent persuasion. However, they adhere to a very similar ecclesiology, refusing to permit outside control or oversight of the affairs of the local church. Churches of Christ Ecclesiastical government is congregational rather than denominational. Churches of Christ purposefully have no central headquarters, councils, or other organizational structure above the local church level.}}}} Rather, the independent congregations are a network with each congregation participating at its own discretion in various means of service and fellowship with other congregations.}} Churches of Christ are linked by their shared commitment to restoration principles.<ref name"Who Are the churches of Christ"/> Congregations are generally overseen by a plurality of elders (also known in some congregations as shepherds, bishops, or pastors) who are sometimes assisted in the administration of various works by deacons.<ref name"Who Are the churches of Christ"/> Elders are generally seen as responsible for the spiritual welfare of the congregation, while deacons are seen as responsible for the non-spiritual needs of the church. Deacons serve under the supervision of the elders, and are often assigned to direct specific ministries. Successful service as a deacon is often seen as preparation for the eldership. Elders and deacons are chosen by the congregation based on the qualifications found in Timothy 3 and Titus 1. Congregations look for elders who have a mature enough understanding of scripture to enable them to supervise the minister and to teach, as well as to perform governance functions. In lieu of willing men who meet these qualifications, congregations are sometimes overseen by an unelected committee of the congregation's men. While the early Restoration Movement had a tradition of itinerant preachers rather than "located Preachers", during the 20th century a long-term, formally trained congregational minister became the norm among Churches of Christ. Ministers are understood to serve under the oversight of the elders. While the presence of a long-term professional minister has sometimes created "significant de facto ministerial authority" and led to conflict between the minister and the elders, the eldership has remained the "ultimate locus of authority in the congregation". There is a small group within the Churches of Christ which oppose a single preacher and, instead, rotate preaching duties among qualified elders (this group tends to overlap with groups which oppose Sunday School and also have only one cup to serve the Lord's Supper). Churches of Christ hold to the priesthood of all believers. No special titles are used for preachers or ministers that would identify them as clergy. Churches of Christ emphasize that there is no distinction between "clergy" and "laity" and that every member has a gift and a role to play in accomplishing the work of the church. Congregational Methodist Church Methodists who disagreed with the episcopal polity of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South left their mother church to form the Congregational Methodist Church, which retains Wesleyan-Arminian theology but adopts congregationalist polity as a distinctive. See also Acephali United and uniting churches English Presbyterianism Notes References Footnotes Bibliography * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Further reading * * Category:Christian terminology Category:Church organization Category:Ecclesiastical polities	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congregational_polity	2025-04-05T18:27:58.158718
6816	Cavalry	at the Battle of Friedland, 1807]] Historically, cavalry (from the French word cavalerie, itself derived from cheval meaning "horse") are groups of soldiers or warriors who fight mounted on horseback. Until the 20th century, cavalry were the most mobile of the combat arms, operating as light cavalry in the roles of reconnaissance, screening, and skirmishing, or as heavy cavalry for decisive economy of force and shock attacks. An individual soldier in the cavalry is known by a number of designations depending on era and tactics, such as a cavalryman, horseman, trooper, cataphract, knight, drabant, hussar, uhlan, mamluk, cuirassier, lancer, dragoon, samurai or horse archer. The designation of cavalry was not usually given to any military forces that used other animals or platforms for mounts, such as chariots, camels or elephants. Infantry who moved on horseback, but dismounted to fight on foot, were known in the early 17th to the early 18th century as dragoons, a class of mounted infantry which in most armies later evolved into standard cavalry while retaining their historic designation. Cavalry had the advantage of improved mobility, and a soldier fighting from horseback also had the advantages of greater height, speed, and inertial mass over an opponent on foot. Another element of horse mounted warfare is the psychological impact a mounted soldier can inflict on an opponent. The speed, mobility, and shock value of cavalry was greatly valued and exploited in warfare during the Ancient and Medieval eras. Some hosts were mostly cavalry, particularly in nomadic societies of Asia, notably the Huns of Attila and the later Mongol armies. In Europe, cavalry became increasingly armoured (heavy), and eventually evolving into the mounted knights of the medieval period. During the 17th century, cavalry in Europe discarded most of its armor, which was ineffective against the muskets and cannons that were coming into common use, and by the mid-18th century armor had mainly fallen into obsolescence, although some regiments retained a small thickened cuirass that offered protection against lances, sabres, and bayonets; including some protection against a shot from distance. In the interwar period many cavalry units were converted into motorized infantry and mechanized infantry units, or reformed as tank troops. The cavalry tank or cruiser tank was one designed with a speed and purpose beyond that of infantry tanks and would subsequently develop into the main battle tank. Nonetheless, some cavalry still served during World War II (notably in the Red Army, the Mongolian People's Army, the Royal Italian Army, the Royal Hungarian Army, the Romanian Army, the Polish Land Forces, and German light reconnaissance units within the Waffen SS). Most cavalry units that are horse-mounted in modern armies serve in purely ceremonial roles, or as mounted infantry in difficult terrain such as mountains or heavily forested areas. Modern usage of the term generally refers to units performing the role of reconnaissance, surveillance, and target acquisition (analogous to historical light cavalry) or main battle tank units (analogous to historical heavy cavalry). Role Historically, cavalry was divided into light cavalry and heavy cavalry. The differences were their roles in combat, the size of their mounts, and how much armor was worn by the mount and rider. Heavy cavalry, such as Byzantine cataphracts and knights of the Early Middle Ages in Europe, were used as shock troops, charging the main body of the enemy at the height of a battle; in many cases their actions decided the outcome of the battle, hence the later term battle cavalry. Light cavalry, such as horse archers, hussars, and Cossack cavalry, were assigned all the numerous roles that were ill-suited to more narrowly-focused heavy forces. This includes scouting, deterring enemy scouts, foraging, raiding, skirmishing, pursuit of retreating enemy forces, screening of retreating friendly forces, linking separated friendly forces, and countering enemy light forces in all these same roles. Light and heavy cavalry roles continued through early modern warfare, but armor was reduced, with light cavalry mostly unarmored. Yet many cavalry units still retained cuirasses and helmets for their protective value against sword and bayonet strikes, and the morale boost these provide to the wearers, despite the actual armour giving little protection from firearms. By this time the main difference between light and heavy cavalry was in their training and weight; the former was regarded as best suited for harassment and reconnaissance, while the latter was considered best for close-order charges. By the start of the 20th century, as total battlefield firepower increased, cavalry increasingly tended to become dragoons in practice, riding mounted between battles, but dismounting to fight as infantry, even though retaining unit names that reflected their older cavalry roles. Military conservatism was however strong in most continental cavalry during peacetime and in these dismounted action continued to be regarded as a secondary function until the outbreak of World War I in 1914. With the development of armored warfare, the heavy cavalry role of decisive shock troops had been taken over by armored units employing medium and heavy tanks, and later main battle tanks. Despite horse-borne cavalry becoming obsolete, the term cavalry is still used, referring in modern times to units continuing to fulfill the traditional light cavalry roles, employing fast armored cars, light tanks, and infantry fighting vehicles instead of horses, while air cavalry employs helicopters. Early history Origins ]] Before the Iron Age, the role of cavalry on the battlefield was largely performed by light chariots. The chariot originated with the Sintashta-Petrovka culture in Central Asia and spread by nomadic or semi-nomadic Indo-Iranians. The chariot was quickly adopted by settled peoples both as a military technology and an object of ceremonial status, especially by the pharaohs of the New Kingdom of Egypt from 1550 BC as well as the Assyrian army and Babylonian royalty. The power of mobility given by mounted units was recognized early on, but was offset by the difficulty of raising large forces and by the inability of horses (then mostly small) to carry heavy armor. Nonetheless, there are indications that, from the 15th century BC onwards, horseback riding was practiced amongst the military elites of the great states of the ancient Near East, most notably those in Egypt, Assyria, the Hittite Empire, and Mycenaean Greece. Cavalry techniques, and the rise of true cavalry, were an innovation of equestrian nomads of the Eurasian Steppe and pastoralist tribes such as the Iranic Parthians and Sarmatians. Together with a core of armoured lancers, these were predominantly horse archers using the Parthian shot tactic. ]] The photograph straight above shows Assyrian cavalry from reliefs of 865–860 BC. At this time, the men had no spurs, saddles, saddle cloths, or stirrups. Fighting from the back of a horse was much more difficult than mere riding. The cavalry acted in pairs; the reins of the mounted archer were controlled by his neighbour's hand. Even at this early time, cavalry used swords, shields, spears, and bows. The sculpture implies two types of cavalry, but this might be a simplification by the artist. Later images of Assyrian cavalry show saddle cloths as primitive saddles, allowing each archer to control his own horse. As early as 490 BC a breed of large horses was bred in the Nisaean plain in Media to carry men with increasing amounts of armour (Herodotus 7,40 & 9,20), but large horses were still very exceptional at this time. By the fourth century BC the Chinese during the Warring States period (403–221 BC) began to use cavalry against rival states, and by 331 BC when Alexander the Great defeated the Persians the use of chariots in battle was obsolete in most nations; despite a few ineffective attempts to revive scythed chariots. The last recorded use of chariots as a shock force in continental Europe was during the Battle of Telamon in 225 BC. However, chariots remained in use for ceremonial purposes such as carrying the victorious general in a Roman triumph, or for racing. Outside of mainland Europe, the southern Britons met Julius Caesar with chariots in 55 and 54 BC, but by the time of the Roman conquest of Britain a century later chariots were obsolete, even in Britannia. The last mention of chariot use in Britain was by the Caledonians at the Mons Graupius, in 84 AD. Ancient Greece: city-states, Thebes, Thessaly and Macedonia amphora dated 550–540 BC]] During the classical Greek period cavalry were usually limited to those citizens who could afford expensive war-horses. Three types of cavalry became common: light cavalry, whose riders, armed with javelins, could harass and skirmish; heavy cavalry, whose troopers, using lances, had the ability to close in on their opponents; and finally those whose equipment allowed them to fight either on horseback or foot. The role of horsemen did however remain secondary to that of the hoplites or heavy infantry who comprised the main strength of the citizen levies of the various city states. Cavalry played a relatively minor role in ancient Greek city-states, with conflicts decided by massed armored infantry. However, Thebes produced Pelopidas, their first great cavalry commander, whose tactics and skills were absorbed by Philip II of Macedon when Philip was a guest-hostage in Thebes. Thessaly was widely known for producing competent cavalrymen, and later experiences in wars both with and against the Persians taught the Greeks the value of cavalry in skirmishing and pursuit. The Athenian author and soldier Xenophon in particular advocated the creation of a small but well-trained cavalry force; to that end, he wrote several manuals on horsemanship and cavalry operations. The Macedonian kingdom in the north, on the other hand, developed a strong cavalry force that culminated in the hetairoi (Companion cavalry) of Philip II of Macedon and Alexander the Great. In addition to these heavy cavalry, the Macedonian army also employed lighter horsemen called prodromoi for scouting and screening, as well as the Macedonian pike phalanx and various kinds of light infantry. There were also the Ippiko (or "Horserider"), Greek "heavy" cavalry, armed with kontos (or cavalry lance), and sword. These wore leather armour or mail plus a helmet. They were medium rather than heavy cavalry, meaning that they were better suited to be scouts, skirmishers, and pursuers rather than front line fighters. The effectiveness of this combination of cavalry and infantry helped to break enemy lines and was most dramatically demonstrated in Alexander's conquests of Persia, Bactria, and northwestern India.Roman Republic and early Empire ry trooper from Cologne, Germany. Second half of the first century AD.]] The cavalry in the early Roman Republic remained the preserve of the wealthy landed class known as the equites—men who could afford the expense of maintaining a horse in addition to arms and armor heavier than those of the common legions. Horses were provided by the Republic and could be withdrawn if neglected or misused, together with the status of being a cavalryman. As the class grew to be more of a social elite instead of a functional property-based military grouping, the Romans began to employ Italian socii for filling the ranks of their cavalry. The weakness of Roman cavalry was demonstrated by Hannibal Barca during the Second Punic War where he used his superior mounted forces to win several battles. The most notable of these was the Battle of Cannae, where he inflicted a catastrophic defeat on the Romans. At about the same time the Romans began to recruit foreign auxiliary cavalry from among Gauls, Iberians, and Numidians, the last being highly valued as mounted skirmishers and scouts (see Numidian cavalry). Julius Caesar had a high opinion of his escort of Germanic mixed cavalry, giving rise to the Cohortes Equitatae. Early emperors maintained an ala of Batavian cavalry as their personal bodyguards until the unit was dismissed by Galba after the Batavian Rebellion. For the most part, Roman cavalry during the early Republic functioned as an adjunct to the legionary infantry and formed only one-fifth of the standing force comprising a consular army. Except in times of major mobilisation about 1,800 horsemen were maintained, with three hundred attached to each legion. The relatively low ratio of horsemen to infantry does not mean that the utility of cavalry should be underestimated, as its strategic role in scouting, skirmishing, and outpost duties was crucial to the Romans' capability to conduct operations over long distances in hostile or unfamiliar territory. On some occasions Roman cavalry also proved its ability to strike a decisive tactical blow against a weakened or unprepared enemy, such as the final charge at the Battle of Aquilonia. After defeats such as the Battle of Carrhae, the Romans learned the importance of large cavalry formations from the Parthians. At the same time heavy spears and shields modelled on those favoured by the horsemen of the Greek city-states were adopted to replace the lighter weaponry of early Rome. These improvements in tactics and equipment reflected those of a thousand years earlier when the first Iranians to reach the Iranian Plateau forced the Assyrians to undertake similar reform. Nonetheless, the Romans would continue to rely mainly on their heavy infantry supported by auxiliary cavalry.Late Roman Empire and the Migration Period cavalryman]] In the army of the late Roman Empire, cavalry played an increasingly important role. The Spatha, the classical sword throughout most of the 1st millennium was adopted as the standard model for the Empire's cavalry forces. By the 6th century these had evolved into lengthy straight weapons influenced by Persian and other eastern patterns. Other specialist weapons during this period included javelins, long reaching lancers, axes and maces. The most widespread employment of heavy cavalry at this time was found in the forces of the Iranian empires, the Parthians and their Persian Sasanian successors. Both, but especially the former, were famed for the cataphract (fully armored cavalry armed with lances) even though the majority of their forces consisted of lighter horse archers. The West first encountered this eastern heavy cavalry during the Hellenistic period with further intensive contacts during the eight centuries of the Roman–Persian Wars. At first the Parthians' mobility greatly confounded the Romans, whose armoured close-order infantry proved unable to match the speed of the Parthians. However, later the Romans would successfully adapt such heavy armor and cavalry tactics by creating their own units of cataphracts and clibanarii. The decline of the Roman infrastructure made it more difficult to field large infantry forces, and during the 4th and 5th centuries cavalry began to take a more dominant role on the European battlefield, also in part made possible by the appearance of new, larger breeds of horses. The replacement of the Roman saddle by variants on the Scythian model, with pommel and cantle, was also a significant factor as was the adoption of stirrups and the concomitant increase in stability of the rider's seat. Armored cataphracts began to be deployed in Eastern Europe and the Near East, following the precedents established by Persian forces, as the main striking force of the armies in contrast to the earlier roles of cavalry as scouts, raiders, and outflankers. The late-Roman cavalry tradition of organized units in a standing army differed fundamentally from the nobility of the Germanic invaders—individual warriors who could afford to provide their own horses and equipment. While there was no direct linkage with these predecessors the early medieval knight also developed as a member of a social and martial elite, able to meet the considerable expenses required by his role from grants of land and other incomes.AsiaCentral Asia jar]] Xiongnu, Tujue, Avars, Kipchaks, Khitans, Mongols, Don Cossacks and the various Turkic peoples are also examples of the horse-mounted groups that managed to gain substantial successes in military conflicts with settled agrarian and urban societies, due to their strategic and tactical mobility. As European states began to assume the character of bureaucratic nation-states supporting professional standing armies, recruitment of these mounted warriors was undertaken in order to fill the strategic roles of scouts and raiders. The best known instance of the continued employment of mounted tribal auxiliaries were the Cossack cavalry regiments of the Russian Empire. In Eastern Europe, and out onto the steppes, cavalry remained important much longer and dominated the scene of warfare until the early 17th century and even beyond, as the strategic mobility of cavalry was crucial for the semi-nomadic pastoralist lives that many steppe cultures led.<!-- This needs a re-write as the chronology is all over the place --> Tibetans also had a tradition of cavalry warfare, in several military engagements with the Chinese Tang dynasty (618–907 AD). Khanates of Central Asia <gallery modepacked heights"130" class="center"> File:Mongol warrior of Genghis Khan.jpg\|Mongol mounted archer of Genghis Khan late 12th century. File:Ryszkiewicz Tatars in the vanguard.jpg\|Tatar vanguard in Eastern Europe 13th–14th centuries. File:DiezAlbumsArmedRiders II.jpg\|Mongols at war 14th century </gallery> East Asia China Further east, the military history of China, specifically northern China, held a long tradition of intense military exchange between Han Chinese infantry forces of the settled dynastic empires and the mounted nomads or "barbarians" of the north. The naval history of China was centered more to the south, where mountains, rivers, and large lakes necessitated the employment of a large and well-kept navy. In 307 BC, King Wuling of Zhao, the ruler of the former state of Jin, ordered his commanders and troops to adopt the trousers of the nomads as well as practice the nomads' form of mounted archery to hone their new cavalry skills. of a soldier and horse with saddle and stirrups, from the tomb of Chinese Emperor Taizong of Tang (r. 626–649), ]] The adoption of massed cavalry in China also broke the tradition of the chariot-riding Chinese aristocracy in battle, which had been in use since the ancient Shang dynasty (–1050 BC). By this time large Chinese infantry-based armies of 100,000 to 200,000 troops were now buttressed with several hundred thousand mounted cavalry in support or as an effective striking force. The handheld pistol-and-trigger crossbow was invented in China in the fourth century BC; it was written by the Song dynasty scholars Zeng Gongliang, Ding Du, and Yang Weide in their book Wujing Zongyao (1044 AD) that massed missile fire by crossbowmen was the most effective defense against enemy cavalry charges. in ceremonial armor on horseback, painted by Giuseppe Castiglione, dated 1739 or 1758]] On many occasions the Chinese studied nomadic cavalry tactics and applied the lessons in creating their own potent cavalry forces, while in others they simply recruited the tribal horsemen wholesale into their armies; and in yet other cases nomadic empires proved eager to enlist Chinese infantry and engineering, as in the case of the Mongol Empire and its sinicized part, the Yuan dynasty (1279–1368). The Chinese recognized early on during the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) that they were at a disadvantage in lacking the number of horses the northern nomadic peoples mustered in their armies. Emperor Wu of Han (r 141–87 BC) went to war with the Dayuan for this reason, since the Dayuan were hoarding a massive amount of tall, strong, Central Asian bred horses in the Hellenized–Greek region of Fergana (established slightly earlier by Alexander the Great). Although experiencing some defeats early on in the campaign, Emperor Wu's war from 104 BC to 102 BC succeeded in gathering the prized tribute of horses from Fergana. Cavalry tactics in China were enhanced by the invention of the saddle-attached stirrup by at least the 4th century, as the oldest reliable depiction of a rider with paired stirrups was found in a Jin dynasty tomb of the year 322 AD. The Chinese invention of the horse collar by the 5th century was also a great improvement from the breast harness, allowing the horse to haul greater weight without heavy burden on its skeletal structure. Korea The horse warfare of Korea was first started during the ancient Korean kingdom Gojoseon. Since at least the 3rd century BC, there was influence of northern nomadic peoples and Yemaek peoples on Korean warfare. By roughly the first century BC, the ancient kingdom of Buyeo also had mounted warriors. The cavalry of Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, were called Gaemamusa (개마무사, 鎧馬武士), and were renowned as a fearsome heavy cavalry force. King Gwanggaeto the Great often led expeditions into the Baekje, Gaya confederacy, Buyeo, Later Yan and against Japanese invaders with his cavalry. In the 12th century, Jurchen tribes began to violate the Goryeo–Jurchen borders, and eventually invaded Goryeo Korea. After experiencing invasion by the Jurchen, Korean general Yun Kwan realized that Goryeo lacked efficient cavalry units. He reorganized the Goryeo military into a professional army that would contain decent and well-trained cavalry units. In 1107, the Jurchen were ultimately defeated, and surrendered to Yun Kwan. To mark the victory, General Yun built nine fortresses to the northeast of the Goryeo–Jurchen borders (동북 9성, 東北九城). with bow and arrows, wearing a horned helmet. ]] Japan , Japanese cavalry moving down a mountain-side]] The ancient Japanese of the Kofun period also adopted cavalry and equine culture by the 5th century AD. The emergence of the samurai aristocracy led to the development of armoured horse archers, themselves to develop into charging lancer cavalry as gunpowder weapons rendered bows obsolete. Japanese cavalry was largely made up of landowners who would be upon a horse to better survey the troops they were called upon to bring to an engagement, rather than traditional mounted warfare seen in other cultures with massed cavalry units. An example is Yabusame (流鏑馬), a type of mounted archery in traditional Japanese archery. An archer on a running horse shoots three special "turnip-headed" arrows successively at three wooden targets. This style of archery has its origins at the beginning of the Kamakura period. Minamoto no Yoritomo became alarmed at the lack of archery skills his samurai had. He organized yabusame as a form of practice. Currently, the best places to see yabusame performed are at the Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū in Kamakura and Shimogamo Shrine in Kyoto (during Aoi Matsuri in early May). It is also performed in Samukawa and on the beach at Zushi, as well as other locations. Kasagake or Kasakake (笠懸, かさがけ lit. "hat shooting") is a type of Japanese mounted archery. In contrast to yabusame, the types of targets are various and the archer shoots without stopping the horse. While yabusame has been played as a part of formal ceremonies, kasagake has developed as a game or practice of martial arts, focusing on technical elements of horse archery. South Asia Indian subcontinent In the Indian subcontinent, cavalry played a major role from the Gupta dynasty (320–600) period onwards. India has also the oldest evidence for the introduction of toe-stirrups. Indian literature contains numerous references to the mounted warriors of the Central Asian horse nomads, notably the Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas and Paradas. Numerous Puranic texts refer to a conflict in ancient India (16th century BC) in which the horsemen of five nations, called the "Five Hordes" (pañca.ganan) or Kṣatriya hordes (Kṣatriya ganah), attacked and captured the state of Ayudhya by dethroning its Vedic King Bahu The Mahabharata, Ramayana, numerous Puranas and some foreign sources attest that the Kamboja cavalry frequently played role in ancient wars. V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar writes: "Both the Puranas and the epics agree that the horses of the Sindhu and Kamboja regions were of the finest breed, and that the services of the Kambojas as cavalry troopers were utilised in ancient wars". J.A.O.S. writes: "Most famous horses are said to come either from Sindhu or Kamboja; of the latter (i.e. the Kamboja), the Indian epic Mahabharata speaks among the finest horsemen". or Vikramaditya, one of the most powerful emperors of the Gupta empire during times referred to as the Golden Age of India]] The Mahabharata speaks of the esteemed cavalry of the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas and Tusharas, all of whom had participated in the Kurukshetra war under the supreme command of Kamboja ruler Sudakshin Kamboj. Mahabharata and Vishnudharmottara Purana pay especial attention to the Kambojas, Yavansa, Gandharas etc. being ashva.yuddha.kushalah (expert cavalrymen). In the Mahabharata war, the Kamboja cavalry along with that of the Sakas, Yavanas is reported to have been enlisted by the Kuru king Duryodhana of Hastinapura. Herodotus ( – ) attests that the Gandarian mercenaries (i.e. Gandharans/Kambojans of Gandari Strapy of Achaemenids) from the 20th strapy of the Achaemenids were recruited in the army of emperor Xerxes I (486–465 BC), which he led against the Hellas. Similarly, the men of the Mountain Land from north of Kabul-River equivalent to medieval Kohistan (Pakistan), figure in the army of Darius III against Alexander at Arbela, providing a cavalry force and 15 elephants. This obviously refers to Kamboja cavalry south of Hindukush. The Kambojas were famous for their horses, as well as cavalrymen (asva-yuddha-Kushalah). On account of their supreme position in horse (Ashva) culture, they were also popularly known as Ashvakas, i.e. the "horsemen" and their land was known as "Home of Horses". They are the Assakenoi and Aspasioi of the Classical writings, and the Ashvakayanas and Ashvayanas in Pāṇini's Ashtadhyayi. The Assakenoi had faced Alexander with 30,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalry and 30 war elephants. Scholars have identified the Assakenoi and Aspasioi clans of Kunar and Swat valleys as a section of the Kambojas. These hardy tribes had offered stubborn resistance to Alexander () during latter's campaign of the Kabul, Kunar and Swat valleys and had even extracted the praise of the Alexander's historians. These highlanders, designated as "parvatiya Ayudhajivinah" in Pāṇini's Astadhyayi, were rebellious, fiercely independent and freedom-loving cavalrymen who never easily yielded to any overlord. The Sanskrit drama Mudra-rakashas by Visakha Dutta and the Jaina work Parishishtaparvan refer to Chandragupta's ( – ) alliance with Himalayan king Parvataka. The Himalayan alliance gave Chandragupta a formidable composite army made up of the cavalry forces of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Kiratas, Parasikas and Bahlikas as attested by Mudra-Rakashas (Mudra-Rakshasa 2). : : : (Mudra-Rakshasa 2).}} These hordes had helped Chandragupta Maurya defeat the ruler of Magadha and placed Chandragupta on the throne, thus laying the foundations of Mauryan dynasty in Northern India. The cavalry of Hunas and the Kambojas is also attested in the Raghu Vamsa epic poem of Sanskrit poet Kalidasa. Raghu of Kalidasa is believed to be Chandragupta II (Vikaramaditya) (375–413/15 AD), of the well-known Gupta dynasty. As late as the mediaeval era, the Kamboja cavalry had also formed part of the Gurjara-Pratihara armed forces from the eighth to the 10th centuries AD. They had come to Bengal with the Pratiharas when the latter conquered part of the province. Ancient Kambojas organised military sanghas and shrenis (corporations) to manage their political and military affairs, as Arthashastra of Kautiliya as well as the Mahabharata record. They are described as Ayuddha-jivi or Shastr-opajivis (nations-in-arms), which also means that the Kamboja cavalry offered its military services to other nations as well. There are numerous references to Kambojas having been requisitioned as cavalry troopers in ancient wars by outside nations. Mughal Empire during a campaign]] The Mughal armies (lashkar) were primarily a cavalry force. The elite corps were the ahadi who provided direct service to the Emperor and acted as guard cavalry. Supplementary cavalry or dakhilis were recruited, equipped and paid by the central state. This was in contrast to the tabinan horsemen who were the followers of individual noblemen. Their training and equipment varied widely but they made up the backbone of the Mughal cavalry. Finally there were tribal irregulars led by and loyal to tributary chiefs. These included Hindus, Afghans and Turks summoned for military service when their autonomous leaders were called on by the Imperial government.European Middle Ages charging in the Bayeux Tapestry, 11th century]] As the quality and availability of heavy infantry declined in Europe with the fall of the Roman Empire, heavy cavalry became more effective. Infantry that lack the cohesion and discipline of tight formations are more susceptible to being broken and scattered by shock combat—the main role of heavy cavalry, which rose to become the dominant force on the European battlefield. As heavy cavalry increased in importance, it became the main focus of military development. The arms and armour for heavy cavalry increased, the high-backed saddle developed, and stirrups and spurs were added, increasing the advantage of heavy cavalry even more. This shift in military importance was reflected in an increasingly hierarchical society as well. From the late 10th century onwards heavily armed horsemen, milites or knights, emerged as an expensive elite taking centre stage both on and off the battlefield. This class of aristocratic warriors was considered the "ultimate" in heavy cavalry: well-equipped with the best weapons, state-of-the-art armour from head to foot, leading with the lance in battle in a full-gallop, close-formation "knightly charge" that might prove irresistible, winning the battle almost as soon as it began. ]] But knights remained the minority of total available combat forces; the expense of arms, armour, and horses was only affordable to a select few. While mounted men-at-arms focused on a narrow combat role of shock combat, medieval armies relied on a large variety of foot troops to fulfill all the rest (skirmishing, flank guards, scouting, holding ground, etc.). Medieval chroniclers tended to pay undue attention to the knights at the expense of the common soldiers, which led early students of military history to suppose that heavy cavalry was the only force that mattered on medieval European battlefields. But well-trained and disciplined infantry could defeat knights. Massed English longbowmen triumphed over French cavalry at Crécy, Poitiers and Agincourt, while at Gisors (1188), Bannockburn (1314), and Laupen (1339), foot-soldiers proved they could resist cavalry charges as long as they held their formation. Once the Swiss developed their pike squares for offensive as well as defensive use, infantry started to become the principal arm. This aggressive new doctrine gave the Swiss victory over a range of adversaries, and their enemies found that the only reliable way to defeat them was by the use of an even more comprehensive combined arms doctrine, as evidenced in the Battle of Marignano. The introduction of missile weapons that required less skill than the longbow, such as the crossbow and hand cannon, also helped remove the focus somewhat from cavalry elites to masses of cheap infantry equipped with easy-to-learn weapons. These missile weapons were very successfully used in the Hussite Wars, in combination with Wagenburg tactics. This gradual rise in the dominance of infantry led to the adoption of dismounted tactics. From the earliest times knights and mounted men-at-arms had frequently dismounted to handle enemies they could not overcome on horseback, such as in the Battle of the Dyle (891) and the Battle of Bremule (1119), but after the 1350s this trend became more marked with the dismounted men-at-arms fighting as super-heavy infantry with two-handed swords and poleaxes. In any case, warfare in the Middle Ages tended to be dominated by raids and sieges rather than pitched battles, and mounted men-at-arms rarely had any choice other than dismounting when faced with the prospect of assaulting a fortified position. Islamic States Arabs ]] The Islamic Prophet Muhammad made use of cavalry in many of his military campaigns including the Expedition of Dhu Qarad, and the expedition of Zaid ibn Haritha in al-Is which took place in September, 627 AD, fifth month of 6 AH of the Islamic calendar. Early organized Arab mounted forces under the Rashidun caliphate comprised a light cavalry armed with lance and sword. Its main role was to attack the enemy flanks and rear. These relatively lightly armored horsemen formed the most effective element of the Muslim armies during the later stages of the Islamic conquest of the Levant. The best use of this lightly armed fast moving cavalry was revealed at the Battle of Yarmouk (636 AD) in which Khalid ibn Walid, knowing the skills of his horsemen, used them to turn the tables at every critical instance of the battle with their ability to engage, disengage, then turn back and attack again from the flank or rear. A strong cavalry regiment was formed by Khalid ibn Walid which included the veterans of the campaign of Iraq and Syria. Early Muslim historians have given it the name ''Tali'a mutaharrikah(طليعة متحركة), or the Mobile guard. This was used as an advance guard and a strong striking force to route the opposing armies with its greater mobility that give it an upper hand when maneuvering against any Byzantine army. With this mobile striking force, the conquest of Syria was made easy. The Battle of Talas in 751 AD was a conflict between the Arab Abbasid Caliphate and the Chinese Tang dynasty over the control of Central Asia. Chinese infantry were routed by Arab cavalry near the bank of the River Talas. Until the 11th century the classic cavalry strategy of the Arab Middle East incorporated the razzia'' tactics of fast moving raids by mixed bodies of horsemen and infantry. Under the talented leadership of Saladin and other Islamic commanders the emphasis changed to Mamluk horse-archers backed by bodies of irregular light cavalry. Trained to rapidly disperse, harass and regroup these flexible mounted forces proved capable of withstanding the previously invincible heavy knights of the western crusaders at battles such as Hattin in 1187.Mamluks Originating in the 9th century as Central Asian ghulams or captives utilised as mounted auxiliaries by Arab armies, Mamluks were subsequently trained as cavalry soldiers rather than solely mounted-archers, with increased priority being given to the use of lances and swords. Mamluks were to follow the dictates of al-furusiyya, a code of conduct that included values like courage and generosity but also doctrine of cavalry tactics, horsemanship, archery and treatment of wounds. By the late 13th century the Manluk armies had evolved into a professional elite of cavalry, backed by more numerous but less well-trained footmen.Maghreb with his Arabian horse along the Barbary coast]] The Islamic Berber states of North Africa employed elite horse mounted cavalry armed with spears and following the model of the original Arab occupiers of the region. Horse-harness and weapons were manufactured locally and the six-monthly stipends for horsemen were double those of their infantry counterparts. During the 8th century Islamic conquest of Iberia large numbers of horses and riders were shipped from North Africa, to specialise in raiding and the provision of support for the massed Berber footmen of the main armies. Maghrebi traditions of mounted warfare eventually influenced a number of sub-Saharan African polities in the medieval era. The Esos of Ikoyi, military aristocrats of the Yoruba peoples, were a notable manifestation of this phenomenon. warriors armed with spears in the retinue of a mounted war chief. The Earth and Its Inhabitants, 1892]] Al-Andalus Iran Qizilbash, were a class of Safavid militant warriors in Iran during the 15th to 18th centuries, who often fought as elite cavalry. <gallery class="center"> File:Qezelbash.JPG\|Manikin of a Safavid Qizilbash, showing characteristic red cap (Sa'dabad Palace, Tehran). File:Canonnier Persan. Auguste Wahlen. Moeurs, usages et costumes de tous les peuples du monde. 1843.jpg\|Persian Zamburak. </gallery> Ottoman During its period of greatest expansion, from the 14th to 17th centuries, cavalry formed the powerful core of the Ottoman armies. Registers dated 1475 record 22,000 Sipahi feudal cavalry levied in Europe, 17,000 Sipahis recruited from Anatolia, and 3,000 Kapikulu (regular body-guard cavalry). During the 18th century however the Ottoman mounted troops evolved into light cavalry serving in the thinly populated regions of the Middle East and North Africa. Such frontier horsemen were largely raised by local governors and were separate from the main field armies of the Ottoman Empire. At the beginning of the 19th century modernised Nizam-I Credit ("New Army") regiments appeared, including full-time cavalry units officered from the horse guards of the Sultan. <gallery class"center" heights"180"> File:Sipahi.jpg\|Ottoman Sipahi. File:Mamluke.jpg\|An Ottoman Mamluk cavalryman from 1810, armed with a pistol. File:Sueleymanname Akinci-Beys.png\|Akinci of the Balkans. File:1396-Battle of Nicopolis-Hunername-2.jpg\|Ottoman Ghazi cavalrymen during the Battle of Nicopolis. </gallery> Renaissance Europe (c. 1390–1441)]] Ironically, the rise of infantry in the early 16th century coincided with the "golden age" of heavy cavalry; a French or Spanish army at the beginning of the century could have up to half its numbers made up of various kinds of light and heavy cavalry, whereas in earlier medieval and later 17th-century armies the proportion of cavalry was seldom more than a quarter. Knighthood largely lost its military functions and became more closely tied to social and economic prestige in an increasingly capitalistic Western society. With the rise of drilled and trained infantry, the mounted men-at-arms, now sometimes called gendarmes and often part of the standing army themselves, adopted the same role as in the Hellenistic age, that of delivering a decisive blow once the battle was already engaged, either by charging the enemy in the flank or attacking their commander-in-chief. <!--'' (Polish Hussar) by Józef Brandt]]--> From the 1550s onwards, the use of gunpowder weapons solidified infantry's dominance of the battlefield and began to allow true mass armies to develop. This is closely related to the increase in the size of armies throughout the early modern period; heavily armored cavalrymen were expensive to raise and maintain and it took years to train a skilled horseman or a horse, while arquebusiers and later musketeers could be trained and kept in the field at much lower cost, and were much easier to recruit. ]] The Spanish tercio and later formations relegated cavalry to a supporting role. The pistol was specifically developed to try to bring cavalry back into the conflict, together with manoeuvres such as the caracole. The caracole was not particularly successful, however, and the charge (whether with lance, sword, or pistol) remained as the primary mode of employment for many types of European cavalry, although by this time it was delivered in much deeper formations and with greater discipline than before. The demi-lancers and the heavily armored sword-and-pistol reiters were among the types of cavalry whose heyday was in the 16th and 17th centuries. During this period the Polish Winged hussars were a dominating heavy cavalry force in Eastern Europe that initially achieved great success against Swedes, Russians, Turks and other, until repeatably beaten by either combined arms tactics, increase in firepower or beaten in melee with the Drabant cavalry of the Swedish Empire. From their last engagement in 1702 (at the Battle of Kliszów) until 1776, the obsolete Winged hussars were demoted and largely assigned to ceremonial roles. The Polish Winged hussars military prowess peaked at the Siege of Vienna in 1683, when hussar banners participated in the largest cavalry charge in history and successfully repelled the Ottoman attack. 18th-century Europe and Napoleonic Wars , painted by Jean-Antoine-Siméon Fort]] Cavalry retained an important role in this age of regularization and standardization across European armies. They remained the primary choice for confronting enemy cavalry. Attacking an unbroken infantry force head-on usually resulted in failure, but extended linear infantry formations were vulnerable to flank or rear attacks. Cavalry was important at Blenheim (1704), Rossbach (1757), Marengo (1800), Eylau and Friedland (1807), remaining significant throughout the Napoleonic Wars. cavalry officer at the Battle of Ekeren]] Even with the increasing prominence of infantry, cavalry still had an irreplaceable role in armies, due to their greater mobility. Their non-battle duties often included patrolling the fringes of army encampments, with standing orders to intercept suspected shirkers and deserters, as well as, serving as outpost pickets in advance of the main body. During battle, lighter cavalry such as hussars and uhlans might skirmish with other cavalry, attack light infantry, or charge and either capture enemy artillery or render them useless by plugging the touchholes with iron spikes. Heavier cavalry such as cuirassiers, dragoons, and carabiniers usually charged towards infantry formations or opposing cavalry in order to rout them. Both light and heavy cavalry pursued retreating enemies, the point where most battle casualties occurred. The greatest cavalry charge of modern history was at the 1807 Battle of Eylau, when the entire 11,000-strong French cavalry reserve, led by Joachim Murat, launched a huge charge on and through the Russian infantry lines. Cavalry's dominating and menacing presence on the battlefield was countered by the use of infantry squares. The most notable examples are at the Battle of Quatre Bras and later at the Battle of Waterloo, the latter which the repeated charges by up to 9,000 French cavalrymen ordered by Michel Ney failed to break the British-Allied army, who had formed into squares. for protection from cavalry]] Massed infantry, especially those formed in squares were deadly to cavalry, but offered an excellent target for artillery. Once a bombardment had disordered the infantry formation, cavalry were able to rout and pursue the scattered foot soldiers. It was not until individual firearms gained accuracy and improved rates of fire that cavalry was diminished in this role as well. Even then light cavalry remained an indispensable tool for scouting, screening the army's movements, and harassing the enemy's supply lines until military aircraft supplanted them in this role in the early stages of World War I. 19th century ]] Europe By the beginning of the 19th century, European cavalry fell into four main categories: * Cuirassiers, heavy cavalry, adorned with body armor, especially a cuirass, and primarily armed with pistols and a sword * Dragoons, originally mounted infantry, but later regarded as medium cavalry * Hussars, light cavalry, primarily armed with sabres * Lancers or Uhlans, light cavalry, primarily armed with lances at the Battle of Balaclava, where the 93rd Regiment held off Russian Cavalry]] There were cavalry variations for individual nations as well: France had the chasseurs à cheval; Prussia had the Jäger zu Pferde; Bavaria, Saxony and Austria had the Chevaulegers; and Russia had Cossacks. Britain, from the mid-18th century, had Light Dragoons as light cavalry and Dragoons, Dragoon Guards and Household Cavalry as heavy cavalry. Only after the end of the Napoleonic wars were the Household Cavalry equipped with cuirasses, and some other regiments were converted to lancers. In the United States Army prior to 1862 the cavalry were almost always dragoons. The Imperial Japanese Army had its cavalry uniformed as hussars, but they fought as dragoons. In the Crimean War, the Charge of the Light Brigade and the Thin Red Line at the Battle of Balaclava showed the vulnerability of cavalry, when deployed without effective support. Franco-Prussian War During the Franco-Prussian War, at the Battle of Mars-la-Tour in 1870, a Prussian cavalry brigade decisively smashed the centre of the French battle line, after skilfully concealing their approach. This event became known as '''Von Bredow's Death Ride''' after the brigade commander Adalbert von Bredow; it would be used in the following decades to argue that massed cavalry charges still had a place on the modern battlefield.Imperial expansion Cavalry found a new role in colonial campaigns (irregular warfare), where modern weapons were lacking and the slow moving infantry-artillery train or fixed fortifications were often ineffective against indigenous insurgents (unless the latter offered a fight on an equal footing, as at Tel-el-Kebir, Omdurman, etc.). Cavalry "flying columns" proved effective, or at least cost-effective, in many campaigns—although an astute native commander (like Samori in western Africa, Shamil in the Caucasus, or any of the better Boer commanders) could turn the tables and use the greater mobility of their cavalry to offset their relative lack of firepower compared with European forces. In 1903 the British Indian Army maintained forty regiments of cavalry, numbering about 25,000 Indian sowars (cavalrymen), with British and Indian officers. Among the more famous regiments in the lineages of the modern Indian and Pakistani armies are: ]] near Mametz during the Battle of the Somme, 15 July 1916]] * Governor General's Bodyguard (now President's Bodyguard) * Skinner's Horse (now India's 1st Horse (Skinner's Horse)) * Gardner's Lancers (now India's 2nd Lancers (Gardner's Horse)) * Hodson's Horse (now India's 3rd Horse (Hodson's)) of the Bengal Lancers fame * 6th Bengal Cavalry (later amalgamated with 7th Hariana Lancers to form 18th King Edward's Own Cavalry) now 18th Cavalry of the Indian Army * Probyn's Horse (now 5th Horse, Pakistan) * Royal Deccan Horse (now India's The Deccan Horse) * Poona Horse (now India's The Poona Horse) * Scinde Horse (now India's The Scinde Horse) * Queen's Own Guides Cavalry (now Pakistan). * 11th Prince Albert Victor's Own Cavalry (Frontier Force) (now 11th Cavalry (Frontier Force), Pakistan) Several of these formations are still active, though they now are armoured formations, for example the Guides Cavalry of Pakistan. The French Army maintained substantial cavalry forces in Algeria and Morocco from 1830 until the end of World War II. Much of the Mediterranean coastal terrain was suitable for mounted action and there was a long established culture of horsemanship amongst the Arab and Berber inhabitants. The French forces included Spahis, Chasseurs d' Afrique, Foreign Legion cavalry and mounted Goumiers. Both Spain and Italy raised cavalry regiments from amongst the indigenous horsemen of their North African territories (see regulares, Italian Spahis and savari respectively). Imperial Germany employed mounted formations in South West Africa as part of the Schutztruppen (colonial army) garrisoning the territory.United States capture Confederate guns at Culpeper]] In the early American Civil War the regular United States Army mounted rifle, dragoon, and two existing cavalry regiments were reorganized and renamed cavalry regiments, of which there were six. Over a hundred other federal and state cavalry regiments were organized, but the infantry played a much larger role in many battles due to its larger numbers, lower cost per rifle fielded, and much easier recruitment. However, cavalry saw a role as part of screening forces and in foraging and scouting. The later phases of the war saw the Federal army developing a truly effective cavalry force fighting as scouts, raiders, and, with repeating rifles, as mounted infantry. The distinguished 1st Virginia Cavalry ranks as one of the most effectual and successful cavalry units on the Confederate side. Noted cavalry commanders included Confederate general J.E.B. Stuart, Nathan Bedford Forrest, and John Singleton Mosby (a.k.a. "The Grey Ghost") and on the Union side, Philip Sheridan and George Armstrong Custer. Post Civil War, as the volunteer armies disbanded, the regular army cavalry regiments increased in number from six to ten, among them Custer's U.S. 7th Cavalry Regiment of Little Bighorn fame, and the African-American U.S. 9th Cavalry Regiment and U.S. 10th Cavalry Regiment. The black units, along with others (both cavalry and infantry), collectively became known as the Buffalo Soldiers. According to Robert M. Utley: :the frontier army was a conventional military force trying to control, by conventional military methods, a people that did not behave like conventional enemies and, indeed, quite often were not enemies at all. This is the most difficult of all military assignments, whether in Africa, Asia, or the American West. These regiments, which rarely took the field as complete organizations, served throughout the American Indian Wars through the close of the frontier in the 1890s. Volunteer cavalry regiments like the Rough Riders consisted of horsemen such as cowboys, ranchers and other outdoorsmen, that served as a cavalry in the United States Military. Developments 1900–1914 At the beginning of the 20th century, all armies still maintained substantial cavalry forces, although there was contention over whether their role should revert to that of mounted infantry (the historic dragoon function). With motorised vehicles and aircraft still under development, horse mounted troops remained the only fully mobile forces available for manoeuvre warfare until 1914.United KingdomFollowing the experience of the South African War of 1899–1902 (where mounted Boer citizen commandos fighting on foot from cover proved more effective than regular cavalry), the British Army withdrew lances for all but ceremonial purposes and placed a new emphasis on training for dismounted action in 1903. Lances were however readopted for active service in 1912. Russia In 1882, the Imperial Russian Army converted all its line hussar and lancer regiments to dragoons, with an emphasis on mounted infantry training. In 1910 these regiments reverted to their historic roles, designations and uniforms. Germany By 1909, official regulations dictating the role of the Imperial German cavalry had been revised to indicate an increasing realization of the realities of modern warfare. The massive cavalry charge in three waves which had previously marked the end of annual maneuvers was discontinued and a new emphasis was placed in training on scouting, raiding and pursuit; rather than main battle involvement. The perceived importance of cavalry was however still evident, with thirteen new regiments of mounted rifles (Jäger zu Pferde) being raised shortly before the outbreak of war in 1914. France In spite of significant experience in mounted warfare in Morocco during 1908–14, the French cavalry remained a highly conservative institution. The traditional tactical distinctions between heavy, medium, and light cavalry branches were retained. French cuirassiers wore breastplates and plumed helmets unchanged from the Napoleonic period, during the early months of World War I. Dragoons were similarly equipped, though they did not wear cuirasses and did carry lances. Light cavalry were described as being "a blaze of colour". French cavalry of all branches were well mounted and were trained to change position and charge at full gallop. One weakness in training was that French cavalrymen seldom dismounted on the march and their horses suffered heavily from raw backs in August 1914. First World War Opening stages cavalry, 1898]] ]] – where the Belgian cavalry, fighting dismounted, decimated their still mounted German counterparts]] Europe 1914 In August 1914, all combatant armies still retained substantial numbers of cavalry and the mobile nature of the opening battles on both Eastern and Western Fronts provided a number of instances of traditional cavalry actions, though on a smaller and more scattered scale than those of previous wars. The 110 regiments of Imperial German cavalry, while as colourful and traditional as any in peacetime appearance, had adopted a practice of falling back on infantry support when any substantial opposition was encountered. These cautious tactics aroused derision amongst their more conservative French and Russian opponents but proved appropriate to the new nature of warfare. A single attempt by the German army, on 12 August 1914, to use six regiments of massed cavalry to cut off the Belgian field army from Antwerp floundered when they were driven back in disorder by rifle fire. The two German cavalry brigades involved lost 492 men and 843 horses in repeated charges against dismounted Belgian lancers and infantry. One of the last recorded charges by French cavalry took place on the night of 9/10 September 1914 when a squadron of the 16th Dragoons overran a German airfield at Soissons, while suffering heavy losses. Once the front lines stabilised on the Western Front with the start of Trench Warfare, a combination of barbed wire, uneven muddy terrain, machine guns and rapid fire rifles proved deadly to horse mounted troops and by early 1915 most cavalry units were no longer seeing front line action. On the Eastern Front, a more fluid form of warfare arose from flat open terrain favorable to mounted warfare. On the outbreak of war in 1914 the bulk of the Russian cavalry was deployed at full strength in frontier garrisons and, during the period that the main armies were mobilizing, scouting and raiding into East Prussia and Austrian Galicia was undertaken by mounted troops trained to fight with sabre and lance in the traditional style. On 21 August 1914 the 4th Austro-Hungarian under clashed with the Russian 10th Cavalry Division under general Fyodor Arturovich Keller in the Battle of Jaroslawice, in what was arguably the final historic battle to involve thousands of horsemen on both sides. While this was the last massed cavalry encounter on the Eastern Front, the absence of good roads limited the use of mechanized transport and even the technologically advanced Imperial German Army continued to deploy up to twenty-four horse-mounted divisions in the East, as late as 1917. Europe 1915–1918 For the remainder of the War on the Western Front, cavalry had virtually no role to play. The British and French armies dismounted many of their cavalry regiments and used them in infantry and other roles: the Life Guards for example spent the last months of the War as a machine gun corps; and the Australian Light Horse served as light infantry during the Gallipoli campaign. In September 1914 cavalry comprised 9.28% of the total manpower of the British Expeditionary Force in France—by July 1918 this proportion had fallen to 1.65%. As early as the first winter of the war most French cavalry regiments had dismounted a squadron each, for service in the trenches. The French cavalry numbered 102,000 in May 1915 but had been reduced to 63,000 by October 1918. The German Army dismounted nearly all their cavalry in the West, maintaining only one mounted division on that front by January 1917. , armed with lances, after the capture of Warsaw, August 1915]] Italy entered the war in 1915 with thirty regiments of line cavalry, lancers and light horse. While employed effectively against their Austro-Hungarian counterparts during the initial offensives across the Isonzo River, the Italian mounted forces ceased to have a significant role as the front shifted into mountainous terrain. By 1916 most cavalry machine-gun sections and two complete cavalry divisions had been dismounted and seconded to the infantry. Some cavalry were retained as mounted troops in reserve behind the lines, in anticipation of a penetration of the opposing trenches that it seemed would never come. Tanks, introduced on the Western Front by the British in September 1916 during the Battle of the Somme, had the capacity to achieve such breakthroughs but did not have the reliable range to exploit them. In their first major use at the Battle of Cambrai (1917), the plan was for a cavalry division to follow behind the tanks, however they were not able to cross a canal because a tank had broken the only bridge. On a few other occasions, throughout the war, cavalry were readied in significant numbers for involvement in major offensives; such as in the Battle of Caporetto and the Battle of Moreuil Wood. However it was not until the German Army had been forced to retreat in the Hundred Days Offensive of 1918, that limited numbers of cavalry were again able to operate with any effectiveness in their intended role. There was a successful charge by the British 7th Dragoon Guards on the last day of the war. In the wider spaces of the Eastern Front, a more fluid form of warfare continued and there was still a use for mounted troops. Some wide-ranging actions were fought, again mostly in the early months of the war. However, even here the value of cavalry was overrated and the maintenance of large mounted formations at the front by the Russian Army put a major strain on the railway system, to little strategic advantage. In February 1917, the Russian regular cavalry (exclusive of Cossacks) was reduced by nearly a third from its peak number of 200,000, as two squadrons of each regiment were dismounted and incorporated into additional infantry battalions. Their Austro-Hungarian opponents, plagued by a shortage of trained infantry, had been obliged to progressively convert most horse cavalry regiments to dismounted rifle units starting in late 1914. Middle East In the Middle East, during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign mounted forces (British, Indian, Ottoman, Australian, Arab and New Zealand) retained an important strategic role both as mounted infantry and cavalry. In Egypt, the mounted infantry formations like the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade and Australian Light Horse of ANZAC Mounted Division, operating as mounted infantry, drove German and Ottoman forces back from Romani to Magdhaba and Rafa and out of the Egyptian Sinai Peninsula in 1916. After a stalemate on the Gaza–Beersheba line between March and October 1917, Beersheba was captured by the Australian Mounted Division's 4th Light Horse Brigade. Their mounted charge succeeded after a coordinated attack by the British Infantry and Yeomanry cavalry and the Australian and New Zealand Light Horse and Mounted Rifles brigades. A series of coordinated attacks by these Egyptian Expeditionary Force infantry and mounted troops were also successful at the Battle of Mughar Ridge, during which the British infantry divisions and the Desert Mounted Corps drove two Ottoman armies back to the Jaffa—Jerusalem line. The infantry with mainly dismounted cavalry and mounted infantry fought in the Judean Hills to eventually almost encircle Jerusalem which was occupied shortly after. During a pause in operations necessitated by the German spring offensive in 1918 on the Western Front, joint infantry and mounted infantry attacks towards Amman and Es Salt resulted in retreats back to the Jordan Valley which continued to be occupied by mounted divisions during the summer of 1918. The Australian Mounted Division was armed with swords and in September, after the successful breaching of the Ottoman line on the Mediterranean coast by the British Empire infantry XXI Corps was followed by cavalry attacks by the 4th Cavalry Division, 5th Cavalry Division and Australian Mounted Divisions which almost encircled two Ottoman armies in the Judean Hills forcing their retreat. Meanwhile, Chaytor's Force of infantry and mounted infantry in ANZAC Mounted Division held the Jordan Valley, covering the right flank to later advance eastwards to capture Es Salt and Amman and half of a third Ottoman army. A subsequent pursuit by the 4th Cavalry Division and the Australian Mounted Division followed by the 5th Cavalry Division to Damascus. Armoured cars and 5th Cavalry Division lancers were continuing the pursuit of Ottoman units north of Aleppo when the Armistice of Mudros was signed by the Ottoman Empire.Post–World War I A combination of military conservatism in almost all armies and post-war financial constraints prevented the lessons of 1914–1918 being acted on immediately. There was a general reduction in the number of cavalry regiments in the British, French, Italian and other Western armies but it was still argued with conviction (for example in the 1922 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica) that mounted troops had a major role to play in future warfare. The 1920s saw an interim period during which cavalry remained as a proud and conspicuous element of all major armies, though much less so than prior to 1914. Cavalry was extensively used in the Russian Civil War and the Soviet-Polish War. The last major cavalry battle was the Battle of Komarów in 1920, between Poland and the Russian Bolsheviks. Colonial warfare in Morocco, Syria, the Middle East and the North West Frontier of India provided some opportunities for mounted action against enemies lacking advanced weaponry. n lancers training in the 1930s]] The post-war German Army (Reichsheer) was permitted a large proportion of cavalry (18 regiments or 16.4% of total manpower) under the conditions of the Treaty of Versailles. The British Army mechanised all cavalry regiments between 1929 and 1941, redefining their role from horse to armoured vehicles to form the Royal Armoured Corps together with the Royal Tank Regiment. The U.S. Cavalry abandoned its sabres in 1934 and commenced the conversion of its horsed regiments to mechanized cavalry, starting with the First Regiment of Cavalry in January 1933. During the Turkish War of Independence, Turkish cavalry under General Fahrettin Altay was instrumental in the Kemalist victory over the invading Greek Army in 1922 during the Battle of Dumlupınar. The 5th Cavalry Division was able to slip behind the main Greek army, cutting off all communication and supply lines as well as retreat options. This forced the surrender of the remaining Greek forces and may have been the last time in history that cavalry played a definitive role in the outcome of a battle. During the 1930s, the French Army experimented with integrating mounted and mechanised cavalry units into larger formations. Dragoon regiments were converted to motorised infantry (trucks and motor cycles), and cuirassiers to armoured units; while light cavalry (chasseurs a' cheval, hussars and spahis) remained as mounted sabre squadrons. The theory was that mixed forces comprising these diverse units could utilise the strengths of each according to circumstances. In practice mounted troops proved unable to keep up with fast moving mechanised units over any distance. The 39 cavalry regiments of the British Indian Army were reduced to 21 as the result of a series of amalgamations immediately following World War I. The new establishment remained unchanged until 1936 when three regiments were redesignated as permanent training units, each with six, still mounted, regiments linked to them. In 1938, the process of mechanization began with the conversion of a full cavalry brigade (two Indian regiments and one British) to armoured car and tank units. By the end of 1940, all of the Indian cavalry had been mechanized, initially and in the majority of cases, to motorized infantry transported in 15cwt trucks. The last horsed regiment of the British Indian Army (other than the Viceroy's Bodyguard and some Indian States Forces regiments) was the 19th King George's Own Lancers which had its final mounted parade at Rawalpindi on 28 October 1939. This unit still exists in the Pakistan Army as an armored regiment.World War II While most armies still maintained cavalry units at the outbreak of World War II in 1939, significant mounted action was largely restricted to the Polish, Balkan, and Soviet campaigns. Rather than charge their mounts into battle, cavalry units were either used as mounted infantry (using horses to move into position and then dismounting for combat) or as reconnaissance units (especially in areas not suited to tracked or wheeled vehicles). Polish with anti-tank rifle. Military instruction published in 1938.]] A popular myth is that Polish cavalry armed with lances charged German tanks during the September 1939 campaign. This arose from misreporting of a single clash on 1 September near Krojanty, when two squadrons of the Polish 18th Lancers armed with sabres scattered German infantry before being caught in the open by German armoured cars. Two examples illustrate how the myth developed. First, because motorised vehicles were in short supply, the Poles used horses to pull anti-tank weapons into position. Second, there were a few incidents when Polish cavalry was trapped by German tanks, and attempted to fight free. However, this did not mean that the Polish army chose to attack tanks with horse cavalry. Later, on the Eastern Front, the Red Army did deploy cavalry units effectively against the Germans. ]] A more correct term would be "mounted infantry" instead of "cavalry", as horses were primarily used as a means of transportation, for which they were very suitable in view of the very poor road conditions in pre-war Poland. Another myth describes Polish cavalry as being armed with both sabres and lances; lances were used for peacetime ceremonial purposes only and the primary weapon of the Polish cavalryman in 1939 was a rifle. Individual equipment did include a sabre, probably because of well-established tradition, and in the case of a melee combat this secondary weapon would probably be more effective than a rifle and bayonet. Moreover, the Polish cavalry brigade order of battle in 1939 included, apart from the mounted soldiers themselves, light and heavy machine guns (wheeled), the Anti-tank rifle, model 35, anti-aircraft weapons, anti tank artillery such as the Bofors 37 mm, also light and scout tanks, etc. The last cavalry vs. cavalry mutual charge in Europe took place in Poland during the Battle of Krasnobród, when Polish and German cavalry units clashed with each other. The last classical cavalry charge of the war took place on March 1, 1945, during the Battle of Schoenfeld by the 1st "Warsaw" Independent Cavalry Brigade. Infantry and tanks had been employed to little effect against the German position, both of which floundered in the open wetlands only to be dominated by infantry and antitank fire from the German fortifications on the forward slope of Hill 157, overlooking the wetlands. The Germans had not taken cavalry into consideration when fortifying their position which, combined with the "Warsaw"s swift assault, overran the German anti-tank guns and consolidated into an attack into the village itself, now supported by infantry and tanks. Greek The Italian invasion of Greece in October 1940 saw mounted cavalry used effectively by the Greek defenders along the mountainous frontier with Albania. Three Greek cavalry regiments (two mounted and one partially mechanized) played an important role in the Italian defeat in this difficult terrain. Soviet The contribution of Soviet cavalry to the development of modern military operational doctrine and its importance in defeating Nazi Germany has been eclipsed by the higher profile of tanks and airplanes. Soviet cavalry contributed significantly to the defeat of the Axis armies. <blockquote>… We were again in a tough fight with the desperately defensive enemy who dug himself along a high railway embankment. We've been attacked four times already, and we've been kicked back all four times. The battalion commander swore, but the company commanders were helpless. Then, instead of the artillery support we asked for countless times, a Hungarian hussar regiment appeared on the scene. We laughed. What the hell do they want here with their graceful, elegant horses? We froze at once: these Hungarians went crazy. Cavalry Squadron approached after a cavalry squadron. The command word rang. The bronze-brown, slender riders almost grew to their saddle. Their shining colonel of golden parolis jerked his sword. Four or five armored cars cut out of the wings, and the regiment slashed across the wide plain with flashing swords in the afternoon sun. Seydlitz attacked like this once before. Forgetting all caution, we climbed out of our covers. It was all like a great equestrian movie. The first shots rumbled, then became less frequent. With astonished eyes, in disbelief, we watched as the Soviet regiment, which had so far repulsed our attacks with desperate determination, now turned around and left its positions in panic. And the triumphant Hungarians chased the Russian in front of them and shredded them with their glittering sabers. The hussar sword, it seems, was a bit much for the nerves of Russians. Now, for once, the ancient weapon has triumphed over modern equipment ....</blockquote> Italian The last mounted sabre charge by Italian cavalry occurred on August 24, 1942, at Isbuscenski (Russia), when a squadron of the Savoia Cavalry Regiment charged the 812th Siberian Infantry Regiment. The remainder of the regiment, together with the Novara Lancers made a dismounted attack in an action that ended with the retreat of the Russians after heavy losses on both sides. The final Italian cavalry action occurred on October 17, 1942, in Poloj (now Croatia) by a squadron of the Alexandria Cavalry Regiment against a large group of Yugoslav partisans. Other Axis Powers Romanian, Hungarian and Italian cavalry were dispersed or disbanded following the retreat of the Axis forces from Russia. Germany still maintained some mounted (mixed with bicycles) SS and Cossack units until the last days of the War. Finnish Finland used mounted troops against Russian forces effectively in forested terrain during the Continuation War. The last Finnish cavalry unit was not disbanded until 1947.AmericanThe U.S. Army's last horse cavalry actions were fought during World War II: a) by the 26th Cavalry Regiment—a small mounted regiment of Philippine Scouts which fought the Japanese during the retreat down the Bataan peninsula, until it was effectively destroyed by January 1942; and b) on captured German horses by the mounted reconnaissance section of the U.S. 10th Mountain Division in a spearhead pursuit of the German Army across the Po Valley in Italy in April 1945. The last horsed U.S. Cavalry (the Second Cavalry Division) were dismounted in March 1944.BritishAll British Army cavalry regiments had been mechanised since 1 March 1942 when the Queen's Own Yorkshire Dragoons (Yeomanry) was converted to a motorised role, following mounted service against the Vichy French in Syria the previous year. The final cavalry charge by British Empire forces occurred on 21 March 1942 when a 60 strong patrol of the Burma Frontier Force encountered Japanese infantry near Toungoo airfield in central Myanmar. The Sikh sowars of the Frontier Force cavalry, led by Captain Arthur Sandeman of The Central India Horse (21st King George V's Own Horse), charged in the old style with sabres and most were killed.MongolianIn the early stages of World War II, mounted units of the Mongolian People's Army were involved in the Battle of Khalkhin Gol against invading Japanese forces. Soviet forces under the command of Georgy Zhukov, together with Mongolian forces, defeated the Japanese Sixth army and effectively ended the Soviet–Japanese Border Wars. After the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact of 1941, Mongolia remained neutral throughout most of the war, but its geographical situation meant that the country served as a buffer between Japanese forces and the Soviet Union. In addition to keeping around 10% of the population under arms, Mongolia provided half a million trained horses for use by the Soviet Army. In 1945 a partially mounted Soviet-Mongolian Cavalry Mechanized Group played a supporting role on the western flank of the Soviet invasion of Manchuria. The last active service seen by cavalry units of the Mongolian Army occurred in 1946–1948, during border clashes between Mongolia and the Republic of China.Post–World War II to the present day and Combat Controllers on horseback with the Northern Alliance of Afghanistan, which frequently used horses as military transport]] While most modern "cavalry" units have some historic connection with formerly mounted troops this is not always the case. The modern Irish Defence Forces (DF) includes a "Cavalry Corps" equipped with armoured cars and Scorpion tracked combat reconnaissance vehicles. The DF has never included horse cavalry since its establishment in 1922 (other than a small mounted escort of Blue Hussars drawn from the Artillery Corps when required for ceremonial occasions). However, the mystique of the cavalry is such that the name has been introduced for what was always a mechanised force. Some engagements in late 20th and early 21st century guerrilla wars involved mounted troops, particularly against partisan or guerrilla fighters in areas with poor transport infrastructure. Such units were not used as cavalry but rather as mounted infantry. Examples occurred in Afghanistan, Portuguese Africa and Rhodesia. The French Army used existing mounted squadrons of Spahis to a limited extent for patrol work during the Algerian War (1954–1962). The last mounted charge by French cavalry was carried out on 14 May 1957 by a detachment of Spahis at Magoura during the Algerian War. The Swiss Army maintained a mounted dragoon regiment for combat purposes until 1973. The Portuguese Army used horse mounted cavalry with some success in the wars of independence in Angola and Mozambique in the 1960s and 1970s. During the 1964–1979 Rhodesian Bush War the Rhodesian Army created an elite mounted infantry unit called Grey's Scouts to fight unconventional actions against the rebel forces of Robert Mugabe and Joshua Nkomo. The horse mounted infantry of the Scouts were effective and reportedly feared by their opponents in the rebel African forces. In the 1978 to present Afghan Civil War period there have been several instances of horse mounted combat. Central and South American armies maintained mounted cavalry for longer than those of Asia, Europe, or North America. The Mexican Army included a number of horse mounted cavalry regiments as late as the mid-1990s and the Chilean Army had five such regiments in 1983 as mounted mountain troops. After the end of World War II, the remaining 26 Soviet cavalry divisions were mostly converted into mechanized and tank units or disbanded. Meanwhile the overall Red Army became the Soviet Ground Forces in 1945. The last cavalry divisions were not disbanded until the early 1950s, with the last cavalry division, the 4th Guards Cavalry Division (II Formation, previously reduced in status from 4th Guards Cavalry Corps), being disbanded in April 1955.233}}Operational horse cavalryToday the Indian Army's 61st Cavalry is reported to be the largest existing horse-mounted cavalry unit still having operational potential. It was raised in 1951 from the amalgamated state cavalry squadrons of Gwalior, Jodhpur, and Mysore. While primarily utilised for ceremonial purposes, the regiment can be deployed for internal security or police roles if required. The 61st Cavalry and the President's Body Guard parade in full dress uniform in New Delhi each year in what is probably the largest assembly of traditional cavalry still to be seen in the world. Both the Indian and the Pakistani armies maintain armoured regiments with the titles of Lancers or Horse, dating back to the 19th century. As of 2007, the Chinese People's Liberation Army employed two battalions of horse-mounted border guards in Xinjiang for border patrol purposes. PLA mounted units last saw action during border clashes with Vietnam in the 1970s and 1980s, after which most cavalry units were disbanded as part of major military downsizing in the 1980s. In the wake of the 2008 Sichuan earthquake, there were calls to rebuild the army horse inventory for disaster relief in difficult terrain. Subsequent Chinese media reports confirm that the PLA maintains operational horse cavalry at squadron strength in Xinjiang and Inner Mongolia for scouting, logistical, and border security purposes, and one at company strength in Qinghai. The Chilean Army still maintains a mixed armoured cavalry regiment, with elements of it acting as mounted mountain exploration troops, based in the city of Angol, being part of the and another independent exploration cavalry detachment in the town of Chaitén. The rugged mountain terrain calls for the use of special horses suited for that use. The Argentine Army has two mounted cavalry units: the Regiment of Horse Grenadiers, which performs mostly ceremonial duties but at the same time is responsible for the president's security (in this case, acting as infantry), and the 4th Mountain Cavalry Regiment (which comprises both horse and light armoured squadrons), stationed in San Martín de los Andes, where it has an exploration role as part the 6th Mountain Brigade. Most armoured cavalry units of the Army are considered successors to the old cavalry regiments from the Independence Wars, and keep their traditional names, such as Hussars, Cuirassiers, Lancers, etc., and uniforms. Equestrian training remains an important part of their tradition, especially among officers. Ceremonial horse cavalry and armored cavalry retaining traditional titles <span class"anchor" id"Ceremonial cavalry"></span> in the Polish Army]] color guard from Marine Corps Logistics Base Barstow]] guards from the Armed Forces of Paraguay at the inauguration of President Santiago Peña in August 2023]] Cavalry or mounted gendarmerie units continue to be maintained for purely or primarily ceremonial purposes by the Algerian, Argentine, Bolivian, Brazilian, British, Bulgarian, Canadian, Chilean, Colombian, Danish, Dutch, Finnish, French, Hungarian, Indian, Italian, Jordanian, Malaysian, Mongolian Moroccan, Nepalese, Nigerian, North Korean, Omani, Pakistani, Panamanian, Paraguayan, Peruvian, Polish, Portuguese, Russian, Senegalese, Spanish, Swedish, Thai, Tunisian, Turkmenistan, United States, Uruguayan and Venezuelan armed forces. A number of armoured regiments in the British Army retain the historic designations of Hussars, Dragoons, Light Dragoons, Dragoon Guards, Lancers and Yeomanry. Only the Household Cavalry (consisting of the Life Guards' mounted squadron, The Blues and Royals' mounted squadron, the State Trumpeters of The Household Cavalry and the Household Cavalry Mounted Band) are maintained for mounted (and dismounted) ceremonial duties in London. The French Army still has regiments with the historic designations of Cuirassiers, Hussars, Chasseurs, Dragoons and Spahis. Only the cavalry of the Republican Guard and a ceremonial fanfare detachment of trumpeters for the cavalry/armoured branch as a whole are now mounted. In the Canadian Army, a number of regular and reserve units have cavalry roots, including The Royal Canadian Hussars (Montreal), the Governor General's Horse Guards, Lord Strathcona's Horse, The British Columbia Dragoons , The Royal Canadian Dragoons, and the South Alberta Light Horse. Of these, only Lord Strathcona's Horse and the Governor General's Horse Guards maintain an official ceremonial horse-mounted cavalry troop or squadron. The modern Pakistan army maintains about 40 armoured regiments with the historic titles of Lancers, Cavalry or Horse. Six of these date back to the 19th century, although only the President's Body Guard remains horse-mounted. In 2002, the Army of the Russian Federation reintroduced a ceremonial mounted squadron wearing historic uniforms. Both the Australian and New Zealand armies follow the British practice of maintaining traditional titles (Light Horse or Mounted Rifles) for modern mechanised units. However, neither country retains a horse-mounted unit. Several armored units of the modern United States Army retain the designation of "armored cavalry". The United States also has "air cavalry" units equipped with helicopters. The Horse Cavalry Detachment of the U.S. Army's 1st Cavalry Division, made up of active duty soldiers, still functions as an active unit, trained to approximate the weapons, tools, equipment and techniques used by the United States Cavalry in the 1880s. The Turkish Armed Forces retain a ceremonial cavalry regiment, which also participates in equestrianism, following the disbandment of the operational mounted brigades during the 1960s. Non-combat support roles The First Troop Philadelphia City Cavalry is a volunteer unit within the Pennsylvania Army National Guard which serves as a combat force when in federal service but acts in a mounted disaster relief role when in state service. In addition, the Parsons' Mounted Cavalry is a Reserve Officer Training Corps unit which forms part of the Corps of Cadets at Texas A&M University. Valley Forge Military Academy and College also has a Mounted Company, known as D-Troop . Some individual U.S. states maintain cavalry units as a part of their respective state defense forces. The Maryland Defense Force includes a cavalry unit, Cavalry Troop A, which serves primarily as a ceremonial unit. The unit training includes a saber qualification course based upon the 1926 U.S. Army course. Cavalry Troop A also assists other Maryland agencies as a rural search and rescue asset. The National Lancers maintain three units, Troops A, B, and C, which serve in a ceremonial role and assist in search and rescue missions.Social status From the beginning of civilization to the 20th century, ownership of heavy cavalry horses has been a mark of wealth amongst settled peoples. A cavalry horse involves considerable expense in breeding, training, feeding, and equipment, and has very little productive use except as a mode of transport. For this reason, and because of their often decisive military role, the cavalry has typically been associated with high social status. This was most clearly seen in the feudal system, where a lord was expected to enter combat armored and on horseback and bring with him an entourage of lightly armed peasants on foot. If landlords and peasant levies came into conflict, the poorly trained footmen would be ill-equipped to defeat armored knights. In later national armies, service as an officer in the cavalry was generally a badge of high social status. For instance prior to 1914 most officers of British cavalry regiments came from a socially privileged background and the considerable expenses associated with their role generally required private means, even after it became possible for officers of the line infantry regiments to live on their pay. Options open to poorer cavalry officers in the various European armies included service with less fashionable (though often highly professional) frontier or colonial units. These included the British Indian cavalry, the Russian Cossacks or the French Chasseurs d'Afrique. During the 19th and early 20th centuries most monarchies maintained a mounted cavalry element in their royal or imperial guards. These ranged from small units providing ceremonial escorts and palace guards, through to large formations intended for active service. The mounted escort of the Spanish Royal Household provided an example of the former and the twelve cavalry regiments of the Prussian Imperial Guard an example of the latter. In either case the officers of such units were likely to be drawn from the aristocracies of their respective societies. On film Some sense of the noise and power of a cavalry charge can be gained from the 1970 film Waterloo, which featured some 2,000 cavalrymen, some of them Cossacks. It included detailed displays of the horsemanship required to manage animal and weapons in large numbers at the gallop (unlike the real battle of Waterloo, where deep mud significantly slowed the horses). The Gary Cooper movie They Came to Cordura contains a scene of a cavalry regiment deploying from march to battle line formation. A smaller-scale cavalry charge can be seen in The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003); although the finished scene has substantial computer-generated imagery, raw footage and reactions of the riders are shown in the Extended Version DVD Appendices. Other films that show cavalry actions include: * The Charge of the Light Brigade, about the Battle of Balaclava in the Crimean War * 40,000 Horsemen, about the Australian Light Horse during the Sinai and Palestine campaign of World War I * The Lighthorsemen, about the Battle of Beersheba, 1917 * War Horse, about the British cavalry in Europe during World War I * Hubal, about the last months (September 1939 – April 1940) of Poland's first World War II guerrilla, Major Henryk Dobrzański, "Hubal" * The Patriot includes light cavalry usage. * And Quiet Flows the Don depicts Don Cossacks during World War I * Kingdom of Heaven includes a cavalry charge during the Siege of Kerak * The Last Samurai – a US army veteran, is hired by the Japanese emperor to train his army in the modern warfare techniques * Napoleon, cavalry units play a role in several battles. The scene of the Battle of Waterloo includes the British use of infantry squares to defend against cavalry attacks. , the Finnish cavalry of Thirty Years' War, featured on a 1940 Finnish stamp]] Units * 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment (United States) * 278th Armored Cavalry Regiment (United States) * Australian Light Horse * Bayreuth Dragoons * The Blues and Royals (British Army)(who with the Life Guards form the Household Cavalry) * British Columbia Dragoons (Canadian Army) * 1st Cavalry Division (United States) * 1st The Queen's Dragoon Guards (British Army) * Cavalry Corps (Irish Army) * Chasseurs d'Afrique (French Army) * Chinacos (Mexican irregular cavalry of the 19th century) * Garde Républicaine (French Gendarmerie) * Governor General's Horse Guards (Canada) * Guarda Nacional Republicana (Portuguese National Guard) * Governor's Guards (United States) * Guides Cavalry (Pakistan Army) * Hakkapeliitta (Finnish cavalry of Thirty Years' War) * Hamidiye (Ottoman) * Ironside * King's Royal Hussars (British Army) * Light Dragoons (British Army) * Panserbataljonen (Norwegian Army) * Queen's Own Yeomanry (a British Army Reserve Light Cavalry Regiment) * Queen's Royal Hussars (British Army) * Regulares (Spanish Morocco) * Royal Dragoon Guards (British Army) * Royal Lancers (British Army) * Royal Scots Dragoon Guards (Carabiniers & Greys) (British Army) * Royal Wessex Yeomanry (a British Army Reserve Armoured Regiment) * Royal Yeomanry (a British Army Reserve Light Cavalry Regiment) * Savage Division (North Caucasus) * Savari (Italian North African) * Scottish and North Irish Yeomanry (a British Army Reserve Light Cavalry Regiment) * Sipahi (Ottoman) * South Alberta Light Horse (Canadian Army) * Spahi (French North African) * Tagmata (Byzantine) Notable horse cavalrymen * Georgios Stanotas, commander of the Hellenic Army's Cavalry Division during World War II Didier Courrèges, major in the French Army, member of École Nationale d'Équitation's Cadre Noir, Olympian at 2004 Summer Olympics Edwin Ramsey, lieutenant colonel in the 26th Cavalry Regiment during World War II, recipient of the Distinguished Service Cross, led the last cavalry charge in American military history * General Fahrettin Altay, commander of the V. Cavalry Division of the Turkish 1st Army during the Turkish War of Independence, which was instrumental in victory over the invading Greek Army. His name is given to the new Turkish battle tank Altay.See also * Cavalry tactics * Shock tactics * Horses in warfare * Armored reconnaissance – a modern role in most militaries for 'cavalry' titled units Notes References * * * * * * }}</ref> * * * * * Pargiter, Frederick Eden, Dr., Chronology based on: Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, Oxford University Press, H. Milford, 1924, Reprint 1997 * * * * External links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20171004203253/http://www.cavalryscouts.org/ CavalryScouts.org] * [http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/French_Cavalry.html Napoleonic Cavalry] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20050430232514/http://www.usregulars.com/Lippitt6.html Cavalry tactics from Francis J. Lippitt's, A Treatise on the Tactical Use of the Three Arms: Infantry, Artillery and Cavalry (1865)] * [http://www.lonesentry.com/articles/cavalry/index.html Cavalry in Mass (U.S. report on Russian cavalry organization and operations in World War II)] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060105152729/http://www.militaryhorse.org/ Society of the Military Horse] * [http://kavallerie.8ung.at/ Gesellschaft der Freunde der Kavallerie (German)] * [http://www.historicaleye.com/horseandmule.html The Horse and Mule in the British Army during WW1] Category:Combat occupations Category:Combat occupations of the late modern period Category:Civil War military equipment of the United States	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavalry	2025-04-05T18:27:58.236529
6818	Citric acid cycle	The citric acid cycle—also known as the Krebs cycle, Szent–Györgyi–Krebs cycle, or TCA cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle)—is a series of biochemical reactions to release the energy stored in nutrients through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and alcohol. The chemical energy released is available in the form of ATP. The Krebs cycle is used by organisms that respire (as opposed to organisms that ferment) to generate energy, either by anaerobic respiration or aerobic respiration. In addition, the cycle provides precursors of certain amino acids, as well as the reducing agent NADH, that are used in numerous other reactions. Its central importance to many biochemical pathways suggests that it was one of the earliest components of metabolism. Even though it is branded as a "cycle", it is not necessary for metabolites to follow only one specific route; at least three alternative segments of the citric acid cycle have been recognized. The name of this metabolic pathway is derived from the citric acid (a tricarboxylic acid, often called citrate, as the ionized form predominates at biological pH Discovery Several of the components and reactions of the citric acid cycle were established in the 1930s by the research of Albert Szent-Györgyi, who received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1937 specifically for his discoveries pertaining to fumaric acid, a component of the cycle. He made this discovery by studying pigeon breast muscle. Because this tissue maintains its oxidative capacity well after breaking down in the Latapie mincer and releasing in aqueous solutions, breast muscle of the pigeon was very well qualified for the study of oxidative reactions. The citric acid cycle itself was finally identified in 1937 by Hans Adolf Krebs and William Arthur Johnson while at the University of Sheffield, for which the former received the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1953, and for whom the cycle is sometimes named the "Krebs cycle". Overview ; the portion in black is coenzyme A.]] The citric acid cycle is a metabolic pathway that connects carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism. The reactions of the cycle are carried out by eight enzymes that completely oxidize acetate (a two carbon molecule), in the form of acetyl-CoA, into two molecules each of carbon dioxide and water. Through catabolism of sugars, fats, and proteins, the two-carbon organic product acetyl-CoA is produced which enters the citric acid cycle. The reactions of the cycle also convert three equivalents of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD<sup>+</sup>) into three equivalents of reduced NAD (NADH), one equivalent of flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) into one equivalent of FADH<sub>2</sub>, and one equivalent each of guanosine diphosphate (GDP) and inorganic phosphate (P<sub>i</sub>) into one equivalent of guanosine triphosphate (GTP). The NADH and FADH<sub>2</sub> generated by the citric acid cycle are, in turn, used by the oxidative phosphorylation pathway to generate energy-rich ATP. One of the primary sources of acetyl-CoA is from the breakdown of sugars by glycolysis which yield pyruvate that in turn is decarboxylated by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex generating acetyl-CoA according to the following reaction scheme: + HSCoA + NAD<sup>+</sup> → + NADH + CO<sub>2</sub>}} The product of this reaction, acetyl-CoA, is the starting point for the citric acid cycle. Acetyl-CoA may also be obtained from the oxidation of fatty acids. Below is a schematic outline of the cycle: * The citric acid cycle begins with the transfer of a two-carbon acetyl group from acetyl-CoA to the four-carbon acceptor compound (oxaloacetate) to form a six-carbon compound (citrate). * The citrate then goes through a series of chemical transformations, losing two carboxyl groups as CO<sub>2</sub>. The carbons lost as CO<sub>2</sub> originate from what was oxaloacetate, not directly from acetyl-CoA. The carbons donated by acetyl-CoA become part of the oxaloacetate carbon backbone after the first turn of the citric acid cycle. Loss of the acetyl-CoA-donated carbons as CO<sub>2</sub> requires several turns of the citric acid cycle. However, because of the role of the citric acid cycle in anabolism, they might not be lost, since many citric acid cycle intermediates are also used as precursors for the biosynthesis of other molecules. * Most of the electrons made available by the oxidative steps of the cycle are transferred to NAD<sup>+</sup>, forming NADH. For each acetyl group that enters the citric acid cycle, three molecules of NADH are produced. The citric acid cycle includes a series of redox reactions in mitochondria. * In addition, electrons from the succinate oxidation step are transferred first to the FAD cofactor of succinate dehydrogenase, reducing it to FADH<sub>2</sub>, and eventually to ubiquinone (Q) in the mitochondrial membrane, reducing it to ubiquinol (QH<sub>2</sub>) which is a substrate of the electron transfer chain at the level of Complex III. * For every NADH and FADH<sub>2</sub> that are produced in the citric acid cycle, 2.5 and 1.5 ATP molecules are generated in oxidative phosphorylation, respectively. * At the end of each cycle, the four-carbon oxaloacetate has been regenerated, and the cycle continues. Steps There are ten basic steps in the citric acid cycle, as outlined below. The cycle is continuously supplied with new carbon in the form of acetyl-CoA, entering at step 0 in the table. Mitochondria in animals, including humans, possess two succinyl-CoA synthetases: one that produces GTP from GDP, and another that produces ATP from ADP. Plants have the type that produces ATP (ADP-forming succinyl-CoA synthetase). Several of the enzymes in the cycle may be loosely associated in a multienzyme protein complex within the mitochondrial matrix. The GTP that is formed by GDP-forming succinyl-CoA synthetase may be utilized by nucleoside-diphosphate kinase to form ATP (the catalyzed reaction is GTP + ADP → GDP + ATP). {\| class="wikitable" ! width="50%" \| Description !! Reactants !! Products \|- \| The sum of all reactions in the citric acid cycle is: \|\| Acetyl-CoA + 3 NAD<sup>+</sup> + FAD + GDP + P<sub>i</sub> + 2 H<sub>2</sub>O \|\| → CoA-SH + 3 NADH + FADH<sub>2</sub> + 3 H<sup>+</sup> + GTP + 2 CO<sub>2</sub> \|- \| Combining the reactions occurring during the pyruvate oxidation with those occurring during the citric acid cycle, the following overall pyruvate oxidation reaction is obtained: \|\| Pyruvate ion + 4 NAD<sup>+</sup> + FAD + GDP + P<sub>i</sub> + 2 H<sub>2</sub>O \|\| → 4 NADH + FADH<sub>2</sub> + 4 H<sup>+</sup> + GTP + 3 CO<sub>2</sub> \|- \| Combining the above reaction with the ones occurring in the course of glycolysis, the following overall glucose oxidation reaction (excluding reactions in the respiratory chain) is obtained: \|\| Glucose + 10 NAD<sup>+</sup> + 2 FAD + 2 ADP + 2 GDP + 4 P<sub>i</sub> + 2 H<sub>2</sub>O \|\| → 10 NADH + 2 FADH<sub>2</sub> + 10 H<sup>+</sup> + 2 ATP + 2 GTP + 6 CO<sub>2</sub> \|} The above reactions are balanced if P<sub>i</sub> represents the H<sub>2</sub>PO<sub>4</sub><sup>−</sup> ion, ADP and GDP the ADP<sup>2−</sup> and GDP<sup>2−</sup> ions, respectively, and ATP and GTP the ATP<sup>3−</sup> and GTP<sup>3−</sup> ions, respectively. The total number of ATP molecules obtained after complete oxidation of one glucose in glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation is estimated to be between 30 and 38. The observed yields are, therefore, closer to ~2.5 ATP per NADH and ~1.5 ATP per FADH<sub>2</sub>, further reducing the total net production of ATP to approximately 30. An assessment of the total ATP yield with newly revised proton-to-ATP ratios provides an estimate of 29.85 ATP per glucose molecule. Variation While the citric acid cycle is in general highly conserved, there is significant variability in the enzymes found in different taxa (note that the diagrams on this page are specific to the mammalian pathway variant). Some differences exist between eukaryotes and prokaryotes. The conversion of D-threo-isocitrate to 2-oxoglutarate is catalyzed in eukaryotes by the NAD<sup>+</sup>-dependent [http://www.enzyme-database.org/query.php?ec1.1.1.41 EC 1.1.1.41], while prokaryotes employ the NADP<sup>+</sup>-dependent [http://www.enzyme-database.org/query.php?ec1.1.1.42 EC 1.1.1.42]. Similarly, the conversion of (S)-malate to oxaloacetate is catalyzed in eukaryotes by the NAD<sup>+</sup>-dependent [http://www.enzyme-database.org/query.php?ec1.1.1.37 EC 1.1.1.37], while most prokaryotes utilize a quinone-dependent enzyme, [http://www.enzyme-database.org/query.php?ec1.1.5.4 EC 1.1.5.4]. A step with significant variability is the conversion of succinyl-CoA to succinate. Most organisms utilize [http://www.enzyme-database.org/query.php?ec6.2.1.5 EC 6.2.1.5], succinate–CoA ligase (ADP-forming) (despite its name, the enzyme operates in the pathway in the direction of ATP formation). In mammals a GTP-forming enzyme, succinate–CoA ligase (GDP-forming) ([http://www.enzyme-database.org/query.php?ec6.2.1.4 EC 6.2.1.4]) also operates. The level of utilization of each isoform is tissue dependent. In some acetate-producing bacteria, such as Acetobacter aceti, an entirely different enzyme catalyzes this conversion – [http://www.enzyme-database.org/query.php?ec2.8.3.18 EC 2.8.3.18], succinyl-CoA:acetate CoA-transferase. This specialized enzyme links the TCA cycle with acetate metabolism in these organisms. Some bacteria, such as Helicobacter pylori, employ yet another enzyme for this conversion – succinyl-CoA:acetoacetate CoA-transferase ([http://www.enzyme-database.org/query.php?ec2.8.3.5 EC 2.8.3.5]). Some variability also exists at the previous step – the conversion of 2-oxoglutarate to succinyl-CoA. While most organisms utilize the ubiquitous NAD<sup>+</sup>-dependent 2-oxoglutarate dehydrogenase, some bacteria utilize a ferredoxin-dependent 2-oxoglutarate synthase ([http://www.enzyme-database.org/query.php?ec1.2.7.3 EC 1.2.7.3]). Other organisms, including obligately autotrophic and methanotrophic bacteria and archaea, bypass succinyl-CoA entirely, and convert 2-oxoglutarate to succinate via succinate semialdehyde, using [http://www.enzyme-database.org/query.php?ec4.1.1.71 EC 4.1.1.71], 2-oxoglutarate decarboxylase, and [http://www.enzyme-database.org/query.php?ec1.2.1.79 EC 1.2.1.79], succinate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase. In cancer, there are substantial metabolic derangements that occur to ensure the proliferation of tumor cells, and consequently metabolites can accumulate which serve to facilitate tumorigenesis, dubbed oncometabolites. Among the best characterized oncometabolites is 2-hydroxyglutarate which is produced through a heterozygous gain-of-function mutation (specifically a neomorphic one) in isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) (which under normal circumstances catalyzes the oxidation of isocitrate to oxalosuccinate, which then spontaneously decarboxylates to alpha-ketoglutarate, as discussed above; in this case an additional reduction step occurs after the formation of alpha-ketoglutarate via NADPH to yield 2-hydroxyglutarate), and hence IDH is considered an oncogene. Under physiological conditions, 2-hydroxyglutarate is a minor product of several metabolic pathways as an error but readily converted to alpha-ketoglutarate via hydroxyglutarate dehydrogenase enzymes (L2HGDH and D2HGDH) but does not have a known physiologic role in mammalian cells; of note, in cancer, 2-hydroxyglutarate is likely a terminal metabolite as isotope labelling experiments of colorectal cancer cell lines show that its conversion back to alpha-ketoglutarate is too low to measure. In cancer, 2-hydroxyglutarate serves as a competitive inhibitor for a number of enzymes that facilitate reactions via alpha-ketoglutarate in alpha-ketoglutarate-dependent dioxygenases. This mutation results in several important changes to the metabolism of the cell. For one thing, because there is an extra NADPH-catalyzed reduction, this can contribute to depletion of cellular stores of NADPH and also reduce levels of alpha-ketoglutarate available to the cell. In particular, the depletion of NADPH is problematic because NADPH is highly compartmentalized and cannot freely diffuse between the organelles in the cell. It is produced largely via the pentose phosphate pathway in the cytoplasm. The depletion of NADPH results in increased oxidative stress within the cell as it is a required cofactor in the production of GSH, and this oxidative stress can result in DNA damage. There are also changes on the genetic and epigenetic level through the function of histone lysine demethylases (KDMs) and ten-eleven translocation (TET) enzymes; ordinarily TETs hydroxylate 5-methylcytosines to prime them for demethylation. However, in the absence of alpha-ketoglutarate this cannot be done and there is hence hypermethylation of the cell's DNA, serving to promote epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and inhibit cellular differentiation. A similar phenomenon is observed for the Jumonji C family of KDMs which require a hydroxylation to perform demethylation at the epsilon-amino methyl group. Additionally, the inability of prolyl hydroxylases to catalyze reactions results in stabilization of hypoxia-inducible factor alpha, which is necessary to promote degradation of the latter (as under conditions of low oxygen there will not be adequate substrate for hydroxylation). This results in a pseudohypoxic phenotype in the cancer cell that promotes angiogenesis, metabolic reprogramming, cell growth, and migration. Regulation Allosteric regulation by metabolites. The regulation of the citric acid cycle is largely determined by product inhibition and substrate availability. If the cycle were permitted to run unchecked, large amounts of metabolic energy could be wasted in overproduction of reduced coenzyme such as NADH and ATP. The major eventual substrate of the cycle is ADP which gets converted to ATP. A reduced amount of ADP causes accumulation of precursor NADH which in turn can inhibit a number of enzymes. NADH, a product of all dehydrogenases in the citric acid cycle with the exception of succinate dehydrogenase, inhibits pyruvate dehydrogenase, isocitrate dehydrogenase, α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, and also citrate synthase. Acetyl-coA inhibits pyruvate dehydrogenase, while succinyl-CoA inhibits alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase and citrate synthase. When tested in vitro with TCA enzymes, ATP inhibits citrate synthase and α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase; however, ATP levels do not change more than 10% in vivo between rest and vigorous exercise. There is no known allosteric mechanism that can account for large changes in reaction rate from an allosteric effector whose concentration changes less than 10%. Citrate is used for feedback inhibition, as it inhibits phosphofructokinase, an enzyme involved in glycolysis that catalyses formation of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate, a precursor of pyruvate. This prevents a constant high rate of flux when there is an accumulation of citrate and a decrease in substrate for the enzyme. Regulation by calcium. Calcium is also used as a regulator in the citric acid cycle. Calcium levels in the mitochondrial matrix can reach up to the tens of micromolar levels during cellular activation. It activates pyruvate dehydrogenase phosphatase which in turn activates the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex. Calcium also activates isocitrate dehydrogenase and α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase. This increases the reaction rate of many of the steps in the cycle, and therefore increases flux throughout the pathway. Transcriptional regulation. There is a link between intermediates of the citric acid cycle and the regulation of hypoxia-inducible factors (HIF). HIF plays a role in the regulation of oxygen homeostasis, and is a transcription factor that targets angiogenesis, vascular remodeling, glucose utilization, iron transport and apoptosis. HIF is synthesized constitutively, and hydroxylation of at least one of two critical proline residues mediates their interaction with the von Hippel Lindau E3 ubiquitin ligase complex, which targets them for rapid degradation. This reaction is catalysed by prolyl 4-hydroxylases. Fumarate and succinate have been identified as potent inhibitors of prolyl hydroxylases, thus leading to the stabilisation of HIF. Major metabolic pathways converging on the citric acid cycle Several catabolic pathways converge on the citric acid cycle. Most of these reactions add intermediates to the citric acid cycle, and are therefore known as anaplerotic reactions, from the Greek meaning to "fill up". These increase the amount of acetyl CoA that the cycle is able to carry, increasing the mitochondrion's capability to carry out respiration if this is otherwise a limiting factor. Processes that remove intermediates from the cycle are termed "cataplerotic" reactions. In this section and in the next, the citric acid cycle intermediates are indicated in italics to distinguish them from other substrates and end-products. Pyruvate molecules produced by glycolysis are actively transported across the inner mitochondrial membrane, and into the matrix. Here they can be oxidized and combined with coenzyme A to form CO<sub>2</sub>, acetyl-CoA, and NADH, as in the normal cycle. However, it is also possible for pyruvate to be carboxylated by pyruvate carboxylase to form oxaloacetate. This latter reaction "fills up" the amount of oxaloacetate in the citric acid cycle, and is therefore an anaplerotic reaction, increasing the cycle's capacity to metabolize acetyl-CoA when the tissue's energy needs (e.g. in muscle) are suddenly increased by activity. In the citric acid cycle all the intermediates (e.g. citrate, iso-citrate, alpha-ketoglutarate, succinate, fumarate, malate, and oxaloacetate) are regenerated during each turn of the cycle. Adding more of any of these intermediates to the mitochondrion therefore means that that additional amount is retained within the cycle, increasing all the other intermediates as one is converted into the other. Hence the addition of any one of them to the cycle has an anaplerotic effect, and its removal has a cataplerotic effect. These anaplerotic and cataplerotic reactions will, during the course of the cycle, increase or decrease the amount of oxaloacetate available to combine with acetyl-CoA to form citric acid. This in turn increases or decreases the rate of ATP production by the mitochondrion, and thus the availability of ATP to the cell. In the liver, the carboxylation of cytosolic pyruvate into intra-mitochondrial oxaloacetate is an early step in the gluconeogenic pathway which converts lactate and de-aminated alanine into glucose, In many tissues, especially heart and skeletal muscle tissue, fatty acids are broken down through a process known as beta oxidation, which results in the production of mitochondrial acetyl-CoA, which can be used in the citric acid cycle. Beta oxidation of fatty acids with an odd number of methylene bridges produces propionyl-CoA, which is then converted into succinyl-CoA and fed into the citric acid cycle as an anaplerotic intermediate. The total energy gained from the complete breakdown of one (six-carbon) molecule of glucose by glycolysis, the formation of 2 acetyl-CoA molecules, their catabolism in the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation equals about 30 ATP molecules, in eukaryotes. The number of ATP molecules derived from the beta oxidation of a 6 carbon segment of a fatty acid chain, and the subsequent oxidation of the resulting 3 molecules of acetyl-CoA is 40. Citric acid cycle intermediates serve as substrates for biosynthetic processes In this subheading, as in the previous one, the TCA intermediates are identified by italics. Several of the citric acid cycle intermediates are used for the synthesis of important compounds, which will have significant cataplerotic effects on the cycle. The cytosolic acetyl-CoA is used for fatty acid synthesis and the production of cholesterol. Cholesterol can, in turn, be used to synthesize the steroid hormones, bile salts, and vitamin D. Evolution It is believed that components of the citric acid cycle were derived from anaerobic bacteria, and that the TCA cycle itself may have evolved more than once. It may even predate biosis: the substrates appear to undergo most of the reactions spontaneously in the presence of persulfate radicals. Theoretically, several alternatives to the TCA cycle exist; however, the TCA cycle appears to be the most efficient. If several TCA alternatives had evolved independently, they all appear to have converged to the TCA cycle. See also * Calvin cycle * Glyoxylate cycle * Reverse (reductive) Krebs cycle * Krebs cycle (simple English) References External links * [https://www.science.smith.edu/departments/Biology/Bio231/krebs.html An animation of the citric acid cycle] at Smith College * [https://biocyc.org/META/NEW-IMAGE?object=TCA-VARIANTS Citric acid cycle variants] at MetaCyc * [https://www.genome.ad.jp/kegg/pathway/map/map00020.html Pathways connected to the citric acid cycle] at Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes * [http://www.metpath.teithe.gr/?partTCA&langen metpath: Interactive representation of the citric acid cycle] Category:Cellular respiration Category:Exercise biochemistry Category:Exercise physiology Category:Metabolic pathways Category:1937 in biology	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citric_acid_cycle	2025-04-05T18:27:58.271216
6821	Military engineering vehicle	thumb\|The AEV 3 Kodiak offered by Rheinmetall is a current generation military engineering vehicle; it is built on the base of the Leopard 2 MBT. thumb\|The EBG combat engineering vehicle, based on the AMX 30 tank, is used by the engineers of the French Army. thumb\|BAT-M engineering vehicle of Russia and the former Soviet Union A military engineering vehicle is a vehicle built for construction work or for the transportation of combat engineers on the battlefield. These vehicles may be modified civilian equipment (such as the armoured bulldozers that many nations field) or purpose-built military vehicles (such as the AVRE). The first appearance of such vehicles coincided with the appearance of the first tanks, these vehicles were modified Mark V tanks for bridging and mine clearance. Modern military engineering vehicles are expected to fulfill numerous roles such as; bulldozer, crane, grader, excavator, dump truck, breaching vehicle, bridging vehicle, military ferry, amphibious crossing vehicle, and combat engineer section carrier. History World War One A Heavy RE tank was developed shortly after World War I by Major Giffard LeQuesne Martel RE. This vehicle was a modified Mark V tank. Two support functions for these Engineer Tanks were developed: bridging and mine clearance. The bridging component involved an assault bridge, designed by Major Charles Inglis RE, called the Canal Lock Bridge, which had sufficient length to span a canal lock. Major Martel mated the bridge with the tank and used hydraulic power generated by the tank's engine to maneuver the bridge into place. For mine clearance the tanks were equipped with 2 ton rollers. 1918-1939 Between the wars various experimental bridging tanks were used to test a series of methods for bridging obstacles and developed by the Experimental Bridging Establishment (EBE). Captain SG Galpin RE conceived a prototype Light Tank Mk V to test the Scissors Assault Bridge. This concept was realised by Captain SA Stewart RE with significant input from a Mr DM Delany, a scientific civil servant in the employ of the EBE. MB Wild & Co, Birmingham, also developed a bridge that could span gaps of 26 feet using a complex system of steel wire ropes and a traveling jib, where the front section was projected and then attached to the rear section prior to launching the bridge. This system had to be abandoned due to lack of success in getting it to work, however the idea was later used successfully on the Beaver Bridge Laying Tank. Early World War II thumb\|A Churchill bridgelayer of 51st Royal Tank Regiment in action during a demonstration in the Mezzano area, 30 March 1945. Once World War II had begun, the development of armoured vehicles for use by engineers in the field was accelerated under Delaney's direction. The EBE rapidly developed an assault bridge carried on a modified Covenanter tank capable of deploying a 24-ton tracked load capacity bridge (Class 24) that could span gaps of 30 feet. However, it did not see service in the British armed forces, and all vehicles were passed onto Allied forces such as Australia and Czechoslovakia. A Class 30 design superseded the Class 24 with no real re-design, simply the substitution of the Covenanter tank with a suitably modified Valentine. are used, while in Canada and other commonwealth nations the term "armoured engineer vehicle (AEV)" is used. There is no set template for what such a vehicle will look like, yet likely features include a large dozer blade or mine ploughs, a large caliber demolition cannon, augers, winches, excavator arms and cranes or lifting booms. These vehicles are designed to directly conduct obstacle breaching operations and to conduct other earth-moving and engineering work on the battlefield. Good examples of this type of vehicle include the UK Trojan AVRE, the Russian IMR, and the US M728 Combat Engineer Vehicle. Although the term "armoured engineer vehicle" is used specifically to describe these multi-purpose tank based engineering vehicles, that term is also used more generically in British and Commonwealth militaries to describe all heavy tank based engineering vehicles used in the support of mechanized forces. Thus, "armoured engineer vehicle" used generically would refer to AEV, AVLB, Assault Breachers, and so on. Armoured earth mover Lighter and less multi-functional than the CEVs or AEVs described above, these vehicles are designed to conduct earth-moving work on the battlefield and generally be anti-tank explosive proof. These vehicles have greater high speed mobility than traditional heavy equipment and are protected against the effects of blast and fragmentation. Good examples are the American M9 ACE and the UK FV180 Combat Engineer Tractor. Breaching vehicle thumb\|right\|Marines with 2nd Combat Engineer Battalion launch a M58 MICLIC from an assault breacher vehicle. thumb\|right\|ST Engineering Bionix Trailblazer counter-mine vehicle. Note the high, stout appearance designed specifically to survive mine blasts. These vehicles are equipped with mechanical or other means for the breaching of man-made obstacles. Common types of breaching vehicles include mechanical flails, mine plough vehicles, and mine roller vehicles. In some cases, these vehicles will also mount mine-clearing line charges. Breaching vehicles may be either converted armoured fighting vehicles or purpose built vehicles. In larger militaries, converted AFV are likely to be used as assault breachers while the breached obstacle is still covered by enemy observation and fire, and then purpose built breaching vehicles will create additional lanes for following forces. Good examples of breaching vehicles include the US M1150 assault breacher vehicle, the UK Aardvark JSFU, and the Singaporean Trailblazer. Bridging vehicles thumb\|right\|U.S. Army M104 Wolverine heavy assault bridge Several types of military bridging vehicles have been developed. An armoured vehicle-launched bridge (AVLB) is typically a modified tank hull converted to carry a bridge into battle in order to support crossing ditches, small waterways, or other gap obstacles. Another type of bridging vehicle is the truck launched bridge. The Soviet TMM bridging truck could carry and launch a 10-meter bridge that could be daisy-chained with other TMM bridges to cross larger obstacles. More recent developments have seen the conversion of AVLB and truck launched bridge with launching systems that can be mounted on either tank or truck for bridges that are capable of supporting heavy main battle tanks. Earlier examples of bridging vehicles include a type in which a converted tank hull is the bridge. On these vehicles, the hull deck comprises the main portion of the tread way while ramps extend from the front and rear of the vehicle to allow other vehicles to climb over the bridging vehicle and cross obstacles. An example of this type of armoured bridging vehicle was the Churchill Ark used in the Second World War. Combat engineer section carriers thumb\|IDF Namer CEV is used both to carry section of sappers and to operate combat engineering devices. thumb\|right\|M1132 engineer squad vehicle (ESV) issued to combat engineer squads in the US Army Stryker brigade combat teams Another type of CELLs are armoured fighting vehicles which are used to transport sappers (combat engineers) and can be fitted with a bulldozer's blade and other mine-breaching devices. They are often used as APCs because of their carrying ability and heavy protection. They are usually armed with machine guns and grenade launchers and usually tracked to provide enough tractive force to push blades and rakes. Some examples are the U.S. M113 APC, IDF Puma, Nagmachon, Husky, and U.S. M1132 ESV (a Stryker variant). Military ferries and amphibious crossing vehicles thumb\|This field-deployable apparatus, known as EFA, used by the engineers of the French Army, may either be used as a bridge (deployed in a series), or as a ferry One of the major tasks of military engineering is crossing major rivers. Several military engineering vehicles have been developed in various nations to achieve this task. One of the more common types is the amphibious ferry such as the M3 Amphibious Rig. These vehicles are self-propelled on land, they can transform into raft type ferries when in the water, and often multiple vehicles can connect to form larger rafts or floating bridges. Other types of military ferries, such as the Soviet Plavayushij Transportyor - Srednyj, are able to load while still on land and transport other vehicles cross country and over water. In addition to amphibious crossing vehicles, military engineers may also employ several types of boats. Military assault boats are small boats propelled by oars or an outboard motor and used to ferry dismounted infantry across water. Tank-based combat engineering vehicles thumb\|right\|Churchill "Bobbin", a rolled roadsurface (like a chespaling mat) that could be laid for following vehicles to cross loose sand on a beach. The raised boxes at the rear of the vehicle are radiator extensions to allow deep wading in water. Most CEVs are armoured fighting vehicles that may be based on a tank chassis and have special attachments in order to breach obstacles. Such attachments may include dozer blades, mine rollers, cranes etc. An example of an engineering vehicle of this kind is a bridgelaying tank, which replaces the turret with a segmented hydraulic bridge. The Hobart's Funnies of the Second World War were a wide variety of armoured vehicles for combat engineering tasks. They were allocated to the initial beachhead assaults by the British and Commonwealth forces in the D-Day landings. Churchill tank The British Churchill tank because of its good cross-country performance and capacious interior with side hatches became the most adapted with modifications, the base unit being the AVRE carrying a large demolition gun. M4 Sherman right\|thumb\|M4 with 105 mm howitzer and a dozer blade. Dozer: The bulldozer blade was a valuable battlefield tool on the WWII M4 Sherman tank. A 1943 field modification added the hydraulic dozer blade from a Caterpillar D8 to a Sherman. The later M1 dozer blade was standardized to fit any Sherman with VVSS suspension and the M1A1 would fit the wider HVSS. Some M4s made for the Engineer Corps had the blades fitted permanently and the turrets removed. In the early stages of the 1944 Battle of Normandy before the Culin Cutter, breaking through the Bocage hedgerows relied heavily on Sherman dozers. M4 Doozit: Engineer Corps' Sherman dozer with demolition charge on wooden platform and T40 Whizbang rocket launcher (the Doozit did not see combat but the Whizbang did). Bridgelayer: The US field-converted a few M4 in Italy with A-frame-supported bridge and heavy rear counter-weight to make the Mobile Assault Bridge. British developments for Shermans included the fascine (used by 79th Armoured Division), Crib, Twaby Ark, Octopus, Plymouth (Bailey bridge), and AVRE (SBG bridge). Mine-clearing: British conversions included the Sherman Crab. The US developed an extensive array of experimental types: T15/E1/E2: Series of mine resistant Shermans based on the T14 kit. Cancelled at war's end. Mine exploder T1E1 roller (Earthworm): Three sets of 6 discs made from armor plate. Mine exploder T1E2 roller: Two forward units with 7 discs only. Experimental. Mine exploder T1E3/M1 roller (Aunt Jemima): Two forward units with five 10' discs. Most widely used T1 variant, adopted as the M1. (picture) Mine exploder T1E4 roller: 16 discs. Mine exploder T1E5 roller: T1E3/M1 w/ smaller wheels. Experimental. Mine exploder T1E6 roller: T1E3/M1 w/ serrated edged discs. Experimental Mine exploder T2 flail: British Crab I mine flail. Mine exploder T3 flail: Based on British Scorpion flail. Development stopped in 1943. Mine exploder T3E1 flail: T3 w/ longer arms and sand filled rotor. Cancelled. Mine exploder T3E2 flail: E1 variant, rotor replaced with steel drum of larger diameter. Development terminated at war's end. Mine exploder T4: British Crab II mine flail. Mine exploder T7: Frame with small rollers with two discs each. Abandoned. Mine exploder T8 (Johnny Walker): Steel plungers on a pivot frame designed to pound on the ground. Vehicle steering was adversely affected. Mine exploder T9: 6' roller. Difficult to maneuver. Mine exploder T9E1: Lightened version, but proved unsatisfactory because it failed to explode all mines. Mine exploder T10: Remote control unit designed to be controlled by the following tank. Cancelled. Mine exploder T11: Six forward firing mortars to set off mines. Experimental. Mine exploder T12: 23 forward firing mortars. Apparently effective, but cancelled. Mine exploder T14: Direct modification to a Sherman tank, upgraded belly armor and reinforced tracks. Cancelled. Mine excavator T4: Plough device. Developed during 1942, but abandoned. Mine excavator T5/E1/E2: T4 variant w/ v-shaped plough. E1/E2 was a further improvement. Mine excavator T5E3: T5E1/E2 rigged to the hydraulic lift mechanism from the M1 dozer kit to control depth. Mine excavator T6: Based on the v-shape/T5, unable to control depth. Mine excavator T2/E1/E2: Based on the T4/T5's, but rigged to the hydraulic lift mechanism from the M1 dozer kit to control depth. M60 thumb\|A remotely controlled Panther armored mine clearing vehicle leads a column down a road in Bosnia and Herzegovina, May 16, 1996. M60A1 AVLB – Armored vehicle launched bridge, scissors bridge on M60A1 chassis. M60 AVLM – armored vehicle launched MICLIC (mine-clearing line charge), modified M60 AVLB with up to 2 MICLIC mounted over the rear of the vehicle. M60 Panther – M60 modified into a remotely controlled mine clearing tank. The turret is removed with the turret ring sealed, and the front of the vehicle is fitted with mine rollers. M728 CEV – M60A1-based combat engineer vehicle fitted with a folding A-frame crane and winch attached to the front of the turret, and an M135 165 mm demolition gun. Commonly fitted with the D7 bulldozer blade, or a mine-clearing equipment. M728A1 – Upgraded version of the M728 CEV. M1 right\|thumb\|Grizzly combat mobility vehicle (CMV) M1 Grizzly combat mobility vehicle (CMV) Grizzly breacher M1 Panther II remote controlled mine clearing vehicle Panther M104 Wolverine heavy assault bridge Wolverine (heavy assault bridge) M1074 Joint Assault Bridge System M1150 assault breacher vehicle Leopard 1 Biber (Beaver) armoured vehicle-launched bridge Pionierpanzer 1 Pionierpanzer 2 Dachs (Badger) armoured engineer vehicle Leopard 2 Panzerschnellbrücke 2 (Bridge layer) Pionierpanzer 3 Kodiak T-55/54 thumb\|right\|MTU-12 bridgelayer thumb\|right\|MTU-20 bridgelayer thumb\|right\|IMR combat engineering vehicle T-54 dozer - T-54 fitted with bulldozer blades for clearing soil, obstacles and snow. ALT-55 - Bulldozer version of the T-55 with large flat-plate superstructure, angular concave dozer blade on front and prominent hydraulic rams for dozer blade. T-55 hull fitted with an excavator body and armoured cab.- Bridge-layer tank with 12 m single-span bridge that can carry 50 tonnes. The system entered service in 1955; today only a very small number remains in service. Combat weight: 34 tonnes. MTU-20 (Ob'yekt 602) (Tankoviy Mostoukladchik) BTS-1M - improved or remanufactured BTS-1. BTS-4B - Dozer blade equipped armoured recovery vehicle converted from the early -odd-shaped turret versions of the T-54. See also AM 50 automatically launched assault bridge Armored bulldozer Armoured recovery vehicle Armoured Vehicle Royal Engineers Bulldozer Caterpillar D9 Combat engineer Hobart's funnies Sapper Terrier armoured combat engineer vehicle References External links Australian Provincial Reconstruction Team - Afghanistan Kodiak Armoured Engineer Vehicle Category:English inventions	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_engineering_vehicle	2025-04-05T18:27:58.313626
6822	Catalonia	\| 2 \| 3 = }} \| settlement_type = Autonomous community \| image_flag = Flag of Catalonia.svg \| flag_alt = Flag of Catalonia (Senyera) \| image_shield = Seal of the Generalitat of Catalonia.svg \| shield_alt = Seal of the Generalitat de Catalunya \| anthem <br /> ("The Reapers")<br /> <div style"display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;"></div> \| label_map \| image_map \| coordinates \| capital = Barcelona \| largest_city = Barcelona \| provinces = \| official_lang = * Occitan (Aranese) * Catalan Sign language}} \| government_footnotes \| government_type Devolved government in a constitutional monarchy \| governing_body = Generalitat of Catalonia \| legislature = Parliament of Catalonia \| president = Salvador Illa (PSC) \| congress_seats = 48 \| senate_seats = 24 \| formation = 801 (County of Barcelona)<br /> 1137 (Dynastic union with Aragon) <br /> <br /> 1516 (Dynastic union with Castile) <br /> 1716 (Nueva Planta) \| statute = <!-- 9 September --> 1932 (First Statute)<!-- Abolished during Francoist Spain --> <br /> <!-- 18 September --> 1979 (Second Statute) <br /> <!-- 9 August --> 2006 (Third Statute – in force) \| area_footnotes \| area_rank = 6th \| area_total_km2 = 32113.86 \| area_land_km2 \| area_water_km2 \| population_footnotes \| population_rank = 2nd \| population_as_of = 2024 \| population_total = 8,012,231 \| population_ref \| population_density_km2 auto \| pop_est_ref \| density_year \| population_demonym = Catalan or Catalonian <br/> • català, -ana (ca) <br/> • catalan, -a (oc) <br/> • catalán, -ana (es) \| GDP_footnotes \| GDP_rank = 2nd \| GDP_year = 2023 \| GDP_total = €281.845 billion \| GDP_per_capita = €35,325 \| GDP_per_capita_rank = 4th \| HDI_year = 2022 \| HDI 0.922<br /> \| HDI_rank = · 4th \| timezone_link \| timezone1_location \| timezone1 = CET (UTC+1) \| utc_offset1 \| timezone1_DST CEST (UTC+2) \| utc_offset1_DST \| postal_code_prefix \| iso_code = ES-CT \| currency = Euro (€) \| telephone_code = +34 93 (Barcelona area) <br /> +34 97 (rest of Catalonia) \| patron = Saint George <br /> Virgin of Montserrat \| holiday = September 11 \| website = gencat.cat \| module }} }} <!-- Please note: The descriptions "autonomous community" and "nationality" are based on formal political terminology as found in official sources and have been discussed at length on the talk page in the past. Please do not directly change to "country" or "nation" – or, conversely, to "region" – but raise any issues or suggest any improvements on the talk page first, as direct edits on this subject will be controversial. --> Catalonia; ; ; }} is an autonomous community of Spain, designated as a nationality by its Statute of Autonomy.<!-- i.e. by the Spanish Constitution and its Statute of Autonomy --> Most of its territory (except the Val d'Aran) is situated on the northeast of the Iberian Peninsula, to the south of the Pyrenees mountain range. Catalonia is administratively divided into four provinces or eight vegueries (regions), which are in turn divided into 43 comarques. The capital and largest city, Barcelona, is the second-most populous municipality in Spain and the fifth-most populous urban area in the European Union. Modern-day Catalonia comprises most of the medieval and early modern Principality of Catalonia, with the remainder northern area now part of France's Pyrénées-Orientales. It is bordered by France (Occitanie) and Andorra to the north, the Mediterranean Sea to the east, and the Spanish autonomous communities of Aragon to the west and Valencia to the south. In addition to about 580 km of coastline, Catalonia also has major high landforms such as the Pyrenees and the Pre-Pyrenees, the Transversal Range (Serralada Transversal) or the Central Depression. The official languages are Catalan, Spanish and the Aranese dialect of Occitan. In the 10th century, the County of Barcelona and the other neighboring counties became independent from West Francia. In 1137, Barcelona and the Kingdom of Aragon were united by marriage, resulting in a composite monarchy, the Crown of Aragon. Within the Crown, the Catalan counties merged in to a state, the Principality of Catalonia, with its own distinct institutional system, such as Courts, Generalitat and constitutions, being the base and promoter for the Crown's Mediterranean trade and expansionism. In the later Middle Ages, Catalan literature flourished. In 1516, Charles V became monarch of both the crowns of Aragon and Castile, retaining their previous distinct institutions and legislation. Growing tensions led to the revolt of the Principality of Catalonia (1640–1652), briefly becoming a republic under French protection. By the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659), the northern parts of Catalonia were ceded to France. During the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714), the states of the Crown of Aragon sided against the Bourbon Philip V of Spain, but following Catalan capitulation on 11 September 1714 he imposed a unifying administration across Spain, enacting the Nueva Planta decrees which ended Catalonia's separate status, supressing its institutions and legal system. Catalan as a language of government and literature was eclipsed by Spanish. In the 19th century, Napoleonic and Carlist Wars affected Catalonia. In the second third of the century, it experienced industrialisation, while saw a cultural renaissance coupled with incipient nationalism and several workers' movements. The Second Spanish Republic (1931–1939) granted self-governance to Catalonia, being restored the Generalitat as its government. After the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939), the Francoist dictatorship enacted repressive measures, abolishing self-government and banning again the official use of the Catalan language. After a harsh autarky, from the late 1950s Catalonia saw rapid economic growth, drawing many workers from across Spain and making it one of Europe's largest industrial and touristic areas. During the Spanish transition to democracy (1975–1982), the Generalitat and Catalonia's self-government were reestablished, remaining one of the most economically dynamic communities in Spain. In the 2010s, there was growing support for Catalan independence. On 27 October 2017, the Catalan Parliament unilaterally declared independence following a referendum that was deemed unconstitutional by the Spanish state. The Spanish Senate voted in favour of enforcing direct rule by removing the Catalan government and calling a snap regional election. The Spanish Supreme Court imprisoned seven former ministers of the Catalan government on charges of rebellion and misuse of public funds, while several others—including then-President Carles Puigdemont—fled to other European countries. Those in prison were pardoned by the Spanish government in 2021. Etymology and pronunciation The name "Catalonia" (), spelled Cathalonia, began to be used for the homeland of the Catalans (Cathalanenses) in the late 11th century and was probably used before as a territorial reference to the group of counties that comprised part of the March of Gothia and the March of Hispania under the control of the Count of Barcelona and his relatives. The origin of the name Catalunya is subject to diverse interpretations because of a lack of evidence. One theory suggests that Catalunya derives from the name Gothia (or Gauthia) Launia ("Land of the Goths"), since the origins of the Catalan counts, lords and people were found in the March of Gothia, known as Gothia, whence Gothland > > > > Catalonia theoretically derived. During the Middle Ages, Byzantine chroniclers claimed that Catalania derives from the local medley of Goths with Alans, initially constituting a Goth-Alania. Other theories suggest: Catalunya derives from the term "land of castles", having evolved from the term castlà or castlan, the medieval term for a castellan (a ruler of a castle). This theory therefore suggests that the names Catalunya and Castile have a common root. The source is the Celtic catalauni, meaning "chiefs of battle", similar to the Celtic given name [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/Katuwalos Katuwalos]; although the area is not known to have been occupied by the Celtiberians, a Celtic culture was present within the interior of the Iberian Peninsula in pre-Roman times. The Lacetani, an Iberian tribe that lived in the area and whose name, due to the Roman influence, could have evolved by metathesis to Katelans and then Catalans. Miguel Vidal, finding serious shortcomings with earlier proposals (such as that an original -t- would have, by normal sound laws in the local Romance languages, developed into -d-), suggested an Arabic etymology: (, ) – meaning "killer" – could have been applied by Muslims to groups of raiders and bandits on the southern border of the Marca Hispanica. The name, originally derogatory, could have been reappropriated by Christians as an autonym. This is comparable to attested development of the term Almogavar in nearby areas. In this model, the name Catalunya derives from the plural qattālūn while the adjective and language name català derives from the singular qattāl, both with the addition of common Romance suffixes. In English, Catalonia is pronounced . The native name, Catalunya, is pronounced in Central Catalan, the most widely spoken variety, and in North-Western Catalan. The Spanish name is Cataluña (), and the Aranese name is Catalonha (). History Prehistory The first known human settlements in what is now Catalonia were at the beginning of the Middle Paleolithic. The oldest known trace of human occupation is a mandible found in Banyoles, described as pre-Neanderthal, that is, some 200,000 years old; other sources suggest it to be only about one third that old. From the Epipalaeolithic or Mesolithic, important remains dated between 8000 and 5000BC, such as those of Sant Gregori (Falset) and el Filador (Margalef de Montsant). The most important sites from these eras, all excavated in the region of Moianès, are the Balma del Gai (Epipaleolithic) and the Balma de l'Espluga. The Neolithic era began in Catalonia around 5000BC, although the population was slower to develop fixed settlements thanks to the abundance of woods, which allowed the continuation of a fundamentally hunter-gatherer culture. An example of such settlements would be La Draga at Banyoles, an "early Neolithic village which dates from the end of the 6th millenniumBC." The Bronze Age occurred between 1800 and 700BC. There were some known settlements in the low Segre zone. The Bronze Age coincided with the arrival of the Indo-Europeans through the Urnfield Culture, whose successive waves of migration began around 1200BC, and they were responsible for the creation of the first proto-urban settlements. Around the middle of the 7th centuryBC, the Iron Age arrived in Catalonia. Pre-Roman and Roman period , Roman aqueduct in Tarragona ]] In pre-Roman times, the area that is now Catalonia was populated by the Iberians. The Iberians tribes – the Ilergetes, Indigetes and Lacetani (Cerretains) – also maintained relations with the peoples of the Mediterranean. Some urban agglomerations became relevant, including Ilerda (Lleida) inland, Hibera (perhaps Amposta or Tortosa) or Indika (Ullastret). Coastal trading colonies were established by the ancient Greeks, who settled around the Gulf of Roses, in Emporion (Empúries) and Roses in the 8th century BC. After the Carthaginian defeat by the Roman Republic, the north-east of Iberia became the first to come under Roman rule and became part of Hispania, the westernmost part of the Roman Empire. Tarraco (modern Tarragona) was one of the most important Roman cities in Hispania and the capital of the province of Tarraconensis. Other important cities of the Roman period are Ilerda (Lleida), Dertosa (Tortosa), Gerunda (Girona) as well as the ports of Empuriæ (former Emporion) and Barcino (Barcelona). As for the rest of Hispania, Latin law was granted to all cities under the reign of Vespasian (69–79AD), while Roman citizenship was granted to all free men of the empire by the Edict of Caracalla in 212AD (Tarraco, the capital, was already a colony of Roman law since 45BC). It was a rich agricultural province (olive oil, wine, wheat), and the first centuries of the Empire saw the construction of roads (the most important being the Via Augusta, parallel to Mediterranean coastline) and infrastructure like aqueducts. Conversion to Christianity, attested in the 3rdcentury, was completed in urban areas in the 4thcentury. Although Hispania remained under Roman rule and did not fall under the rule of Vandals, Suebi and Alans in the 5thcentury, the main cities suffered frequent sacking and some deurbanization. Middle Ages After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the area was conquered by the Visigoths and was ruled as part of the Visigothic Kingdom for almost two and a half centuries. In 718, it came under Muslim control and became part of Al-Andalus, a province of the Umayyad Caliphate. From the conquest of Roussillon in 760, to the conquest of Barcelona in 801, the Frankish empire took control of the area between Septimania and the Llobregat river from the Muslims and created heavily militarised, self-governing counties. These counties formed part of the historiographically known as the Gothic and Hispanic Marches, a buffer zone in the south of the Frankish Empire in the northeast of the Iberian Peninsula, to act as a defensive barrier against further invasions from Al-Andalus. (left), Petronilla of Aragon (right) and their son Alfonso II of Aragon and I of Barcelona (bottom), dynastic union of the Crown of Aragon]] These counties came under the rule of the counts of Barcelona, who were Frankish vassals nominated by the emperor of the Franks, to whom they were feudatories (801–988). At the end of the 9thcentury, the Count of Barcelona Wilfred the Hairy (878–897) made his titles hereditaries and thus founded the dynasty of the House of Barcelona, which reigned in Catalonia until 1410. In 988 Borrell II, Count of Barcelona, did not recognise the new French king Hugh Capet as his king, evidencing the loss of dependency from Frankish rule and confirming his successors (from Ramon Borrell I onwards) as independent of the Capetian crown. At the beginning of eleventh century the Catalan counties experienced an important process of feudalisation, however, the efforts of church's sponsored Peace and Truce Assemblies and the intervention of Ramon Berenguer I, count of Barcelona (1035–1076) in the negotiations with the rebel nobility resulted in the partial restoration of the comital authority under the new feudal order. To fulfill that purpose, Ramon Berenguer began the modification of the legislation in the written Usages of Barcelona, being one of the first European compilations of feudal law. The earliest known use of the name "Catalonia" for these counties dates to 1117. In 1137, Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona decided to accept King Ramiro II of Aragon's proposal to receive the Kingdom of Aragon and to marry his daughter Petronila, establishing the dynastic union of the County of Barcelona with Aragon, creating a composite monarchy later known as the Crown of Aragon and making the Catalan counties that were vassalized or merged with the County of Barcelona into a principality of the Aragonese Crown. During the reign of his son Alphons, in 1173, Catalonia was regarded as a legal entity for the first time, while the Usages of Barcelona were compiled in the process to turn them into the law and custom of Catalonia (Consuetudinem Cathalonie), being considered one of the "milestones of Catalan political identity". In 1258, by means of the Treaty of Corbeil James I of Aragon renounced his family rights and dominions in Occitania, while the king of France, Louis IX, formally relinquished to any historical claim of feudal lordship he might have over the Catalan counties. This treaty confirmed, from French point of view, the independence of the Catalan counties already established the previous three centuries. As a coastal land, Catalonia became the base of the Aragonese Crown's maritime forces, which spread the power of the Crown in the Mediterranean, turning Barcelona into a powerful and wealthy city. In the period of 1164–1410, new territories, the Kingdom of Valencia, the Kingdom of Majorca, the Kingdom of Sardinia, the Kingdom of Sicily, and, briefly, the Duchies of Athens and Neopatras, were incorporated into the dynastic domains of the House of Aragon. The expansion was accompanied by a great development of the Catalan trade, creating an extensive trade network across the Mediterranean which competed with those of the maritime republics of Genoa and Venice. At the same time, the Principality of Catalonia developed a complex institutional and political system based in the concept of a pact between the estates of the realm and the king. The legislation had to be passed by the Catalan Courts (Corts Catalanes), one of the first parliamentary bodies of Europe that, after 1283, officially obtained the power to pass legislation with the monarch. The Courts were composed of the three estates organized into "arms" (braços), were presided over by the monarch, and approved the Catalan constitutions, which established a compilation of rights for the inhabitants of the Principality. In order to collect general taxes, the Catalan Courts of 1359 established a permanent representative body, known as the Generalitat, which gained considerable political power over the next centuries. . The Principality of Catalonia appears in light green]] The domains of the Aragonese Crown were severely affected by the Black Death pandemic and by later outbreaks of the plague. Between 1347 and 1497 Catalonia lost 37percent of its population. In 1410, the last reigning monarch of the House of Barcelona, King Martin I died without surviving descendants. Under the Compromise of Caspe (1412), the representatives of the kingdoms of Aragon, Valencia and the Principality of Catalonia appointed Ferdinand from the Castilian House of Trastámara as King of the Crown of Aragon. During the reign of his son, John II, the persistent economic crisis and social and political tensions in the Principality led to the Catalan Civil War (1462–1472) and the War of the Remences (1462–1486) that left Catalonia exhausted. The Sentencia Arbitral de Guadalupe (1486) liberated the remença peasants from the feudal evil customs. In the later Middle Ages, Catalan literature flourished in Catalonia proper and in the kingdoms of Majorca and Valencia, with such remarkable authors as the philosopher Ramon Llull, the Valencian poet Ausiàs March, and Joanot Martorell, author of the novel Tirant lo Blanch, published in 1490. Modern era (1608)]] Ferdinand II of Aragon, the grandson of Ferdinand I, and Queen Isabella I of Castile were married in 1469, later taking the title the Catholic Monarchs; subsequently, this event was seen by historiographers as the dawn of a unified Spain. At this time, though united by marriage, the Crowns of Castile and Aragon maintained distinct territories, each keeping its own traditional institutions, parliaments, laws and currency. Castile commissioned expeditions to the Americas and benefited from the riches acquired in the Spanish colonisation of the Americas, but, in time, also carried the main burden of military expenses of the united Spanish kingdoms. After Isabella's death, Ferdinand II personally ruled both crowns. By virtue of descent from his maternal grandparents, Ferdinand and Isabella, in 1516 Charles I of Spain became the first king to rule the Crowns of Castile and Aragon simultaneously by his own right. Following the death of his paternal (House of Habsburg) grandfather, Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, he was also elected Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, in 1519. '' (7 June 1640), one of the main events of the Reaper's War. Painted in 1910]] Over the next few centuries, the Principality of Catalonia was generally on the losing side of a series of wars that led steadily to an increased centralization of power in Spain. However, between the 16th and 18th centuries, the participation of the political community in the local and the general Catalan government grew (thus consolidating its constitutional system), while the kings remained absent, represented by a viceroy. Tensions between Catalan institutions and the monarchy began to arise. The large and burdensome presence of the Spanish royal army in the Principality due to the Franco-Spanish War led to an uprising of peasants, provoking the Reapers' War (1640–1652), which saw Catalonia rebel (briefly as a republic led by the president of the Generalitat, Pau Claris) with French help against the Spanish Crown for overstepping Catalonia's rights during the Thirty Years' War. Within a brief period France took full control of Catalonia. Most of Catalonia was reconquered by the Spanish monarchy but Catalan rights were mostly recognised. Roussillon and half of Cerdanya was lost to France by the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659). The most significant conflict concerning the governing monarchy was the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1715), which began when the childless Charles II of Spain, the last Spanish Habsburg, died without an heir in 1700. Charles II had chosen Philip V of Spain from the French House of Bourbon. Catalonia, like other territories that formed the Crown of Aragon, rose up in support of the Austrian Habsburg pretender Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor, in his claim for the Spanish throne as Charles III of Spain. The fight between the houses of Bourbon and Habsburg for the Spanish Crown split Spain and Europe. The fall of Barcelona on 11 September 1714 to the Bourbon king Philip V militarily ended the Habsburg claim to the Spanish Crown, which became legal fact in the Treaty of Utrecht (1713). Philip felt that he had been betrayed by the Catalan Courts, as it had initially sworn its loyalty to him when he had presided over it in 1701. In retaliation for the betrayal, and inspired by the French model, the first Bourbon king enacted the Nueva Planta decrees (1707, 1715 and 1716), incorporating the realms of the Crown of Aragon, including the Principality of Catalonia in 1716, as provinces of the Crown of Castile, terminating their status as separate states along with their parliaments, institutions and public laws, as well as their politics, within a French-style centralized and absolutist kingdom of Spain. After the War of the Spanish Succession, the assimilation of the Crown of Aragon in the Castilian Crown through the Nueva Planta Decrees was the first step in the creation of the Spanish nation state. These nationalist policies, sometimes aggressive, and still in force, have been and are the seed of repeated territorial conflicts within the state. In the second half of the 17th century and the 18th century (excluding the parentesis of the Succession War and the post-war inestability) Catalonia carried out a successful process of economic growth and proto-industrialization, reinforced in the late quarter of the century when Castile's trade monopoly with American colonies ended. Late modern history (1809), Peninsular War against Napoleon]] At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Catalonia was severely affected by the Napoleonic Wars. In 1808, it was occupied by French troops; the resistance against the occupation eventually developed into the Peninsular War. The rejection of French dominion was institutionalized with the creation of "juntas" (councils) who, remaining loyal to the Bourbons, exercised the sovereignty and representation of the territory due to the disappearance of the old institutions. In 1810, Napoleon took direct control of Catalonia, creating the Government of Catalonia under the rule of Marshall Augereau, and making Catalan briefly an official language again. Between 1812 and 1814, Catalonia was annexed to France. The French troops evacuated Catalan territory at the end of 1814. After the Bourbon restoration in Spain and the death of the absolutist king Ferdinand VII (1833), Carlist Wars erupted against the newly established liberal state of Isabella II. Catalonia was divided, with the coastal and most industrialized areas supporting liberalism, while most of the countryside were in the hands of the Carlist faction; the latter proposed to reestablish the institutional systems suppressed by the Nueva Planta decrees in the ancient realms of the Crown of Aragon. The consolidation of the liberal state saw a new provincial division of Spain, including Catalonia, which was divided into four provinces (Barcelona, Girona, Lleida and Tarragona). during the Tragic Week, 1909]] In the second third of the 19thcentury, Catalonia became an important industrial center, particularly focused on textiles. This process was a consequence of the conditions of proto-industrialisation of textile production in the prior two centuries, growing capital from wine and brandy export, and was later boosted by the government support for domestic manufacturing. In 1832, the Bonaplata Factory in Barcelona became the first factory in the country to make use of the steam engine. The first railway on the Iberian Peninsula was built between Barcelona and Mataró in 1848. A policy to encourage company towns also saw the textile industry flourish in the countryside in the 1860s and 1870s. Although the policy of Spanish governments oscillated between free trade and protectionism, become more common. To this day Catalonia remains one of the most industrialised areas of Spain. In the same period, Barcelona was the focus of industrial conflict and revolutionary uprisings known as "bullangues". In Catalonia, a republican current began to develop among the progressives, attrackting many Catalans who favored the federalisation of Spain. Meanwhile, the Catalan language saw a Romantic cultural renaissance from the second third of the century onwards, the Renaixença, among both the working class and the bourgeoisie. Right after the fall of the First Spanish Republic (1873–1874) and the subsequent restoration of the Bourbon dynasty (1874), Catalan nationalism began to be organized politically under the leadership of the republican federalist Valentí Almirall. proclaiming the Catalan Republic on 14 April 1931 in Barcelona]] The anarchist movement had been active throughout the last quarter of the 19th century and the early 20th century, founding the CNT trade union in 1910 and achieving one of the first eight-hour workdays in Europe in 1919. Growing resentment of conscription and of the military culminated in the Tragic Week (Catalan: Setmana Tràgica) in Barcelona in 1909. Under the hegemony of the Regionalist League, Catalonia gained a degree of administrative unity for the first time in the Modern era. In 1914, the four Catalan provinces were authorized to create a commonwealth (Catalan: Mancomunitat), lacking legislative power or political autonomy, which carried out an ambitious program of modernization, but it was disbanded in 1925 by the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923–1930). During the final stage of the Dictatorship, with Spain beginning to suffer an economic crisis, Barcelona hosted the 1929 International Exposition. After the fall of the dictatorship and a brief proclamation of the Catalan Republic, during the events of the proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic (14–17April1931), Catalonia received, in 1932, its first Statute of Autonomy from the Spanish Republic's Parliament, granting it a considerable degree of self-governance, establishing an autonomous body, the Generalitat of Catalonia, which included a parliament. The left-wing pro-independence leader Francesc Macià was appointed its first president. Under the Statute, Catalan became an official language. The governments of the Republican Generalitat, led by the Republican Left of Catalonia (ERC) leaders Francesc Macià (1931–1933) and Lluís Companys (1933–1940), sought to implement a modernizing and progressive social agenda, despite the internal difficulties. This period was marked by political unrest, the effects of the economic crisis and their social repercussions. The Statute of Autonomy was suspended in 1934, due to the Events of 6 October in Barcelona, after the accession of right-wing Spanish nationalist party CEDA to the government of the Republic, considered close to fascism. After the electoral victory of the left wing Popular Front in February 1936, the Government of Catalonia was pardoned and the self-government was restored. Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) and Franco's rule (1939–1975) The defeat of the military rebellion against the Republican government in Barcelona placed Catalonia firmly in the Republican side of the Spanish Civil War. During the war, there were two rival powers in Catalonia: the de jure power of the Generalitat and the de facto power of the armed popular militias. Violent confrontations between the workers' parties (CNT-FAI and POUM against the PSUC) culminated in the defeat of the first ones in 1937. The situation resolved itself progressively in favor of the Generalitat, but at the same time the Generalitat lost most of its autonomous powers within Republican Spain. In 1938 Franco's troops broke the Republican territory in two, isolating Catalonia from the rest of the Republican territory. The defeat of the Republican army in the Battle of the Ebro led in 1938 and 1939 to the occupation of Catalonia by Franco's forces. The defeat of the Spanish Republic in the Spanish Civil War brought to power the dictatorship of Francisco Franco, whose first ten-year rule was particularly violent, autocratic, and repressive both in a political, cultural, social, and economical sense. In Catalonia, any kind of public activities associated with Catalan nationalism, republicanism, anarchism, socialism, liberalism, democracy or communism, including the publication of books on those subjects or simply discussion of them in open meetings, was banned. Franco's regime banned the use of Catalan in government-run institutions and during public events, and the Catalan institutions of self-government were abolished. The president of Catalonia, Lluís Companys, was taken to Spain from his exile in the German-occupied France and was tortured and executed in the Montjuïc Castle of Barcelona for the crime of 'military rebellion'. During later stages of Francoist Spain, certain folkloric and religious celebrations in Catalan resumed and were tolerated. Use of Catalan in the mass media had been forbidden but was permitted from the early 1950s in the theatre. Despite the ban during the first years and the difficulties of the next period, publishing in Catalan continued throughout his rule. The years after the war were extremely hard. Catalonia, like many other parts of Spain, had been devastated by the war. Recovery from the war damage was slow and made more difficult by the international trade embargo and the autarkic politics of Franco's regime. By the late 1950s, the region had recovered its pre-war economic levels and in the 1960s was the second-fastest growing economy in the world in what became known as the Spanish miracle. During this period there was a spectacular growth of industry and tourism in Catalonia that drew large numbers of workers to the region from across Spain and made the area around Barcelona one of Europe's largest industrial metropolitan areas. Transition and democratic period (1975–present) of Barcelona during the 1992 Summer Olympics]] After Franco's death in 1975, Catalonia voted for the adoption of a democratic Spanish Constitution in 1978, in which Catalonia recovered political and cultural autonomy, restoring the Generalitat (exiled since the end of the Civil War in 1939) in 1977 and adopting a new Statute of Autonomy in 1979, which defined Catalonia as a "nationality". The first elections to the Parliament of Catalonia under this Statute gave the Catalan presidency to Jordi Pujol, leader of Convergència i Unió (CiU), a center-right Catalan nationalist electoral coalition, with Pujol re-elected until 2003. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, the institutions of Catalan autonomy were deployed, among them an autonomous police force, the Mossos d'Esquadra, in 1983, and the broadcasting network Televisió de Catalunya and its first channel TV3, created in 1983. An extensive program of normalization of Catalan language was carried out. Today, Catalonia remains one of the most economically dynamic communities of Spain. The Catalan capital and largest city, Barcelona, is a major international cultural centre and a major tourist destination. In 1992, Barcelona hosted the Summer Olympic Games. Independence movement In November 2003, elections to the Parliament of Catalonia gave the government to a left-wing Catalanist coalition formed by the Socialists' Party of Catalonia (PSC-PSOE), Republican Left of Catalonia (ERC) and Initiative for Catalonia Greens (ICV), and the socialist Pasqual Maragall was appointed president. The new government prepared a bill for a new Statute of Autonomy, with the aim of consolidate and expand self-government. The new Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia, approved after a referendum in 2006, was contested by important sectors of the Spanish society, especially by the conservative People's Party, which sent the law to the Constitutional Court of Spain. In 2010, the Court declared non-valid some of the articles that established an autonomous Catalan system of Justice, improved financing, a new territorial division, the status of Catalan language or the symbolical declaration of Catalonia as a nation. This decision was severely contested by large sectors of Catalan society, which increased the demands of independence. , Carles Puigdemont, addresses the crowd following the unilateral declaration of independence on 27 October.]] A controversial independence referendum was held in Catalonia on 1 October 2017, using a disputed voting process. It was declared illegal and suspended by the Constitutional Court of Spain, because it breached the 1978 Constitution. Subsequent developments saw, on 27 October 2017, a symbolic declaration of independence by the Parliament of Catalonia, the enforcement of direct rule by the Spanish government through the use of Article 155 of the Constitution, the dismissal of the Executive Council and the dissolution of the Parliament, with a snap regional election called for 21 December 2017, which ended with a victory of pro-independence parties. Former President Carles Puigdemont and five former cabinet ministers fled Spain and took refuge in other European countries (such as Belgium, in Puigdemont's case), whereas nine other cabinet members, including vice-president Oriol Junqueras, were sentenced to prison under various charges of rebellion, sedition, and misuse of public funds. Quim Torra became the 131st President of the Government of Catalonia on 17 May 2018, after the Spanish courts blocked three other candidates. In 2018, the Assemblea Nacional Catalana joined the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO) on behalf of Catalonia. On 14 October 2019, the Spanish Supreme court sentenced several Catalan political leaders, involved in organizing a referendum on Catalonia's independence from Spain, and convicted them on charges ranging from sedition to misuse of public funds, with sentences ranging from 9 to 13 years in prison. This decision sparked demonstrations around Catalonia. They were later pardoned by the Spanish government and left prison in June 2021. In the early-to-mid 2020s support for independence declined. Geography Climate thumb\|Climates of Catalonia: \| \| \| \| \| }}]] The climate of Catalonia is diverse. The populated areas lying by the coast in Tarragona, Barcelona and Girona provinces feature a Hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen Csa). The inland part (including the Lleida province and the inner part of Barcelona province) show a mostly Mediterranean climate (Köppen Csa). The Pyrenean peaks have a continental (Köppen D) or even Alpine climate (Köppen ET) at the highest summits, while the valleys have a maritime or oceanic climate sub-type (Köppen Cfb). In the Mediterranean area, summers are dry and hot with sea breezes, and the maximum temperature is around . Winter is cool or slightly cold depending on the location. It snows frequently in the Pyrenees, and it occasionally snows at lower altitudes, even by the coastline. Spring and autumn are typically the rainiest seasons, except for the Pyrenean valleys, where summer is typically stormy. The inland part of Catalonia is hotter and drier in summer. Temperature may reach , some days even . Nights are cooler there than at the coast, with the temperature of around . Fog is not uncommon in valleys and plains; it can be especially persistent, with freezing drizzle episodes and subzero temperatures during winter, mainly along the Ebro and Segre valleys and in Plain of Vic. Topography map of Catalonia: \| \| \| \| \| \| \| }}]] in Catalan Pyrenees ]] Catalonia has a marked geographical diversity, considering the relatively small size of its territory. The geography is conditioned by the Mediterranean coast, with of coastline, and the towering Pyrenees along the long northern border. Catalonia is divided into three main geomorphological units: The Pyrenees: mountainous formation that connects the Iberian Peninsula with the European continental territory (see passage above); The Catalan Coastal mountain ranges or the Catalan Mediterranean System: an alternating delevacions and planes parallel to the Mediterranean coast; The Catalan Central Depression: structural unit which forms the eastern sector of the Valley of the Ebro. and the monastery]] The Catalan Pyrenees represent almost half in length of the Pyrenees, as it extends more than . Traditionally differentiated the Axial Pyrenees (the main part) and the Pre-Pyrenees (southern from the Axial) which are mountainous formations parallel to the main mountain ranges but with lower altitudes, less steep and a different geological formation. The highest mountain of Catalonia, located north of the comarca of Pallars Sobirà is the Pica d'Estats (3,143m), followed by the Puigpedrós (2,914m). The Serra del Cadí comprises the highest peaks in the Pre-Pyrenees and forms the southern boundary of the Cerdanya valley. The Central Catalan Depression is a plain located between the Pyrenees and Pre-Coastal Mountains. Elevation ranges from . The plains and the water that descend from the Pyrenees have made it fertile territory for agriculture and numerous irrigation canals have been built. Another major plain is the Empordà, located in the northeast. The Catalan Mediterranean system is based on two ranges running roughly parallel to the coast (southwest–northeast), called the Coastal and the Pre-Coastal Ranges. The Coastal Range is both the shorter and the lower of the two, while the Pre-Coastal is greater in both length and elevation. Areas within the Pre-Coastal Range include Montserrat, Montseny and the Ports de Tortosa-Beseit. Lowlands alternate with the Coastal and Pre-Coastal Ranges. The Coastal Lowland is located to the East of the Coastal Range between it and the coast, while the Pre-Coastal Lowlands are located inland, between the Coastal and Pre-Coastal Ranges, and includes the Vallès and Penedès plains. Flora and fauna ), endemic to the Montseny Massif]] Catalonia is a showcase of European landscapes on a small scale. Just over hosting a variety of substrates, soils, climates, directions, altitudes and distances to the sea. The area is of great ecological diversity and a remarkable wealth of landscapes, habitats and species. The fauna of Catalonia comprises a minority of animals endemic to the region and a majority of non-endemic animals. Much of Catalonia enjoys a Mediterranean climate (except mountain areas), which makes many of the animals that live there adapted to Mediterranean ecosystems. Of mammals, there are plentiful wild boar, red foxes, as well as roe deer and in the Pyrenees, the Pyrenean chamois. Other large species such as the bear have been recently reintroduced. The waters of the Balearic Sea are rich in biodiversity, and even the megafaunas of the oceans; various types of whales (such as fin, sperm, and pilot) and dolphins can be found in the area. Hydrography ]] , Costa Brava]] Most of Catalonia belongs to the Mediterranean Basin. The Catalan hydrographic network consists of two important basins, the one of the Ebro and the one that comprises the internal basins of Catalonia (respectively covering 46.84% and 51.43% of the territory), all of them flow to the Mediterranean. Furthermore, there is the Garona river basin that flows to the Atlantic Ocean, but it only covers 1.73% of the Catalan territory. The hydrographic network can be divided in two sectors, an occidental slope or Ebro river slope and one oriental slope constituted by minor rivers that flow to the Mediterranean along the Catalan coast. The first slope provides an average of per year, while the second only provides an average of /year. The difference is due to the big contribution of the Ebro river, from which the Segre is an important tributary. Moreover, in Catalonia there is a relative wealth of groundwaters, although there is inequality between comarques'', given the complex geological structure of the territory. In the Pyrenees there are many small lakes, remnants of the ice age. The biggest are the lake of Banyoles and the recently recovered lake of Ivars. The Catalan coast is almost rectilinear, with a length of and few landforms—the most relevant are the Cap de Creus and the Gulf of Roses to the north and the Ebro Delta to the south. The Catalan Coastal Range hugs the coastline, and it is split into two segments, one between L'Estartit and the town of Blanes (the Costa Brava), and the other at the south, at the Costes del Garraf. The principal rivers in Catalonia are the Ter, Llobregat, and the Ebro (Catalan: ), all of which run into the Mediterranean. Anthropic pressure and protection of nature The majority of Catalan population is concentrated in 30% of the territory, mainly in the coastal plains. Intensive agriculture, livestock farming and industrial activities have been accompanied by a massive tourist influx (more than 20million annual visitors), a rate of urbanization and even of major metropolisation which has led to a strong urban sprawl: two thirds of Catalans live in the urban area of Barcelona, while the proportion of urban land increased from 4.2% in 1993 to 6.2% in 2009, a growth of 48.6% in sixteen years, complemented with a dense network of transport infrastructure. This is accompanied by a certain agricultural abandonment (decrease of 15% of all areas cultivated in Catalonia between 1993 and 2009) and a global threat to natural environment. Human activities have also put some animal species at risk, or even led to their disappearance from the territory, like the gray wolf and probably the brown bear of the Pyrenees. The pressure created by this model of life means that the country's ecological footprint exceeds its administrative area. Faced with these problems, Catalan authorities initiated several measures whose purpose is to protect natural ecosystems. Thus, in 1990, the Catalan government created the Nature Conservation Council (Catalan: ), an advisory body with the aim to study, protect and manage the natural environments and landscapes of Catalonia. In addition, the Generalitat has carried out the Plan of Spaces of Natural Interest ( or PEIN) in 1992 while eighteen Natural Spaces of Special Protection ( or ENPE) have been instituted. There is a National Park, Aigüestortes i Estany de Sant Maurici; fourteen Natural Parks, Alt Pirineu, Aiguamolls de l'Empordà, Cadí-Moixeró, Cap de Creus, Sources of Ter and Freser, Collserola, Ebro Delta, Ports, Montgrí, Medes Islands and Baix Ter, Montseny, Montserrat, Sant Llorenç del Munt and l'Obac, Serra de Montsant, and the Garrotxa Volcanic Zone; as well as three Natural Places of National Interest ( or PNIN), the Pedraforca, the Poblet Forest and the Albères. Politics , second president of the Generalitat of Catalonia between 1933 and 1940, executed by Franco's regime]] After Franco's death in 1975 and the adoption of a democratic constitution in Spain in 1978, Catalonia recovered and extended the powers that it had gained in the Statute of Autonomy of 1932 but lost with the fall of the Second Spanish Republic at the end of the Spanish Civil War in 1939. This autonomous community has gradually achieved more autonomy since the approval of the Spanish Constitution of 1978. The Generalitat holds exclusive jurisdiction in education, health, culture, environment, communications, transportation, commerce, public safety and local government, and only shares jurisdiction with the Spanish government in justice. In all, some analysts argue that formally the current system grants Catalonia with "more self-government than almost any other corner in Europe". The support for Catalan nationalism ranges from a demand for further autonomy and the federalisation of Spain to the desire for independence from the rest of Spain, expressed by Catalan independentists. The first survey following the Constitutional Court ruling that cut back elements of the 2006 Statute of Autonomy, published by La Vanguardia on 18July2010, found that 46% of the voters would support independence in a referendum. In February of the same year, a poll by the Open University of Catalonia gave more or less the same results. Other polls have shown lower support for independence, ranging from 40 to 49%. Although it is established in the whole of the territory, support for independence is significantly higher in the hinterland and the northeast, away from the more populous coastal areas such as Barcelona. Since 2011 when the question started to be regularly surveyed by the governmental Center for Public Opinion Studies (CEO), support for Catalan independence has been on the rise. According to the CEO opinion poll from July2016, 47.7% of Catalans would vote for independence and 42.4% against it while, about the question of preferences, according to the CEO opinion poll from March 2016, a 57.2 claim to be "absolutely" or "fairly" in favour of independence. Other polls have shown lower support for independence, ranging from 40 to 49%. In hundreds of non-binding local referendums on independence, organised across Catalonia from 13September2009, a large majority voted for independence, although critics argued that the polls were mostly held in pro-independence areas. In December2009, 94% of those voting backed independence from Spain, on a turn-out of 25%. The final local referendum was held in Barcelona, in April2011. On 11September2012, a pro-independence march pulled in a crowd of between 600,000 (according to the Spanish Government), 1.5million (according to the Guàrdia Urbana de Barcelona), and 2million (according to its promoters); whereas poll results revealed that half the population of Catalonia supported secession from Spain. (president of the First Spanish Republic) }} Two major factors were Spain's Constitutional Court's 2010 decision to declare part of the 2006 Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia unconstitutional, as well as the fact that Catalonia contributes 19.49% of the central government's tax revenue, but only receives 14.03% of central government's spending. Parties that consider themselves either Catalan nationalist or independentist have been present in all Catalan governments since 1980. The largest Catalan nationalist party, Convergence and Union, ruled Catalonia from 1980 to 2003, and returned to power in the 2010 election. Between 2003 and 2010, a leftist coalition, composed by the Catalan Socialists' Party, the pro-independence Republican Left of Catalonia and the leftist-environmentalist Initiative for Catalonia-Greens, implemented policies that widened Catalan autonomy. In the 25 November 2012 Catalan parliamentary election, sovereigntist parties supporting a secession referendum gathered 59.01% of the votes and held 87 of the 135seats in the Catalan Parliament. Parties supporting independence from the rest of Spain obtained 49.12% of the votes and a majority of 74seats. Artur Mas, then the president of Catalonia, organised early elections that took place on 27September2015. In these elections, Convergència and Esquerra Republicana decided to join, and they presented themselves under the coalition named Junts pel Sí (in Catalan, Together for Yes). Junts pel Sí won 62seats and was the most voted party, and CUP (Candidatura d'Unitat Popular, a far-left and independentist party) won another 10, so the sum of all the independentist forces/parties was 72seats, reaching an absolute majority, but not in number of individual votes, comprising 47,74% of the total. Statute of Autonomy , 1932]] The Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia is the fundamental organic law, second only to the Spanish Constitution from which the Statute originates. In the Spanish Constitution of 1978 Catalonia, along with the Basque Country and Galicia, was defined as a "nationality". The same constitution gave Catalonia the automatic right to autonomy, which resulted in the Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia of 1979. Both the 1979 Statute of Autonomy and the current one, approved in 2006, state that "Catalonia, as a nationality, exercises its self-government constituted as an Autonomous Community in accordance with the Constitution and with the Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia, which is its basic institutional law, always under the law in Spain". The Preamble of the 2006 Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia states that the Parliament of Catalonia has defined Catalonia as a nation, but that "the Spanish Constitution recognizes Catalonia's national reality as a nationality". While the Statute was approved by and sanctioned by both the Catalan and Spanish parliaments, and later by referendum in Catalonia, it has been subject to a legal challenge by the surrounding autonomous communities of Aragon, Balearic Islands and Valencia, as well as by the conservative People's Party. The objections are based on various issues such as disputed cultural heritage but, especially, on the Statute's alleged breaches of the principle of "solidarity between regions" in fiscal and educational matters enshrined by the Constitution. Spain's Constitutional Court assessed the disputed articles and on 28 June 2010, issued its judgment on the principal allegation of unconstitutionality presented by the People's Party in 2006. The judgment granted clear passage to 182 articles of the 223 that make up the fundamental text. The court approved 73 of the 114 articles that the People's Party had contested, while declaring 14 articles unconstitutional in whole or in part and imposing a restrictive interpretation on 27 others. The court accepted the specific provision that described Catalonia as a "nation", however ruled that it was a historical and cultural term with no legal weight, and that Spain remained the only nation recognised by the constitution. Government and law The Catalan Statute of Autonomy establishes that Catalonia, as an autonomous community, is organised politically through the Generalitat of Catalonia (Catalan: ), confirmed by the Parliament, the Presidency of the Generalitat, the Government or Executive Council and the other institutions established by the Parliament, among them the Ombudsman (), the Office of Auditors () the Council for Statutory Guarantees () or the Audiovisual Council of Catalonia (). , President of the Generalitat of Catalonia (2024–)]] The Parliament of Catalonia (Catalan: ) is the unicameral legislative body of the Generalitat and represents the people of Catalonia. Its 135members (diputats) are elected by universal suffrage to serve for a four-year period. According to the Statute of Autonomy, it has powers to legislate over devolved matters such as education, health, culture, internal institutional and territorial organization, nomination of the President of the Generalitat and control the Government, budget and other affairs. The last Catalan election was held on 12 May 2024, and its current speaker (president) is Josep Rull, incumbent since 10June2024. The President of the Generalitat of Catalonia (Catalan: ) is the highest representative of Catalonia, and is also responsible of leading the government's action, presiding the Executive Council. Since the restoration of the Generalitat on the return of democracy in Spain, the Presidents of Catalonia have been Josep Tarradellas (1977–1980, president in exile since 1954), Jordi Pujol (1980–2003), Pasqual Maragall (2003–2006), José Montilla (2006–2010), Artur Mas (2010–2016), Carles Puigdemont (2016–2017) and, after the imposition of direct rule from Madrid, Quim Torra (2018–2020), Pere Aragonès (2021–2024) and Salvador Illa (2024–). The Executive Council (Catalan: ) or Government (), is the body responsible of the government of the Generalitat, it holds executive and regulatory power, being accountable to the Catalan Parliament. It comprises the President of the Generalitat, the First Minister () or the Vice President, and the ministers () appointed by the president. Its seat is the Palau de la Generalitat, Barcelona. In 2021 the government was a coalition of two parties, the Republican Left of Catalonia (ERC) and Together for Catalonia (Junts) and is made up of 14 ministers, including the vice President, alongside to the president and a secretary of government, but in October2022 Together for Catalonia (Junts) left the coalition and the government. Security forces and Justice Catalonia has its own police force, the (officially called ), whose origins date back to the 18thcentury. Since 1980 they have been under the command of the Generalitat, and since 1994 they have expanded in number in order to replace the national Civil Guard and National Police Corps, which report directly to the Homeland Department of Spain. The national bodies retain personnel within Catalonia to exercise functions of national scope such as overseeing ports, airports, coasts, international borders, custom offices, the identification of documents and arms control, immigration control, terrorism prevention, arms trafficking prevention, amongst others. Most of the justice system is administered by national judicial institutions, the highest body and last judicial instance in the Catalan jurisdiction, integrating the Spanish judiciary, is the High Court of Justice of Catalonia. The criminal justice system is uniform throughout Spain, while civil law is administered separately within Catalonia. The civil laws that are subject to autonomous legislation have been codified in the Civil Code of Catalonia () since 2002. Catalonia, together with Navarre and the Basque Country, are the Spanish communities with the highest degree of autonomy in terms of law enforcement. Administrative divisions Catalonia is organised territorially into provinces or regions, further subdivided into comarques and municipalities. The 2006Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia establishes the administrative organisation of the later three. Provinces Much like the rest of Spain, Catalonia is divided administratively into four provinces, the governing body of which is the Provincial Deputation (, , ). As of 2010, the four provinces and their populations were: Province of Barcelona: 5,701,708 population Province of Girona: 777,258 population Province of Lleida: 437,939 population Province of Tarragona: 830,804 population Unlike vegueries, provinces do not follow the limitations of the subdivisional counties, notably Baixa Cerdanya, which is split in half between the demarcations of Lleida and Girona. This situation has led some isolated municipalities to request province changes from the Spanish government. Vegueries Besides provinces, Catalonia is internally divided into eight regions or vegueries, based on the feudal administrative territorial jurisdiction of the Principality of Catalonia. Established in 2006, vegueries are used by the Generalitat de Catalunya with the aim to more effectively divide Catalonia administratively. In addition, vegueries are intended to become Catalonia's first-level administrative division and a full replacement for the four deputations of the Catalan provinces, creating a council for each vegueria, but this has not been realised as changes to the statewide provinces system are unconstitutional without a constitutional amendment. The territorial plan of Catalonia () provided six general functional areas, but was amended by Law24/2001, of 31December, recognizing Alt Pirineu and Aran as a new functional area differentiated of Ponent. After some opposition from some territories, it was made possible for the Aran Valley to retain its government (the vegueria is renamed to Alt Pirineu, although the name Alt Pirineu and Aran is still used by the regional plan) and in 2016, the Catalan Parliament approved the eighth vegueria, Penedès, split from the Barcelona region.) are entities composed of municipalities to internally manage their responsibilities and services. The current regional division has its roots in a decree of the Generalitat de Catalunya of 1936, in effect until 1939, when it was suppressed by Franco. In 1987 the Catalan Government reestablished the comarcal division and in 1988 three new comarques were added (Alta Ribagorça, Pla d'Urgell and Pla de l'Estany). Some further revisions have been realised since then, such as the additions of Moianès and Lluçanès counties, in 2015 and 2023 respectively. Except for Barcelonès, every comarca is administered by a comarcal council (). As of 2024, Catalonia is divided in 42 counties plus the Aran Valley. The latter, although previously (and still informally) considered a comarca, obtained in 1990 a particular status within Catalonia due to its differences in culture and language, being administered by a body known as the (General Council of Aran), and in 2015 it was defined as a "unique territorial entity" instead of a county. Municipalities There are at present 947municipalities () in Catalonia. Each municipality is run by a council () elected every four years by the residents in local elections. The council consists of a number of members () depending on population, who elect the mayor ( or ). Its seat is the town hall (, or ). <gallery class"center" widths"185" heights"150" caption"Catalan regional capitals"> Eixample aire cropped.jpg\|An aerial view of Barcelona La Seu d'Urgell (Torre Solsona).JPG\|La Seu d'Urgell from the Solsona tower E5320-Vista-de-Tarragona.jpg\|The city of Tarragona Manresa des del mirador de la Balconada.jpg\|The city of Manresa from the Balconada viewpoint Girona des de l aire.jpg\|The city of Girona Lleida (40262867523).jpg\|The city of Lleida by the Segre river Vilanova i la Geltru.jpg\|Vilanova i la Geltrú from the city's port Tortosa - La Suda.jpg\|The city of Tortosa VIELHA - VAL D'ARAN - IB-399.JPG\|Vielha e Mijaran from the Vielha viewpoint </gallery> Economy ]] beach. Tourism plays an important role in the Catalan economy.]] A highly industrialized region, the nominal GDP of Catalonia in 2018 was €228billion (second after the community of Madrid, €230billion) and the per capitaGDP was €30,426 ($32,888), behind Madrid (€35,041), the Basque Country (€33,223), and Navarre (€31,389). That year, the GDP growth was 2.3%. Catalonia's long-term credit rating is BB(Non-Investment Grade) according to Standard & Poor's, Ba2(Non-Investment Grade) according to Moody's, and BBB-(Low Investment Grade) according to Fitch Ratings. Catalonia's rating is tied for worst with between 1 and 5 other autonomous communities of Spain, depending on the rating agency. According to a 2020 study by Eu-Starts-Up, the Catalan capital is one of the European bases of "reference for start-ups" and the fifth city in the world to establish one of these companies, behind London, Berlin, Paris and Amsterdam. Barcelona is behind London, New York, Paris, Moscow, Tokyo, Dubai and Singapore and ahead of Los Angeles and Madrid. In the context of the financial crisis of 2007–2008, Catalonia was expected to suffer a recession amounting to almost a 2% contraction of its regional GDP in 2009. Catalonia's debt in 2012 was the highest of all Spain's autonomous communities, reaching €13,476million, i.e. 38% of the total debt of the 17autonomous communities, but in recent years its economy recovered a positive evolution and the GDP grew a 3.3% in 2015. ]] , Tarragona]] Catalonia is amongst the List of country subdivisions by GDP over 100 billion US dollars and is a member of the Four Motors for Europe organisation. The distribution of sectors is as follows: Primary sector: 3%. The amount of land devoted to agricultural use is 33%. Secondary sector: 37% (compared to Spain's 29%) Tertiary sector: 60% (compared to Spain's 67%) The main tourist destinations in Catalonia are the city of Barcelona, the beaches of the Costa Brava in Girona, the beaches of the Costa del Maresme and Costa del Garraf from Malgrat de Mar to Vilanova i la Geltrú and the Costa Daurada in Tarragona. In the High Pyrenees there are several ski resorts, near Lleida. On 1November2012, Catalonia started charging a tourist tax. The revenue is used to promote tourism, and to maintain and upgrade tourism-related infrastructure. ]] Many of Spain's leading savings banks were based in Catalonia before the independence referendum of 2017. However, in the aftermath of the referendum, many of them moved their registered office to other parts of Spain. That includes the two biggest Catalan banks at that moment, La Caixa, which moved its office to Palma de Mallorca, and Banc Sabadell, ranked fourth among all Spanish private banks and which moved its office to Alicante. That happened after the Spanish government passed a law allowing companies to move their registered office without requiring the approval of the company's general meeting of shareholders. Overall, there was a negative net relocation rate of companies based in Catalonia moving to other autonomous communities of Spain. From the 2017 independence referendum until the end of 2018, for example, Catalonia lost 5454companies to other parts of Spain (mainly Madrid), 2359 only in 2018, gaining 467 new ones from the rest of the country during 2018. It has been reported that the Spanish government and the Spanish King Felipe VI pressured some of the big Catalan companies to move their headquarters outside of the region. The stock market of Barcelona, which in 2016 had a volume of around €152billion, is the second largest of Spain after Madrid, and Fira de Barcelona organizes international exhibitions and congresses to do with different sectors of the economy. The main economic cost for Catalan families is the purchase of a home. According to data from the Society of Appraisal on 31December2005 Catalonia is, after Madrid, the second most expensive region in Spain for housing: 3,397€/m<sup>2</sup> on average (see Spanish property bubble). Unemployment The unemployment rate stood at 10.5% in 2019 and was lower than the national average. {\| class="wikitable" \|+Unemployment rate (December data) (%) \|- !2006 !2007 !2008 !2009 !2010 !2011 !2012 !2013 !2014 !2015 !2016 !2017 !2018 !2019 \|- \|align="right"\|6.6% \|align="right"\|6.5% \|align="right"\|11.8% \|align="right"\|16.9% \|align="right"\|17.9% \|align="right"\|20.4% \|align="right"\|23.8% \|align="right"\|21.9% \|align="right"\|19.9% \|align="right"\|17.7% \|align="right"\|14.9% \|align="right"\|12.6% \|align="right"\|11.8% \|10.5% \|} Transport Airports tower]] Airports in Catalonia are owned and operated by Aena (a Spanish Government entity) except two airports in Lleida which are operated by Aeroports de Catalunya (an entity belonging to the Government of Catalonia). Barcelona El Prat Airport (Aena) Girona-Costa Brava Airport (Aena) Reus Airport (Aena) Lleida-Alguaire Airport (Aeroports de Catalunya) Sabadell Airport (Aena) La Seu d'Urgell Airport (Aeroports de Catalunya) Ports Since the Middle Ages, Catalonia has been well integrated into international maritime networks. The port of Barcelona (owned and operated by , a Spanish Government entity) is an industrial, commercial and tourist port of worldwide importance. With 1,950,000TEUs in 2015, it is the first container port in Catalonia, the third in Spain after Valencia and Algeciras in Andalusia, the 9thin the Mediterranean Sea, the 14thin Europe and the 68thin the world. It is sixth largest cruise port in the world, the first in Europe and the Mediterranean with 2,364,292passengers in 2014. The ports of Tarragona (owned and operated by Puertos del Estado) in the southwest and Palamós near Girona at northeast are much more modest. The port of Palamós and the other ports in Catalonia(26) are operated and administered by }}, a Catalan Government entity. The development of these infrastructures, resulting from the topography and history of the Catalan territory, responds strongly to the administrative and political organization of this autonomous community. Roads ()]] There are of roads throughout Catalonia. The principal highways are <span style"background: #009; color: white">AP-7</span> () and <span style"background: #009; color: white">A-7</span> (). They follow the coast from the French border to Valencia, Murcia and Andalusia. The main roads generally radiate from Barcelona. The <span style"background: #009; color: white">AP-2</span> () and <span style"background: #009; color: white">A-2</span> () connect inland and onward to Madrid. Other major roads are: {\| class="wikitable" ! ID !! Itinerary \|- \| \|\| Lleida-La Jonquera \|- \| \|\| Amposta-Àger \|- \| \|\| Barcelona-Puigcerdà \|- \| \|\| Barcelona-Ripoll \|- \| \|\| Cervera-Girona \|- \| \|\| Llançà-Olot \|- \| \|\| El Vendrell-Tordera \|- \| \|\| Argentona-La Roca del Vallès \|} Public-own roads in Catalonia are either managed by the autonomous government of Catalonia (e.g., <span style"background: red; color: white">C-</span> roads) or the Spanish government (e.g., <span style"background: #009; color: white">AP-</span>, <span style"background: #009; color: white">A-</span>, <span style"background: red; color: white">N-</span> roads). Railways at Camp de Tarragona ]] Catalonia saw the first railway construction in the Iberian Peninsula in 1848, linking Barcelona with Mataró. Given the topography, most lines radiate from Barcelona. The city has both suburban and inter-city services. The main east coast line runs through the province connecting with the SNCF (French Railways) at Portbou on the coast. There are two publicly owned railway companies operating in Catalonia: the Catalan FGC that operates commuter and regional services, and the Spanish national Renfe that operates long-distance and high-speed rail services (AVE and Avant) and the main commuter and regional service , administered by the Catalan government since 2010. High-speed rail (AVE) services from Madrid currently reach Barcelona, via Lleida and Tarragona. The official opening between Barcelona and Madrid took place 20February2008. The journey between Barcelona and Madrid now takes about two-and-a-half hours. A connection to the French high-speed TGV network has been completed (called the Perpignan–Barcelona high-speed rail line) and the Spanish AVE service began commercial services on the line 9January2013, later offering services to Marseille on their high speed network. This was shortly followed by the commencement of commercial service by the French TGV on 17January2013, leading to an average travel time on the Paris-Barcelona TGV route of 7h42m. This new line passes through Girona and Figueres with a tunnel through the Pyrenees. Demographics As of 2024, the official population of Catalonia was 8,067,454. 1,194,947residents did not have Spanish citizenship, accounting for about 16% of the population. The Urban Region of Barcelona includes 5,217,864people and covers an area of . The metropolitan area of the Urban Region includes cities such as L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Sabadell, Terrassa, Badalona, Santa Coloma de Gramenet and Cornellà de Llobregat. In 1900, the population of Catalonia was 1,966,382people and in 1970 it was 5,122,567. as well as in consequence of large-scale internal migration from the rural economically weak regions to its more prospering industrial cities. In Catalonia, that wave of internal migration arrived from several regions of Spain, especially from Andalusia, Murcia and Extremadura. As of 1999, it was estimated that over 60% of Catalans descended from 20thcentury migrations from other parts of Spain. Immigrants from other countries settled in Catalonia since the 1990s; a large percentage comes from Africa, Latin America and Eastern Europe, and smaller numbers from Asia and Southern Europe, often settling in urban centers such as Barcelona and industrial areas. In 2017, Catalonia had 940,497foreign residents (11.9%of the total population) with non-Spanish ID cards, without including those who acquired Spanish citizenship. {\|class"table collapsible collapsed" style"float:left;" \|+Foreignpopulationbycountryofcitizenship(2018) ! Nationality\|\| Population \|- \|\|\| align="right"\| 119,177 \|- \|\|\| align="right"\| 111,192 \|- \|\|\| align = "right"\| 59,380 \|- \|\|\| align = "right"\| 55,823 \|- \|\|\| align = "right"\| 45,125 \|- \|\|\| align = "right"\| 33,728 \|- \|\|\| align = "right"\| 33,184 \|- \|\|\| align = "right"\| 30,095 \|- \|\|\| align = "right"\| 29,853 \|- \|\|\| align = "right"\| 25,749 \|- \|\|\| align = "right"\| 24,224 \|- \|\|\| align = "right"\| 23,103 \|- \|\|\| align = "right"\| 22,305 \|- \|\|\| align = "right"\| 20,828 \|- \|\|\| align = "right"\| 20,127 \|- \|\|\| align = "right"\| 19,445 \|- \|\|\| align = "right"\| 19,192 \|- \|\|\| align = "right"\| 18,917 \|- \|\|\| align = "right"\| 18,620 \|- \|\|\| align = "right"\| 18,002 \|- \|\|\| align = "right"\| 16,933 \|- \|\|\| align = "right"\| 14,209 \|- \|\|\| align = "right"\| 13,847 \|- \|\|\| align = "right"\| 12,491 \|- \|\|\| align = "right"\| 11,288 \|- \|\|\| align = "right"\| 11,273 \|- \|\|\| align = "right"\| 11,061 \|- \|} {\| class="wikitable" \|Foreign Population by Nationality \|Number \|% \|- \|2022 \| \| \|- \|TOTAL FOREIGNERS \|1,271,810 \| \|- \| \| \| \|- \| \| \| \|- \|EUROPE \|401,605 \| \|- \|EUROPEAN UNION \|295,896 \| \|- \|OTHER EUROPE \|105,709 \| \|- \|AFRICA \|324,260 \| \|- \|SOUTH AMERICA \|247,821 \| \|- \|CENTRAL AMERICA \|368,461 \| \|- \|NORTH AMERICA \|18,332 \| \|- \|ASIA \|184,846 \| \|- \|OCEANIA \|1,015 \| \|- \|Instituto Nacional de Estadística \| \| \|- \| \| \|} Religion Catholics, 7.0%Protestants and Evangelicals, 1.3%Orthodox Christians and 1.0%Jehovah's Witnesses. At the same time, 18.6% of the population identify as atheists, 8.8%as agnostics, 4.3%as Muslims, and a further 3.4% as being of other religions. Languages {\| cellpadding"3" cellspacing"0" rules"all" style"width:400px; float:right; margin:1em; background:#fff; border:2px solid #aaa; font-size:100%;" \|- style="background:#ddd;" ! colspan"4" style"text-align:center;"\|First habitual language, 2018 Demographic Survey \|- \| colspan="2"\|Language \|Identification language \|Habitual language \|- \| colspan="2"\|Spanish \|2 978 000 (46.6%) \|3 104 000 (48.6%) \|- \| colspan="2"\|Catalan \|2 320 000 (36.3%) \|2 305 000 (36.1%) \|- \| colspan="2"\|Both languages \|440 000 (6.9%) \|474 000 (7.4%) \|- \| colspan="2"\|Other languages \|651 000 (10.2%) \|504 000 (7.9%) \|- \| \|Arabic \|114 000 (1.8%) \|61 000 (0.9%) \|- \| \|Romanian \|58 000 (0.9%) \|24 000 (0.4%) \|- \| \|English \|29 000 (0.5%) \|26 000 (0.4%) \|- \| \|French \|26 000 (0.4%) \|16 000 (0.2%) \|- \| \|Berber \|25 000 (0.4%) \|20 000 (0.3%) \|- \| \|Chinese \|20 000 (0.3%) \|18 000 (0.3%) \|- \| \|Other languages \|281 000 (4.4%) \|153 000 (2.4%) \|- \| \|Other combinations \|96 000 (1.5%) \|193 000 (3.0%) \|- \| colspan="2"\|Total population 15 year old and over \|6 386 000 (100.0%) \|6 386 000 (100.0%) \|} -speaking regions of Europe]] According to the linguistic census held by the Government of Catalonia in 2013, Spanish is the most spoken language in Catalonia (46.53%claim Spanish as "their own language"), followed by Catalan (37.26%claim Catalan as "their own language"). In everyday use, 11.95%of the population claim to use both languages equally, whereas 45.92%mainly use Spanish and 35.54%mainly use Catalan. There is a significant difference between the Barcelona metropolitan area (and, to a lesser extent, the Tarragona area), where Spanish is more spoken than Catalan, and the more rural and small town areas, where Catalan clearly prevails over Spanish. Originating in the historic territory of Catalonia, Catalan has enjoyed special status since the approval of the Statute of Autonomy of 1979 which declares it to be "Catalonia's own language", a term which signifies a language given special legal status within a Spanish territory, or which is historically spoken within a given region. The other languages with official status in Catalonia are Spanish, which has official status throughout Spain, and Aranese Occitan, which is spoken in Val d'Aran. Since the Statute of Autonomy of 1979, Aranese (a Gascon dialect of Occitan) has also been official and subject to special protection in Val d'Aran. This small area of 7,000inhabitants was the only place where a dialect of Occitan had received full official status. Then, on 9August2006, when the new Statute came into force, Occitan became official throughout Catalonia. Occitan is the mother tongue of 22.4% of the population of Val d'Aran, which has attracted heavy immigration from other Spanish regions to work in the service industry. Catalan Sign Language is also officially recognised. is granted official recognition and support: "The public authorities shall guarantee the use of Catalan sign language and conditions of equality for deaf people who choose to use this language, which shall be the subject of education, protection and respect." Although never completely banned, Catalan language publishing was severely restricted during the early 1940s, with only religious texts and small-run self-published texts being released. Some books were published clandestinely or circumvented the restrictions by showing publishing dates prior to 1936. This policy was changed in 1946, when restricted publishing in Catalan resumed. Rural–urban migration originating in other parts of Spain also reduced the social use of Catalan in urban areas and increased the use of Spanish. Lately, a similar sociolinguistic phenomenon has occurred with foreign immigration. Catalan cultural activity increased in the 1960s and the teaching of Catalan began thanks to the initiative of associations such as Òmnium Cultural. After the end of Francoist Spain, the newly established self-governing democratic institutions in Catalonia embarked on a long-term language policy to recover the use of Catalan and has, since 1983, enforced laws which attempt to protect and extend the use of Catalan. This policy, known as the "linguistic normalisation" ( in Catalan, in Spanish) has been supported by the vast majority of Catalan political parties through the last thirty years. Some groups consider these efforts a way to discourage the use of Spanish, whereas some others, including the Catalan government and the European Union consider the policies respectful, or even as an example which "should be disseminated throughout the Union". }} by a century]] Today, Catalan is the main language of the Catalan autonomous government and the other public institutions that fall under its jurisdiction. Basic public education is given mainly in Catalan, but also there are some hours per week of Spanish medium instruction. Although businesses are required by law to display all information (e.g. menus, posters) at least in Catalan, this not systematically enforced. There is no obligation to display this information in either Occitan or Spanish, although there is no restriction on doing so in these or other languages. The use of fines was introduced in a 1997 linguistic law that aims to increase the public use of Catalan and defend the rights of Catalan speakers. On the other hand, the Spanish Constitution does not recognize equal language rights for national minorities since it enshrined Spanish as the only official language of the state, the knowledge of which being compulsory. Numerous laws regarding for instance the labelling of pharmaceutical products, make in effect Spanish the only language of compulsory use. The law ensures that both Catalan and Spanish – being official languages – can be used by the citizens without prejudice in all public and private activities. The Generalitat uses Catalan in its communications and notifications addressed to the general population, but citizens can also receive information from the Generalitat in Spanish if they so wish. Debates in the Catalan Parliament take place almost exclusively in Catalan and the Catalan public television broadcasts programs mainly in Catalan. Due to the intense immigration which Spain in general and Catalonia in particular experienced in the first decade of the 21st century, many foreign languages are spoken in various cultural communities in Catalonia, of which Rif-Berber, Moroccan Arabic, Romanian and Urdu are the most common ones. In Catalonia, there is a high social and political consensus on the language policies favoring Catalan, also among Spanish speakers and speakers of other languages. However, some of these policies have been criticised for trying to promote Catalan by imposing fines on businesses. For example, following the passage of the law on Catalan cinema in March 2010, which established that half of the movies shown in Catalan cinemas had to be in Catalan, a general strike of 75% of the cinemas took place. The Catalan government gave in and dropped the clause that forced 50% of the movies to be dubbed or subtitled in Catalan before the law came to effect. On the other hand, organisations such as Plataforma per la Llengua reported different violations of the linguistic rights of the Catalan speakers in Catalonia and the other Catalan-speaking territories in Spain, most of them caused by the institutions of the Spanish government in these territories. The Catalan language policy has been challenged by some political parties in the Catalan Parliament. Citizens, currently the main opposition party, has been one of the most consistent critics of the Catalan language policy within Catalonia. The Catalan branch of the People's Party has a more ambiguous position on the issue: on one hand, it demands a bilingual Catalan–Spanish education and a more balanced language policy that would defend Catalan without favoring it over Spanish, whereas on the other hand, a few local PP politicians have supported in their municipalities measures privileging Catalan over Spanish and it has defended some aspects of the official language policies, sometimes against the positions of its colleagues from other parts of Spain. Culture Art and architecture Catalonia has given to the world many important figures in the area of the art. Catalan painters internationally known are, among others, Salvador Dalí, Joan Miró and Antoni Tàpies. Closely linked with the Catalan pictorial atmosphere, Pablo Picasso lived in Barcelona during his youth, training them as an artist and creating the movement of cubism. Other important artists are Claudi Lorenzale for the medieval Romanticism that marked the artistic Renaixença, Marià Fortuny for the Romanticism and Catalan Orientalism of the nineteenth century, Ramon Casas or Santiago Rusiñol, main representatives of the pictorial current of Catalan modernism from the end of the nineteenth century to the beginning of the twentieth century, Josep Maria Sert for early 20th-century Noucentisme, or Josep Maria Subirachs for expressionist or abstract sculpture and painting of the late twentieth century. , Barcelona. Right: Dalí Museum, Figueres }} The most important painting museums of Catalonia are the Teatre-Museu Dalí in Figueres, the National Art Museum of Catalonia (MNAC), Picasso Museum, Fundació Antoni Tàpies, Joan Miró Foundation, the Barcelona Museum of Contemporary Art (MACBA), the Centre of Contemporary Culture of Barcelona (CCCB), and the CaixaForum. (Solsona Cathedral)]] In the field of architecture were developed and adapted to Catalonia different artistic styles prevalent in Europe, leaving footprints in many churches, monasteries and cathedrals, of Romanesque (the best examples of which are located in the northern half of the territory) and Gothic styles. The Gothic developed in Barcelona and its area of influence is known as Catalan Gothic, with some particular characteristics. The church of Santa Maria del Mar is an example of this kind of style. During the Middle Ages, many fortified castles were built by feudal nobles to mark their powers. There are some examples of Renaissance (such as the Palau de la Generalitat), Baroque and Neoclassical architectures. In the late nineteenth century Modernism (Art Nouveau) appeared as the national art. The world-renowned Catalan architects of this style are Antoni Gaudí, Lluís Domènech i Montaner and Josep Puig i Cadafalch. Thanks to the urban expansion of Barcelona during the last decades of the century and the first ones of the next, many buildings of the Eixample are modernists. In the field of architectural rationalism, which turned especially relevant in Catalonia during the Republican era (1931–1939) highlighting Josep Lluís Sert and Josep Torres i Clavé, members of the GATCPAC and, in contemporany architecture, Ricardo Bofill and Enric Miralles. Monuments and World Heritage Sites , located at the foothills of the Pyrenees, in the province of Lleida]] , Barcelona]] There are several UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Catalonia: Archaeological Ensemble of Tarraco, Tarragona Catalan Romanesque Churches of the Vall de Boí, Lleida province Poblet Monastery, Poblet, Tarragona province Works of Lluís Domènech i Montaner: Palau de la Música Catalana, Barcelona Hospital de Sant Pau, Barcelona Works of Antoni Gaudí: Sagrada Família, Barcelona Parc Güell, Barcelona Palau Güell, Barcelona Casa Milà (La Pedrera), Barcelona Casa Vicens, Barcelona Casa Batlló, Barcelona *The Church of Colònia Güell, Santa Coloma de Cervelló, Barcelona province Literature The oldest surviving literary use of the Catalan language is considered to be the religious text known as Homilies d'Organyà, written either in late 11th or early 12thcentury. There are two historical moments of splendor of Catalan literature. The first begins with the historiographic chronicles of the 13thcentury (chronicles written between the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries narrating the deeds of the monarchs and leading figures of the Crown of Aragon) and the subsequent Golden Age of the 14th and 15thcenturies. After that period, between the 16th and 19thcenturies the Romantic historiography defined this era as the , considered as the "decadent" period in Catalan literature because of a general falling into disuse of the vernacular language in cultural contexts and lack of patronage among the nobility. ]] The second moment of splendor began in the 19thcentury with the cultural and political (Renaissance) represented by writers and poets such as Jacint Verdaguer, Víctor Català (pseudonym of Caterina Albert i Paradís), Narcís Oller, Joan Maragall and Àngel Guimerà. During the 20thcentury, avant-garde movements developed, initiated by the Generation of '14 (called Noucentisme in Catalonia), represented by Eugenio d'Ors, Joan Salvat-Papasseit, Josep Carner, Carles Riba, J.V. Foix and others. During the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera, the Civil War (Generation of '36) and the Francoist period, Catalan literature was maintained despite the repression against the Catalan language, being often produced in exile. ]] The most outstanding authors of this period are Salvador Espriu, Josep Pla, Josep Maria de Sagarra (who are considered mainly responsible for the renewal of Catalan prose), Mercè Rodoreda, Joan Oliver Sallarès or "Pere Quart", Pere Calders, Gabriel Ferrater, Manuel de Pedrolo, Agustí Bartra or Miquel Martí i Pol. In addition, several foreign writers who fought in the International Brigades, or other military units, have since recounted their experiences of fighting in their works, historical or fictional, with for example, George Orwell, in Homage to Catalonia (1938) or Claude Simon's Le Palace (1962) and Les Géorgiques (1981). After the transition to democracy (1975–1978) and the restoration of the Generalitat (1977), literary life and the editorial market have returned to normality and literary production in Catalan is being bolstered with a number of language policies intended to protect Catalan culture. Besides the aforementioned authors, other relevant 20th-century writers of the Francoist and democracy periods include Joan Brossa, Agustí Bartra, Manuel de Pedrolo, Pere Calders or Quim Monzó. Ana María Matute, Jaime Gil de Biedma, Manuel Vázquez Montalbán and Juan Goytisolo are among the most prominent Catalan writers in the Spanish language since the democratic restoration in Spain. Festivals and public holidays )]] Castells are one of the main manifestations of Catalan popular culture. The activity consists in constructing human towers by competing (teams). This practice originated in Valls, on the region of the Camp de Tarragona, during the 18th century, and later it was extended to the rest of the territory, especially in the late 20th century. The tradition of els Castells i els Castellers was declared Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO in 2010. In main celebrations, other elements of the Catalan popular culture are also usually present: parades with (giants), bigheads, stick-dancers and musicians, and the , where devils and monsters dance and spray showers of sparks using firecrackers. Another traditional celebration in Catalonia is , declared a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by the UNESCO on 25 November 2005. }} during the festa major of La Seu d'Urgell ]] Christmas in Catalonia lasts two days, plus Christmas Eve. On the 25th, Christmas is celebrated, followed by a similar feast on the 26, called Sant Esteve (Saint Steve's Day). This allows families to visit and dine with different sectors of the extended family or get together with friends on the second day. One of the most deeply rooted and curious Christmas traditions is the popular figure of the , consisting of an (often hollow) log with a face painted on it and often two little front legs appended, usually wearing a Catalan hat and scarf. The word has nothing to do with the Spanish word tío, meaning uncle. Tió means log in Catalan. The log is sometimes "found in the woods" (in an event staged for children) and then adopted and taken home, where it is fed and cared for during a month or so. On Christmas Day or on Christmas Eve, a game is played where children march around the house singing a song requesting the log to poop, then they hit the log with a stick, to make it poop, and lo and behold, as if through magic, it poops candy, and sometimes other small gifts. Usually, the larger or main gifts are brought by the Three Kings on 6 January, and the tió only brings small things. Another custom is to make a (nativity scene) in the home or in shop windows, the latter sometimes competing in originality or sheer size and detail. Churches often host exhibits of numerous dioramas by nativity scene makers, or a single nativity scene they put out, and town halls generally put out a nativity scene in the central square. In Barcelona, every year, the main nativity scene is designed by different artists, and often ends up being an interesting, post-modern or conceptual and strange creation. In the home, the nativity scene often consists of strips of cork bark to represent cliffs or mountains in the background, moss as grass in the foreground, some wood chips or other as dirt, and aluminum foil for rivers and lakes. The traditional figurines often included are the three wise men on camels or horses, which are moved every day or so to go closer to the manger, a star with a long tail in the background to lead people to the spot, the annunciation with shepherds having a meal and an angel appearing (hanging from something), a washer lady washing clothes in the pond, sheep, ducks, people carrying packages on their backs, a donkey driver with a load of twigs, and atrezzo such as a starry sky, miniature towns placed in the distance, either Oriental-styled or local-looking, a bridge over the river, trees, etc. One of the most astonishing and sui-generis figurines traditionally placed in the nativity scene, to the great glee of children, is the , a person depicted in the act of defecating. This figurine is hidden in some corner of the nativity scene and the game is to detect it. Of course, churches forgo this figurine, and the main nativity scene of Barcelona, for instance, likewise does not feature it. The caganer is so popular it has, together with the tió, long been a major part of the Christmas markets, where they come in the guise of your favorite politicians or other famous people, as well as the traditional figures of a Catalan farmer. People often buy a figurine of a caganer in the guise of a famous person they are actually fond of, contrary to what one would imagine, though sometimes people buy a caganer in the guise of someone they dislike, although this means they have to look at them in the home. Another (extended) Christmas tradition is the celebration of the Epiphany on 6 January, which is called Reis, meaning Three Kings Day. This is every important in Catalonia and the Catalan-speaking areas, and families go to watch major parades on the eve of the Epiphany, where they can greet the kings and watch them pass by in pomp and circumstance, on floats and preceded and followed by pages, musicians, dancers, etc. They often give the kings letters with their gift requests, which are collected by the pages. On the next day, the children find the gifts the three kings brought for them. In addition to traditional local Catalan culture, traditions from other parts of Spain can be found as a result of migration from other regions, for instance the celebration of the Andalusian in Catalonia. On 28 July 2010, second only after the Canary Islands, Catalonia became another Spanish territory to forbid bullfighting. The ban, which went into effect on 1 January 2012, had originated in a popular petition supported by over 180,000 signatures. Music and dance ]] The sardana is considered to be the most characteristic Catalan folk dance, interpreted to the rhythm of tamborí, tible and tenora (from the oboe family), trumpet, trombó (trombone), fiscorn (family of bugles) and contrabaix with three strings played by a cobla, and are danced in a circle dance. Other tunes and dances of the traditional music are the contrapàs (obsolete today), ball de bastons (the "dance of sticks"), the moixiganga, the goigs (popular songs), the galops or the jota in the southern part. The are characteristic in some marine localities of the Costa Brava, especially during the summer months when these songs are sung outdoors accompanied by a of burned rum. Art music was first developed, up to the nineteenth century and, as in much of Europe, in a liturgical setting, particularly marked by the Escolania de Montserrat. The main Western musical trends have marked these productions, medieval monodies or polyphonies, with the work of Abbot Oliba in the eleventh century or the compilation Llibre Vermell de Montserrat ("Red Book of Montserrat") from the fourteenth century. Through the Renaissance there were authors such as Pere Albert Vila, Joan Brudieu or the two Mateu Fletxa ("The Old" and "The Young"). Baroque had composers like Joan Cererols. The Romantic music was represented by composers such as Fernando Sor, Josep Anselm Clavé (father of choir movement in Catalonia and responsible of the music folk reviving) or Felip Pedrell. Modernisme also expressed in musical terms from the end of the 19th century onwards, mixing folkloric and post-romantic influences, through the works of Isaac Albéniz and Enric Granados. The avant-garde spirit initiated by the modernists is prolonged throughout the twentieth century, thanks to the activities of the Orfeó Català, a choral society founded in 1891, with its monumental concert hall, the Palau de la Música Catalana in Catalan, built by Lluís Domènech i Montaner from 1905 to 1908, the Barcelona Symphony Orchestra created in 1944 and composers, conductors and musicians engaged against the Francoism like Robert Gerhard, Eduard Toldrà and Pau Casals. Performances of opera, mostly imported from Italy, began in the 18th century, but some native operas were written as well, including the ones by Domènec Terradellas, Carles Baguer, Ramon Carles, Isaac Albéniz and Enric Granados. The Barcelona main opera house, Gran Teatre del Liceu (opened in 1847), remains one of the most important in Spain, hosting one of the most prestigious music schools in Barcelona, the Conservatori Superior de Música del Liceu. Several lyrical artists trained by this institution gained international renown during the 20th century, such as Victoria de los Ángeles, Montserrat Caballé, Giacomo Aragall and Josep Carreras. Cellist Pau Casals is admired as an outstanding player. Other popular musical styles were born in the second half of the 20th century such as Nova Cançó from the 1960s with Lluís Llach and the group Els Setze Jutges, the Catalan rumba in the 1960s with Peret, Catalan Rock from the late 1970s with La Banda Trapera del Río and Decibelios for Punk Rock, Sau, Els Pets, Sopa de Cabra or Lax'n'Busto for pop rock or Sangtraït for hard rock, electropop since the 1990s with OBK and indie pop from the 1990s. Media and cinema Catalonia is the autonomous community, along with Madrid, that has the most media (TV, magazines, newspapers etc.). In Catalonia there is a wide variety of local and comarcal media. With the restoration of democracy, many newspapers and magazines, until then in the hands of the Franco government, were recovered in order to convert them into free and democratic media, while local radio and television began broadcasting. Televisió de Catalunya, which broadcasts entirely in the Catalan language, is the main Catalan public network. It has five channels: TV3, El 33, Super3, 3/24, Esport3 and TV3CAT. In 2018, TV3 became the first television channel to be the most viewed for nine consecutive years in Catalonia. State television that broadcasts in Catalonia in the Spanish language include (with few emissions in Catalan), Antena 3, Cuatro, Telecinco, and La Sexta. Other smaller Catalan television channels include local television channels, notably betevé, owned by the City Council of Barcelona, and broadcast in Catalan. The two main Catalan newspapers of general information are El Periódico de Catalunya and La Vanguardia, both with editions in Catalan and Spanish. Catalan only published newspapers include Ara and El Punt Avui (from the fusion of El Punt and Avui in 2011), as well as most part of the local press. The Spanish newspapers, such as El País, El Mundo or La Razón, can be also acquired. Catalonia has a long tradition of use of radio, the first regular radio broadcast in the country was from Ràdio Barcelona in 1924. Today, the public Catalunya Ràdio (owned by Catalan Media Corporation) and the private RAC 1 (belonging to Grup Godó) are the two main radio stations of Catalonia, both in Catalan. of 2009]] Regarding the cinema, after the democratic transition, three styles have dominated since then. First, auteur cinema, in the continuity of the Barcelona School, emphasizes experimentation and form, while focusing on developing social and political themes. Worn first by Josep Maria Forn or Bigas Luna, then by Marc Recha, Jaime Rosales and Albert Serra, this genre has achieved some international recognition. Then, the documentary became another genre particularly representative of contemporary Catalan cinema, boosted by Joaquim Jordà i Català and José Luis Guerín. Later, horror films and thrillers have also emerged as a specialty of the Catalan film industry, thanks in particular to the vitality of the Sitges Film Festival, created in 1968. Several directors have gained worldwide renown thanks to this genre, starting with Jaume Balagueró and his series REC (co-directed with Valencian Paco Plaza), Juan Antonio Bayona and El Orfanato or Jaume Collet-Serra with Orphan, Unknown and Non-Stop. Catalan actors have shot for Spanish and international productions, such as Sergi López. The Museum of Cinema - Tomàs Mallol Collection (Museu del Cinema – Col.lecció Tomàs Mallol in Catalan) of Girona is home of important permanent exhibitions of cinema and pre-cinema objects. Other important institutions for the promotion of cinema are the Gaudí Awards (Premis Gaudí in Catalan, which replaced from 2009 Barcelona Film Awards themselves created in 2002), serving as equivalent for Catalonia to the Spanish Goya or French César. Philosophy is a form of ancestral Catalan wisdom or sensibleness. It involves well-pondered perception of situations, level-headedness, awareness, integrity, and right action. Many Catalans consider seny something unique to their culture, is based on a set of ancestral local customs stemming from the scale of values and social norms of their society. Sport Sport has had a distinct importance in Catalan life and culture since the beginning of the 20th century; consequently, the region has a well-developed sports infrastructure. The main sports are football, basketball, handball, rink hockey, tennis and motorsport. While the most popular sports are represented at international level by the Spanish national teams, Catalonia plays as itself in some minor ones, such as korfball, futsal or rugby league. Various Catalan Sports Federations have a long tradition and some of them participated in the foundation of international sports federations, as the Catalan Federation of Rugby, that was one of the founder members of the Fédération Internationale de Rugby Amateur (FIRA) in 1934. The majority of Catalan sport federations are part of the Sports Federation Union of Catalonia (Catalan: ), founded in 1933. The presence of separate Catalan teams has caused disputes with Spanish sports institutions, as happened to roller hockey in the controversial Fresno Case (2004). The Catalan Football Federation also periodically fields a national team against international opposition, organizing friendly matches. In the recent years they have played with Bulgaria, Argentina, Brazil, Basque Country, Colombia, Nigeria, Cape Verde and Tunisia. The biggest football clubs are Barcelona (also known as Barça), who have won five European Cups (UEFA Champions League), and Espanyol, who have twice been runner-up of the UEFA Cup (now UEFA Europa League). As of December 2024, Barça, Espanyol and Girona FC play in the top Spanish League (La Liga). The Catalan waterpolo is one of the main powers of the Iberian Peninsula. The Catalans won triumphs in waterpolo competitions at European and world level by club (the Barcelona was champion of Europe in 1981/82 and the Catalonia in 1994/95) and national team (one gold and one silver in Olympic Games and World Championships). It also has many international synchronized swimming champions. Motorsport has a long tradition in Catalonia, which involving many people, with some world champions and several competitions organized since the beginning of the 20th century. The Circuit de Catalunya, built in 1991, is one of the main motorsport venues, holding the Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix, the Spanish F1 Grand Prix, a DTM race, and several other races. Catalonia hosted many relevant international sport events, such as the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona, as well as the 1955 Mediterranean Games, the 2013 World Aquatics Championships or the 2018 Mediterranean Games. It held annually the fourth-oldest still-existing cycling stage race in the world, the Volta a Catalunya (Tour of Catalonia). <gallery mode"packed" widths"180px" heights="180px"> BCN-EstadiOlimpic-4860.jpg\|Olympic Park of Montjuïc, Barcelona. At the centre, the Olympic Stadium Lluís Companys Camp Nou - Interior (2005).jpg\|Camp Nou, home of FC Barcelona F1 Circuit de Catalunya - Tribuna.jpg\|Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya Pep Guardiola 2.1.jpg\|Pep Guardiola, one of the most successful football managers of all time, pictured while managing Barcelona </gallery> Symbols ]] Catalonia has its own representative and distinctive national symbols such as: The flag of Catalonia, called the , is a vexillological symbol based on the heraldic emblem of Counts of Barcelona and the coat of arms of the Crown of Aragon, which consists of four red stripes on a golden background. It has been an official symbol since the Statute of Catalonia of 1932. The National Day of Catalonia is on 11 September, and it is commonly called . It commemorates the 1714 siege of Barcelona defeat during the War of the Spanish Succession. The national anthem of Catalonia is and was written in its present form by Emili Guanyavents in 1899. The song is official by law from 25 February 1993. It is based on the events of 1639 and 1640 during the Catalan Revolt. St George's Day () is widely celebrated in all the towns of Catalonia on 23 April, and includes an exchange of books and roses between couples or family members. Cuisine }} (bread with tomato)]] Catalan gastronomy has a long culinary tradition. Various local food recipes have been described in documents dating from the fifteenth century. As with all the cuisines of the Mediterranean, Catatonian dishes make abundant use of fish, seafood, olive oil, bread and vegetables. Regional specialties include the (bread with tomato), which consists of bread (sometimes toasted), and tomato seasoned with olive oil and salt. Often the dish is accompanied with any number of sausages (cured botifarres, fuet, iberic ham, etc.), ham or cheeses. Others dishes include the , , (fish stew), and a dessert, Catalan cream. Catalan vineyards also have several wines, such as: Priorat, Montsant, Penedès and Empordà. There is also a sparkling wine, the cava. Catalonia is internationally recognized for its fine dining. Three of the World's 50 Best Restaurants are in Catalonia, and four restaurants have three Michelin stars, including restaurants like El Bulli or El Celler de Can Roca, both of which regularly dominate international rankings of restaurants. The region has been awarded the European Region of Gastronomy title for the year 2016. Twinning and covenants Nuevo León * California * Quebec See also <!-- Index of Catalonia-related articles --> Catalan Company Catalan Countries Date and time notation in Catalonia List of European regions by GDP List of people from Catalonia Northern Catalonia Outline of Catalonia Notes References External links [https://web.gencat.cat/ca/inici Generalitat de Catalunya (Government of Catalonia)] [https://web.gencat.cat/ca/generalitat/estatut/ Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia] }} <!--please leave the empty space as standard--> Category:Autonomous communities of Spain Category:Catalan Countries Category:NUTS 2 statistical regions of the European Union Category:Regions of Europe with multiple official languages Category:States and territories established in 1932 Category:States and territories established in 1979	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalonia	2025-04-05T18:27:58.425908
6823	Konstantinos Kanaris	}} \| image = Konstantinos Kanaris.png \| caption = Konstantinos Kanaris, Prime Minister of Greece. \| office1 = <br> Prime Minister of Greece \| term_start1 = 12 February 1844 \| term_end1 = 30 March 1844 (o.s.) \| monarch1 = Otto \| predecessor1 = Andreas Metaxas \| successor1 = Alexandros Mavrokordatos \| term_start2 = 27 October 1848 \| term_end2 = 14 December 1849 (o.s) \| predecessor2 = Georgios Kountouriotis \| successor2 = Antonios Kriezis \| term_start3 = 5 March 1864 \| term_end3 = 16 April 1864 (o.s) \| monarch3 = George I \| predecessor3 = Dimitrios Voulgaris \| successor3 = Zinovios Valvis \| term_start4 = 26 July 1864 \| term_end4 = 2 March 1865 (o.s) \| predecessor4 = Zinovios Valvis \| successor4 = Alexandros Koumoundouros \| term_start5 = 26 May 1877 \| term_end5 = 2 September 1877 (o.s) \| predecessor5 = Alexandros Koumoundouros \| successor5 = Alexandros Koumoundouros \| birth_date = c. 1790 \| birth_place = Psara, Eyalet of the Archipelago, Ottoman Empire (now Greece) \| death_date = 2 September 1877 (aged 87) \| death_place = Athens, Kingdom of Greece \| resting_place = First Cemetery of Athens \| nationality = Greek \| awards = Grand Cross of the Order of the Redeemer <br> Grand Cross of the Royal Guelphic Order <br> Grand Cross of the Order of the Dannebrog \| signature = Konstantinos Kanaris signature 1838.svg <!--Military service--> \| allegiance = First Hellenic Republic <br> Kingdom of Greece \| branch = \| serviceyears = 1821–1844 \| rank = Admiral \| battles = * Greek War of Independence Burning of the Ottoman Flagship Destruction of Psara Battle of Samos Raid on Alexandria \| spouse = Despina Maniati \| children = Nikolaos Kanaris <br> Miltiadis Kanaris <br> Themistoklis Kanaris <br> Aristeidis Kanaris <br> Lykourgos Kanaris <br> Maria Kanari <br> Thrasyvoulos Kanaris \| party = Russian Party }} Konstantinos Kanaris (, ; c. 17902 September 1877), also anglicised as Constantine Kanaris or Canaris, was a Greek statesman, admiral, and a hero of the Greek War of Independence. Biography Early life Konstantinos Kanaris was born and grew up on the island of Psara, close to the island of Chios, in the Aegean. The exact year of his birth is unknown. Official records of the Hellenic Navy indicate 1795, however, modern Greek historians consider 1790 or 1793 to be more probable. , 1873.]] At Chios, on the moonless night of 6–7 June 1822, forces under his command destroyed the flagship of Nasuhzade Ali Pasha, Kapudan Pasha (Grand Admiral) of the Ottoman fleet, in revenge for the Chios massacre. The admiral was holding a Bayram celebration, allowing Kanaris and his men to position their fire ship without being noticed. When the flagship's powder store caught fire, all men aboard were instantly killed. The Turkish casualties comprised men, both naval officers and common sailors, as well as Nasuhzade Ali Pasha himself. , 1898.]] The Ottoman fleet captured Psara on 21 June 1824. A part of the population, including Kanaris, managed to flee the island, but those who didn't were either sold into slavery or slaughtered. After the destruction of his home island, he continued to lead attacks against Turkish forces. In August 1824, he engaged in naval combats in the Dodecanese. After the end of the War and the independence of Greece, Kanaris became an officer of the new Hellenic Navy, reaching the rank of admiral, and a prominent politician. Political career Konstantinos Kanaris was one of the few with the personal confidence of Ioannis Kapodistrias, the first Head of State of independent Greece. After the assassination of Kapodistrias on 9 October 1831, he retired to the island of Syros. During the reign of King Otto I, Kanaris served as Minister in various governments and then as Prime Minister in the provisional government (16 February30 March 1844). He served a second term (15 October 184812 December 1849), and as Navy Minister in the 1854 cabinet of Alexandros Mavrokordatos. . Sculpture by Lazaros Fytalis.]] In 1862, he was among the rare War of Independence veterans who took part in the bloodless insurrection that deposed the increasingly unpopular King Otto I and led to the election of Prince William of Denmark as King George I of Greece. During his reign, Kanaris served as a Prime Minister for a third term (6 March16 April 1864), fourth term (26 July 186426 February 1865), and fifth and last term (7 June2 September 1877). * Kanaris, a gunboat commissioned in 1835 * Kanaris, a torpedo boat tender commissioned in 1880 * , a Hunt-class destroyer commissioned in 1942 * , a commissioned in 1972 * , an commissioned in 2002 of the Hellenic Navy.]] Te Korowhakaunu / Kanáris Sound, a section of Taiari / Chalky Inlet in New Zealand's Fiordland National Park, was named after Konstantinos Kanaris by French navigator and explorer Jules de Blosseville (1802–1833).Family In 1817, Konstantinos Kanaris married Despoina Maniatis, from a historical family of Psara. They had seven children: * Nikolaos Kanaris (1818–1848), killed during a military expedition in Beirut * Themistoklis Kanaris (1819–1851), killed during a military expedition in Egypt * Thrasyvoulos Kanaris (1820–1898), admiral * Miltiadis Kanaris (1822–1901), admiral, member of the Greek Parliament for many years, Naval Minister three times in 1864, 1871, and 1878 * Lykourgos Kanaris (1826–1865), naval officer and lawyer * Maria Kanaris (1828–1847), married A. Balabano * Aristeidis Kanaris (1831–1863), officer killed in the uprising of 1863 Wilhelm Canaris, a German Admiral, speculated that he might be a descendant of Konstantinos Kanaris. An official genealogical family history that was researched in 1938 showed however, that he was of Italian descent and not related to the Kanaris family from Greece. Honours Greek honours * Order of the Redeemer (Kingdom of Greece): Grand Cross, 1864 Foreign honours * Royal Guelphic Order (Kingdom of Hanover): Grand Cross * Order of the Dannebrog (Kingdom of Denmark): Grand Cross See also * List of prime ministers of Greece * Greek War of Independence * Kanaris family * Hellenic Navy * History of Greece * Greek ship Kanaris * First Cemetery of Athens References Works cited * * * }} * * External links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20030414014305/http://www.grandlodge.gr/history.html A concise history of the Grand Lodge of Greece and the origins of the Philiki Etairia] * [http://rulers.org/indexk1.html#kanar Biography of Konstantinos Kanaris on Rulers.org] * [http://www.fragrant-chios.com/info/people_kanaris.php Statue of Konstantinos Kanaris on Chios island, Greece] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20030402025910/http://www.nostos.com/greekrev/ Major figures of the Greek War of Independence] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20030407224756/http://www.horus.ics.org.eg/html/modern_egypt_under_mohammad_ali.html Modern Egypt under Mohammad Ali, Viceroy of Egypt] \|- \|- \|- \|- Category:1790s births Category:1877 deaths Konstantinos Category:People from the Ottoman Empire Category:19th-century prime ministers of Greece Category:Ministers of naval affairs of Greece Category:People from Psara Category:Hellenic Navy admirals Category:Greek people of the Greek War of Independence Category:Burials at the First Cemetery of Athens Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of the Dannebrog Category:Russian Party politicians	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstantinos_Kanaris	2025-04-05T18:27:58.458439
6824	Carl Sagan	\| birth_place = New York City, U.S. \| death_date = \| death_place = Seattle, Washington, U.S. \| resting_place = Lake View Cemetery \| education = University of Chicago (BA, BS, MS, PhD) \| field = \| work_institutions = \| doctoral_advisor = Gerard Kuiper \| doctoral_students = * Clark Chapman * James B. Pollack * Owen Toon Initially an assistant professor at Harvard, Sagan later moved to Cornell University, where he spent most of his career. He published more than 600 scientific papers and articles and was author, co-author or editor of more than 20 books. A book, also called Cosmos, was published to accompany the series. Sagan also wrote a science-fiction novel, published in 1985, called Contact, which became the basis for the 1997 film Contact. His papers, comprising 595,000 items, are archived in the Library of Congress. Sagan was a popular public advocate of skeptical scientific inquiry and the scientific method; he pioneered the field of exobiology and promoted the search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI). He spent most of his career as a professor of astronomy at Cornell University, where he directed the Laboratory for Planetary Studies. Sagan and his works received numerous awards and honors, including the NASA Distinguished Public Service Medal, the National Academy of Sciences Public Welfare Medal, the Pulitzer Prize for General Nonfiction (for his book The Dragons of Eden), and (for Cosmos: A Personal Voyage'') two Emmy Awards, the Peabody Award, and the Hugo Award. He married three times and had five children. After developing myelodysplasia, Sagan died of pneumonia at the age of 62 on December 20, 1996. Early life Childhood yearbook.]] Carl Edward Sagan was born on November 9, 1934, in the Bensonhurst neighborhood of New York City's Brooklyn borough. Sagan was named in honor of his maternal grandmother, Chaiya Clara, who had died while giving birth to her second child; she was, in Sagan's words, "the mother she [Rachel] never knew."<!-- note: "she" is correct, refers to Rachel. Please do not turn this into "he" --> Sagan's maternal grandfather later married a woman named Rose, who Sagan's sister, Carol, would later say, was "never accepted" as Rachel's mother because Rachel "knew she [Rose] wasn't her birth mother." Sagan's family lived in a modest apartment in Bensonhurst. He later described his family as Reform Jews, one of the more liberal of Judaism's four main branches. He and his sister agreed that their father was not especially religious, but that their mother "definitely believed in God, and was active in the temple [...] and served only kosher meat." During the worst years of the Depression, his father worked as a movie theater usher. According to biographer Keay Davidson, Sagan experienced a kind of "inner war" as a result of his close relationship with both his parents, who were in many ways "opposites." He traced his analytical inclinations to his mother, who had been extremely poor as a child in New York City during World War I and the 1920s, and whose later intellectual ambitions were sabotaged by her poverty, status as a woman and wife, and Jewish ethnicity. Davidson suggested she "worshipped her only son, Carl" because "he would fulfill her unfulfilled dreams." Sagan believed that he had inherited his sense of wonder from his father, who spent his free time giving apples to the poor or helping soothe tensions between workers and management within New York City's garment industry. Although awed by his son's intellectual abilities, Sagan's father also took his inquisitiveness in stride, viewing it as part of growing up. Later, during his career, Sagan would draw on his childhood memories to illustrate scientific points, as he did in his book Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors. Describing his parents' influence on his later thinking, Sagan said: "My parents were not scientists. They knew almost nothing about science. But in introducing me simultaneously to skepticism and to wonder, they taught me the two uneasily cohabiting modes of thought that are central to the scientific method." He recalled that a defining moment in his development came when his parents took him, at age four, to the 1939 New York World's Fair. He later described his vivid memories of several exhibits there. One, titled America of Tomorrow, included a moving map, which, as he recalled, "showed beautiful highways and cloverleaves and little General Motors cars all carrying people to skyscrapers, buildings with lovely spires, flying buttresses—and it looked great!" Another involved a flashlight shining on a photoelectric cell, which created a crackling sound, and another showed how the sound from a tuning fork became a wave on an oscilloscope. He also saw an exhibit of the then-nascent medium known as television. Remembering it, he later wrote: "Plainly, the world held wonders of a kind I had never guessed. How could a tone become a picture and light become a noise?" Sagan also saw one of the fair's most publicized events: the burial at Flushing Meadows of a time capsule, which contained mementos from the 1930s to be recovered by Earth's descendants in a future millennium. Davidson wrote that this "thrilled Carl." As an adult, inspired by his memories of the World's Fair, Sagan and his colleagues would create similar time capsules to be sent out into the galaxy: the Pioneer plaque and the Voyager Golden Record précis. During World War II, Sagan's parents worried about the fate of their European relatives, but he was generally unaware of the details of the ongoing war. He wrote, "Sure, we had relatives who were caught up in the Holocaust. Hitler was not a popular fellow in our household... but on the other hand, I was fairly insulated from the horrors of the war." His sister, Carol, said that their mother "above all wanted to protect Carl... she had an extraordinarily difficult time dealing with World War II and the Holocaust." Sagan's book The Demon-Haunted World (1996) included his memories of this conflicted period, when his family dealt with the realities of the war in Europe, but tried to prevent it from undermining his optimistic spirit. That same year, mass hysteria developed about the possibility that extraterrestrial visitors had arrived in flying saucers, and the young Sagan joined in the speculation that the flying "discs" people reported seeing in the sky might be alien spaceships.Education 's 1954 yearbook]] Sagan attended David A. Boody Junior High School in his native Bensonhurst and had his bar mitzvah when he turned 13. In 1948, when he was 14, his father's work took the family to the older semi-industrial town of Rahway, New Jersey, where he attended Rahway High School. He was a straight-A student but was bored because his classes did not challenge him and his teachers did not inspire him. His teachers realized this and tried to convince his parents to send him to a private school, with an administrator telling them, "This kid ought to go to a school for gifted children, he has something really remarkable." However, his parents could not afford to do so. Sagan became president of the school's chemistry club, and set up his own laboratory at home. He taught himself about molecules by making cardboard cutouts to help him visualize how they were formed: "I found that about as interesting as doing [chemical] experiments." He was mostly interested in astronomy, learning about it in his spare time. In his junior year of high school, he discovered that professional astronomers were paid for doing something he always enjoyed, and decided on astronomy as a career goal: "That was a splendid day—when I began to suspect that if I tried hard I could do astronomy full-time, not just part-time." Sagan graduated from Rahway High School in 1951. Before the end of high school, Sagan entered an essay writing contest in which he explored the idea that human contact with advanced life forms from another planet might be as disastrous for people on Earth as Native Americans' first contact with Europeans had been for Native Americans. The subject was considered controversial, but his rhetorical skill won over the judges and they awarded him first prize. As an honors-program undergraduate, Sagan worked in the laboratory of geneticist H. J. Muller and wrote a thesis on the origins of life with physical chemist Harold Urey. He also joined the Ryerson Astronomical Society. In 1954, he was awarded a Bachelor of Liberal Arts with general and special honors in what he quipped was "nothing."<!-- literally in the cited source - please do not change this --> In 1955, he earned a Bachelor of Science in physics. He went on to do graduate work at the University of Chicago, earning a Master of Science in physics in 1956 and a Doctor of Philosophy in astronomy and astrophysics in 1960. His doctoral thesis, submitted to the Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, was entitled Physical Studies of the Planets. During his graduate studies, he used the summer months to work with planetary scientist Gerard Kuiper, who was his dissertation director, as well as physicist George Gamow and chemist Melvin Calvin. The title of Sagan's dissertation reflected interests he had in common with Kuiper, who had been president of the International Astronomical Union's commission on "Physical Studies of Planets and Satellites" throughout the 1950s. In 1958, Sagan and Kuiper worked on the classified military Project A119, a secret United States Air Force plan to detonate a nuclear warhead on the Moon and document its effects. Sagan had a Top Secret clearance at the Air Force and a Secret clearance with NASA. In 1999, an article published in the journal Nature revealed that Sagan had included the classified titles of two Project A119 papers in his 1959 application for a scholarship to University of California, Berkeley. A follow-up letter to the journal by project leader Leonard Reiffel confirmed Sagan's security leak. Career and research in ''Who's Out There?'' (1973), an award-winning NASA documentary film by Robert Drew.]] From 1960 to 1962, Sagan was a Miller Fellow at the University of California, Berkeley. Meanwhile, he published an article in 1961 in the journal Science on the atmosphere of Venus, while also working with NASA's Mariner 2 team, and served as a "Planetary Sciences Consultant" to the RAND Corporation. After the publication of Sagan's Science article, in 1961, Harvard University astronomers Fred Whipple and Donald Menzel offered Sagan the opportunity to give a colloquium at Harvard and subsequently offered him a lecturer position at the institution. Sagan instead asked to be made an assistant professor, and eventually Whipple and Menzel were able to convince Harvard to offer Sagan the assistant professor position he requested. Sagan lectured, performed research, and advised graduate students at the institution from 1963 until 1968, as well as working at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, also located in Cambridge, Massachusetts. In 1968, Sagan was denied academic tenure at Harvard. He later indicated that the decision was very unexpected. The denial has been blamed on several factors, including that he focused his interests too broadly across a number of areas (while the norm in academia is to become a renowned expert in a narrow specialty), and perhaps because of his well-publicized scientific advocacy, which some scientists perceived as borrowing the ideas of others for little more than self-promotion.}} Long before the ill-fated tenure process, Cornell University astronomer Thomas Gold had courted Sagan to move to Ithaca, New York, and join the recently hired astronomer Frank Drake among the faculty at Cornell. Following the denial of tenure from Harvard, Sagan accepted Gold's offer and remained a faculty member at Cornell for nearly 30 years until his death in 1996. Unlike Harvard, the smaller and more laid-back astronomy department at Cornell welcomed Sagan's growing celebrity status. Following two years as an associate professor, Sagan became a full professor at Cornell in 1970 and directed the Laboratory for Planetary Studies there. From 1972 to 1981, he was associate director of the Center for Radiophysics and Space Research (CRSR) at Cornell. In 1976, he became the David Duncan Professor of Astronomy and Space Sciences, a position he held for the remainder of his life. Sagan was associated with the U.S. space program from its inception. From the 1950s onward, he worked as an advisor to NASA, where one of his duties included briefing the Apollo astronauts before their flights to the Moon. Sagan contributed to many of the robotic spacecraft missions that explored the Solar System, arranging experiments on many of the expeditions. Sagan assembled the first physical message that was sent into space: a gold-plated plaque, attached to the space probe Pioneer 10, launched in 1972. Pioneer 11, also carrying another copy of the plaque, was launched the following year. He continued to refine his designs; the most elaborate message he helped to develop and assemble was the Voyager Golden Record, which was sent out with the Voyager space probes in 1977. Sagan often challenged the decisions to fund the Space Shuttle and the International Space Station at the expense of further robotic missions. Scientific achievements Former student David Morrison described Sagan as "an 'idea person' and a master of intuitive physical arguments and 'back of the envelope' calculations", In the early 1960s no one knew for certain the basic conditions of Venus' surface, and Sagan listed the possibilities in a report later depicted for popularization in a Time Life book Planets. His own view was that Venus was dry and very hot as opposed to the balmy paradise others had imagined. He had investigated radio waves from Venus and concluded that there was a surface temperature of . As a visiting scientist to NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, he contributed to the first Mariner missions to Venus, working on the design and management of the project. Mariner 2 confirmed his conclusions on the surface conditions of Venus in 1962. Sagan was among the first to hypothesize that Saturn's moon Titan might possess oceans of liquid compounds on its surface and that Jupiter's moon Europa might possess subsurface oceans of water. This would make Europa potentially habitable. Europa's subsurface ocean of water was later indirectly confirmed by the spacecraft Galileo. The mystery of Titan's reddish haze was also solved with Sagan's help. The reddish haze was revealed to be due to complex organic molecules constantly raining down onto Titan's surface. Sagan further contributed insights regarding the atmospheres of Venus and Jupiter, as well as seasonal changes on Mars. He also perceived global warming as a growing, man-made danger and likened it to the natural development of Venus into a hot, life-hostile planet through a kind of runaway greenhouse effect. He testified to the US Congress in 1985 that the greenhouse effect would change the Earth's climate system. Sagan and his Cornell colleague Edwin Ernest Salpeter speculated about life in Jupiter's clouds, given the planet's dense atmospheric composition rich in organic molecules. He studied the observed color variations on Mars' surface and concluded that they were not seasonal or vegetational changes as most believed, but shifts in surface dust caused by windstorms. Sagan is also known for his research on the possibilities of extraterrestrial life, including experimental demonstration of the production of amino acids from basic chemicals by radiation. He is also the 1994 recipient of the Public Welfare Medal, the highest award of the National Academy of Sciences for "distinguished contributions in the application of science to the public welfare." He was denied membership in the academy, reportedly because his media activities made him unpopular with many other scientists. , Sagan is the most cited SETI scientist and one of the most cited planetary scientists. Cosmos: popularizing science on TV (1980)]] In 1980, Sagan co-wrote and narrated the award-winning 13-part PBS television series Cosmos: A Personal Voyage, which became the most widely watched series in the history of American public television until 1990. The show has been seen by at least 500 million people across 60 countries. The book, Cosmos, written by Sagan, was published to accompany the series. Because of his earlier popularity as a science writer from his best-selling books, including The Dragons of Eden, which won him a Pulitzer Prize in 1977, he was asked to write and narrate the show. It was targeted to a general audience of viewers, who Sagan felt had lost interest in science, partly due to a stifled educational system. Each of the 13 episodes was created to focus on a particular subject or person, thereby demonstrating the synergy of the universe. along with a Peabody Award, and transformed Sagan from an obscure astronomer into a pop-culture icon. Time magazine ran a cover story about Sagan soon after the show broadcast, referring to him as "creator, chief writer and host-narrator of the show." In 2000, "Cosmos" was released on a remastered set of DVDs. "Billions and billions" <!-- This Anchor tag serves to provide a permanent target for incoming section links. Please do not move it out of the section heading, even though it disrupts edit summary generation (you can manually fix the edit summary before you save your changes). Please do not modify it, even if you modify the section title. It is always best to anchor an old section header that has been changed so that links to it won't be broken. See Template:Anchor for details. (This text: Template:Anchor comment) --> After Cosmos aired, Sagan became associated with the catchphrase "billions and billions", although he never actually used the phrase in the Cosmos series. He rather used the term "billions upon billions." Richard Feynman, a precursor to Sagan, used the phrase "billions and billions" many times in his "red books." However, Sagan's frequent use of the word billions and distinctive delivery emphasizing the "b" (which he did intentionally, in place of more cumbersome alternatives such as "billions with a 'b, in order to distinguish the word from "millions") Gary Kroeger, Mike Myers, Bronson Pinchot, Penn Jillette, Harry Shearer, and others. Frank Zappa satirized the line in the song "Be in My Video", noting as well "atomic light." Sagan took this all in good humor, and his final book was titled Billions and Billions, which opened with a tongue-in-cheek discussion of this catchphrase, observing that Carson was an amateur astronomer and that Carson's comic caricature often included real science.Sagan's numberSagan's number is the number of stars in the observable universe. This number is reasonably well defined, because it is known what stars are and what the observable universe is, but its value is highly uncertain. * In 1980, Sagan estimated it to be 10 sextillion in short scale (10<sup>22</sup>). * In 2003, it was estimated to be 70 sextillion (7 × 10<sup>22</sup>). * In 2010, it was estimated to be 300 sextillion (3 × 10<sup>23</sup>). Scientific and critical thinking advocacy as a method to visualize the chronology of the universe, scaling its current age of 13.8 billion years to a single year to help intuit it for pedagogical purposes.]] <span id="Scientific_advocacy"><!-- Sagan (number) redirects here --></span> Sagan's ability to convey his ideas allowed many people to understand the cosmos better—simultaneously emphasizing the value and worthiness of the human race, and the relative insignificance of the Earth in comparison to the Universe. He delivered the 1977 series of Royal Institution Christmas Lectures in London. Sagan was a proponent of the search for extraterrestrial life. He urged the scientific community to listen with radio telescopes for signals from potential intelligent extraterrestrial life-forms. Sagan was so persuasive that by 1982 he was able to get a petition advocating SETI published in the journal Science, signed by 70 scientists, including seven Nobel Prize winners. This signaled a tremendous increase in the respectability of a then-controversial field. Sagan also helped Frank Drake write the Arecibo message, a radio message beamed into space from the Arecibo radio telescope on November 16, 1974, aimed at informing potential extraterrestrials about Earth. Sagan was chief technology officer of the professional planetary research journal Icarus for 12 years. He co-founded The Planetary Society and was a member of the SETI Institute Board of Trustees. Sagan served as Chairman of the Division for Planetary Science of the American Astronomical Society, as President of the Planetology Section of the American Geophysical Union, and as Chairman of the Astronomy Section of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). members at the organization's founding. Sagan is seated on the right.]] At the height of the Cold War, Sagan became involved in nuclear disarmament efforts by promoting hypotheses on the effects of nuclear war, when Paul Crutzen's "Twilight at Noon" concept suggested that a substantial nuclear exchange could trigger a nuclear twilight and upset the delicate balance of life on Earth by cooling the surface. In 1983, he was one of five authors—the "S"—in the follow-up "TTAPS" model (as the research article came to be known), which contained the first use of the term "nuclear winter", which his colleague Richard P. Turco had coined. In 1984, he co-authored the book The Cold and the Dark: The World after Nuclear War and in 1990, the book A Path Where No Man Thought: Nuclear Winter and the End of the Arms Race, which explains the nuclear-winter hypothesis and advocates nuclear disarmament. Sagan received a great deal of skepticism and disdain for the use of media to disseminate a very uncertain hypothesis. A personal correspondence with nuclear physicist Edward Teller around 1983 began amicably, with Teller expressing support for continued research to ascertain the credibility of the winter hypothesis. However, Sagan and Teller's correspondence would ultimately result in Teller writing: "A propagandist is one who uses incomplete information to produce maximum persuasion. I can compliment you on being, indeed, an excellent propagandist, remembering that a propagandist is the better the less he appears to be one." Biographers of Sagan would also comment that from a scientific viewpoint, nuclear winter was a low point for Sagan, although, politically speaking, it popularized his image among the public. The Dragons of Eden: Speculations on the Evolution of Human Intelligence, which won a Pulitzer Prize; and ''Broca's Brain: Reflections on the Romance of Science. Sagan also wrote the best-selling science fiction novel Contact'' in 1985, based on a film treatment he wrote with his wife, Ann Druyan, in 1979, but he did not live to see the book's 1997 motion-picture adaptation, which starred Jodie Foster and won the 1998 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation. : Earth is a bright pixel when photographed from Voyager 1, away. Sagan encouraged NASA to generate this image.]] Sagan wrote a sequel to Cosmos, Pale Blue Dot: A Vision of the Human Future in Space, which was selected as a notable book of 1995 by The New York Times''. He appeared on PBS's Charlie Rose program in January 1995. these claims were also the subject of a televised debate between Sagan and physicist Fred Singer on January 22, aired on the ABC News program Nightline.<!--The reference for this is a hardcopy transcript of the episode, excerpts on the Fred Singer talk page.-->.]] In the televised debate, Sagan argued that the effects of the smoke would be similar to the effects of a nuclear winter, with Singer arguing to the contrary. After the debate, the fires burnt for many months before extinguishing efforts were complete. The results of the smoke did not produce continental-sized cooling. Sagan later conceded in The Demon-Haunted World that the prediction did not turn out to be correct: "it was pitch black at noon and temperatures dropped 4–6 °C<!-- unspaced in the original --> over the Persian Gulf, but not much smoke reached stratospheric altitudes and Asia was spared." In his later years, Sagan advocated the creation of an organized search for asteroids/near-Earth objects (NEOs) that might impact the Earth but to forestall or postpone developing the technological methods that would be needed to defend against them. He argued that all of the numerous methods proposed to alter the orbit of an asteroid, including the employment of nuclear detonations, created a deflection dilemma: if the ability to deflect an asteroid away from the Earth exists, then one would also have the ability to divert a non-threatening object towards Earth, creating an immensely destructive weapon. In a 1994 paper he co-authored, he ridiculed a three-day-long "Near-Earth Object Interception Workshop" held by Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) in 1993 that did not, "even in passing" state that such interception and deflection technologies could have these "ancillary dangers." Later acknowledging that, with sufficient international oversight, in the future a "work our way up" approach to implementing nuclear explosive deflection methods could be fielded, and when sufficient knowledge was gained, to use them to aid in mining asteroids. Sagan was a critic of Plato, having said of the ancient Greek philosopher: "Science and mathematics were to be removed from the hands of the merchants and the artisans. This tendency found its most effective advocate in a follower of Pythagoras named Plato" and In 1995 (as part of his book The Demon-Haunted World), Sagan popularized a set of tools for skeptical thinking called the "baloney detection kit", a phrase first coined by Arthur Felberbaum, a friend of his wife Ann Druyan. Popularizing science Speaking about his activities in popularizing science, Sagan said that there were at least two reasons for scientists to share the purposes of science and its contemporary state. Simple self-interest was one: much of the funding for science came from the public, and the public therefore had the right to know how the money was being spent. If scientists increased public admiration for science, there was a good chance of having more public supporters. The other reason was the excitement of communicating one's own excitement about science to others. Following the success of Cosmos, Sagan set up his own publishing firm, Cosmos Store, to publish science books for the general public. It was not successful. Criticisms While Sagan was widely adored by the general public, his reputation in the scientific community was more polarized. Critics sometimes characterized his work as fanciful, non-rigorous, and self-aggrandizing, and others complained in his later years that he neglected his role as a faculty member to foster his celebrity status. One of Sagan's harshest critics, Harold Urey, felt that Sagan was getting too much publicity for a scientist and was treating some scientific theories too casually. Urey and Sagan were said to have different philosophies of science, according to Davidson. While Urey was an "old-time empiricist" who avoided theorizing about the unknown, Sagan was by contrast willing to speculate openly about such matters. Fred Whipple wanted Harvard to keep Sagan there, but learned that because Urey was a Nobel laureate, his opinion was an important factor in Harvard denying Sagan tenure. Sagan's Harvard friend Lester Grinspoon also stated: "I know Harvard well enough to know there are people there who certainly do not like people who are outspoken." Grinspoon added: Some, like Urey, later believed that Sagan's popular brand of scientific advocacy was beneficial to the science as a whole. Urey especially liked Sagan's 1977 book The Dragons of Eden and wrote Sagan with his opinion: "I like it very much and am amazed that someone like you has such an intimate knowledge of the various features of the problem... I congratulate you... You are a man of many talents." Sagan was accused of borrowing some ideas of others for his own benefit and countered these claims by explaining that the misappropriation was an unfortunate side effect of his role as a science communicator and explainer, and that he attempted to give proper credit whenever possible. Social concerns Sagan believed that the Drake equation, on substitution of reasonable estimates, suggested that a large number of extraterrestrial civilizations would form, but that the lack of evidence of such civilizations highlighted by the Fermi paradox suggests technological civilizations tend to self-destruct. This stimulated his interest in identifying and publicizing ways that humanity could destroy itself, with the hope of avoiding such a cataclysm and eventually becoming a spacefaring species. Sagan's deep concern regarding the potential destruction of human civilization in a nuclear holocaust was conveyed in a memorable cinematic sequence in the final episode of Cosmos, called "Who Speaks for Earth?" Sagan had already resigned from the Air Force Scientific Advisory Board's UFO-investigating Condon Committee and voluntarily surrendered his top-secret clearance in protest over the Vietnam War. Following his marriage to his third wife (novelist Ann Druyan) in June 1981, Sagan became more politically active—particularly in opposing escalation of the nuclear arms race under President Ronald Reagan. /Russia nuclear stockpiles, in total number of nuclear bombs/warheads in existence throughout the Cold War and post-Cold War era]] In March 1983, Reagan announced the Strategic Defense Initiative—a multibillion-dollar project to develop a comprehensive defense against attack by nuclear missiles, which was quickly dubbed the "Star Wars" program. Sagan spoke out against the project, arguing that it was technically impossible to develop a system with the level of perfection required, and far more expensive to build such a system than it would be for an enemy to defeat it through decoys and other means—and that its construction would seriously destabilize the "nuclear balance" between the United States and the Soviet Union, making further progress toward nuclear disarmament impossible. When Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev declared a unilateral moratorium on the testing of nuclear weapons, which would begin on August 6, 1985—the 40th anniversary of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima—the Reagan administration dismissed the dramatic move as nothing more than propaganda and refused to follow suit. In response, US anti-nuclear and peace activists staged a series of protest actions at the Nevada Test Site, beginning on Easter Sunday in 1986 and continuing through 1987. Hundreds of people in the "Nevada Desert Experience" group were arrested, including Sagan, who was arrested on two separate occasions as he climbed over a chain-link fence at the test site during the underground Operation Charioteer and United States's Musketeer nuclear test series of detonations. Sagan was also a vocal advocate of the controversial notion of testosterone poisoning, arguing in 1992 that human males could become gripped by an "unusually severe [case of] testosterone poisoning" and this could compel them to become genocidal. In his review of Moondance magazine writer Daniela Gioseffi's 1990 book Women on War, he argues that females are the only half of humanity "untainted by testosterone poisoning." One chapter of his 1993 book Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors is dedicated to testosterone and its alleged poisonous effects. In 1989, Carl Sagan was interviewed by Ted Turner whether he believed in socialism and responded that: "I'm not sure what a socialist is. But I believe the government has a responsibility to care for the people... I'm talking about making the people self-reliant." Personal life and beliefs Sagan was married three times. In 1957, he married biologist Lynn Margulis. The couple had two children, Jeremy and Dorion Sagan. Their marriage ended in 1964. Sagan married artist Linda Salzman in 1968 and they had a child together, Nick Sagan, and divorced in 1981. During these marriages, Carl Sagan focused heavily on his career, a factor which may have contributed to Sagan's first divorce. While there he drove a red Porsche 911 Targa and an orange 1970 Porsche 914 with the license plate PHOBOS. In 1994, engineers at Apple Computer code-named the Power Macintosh 7100 "Carl Sagan" in the hope that Apple would make "billions and billions" with the sale of the PowerMac 7100. In November 1995, after further legal battle, an out-of-court settlement was reached and Apple's office of trademarks and patents released a conciliatory statement that "Apple has always had great respect for Dr. Sagan. It was never Apple's intention to cause Dr. Sagan or his family any embarrassment or concern." In 2019, Carl Sagan's daughter Sasha Sagan released For Small Creatures Such as We: Rituals for Finding Meaning in our Unlikely World, which depicts life with her parents and her father's death when she was fourteen. Building on a theme in her father's work, Sasha Sagan argues in For Small Creatures Such as We that skepticism does not imply pessimism. Sagan was acquainted with science fiction fandom through his friendship with Isaac Asimov, and he spoke at the Nebula Awards ceremony in 1969. Asimov described Sagan as one of only two people he ever met whose intellect surpassed his own, the other being computer scientist and artificial intelligence expert Marvin Minsky. Naturalism Sagan wrote frequently about religion and the relationship between religion and science, expressing his skepticism about the conventional conceptualization of God as a sapient being. For example: In another description of his view on the concept of God, Sagan wrote: On atheism, Sagan said in 1981: Sagan also commented on Christianity and the Jefferson Bible, stating "My long-time view about Christianity is that it represents an amalgam of two seemingly immiscible parts, the religion of Jesus and the religion of Paul. Thomas Jefferson attempted to excise the Pauline parts of the New Testament. There wasn't much left when he was done, but it was an inspiring document." Sagan thought that spirituality should be scientifically informed and that traditional religions should be abandoned and replaced with belief systems that revolve around the scientific method, but also the mystery and incompleteness of scientific fields. Regarding spirituality and its relationship with science, Sagan stated: An environmental appeal, "Preserving and Cherishing the Earth", primarily written by Sagan and signed by him and other noted scientists as well as religious leaders, and published in January 1990, stated that "The historical record makes clear that religious teaching, example, and leadership are powerfully able to influence personal conduct and commitment... Thus, there is a vital role for religion and science." In reply to a question in 1996 about his religious beliefs, Sagan said he was agnostic. Sagan maintained that the idea of a creator God of the Universe was difficult to prove or disprove and that the only conceivable scientific discovery that could challenge it would be an infinitely old universe. His son, Dorion Sagan said, "My father believed in the God of Spinoza and Einstein, God not behind nature but as nature, equivalent to it." His last wife, Ann Druyan, said: In 2006, Druyan edited Sagan's 1985 Glasgow Gifford Lectures in Natural Theology into a book, The Varieties of Scientific Experience: A Personal View of the Search for God, in which he elaborates on his views of divinity in the natural world. employees in 1988.]] Sagan is also widely regarded as a freethinker or skeptic. One of his most famous quotations, "extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence", from Cosmos, is called the "Sagan standard" by some. It was based on a nearly identical statement by fellow founder of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal, Marcello Truzzi, "An extraordinary claim requires extraordinary proof." This idea had been earlier aphorized in Théodore Flournoy's work From India to the Planet Mars (1899) from a longer quote by Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749–1827), a French mathematician and astronomer, as the Principle of Laplace: "The weight of the evidence should be proportioned to the strangeness of the facts." Late in his life, Sagan's books elaborated on his naturalistic view of the world. In The Demon-Haunted World, he presented tools for testing arguments and detecting fallacious or fraudulent ones, essentially advocating the wide use of critical thinking and of the scientific method. The compilation Billions and Billions: Thoughts on Life and Death at the Brink of the Millennium, published in 1997 after Sagan's death, contains essays written by him, on topics such as his views on abortion, and also an essay by his widow, Ann Druyan, about the relationship between his agnostic and freethinking beliefs and his death. Sagan warned against humans' tendency towards anthropocentrism. He was the faculty adviser for the Cornell Students for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. In the Cosmos chapter "Blues For a Red Planet", Sagan wrote, "If there is life on Mars, I believe we should do nothing with Mars. Mars then belongs to the Martians, even if the Martians are only microbes." Marijuana advocacy Sagan was a user and advocate of marijuana. Under the pseudonym "Mr. X", he contributed an essay about smoking cannabis to the 1971 book Marihuana Reconsidered.<!-- NOTE: The book's title spells 'Marihuana' with an 'h' --> The essay explained that marijuana use had helped to inspire some of Sagan's works and enhance sensual and intellectual experiences. After Sagan's death, his friend Lester Grinspoon disclosed this information to Sagan's biographer, Keay Davidson. The publishing of the biography Carl Sagan: A Life, in 1999 brought media attention to this aspect of Sagan's life. Not long after his death, his widow Ann Druyan went on to preside over the board of directors of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws (NORML), a non-profit organization dedicated to reforming cannabis laws. UFOs In 1947, the year that inaugurated the "flying saucer" craze, the young Sagan suspected the "discs" might be alien spaceships. Though quite skeptical of any extraordinary answer to the UFO question, Sagan thought scientists should study the phenomenon, at least because there was widespread public interest in UFO reports. Stuart Appelle notes that Sagan "wrote frequently on what he perceived as the logical and empirical fallacies regarding UFOs and the abduction experience. Sagan rejected an extraterrestrial explanation for the phenomenon but felt there were both empirical and pedagogical benefits for examining UFO reports and that the subject was, therefore, a legitimate topic of study." In 1966, Sagan was a member of the Ad Hoc Committee to Review Project Blue Book, the U.S. Air Force's UFO investigation project. The committee concluded Blue Book had been lacking as a scientific study, and recommended a university-based project to give the UFO phenomenon closer scientific scrutiny. The result was the Condon Committee (1966–68), led by physicist Edward Condon, and in their final report they formally concluded that UFOs, regardless of what any of them actually were, did not behave in a manner consistent with a threat to national security. Sociologist Ron Westrum writes that "The high point of Sagan's treatment of the UFO question was the AAAS' symposium in 1969. A wide range of educated opinions on the subject were offered by participants, including not only proponents such as James McDonald and J. Allen Hynek but also skeptics like astronomers William Hartmann and Donald Menzel. The roster of speakers was balanced, and it is to Sagan's credit that this event was presented in spite of pressure from Edward Condon." Sagan briefly served as an adviser on Stanley Kubrick's film 2001: A Space Odyssey. Sagan proposed that the film suggest, rather than depict, extraterrestrial superintelligence. Death ]] After suffering from myelodysplasia for two years and receiving three bone marrow transplants from his sister, Sagan died from pneumonia at the age of 62 at the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center in Seattle on December 20, 1996. He was buried at Lake View Cemetery in Ithaca, New York. Awards and honors * Annual Award for Television Excellence—1981—Ohio State University—PBS series Cosmos: A Personal Voyage * Apollo Achievement Award—National Aeronautics and Space Administration * NASA Distinguished Public Service Medal—National Aeronautics and Space Administration (1977) * Emmy—Outstanding Individual Achievement—1981—PBS series Cosmos: A Personal Voyage * Exceptional Scientific Achievement Medal—National Aeronautics and Space Administration * Helen Caldicott Leadership Award – Awarded by Women's Action for Nuclear Disarmament * Hugo Award—1981—Best Dramatic Presentation—Cosmos: A Personal Voyage * Hugo Award—1981—Best Related Non-Fiction Book—Cosmos * Hugo Award—1998—Best Dramatic Presentation—Contact * Humanist of the Year—1981—Awarded by the American Humanist Association * American Philosophical Society—1995—Elected to membership. * In Praise of Reason Award—1987—Committee for Skeptical Inquiry * Isaac Asimov Award—1994—Committee for Skeptical Inquiry * John F. Kennedy Astronautics Award—1982—American Astronautical Society * Special non-fiction Campbell Memorial Award—1974—The Cosmic Connection: An Extraterrestrial Perspective * Joseph Priestley Award—"For distinguished contributions to the welfare of mankind" * Klumpke-Roberts Award of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific—1974 * Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement—1975 * Konstantin Tsiolkovsky Medal—Awarded by the Soviet Cosmonauts Federation * Locus Award 1986—Contact * Los Angeles Times Book Prize's 1996 Science and Technology category for The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark. * Lowell Thomas Award—The Explorers Club—75th Anniversary * Masursky Award—American Astronomical Society * Miller Research Fellowship—Miller Institute (1960–1962) * Oersted Medal—1990—American Association of Physics Teachers * Peabody Award—1980—PBS series Cosmos: A Personal Voyage * Le Prix Galabert d'astronautique—International Astronautical Federation (IAF) * Public Welfare Medal—1994—National Academy of Sciences * Pulitzer Prize for General Nonfiction—1978—The Dragons of Eden * Science Fiction Chronicle Award—1998—Dramatic Presentation—Contact * UCLA Medal–1991 * Inductee to International Space Hall of Fame in 2004 * Named the "99th Greatest American" on June 5, 2005, Greatest American television series on the Discovery Channel * Named an honorary member of the Demosthenian Literary Society on November 10, 2011 * New Jersey Hall of Fame—2009—Inductee. * Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI) Pantheon of Skeptics—April 2011—Inductee * Grand-Cross of the Order of Saint James of the Sword, Portugal (November 23, 1998) * Honorary Doctor of Science (Sc.D.) degree from Whittier College in 1978. * Was given the 2012 Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers Association's Kate Wilhelm Solstice Award Posthumous recognition The 1997 film Contact was based on the only novel Sagan wrote and finished after his death. It ends with the dedication "For Carl." His photo can also be seen in the film. In 1997, the Sagan Planet Walk was opened in Ithaca, New York. It is a walking-scale model of the Solar System, extending 1.2 km from the center of The Commons in downtown Ithaca to the Sciencenter, a hands-on museum. The exhibition was created in memory of Carl Sagan, who was an Ithaca resident and Cornell Professor. Professor Sagan had been a founding member of the museum's advisory board. The landing site of the uncrewed Mars Pathfinder spacecraft was renamed the Carl Sagan Memorial Station on July 5, 1997. Asteroid 2709 Sagan is named in his honor, August 2007 the Independent Investigations Group (IIG) awarded Sagan posthumously a Lifetime Achievement Award. This honor has also been awarded to Harry Houdini and James Randi. In September 2008, a musical compositor Benn Jordan released his album Pale Blue Dot as a tribute to Carl Sagan's life. Beginning in 2009, a musical project known as Symphony of Science sampled several excerpts of Sagan from his series Cosmos and remixed them to electronic music. To date, the videos have received over 21 million views worldwide on YouTube. The 2014 Swedish science fiction short film Wanderers uses excerpts of Sagan's narration in 1994 of his book Pale Blue Dot, played over digitally-created visuals of humanity's possible future expansion into outer space. In February 2015, the Finnish-based symphonic metal band Nightwish released the song "Sagan" as a non-album bonus track for their single "Élan." The song, written by the band's songwriter/composer/keyboardist Tuomas Holopainen, is an homage to the life and work of the late Carl Sagan. In August 2015, it was announced that a biopic of Sagan's life was being planned by Warner Bros. On October 21, 2019, the Carl Sagan and Ann Druyan Theater was opened at the Center for Inquiry West in Los Angeles. In 2022, Sagan was posthumously awarded the Future of Life Award "for reducing the risk of nuclear war by developing and popularizing the science of nuclear winter." The honor, shared by seven other recipients involved in nuclear winter research, was accepted by his widow, Ann Druyan. In 2022, the audiobook recording of Sagan's 1994 book Pale Blue Dot was selected by the U.S. Library of Congress for inclusion in the National Recording Registry for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant." In 2023, a movie Voyagers by Sebastián Lelio was announced with Sagan played by Andrew Garfield and with Daisy Edgar-Jones playing Sagan's third wife, Ann Druyan. Books * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * (Note: errata slip inserted.) * * See also * List of peace activists * Sagan effect * Neil deGrasse Tyson Explanatory notes References Citations Cited references * * * * * * * * External links * * * * [https://vault.fbi.gov/Carl%20Sagan FBI Records: The Vault – Carl Sagan] at fbi.gov * David Morrison, [http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/sagan-carl.pdf "Carl Sagan"], Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences (2014) * [https://www.lindahall.org/carl-sagan/ Scientist of the Day – Carl Sagan] at Linda Hall Library * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PQ4qBBWv3b4 Sagan interviewed by Ted Turner], CNN, 1989, video: 44 minutes. via YouTube. * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b00scvqk/Great_Lives_Series_21_Carl_Sagan/ Carl Sagan] – Great Lives, BBC Radio, December 15, 2017 * [https://web.archive.org/web/20221018010748/https://books.google.co.uk/books?idHoZdcomupUQC&pgPA36&hlen#vonepage&q&f=false "A man whose time has come" (archived)] – Interview with Carl Sagan by Ian Ridpath, New Scientist, July 4, 1974 * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160201115954/http://www.csicop.org/si/show/carl_sagans_life_and_legacy_as_scientist_teacher_and_skeptic "Carl Sagan's Life and Legacy as Scientist, Teacher, and Skeptic" (archived)], by David Morrison, Committee for Skeptical Inquiry * [https://archive.org/details/NASA_NTRS_Archive_19630011050 "NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS) 19630011050: Direct Contact Among Galactic Civilizations by Relativistic Interstellar Spaceflight"], Carl Sagan, when he was at Stanford University, in 1962, produced a controversial paper funded by a NASA research grant that concludes ancient alien intervention may have sparked human civilization. * Carl Sagan [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8hZl3arO7SY demonstrates] how Eratosthenes determined that the Earth was round and the approximate circumference of the earth (via YouTube) }} Category:1934 births Category:1996 deaths Category:20th-century American astronomers Category:20th-century American male writers Category:20th-century American novelists Category:20th-century American naturalists Category:American agnostics Category:American anti–nuclear weapons activists Category:American anti–Vietnam War activists Category:American astrophysicists Category:American cannabis activists Category:American cosmologists Category:American critics of alternative medicine Category:American critics of creationism Category:American humanists Category:American male non-fiction writers Category:American male novelists Category:American naturalists Category:American nature writers Category:American pacifists Category:American people of Russian-Jewish descent Category:American people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent Category:American planetary scientists Category:American science fiction writers Category:American science writers Category:American skeptics Category:American UFO writers Category:Articles containing video clips Category:American astrobiologists Category:Astrochemists Category:Cornell University faculty Category:Critics of parapsychology Category:Deaths from myelodysplastic syndrome Category:Deaths from pneumonia in Washington (state) Category:Fellows of the American Physical Society Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint James of the Sword Category:Harvard University faculty Category:Hugo Award–winning writers Category:Interstellar messages Category:Jewish agnostics Category:Jewish American activists Category:Jewish American scientists Category:Jewish astronomers Category:Jewish skeptics Category:Members of the American Philosophical Society Category:Novelists from New York (state) Category:Pantheists Category:People associated with the American Museum of Natural History Category:People from Bensonhurst, Brooklyn Category:Presidents of The Planetary Society Category:Pulitzer Prize for General Nonfiction winners Category:Rahway High School alumni Category:Sagan family Category:Scientists from New York (state) Category:Search for extraterrestrial intelligence Category:Secular humanists Category:Space advocates Category:University of California, Berkeley fellows Category:University of Chicago alumni Category:Writers about religion and science Category:Writers from Brooklyn	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Sagan	2025-04-05T18:27:58.538649
6827	Cuban Missile Crisis	\| date = 16–28 October 1962<br>(naval quarantine of Cuba ended on 20 November) \| place = Cuba \| coordinates \| map_type \| latitude \| longitude \| map_size \| map_caption \| map_label \| territory \| result = Conflict resolved diplomatically * Publicized removal of Soviet nuclear missiles from Cuba * Non-publicized removal of American nuclear missiles from Turkey and Italy * Agreement with the Soviet Union that the United States would never invade Cuba without direct provocation * Creation of a nuclear hotline between the United States and the Soviet Union \| status \| combatants_header Parties involved in the crisis \| combatant2 = <br /><br /><br /> \| combatant1 = <br /> \| commander2 = * John F. Kennedy * Robert McNamara * Maxwell D. Taylor * Curtis LeMay * George W. Anderson * Robert F. Kennedy * Harold Macmillan * Peter Thorneycroft * Sir Thomas Pike * Amintore Fanfani * Giulio Andreotti * Cemal Gürsel * İlhami Sancar \| commander1 = * Nikita Khrushchev * Anastas Mikoyan * Rodion Malinovsky * Matvei Zakharov * Sergey Biryuzov * Issa Pliyev * Georgy Abashvili * Fidel Castro * Raúl Castro * Che Guevara \| commander3 \| units1 \| units2 \| units3 \| strength1 = 43,000 soldiers \| strength2 = 100,000–180,000 (estimated) \| strength3 \| casualties1 None \| casualties2 = 1 U-2 spy aircraft lost<br /> 1 US pilot killed \| casualties3 \| notes \| image_size = 300 }} about the Cuban Missile Crisis]] The Cuban Missile Crisis, also known as the October Crisis () in Cuba, or the Caribbean Crisis (), was a 13-day confrontation between the governments of the United States and the Soviet Union, when American deployments of nuclear missiles in Italy and Turkey were matched by Soviet deployments of nuclear missiles in Cuba. The crisis lasted from 16to28 October 1962. The confrontation is widely considered the closest the Cold War came to escalating into full-scale nuclear war. In 1961 the US government put Jupiter nuclear missiles in Italy and Turkey. It had trained a paramilitary force of expatriate Cubans, which the CIA led in an attempt to invade Cuba and overthrow its government. Starting in November of that year, the US government engaged in a violent campaign of terrorism and sabotage in Cuba, referred to as the Cuban Project, which continued throughout the first half of the 1960s. The Soviet administration was concerned about a Cuban drift towards China, with which the Soviets had an increasingly fractious relationship. In response to these factors the Soviet and Cuban governments agreed, at a meeting between leaders Nikita Khrushchev and Fidel Castro in July 1962, to place nuclear missiles on Cuba to deter a future US invasion. Construction of launch facilities started shortly thereafter. A U-2 spy plane captured photographic evidence of medium- and long-range launch facilities in October. US President John F. Kennedy convened a meeting of the National Security Council and other key advisers, forming the Executive Committee of the National Security Council (EXCOMM). Kennedy was advised to carry out an air strike on Cuban soil in order to compromise Soviet missile supplies, followed by an invasion of the Cuban mainland. He chose a less aggressive course in order to avoid a declaration of war. On 22 October Kennedy ordered a naval blockade to prevent further missiles from reaching Cuba. He referred to the blockade as a "quarantine", not as a blockade, so the US could avoid the formal implications of a state of war. An agreement was eventually reached between Kennedy and Khrushchev. The Soviets would dismantle their offensive weapons in Cuba, subject to United Nations verification, in exchange for a US public declaration and agreement not to invade Cuba again. The United States secretly agreed to dismantle all of the offensive weapons it had deployed to Turkey. There has been debate on whether Italy was also included in the agreement. While the Soviets dismantled their missiles, some Soviet bombers remained in Cuba, and the United States kept the naval quarantine in place until 20 November 1962. The blockade was formally ended on 20 November after all offensive missiles and bombers had been withdrawn from Cuba. The evident necessity of a quick and direct communication line between the two powers resulted in the Moscow–Washington hotline. A series of agreements later reduced US–Soviet tensions for several years. The compromise embarrassed Khrushchev and the Soviet Union because the withdrawal of US missiles from Italy and Turkey was a secret deal between Kennedy and Khrushchev, and the Soviets were seen as retreating from a situation that they had started. Khrushchev's fall from power two years later was in part because of the Soviet Politburo's embarrassment at both Khrushchev's eventual concessions to the US and his ineptitude in precipitating the crisis. According to the Soviet Ambassador to the United States, Anatoly Dobrynin, the top Soviet leadership took the Cuban outcome as "a blow to its prestige bordering on humiliation".BackgroundCuba–Soviet relations In late 1961, Fidel Castro asked for more SA-2 anti-aircraft missiles from the Soviet Union. The request was not acted upon by the Soviet leadership. In the interval, Castro began criticizing the Soviets for lack of "revolutionary boldness", and began talking to China about agreements for economic assistance. In March 1962, Castro ordered the ousting of Anibal Escalante and his pro-Moscow comrades from Cuba's Integrated Revolutionary Organizations. This affair alarmed the Soviet leadership and raised fears of a possible US invasion. As a result, the Soviet Union sent more SA-2 anti-aircraft missiles in April, as well as a regiment of regular Soviet troops. Historian Timothy Naftali has contended that Escalante's dismissal was a motivating factor behind the Soviet decision to place nuclear missiles in Cuba in 1962. According to Naftali, Soviet foreign policy planners were concerned that Castro's break with Escalante foreshadowed a Cuban drift toward China, and they sought to solidify the Soviet-Cuban relationship through the missile basing program. Cuba–US relations 's plans for the Bay of Pigs Invasion]] The Cuban government regarded US imperialism as the primary explanation for the island's structural weaknesses. The US government had provided weapons, money, and its authority to the military dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista that ruled Cuba until 1958. The majority of the Cuban population had tired of the severe socioeconomic problems associated with the US domination of the country. The Cuban government was thus aware of the necessity of ending the turmoil and incongruities of US-dominated prerevolution Cuban society. It determined that the US government's demands, part of the hostile US reaction to Cuban government policy, were unacceptable. With the ending of World War II and the start of the Cold War, the US government had grown concerned about the expansion of communism and sought to promote private enterprise as an instrument for advancing US strategic interests in the developing world. In December 1959, under the Eisenhower administration and less than twelve months after the Cuban Revolution, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) developed a plan for paramilitary action against Cuba. The CIA recruited operatives on the island to carry out terrorism and sabotage, kill civilians, and cause economic damage. Following the failed invasion, the US escalated its sponsorship of terrorism against Cuba. Starting in late 1961, using the military and the CIA, the US government engaged in an extensive campaign of state-sponsored terrorism against civilian and military targets on the island. The terrorist attacks killed significant numbers of civilians. The US armed, trained, funded and directed the terrorists, most of whom were Cuban expatriates. Terrorist attacks were planned at the direction and with the participation of US government employees and launched from US territory. In January 1962, US Air Force General Edward Lansdale described the plans to overthrow the Cuban government in a top-secret report, addressed to Kennedy and officials involved with Operation Mongoose. In February 1962, the US launched an embargo against Cuba, and Lansdale presented a 26-page, top-secret timetable for implementation of the overthrow of the Cuban government, mandating guerrilla operations to begin in August and September. "Open revolt and overthrow of the Communist regime" was hoped by the planners to occur in the first two weeks of October.}} The US government was aware at the time, as reported to the president in a National Intelligence Estimate, that the invasion threat was a key reason for the increased Soviet military presence. US–Soviet relations (1917–1963) and Nikita Khrushchev (1894–1971) in Vienna, Austria in May 1961]] When Kennedy ran for president in 1960, one of his key election issues was an alleged "missile gap" with the Soviets. In fact the US at that time was ahead of the Soviets and by an increasingly wide margin. In 1961 the Soviets had four R-7 Semyorka intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs); by October 1962, some intelligence estimates indicated a figure of 75. The half-hearted nature of the Bay of Pigs invasion reinforced his impression that Kennedy was indecisive and, as one Soviet aide wrote, "too young, intellectual, not prepared well for decision making in crisis situations... too intelligent and too weak".Prelude Conception In May 1962, Soviet First Secretary Nikita Khrushchev decided to counter the growing lead of the US in developing and deploying strategic missiles by placing Soviet intermediate-range nuclear missiles in Cuba, despite the misgivings of the Soviet Ambassador in Havana, Alexandr Ivanovich Alexeyev, who argued that Castro would not accept them. Khrushchev faced a strategic situation in which the US was perceived to have a "splendid first strike" capability that put the Soviet Union at a disadvantage. In 1962, the Soviets had only 20 ICBMs capable of delivering nuclear warheads to the US from inside the Soviet Union. Their poor accuracy and reliability raised serious doubts about their effectiveness. A newer, more reliable generation of Soviet ICBMs only became operational after 1965. A second reason that Soviet missiles were deployed to Cuba was that Khrushchev wanted to bring West Berlin, which was controlled by the American, British and French within Communist East Germany, into the Soviet orbit. The East Germans and Soviets considered western control over a portion of Berlin to be a threat to East Germany. Khrushchev made West Berlin the central battlefield of the Cold War. He believed that if the US did nothing over the deployments of missiles in Cuba, he could force the West out of Berlin by using the missiles as a deterrent to western countermeasures in Berlin. If the US tried to bargain with the Soviets after it became aware of them, Khrushchev could demand a trade of the missiles for West Berlin. Since Berlin was strategically more important than Cuba, the trade would be a win for Khrushchev, as Kennedy recognized: "The advantage is, from Khrushchev's point of view, he takes a great chance but there are quite some rewards to it." Thirdly, it seemed from the perspective both of the Soviet Union and of Cuba that the United States wanted to invade Cuba or increase its presence there. In view of actions which included an attempt to expel Cuba from the Organization of American States, a campaign of violent terrorist attacks on civilians which the US was carrying out on Cuba, economic sanctions against the country and an earlier attempt to invade the island, Cuban officials understood that America was trying to overrun their country. The USSR would respond by placing missiles on Cuba, which would secure the country against attack and keep it in the Socialist Bloc. Placing nuclear missiles on Cuba was also a way for the USSR to show support for Cuba and the Cuban people who viewed the United States as a threat. Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., a historian and adviser to Kennedy, told National Public Radio in an interview on 16 October 2002 that Castro did not want the missiles, but Khrushchev pressured him to accept them. Castro was not completely happy with the idea, but the Cuban National Directorate of the Revolution accepted them, both to protect Cuba against US attack and to aid the Soviet Union. The deployment would include short-range tactical weapons with a range of 40km, usable only against naval vessels, that would provide a "nuclear umbrella" for attacks upon the island. By May, Khrushchev and Castro agreed to place strategic nuclear missiles secretly in Cuba. Like Castro, Khrushchev felt that a US invasion of Cuba was imminent and that to lose Cuba would do great harm to the communists, especially in Latin America. He said he wanted to confront the Americans "with more than words.... the logical answer was missiles". The Soviets maintained their tight secrecy, writing their plans in longhand, which were approved by Marshal of the Soviet Union Rodion Malinovsky on 4 July and Khrushchev on 7 July. The Soviets' operation entailed elaborate denial and deception, known as "maskirovka". All the planning and preparation for transporting and deploying the missiles was carried out in the utmost secrecy, with only a very few knowing the exact nature of the mission. Even the troops detailed for the mission were given misdirection by being told that they were headed for a cold region and were outfitted with ski boots, fleece-lined parkas, and other winter equipment. The Soviet code-name was Operation Anadyr. The Anadyr River flows into the Bering Sea, and Anadyr is also the capital of Chukotsky District and a bomber base in the far eastern region. All these measures were intended to conceal the program. Specialists in missile construction, under the guise of machine operators and agricultural specialists, arrived in July. Chief Marshal of Artillery Sergei Biryuzov, Head of the Soviet Rocket Forces, led a survey team that visited Cuba. He told Khrushchev that the missiles would be concealed and camouflaged by palm trees. As early as August 1962, the US suspected that the Soviets were building missile facilities in Cuba. During that month, its intelligence services gathered information of sightings by ground observers of Soviet-built MiG-21 fighters and Il-28 light bombers. U-2 spy planes found S-75 Dvina (NATO designation SA-2) surface-to-air missile sites at eight different locations. CIA director John A. McCone was suspicious. Sending antiaircraft missiles into Cuba, he reasoned, "made sense only if Moscow intended to use them to shield a base for ballistic missiles aimed at the United States". On 10 August, he wrote a memo to Kennedy in which he guessed that the Soviets were preparing to introduce ballistic missiles into Cuba. Che Guevara himself traveled to the Soviet Union on 30 August 1962, to sign the final agreement regarding the deployment of missiles in Cuba. The visit was heavily monitored by the CIA as Guevara was being watched closely by American intelligence. While in the Soviet Union, Guevara argued with Khrushchev that the missile deal should be made public but Khrushchev insisted on total secrecy, and promised the Soviet Union's support if the Americans discovered the missiles. By the time Guevara arrived in Cuba, U-2 spy planes had already discovered the Soviet troops in Cuba. With important Congressional elections scheduled for November, the crisis became enmeshed in American politics. On 31 August, Senator Kenneth Keating (R-New York) warned on the Senate floor that the Soviet Union was "in all probability" constructing a missile base in Cuba. He charged the Kennedy administration with covering up a major threat to the US, thereby starting the crisis. He may have received this initial "remarkably accurate" information from his friend, former congresswoman and ambassador Clare Boothe Luce, who in turn received it from Cuban exiles. A later confirming source for Keating's information may have been the West German ambassador to Cuba, who had received information from dissidents inside Cuba that Soviet troops had arrived in Cuba in early August and were seen working "in all probability on or near a missile base". The ambassador passed this information to Keating on a trip to Washington in early October. Air Force General Curtis LeMay presented a pre-invasion bombing plan to Kennedy in September, and spy flights and minor military harassment from US forces at Guantanamo Bay Naval Base were the subject of continual Cuban diplomatic complaints to the US government. It was a single-stage, road-transportable, surface-launched, storable liquid propellant-fuelled missile that could deliver a megaton-class nuclear weapon. The Soviets were building nine sites, six for R-12 medium-range missiles (NATO designation SS-4 Sandal) with an effective range of and three for R-14 intermediate-range ballistic missiles (NATO designation SS-5 Skean) with a maximum range of . On 7 October, Cuban President Osvaldo Dorticós Torrado spoke at the UN General Assembly: "If... we are attacked, we will defend ourselves. I repeat, we have sufficient means with which to defend ourselves; we have indeed our inevitable weapons, the weapons, which we would have preferred not to acquire, and which we do not wish to employ." On 11 October in another Senate speech, Sen Keating reaffirmed his earlier warning of 31 August and stated that, "Construction has begun on at least a half dozen launching sites for intermediate range tactical missiles." The Cuban leadership was further upset when on 20 September, the US Senate approved Joint Resolution 230, which stated that the US was determined "to prevent in Cuba the creation or use of an externally-supported military capability endangering the security of the United States". The Soviet leadership believed, based on its perception of Kennedy's lack of confidence during the Bay of Pigs Invasion, that he would avoid confrontation and would accept the missiles as a . On 17 October, Soviet embassy official Georgy Bolshakov brought President Kennedy a personal message from Khrushchev reassuring him that "under no circumstances would surface-to-surface missiles be sent to Cuba." Only five reports bothered the analysts. They described large trucks passing through towns at night that were carrying very long canvas-covered cylindrical objects and could not make turns through towns without backing up and maneuvering. Defensive missile transporters, it was believed, could make such turns without undue difficulty. The reports could not be satisfactorily dismissed. Aerial confirmation The United States had been sending U-2 surveillance flights over Cuba since the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion. A pause in reconnaissance flights occurred on 30 August 1962 when a U-2 operated by the US Air Force's Strategic Air Command flew over Sakhalin Island in the Soviet Far East by mistake. The Soviets lodged a protest and the US apologized. Nine days later, a Taiwanese-operated U-2 was lost over western China to an SA-2 surface-to-air missile (SAM). US officials were worried that one of the Cuban or Soviet SAMs in Cuba might shoot down a CIA U-2, causing another international incident. In a meeting with members of the Committee on Overhead Reconnaissance (COMOR) on 10 September 1962, Secretary of State Dean Rusk and National Security Advisor McGeorge Bundy restricted further U-2 flights over Cuban airspace. The resulting lack of coverage over the island for the next five weeks became known to historians as the "Photo Gap". No significant U-2 coverage was achieved over the interior of the island during this time. US officials attempted to use a Corona photo-reconnaissance satellite to photograph reported Soviet military deployments, but the imagery acquired over western Cuba by a Corona KH-4 mission on October 1 1962 was obscured by clouds and haze and did not provide usable intelligence. At the end of September, Navy reconnaissance aircraft photographed the Soviet ship Kasimov with large crates on its deck the size and shape of Il-28 jet bomber fuselages. In the past the flights had been conducted by the CIA, but pressure from the Defense Department led to that authority being transferred to the Air Force. President notified On 15 October 1962, the CIA's National Photographic Interpretation Center (NPIC) reviewed the U-2 photographs and identified objects that appeared to be medium range ballistic missiles. This identification was made partly on the strength of reporting provided by Oleg Penkovsky, a double agent in the GRU working for the CIA and MI6. Although he provided no direct reports of Soviet missile deployments to Cuba, technical and doctrinal details of Soviet missile regiments that had been provided by Penkovsky in the months and years prior to the crisis helped NPIC analysts to identify the missiles in U-2 imagery. That evening, the CIA notified the Department of State and at 8:30pm EDT, Bundy chose to wait until the next morning to tell the President. McNamara was briefed at midnight. The next morning, Bundy showed Kennedy the U-2 photographs and briefed him on the CIA's analysis of the images. At 6:30 pm EDT, Kennedy convened a meeting of the nine members of the National Security Council and five other key advisers, in a group he named the Executive Committee of the National Security Council (EXCOMM) after the fact on 22 October by National Security Action Memorandum 196. Without informing the members of EXCOMM, President Kennedy tape-recorded all of their proceedings, and Sheldon M. Stern, head of the Kennedy library transcribed some of them. On 16 October, President Kennedy notified Attorney General Robert Kennedy that he was convinced the Soviets were placing missiles on Cuba, that it was a legitimate threat and that the possibility of nuclear destruction by two world superpowers had become a reality. Robert Kennedy responded by contacting the Soviet Ambassador, Anatoly Dobrynin. Robert Kennedy expressed his "concern about what was happening" and Dobrynin "was instructed by Soviet Chairman Nikita S. Khrushchev to assure President Kennedy that there would be no ground-to-ground missiles or offensive weapons placed in Cuba". Khrushchev further assured Kennedy that the Soviet Union had no intention of "disrupting the relationship of our two countries" despite the photo evidence presented before President Kennedy. Responses considered with General Curtis LeMay and the reconnaissance pilots who found the missile sites in Cuba.]] The US had no plan for a response in place because it had never expected that the Soviets would install nuclear missiles on Cuba. EXCOMM discussed several possible courses of action: # Do nothing: American vulnerability to Soviet missiles was not new. # Diplomacy: Use diplomatic pressure to induce the Soviet Union to remove the missiles. # Secret approach: Offer Castro the choice of parting from the Soviets or being invaded. # Invasion: Full-force invasion of Cuba and overthrow of Castro. # Air strike: Use the US Air Force to attack all known missile sites. # Blockade: Use the US Navy to block any missiles from arriving in Cuba. models how both actors would have considered their decisions. It is broken down into a simple form for basic understanding.]] The Joint Chiefs of Staff unanimously agreed that a full-scale attack and invasion was the only solution. They believed that the Soviets would not attempt to stop the US from conquering Cuba. Kennedy was skeptical: Kennedy concluded that attacking Cuba by air would signal the Soviets to presume "a clear line" to conquer Berlin. Kennedy also believed that US allies would think of the country as "trigger-happy cowboys" who lost Berlin because they could not peacefully resolve the Cuban situation. meeting, 29 October 1962]] EXCOMM considered the effect on the strategic balance of power, both political and military. The Joint Chiefs of Staff believed that the missiles would seriously alter the military balance, but McNamara disagreed. An extra 40, he reasoned, would make little difference to the overall strategic balance. The US already had approximately 5,000 strategic warheads, but the Soviet Union had only 300. McNamara concluded that the Soviets having 340 would not therefore substantially alter the strategic balance. In 1990, he reiterated that "it made no difference.... The military balance wasn't changed. I didn't believe it then, and I don't believe it now." It was agreed that the missiles would affect the political balance. Kennedy had explicitly promised the American people less than a month before the crisis that "if Cuba should possess a capacity to carry out offensive actions against the United States... the United States would act." Further, US credibility among its allies and people would be damaged if the Soviet Union appeared to redress the strategic imbalance by placing missiles in Cuba. Kennedy explained after the crisis that "it would have politically changed the balance of power. It would have appeared to, and appearances contribute to reality." , 18 October 1962.]] On 18 October 1962, Kennedy met Soviet Minister of Foreign Affairs Andrei Gromyko, who claimed that the weapons were for defensive purposes only. Not wanting to expose what he already knew and to avoid panicking the American public, Kennedy did not reveal that he was already aware of the missile buildup.Operational plans Two Operational Plans (OPLAN) were considered. OPLAN 316 envisioned a full invasion of Cuba by Army and Marine units, supported by the Navy, following Air Force and naval airstrikes. Army units in the US would have had difficulty fielding mechanised and logistical assets, and the US Navy could not supply enough amphibious shipping to transport even a modest armoured contingent from the Army. OPLAN 312, primarily an Air Force and Navy carrier operation, was designed with enough flexibility to do anything from engaging individual missile sites to providing air support for OPLAN 316's ground forces.Blockade <!-- the article "Hedy Lamarr" links here --> of VP-18 flying over a Soviet cargo ship with crated Il-28s on deck during the Cuban Crisis]] Kennedy conferred with members of EXCOMM and other top advisers throughout 21 October and considered the two remaining options: an air strike primarily against the Cuban missile bases or a naval blockade of Cuba. Legal experts at the State Department and Justice Department concluded that a declaration of war could be avoided if another legal justification, based on the Rio Treaty for defence of the Western Hemisphere, was obtained from a resolution by a two-thirds vote from the members of the Organization of American States (OAS). Admiral George Anderson, Chief of Naval Operations wrote a position paper that helped Kennedy to differentiate between what they termed a "quarantine" of offensive weapons and a blockade of all materials, claiming that a classic blockade was not the original intention. Since it would take place in international waters, Kennedy obtained the approval of the OAS for military action under the hemispheric defence provisions of the Rio Treaty: Speech to the nation on 23 October 1962.]] At 3:00 pm EDT on 22 October 1962, President Kennedy formally established the executive committee (EXCOMM) with National Security Action Memorandum (NSAM) 196. At 5:00 pm, he met Congressional leaders, who opposed a blockade and demanded a stronger response. In Moscow, US Ambassador Foy D. Kohler briefed Khrushchev on the pending blockade and Kennedy's speech to the nation. Ambassadors around the world gave notice to non-Eastern Bloc leaders. Before the speech, US delegations met Canadian Prime Minister John Diefenbaker, British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan, West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer, French President Charles de Gaulle and Secretary-General of the Organization of American States, José Antonio Mora to brief them on this intelligence and the US's proposed response. All were supportive of the US position. Over the course of the crisis, Kennedy had daily telephone conversations with Macmillan, who was publicly supportive of US actions. Shortly before his speech, Kennedy telephoned former President Dwight Eisenhower. Kennedy's conversation with the former president also revealed that the two had been consulting during the Cuban Missile Crisis. The two also anticipated that Khrushchev would respond to the Western world in a manner similar to his response during the Suez Crisis, and would possibly wind up trading off Berlin.}} During the speech, a directive went out to all US forces worldwide, placing them on DEFCON 3. The heavy cruiser was the designated flagship for the blockade, Kennedy's speech writer Ted Sorensen stated in 2007 that the address to the nation was "Kennedy's most important speech historically, in terms of its impact on our planet."Crisis deepens's letter to Kennedy (dated 24 October 1962) stating that the blockade of Cuba "constitute[s] an act of aggression"]] At 11:24 am EDT on 24 October , a cable from US Secretary of State George Ball to the US Ambassadors in Turkey and NATO notified them that they were considering making an offer to withdraw missiles from Italy and Turkey in exchange for Soviet withdrawal from Cuba. Turkish officials replied that they would "deeply resent" any trade involving the US missile presence in their country. One day later, on the morning of 25 October, American journalist Walter Lippmann proposed the same thing in his syndicated column. Castro reaffirmed Cuba's right to self-defense and said that all of its weapons were defensive and Cuba would not allow an inspection. In West Germany, newspapers supported the US response by contrasting it with the weak American actions in the region during the preceding months. They also expressed some fear that the Soviets might retaliate in Berlin. In France on 23 October, the crisis made the front page of all the daily newspapers. The next day, an editorial in Le Monde'' expressed doubt about the authenticity of the CIA's photographic evidence. Two days later, after a visit by a high-ranking CIA agent, the newspaper accepted the validity of the photographs. In the 29 October issue of Le Figaro, Raymond Aron wrote in support of the American response. On 24 October, Pope John XXIII sent a message to the Soviet embassy in Rome, to be transmitted to the Kremlin, in which he voiced his concern for peace. In this message he stated, "We beg all governments not to remain deaf to this cry of humanity. That they do all that is in their power to save peace."Soviet broadcast and communicationsThe crisis continued unabated, and on the evening of 24 October 1962, the Soviet TASS news agency broadcast a telegram from Khrushchev to Kennedy in which Khrushchev warned that the United States' "outright piracy" would lead to war. Khrushchev then sent at 9:24 pm a telegram to Kennedy, which was received at 10:52 pm EDT. Khrushchev stated, "if you weigh the present situation with a cool head without giving way to passion, you will understand that the Soviet Union cannot afford not to decline the despotic demands of the USA". The Soviet Union viewed the blockade as "an act of aggression" and their ships would be instructed to ignore it. US alert level raised shows aerial photos of Cuban missiles to the United Nations, 25 October 1962.]] The US requested an emergency meeting of the United Nations Security Council on 25 October and Ambassador to the United Nations, Adlai Stevenson, confronted Soviet Ambassador Valerian Zorin and challenged him to admit the existence of the missiles. Ambassador Zorin refused to answer. At 10:00 pm EDT the next day, the US raised the readiness level of Strategic Air Command (SAC) forces to DEFCON 2. For the only confirmed time in US history, B-52 bombers were put on continuous airborne alert. B-47 medium bombers were dispersed to military and civilian airfields and made ready to take off, fully equipped, at 15 minutes' notice. One-eighth of SAC's 1,436 bombers were on airborne alert. Some 145 intercontinental ballistic missiles, some of which targeted Cuba, were placed on alert. Air Defense Command (ADC) redeployed 161 nuclear-armed interceptors to 16 dispersal fields within nine hours, with one third on 15-minute alert status. Jack J. Catton later estimated that about 80 per cent of SAC's planes were ready for launch during the crisis. David A. Burchinal recalled that, by contrast: By 22 October, Tactical Air Command (TAC) had 511 fighters plus supporting tankers and reconnaissance aircraft deployed to face Cuba on one-hour alert status. TAC and the Military Air Transport Service had problems: the concentration of aircraft in Florida strained command and support echelons, which were facing critical undermanning in security, armaments, and communications. Absence of permission to use war-reserve stocks of conventional munitions forced TAC to scrounge supplies, and the lack of airlift assets to support a major airborne drop necessitated the call-up of 24 reserve squadrons. At 5:00 pm EDT on 25 October, William Clements announced that the missiles in Cuba were still being worked on. This was later verified by a CIA report that suggested there had been no slowdown. In response, Kennedy issued Security Action Memorandum 199, authorizing the loading of nuclear weapons onto aircraft under the command of SACEUR, which had the duty of carrying out first air strikes on the Soviet Union. Kennedy claimed that the blockade had succeeded when the USSR turned back fourteen ships presumed to be carrying offensive weapons. The first indication of this was in a report from British GCHQ sent to the White House Situation Room which contained intercepted communications from Soviet ships reporting their positions. On 24 October, Kislovodsk, a Soviet cargo ship, reported a position north-east of where it had been 24 hours earlier, indicating it had "discontinued" its voyage and turned back towards the Baltic. The next day, further reports showed that more ships originally bound for Cuba had altered their course. Raising the stakes The next morning, 26 October, Kennedy informed EXCOMM that he believed only an invasion would remove the missiles from Cuba. He was persuaded to wait and continue with military and diplomatic pressure. He agreed and ordered low-level flights over the island to be increased from two per day to every two hours. He also ordered a crash program to institute a new civil government in Cuba if an invasion went ahead. At this point the crisis appeared to be at a stalemate. The Soviets had shown no indication that they would back down and had made public media and private inter-government statements to that effect. The US had no reason to disbelieve them and was in the early stages of preparing an invasion of Cuba and a nuclear strike on the Soviet Union if it responded militarily, which the US assumed it would. Kennedy had no intention of keeping these plans secret, and with an array of Cuban and Soviet spies present Khrushchev was made aware of them. The implicit threat of air strikes on Cuba followed by an invasion allowed the United States to exert pressure in future talks, and the prospect of military action helped to accelerate Khrushchev's proposal for a compromise. The escalating situation also caused Khrushchev to abandon plans for a possible Warsaw Pact invasion of Albania, which was being discussed in the Eastern Bloc following the Vlora incident the previous year. Secret negotiations At 1:00 pm EDT on 26 October, John A. Scali of ABC News met Aleksandr Fomin, the cover name of Alexander Feklisov, the KGB station chief in Washington, at Fomin's request. Following the instructions of the Politburo of the CPSU, Fomin noted, "War seems about to break out." He asked Scali to use his contacts to talk to his "high-level friends" at the State Department to see if the US would be interested in a diplomatic solution. He suggested that the language of the deal would contain an assurance from the Soviet Union to remove the weapons under UN supervision and that Castro would publicly announce that he would not accept such weapons again, in exchange for a public statement by the US that it would not invade Cuba. The US responded by asking the Brazilian government to pass a message to Castro that the US would be "unlikely to invade" if the missiles were removed. \| width = 40% }} At 6:00 pm EDT on 26 October, the State Department started receiving a message that appeared to be written personally by Khrushchev. It was Saturday 2:00 am in Moscow. The long letter took several minutes to arrive, and it took translators additional time to translate and transcribe it.}} with V-750V 1D missile (NATO designation SA-2 Guideline) on a launcher. A similar installation shot down Major Anderson's U-2 over Cuba.]] Castro, on the other hand, was convinced that an invasion of Cuba was imminent, and on 26 October he sent a telegram to Khrushchev that appeared to call for a pre-emptive nuclear strike on the US in case of attack. In a 2010 interview, Castro expressed regret about his 1962 stance on first use: "After I've seen what I've seen, and knowing what I know now, it wasn't worth it at all." Castro also ordered all anti-aircraft weapons in Cuba to fire on any US aircraft. Previous orders had been to fire only on groups of two or more. At 6:00 am EDT on 27 October, the CIA delivered a memo reporting that three of the four missile sites at San Cristobal and both sites at Sagua la Grande appeared to be fully operational. It also noted that the Cuban military continued to organise for action but was under order not to act unless attacked. At 9:00 am EDT on 27 October, Radio Moscow began broadcasting a message from Khrushchev. Contrary to the letter of the night before, the message offered a new trade: the missiles on Cuba would be removed in exchange for the removal of the Jupiter missiles from Italy and Turkey. At 10:00 am EDT, the executive committee met again to discuss the situation and came to the conclusion that the change in the message was because of internal debate between Khrushchev and other party officials in the Kremlin. Kennedy realised that he would be in an "insupportable position if this becomes Khrushchev's proposal" because the missiles in Turkey were not militarily useful and were being removed anyway, and "It's gonna – to any man at the United Nations or any other rational man, it will look like a very fair trade." Bundy explained why Khrushchev's public acquiescence could not be considered: "The current threat to peace is not in Turkey, it is in Cuba." McNamara noted that another tanker, the Grozny, was about out and should be intercepted. He also noted that they had not made the Soviets aware of the blockade line and suggested relaying that information to them via U Thant at the United Nations. U-2F, the high altitude reconnaissance type shot down over Cuba, being refueled by a Boeing KC-135Q. The aircraft in 1962 was painted overall gray and carried USAF military markings and national insignia.]] While the meeting progressed, at 11:03 am EDT a new message began to arrive from Khrushchev. The message stated, in part: "You are disturbed over Cuba. You say that this disturbs you because it is ninety-nine miles by sea from the coast of the United States of America. But... you have placed destructive missile weapons, which you call offensive, in Italy and Turkey, literally next to us.... I therefore make this proposal: We are willing to remove from Cuba the means which you regard as offensive.... Your representatives will make a declaration to the effect that the United States... will remove its analogous means from Turkey... and after that, persons entrusted by the United Nations Security Council could inspect on the spot the fulfillment of the pledges made." The executive committee continued to meet through the day. Throughout the crisis, Turkey had repeatedly stated that it would be upset if the Jupiter missiles were removed. Italy's Prime Minister Amintore Fanfani, who was also Foreign Minister ad interim, offered to allow withdrawal of the missiles deployed in Apulia as a bargaining chip. He gave the message to one of his most trusted friends, Ettore Bernabei, general manager of RAI-TV, to convey to Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. Bernabei was in New York to attend an international conference on satellite TV broadcasting. shot down over Cuba on display at Museum of the Revolution in Havana]] On the morning of 27 October, a U-2F (the third CIA U-2A, modified for air-to-air refuelling) piloted by USAF Major Rudolf Anderson, departed its forward operating location at McCoy AFB, Florida. At approximately 12:00 pm EDT, the aircraft was struck by an SA-2 surface-to-air missile launched from Cuba. The aircraft crashed, and Anderson was killed. Stress in negotiations between the Soviets and the US intensified; only later was it assumed that the decision to fire the missile was made locally by an undetermined Soviet commander, acting on his own authority. Later that day, at about 3:41 pm EDT, several US Navy RF-8A Crusader aircraft, on low-level photo-reconnaissance missions, were fired upon. At 4:00 pm EDT, Kennedy recalled members of EXCOMM to the White House and ordered that a message should immediately be sent to U Thant asking the Soviets to suspend work on the missiles while negotiations were carried out. During the meeting, General Maxwell Taylor delivered the news that the U-2 had been shot down. Kennedy had earlier claimed he would order an attack on such sites if fired upon, but he decided to not act unless another attack was made. On 28 October 1962, Khrushchev told his son Sergei that the shooting down of Anderson's U-2 was by the "Cuban military at the direction of Raúl Castro". On 27 October Bobby Kennedy relayed a message to the Soviet Ambassador that President Kennedy was under pressure from the military to use force against Cuba and that "an irreversible chain of events could occur against his will" as "the president is not sure that the military will not overthrow him and seize power". He therefore implored Khrushchev to accept Kennedy's proposed agreement. Forty years later, McNamara said: Daniel Ellsberg said that Robert Kennedy (RFK) told him in 1964 that after the U-2 was shot down and the pilot killed, he (RFK) told Soviet ambassador Dobrynin, "You have drawn first blood ... . [T]he president had decided against advice ... not to respond militarily to that attack, but he [Dobrynin] should know that if another plane was shot at, ... we would take out all the SAMs and anti-aircraft ... . And that would almost surely be followed by an invasion." Drafting response <!--4 paragraphs without citations--> Emissaries sent by both Kennedy and Khrushchev agreed to meet at the Yenching Palace Chinese restaurant in the Cleveland Park neighbourhood of Washington, DC, on Saturday evening, 27 October. Kennedy suggested taking Khrushchev's offer to trade away the missiles. Unknown to most members of the EXCOMM, but with the support of his brother the president, Robert Kennedy had been meeting the Soviet Ambassador Dobrynin in Washington to discover whether the intentions were genuine. The EXCOMM was against the proposal because it would undermine NATO's authority, and the Turkish government had repeatedly stated that it was against any such trade. As the meeting progressed, a new plan emerged, and Kennedy was slowly persuaded. The new plan called for him to ignore the latest message and instead to return to Khrushchev's earlier one. Kennedy was initially hesitant, feeling that Khrushchev would no longer accept the deal because a new one had been offered, but Llewellyn Thompson argued that it was still possible. Within the US establishment, it was understood that ignoring the second offer and returning to the first put Khrushchev in a terrible position. Military preparations continued, and all active duty Air Force personnel were recalled to their bases for possible action. Robert Kennedy later recalled the mood: "We had not abandoned all hope, but what hope there was now rested with Khrushchev's revising his course within the next few hours. It was a hope, not an expectation. The expectation was military confrontation by Tuesday [30 October], and possibly tomorrow [29 October] ...." With the letter delivered, a deal was on the table. As Robert Kennedy noted, there was little expectation it would be accepted. At 9:00 pm EDT, the EXCOMM met again to review the actions for the following day. Plans were drawn up for air strikes on the missile sites as well as other economic targets, notably petroleum storage. McNamara stated that they had to "have two things ready: a government for Cuba, because we're going to need one; and secondly, plans for how to respond to the Soviet Union in Europe, because sure as hell they're going to do something there". At 12:12 am EDT, on 27 October, the US informed its NATO allies that "the situation is growing shorter.... the United States may find it necessary within a very short time in its interest and that of its fellow nations in the Western Hemisphere to take whatever military action may be necessary." To add to the concern, at 6:00 am, the CIA reported that all missiles in Cuba were ready for action. helicopter hovers over Soviet submarine B-59, driven to the surface by US Naval forces in the Caribbean near Cuba (28 or 29 October 1962).]] On 27 October, Khrushchev also received a letter from Castro, what is now known as the Armageddon Letter (dated the day before), which urged the use of nuclear force in the event of an attack on Cuba: "I believe the imperialists' aggressiveness is extremely dangerous and if they actually carry out the brutal act of invading Cuba in violation of international law and morality, that would be the moment to eliminate such danger forever through an act of clear legitimate defense, however harsh and terrible the solution would be," Castro wrote.Averted nuclear launch Later that same day, what the White House later called "Black Saturday", the US Navy dropped a series of "signalling" depth charges ("practice" depth charges the size of hand grenades) on a Soviet submarine () at the blockade line, unaware that it was armed with a nuclear-tipped torpedo that could be launched if the submarine was damaged by depth charges or surface fire. The submarine was too deep to monitor radio traffic and the captain of the B-59, Valentin Grigoryevich Savitsky, assuming after live ammunition fire at his submarine that a war had started, proposed to launch the nuclear torpedo at the US ships. The decision to launch the "special weapon" normally only required the agreement of the ship's commanding officer and political officer, but the commander of the submarine flotilla, Vasily Arkhipov, was aboard B-59 and he also had to agree. Arkhipov did not give his consent and the nuclear torpedo was not launched. (These events only became publicly known in 2002. See Submarine close call.) On the same day a U-2 spy plane made an accidental and unauthorised 90-minute overflight of the Soviet Union's far eastern coast. The Soviets responded by scrambling MiG fighters from Wrangel Island; in turn, the Americans launched F-102 fighters armed with nuclear air-to-air missiles over the Bering Sea.ResolutionOn Saturday, 27 October, after much deliberation between the Soviet Union and Kennedy's cabinet, Kennedy secretly agreed to remove all missiles in Turkey, on the border of the Soviet Union, and possibly those in southern Italy, in exchange for Khrushchev removing all missiles in Cuba. At this point, Khrushchev knew things the US did not. First, that the shooting down of the U-2 by a Soviet missile violated direct orders from Moscow, and Cuban anti-aircraft fire against other US reconnaissance aircraft also violated direct orders from Khrushchev to Castro. Second, the Soviets already had 162 nuclear warheads on Cuba that the US did not know were there. Third, the Soviets and Cubans on the island would almost certainly have responded to an invasion by using them, even though Castro believed that everyone in Cuba would die as a result. Khrushchev also knew, but may not have considered, that he had submarines nearby armed with nuclear weapons of which the US Navy may not have been aware. Khrushchev knew he was losing control. President Kennedy had been told in early 1961 that a nuclear war would probably kill a third of humanity, with most or all of those deaths concentrated in the US, the USSR, Europe and China, and Khrushchev may have received a similar estimate. With this background, when Khrushchev heard of Kennedy's threats as relayed by Robert Kennedy to Soviet Ambassador Dobrynin, he immediately drafted his acceptance of Kennedy's latest terms from his dacha without involving the Politburo, as he had previously, and had them immediately broadcast over Radio Moscow, which he believed the US would hear. In that broadcast at 9:00 am EST, on 28 October 1962, Khrushchev stated that "the Soviet government, in addition to previously issued instructions on the cessation of further work at the building sites for the weapons, has issued a new order on the dismantling of the weapons which you describe as 'offensive' and their crating and return to the Soviet Union." At 10:00 am on 28 October, Kennedy first learned of Khrushchev's solution to the crisis: the US would remove the 15 Jupiters in Turkey and the Soviets would remove the missiles from Cuba. Khrushchev had made the offer in a public statement for the world to hear. Despite almost solid opposition from his senior advisers, Kennedy accepted the Soviet offer. "This is a pretty good play of his," Kennedy said, according to a tape recording that he made secretly of the Cabinet Room meeting. Kennedy had deployed the Jupiters in March 1962, causing a stream of angry outbursts from Khrushchev. "Most people will think this is a rather even trade and we ought to take advantage of it," Kennedy said. Vice President Lyndon Johnson was the first to endorse the missile swap, but others continued to oppose it. Finally, Kennedy ended the debate. "We can't very well invade Cuba with all its toil and blood," Kennedy said, "when we could have gotten them out by making a deal on the same missiles on Turkey. If that's part of the record, then you don't have a very good war." Kennedy immediately responded to Khrushchev's letter, issuing a statement calling it "an important and constructive contribution to peace".}} Kennedy's planned statement would also contain suggestions he had received from his adviser Arthur Schlesinger Jr. in a "Memorandum for the President" describing the "Post Mortem on Cuba". On 28 October, Kennedy participated in telephone conversations with Eisenhower and fellow former US President Harry Truman. In these calls, Kennedy revealed that he thought the crisis would result in the two superpowers being "toe to toe" The ships left Cuba on November 5 to 9. The US made a final visual check as each of the ships passed the blockade line. Further diplomatic efforts were required to remove the Soviet Il-28 bombers, and they were loaded on three Soviet ships on 5 and 6 December. Concurrent with the Soviet commitment on the Il-28s, the US government announced the end of the blockade from 6:45 pm EST on 20 November 1962. At the time when the Kennedy administration believed that the Cuban Missile Crisis was resolved, nuclear tactical rockets remained in Cuba which were not part of the Kennedy-Khrushchev understanding and the Americans did not know about them. The Soviets changed their minds, fearing possible future Cuban militant steps, and on 22 November 1962, Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union Anastas Mikoyan told Castro that the rockets with the nuclear warheads were being removed as well. "within a short time after this crisis was over". Under an operation code-named Operation Pot Pie, the removal of the Jupiters from Italy and Turkey began on 1 April, and was completed by 24 April 1963. The initial plans were to recycle the missiles for use in other programs, but NASA and the USAF were not interested in retaining the missile hardware. The missile bodies were destroyed on site, while warheads, guidance packages, and launching equipment worth $14 million were returned to the United States. The dismantling operations were named Pot Pie I for Italy and Pot Pie II for Turkey by the United States Air Force. and that the Soviets had no intention of resorting to nuclear war if they were out-gunned by the US.<!--How was this an effect of the pact? I see no such claim in either of the sources. The Soviets were already out-gunned to begin with, so it was not a matter of 'if'; there is no indication that they had ever had an intention of resorting to nuclear war first, even less so while out-gunned, which obviously would have been suicidal, or that they had ruled out resorting to nuclear war if attacked, or that their intention or ruling it out was due to the Cuban Missile Crisis.--> Because the withdrawal of the Jupiter missiles from NATO bases in Italy and Turkey was not made public at the time,Nuclear forcesBy the time of the crisis in October 1962, the total number of nuclear weapons in the stockpiles of each country numbered approximately 26,400 for the United States and 3,300 for the Soviet Union. For the US, around 3,500 (with a combined yield of approximately 6,300 megatons) would have been used in attacking the Soviet Union. The Soviets had considerably less strategic firepower at their disposal: some 300–320 bombs and warheads, without submarine-based weapons in a position to threaten the US mainland and most of their intercontinental delivery systems based on bombers that would have difficulty penetrating North American air defence systems. They had already moved 158 warheads to Cuba and between 95 and 100 would have been ready for use if the US had invaded Cuba, most of them short-range. The US had approximately 4,375 nuclear weapons deployed in Europe, most of which were tactical weapons such as nuclear artillery, with around 450 of them for ballistic missiles, cruise missiles, and aircraft; the Soviets had more than 550 similar weapons in Europe. United States * SAC ICBM: 182 (at peak alert); 121 Atlas D/E/F, 53 Titan 1, 8 Minuteman 1A Bombers: 1,595; 880 B-47, 639 B-52, 76 B-58 (1,479 bombers and 1,003 refuelling tankers available at peak alert) * Atlantic Command ** 112 UGM-27 Polaris in seven SSBNs (16 each); five submarines with Polaris A1 and two with A2 * Pacific Command 4–8 Regulus cruise missiles 16 Mace cruise missiles Three aircraft carriers with some 40 bombs each Land-based aircraft with some 50 bombs * European Command IRBM: 45 Jupiter (30 Italy, 15 Turkey) 48–90 Mace cruise missiles Two US Sixth Fleet aircraft carriers with some 40 bombs each Land-based aircraft with some 50 bombs Soviet Union * Strategic (for use against North America): ICBM: 42; four SS-6/R-7A at Plesetsk with two in reserve at Baikonur, 36 SS-7/R-16 with 26 in silos and ten on open launch pads Bombers: 160 (readiness unknown); 100 Tu-95 Bear, 60 3M Bison B * Regional (mostly targeting Europe, and others targeting US bases in east Asia): MRBM: 528 SS-4/R-12, 492 at soft launch sites and 36 at hard launch sites (approximately six to eight R-12s were operational in Cuba, capable of striking the US mainland at any moment until the crisis was resolved) IRBM: 28 SS-5/R-14 ** Unknown number of Tu-16 Badger, Tu-22 Blinder, and MiG-21 aircraft tasked with nuclear strike missions United Kingdom Bomber Command Bombers: 120; Vulcan B.1/B.1A/B.2, Victor B.1/B.1A/B2, Valiant B.1 IRBM: 59 Thor (missiles operated by the RAF with warheads under US supervision) Aftermath intermediate-range ballistic missile. The US secretly agreed to withdraw the missiles from Italy and Turkey.]] Cuban leadership Decisions on how to resolve the crisis had been made exclusively by Kennedy and Khrushchev and Cuba perceived the outcome as a betrayal by the Soviets. Castro was especially upset that certain questions of interest to Cuba, such as the status of the US Naval Base in Guantánamo, were not addressed, and Cuban–Soviet relations deteriorated. Historian Arthur Schlesinger believed that when the missiles were withdrawn, Castro was more angry with Khrushchev than with Kennedy because Khrushchev had not consulted him before making the decision. Although Castro was infuriated by Khrushchev, he had still planned to strike the US with the remaining missiles if Cuba was invaded. Guevara said later that the cause of socialist liberation from global "imperialist aggression" would have been worth the possibility of "millions of atomic war victims". The missile crisis further convinced Guevara that the world's two superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, were using Cuba as a pawn in their global strategies, and after this he denounced the Soviets almost as frequently as he denounced the Americans.Romanian leadershipDuring the crisis, Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, general secretary of Romania's communist party, sent a letter to President Kennedy dissociating Romania from Soviet actions. This convinced the American administration of Bucharest's intentions of detaching itself from Moscow. Soviet leadership The realisation that the world had come close to thermonuclear war caused Khrushchev to propose a far-reaching easing of tensions with the US. In a letter to President Kennedy dated 30 October 1962, Khrushchev suggested initiatives that were intended to prevent the possibility of another nuclear crisis. These included a non-aggression treaty between the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the Warsaw Pact, or even disbanding these military blocs; a treaty to cease all nuclear weapons testing and possibly eliminate all nuclear weapons; resolution of the difficult question of Germany by both sides accepting the existence of West Germany and East Germany; and US recognition of the government of mainland China. The letter invited counter-proposals and further exploration of these and other questions through peaceful negotiations. Khrushchev invited Norman Cousins, the editor of a major US periodical and an anti-nuclear weapons activist, to serve as liaison with Kennedy. Cousins met with Khrushchev for four hours in December 1962. Kennedy's response to Khrushchev's proposals was lukewarm, but he told Cousins that he felt obliged to consider them because he was under pressure from hardliners in the US national security apparatus. The United States and the Soviet Union subsequently agreed to a treaty banning atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons, known as the "Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty". The US and the USSR also created a communications link, the Moscow–Washington hotline, to enable the leaders of the two Cold War countries to speak directly to each other in any future crisis. These compromises embarrassed Khrushchev and the Soviet Union because the withdrawal of US missiles from Italy and Turkey had remained a secret deal between Kennedy and Khrushchev. Khrushchev went to Kennedy because he thought that the crisis was getting out of hand, but the Soviets were seen to be retreating from circumstances that they had started. Khrushchev's fall from power two years later was partly because of the Soviet Politburo's embarrassment at his eventual concessions to the US and his ineptitude in precipitating the crisis in the first place. According to Dobrynin, the top Soviet leadership took the Cuban outcome as "a blow to its prestige bordering on humiliation". Twenty-five years later, LeMay still believed that "We could have gotten not only the missiles out of Cuba, we could have gotten the Communists out of Cuba at that time." By 1962, President Kennedy had faced four crisis situations: the failure of the Bay of Pigs Invasion; settlement negotiations between the pro-Western government of Laos and the Pathet Lao communist movement ("Kennedy sidestepped Laos, whose rugged terrain was no battleground for American soldiers."); the construction of the Berlin Wall; and the Cuban Missile Crisis. Kennedy believed that another failure to gain control and stop communist expansion would irreparably damage US credibility. He was determined to "draw a line in the sand" and prevent a communist victory in Vietnam. He told James Reston of The New York Times immediately after his Vienna summit meeting with Khrushchev, "Now we have a problem making our power credible and Vietnam looks like the place." At least four contingency strikes were armed and launched from Florida against Cuban airfields and suspected missile sites in 1963 and 1964, although all were diverted to the Pinecastle Range Complex after the planes had passed Andros island. Critics, including Seymour Melman and Seymour Hersh, suggested that the Cuban Missile Crisis had encouraged the United States to use military means, as in the later Vietnam War. Similarly, Lorraine Bayard de Volo suggested that the masculine brinksmanship of the Cuban Missile Crisis had become a "touchstone of toughness by which presidents are measured". Actions in 1962 had a significant influence on the policy decisions of future occupants of the White House, and led to foreign policy decisions such as President Lyndon B. Johnson's escalation of the war in Vietnam three years later.Human casualtiesThe body of U-2 pilot Anderson was returned to the US and was buried with full military honours in South Carolina. He was the first recipient of the newly created Air Force Cross, which was awarded posthumously. Although Anderson was the only combatant fatality during the crisis, 11 crew members of three reconnaissance Boeing RB-47 Stratojets of the 55th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing were also killed in crashes during the period between 27 September and 11 November 1962. Seven crew died when a Military Air Transport Service Boeing C-135B Stratolifter delivering ammunition to Guantanamo Bay Naval Base stalled and crashed on landing approach on 23 October.Later revelationsSubmarine close callWhat may have been the most dangerous moment in the crisis was not recognized until the Cuban Missile Crisis Havana conference in October 2002, which marked its 40th anniversary. The three-day conference was sponsored by the private National Security Archive, Brown University and the Cuban government and attended by many of the veterans of the crisis. They learned that on 27 October 1962, a group of eleven United States Navy destroyers and the aircraft carrier USS Randolph had located a diesel-powered, nuclear-armed Soviet Project 641 (NATO designation ) submarine, the , near Cuba. Despite being in international waters, the Americans started dropping depth charges to attempt to force the submarine to surface. There had been no contact from Moscow for a number of days and the submarine was running too deep to monitor radio traffic, so those on board did not know whether war had broken out. The captain of the submarine, Valentin Savitsky, had no way of knowing that the depth charges were non-lethal "practice" rounds, intended as warning shots to force him to surface. Running out of air, the Soviet submarine was surrounded by American warships and desperately needed to surface. While surfacing, the B-59 “came under machine-gun fire from [U.S. ASW S-2] Tracker aircraft. The fire rounds landed either to the sides of the submarine’s hull or near the bow. All these provocative actions carried out by surface ships in immediate proximity, and ASW aircraft flying some 10 to 15 meters above the boat had a detrimental impact on the commander, prompting him to take extreme measures… the use of special weapons.” As firing live ammunition at a submarine was strictly prohibited, Captain Savitsky assumed that his submarine was doomed and that World War III had started. The Americans, for their part, did not know, that the B-59 was armed with a 15-kiloton nuclear torpedo, of roughly the power of the bomb at Hiroshima. The was joined by other US destroyers who pummelled the submerged B-59 with more explosives. Savitsky ordered the nuclear torpedo to be prepared for firing; its target was to be the USS Randolph, the aircraft carrier leading the task force. An argument broke out in the sweltering control room of the B-59 submarine among three senior officers, B-59 captain Savitsky, political officer Ivan Semyonovich Maslennikov, and Deputy brigade commander Captain 2nd rank (US Navy Commander rank equivalent) Vasily Arkhipov. Accounts differ about whether Arkhipov convinced Savitsky not to make the attack or whether Savitsky himself finally concluded that the only reasonable choice left open to him was to come to the surface. The decision to launch the nuclear torpedo required the consent of all three senior officers, and of the three, Arkhipov alone refused to give his consent. Arkhipov's reputation was a key factor in the control room debate. The previous year he had exposed himself to severe radiation in order to save a submarine with an overheating nuclear reactor. Castro stated that he would have recommended their use if the US had invaded, even if Cuba was destroyed.}} BBC journalist Joe Matthews published the story, on 13 October 2012, after news of the 100 tactical nuclear warheads mentioned by Graham Allison in the excerpt above. Anastas Mikoyan had the task of negotiating with Castro over the missile transfer deal to prevent a breakdown in relations between Cuba and the Soviet Union. While in Havana, Mikoyan witnessed the mood swings and paranoia of Castro, who was convinced that Moscow had made the agreement with the US at the expense of Cuba's defence. Mikoyan, on his own initiative, decided that Castro and his military should not under any circumstances be given control of weapons with an explosive force equal to 100 Hiroshima-sized bombs. He defused the seemingly intractable situation, which risked re-escalating the crisis, on 22 November 1962. During a tense, four-hour meeting, Mikoyan convinced Castro that despite Moscow's desire to help, it would be in breach of an unpublished Soviet law, which did not actually exist, to transfer the missiles permanently into Cuban hands and provide them with an independent nuclear deterrent. Castro was forced to give way and, much to the relief of Khrushchev and the rest of the Soviet government, the tactical nuclear weapons were crated and returned by sea to the Soviet Union during December 1962. Jim Willis includes the Crisis as one of the 100 "media moments that changed America". Sheldon Stern found that a half century later there were still many "misconceptions, half-truths, and outright lies" that had shaped media versions of what happened in the White House during those two weeks. Historian William Cohn argued in a 1976 article that television programs were typically the main source used by the American public to know about and interpret the past. According to Cold War historian Andrei Kozovoi, the Soviet media proved somewhat disorganized as it was unable to generate a coherent popular history. Khrushchev lost power and was airbrushed out of the story and Cuba was no longer portrayed as a heroic David against the American Goliath. One contradiction that pervaded the Soviet media campaign was between the pacifistic rhetoric of the peace movement that emphasized the horrors of nuclear war and the militancy of the need to prepare Soviets for war against American aggression.See also Bomber gap * Cuban thaw * Leninsky Komsomol class cargo ships * List of nuclear close calls * Norwegian rocket incident * Nuclear disarmament * Nuclear threats during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine * Peaceful coexistence * Planned Soviet nuclear strike on China in 1969 * Soviet Navy * Thirteen Days (film) * Thirteen Days * The Missiles of October * The Fog of War * Topaz * The Courier * The Kennedys Notes ReferencesFurther reading* * Barrett, David M. and Max Holland (2012). Blind Over Cuba: The Photo Gap and the Missile Crisis. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2012. * * Campus, Leonardo (2014). I sei giorni che sconvolsero il mondo. La crisi dei missili di Cuba e le sue percezioni internazionali [=Six Days that Shook the World. The Cuban Missile Crisis and Its International Perceptions]. Florence: Le Monnier. * * Cockburn, Andrew, "Defensive, Not Aggressive" (review of Theodore Voorhees, The Silent Guns of Two Octobers: Kennedy and Khrushchev Play the Double Game, Michigan, September 2021, , 384 pp.; and Serhii Plokhy, Nuclear Folly: A New History of the Cuban Missile Crisis, Allen Lane, April 2021, , 464 pp.), London Review of Books'', vol. 43, no. 17 (9 September 2021), pp. 9–10. "[F]or Kennedy, the [Cuban Missile] crisis was entirely about [internal US] politics." [...] Voorhees argues convincingly that there was never any real danger of war, since Kennedy and Khrushchev were equally determined to avoid one..." (p. 10.) * * * * * * * * * * * * * Kolbert, Elizabeth, "This Close: The day the Cuban missile crisis almost went nuclear" (a review of Martin J. Sherwin's Gambling with Armageddon: Nuclear Roulette from Hiroshima to the Cuban Missile Crisis, New York, Knopf, 2020), The New Yorker, 12 October 2020, pp. 70–73. Article includes information from recently declassified sources. * Plokhy, Serhii. Nuclear Folly: A History of the Cuban Missile Crisis (W.W. Norton & Company, 2021). * * * Powers, Thomas, "The Nuclear Worrier" (review of Daniel Ellsberg, The Doomsday Machine: Confessions of a Nuclear War Planner, New York, Bloomsbury, 2017, , 420 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXV, no. 1 (January 18, 2018), pp. 13–15. * * * * Seydi, SÜleyman. "Turkish–American Relations and the Cuban Missile Crisis, 1957–63." Middle Eastern Studies 46#3 (2010), pp. 433–455. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/20720681 online] * * * * * * Weaver, Michael E. The Relationship between Diplomacy and Military Force: An Example from the Cuban Missile Crisis, Diplomatic History, January 2014, Volume 38, Number 1, pp. 137–81. [https://doi.org/10.1093/dh/dht070 The Relationship between Diplomacy and Military Force: An Example from the Cuban Missile Crisis] * White, Mark. "The Other Missiles of October: Eisenhower, Kennedy, and the Jupiters, 1957–1963." Diplomatic History (2002) 26#1 pp 147–153. Historiography * * * * * * * * Bayard de Volo, Lorraine (July 2022) "Masculinity and the Cuban Missile Crisis: gender as pre-emptive deterrent", International Affairs, 98 (4): 1211–1229. doi:10.1093/ia/iiac121. Primary sources * Getchell, Michelle. Cuban Missile Crisis and the Cold War: A Short History with Documents(Hackett Publishing, 2018) 200 pp. [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.php?id53509 online review] * * * * * * * * * * * * * Dallek, Robert. "If We Listen to Them, None of Us Will Be Alive." In ''Camelot's Court, 279–334. New York: HarperCollins, 2013. Lesson plans * * External links * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130515031807/http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552532 Cuban Missile Crisis and the Fallout] from the [https://web.archive.org/web/20160115205405/https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494 Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives] * * * * [https://www.history.navy.mil/research/library/online-reading-room/title-list-alphabetically/c/cuban-missile-crisis-1962.html Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962] * [http://www.usarmygermany.com/Units/HqUSAREUR/USAREUR_HqUSAREUR%201.htm October 1962: DEFCON 4, DEFCON 3] * [http://www.spartacus-educational.com/COLDcubanmissile.htm Spartacus Educational(UK): Cuban Missile Crisis] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00dkzlz Document – Britain's Cuban Missile Crisis] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081121224553/http://www.october1962.com/ No Time to Talk: The Cuban Missile Crisis] * Patrick J. Kiger (7 June 2019): [https://archive.today/20220329151645/https://www.history.com/news/cuban-missile-crisis-timeline-jfk-khrushchev Key Moments in the Cuban Missile Crisis]''. A Timeline of the Cuban Missile Crisis with the links to the correspondence between John F. Kennedy and Nikita Khrushchev during the crisis. In: History.com. * [http://www.airforce.ru/history/cold_war/cuba/index_en.htm The 32nd Guards Air Fighter Regiment in Cuba (1962–1963)] S.Isaev. * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150629204417/https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/collection/31/cuban-missile-crisis The Woodrow Wilson Center's Digital Archive] has a collection of primary source archival documents on the Cuban Missile Crisis. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110116165321/http://edsitement.neh.gov/lesson-plan/missiles-october-cuban-missile-crisis-1962 EDSITEment lesson plan Cuban Missile Crisis] * [http://edsitement.neh.gov/student-resource/cuban-missile-crisis-interactive EDSITEment Cuban Missile Crisis Interactive] * [https://www.pbs.org/video/2286029131/ Cuban Missile Crisis: Three Men Go To War] Documentary produced by PBS * [https://web.archive.org/web/20191203091802/http://www.armageddonletters.com/ The Armageddon Letters], a transmedia storytelling of the crisis with animated short films and other digital content * [https://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/the-man-who-saved-the-world-watch-the-full-episode/905/ The Man Who Saved the World] Documentary produced by PBS series Secrets of the Dead * Category:Aftermath of the Cuban Revolution Category:Cold War conflicts Category:Conflicts in 1962 Category:1962 in international relations Category:Cold War history of Cuba Category:Cold War history of the Soviet Union Category:Cold War history of the United States Category:1962 in Cuba Category:1962 in the Soviet Union Category:1962 in the United States Category:Blockades Category:Cold War military history of Cuba Category:History of Key West, Florida Category:Nuclear history of the Soviet Union Category:Nuclear history of the United States Category:Fidel Castro Category:Nikita Khrushchev Category:Presidency of John F. Kennedy Category:Cuba–Soviet Union relations Category:Cuba–United States relations Category:Soviet Union–United States military relations Category:1962 establishments in Cuba Category:1962 disestablishments in Cuba Category:1960s in Cuba<!--planning & aftereffect--> Category:1960s in the Soviet Union<!--planning & aftereffect--> Category:1960s in the United States Category:October 1962 in North America Category:Political crisis	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis	2025-04-05T18:27:58.651915
6828	Aquilegia	\|synonyms_ref columbine') is a genus of about 130 species of their flowers.EtymologyThe genus name Aquilegia'' comes from the Latin "Aquila", or "eagle"; this is in obvious reference to the spurred, "hook" shapes within the blooms, that many gardeners say resemble an eagle's talons. Description Perennial herbs, with woody, erect stock, roots forming thick rhizomes. The basal leaves are compound, 1–3 ternate, blades 3-lobed -partite, and lobes lobulate and obtuse. The cauline leaves are similar to the basal ones, while the upper ones are bract like. The hermaphrodite (bisexual) flowers are terminal to stem and branches. They are usually pentamerous (with five spreading perianth petaloid sepal segments). Five tubular honey-leaves}} are semi erect with a flat limb and spurred or saccate at the base. The spur is directed backwards and secretes nectar. Stamens are numerous (often more than 50) in whorls of 5, the innermost being scarious staminodes. There are ten membranaceous intrastaminal scales. There are five pistils and the carpels are free. The fruit has several (five to 15) follicles which are semi erect and slightly connate downwards. These hold many seeds and are formed at the end of the pistils. The nectar is mainly consumed by long-beaked birds such as hummingbirds. Almost all Aquilegia species have a ring of staminodia around the base of the stigma, which may help protect against insects. Chromosome number is x7. Relatives Columbines are closely related to plants in the genera Actaea (baneberries) and Aconitum (wolfsbanes/monkshoods), which like Aquilegia produce cardiogenic toxins.InsectsThey are used as food plants by some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) caterpillars. These are mainly of noctuid moths – noted for feeding on many poisonous plants without harm – such as cabbage moth (Mamestra brassicae), dot moth (Melanchra persicariae) and mouse moth (Amphipyra tragopoginis). The engrailed (Ectropis crepuscularia), a geometer moth, also uses columbine as a larval food plant. The larvae of the Papaipema leucostigma also feed on columbine. Plants in the genus Aquilegia are a major food source for Bombus hortorum, a species of bumblebee. Specifically, they have been found to forage on species of Aquilegia vulgaris in Belgium and Aquilegia chrysantha in North America and Belgium. The bees do not show any preference in color of the flowers. Cultivation 'Magpie' also known as 'William Guiness']] Columbine is a hardy perennial, which propagates by seed. It will grow to a height of . It will grow in full sun; however, it prefers growing in partial shade and well drained soil, and is able to tolerate average soils and dry soil conditions. Columbine is rated at hardiness zone 3 in the United States so does not require mulching or protection in the winter. Large numbers of hybrids are available for the garden, since the European A. vulgaris was hybridized with other European and North American varieties. Aquilegia species are very interfertile, and will self-sow. Some varieties are short-lived so are better treated as biennials. (Songbird series) 'Bunting' (Songbird series) 'Dove' (Songbird series) 'Florida' (State series) \| 'Louisiana' (State series) 'Origami Red and White' 'Origami Rose and White' \|}--> The British National Collection of Aquilegias was held by Mrs Carrie Thomas at Killay near Swansea. Some time during or before 2014 the collection started to succumb to Aquilegia Downy Mildew Peronospora aquilegiicola which was at the time an emerging disease to which the plants had no resistance. By 2018 the entire collection had been lost. Aquilegia can be grown from seeds or rhizomes. Uses Aquilegia × hybrida]] The flowers of various species of columbine were consumed in moderation by Native Americans as a condiment with other fresh greens, and are reported to be very sweet, and safe if consumed in small quantities. The plant's seeds and roots, however, are highly poisonous and contain cardiogenic toxins which cause both severe gastroenteritis and heart palpitations if consumed as food. Native Americans used very small amounts of Aquilegia root as a treatment for ulcers. However, the medical use of this plant is better avoided due to its high toxicity; columbine poisonings may be fatal.CultureThe Colorado blue columbine (A. coerulea) is the official state flower of Colorado (see also Columbine, Colorado). It is also used as a symbol of the former city of Scarborough in the Canadian province of Ontario. near Glen Arbor, Michigan]] Evolution Columbines have been important in the study of evolution. It was found that the Sierra columbine (A. pubescens) and crimson columbine (A. formosa) each has adapted specifically to a pollinator. Bees and hummingbirds are the visitors to A. formosa, while hawkmoths would only visit A. pubescens when given a choice. Such a "pollination syndrome", being due to flower color and orientation controlled by their genetics, ensures reproductive isolation and can be a cause of speciation. Aquilegia petals show an enormous range of petal spur length diversity ranging from a centimeter to the 15 cm spurs of Aquilegia longissima. Selection from pollinator shifts is suggested to have driven these changes in nectar spur length. It was shown that this spur length diversity is achieved solely through changing cell shape, not cell number or cell size. This suggests that a simple microscopic change can result in a dramatic evolutionarily relevant morphological change. * Aquilegia alpina <small>L.</small> – alpine columbine * Aquilegia amaliae'' - Amalia's columbine * Aquilegia apuana * Aquilegia aradanica * Aquilegia aragonensis * Aquilegia atrata <small>W.D.J.Koch</small> – dark columbine * Aquilegia atrovinosa <small>Popov ex Gamajun.</small> * Aquilegia atwoodii * Aquilegia aurea <small>Janka</small> * Aquilegia ballii * Aquilegia baluchistanica * Aquilegia barbaricina <small>Arrigoni & E.Nardi</small> – Barbaricina columbine * Aquilegia barnebyi – oil shale columbine * Aquilegia barykinae * Aquilegia bashahrica * Aquilegia bernardii <small>Gren. & Godr.</small> – Bernard's columbine * Aquilegia bertolonii <small>Schott</small> – Bertoloni columbine * Aquilegia blecicii <small>Podobnik</small> - Blečić's columbine * Aquilegia borodinii * Aquilegia brevistyla – smallflower columbine * Aquilegia buergeriana <small>Siebold & Zucc.</small> * Aquilegia canadensis – Canadian columbine, wild columbine * Aquilegia cazorlensis * Aquilegia champagnatii <small>Moraldo, E.Nardi & la Valva</small> * Aquilegia chaplinei * Aquilegia chitralensis * Aquilegia chrysantha – golden columbine * Aquilegia coerulea – Colorado blue columbine * Aquilegia colchica * Aquilegia confusa * Aquilegia cossoniana * Aquilegia × cottia * Aquilegia cremnophila * Aquilegia cymosa * Aquilegia daingolica * Aquilegia desertorum <small>(M.E.Jones) Cockerell ex A.Heller</small> – desert columbine * Aquilegia desolaticola <small>S.L.Welsh & N.D.Atwood</small> – desolation columbine, Desolation Canyon columbine * Aquilegia dichroa * Aquilegia dinarica <small>Beck</small> - Dinaric columbine * Aquilegia discolor * Aquilegia dumeticola * Aquilegia ecalcarata – spurless columbine, false columbine * Aquilegia einseleana <small>F.W.Schultz</small> – Einsele's columbine * Aquilegia elegantula – western red columbine * Aquilegia × emodi * Aquilegia eximia – Van Houtte's columbine * Aquilegia flabellata – fan columbine, Japanese wodamakinari (including A. akitensis) * Aquilegia flavescens – yellow columbine * Aquilegia formosa – crimson columbine, western columbine ** Aquilegia formosa var. truncata – red columbine, western columbine * Aquilegia fosteri * Aquilegia fragrans <small>Benth.</small> – fragrant columbine * Aquilegia ganboldii * Aquilegia gegica * Aquilegia glandulosa <small>Fisch. ex Link.</small> – Siberian columbine, Altai columbine * Aquilegia gracillima * Aquilegia grata * Aquilegia grubovii * Aquilegia guarensis * Aquilegia hebeica * Aquilegia hinckleyana * Aquilegia hirsutissima * Aquilegia hispanica * Aquilegia holmgrenii * Aquilegia × hybrida <small>Sims</small> – hybrids of Aquilegia vulgaris and Aquilegia canadensis * Aquilegia incurvata <small>P.K.Hsiao</small> - Qinling columbine * Aquilegia iulia * Aquilegia jonesii <small>Parry</small> – Jones' columbine * Aquilegia kamelinii * Aquilegia kanawarensis * Aquilegia kansuensis * Aquilegia karatavica <small>Mikeschin</small> * Aquilegia karelinii <small>(Baker) O.Fedtsch. & B.Fedtsch.</small> - Afghan columbine * Aquilegia kitaibelii <small>Schott</small> * Aquilegia kozakii * Aquilegia kubanica * Aquilegia lactiflora <small>Kar. & Kir.</small> * Aquilegia laramiensis – Laramie columbine * Aquilegia litardierei <small>Briq.</small> * Aquilegia longissima – <small>Gray.</small> – longspur columbine, long-spurred columbine * Aquilegia lucensis * Aquilegia magellensis <small>F.Conti & Soldano</small> – Magella columbine * Aquilegia maimanica * Aquilegia marcelliana * Aquilegia × maruyamana * Aquilegia meridionalis * Aquilegia micrantha <small>Eastw.</small> – Mancos columbine, Bluff City columbine Aquilegia micrantha var. grahamii – Graham's columbine Aquilegia micrantha var. loriae – Lori's columbine ** Aquilegia micrantha var. mancosana * Aquilegia microcentra * Aquilegia × miniana * Aquilegia montsicciana * Aquilegia moorcroftiana * Aquilegia nigricans <small>Baumg.</small> – Bulgarian columbine * Aquilegia nikolicii * Aquilegia nivalis * Aquilegia nugorensis <small>Arrigoni & E.Nardi</small> * Aquilegia nuragica – Nuragica columbine * Aquilegia ochotensis * Aquilegia × oenipontana * Aquilegia olympica <small>Boiss.</small> * Aquilegia ophiolithica * Aquilegia ottonis <small>Orph. ex Boiss.</small> * Aquilegia oxysepala * Aquilegia pancicii <small>Degen</small> * Aquilegia parviflora * Aquilegia paui * Aquilegia pubescens – Sierra columbine, Coville's columbine * Aquilegia pubiflora * Aquilegia pyrenaica <small>DC.</small> – Pyrenean columbine * Aquilegia reuteri * Aquilegia rockii * Aquilegia saxifraga * Aquilegia saximontana – Rocky Mountain columbine * Aquilegia scopulorum – blue columbine, Utah columbine * Aquilegia shockleyi – desert columbine * Aquilegia sibirica – Siberian columbine * Aquilegia sicula * Aquilegia skinneri * Aquilegia sternbergii * Aquilegia subscaposa * Aquilegia synakensis * Aquilegia taygetea * Aquilegia tianschanica <small>Butkov</small> * Aquilegia transsilvanica <small>Schur</small> * Aquilegia turczaninovii * Aquilegia tuvinica * Aquilegia ullepitschii * Aquilegia vicaria * Aquilegia viridiflora <small>Pall.</small> – green columbine, green-flowered columbine * Aquilegia viscosa <small>Gouan</small> * Aquilegia vitalii * Aquilegia vulgaris – common columbine, European columbine, granny's nightcap ** Aquilegia vulgaris subsp. nevadensis * Aquilegia wittmanniana * Aquilegia xinjiangensis * Aquilegia yabeana * Aquilegia yangii * Aquilegia zapateri See also * Columbine cup * Nora Barlow Notes References Bibliography * \|chapterAquilegia L.\|pages287–290\|lastCullen\|firstJ\|display-authors=et al}} see also Flora Europaea * * * }} ** , in * [https://books.google.com/books?id=p9igpDz3980C Allan M. Armitage: Armitage's Native Plants for North American Gardens.Timber Press, 2006] * Dezhi, Fu; Robinson, Orbélia R. (2001): 19. Aquilegia. In: Wu, Z. Y.; Raven, Peter Hamilton & Hong, D. Y. (eds.): Flora of China (Vol. 6: Caryophyllaceae through Lardizabalaceae): 278. Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press, St. Louis. [http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id2&taxon_id102388 HTML fulltext] * * * Nold, Robert (2003): Columbines: Aquilegia, Paraquilegia, and Semiaquilegia. Timber Press. <small></small> [https://books.google.com/books?idgLNhKoTgNEsC&dq%22aquilegia+vulgaris%22+gardens&pg=RA1-PA128 Preview] at Google Books * Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (RBGE) [2008]: Digital Flora Europaea: [http://rbg-web2.rbge.org.uk/cgi-bin/nph-readbtree.pl/feout?FAMILY_XREF&GENUS_XREFAquilegia&SPECIES_XREF&TAXON_NAME_XREF&RANK=species Aquilegia species list]. Retrieved 2008-NOV-25. * Tilford, Gregory L. (1997): Edible and Medicinal Plants of the West. Mountain Press Pub., Missoula, Montana. <small></small> * * Kramer, E. M. (2009). [http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.arplant.043008.092051 Aquilegia: A New Model for Plant Development, Ecology, and Evolution] Annual Review of Plant Biology, Vol. 60. * }} External links Category:Ranunculaceae genera Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquilegia	2025-04-05T18:27:58.682675
6829	Cache (computing)	thumb\|upright=1\|Diagram of a CPU memory cache operation In computing, a cache ( ) is a hardware or software component that stores data so that future requests for that data can be served faster; the data stored in a cache might be the result of an earlier computation or a copy of data stored elsewhere. A cache hit occurs when the requested data can be found in a cache, while a cache miss occurs when it cannot. Cache hits are served by reading data from the cache, which is faster than recomputing a result or reading from a slower data store; thus, the more requests that can be served from the cache, the faster the system performs. To be cost-effective, caches must be relatively small. Nevertheless, caches are effective in many areas of computing because typical computer applications access data with a high degree of locality of reference. Such access patterns exhibit temporal locality, where data is requested that has been recently requested, and spatial locality, where data is requested that is stored near data that has already been requested. Motivation In memory design, there is an inherent trade-off between capacity and speed because larger capacity implies larger size and thus greater physical distances for signals to travel causing propagation delays. There is also a tradeoff between high-performance technologies such as SRAM and cheaper, easily mass-produced commodities such as DRAM, flash, or hard disks. The buffering provided by a cache benefits one or both of latency and throughput (bandwidth). A larger resource incurs a significant latency for access – e.g. it can take hundreds of clock cycles for a modern 4 GHz processor to reach DRAM. This is mitigated by reading large chunks into the cache, in the hope that subsequent reads will be from nearby locations and can be read from the cache. Prediction or explicit prefetching can be used to guess where future reads will come from and make requests ahead of time; if done optimally, the latency is bypassed altogether. The use of a cache also allows for higher throughput from the underlying resource, by assembling multiple fine-grain transfers into larger, more efficient requests. In the case of DRAM circuits, the additional throughput may be gained by using a wider data bus. Operation Hardware implements cache as a block of memory for temporary storage of data likely to be used again. Central processing units (CPUs), solid-state drives (SSDs) and hard disk drives (HDDs) frequently include hardware-based cache, while web browsers and web servers commonly rely on software caching. A cache is made up of a pool of entries. Each entry has associated data, which is a copy of the same data in some backing store. Each entry also has a tag, which specifies the identity of the data in the backing store of which the entry is a copy. When the cache client (a CPU, web browser, operating system) needs to access data presumed to exist in the backing store, it first checks the cache. If an entry can be found with a tag matching that of the desired data, the data in the entry is used instead. This situation is known as a cache hit. For example, a web browser program might check its local cache on disk to see if it has a local copy of the contents of a web page at a particular URL. In this example, the URL is the tag, and the content of the web page is the data. The percentage of accesses that result in cache hits is known as the hit rate or hit ratio of the cache. The alternative situation, when the cache is checked and found not to contain any entry with the desired tag, is known as a cache miss. This requires a more expensive access of data from the backing store. Once the requested data is retrieved, it is typically copied into the cache, ready for the next access. During a cache miss, some other previously existing cache entry is typically removed in order to make room for the newly retrieved data. The heuristic used to select the entry to replace is known as the replacement policy. One popular replacement policy, least recently used (LRU), replaces the oldest entry, the entry that was accessed less recently than any other entry. More sophisticated caching algorithms also take into account the frequency of use of entries. Write policies thumb\|380px\|A write-through cache without write allocation thumb\|500px\|A write-back cache with write allocation Cache writes must eventually be propagated to the backing store. The timing for this is governed by the write policy. The two primary write policies are: Write-through: Writes are performed synchronously to both the cache and the backing store. Write-back: Initially, writing is done only to the cache. The write to the backing store is postponed until the modified content is about to be replaced by another cache block. A write-back cache is more complex to implement since it needs to track which of its locations have been written over and mark them as dirty for later writing to the backing store. The data in these locations are written back to the backing store only when they are evicted from the cache, a process referred to as a lazy write. For this reason, a read miss in a write-back cache may require two memory accesses to the backing store: one to write back the dirty data, and one to retrieve the requested data. Other policies may also trigger data write-back. The client may make many changes to data in the cache, and then explicitly notify the cache to write back the data. Write operations do not return data. Consequently, a decision needs to be made for write misses: whether or not to load the data into the cache. This is determined by these write-miss policies: Write allocate (also called fetch on write): Data at the missed-write location is loaded to cache, followed by a write-hit operation. In this approach, write misses are similar to read misses. No-write allocate (also called write-no-allocate or write around): Data at the missed-write location is not loaded to cache, and is written directly to the backing store. In this approach, data is loaded into the cache on read misses only. While both write policies can Implement either write-miss policy, they are typically paired as follows: A write-back cache typically employs write allocate, anticipating that subsequent writes or reads to the same location will benefit from having the data already in the cache. A write-through cache uses no-write allocate. Here, subsequent writes have no advantage, since they still need to be written directly to the backing store. Entities other than the cache may change the data in the backing store, in which case the copy in the cache may become out-of-date or stale. Alternatively, when the client updates the data in the cache, copies of that data in other caches will become stale. Communication protocols between the cache managers that keep the data consistent are associated with cache coherence. Prefetch On a cache read miss, caches with a demand paging policy read the minimum amount from the backing store. A typical demand-paging virtual memory implementation reads one page of virtual memory (often 4 KB) from disk into the disk cache in RAM. A typical CPU reads a single L2 cache line of 128 bytes from DRAM into the L2 cache, and a single L1 cache line of 64 bytes from the L2 cache into the L1 cache. Caches with a prefetch input queue or more general anticipatory paging policy go further—they not only read the data requested, but guess that the next chunk or two of data will soon be required, and so prefetch that data into the cache ahead of time. Anticipatory paging is especially helpful when the backing store has a long latency to read the first chunk and much shorter times to sequentially read the next few chunks, such as disk storage and DRAM. A few operating systems go further with a loader that always pre-loads the entire executable into RAM. A few caches go even further, not only pre-loading an entire file, but also starting to load other related files that may soon be requested, such as the page cache associated with a prefetcher or the web cache associated with link prefetching. Examples of hardware caches CPU cache Small memories on or close to the CPU can operate faster than the much larger main memory. Most CPUs since the 1980s have used one or more caches, sometimes in cascaded levels; modern high-end embedded, desktop and server microprocessors may have as many as six types of cache (between levels and functions). Some examples of caches with a specific function are the D-cache, I-cache and the translation lookaside buffer for the memory management unit (MMU). GPU cache Earlier graphics processing units (GPUs) often had limited read-only texture caches and used swizzling to improve 2D locality of reference. Cache misses would drastically affect performance, e.g. if mipmapping was not used. Caching was important to leverage 32-bit (and wider) transfers for texture data that was often as little as 4 bits per pixel. As GPUs advanced, supporting general-purpose computing on graphics processing units and compute kernels, they have developed progressively larger and increasingly general caches, including instruction caches for shaders, exhibiting functionality commonly found in CPU caches. These caches have grown to handle synchronization primitives between threads and atomic operations, and interface with a CPU-style MMU. DSPs Digital signal processors have similarly generalized over the years. Earlier designs used scratchpad memory fed by direct memory access, but modern DSPs such as Qualcomm Hexagon often include a very similar set of caches to a CPU (e.g. Modified Harvard architecture with shared L2, split L1 I-cache and D-cache). Translation lookaside buffer A memory management unit (MMU) that fetches page table entries from main memory has a specialized cache, used for recording the results of virtual address to physical address translations. This specialized cache is called a translation lookaside buffer (TLB). In-network cache Information-centric networking Information-centric networking (ICN) is an approach to evolve the Internet infrastructure away from a host-centric paradigm, based on perpetual connectivity and the end-to-end principle, to a network architecture in which the focal point is identified information. Due to the inherent caching capability of the nodes in an ICN, it can be viewed as a loosely connected network of caches, which has unique requirements for caching policies. However, ubiquitous content caching introduces the challenge to content protection against unauthorized access, which requires extra care and solutions. Unlike proxy servers, in ICN the cache is a network-level solution. Therefore, it has rapidly changing cache states and higher request arrival rates; moreover, smaller cache sizes impose different requirements on the content eviction policies. In particular, eviction policies for ICN should be fast and lightweight. Various cache replication and eviction schemes for different ICN architectures and applications have been proposed. Policies Time aware least recently used The time aware least recently used (TLRU) is a variant of LRU designed for the situation where the stored contents in cache have a valid lifetime. The algorithm is suitable in network cache applications, such as ICN, content delivery networks (CDNs) and distributed networks in general. TLRU introduces a new term: time to use (TTU). TTU is a time stamp on content which stipulates the usability time for the content based on the locality of the content and information from the content publisher. Owing to this locality-based time stamp, TTU provides more control to the local administrator to regulate in-network storage. In the TLRU algorithm, when a piece of content arrives, a cache node calculates the local TTU value based on the TTU value assigned by the content publisher. The local TTU value is calculated by using a locally-defined function. Once the local TTU value is calculated the replacement of content is performed on a subset of the total content stored in cache node. The TLRU ensures that less popular and short-lived content should be replaced with incoming content. Least frequent recently used The least frequent recently used (LFRU) cache replacement scheme combines the benefits of LFU and LRU schemes. LFRU is suitable for network cache applications, such as ICN, CDNs and distributed networks in general. In LFRU, the cache is divided into two partitions called privileged and unprivileged partitions. The privileged partition can be seen as a protected partition. If content is highly popular, it is pushed into the privileged partition. Replacement of the privileged partition is done by first evicting content from the unprivileged partition, then pushing content from the privileged partition to the unprivileged partition, and finally inserting new content into the privileged partition. In the above procedure, the LRU is used for the privileged partition and an approximated LFU (ALFU) scheme is used for the unprivileged partition. The basic idea is to cache the locally popular content with the ALFU scheme and push the popular content to the privileged partition. Weather forecast In 2011, the use of smartphones with weather forecasting options was overly taxing AccuWeather servers; two requests from the same area would generate separate requests. An optimization by edge-servers to truncate the GPS coordinates to fewer decimal places meant that the cached results from a nearby query would be used. The number of to-the-server lookups per day dropped by half. Software caches Disk cache While CPU caches are generally managed entirely by hardware, a variety of software manages other caches. The page cache in main memory is managed by the operating system kernel. While the disk buffer, which is an integrated part of the hard disk drive or solid state drive, is sometimes misleadingly referred to as disk cache, its main functions are write sequencing and read prefetching. High-end disk controllers often have their own on-board cache for the hard disk drive's data blocks. Finally, a fast local hard disk drive can also cache information held on even slower data storage devices, such as remote servers (web cache) or local tape drives or optical jukeboxes; such a scheme is the main concept of hierarchical storage management. Also, fast flash-based solid-state drives (SSDs) can be used as caches for slower rotational-media hard disk drives, working together as hybrid drives. Web cache Web browsers and web proxy servers, either locally or at the Internet service provider (ISP), employ web caches to store previous responses from web servers, such as web pages and images. Web caches reduce the amount of information that needs to be transmitted across the network, as information previously stored in the cache can often be re-used. This reduces bandwidth and processing requirements of the web server, and helps to improve responsiveness for users of the web. Another form of cache is P2P caching, where the files most sought for by peer-to-peer applications are stored in an ISP cache to accelerate P2P transfers. Similarly, decentralised equivalents exist, which allow communities to perform the same task for P2P traffic, for example, Corelli. Memoization A cache can store data that is computed on demand rather than retrieved from a backing store. Memoization is an optimization technique that stores the results of resource-consuming function calls within a lookup table, allowing subsequent calls to reuse the stored results and avoid repeated computation. It is related to the dynamic programming algorithm design methodology, which can also be thought of as a means of caching. Content delivery network A content delivery network (CDN) is a network of distributed servers that deliver pages and other Web content to a user, based on the geographic locations of the user, the origin of the web page and the content delivery server. CDNs began in the late 1990s as a way to speed up the delivery of static content, such as HTML pages, images and videos. By replicating content on multiple servers around the world and delivering it to users based on their location, CDNs can significantly improve the speed and availability of a website or application. When a user requests a piece of content, the CDN will check to see if it has a copy of the content in its cache. If it does, the CDN will deliver the content to the user from the cache. Cloud storage gateway A cloud storage gateway, also known as an edge filer, is a hybrid cloud storage device that connects a local network to one or more cloud storage services, typically object storage services such as Amazon S3. It provides a cache for frequently accessed data, providing high speed local access to frequently accessed data in the cloud storage service. Cloud storage gateways also provide additional benefits such as accessing cloud object storage through traditional file serving protocols as well as continued access to cached data during connectivity outages. Other caches The BIND DNS daemon caches a mapping of domain names to IP addresses, as does a resolver library. Write-through operation is common when operating over unreliable networks (like an Ethernet LAN), because of the enormous complexity of the coherency protocol required between multiple write-back caches when communication is unreliable. For instance, web page caches and client-side network file system caches (like those in NFS or SMB) are typically read-only or write-through specifically to keep the network protocol simple and reliable. Search engines also frequently make web pages they have indexed available from their cache. For example, Google provides a "Cached" link next to each search result. This can prove useful when web pages from a web server are temporarily or permanently inaccessible. Database caching can substantially improve the throughput of database applications, for example in the processing of indexes, data dictionaries, and frequently used subsets of data. A distributed cache uses networked hosts to provide scalability, reliability and performance to the application. The hosts can be co-located or spread over different geographical regions. Buffer vs. cache The semantics of a "buffer" and a "cache" are not totally different; even so, there are fundamental differences in intent between the process of caching and the process of buffering. Fundamentally, caching realizes a performance increase for transfers of data that is being repeatedly transferred. While a caching system may realize a performance increase upon the initial (typically write) transfer of a data item, this performance increase is due to buffering occurring within the caching system. With read caches, a data item must have been fetched from its residing location at least once in order for subsequent reads of the data item to realize a performance increase by virtue of being able to be fetched from the cache's (faster) intermediate storage rather than the data's residing location. With write caches, a performance increase of writing a data item may be realized upon the first write of the data item by virtue of the data item immediately being stored in the cache's intermediate storage, deferring the transfer of the data item to its residing storage at a later stage or else occurring as a background process. Contrary to strict buffering, a caching process must adhere to a (potentially distributed) cache coherency protocol in order to maintain consistency between the cache's intermediate storage and the location where the data resides. Buffering, on the other hand, reduces the number of transfers for otherwise novel data amongst communicating processes, which amortizes overhead involved for several small transfers over fewer, larger transfers, provides an intermediary for communicating processes which are incapable of direct transfers amongst each other, or ensures a minimum data size or representation required by at least one of the communicating processes involved in a transfer. With typical caching implementations, a data item that is read or written for the first time is effectively being buffered; and in the case of a write, mostly realizing a performance increase for the application from where the write originated. Additionally, the portion of a caching protocol where individual writes are deferred to a batch of writes is a form of buffering. The portion of a caching protocol where individual reads are deferred to a batch of reads is also a form of buffering, although this form may negatively impact the performance of at least the initial reads (even though it may positively impact the performance of the sum of the individual reads). In practice, caching almost always involves some form of buffering, while strict buffering does not involve caching. A buffer is a temporary memory location that is traditionally used because CPU instructions cannot directly address data stored in peripheral devices. Thus, addressable memory is used as an intermediate stage. Additionally, such a buffer may be feasible when a large block of data is assembled or disassembled (as required by a storage device), or when data may be delivered in a different order than that in which it is produced. Also, a whole buffer of data is usually transferred sequentially (for example to hard disk), so buffering itself sometimes increases transfer performance or reduces the variation or jitter of the transfer's latency as opposed to caching where the intent is to reduce the latency. These benefits are present even if the buffered data are written to the buffer once and read from the buffer once. A cache also increases transfer performance. A part of the increase similarly comes from the possibility that multiple small transfers will combine into one large block. But the main performance-gain occurs because there is a good chance that the same data will be read from cache multiple times, or that written data will soon be read. A cache's sole purpose is to reduce accesses to the underlying slower storage. Cache is also usually an abstraction layer that is designed to be invisible from the perspective of neighboring layers. See also Cache coloring Cache hierarchy Cache-oblivious algorithm Cache stampede Cache language model Cache manifest in HTML5 Dirty bit Five-minute rule Materialized view Memory hierarchy Pipeline burst cache Temporary file References Further reading "What Every Programmer Should Know About Memory" "Caching in the Distributed Environment" Category:Computer architecture	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cache_(computing)	2025-04-05T18:27:58.701358
6830	Columbus, Indiana	\| website = \| elevation_footnotes \| blank1_name = GNIS feature ID \| blank1_info 2393609 \| footnotes = }} Columbus () is a city in, and the county seat of, Bartholomew County, Indiana, United States. The population was 50,474 at the 2020 census. The city is known for its architectural significance, having commissioned noted works of modern architecture and public art since the mid-20th century; the annual program Exhibit Columbus celebrates this legacy. Located about south of Indianapolis, on the east fork of the White River, it is the state's 20th-largest city. It is the principal city of the Columbus, Indiana metropolitan statistical area, which encompasses all of Bartholomew County. Columbus is the birthplace of former Indiana Governor and former Vice President of the United States, Mike Pence. Columbus is the headquarters of the engine company Cummins. In 2004 the city was named as one of "The Ten Most Playful Towns" by Nick Jr. Family Magazine. In the July 2005 edition of GQ magazine, Columbus was named as one of the "62 Reasons to Love Your Country". Columbus won the national contest "America in Bloom" in 2006, and in late 2008, National Geographic Traveler ranked Columbus 11th on its historic destinations list, describing the city as "authentic, unique, and unspoiled."HistoryThe land developed as Columbus was bought by General John Tipton and Luke Bonesteel in 1820. Tipton built a log cabin on Mount Tipton, a small hill overlooking White River and the surrounding flat, heavily forested and swampy valley. It held wetlands of the river. The town was first known as Tiptona, named in honor of Tipton. The town's name was changed to Columbus on March 20, 1821. Many people believe Tipton was upset by the name change, but no evidence exists to prove this. Nonetheless, he decided to leave the newly founded town and did not return. Tipton was later appointed as the highway commissioner for the State of Indiana and was assigned to building a highway from Indianapolis, Indiana to Louisville, Kentucky. When the road approached Columbus, Tipton constructed the first bypass road ever built; it detoured south around the west side of Columbus en route to Seymour. Joseph McKinney was the first to plot the town of Columbus, but no date was recorded. Local history books for years said that the land on which Columbus sits was donated by Tipton. But in 2003, Historic Columbus Indiana acquired a deed showing that Tipton had sold the land. A ferry was established below the confluence of the Flatrock and Driftwood rivers, which form the White River. A village of three or four log cabins developed around the ferry landing, and a store was added in 1821. Later that year, Bartholomew County was organized by an act of the State Legislature and named to honor the famous Hoosier militiaman, General Joseph Bartholomew. Columbus was incorporated as a town on June 28, 1864, and was incorporated as a city 1921. The first railroad in Indiana was constructed to Columbus from Madison, Indiana in 1844. This eventually became the Madison branch of the Pennsylvania Railroad. The railroad fostered the growth of the community into one of the largest in Indiana, and three more railroads reached the city by 1850. The Crump Theatre in Columbus, built in 1889 by John Crump, is the oldest theater in Indiana. Today the building is included within the Columbus Historic District. Before it closed permanently in 2010, it was an all-ages venue with occasional musical performances. The Cummins Bookstore began operations in the city in 1892. Until late 2007, when it closed, it was the oldest continually operated bookstore in Indiana. The Irwin Union Bank building was built in 1954. It was designated as a National Historic Landmark by the National Park Service in 2001 in recognition of its unique architecture. The building consists of a one-story bank structure adjacent to a three-story office annex. A portion of the office annex was built along with the banking hall in 1954. The remaining larger portion, designed by Kevin Roche John Dinkeloo and Associates, was built in 1973. Eero Saarinen designed the bank building with its glazed hall to be set off against the blank background of its three-story brick annex. Two steel and glass vestibule connectors lead from the north side of this structure to the annex. The building was designed to distance the Irwin Union Bank from traditional banking architecture, which mostly echoed imposing, neoclassical style buildings of brick or stone. Tellers were behind iron bars and removed from their customers. Saarinen worked to develop a building that would welcome customers rather than intimidate them. Economy Columbus has been home to many manufacturing companies, including Noblitt-Sparks Industries, which built radios under the Arvin brand in the 1930s, and Arvin Industries, now Meritor After merging with Meritor Automotive on July 10, 2000, the headquarters of the newly created ArvinMeritor Industries was established in Troy, Michigan, the home of parent company, Rockwell International. It was announced in February 2011 that the company name would revert to Meritor, Inc. Cummins is by far the region's largest employer, and the Infotech Park in Columbus accounts for a sizable number of research jobs in the city itself. Just south of Columbus are the North American headquarters of Toyota Material Handling, the world's largest material handling (forklift) manufacturer. Other notable industries include architecture, a discipline for which Columbus is famous worldwide. The late Joseph Irwin Miller (then president and chairman of Cummins) launched the Cummins Foundation, a charitable program that helps subsidize a large number of architectural projects throughout the city by up-and-coming engineers and architects. Early in the 20th century, Columbus also was home to a number of pioneering car manufacturers, including Reeves, which produced the unusual four-axle Octoauto and the twin rear-axle Sextoauto, both around 1911. Geography The Driftwood and Flatrock Rivers converge at Columbus to form the East Fork of the White River. According to the 2010 census, Columbus has a total area of , of which (or 98.62%) is land and (or 1.38%) is water. Climate <!-- Infobox ends --> Demographics 2010 census As of the census of 2010, there were 44,061 people, 17,787 households, and 11,506 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 19,700 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 86.9% White, 2.7% African American, 0.2% Native American, 5.6% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 2.5% from other races, and 2.0% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.8% of the population. There were 17,787 households, of which 33.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.5% were married couples living together, 11.7% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.5% had a male householder with no wife present, and 35.3% were non-families. 29.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.43 and the average family size was 3.00. The median age in the city was 37.1 years. 25.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.1% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 27.3% were from 25 to 44; 24.9% were from 45 to 64; and 14.4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.4% male and 51.6% female. 2000 census As of the census Seven buildings, constructed between 1942 and 1965, are National Historic Landmarks, and approximately 60 other buildings sustain the Bartholomew County seat's reputation as a showcase of modern architecture. National Public Radio once devoted an article to the town's architecture. In 2015, Landmark Columbus was created as a program of Heritage Fund - The Community Foundation of Bartholomew county. In addition to the Columbus Historic District and Irwin Union Bank, the city has numerous buildings listed on the National Register of Historic Places, including seven National Historic Landmarks of modernist architecture: Bartholomew County Courthouse, Columbus City Hall, First Baptist Church, First Christian Church, Haw Creek Leather Company, Mabel McDowell Elementary School, McEwen-Samuels-Marr House, McKinley School, Miller House, North Christian Church, and The Republic Newspaper Office. The city is the basis for the 2017 film Columbus by independent filmmaker Kogonada. The film was shot on location in Columbus over 18 days in the summer of 2016. National Historic Landmarks * First Baptist Church was designed by Harry Weese without windows and was dedicated in 1965. Its architectural features include a high-pitched roof and skylight. * First Christian Church * Irwin Union Bank * The Mabel McDowell School * The Miller House and Garden * North Christian Church * The Republic Newspaper Office was designed by Myron Goldsmith at SOM. * Zaharakos Ice Cream Parlor Other notable Modern buildings * St. Bartholomew Catholic Church, by William Browne Jr. and Steven Risting * Cleo Rogers Memorial Library, by I. M. Pei * Columbus East High School, by Romaldo Giurgola * Commons Centre and Mall, by César Pelli * St. Peter's Lutheran Church, by Gunnar Birkerts * Lincoln Elementary School, by Gunnar Birkerts * Otter Creek Golf Course, by Harry Weese * Fire Station Number 4, by Robert Venturi Columbus Regional Hospital, by Robert A.M. Stern Notable historic buildings Bartholomew County Courthouse by Isaac Hodgson * Columbus Power House by Harrison Albright * The Crump Theatre by Charles Franklin Sparrell Public art * Chaos I by Jean Tinguely * Friendship Way by William A. Johnson, containing an untitled neon sculpture by Cork Marcheschi * Irwin Gardens at the Inn at Irwin Gardens * Large Arch by Henry Moore * 2 Arcs de 212.5˚ by Bernar Venet * Horses by Costantino Nivola * The Family by Harris Barron * Yellow Neon Chandelier and Persians by Dale Chihuly * C by Robert Indiana * Sermon on the Mount by Loja Saarinen and Eliel Saarinen * History and Mystery by William T. Wiley * Exploded Engine by Rudolph de Harak * Eos by Dessa Kirk Exhibit Columbus In May 2016, Landmark Columbus launched Exhibit Columbus as a way to continue the ambitious traditions of the past into the future. Exhibit Columbus features annual programming that alternates between symposium and exhibition years. Sports Columbus High School was home to footwear pioneer Chuck Taylor, who played basketball in Columbus before setting out to promote his now famous shoes and the sport of basketball before being inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame. Two local high schools compete within the state in various sports. Columbus North and Columbus East both have competitive athletics and have many notable athletes that go on to compete in college and beyond. Columbus North High School houses one of the largest high school gyms in the United States. [https://www.nytimes.com/slideshow/2016/02/29/blogs/in-the-temples-of-hoosier-hardwood/s/20160229-lens-basketball-slide-75X3.html CNHS vs CEHS] Indiana Diesels of the Premier Basketball League play their home games at the gymnasium at Ceraland Park, with plans to move to a proposed downtown sports complex in the near future.Parks and recreationColumbus boasts over of parks and green space and over 20 miles of People Trails. These amenities, in addition to several athletic and community facilities, including Donner Aquatic Center, Lincoln Park Softball Complex, Hamilton Center Ice Arena, Clifty Park, Foundation for Youth/Columbus Gymnastics Center and The Commons, are managed and maintained by the Columbus Parks and Recreation Department.TransportationTransitColumBUS provides bus service in the city with five routes operating Monday through Saturday. Roads and highways The north–south US Route 31 has been diverted to the northeastern part of the city. Interstate 65 bypasses Columbus to the west. Indiana Route 46 runs-east-west through the southern section of the city. Railroads Freight rail service is provided by the Louisville and Indiana Railroad (LIRC). The LIRC line runs in a north–south orientation along the western edge of Columbus. The Pennsylvania Railroad's Kentuckyian (Chicago-Louisville) made stops in the city until 1968. The PRR and its successor, the Penn Central, ran the Florida-bound South Wind up to 1971. The city has been earmarked as a location for a new Amtrak station along the Chicago-Indianapolis-Louisville rail corridor.AirportColumbus is served by the Columbus Municipal Airport (KBAK). It is located approximately north of Columbus. The airport handles approximately 40,500 operations per year, with roughly 87% general aviation, 4% air taxi, 8% military and less than 1% commercial service. The airport has two concrete runways; a 6,401-foot runway with approved ILS and GPS approaches (Runway 5-23) and a 5,001-foot crosswind runway, also with GPS approaches, (Runway 14-32). The nearest commercial airport which currently has scheduled airline service is Indianapolis International Airport (IND), located approximately northwest of Columbus. Louisville Muhammad Ali International Airport and Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport are to the south and to the southeast, respectively. Notable people <!--a consensus reached to standardize this heading per WP: WikiProject Cities/US Guideline --> This is a list of notable people who were born in, or who currently live, or have lived in Columbus. * Ross Barbour and Don Barbour, singers, The Four Freshmen Michael Evans Behling, actor Kate Bruce, silent-film actress * Clessie Cummins, inventor, mechanic, salesman, and founder of engine manufacturer Cummins, Inc. * William H. Donner, businessman, industrialist and philanthropist * Tyler Duncan, golfer * Dutch Fehring, Major League Baseball player and Purdue coach * Arthur W Graham III, creator of the first fully automatic electronic race timing & scoring system, long-time Indy 500 executive race official * Lee H. Hamilton, member of U.S. Congress and co-chair of the 9/11 Commission * Jordan Bryce Hutson, gospel musician * Jamie Hyneman, former host of MythBusters * Blair Kiel, Notre Dame and pro football quarterback * Debbi Lawrence, race walker * Scott McNealy, chairman and co-founder of Sun Microsystems * J. Irwin Miller, industrialist, CEO of Cummins * Mike Moore, Minor League Baseball president * Jeff Osterhage, television and film actor * Bob Paris, best-selling author, award-winning public speaker and social change agent, former Mr. Universe * Greg Pence, U.S. representative since 2019, older brother of Mike Pence * Mike Pence, 50th Governor of Indiana (2013–2017) and 48th Vice President of the United States (2017–2021) * Mike Phipps, Purdue All-American and #3 draft pick, NFL quarterback (Browns and Bears) * Frank Richman, Justice of the Indiana Supreme Court, judge at the Nuremberg trials * Terry Schmidt, NFL cornerback * Stephen Sprouse, fashion designer * Tony Stewart, auto racing driver and team owner, USAC, 3-time NASCAR Cup Series Champion, owner of NASCAR team Stewart Haas Racing and NHRA team Tony Stewart Racing * Jill Tasker, television and voice actor * Chuck Taylor, shoe designer * Bruce Tinsley, creator of Mallard Fillmore * Herbert Wright, producer Education The Bartholomew Consolidated School Corporation (BCSC) is the local school district. High schools include: * Columbus East High School * Columbus North High School Columbus has a public library, a branch of the Bartholomew County Public Library. Secondary education includes Indiana University–Purdue University Columbus (IUPUC), an Ivy Tech campus, a Purdue Polytechnic campus, and an Indiana Wesleyan University education center. See also * The Republic, daily newspaper based in Columbus * List of public art in Columbus, Indiana * Columbus, a 2017 American film set in Columbus, Indiana References Sources * Illustrated Historical Atlas of Bartholomew County, Indiana, 1879 (reprinted by the Bartholomew County Historical Society, 1978) * 2003 History of Bartholomew County, Indiana, Volume II, copyright 2003, by the Bartholomew County Historical Society Further reading * Columbus Indiana in Vintage Postcards, by Tamara Stone Iorio, copyright 2005 by Tamara Stone Iorio, published by Arcadia Publishing, * "Have you Seen my Town?" by Pamela Dinsmore * "Images of America: Columbus" by Patricia Mote * "I Discover Columbus" by William Marsh * "The Diesel Odyssey of Clessie Cummins" by Lyle Cummins * "The Engine that Could" by Jeffrey L. Cruikshank and David B. Sicilia * "Columbus Indiana" by Balthazar Korab * "A Look at Architecture: Columbus Indiana" by the Visitor's Center * "People and Places in my Town, Columbus Indiana" by Sylvia Worton * "Folk Heroes, Heroines, and Hometown Heritage – From Columbus, Indiana's City Hall Murals and Beyond" is about Columbus' outstanding personality beyond its architecture. , by Rose Pelone Sisson External links * [http://www.columbus.in.gov City of Columbus website] * [https://columbus.in.us/ Columbus Area Visitors Center] * [http://www.historiccolumbusindiana.org A History of Columbus Indiana] * Category:1820 establishments in Indiana Category:Cities in Indiana Category:County seats in Indiana Category:Populated places established in 1820	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbus,_Indiana	2025-04-05T18:27:58.723230
6834	List of computer scientists	This is a list of computer scientists, people who do work in computer science, in particular researchers and authors. Some persons notable as programmers are included here because they work in research as well as program. A few of these people pre-date the invention of the digital computer; they are now regarded as computer scientists because their work can be seen as leading to the invention of the computer. Others are mathematicians whose work falls within what would now be called theoretical computer science, such as complexity theory and algorithmic information theory. A Wil van der Aalst – business process management, process mining, Petri nets Scott Aaronson – quantum computing and complexity theory Rediet Abebe – algorithms, artificial intelligence Hal Abelson – intersection of computing and teaching Serge Abiteboul – database theory Samson Abramsky – game semantics Leonard Adleman – RSA, DNA computing Manindra Agrawal – polynomial-time primality testing Luis von Ahn – human-based computation Alfred Aho – compilers book, the 'a' in AWK Frances E. Allen – compiler optimization Gene Amdahl – supercomputer developer, Amdahl Corporation founder David P. Anderson – volunteer computing Lisa Anthony – natural user interfaces Andrew Appel – compiler of text books Cecilia R. Aragon – invented treap, human-centered data science Bruce Arden – programming language compilers (GAT, Michigan Algorithm Decoder (MAD)), virtual memory architecture, Michigan Terminal System (MTS) Kevin Ashton – pioneered and named The Internet of Things at M.I.T. Sanjeev Arora – PCP theorem Winifred "Tim" Alice Asprey – established the computer science curriculum at Vassar College John Vincent Atanasoff – computer pioneer, creator of Atanasoff Berry Computer (ABC) Shakuntala Atre – database theory Lennart Augustsson – languages (Lazy ML, Cayenne), compilers (HBC Haskell, parallel Haskell front end, Bluespec SystemVerilog early), LPMud pioneer, NetBSD device drivers B Charles Babbage (1791–1871) – invented first mechanical computer called the supreme mathematician Charles Bachman – American computer scientist, known for Integrated Data Store Roland Carl Backhouse – mathematics of computer program construction, algorithmic problem solving, ALGOL IFIP WG 2.1 member John Backus – Fortran, Backus–Naur form, first complete compiler David F. Bacon – programming languages, garbage collection David Bader Victor Bahl Fatmah Baothman – Saudi Arabian AI researcher Anthony James Barr – SAS, former Statistical Analysis System Jean Bartik (1924–2011) – one of the first computer programmers, on ENIAC (1946), one of the first vacuum tube computers, back when programming involved using cables, dials, and switches to physically rewire a machine; worked with John Mauchly toward BINAC (1949), EDVAC (1949), UNIVAC (1951) to develop early stored program computers Andrew Barto Friedrich L. Bauer – stack (data structure), Sequential Formula Translation, ALGOL, software engineering, Bauer–Fike theorem Rudolf Bayer – B-tree Gordon Bell (1934–2024) – computer designer DEC VAX, author: Computer Structures Steven M. Bellovin – network security Cecilia Berdichevsky (1925–2010) – pioneering Argentinian computer scientist Tim Berners-Lee – World Wide Web Daniel J. Bernstein – qmail, software as protected speech Peter Bernus Abhay Bhushan Dines Bjørner – Vienna Development Method (VDM), RAISE Gerrit Blaauw – one of main designers of IBM System 360 computer line Sue Black David Blei Dorothy Blum – National Security Agency Lenore Blum – complexity Manuel Blum – cryptography Barry Boehm – software engineering economics, spiral development Corrado Böhm – author of the structured program theorem Kurt Bollacker Jeff Bonwick – invented slab allocation and ZFS Grady Booch – Unified Modeling Language, Object Management Group George Boole – Boolean logic Andrew Booth – developed the first rotating drum storage device Kathleen Booth – developed the first assembly language Anita Borg (1949–2003) – American computer scientist, founder of Anita Borg Institute for Women and Technology Alan H. Borning – human–computer interaction, object-oriented programming, constraint programming, programming languages, ThingLab Bert Bos – Cascading Style Sheets Mikhail Botvinnik – World Chess Champion, computer scientist, electrical engineer, pioneered early expert system AI and computer chess Jonathan Bowen – Z notation, formal methods Stephen R. Bourne – Bourne shell, portable ALGOL 68C compiler Harry Bouwman (born 1953) – Dutch Information systems researcher, professor at Åbo Akademi University Robert S. Boyer – string searching, ACL2 theorem prover Karlheinz Brandenburg – Main mp3 contributor Gilles Brassard – BB84 protocol and quantum cryptography pioneer Lawrence M. Breed – implementation of Iverson Notation (APL), co-developed APL\360, Scientific Time Sharing Corporation cofounder Jack E. Bresenham – early computer-graphics contributions, including Bresenham's algorithm Sergey Brin – co-founder of Google David J. Brown – unified memory architecture, binary compatibility Per Brinch Hansen (surname "Brinch Hansen") – RC 4000 multiprogramming system, operating system kernels, microkernels, monitors, concurrent programming, Concurrent Pascal, distributed computing & processes, parallel computing Sjaak Brinkkemper – methodology of product software development Fred Brooks – System 360, OS/360, The Mythical Man-Month, No Silver Bullet Rod Brooks Margaret Burnett – visual programming languages, end-user software engineering, and gender-inclusive software Rod Burstall – languages COWSEL (renamed POP-1), POP-2, NPL, Hope; ACM SIGPLAN 2009 PL Achievement Award Michael Butler – Event-B C Pino Caballero Gil – cryptography Tracy Camp – wireless computing Martin Campbell-Kelly – history of computing Rosemary Candlin Rod Canion – cofounder of Compaq Computer Corporation Bryan Cantrill – invented DTrace Luca Cardelli John Carmack – codeveloped Doom Michael Caspersen – programming methodology, education in OO programming, leadership in developing informatics education Edwin Catmull – computer graphics Vint Cerf – Internet, TCP/IP Gregory Chaitin Robert Cailliau – Belgian computer scientist Zhou Chaochen – duration calculus Peter Chen – entity-relationship model, data modeling, conceptual model Leonardo Chiariglione – founder of MPEG Tracy Chou – computer scientist and activist Alonzo Church – mathematics of combinators, lambda calculus Alberto Ciaramella – speech recognition, patent informatics Edmund M. Clarke – model checking John Cocke – reduced instruction set computer (RISC) Edgar F. Codd (1923–2003) – formulated the database relational model Jacques Cohen – computer science professor Ian Coldwater – computer security Simon Colton – computational creativity Alain Colmerauer – Prolog Douglas Comer – Xinu Paul Justin Compton – Ripple-down rules Richard W. Conway – CORC, CUPL, and PL/C languages and dialects; programming textbooks Stephen Cook – NP-completeness James Cooley – Fast Fourier transform (FFT) Steven Anson Coons – conic section analyses, Bézier surface patches (includes Coons patch), The Little Red Book (1967), computer graphics Danese Cooper – open-source software Fernando J. Corbató – Compatible Time-Sharing System (CTSS), Multics Gordon Cormack – co-invented dynamic Markov compression Kit Cosper – open-source software Patrick Cousot – abstract interpretation Ingemar Cox – digital watermarking Damien Coyle – computational neuroscience, neuroimaging, neurotechnology, and brain-computer interface Seymour Cray – Cray Research, supercomputer Nello Cristianini – machine learning, pattern analysis, artificial intelligence Jon Crowcroft – networking W. Bruce Croft Glen Culler – interactive computing, computer graphics, high performance computing Haskell Curry D Luigi Dadda – designer of the Dadda multiplier Ole-Johan Dahl – Simula, object-oriented programming Ryan Dahl – founder of node.js project Andries van Dam – computer graphics, hypertext Samir Das – Wireless Networks, Mobile Computing, Vehicular ad hoc network, Sensor Networks, Mesh networking, Wireless ad hoc network Neil Daswani – computer security, co-founder and co-director of Stanford Advanced Computer Security Program, co-founder of Dasient (acquired by Twitter), former chief information security of LifeLock and Symantec's Consumer Business Unit Christopher J. Date – proponent of database relational model Terry A. Davis – creator of TempleOS Jeff Dean – Bigtable, MapReduce, Spanner of Google Erik Demaine – computational origami Tom DeMarco Richard DeMillo – computer security, software engineering, educational technology Dorothy E. Denning – computer security Peter J. Denning – identified the use of an operating system's working set and balance set, President of ACM Michael Dertouzos – Director of Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Laboratory for Computer Science (LCS) from 1974 to 2001 Alexander Dewdney Robert Dewar – IFIP WG 2.1 member, ALGOL 68, chairperson; AdaCore cofounder, president, CEO Vinod Dham – P5 Pentium processor Jan Dietz (born 1945) (decay constant) – information systems theory and Design & Engineering Methodology for Organizations Whitfield Diffie (born 1944) (linear response function) – public key cryptography, Diffie–Hellman key exchange Edsger W. Dijkstra – algorithms, Dijkstra's algorithm, Go To Statement Considered Harmful, semaphore (programming), IFIP WG 2.1 member Matthew Dillon – DragonFly BSD with LWKT, vkernel OS-level virtualisation, file systems: HAMMER1, HAMMER2 Alan Dix – wrote important university level textbook on human–computer interaction Jack Dongarra – linear algebra high performance computing (HCI) Marco Dorigo – ant colony optimization Paul Dourish – human computer interaction Charles Stark Draper (1901–1987) – designer of Apollo Guidance Computer, "father of inertial navigation", MIT professor Susan Dumais – information retrieval Adam Dunkels – Contiki, lwIP, uIP, protothreads Jon Michael Dunn – founding dean of Indiana University School of Informatics, information based logics especially relevance logic Schahram Dustdar – Distributed Systems, TU Wien, Austria E Peter Eades – graph drawing Annie Easley Wim Ebbinkhuijsen – COBOL John Presper Eckert – ENIAC Alan Edelman – Edelman's Law, stochastic operator, Interactive Supercomputing, Julia (programming language) cocreator, high performance computing, numerical computing Brendan Eich – JavaScript, Mozilla Philip Emeagwali – supercomputing E. Allen Emerson – model checking Douglas Engelbart – tiled windows, hypertext, computer mouse Barbara Engelhardt – latent variable models, genomics, quantitative trait locus (QTL) David Eppstein Andrey Ershov – languages ALPHA, Rapira; first Soviet time-sharing system AIST-0, electronic publishing system RUBIN, multiprocessing workstation MRAMOR, IFIP WG 2.1 member, Aesthetics and the Human Factor in Programming Don Estridge (1937–1985) – led development of original IBM Personal Computer (PC); known as "father of the IBM PC" Oren Etzioni – MetaCrawler, Netbot Christopher Riche Evans David C. Evans – computer graphics Shimon Even F Scott Fahlman Edward Feigenbaum – intelligence Edward Felten – computer security Tim Finin Raphael Finkel Donald Firesmith Gary William Flake Tommy Flowers – Colossus computer Robert Floyd – NP-completeness Sally Floyd – Internet congestion control Lawrence J. Fogel – evolutionary programming James D. Foley Ken Forbus L. R. Ford, Jr. Lance Fortnow Mahmoud Samir Fayed – PWCT, Ring Martin Fowler Robert France Herbert W. Franke Edward Fredkin Yoav Freund Daniel P. Friedman Charlotte Froese Fischer – computational theoretical physics Ping Fu Xiaoming Fu Kunihiko Fukushima – neocognitron, artificial neural networks, convolutional neural network architecture, unsupervised learning, deep learning D. R. Fulkerson G Richard P. Gabriel – Maclisp, Common Lisp, Worse is Better, League for Programming Freedom, Lucid Inc., XEmacs Zvi Galil Bernard Galler – MAD (programming language) Hector Garcia-Molina Michael Garey – NP-completeness Hugo de Garis Bill Gates – cofounder of Microsoft David Gelernter Lisa Gelobter – was the Chief Digital Service Officer for the U.S. Department of Education, founder of teQuitable Charles Geschke Zoubin Ghahramani Sanjay Ghemawat Jeremy Gibbons – generic programming, functional programming, formal methods, computational biology, bioinformatics Juan E. Gilbert – human-centered computing Lee Giles – CiteSeer Seymour Ginsburg – formal languages, automata theory, AFL theory, database theory Robert L. Glass Kurt Gödel – computability; not a computer scientist per se, but his work was invaluable in the field Ashok Goel Joseph Goguen E. Mark Gold – Language identification in the limit Adele Goldberg – Smalltalk Andrew V. Goldberg – algorithms, algorithm engineering Ian Goldberg – cryptographer, off-the-record messaging Judy Goldsmith – computational complexity theory, decision theory, and computer ethics Oded Goldreich – cryptography, computational complexity theory Shafi Goldwasser – cryptography, computational complexity theory Gene Golub – Matrix computation Martin Charles Golumbic – algorithmic graph theory Gastón Gonnet – cofounder of Waterloo Maple Inc. Ian Goodfellow – machine learning James Gosling – Network extensible Window System (NeWS), Java Paul Graham – Viaweb, On Lisp, Arc Robert M. Graham – programming language compilers (GAT, Michigan Algorithm Decoder (MAD)), virtual memory architecture, Multics Susan L. Graham – compilers, programming environments Jim Gray – database Sheila Greibach – Greibach normal form, Abstract family of languages (AFL) theory David Gries – The Science of Programming, Interference freedom, Member Emeritus, IFIP WG 2.3 on Programming Methodology Robert Griesemer – Go language Ralph Griswold – SNOBOL Bill Gropp – Message Passing Interface, Portable, Extensible Toolkit for Scientific Computation (PETSc) Tom Gruber – ontology engineering Shelia Guberman – handwriting recognition Ramanathan V. Guha – Resource Description Framework (RDF), Netscape, RSS, Epinions Neil J. Gunther – computer performance analysis, capacity planning Jürg Gutknecht – with Niklaus Wirth: Lilith computer; Modula-2, Oberon, Zonnon programming languages; Oberon operating system Michael Guy – Phoenix, work on number theory, computer algebra, higher dimension polyhedra theory; with John Horton Conway Giri Topper - Topper of Anna University and Programmer H Nico Habermann – operating systems, software engineering, inter-process communication, process synchronization, deadlock avoidance, software verification, programming languages: ALGOL 60, BLISS, Pascal, Ada Philipp Matthäus Hahn – mechanical calculator Eldon C. Hall – Apollo Guidance Computer Wendy Hall Joseph Halpern Margaret Hamilton – ultra-reliable software design, Apollo program space missions Richard Hamming – Hamming code, founder of the Association for Computing Machinery Jiawei Han – data mining Frank Harary – graph theory Brian Harris – machine translation research, Canada's first computer-assisted translation course, natural translation theory, community interpreting (Critical Link) Juris Hartmanis – computational complexity theory Johan Håstad – computational complexity theory Les Hatton – software failure and vulnerabilities Igor Hawryszkiewycz (born 1948) – American computer scientist and organizational theorist He Jifeng – provably correct systems Eric Hehner – predicative programming, formal methods, quote notation, ALGOL Martin Hellman – encryption Gernot Heiser – operating system teaching, research, commercialising, Open Kernel Labs, OKL4, Wombat James Hendler – Semantic Web John L. Hennessy – computer architecture Andrew Herbert Carl Hewitt Kelsey Hightower – open source, cloud computing Danny Hillis – Connection Machine Geoffrey Hinton Julia Hirschberg Tin Kam Ho – artificial intelligence, machine learning C. A. R. Hoare – logic, rigor, communicating sequential processes (CSP) Louis Hodes (1934–2008) – Lisp, pattern recognition, logic programming, cancer research Betty Holberton – ENIAC programmer, developed the first Sort Merge Generator John Henry Holland – genetic algorithms Herman Hollerith (1860–1929) – invented recording of data on a machine readable medium, using punched cards Gerard Holzmann – software verification, logic model checking (SPIN) John Hopcroft – compilers Admiral Grace Hopper (1906–1992) – developed early compilers: FLOW-Matic, COBOL; worked on UNIVAC; gave speeches on computer history, where she gave out nano-seconds Eric Horvitz – artificial intelligence Alston Householder Paul Hudak (1952–2015) – Haskell language design, textbooks on it and computer music David A. Huffman (1925–1999) – Huffman coding, used in data compression John Hughes – structuring computations with arrows; QuickCheck randomized program testing framework; Haskell language design Roger Hui – co-created J language Watts Humphrey (1927–2010) – Personal Software Process (PSP), Software quality, Team Software Process (TSP) Sandra Hutchins (born 1946) – speech recognition I Jean Ichbiah – Ada Roberto Ierusalimschy – Lua (programming language) Dan Ingalls – Smalltalk, BitBlt, Lively Kernel Mary Jane Irwin Kenneth E. Iverson – APL, J J Ivar Jacobson – Unified Modeling Language, Object Management Group Anil K. Jain (born 1948) Ramesh Jain Jonathan James Jordi Ustrell Aguilà David S. Johnson Stephen C. Johnson Angie Jones – software engineer and automation architect. Holds 26 patented inventions in the United States of America and Japan Cliff Jones – Vienna Development Method (VDM) Michael I. Jordan Mathai Joseph Aravind K. Joshi Bill Joy (born 1954) – Sun Microsystems, BSD UNIX, vi, csh Dan Jurafsky – natural language processing K William Kahan – numerical analysis Robert E. Kahn – TCP/IP Avinash Kak – digital image processing Poul-Henning Kamp – invented GBDE, FreeBSD Jails, Varnish cache David Karger Richard Karp – NP-completeness Narendra Karmarkar – Karmarkar's algorithm Marek Karpinski – NP optimization problems Ted Kaehler – Smalltalk, Squeak, HyperCard Alan Kay – Dynabook, Smalltalk, overlapping windows Neeraj Kayal – AKS primality test Manolis Kellis – computational biology John George Kemeny – the language BASIC Ken Kennedy – compiling for parallel and vector machines Brian Kernighan (born 1942) – Unix, the 'k' in AWK Carl Kesselman – grid computing Gregor Kiczales – CLOS, reflective programming, aspect-oriented programming Peter T. Kirstein – Internet Stephen Cole Kleene – Kleene closure, recursion theory Dan Klein – Natural language processing, Machine translation Leonard Kleinrock – ARPANET, queueing theory, packet switching, hierarchical routing Donald Knuth – The Art of Computer Programming, MIX/MMIX, TeX, literate programming Andrew Koenig – C++ Daphne Koller – Artificial intelligence, bayesian network Michael Kölling – BlueJ Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov – algorithmic complexity theory Janet L. Kolodner – case-based reasoning David Korn – KornShell Kees Koster – ALGOL 68 Robert Kowalski – logic programming John Koza – genetic programming John Krogstie – SEQUAL framework Joseph Kruskal – Kruskal's algorithm Maarja Kruusmaa – underwater roboticist Thomas E. Kurtz (1928–2024) – BASIC programming language; Dartmouth College computer professor L Richard E. Ladner Monica S. Lam Leslie Lamport – algorithms for distributed computing, LaTeX Butler Lampson – SDS 940, founding member Xerox PARC, Xerox Alto, Turing Award Peter Landin – ISWIM, J operator, SECD machine, off-side rule, syntactic sugar, ALGOL, IFIP WG 2.1 member, advanced lambda calculus to model programming languages (aided functional programming), denotational semantics Tom Lane – Independent JPEG Group, PostgreSQL, Portable Network Graphics (PNG) Börje Langefors Hans Langmaack Chris Lattner – creator of Swift (programming language) and LLVM compiler infrastructure Steve Lawrence Edward D. Lazowska Joshua Lederberg Manny M Lehman Charles E. Leiserson – cache-oblivious algorithms, provably good work-stealing, coauthor of Introduction to Algorithms Douglas Lenat – artificial intelligence, Cyc Yann LeCun Rasmus Lerdorf – PHP Max Levchin – Gausebeck–Levchin test and PayPal Leonid Levin – computational complexity theory Kevin Leyton-Brown – artificial intelligence J.C.R. Licklider David Liddle Jochen Liedtke – microkernel operating systems Eumel, L3, L4 John Lions – Lions' Commentary on UNIX 6th Edition, with Source Code (Lions Book) Charles H. Lindsey – IFIP WG 2.1 member, Revised Report on ALGOL 68 Richard J. Lipton – computational complexity theory Barbara Liskov – programming languages Yanhong Annie Liu – programming languages, algorithms, program design, program optimization, software systems, optimizing, analysis, and transformations, intelligent systems, distributed computing, computer security, IFIP WG 2.1 member Darrell Long – computer data storage, computer security Patricia D. Lopez – broadening participation in computing Gillian Lovegrove Ada Lovelace – first programmer David Luckham – Lisp, Automated theorem proving, Stanford Pascal Verifier, Complex event processing, Rational Software cofounder (Ada compiler) Eugene Luks Nancy Lynch M Nadia Magnenat Thalmann – computer graphics, virtual actor Tom Maibaum George Mallen – creative computing, computer arts Simon Marlow – Haskell developer, book author; co-developer: Glasgow Haskell Compiler, Haxl remote data access library Zohar Manna – fuzzy logic James Martin – information engineering Robert C. Martin (Uncle Bob) – software craftsmanship John Mashey Yuri Matiyasevich – solving Hilbert's tenth problem Yukihiro Matsumoto – Ruby (programming language) John Mauchly (1907–1980) – designed ENIAC, first general-purpose electronic digital computer, and EDVAC, BINAC and UNIVAC I, the first commercial computer; worked with Jean Bartik on ENIAC and Grace Murray Hopper on UNIVAC Ujjwal Maulik (born 1965) multi-objective clustering and Bioinformatics Derek McAuley – ubiquitous computing, computer architecture, networking Conor McBride – researches type theory, functional programming; cocreated Epigram (programming language) with James McKinna; member IFIP Working Group 2.1 on Algorithmic Languages and Calculi John McCarthy – Lisp (programming language), ALGOL, IFIP WG 2.1 member, artificial intelligence Andrew McCallum Douglas McIlroy – macros, pipes, Unix philosophy Chris McKinstry – artificial intelligence, Mindpixel Marshall Kirk McKusick – BSD, Berkeley Fast File System Lambert Meertens – ALGOL 68, IFIP WG 2.1 member, ABC (programming language) Kurt Mehlhorn – algorithms, data structures, LEDA Dora Metcalf – entrepreneur, engineer and mathematician Bertrand Meyer – Eiffel (programming language) Silvio Micali – cryptography Robin Milner – ML (programming language) Jack Minker – database logic Marvin Minsky – artificial intelligence, perceptrons, Society of Mind James G. Mitchell – WATFOR compiler, Mesa (programming language), Spring (operating system), ARM architecture Tom M. Mitchell Arvind Mithal – formal verification of large digital systems, developing dynamic dataflow architectures, parallel computing programming languages (Id, pH), compiling on parallel machines Paul Mockapetris – Domain Name System (DNS) Cleve Moler – numerical analysis, MATLAB Faron Moller – concurrency theory John P. Moon – inventor, Apple Inc. Charles H. Moore – Forth language Edward F. Moore – Moore machine Gordon Moore – Moore's law J Strother Moore – string searching, ACL2 theorem prover Roger Moore – co-developed APL\360, created IPSANET, co-founded I. P. Sharp Associates Hans Moravec – robotics Carroll Morgan – formal methods Robert Tappan Morris – Morris worm Joel Moses – Macsyma Rajeev Motwani – randomized algorithm Oleg A. Mukhanov – quantum computing developer, co-founder and CTO of SeeQC Stephen Muggleton – Inductive Logic Programming Klaus-Robert Müller – machine learning, artificial intelligence Alan Mycroft – programming languages Brad A. Myers – human-computer interaction N Mihai Nadin – anticipation research Makoto Nagao – machine translation, natural language processing, digital library Frieder Nake – pioneered computer arts Bonnie Nardi – human–computer interaction Peter Naur (1928–2016) – Backus–Naur form (BNF), ALGOL 60, IFIP WG 2.1 member Roger Needham – computer security James G. Nell – Generalised Enterprise Reference Architecture and Methodology (GERAM) Greg Nelson (1953–2015) – satisfiability modulo theories, extended static checking, program verification, Modula-3 committee, Simplify theorem prover in ESC/Java Bernard de Neumann – massively parallel autonomous cellular processor, software engineering research Klara Dan von Neumann (1911–1963) – early computers, ENIAC programmer and control designer John von Neumann (1903–1957) – early computers, von Neumann machine, set theory, functional analysis, mathematics pioneer, linear programming, quantum mechanics Allen Newell – artificial intelligence, Computer Structures Max Newman – Colossus computer, MADM Andrew Ng – artificial intelligence, machine learning, robotics Nils John Nilsson (1933–2019) – artificial intelligence G.M. Nijssen – Nijssen's Information Analysis Methodology (NIAM) object–role modeling Tobias Nipkow – proof assistance Maurice Nivat – theoretical computer science, Theoretical Computer Science journal, ALGOL, IFIP WG 2.1 member Jerre Noe – computerized banking Peter Nordin – artificial intelligence, genetic programming, evolutionary robotics Donald Norman – user interfaces, usability Peter Norvig – artificial intelligence, Director of Research at Google George Novacky – University of Pittsburgh: assistant department chair, senior lecturer in computer science, assistant dean of CAS for undergraduate studies Kristen Nygaard – Simula, object-oriented programming O Martin Odersky – Scala programming language Peter O'Hearn – separation logic, bunched logic, Infer Static Analyzer T. William Olle – Ferranti Mercury Steve Omohundro Severo Ornstein John O'Sullivan – Wi-Fi John Ousterhout – Tcl programming language Mark Overmars – video game programming Susan Owicki – interference freedom P Larry Page – co-founder of Google Sankar Pal Paritosh Pandya Christos Papadimitriou Keshab K. Parhi David Park (1935–1990) – first Lisp implementation, expert in fairness, program schemas, bisimulation in concurrent computing David Parnas – information hiding, modular programming DJ Patil – former Chief Data Scientist of United States Yale Patt – Instruction-level parallelism, speculative architectures David Patterson – reduced instruction set computer (RISC), RISC-V, redundant arrays of inexpensive disks (RAID), Berkeley Network of Workstations (NOW) Mike Paterson – algorithms, analysis of algorithms (complexity) Mihai Pătraşcu – data structures Lawrence Paulson – ML Randy Pausch (1960–2008) – human–computer interaction, Carnegie professor, "Last Lecture" Juan Pavón – software agents Judea Pearl – artificial intelligence, search algorithms Alan Perlis – Programming Pearls Radia Perlman – spanning tree protocol Pier Giorgio Perotto – computer designer at Olivetti, designer of the Programma 101 programmable calculator Rózsa Péter – recursive function theory Simon Peyton Jones – functional programming, Glasgow Haskell Compiler, C-- Kathy Pham – data, artificial intelligence, civic technology, healthcare, ethics Roberto Pieraccini – speech technologist, engineering director at Google Keshav Pingali – IEEE Computer Society Charles Babbage Award, ACM Fellow (2012) Gordon Plotkin Amir Pnueli – temporal logic Willem van der Poel – computer graphics, robotics, geographic information systems, imaging, multimedia, virtual environments, games Robin Popplestone – COWSEL (renamed POP-1), POP-2, POP-11 languages, Poplog IDE; Freddy II robot Cicely Popplewell (1920–1995) – British software engineer in 1960s Emil Post – mathematics Jon Postel – Internet Franco Preparata – computer engineering, computational geometry, parallel algorithms, computational biology William H. Press – numerical algorithms R Rapelang Rabana Grzegorz Rozenberg – natural computing, automata theory, graph transformations and concurrent systems Michael O. Rabin – nondeterministic machine Dragomir R. Radev – natural language processing, information retrieval T. V. Raman – accessibility, Emacspeak Brian Randell – ALGOL 60, software fault tolerance, dependability, pre-1950 history of computing hardware Anders P. Ravn – Duration Calculus Raj Reddy – artificial intelligence David P. Reed Trygve Reenskaug – model–view–controller (MVC) software architecture pattern John C. Reynolds – continuations, definitional interpreters, defunctionalization, Forsythe, Gedanken language, intersection types, polymorphic lambda calculus, relational parametricity, separation logic, ALGOL Joyce K. Reynolds – Internet Reinder van de Riet – Editor: Europe of Data and Knowledge Engineering, COLOR-X event modeling language Bernard Richards – medical informatics Martin Richards – Basic Combined Programming Language (BCPL) Adam Ries – advocate for Arabic numerals to replace Roman numerals C. J. van Rijsbergen Dennis Ritchie – C (programming language), Unix Ron Rivest – RSA, MD5, RC4 Lawrence Roberts – ARPANET program manager, Internet cofounder Paul Robertson (researcher) - AI researcher Ken Robinson – formal methods Colette Rolland – REMORA methodology, meta modelling John Romero – codeveloped Doom Azriel Rosenfeld Douglas T. Ross – Automatically Programmed Tools (APT), Computer-aided design, structured analysis and design technique, ALGOL X Guido van Rossum – Python (programming language) M. A. Rothman – UEFI Winston W. Royce – waterfall model Rudy Rucker – mathematician, writer, educator Steven Rudich – complexity theory, cryptography Jeff Rulifson James Rumbaugh – Unified Modeling Language, Object Management Group Peter Ružička – Slovak computer scientist and mathematician S George Sadowsky Mehrnoosh Sadrzadeh – compositional models of meaning, machine learning Umar Saif Gerard Salton – information retrieval Jean E. Sammet – programming languages Claude Sammut – artificial intelligence researcher Carl Sassenrath – operating systems, programming languages, Amiga, REBOL Mahadev Satyanarayanan – file systems, distributed systems, mobile computing, pervasive computing Walter Savitch – discovery of complexity class NL, Savitch's theorem, natural language processing, mathematical linguistics Nitin Saxena – AKS Primality test for polynomial time primality testing, computational complexity theory Jonathan Schaeffer Heidi Schelhowe Wilhelm Schickard – one of the first calculating machines Jürgen Schmidhuber – artificial intelligence, deep learning, artificial neural networks, recurrent neural networks, Gödel machine, artificial curiosity, meta-learning Steve Schneider – formal methods, security Bruce Schneier – cryptography, security Fred B. Schneider – concurrent and distributed computing Sarita Schoenebeck – human–computer interaction Glenda Schroeder – command-line shell, e-mail Bernhard Schölkopf – machine learning, artificial intelligence Dana Scott – domain theory Michael L. Scott – programming languages, algorithms, distributed computing Robert Sedgewick – algorithms, data structures Ravi Sethi – compilers, 2nd Dragon Book Nigel Shadbolt Adi Shamir – RSA, cryptanalysis Claude Shannon – information theory David E. Shaw – computational finance, computational biochemistry, parallel architectures Cliff Shaw – systems programmer, artificial intelligence Scott Shenker – networking Shashi Shekhar – spatial computing Ben Shneiderman – human–computer interaction, information visualization Edward H. Shortliffe – MYCIN (medical diagnostic expert system) Daniel Siewiorek – electronic design automation, reliability computing, context aware mobile computing, wearable computing, computer-aided design, rapid prototyping, fault tolerance Joseph Sifakis – model checking Herbert A. Simon – artificial intelligence Munindar P. Singh – multiagent systems, software engineering, artificial intelligence, social networks Ramesh Sitaraman – helped build Akamai's high performance network Daniel Sleator – splay tree, amortized analysis Aaron Sloman – artificial intelligence and cognitive science Arne Sølvberg – information modelling Brian Cantwell Smith – reflective programming, 3lisp David Canfield Smith – invented interface icons, programming by demonstration, developed graphical user interface, Xerox Star; Xerox PARC researcher, cofounded Dest Systems, Cognition Steven Spewak – enterprise architecture planning Carol Spradling Robert Sproull Rohini Kesavan Srihari – information retrieval, text analytics, multilingual text mining Sargur Srihari – pattern recognition, machine learning, computational criminology, CEDAR-FOX Maciej Stachowiak – GNOME, Safari, WebKit Richard Stallman (born 1953) – GNU Project Ronald Stamper Thad Starner Richard E. Stearns – computational complexity theory Guy L. Steele, Jr. – Scheme, Common Lisp Thomas Sterling – creator of Beowulf clusters Alexander Stepanov – generic programming W. Richard Stevens (1951–1999) – author of books, including TCP/IP Illustrated and Advanced Programming in the Unix Environment Larry Stockmeyer – computational complexity, distributed computing Salvatore Stolfo – computer security, machine learning Michael Stonebraker – relational database practice and theory Olaf Storaasli – finite element machine, linear algebra, high performance computing Christopher Strachey – denotational semantics Volker Strassen – matrix multiplication, integer multiplication, Solovay–Strassen primality test Bjarne Stroustrup – C++ Madhu Sudan – computational complexity theory, coding theory Gerald Jay Sussman – Scheme Bert Sutherland – computer graphics, Internet Ivan Sutherland – computer graphics: Sketchpad, Evans & Sutherland Latanya Sweeney – data privacy and algorithmic fairness Mario Szegedy – complexity theory, quantum computing T Parisa Tabriz – Google Director of Engineering, also known as the Security Princess Roberto Tamassia – computational geometry, computer security Andrew S. Tanenbaum – operating systems, MINIX Austin Tate – Artificial Intelligence Applications, AI Planning, Virtual Worlds Bernhard Thalheim – conceptual modelling foundation Éva Tardos Gábor Tardos Robert Tarjan – splay tree Valerie Taylor Mario Tchou – Italian engineer, of Chinese descent, leader of Olivetti Elea project Jaime Teevan Shang-Hua Teng – analysis of algorithms Larry Tesler – human–computer interaction, graphical user interface, Apple Macintosh Avie Tevanian – Mach kernel team, NeXT, Mac OS X Charles P. Thacker – Xerox Alto, Microsoft Research Daniel Thalmann – computer graphics, virtual actor Ken Thompson – mainly designed and authored Unix, Plan 9 and Inferno operating systems, B and Bon languages (precursors of C), created UTF-8 character encoding, introduced regular expressions in QED, co-authored Go language Simon Thompson – functional programming research, textbooks; Cardano domain-specific languages: Marlowe Sebastian Thrun – AI researcher, pioneered autonomous driving Walter F. Tichy – RCS Seinosuke Toda – computation complexity, recipient of 1998 Gödel Prize Chai Keong Toh – mobile ad hoc networks pioneer Linus Torvalds – Linux kernel, Git Leonardo Torres Quevedo (1852–1936) – invented El Ajedrecista (the chess player) in 1912, a true automaton built to play chess without human guidance. In his work Essays on Automatics (1913), introduced the idea of floating-point arithmetic. In 1920, built an early electromechanical device of the Analytical Engine. Godfried Toussaint – computational geometry, computational music theory Gloria Townsend Edwin E. Tozer – business information systems Joseph F Traub – computational complexity of scientific problems John V. Tucker – computability theory John Tukey – founder of FFT algorithm, box plot, exploratory data analysis and Coining the term 'bit' Alan Turing (1912–1954) – British computing pioneer, Turing machine, algorithms, cryptology, computer architecture David Turner – SASL, Kent Recursive Calculator, Miranda, IFIP WG 2.1 member Murray Turoff – computer-mediated communication U Jeffrey D. Ullman – compilers, databases, complexity theory V Leslie Valiant – computational complexity theory, computational learning theory Vladimir Vapnik – pattern recognition, computational learning theory Moshe Vardi – professor of computer science at Rice University Dorothy Vaughan Bernard Vauquois – pioneered computer science in France, machine translation (MT) theory and practice including Vauquois triangle, ALGOL 60 Umesh Vazirani Manuela M. Veloso François Vernadat – enterprise modeling Richard Veryard – enterprise modeling Sergiy Vilkomir – software testing, RC/DC Paul Vitanyi – Kolmogorov complexity, Information distance, Normalized compression distance, Normalized Google distance Andrew Viterbi – Viterbi algorithm Jeffrey Scott Vitter – external memory algorithms, compressed data structures, data compression, databases Paul Vixie – DNS, BIND, PAIX, Internet Software Consortium, MAPS, DNSBL W Eiiti Wada – ALGOL N, IFIP WG 2.1 member, Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS) X 0208, 0212, Happy Hacking Keyboard David Wagner – security, cryptography David Waltz James Z. Wang Steve Ward Manfred K. Warmuth – computational learning theory David H. D. Warren – AI, logic programming, Prolog, Warren Abstract Machine (WAM) Kevin Warwick – artificial intelligence Jan Weglarz Philip Wadler – functional programming, Haskell, Monad, Java, logic Peter Wegner – object-oriented programming, interaction (computer science) Joseph Henry Wegstein – ALGOL 58, ALGOL 60, IFIP WG 2.1 member, data processing technical standards, fingerprint analysis Peter J. Weinberger – programming language design, the 'w' in AWK Mark Weiser – ubiquitous computing Joseph Weizenbaum – artificial intelligence, ELIZA David Wheeler – EDSAC, subroutines Franklin H. Westervelt – use of computers in engineering education, conversational use of computers, Michigan Terminal System (MTS), ARPANET, distance learning Steve Whittaker – human computer interaction, computer support for cooperative work, social media Jennifer Widom – nontraditional data management Gio Wiederhold – database management systems Norbert Wiener – Cybernetics Adriaan van Wijngaarden – Dutch pioneer; ARRA, ALGOL, IFIP WG 2.1 member Mary Allen Wilkes – LINC developer, assembler-linker designer Maurice Vincent Wilkes – microprogramming, EDSAC Yorick Wilks – computational linguistics, artificial intelligence James H. Wilkinson – numerical analysis Sophie Wilson – ARM architecture Shmuel Winograd – Coppersmith–Winograd algorithm Terry Winograd – artificial intelligence, SHRDLU Patrick Winston – artificial intelligence Niklaus Wirth – ALGOL W, IFIP WG 2.1 member, Pascal, Modula, Oberon Neil Wiseman – computer graphics Dennis E. Wisnosky – Integrated Computer-Aided Manufacturing (ICAM), IDEF Stephen Wolfram – Mathematica Mike Woodger – Pilot ACE, ALGOL 60, Ada (programming language) Philip Woodward – ambiguity function, sinc function, comb operator, rep operator, ALGOL 68-R Beatrice Helen Worsley – wrote the first PhD dissertation involving modern computers; was one of the people who wrote Transcode Steve Wozniak – engineered first generation personal computers at Apple Computer Jie Wu – computer networks William Wulf – BLISS system programming language + optimizing compiler, Hydra operating system, Tartan Laboratories Y Mihalis Yannakakis Andrew Chi-Chih Yao John Yen Nobuo Yoneda – Yoneda lemma, Yoneda product, ALGOL, IFIP WG 2.1 member Edward Yourdon – Structured Systems Analysis and Design Method Moti Yung Z Lotfi Zadeh – fuzzy logic Hans Zantema – termination analysis Arif Zaman – pseudo-random number generator Stanley Zdonik — database management systems Hussein Zedan – formal methods and real-time systems Shlomo Zilberstein – artificial intelligence, anytime algorithms, automated planning, and decentralized POMDPs Jill Zimmerman – James M. Beall Professor of Mathematics and Computer Science at Goucher College Mark Zuckerberg – cofounder of Facebook and Meta Platforms Konrad Zuse – German pioneer of hardware and software See also List of computing people List of Jewish American computer scientists List of members of the National Academy of Sciences (computer and information sciences) List of pioneers in computer science List of programmers List of programming language researchers List of Russian IT developers List of Slovenian computer scientists List of Indian computer scientists References External links CiteSeer list of the most cited authors in computer science Computer scientists with h-index >= 40 * Category:Lists of people by occupation	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_scientists	2025-04-05T18:27:58.807103
6839	Reaction kinetics in uniform supersonic flow	Reaction kinetics in uniform supersonic flow (, CRESU) is an experiment investigating chemical reactions taking place at very low temperatures. The technique involves the expansion of a gas or mixture of gases through a de Laval nozzle from a high-pressure reservoir into a vacuum chamber. As it expands, the nozzle collimates the gas into a uniform supersonic beam, which is essentially collision-free and has a temperature that, in the centre-of-mass frame, can be significantly below that of the reservoir gas. Each nozzle produces a characteristic temperature. This way, any temperature between room temperature and about 10 K can be achieved. Apparatus There are relatively few CRESU apparatuses in existence for the simple reason that the gas throughput and pumping requirements are huge, which makes them expensive to run. Two of the leading centres have been the University of Rennes (France) and the University of Birmingham (UK). A more recent development has been a pulsed version of the CRESU, which requires far less gas and therefore smaller pumps. Kinetics Most species have a negligible vapour pressure at such low temperatures, and this means that they quickly condense on the sides of the apparatus. Essentially, the CRESU technique provides a "wall-less flow tube", which allows the kinetics of gas-phase reactions to be investigated at much lower temperatures than otherwise possible. Chemical kinetics experiments can then be carried out in a pump–probe fashion, using a laser to initiate the reaction (for example, by preparing one of the reagents by photolysis of a precursor), followed by observation of that same species (for example, by laser-induced fluorescence) after a known time delay. The fluorescence signal is captured by a photomultiplier a known distance downstream of the de Laval nozzle. The time delay can be varied up to the maximum corresponding to the flow time over that known distance. By studying how quickly the reagent species disappears in the presence of differing concentrations of a (usually stable) co-reagent species, the reaction rate constant at the low temperature of the CRESU flow can be determined. Reactions studied by the CRESU technique typically have no significant activation energy barrier. In the case of neutral–neutral reactions (i.e., not involving any charged species, ions), these type of barrier-free reactions usually involve free radical species, such as molecular oxygen (O2), the cyanide radical (CN) or the hydroxyl radical (OH). The energetic driving force for these reactions is typically an attractive long-range intermolecular potential. CRESU experiments have been used to show deviations from Arrhenius kinetics at low temperatures: as the temperature is reduced, the rate constant actually increases. They can explain why chemistry is so prevalent in the interstellar medium, where many different polyatomic species have been detected (by radio astronomy). See also Cryochemistry References Category:Chemistry experiments Category:Chemical kinetics	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaction_kinetics_in_uniform_supersonic_flow	2025-04-05T18:27:58.817068
6840	Cygwin	\| latest_release_version = \| latest_release_date = }} \| operating system = Microsoft Windows \| programming language = C/C++ \| genre = POSIX standard utilities, POSIX standard library, C standard library, compatibility layer \| license GPLv3, LGPLv3 }} Cygwin ( ) is a free and open-source Unix-like environment and command-line interface (CLI) for Microsoft Windows. The project also provides a software repository containing open-source packages. Cygwin allows source code for Unix-like operating systems to be compiled and run on Windows. Cygwin provides native integration of Windows-based applications. The terminal emulator mintty is the default command-line interface provided to interact with the environment. The Cygwin installation directory layout mimics the root file system of Unix-like systems, with directories such as <code>/bin</code>, <code>/home</code>, <code>/etc</code>, <code>/usr</code>, and <code>/var</code>. Cygwin is released under the GNU Lesser General Public License version 3. It was originally developed by Cygnus Solutions, which was later acquired by Red Hat (now part of IBM), to port the GNU toolchain to Win32, including the GNU Compiler Suite. Rather than rewrite the tools to use the Win32 runtime environment, Cygwin implemented a POSIX-compatible environment in the form of a DLL. The brand motto is "Get that Linux feeling – on Windows", although Cygwin doesn't have Linux in it. History Cygwin began in 1995 as a project of Steve Chamberlain, a Cygnus engineer who observed that Windows NT and 95 used COFF as their object file format, and that GNU already included support for x86 and COFF, and the C library newlib. He thought that it would be possible to retarget GCC and produce a cross compiler generating executables that could run on Windows. A prototype was later developed. Chamberlain bootstrapped the compiler on a Windows system, to emulate Unix to let the GNU configure shell script run. Initially, Cygwin was called Cygwin32. Subsequent versions have not been released, instead relying on continued open source releases. Geoffrey Noer was the project lead from 1996 to 1999. Christopher Faylor was lead from 1999 to 2004; he left Red Hat and became co-lead with Corinna Vinschen. Corinna Vinschen has been the project lead from mid-2014 to date (as of September, 2024). From June 23, 2016, the Cygwin library version 2.5.2 was licensed under the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL) version 3. Description Cygwin is provided in two versions: the full 64-bit version and a stripped-down 32-bit version, whose final version was released in 2022. Cygwin consists of a library that implements the POSIX system call API in terms of Windows system calls to enable the running of a large number of application programs equivalent to those on Unix systems, and a GNU development toolchain (including GCC and GDB). Programmers have ported the X Window System, K Desktop Environment 3, GNOME, Apache, and TeX. Cygwin permits installing inetd, syslogd, sshd, Apache, and other daemons as standard Windows services. Cygwin programs have full access to the Windows API and other Windows libraries. Cygwin programs are installed by running Cygwin's "setup" program, which downloads them from repositories on the Internet. The Cygwin API library is licensed under the GNU Lesser General Public License version 3 (or later), with an exception to allow linking to any free and open-source software whose license conforms to the Open Source Definition. Cygwin consists of two parts: # A dynamic-link library in the form of a C standard library that acts as a compatibility layer for the POSIX API and # A collection of software tools and applications that provide a Unix-like look and feel. Cygwin supports POSIX symbolic links, representing them as plain-text files with the system attribute set. Cygwin 1.5 represented them as Windows Explorer shortcuts, but this was changed for reasons of performance and POSIX correctness. Cygwin also recognises NTFS junction points and symbolic links and treats them as POSIX symbolic links, but it does not create them. The POSIX API for handling access control lists (ACLs) is supported. Technical details A Cygwin-specific version of the Unix <code>mount</code> command allows mounting Windows paths as "filesystems" in the Unix file space. Initial mount points can be configured in <code>/etc/fstab</code>, which has a format very similar to Unix systems, except that Windows paths appear in place of devices. Filesystems can be mounted in binary mode (by default), or in text mode, which enables automatic conversion between LF and CRLF endings (which only affects programs that open files without explicitly specifying text or binary mode). Cygwin 1.7 introduced comprehensive support for POSIX locales, and the UTF-8 Unicode encoding became the default. The fork system call for duplicating a process is fully implemented, but the copy-on-write optimization strategy could not be used. Cygwin's default user interface is the bash shell running in the mintty terminal emulator. The DLL also implements pseudo terminal (pty) devices, and Cygwin ships with a number of terminal emulators that are based on them, including rxvt/urxvt and xterm. The version of GCC that comes with Cygwin has various extensions for creating Windows DLLs, such as specifying whether a program is a windowing or console-mode program. Support for compiling programs that do not require the POSIX compatibility layer provided by the Cygwin DLL used to be included in the default GCC, but , it is provided by cross-compilers contributed by the MinGW-w64 project. Software packages Cygwin's base package selection is approximately 100MB, containing the bash (interactive user) and dash (installation) shells and the core file and text manipulation utilities. Additional packages are available as optional installs from within the Cygwin "setup" program and package manager ("setup-x86_64.exe" – 64 bit). The Cygwin Ports project provided additional packages that were not available in the Cygwin distribution itself. Examples included GNOME, K Desktop Environment 3, MySQL database, and the PHP scripting language. Most ports have been adopted by volunteer maintainers as Cygwin packages, and Cygwin Ports are no longer maintained. Cygwin ships with GTK+ and Qt. The Cygwin/X project allows graphical Unix programs to display their user interfaces on the Windows desktop for both local and remote programs. See also * Notes References External links * Category:1995 software Category:Compatibility layers Category:Programming tools Category:Free and open source compilers Category:Free emulation software Category:Free software programmed in C Category:Free software programmed in C++ Category:Red Hat software Category:System administration Category:Unix emulators Category:Windows-only free software	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cygwin	2025-04-05T18:27:58.828527
6845	Corinth	\|type = municipal unit \|image_map = DE Korinthion.svg \|image_skyline = \|caption_skyline = Clockwise from top left: Corinth Courthouse, the walled gates of Acrocorinth, Isthmus of Corinth, Statue of Pegasus, Ethnikis Antistaseos, Temple of Apollo \|city_flag \|city_seal Smallcorinthcoatofarms.gif \|coordinates \|elevation_min = 0 \|elevation_max = 10 \|map_caption = Location within the regional unit \|periph = Peloponnese \|periphunit = Corinthia \|municipality = Corinth \|demonym = Corinthian \|population_as_of = 2021 \|pop_municunit = 38485 \|area_municunit = 102.19 \|pop_community = 30816 \|postal_code = 20100 \|area_code = (+30) 27410 \|licence = KP \|website = }} Corinth ( ; , ) is a municipality in Corinthia in Greece. The successor to the ancient city of Corinth, it is a former municipality in Corinthia, Peloponnese, which is located in south-central Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform, it has been part of the municipality of Corinth, of which it is the seat and a municipal unit. It is the capital of Corinthia. It was founded as Nea Korinthos (), or New Corinth, in 1858 after an earthquake destroyed the existing settlement of Corinth, which had developed in and around the site of the ancient city. History Corinth derives its name from Ancient Corinth, a city-state of antiquity. The site was occupied from before 3000 BC. Ancient Greece Historical references begin with the early 8th century BC, when ancient Corinth began to develop as a commercial center. Between the 8th and 7th centuries, the Bacchiad family ruled Corinth. Cypselus overthrew the Bacchiad family, and between 657 and 585 BC, he and his son Periander ruled Corinth as the Tyrants. In about 585 BC, an oligarchical government seized power. This government later allied with Sparta within the Peloponnesian League, and Corinth participated in the Persian Wars and Peloponnesian War as an ally of Sparta. After Sparta's victory in the Peloponnesian war, the two allies fell out with one another, and Corinth pursued an independent policy in the various wars of the early 4th century BC. After the Macedonian conquest of Greece, the Acrocorinth was the seat of a Macedonian garrison until 243 BC, when the city joined the Achaean League. Ancient Rome Nearly a century later, in 146 BC, Corinth was captured and was completely destroyed by the Roman army. As a newly rebuilt Roman colony in 44 BC, Corinth flourished and became the administrative capital of the Roman province of Achaea. Medieval times An important earthquake touched Corinth and its region in 856, causing around 45000 deaths. Modern era In 1858, the old city, now known as Ancient Corinth (Αρχαία Κόρινθος, Archaia Korinthos), located southwest of the modern city, was totally destroyed by a magnitude 6.5 earthquake. New Corinth (Nea Korinthos) was then built to the north-east of it, on the coast of the Gulf of Corinth. In 1928, a magnitude 6.3 earthquake devastated the new city, which was then rebuilt on the same site. In 1933, there was a great fire, and the new city was rebuilt again. During the German occupation in World War II, the Germans operated a Dulag transit camp for British, Australian, New Zealander and Serbian prisoners of war and a forced labour camp in the town.GeographyLocated about west of Athens, Corinth is surrounded by the coastal townlets of (clockwise) Lechaio, Isthmia, Kechries, and the inland townlets of Examilia and the archaeological site and village of ancient Corinth. Natural features around the city include the narrow coastal plain of Vocha, the Corinthian Gulf, the Isthmus of Corinth cut by its canal, the Saronic Gulf, the Oneia Mountains, and the monolithic rock of Acrocorinth, where the medieval acropolis was built.Climate According to the nearby weather station of Velo, operated by the Hellenic National Meteorological Service, Corinth has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: Csa), with hot, dry summers and cool, rainy winters. The hottest month is July with an average temperature of while the coldest month is January with an average temperature of . Corinth receives about 463 mm of rainfall per year and has an average annual temperature of . Demographics <!---this is about the municipal unit of Corinth--> , a period of Economic changes commenced as a large pipework complex, a textile factory and a meat packing facility diminished their operations. Transport Roads Corinth is a major road hub. The A7 toll motorway for Tripoli and Kalamata, (and Sparta via the A71 toll), branches off the A8/E94 toll motorway from Athens at Corinth. Corinth is the main entry point to the Peloponnesian peninsula, the southernmost area of continental Greece. Bus KTEL Korinthias provides intercity bus service in the peninsula and to Athens via the Isthmos station southeast of the city center. Local bus service is also available. Railways The metre gauge railway from Athens and Pireaeus reached Corinth in 1884. This station closed to regular public transport in 2007. In 2005, two years prior, the city was connected to the Athens Suburban Railway, following the completion of the new Corinth railway station. The journey time from Athens to Corinth is about 55 minutes. The train station is 5 minutes by car from the city centre and parking is available for free. Port The port of Corinth, located north of the city centre and close to the northwest entrance of the Corinth Canal, at 37 56.0’ N / 22 56.0’ E, serves the local needs of industry and agriculture. It is mainly a cargo exporting facility. It is an artificial harbour (depth approximately , protected by a concrete mole (length approximately 930 metres, width 100 metres, mole surface 93,000 m2). A new pier finished in the late 1980s doubled the capacity of the port. The reinforced mole protects anchored vessels from strong northern winds. Within the port operates a customs office facility and a Hellenic Coast Guard post. Sea traffic is limited to trade in the export of local produce, mainly citrus fruits, grapes, marble, aggregates and some domestic imports. The port operates as a contingency facility for general cargo ships, bulk carriers and ROROs, in case of strikes at Piraeus port. Ferries There was formerly a ferry link to Catania, Sicily and Genoa in Italy. Canal The Corinth Canal, carrying ship traffic between the western Mediterranean Sea and the Aegean Sea, is about east of the city, cutting through the Isthmus of Corinth that connects the Peloponnesian peninsula to the Greek mainland, thus effectively making the former an island. The builders dug the canal through the Isthmus at sea level; no locks are employed. It is in length and only wide at its base, making it impassable for most modern ships. It now has little economic importance. The canal was mooted in ancient times and an abortive effort was made to dig it in around 600 BC by Periander which led him to pave the Diolkos highway instead. Julius Caesar and Caligula both considered digging the canal but died before starting the construction. The emperor Nero then directed the project, which consisted initially of a workforce of 6,000 Jewish prisoners of war, but it was interrupted because of his death. The project resumed only in 1882, after Greece gained independence from the Ottoman Empire, but was hampered by geological and financial problems that bankrupted the original builders. It was finally completed in 1893, but due to the canal's narrowness, navigational problems and periodic closures to repair landslips from its steep walls, it failed to attract the level of traffic anticipated by its operators. It is now used mainly for tourist traffic. Sport The city's association football team is Korinthos F.C. (Π.Α.E. Κόρινθος), established in 1999 after the merger of Pankorinthian Football Club (Παγκορινθιακός) and Corinth Football Club (Κόρινθος). During the 2006–2007 season, the team played in the Greek Fourth Division's Regional Group 7. The team went undefeated that season and it earned the top spot. This granted the team a promotion to the Gamma Ethnikí (Third Division) for the 2007–2008 season. For the 2008–2009 season, Korinthos F.C. competed in the Gamma Ethniki (Third Division) southern grouping. Twin towns/sister cities Corinth is twinned with: * Syracuse, Sicily * Jagodina, Serbia Notable people<!---♦♦♦ Please keep the list in alphabetical order by LAST NAME ♦♦♦---> * Anastasios Bakasetas (1993–), Greek footballer * Evangelos Ikonomou (1987–), Greek footballer * George Kollias (1977–), drummer for US technical death metal band Nile. * Georgios Leonardopoulos, army officer * Macarius (1731–1805), Metropolitan bishop of Corinth * Ioannis Papadiamantopoulos (1766–1826), revolutionary leader during the Greek War of Independence. * Irene Papas (1929–2022), Greek actress * Costas Soukoulis (1951–2024), Professor of Physics at Iowa State University * Konstantinos Triantafyllopoulos (1993–) Greek footballer * Panagis Tsaldaris (1868–1936), Greek politician and prime minister of Greece * Panagiotis Tzanavaras (1964–), Greek footballer and football manager * Nikolaos Zafeiriou (1871–1947), Greek artillery officer Other locations named after Corinth Due to its ancient history and the presence of St. Paul the Apostle in Corinth some locations all over the world have been named Corinth. Gallery <gallery> File:Pegasus Square in New Corinth.jpg\|Pegasus Square in New Corinth File:Squarecorinth.jpg\|View of the Central Square of the city File:Istmo de Corinto ESC large ISS011 ISS011-E-13188.JPG\|Aerial photograph of the Isthmus of Corinth </gallery> See also * Corinth Canal * Corinth Excavations * Zante currant * List of traditional Greek place names References External links * * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070602022252/http://www.korinthos.gr/%23 City of Corinth official website] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070607211929/http://www.paskorinthos.gr/ Kórinthos FC official website] Category:Mediterranean port cities and towns in Greece Category:Populated places in Corinthia Category:Ports and harbours of Greece Category:Populated coastal places in Greece Category:Populated places established in 1858 Category:1858 establishments in Greece Category:New Testament cities	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corinth	2025-04-05T18:27:58.845207
6846	Colossae	() \| alternate_name \| image TR Colossae site asv2020-02 img08.jpg \| alt = Ruins of Colossae \| caption = Ruins of Colossae \| map_type = Turkey #Asia \| map_alt = #Asia \| map_size = 275 \| relief = ye \| coordinates \| location \| region Phrygia \| type \| part_of West Asia \| length \| width \| area \| height \| builder \| material \| built \| abandoned \| epochs \| cultures \| dependency_of \| occupants \| event \| excavations \| archaeologists \| condition \| ownership \| management \| public_access \| website }} ]] Colossae (; ) was an ancient city of Phrygia in Asia Minor, and one of the most celebrated cities of southern Anatolia (modern Turkey). The Epistle to the Colossians, an early Christian text which identifies its author as Paul the Apostle, is addressed to the church in Colossae. A significant city from the 5th century BC onwards, it had dwindled in importance by the time of Paul, but was notable for the existence of its local angel cult. It was part of the Roman and Byzantine province of Phrygia Pacatiana, before being destroyed in 1192/3 and its population relocating to nearby Chonae (Chonai, modern-day Honaz).Location and geographyColossae was located in Phrygia, in Asia Minor. It was located southeast of Laodicea on the road through the Lycus Valley near the Lycus River at the foot of Mt. Cadmus, the highest mountain in Turkey's western Aegean Region, and between the cities Sardeis and Celaenae, and southeast of the ancient city of Hierapolis. At Colossae, Herodotus describes how, "the river Lycos falls into an opening of the earth and disappears from view, and then after an interval of about five furlongs it comes up to view again, and this river also flows into the Maiander." Despite a treacherously ambiguous cartography and history, Colossae has been clearly distinguished in modern research from nearby Chonai (), now called Honaz, with what remains of the buried ruins of Colossae ("the mound") lying to the north of Honaz.Origin and etymology of place nameThe medieval poet Manuel Philes incorrectly imagined that the name Colossae was connected to the Colossus of Rhodes. More recently, in an interpretation that ties Colossae to an Indo-European root that happens to be shared with the word kolossos, Jean-Pierre Vernant has connected the name to the idea of setting up a sacred space or shrine. Another proposal relates the name to the Greek kolazo 'to punish'. History Before the Pauline period The first mention of the city may be in a 17th-century BC Hittite inscription, which speaks of a city called Huwalušija, which some archeologists believe is a reference to early Colossae. The 5th-century geographer Herodotus first mentions Colossae by name and as a "great city in Phrygia", which accommodates the Persian king Xerxes I while en route to wage war against the Greeks in the Greco-Persian Wars– showing the city had already reached a certain level of wealth and size by this time. Writing in the 5th century BC, Xenophon refers to Colossae as "a populous city, wealthy and of considerable magnitude". It was famous for its wool trade. Strabo notes that the city drew great revenue from the flocks, and that the wool of Colossae gave its name to colour colossinus. In 396 BC, Colossae was the site of the execution of the rebellious Persian satrap Tissaphernes, who was lured there and slain by an agent of the party of Cyrus the Younger.Pauline periodAlthough during the Hellenistic period, the town was of some mercantile importance, by the 1st century it had dwindled greatly in size and significance. Paul's letter to the Colossians points to the existence of an early Christian community. Colossae was home to the miracle near the Archangel church, where a sacristan named Archipos witnessed, how the Archangel Michael thwarted a plan by the heathens to destroy the church by flooding it with the waters of near-by mountain rivers. The Eastern Orthodox Church commemorates this feast on 6(19) September. in the Springs of Colossae, depicted in the 12th century icon from the St. Catherine's Monastery.]] The canonical biblical text Epistle to the Colossians is addressed to the Christian community in Colossae. The epistle has traditionally been attributed to Paul the Apostle due to its autobiographical salutation and style, but some modern critical scholars now believe it to be written by another author some time after Paul's death. It is believed that one aim of the letter was to address the challenges that the Colossian community faced in its context of the syncretistic Gnostic religions that were developing in Asia Minor. According to the Epistle to the Colossians, Epaphras seems to have been a person of some importance in the Christian community in Colossae, and tradition presents him as its first bishop. The epistle also seems to imply that Paul had never visited the city, because it only speaks of him having "heard" of the Colossians' faith, and in the Epistle to Philemon Paul tells Philemon of his hope to visit Colossae upon being freed from prison. Tradition also gives Philemon as the second bishop of the see. The city was decimated by an earthquake in the 60s AD, and was rebuilt independent of the support of Rome. The Apostolic Constitutions list Philemon as a bishop of Colossae. On the other hand, the Catholic Encyclopedia considers Philemon doubtful. The first historically documented bishop is Epiphanius, who was not personally at the Council of Chalcedon, but whose metropolitan bishop Nunechius of Laodicea, the capital of the Roman province of Phrygia Pacatiana, signed the acts on his behalf. Byzantine period and decline The city's fame and renowned status continued into the Byzantine period, and in 858, it was distinguished as a Metropolitan See. The Byzantines also built the church of St. Michael in the vicinity of Colossae, one of the largest church buildings in the Middle East. Nevertheless, sources suggest that the town may have decreased in size or may even been completely abandoned due to Arab invasions in the seventh and eighth centuries, forcing the population to flee to resettle in the nearby city of Chonai (modern day Honaz). Excavations of Colossae began in 2021 led by Bariş Yener of Pammukale University in Denizli. The first several years involve surface surveys to analyze pottery and survey the landscape. They hope to start digging in 2023-24. The site exhibits a biconical acropolis almost high, and encompasses an area of almost . On the eastern slope there sits a theater which probably seated around 5,000 people, suggesting a total population of 25,000–30,000 people. The theater was probably built during the Roman period, and may be near an agora that abuts the cardo maximus, or the city's main north–south road. Ceramic finds around the theater confirm the city's early occupation in the third and second millennia BC. Northeast of the tell, and most likely outside the city walls, a necropolis displays Hellenistic tombs with two main styles of burial: one with an antecedent room connected to an inner chamber, and tumuli, or underground chambers accessed by stairs leading to the entrance. Outside the tell, there are also remains of sections of columns that may have marked a processional way, or the cardo. Today, the remains of one column marks the location where locals believe a church once stood, possibly that of St. Michael.Modern legacyThe holiness and healing properties associated with the waters of Colossae during the Byzantine era continue to this day, particularly at a pool fed by the Lycus River at the Göz picnic grounds west of Colossae at the foot of Mt. Cadmus. Locals consider the water to be therapeutic.See also* List of ancient Greek citiesNotes and references Further reading * * * Bennett, Andrew Lloyd. "Archaeology From Art: Investigating Colossae and the Miracle of the Archangel Michael at Kona." Near East Archaeological Society Bulletin 50 (2005):15–26. External links [http://holylandphotos.org/browse.asp?s=1,3,7,23,62 Map and pictures of ruins] Category:1192 disestablishments Category:1193 disestablishments Category:12th-century disestablishments in the Byzantine Empire Category:Populated places disestablished in the 12th century Category:Roman towns and cities in Turkey Category:Pauline churches Category:New Testament cities Category:Former populated places in Turkey Category:Populated places in Phrygia Category:Populated places of the Byzantine Empire Category:Catholic titular sees in Asia Category:History of Denizli Province Category:Honaz District	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colossae	2025-04-05T18:27:58.856701
6848	Charge of the Goddess	The Charge of the Goddess (or Charge of the Star Goddess) is an inspirational text often used in the neopagan religion of Wicca. The Charge of the Goddess is recited during most rituals in which the Wiccan priest/priestess is expected to represent, and/or embody, the Goddess within the sacred circle, and is often spoken by the High Priest/Priestess after the ritual of Drawing Down the Moon. The Charge is the promise of the Goddess (who is embodied by the high priestess) to all witches that she will teach and guide them. It has been called "perhaps the most important single theological document in the neo-Pagan movement". It is used not only in Wicca, but as part of the foundational documents of the Reclaiming tradition of witchcraft co-founded by Starhawk. Several versions of the Charge exist, though they all have the same basic premise, that of a set of instructions given by the Great Goddess to her worshippers. The earliest version is that compiled by Gerald Gardner. This version, titled "Leviter Veslis" or "Lift Up the Veil", includes material paraphrased from works by Aleister Crowley, primarily from Liber AL (The Book of the Law, particularly from Ch 1, spoken by Nuit, the Star Goddess), and from Liber LXV (The Book of the Heart Girt with a Serpent) and from Crowley's essay "The Law of Liberty", thus linking modern Wicca to the cosmology and revelations of Thelema. It has been shown that Gerald Gardner's book collection included a copy of Crowley's The Blue Equinox (1919) which includes all of the Crowley quotations transferred by Gardner to the Charge of the Goddess.\|authorDoreen Valiente}} This theme echoes the ancient Roman belief that the Goddess Isis was known by ten thousand names and also that the Goddess still worshipped today by Wiccans and other neopagans is known under many guises but is in fact one universal divinity. The second paragraph is largely derived and paraphrased from the words that Aradia, the messianic daughter of Diana, speaks to her followers in Charles Godfrey Leland's 1899 book Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches (London: David Nutt; various reprints). The third paragraph is largely written by Doreen Valiente, This is rather different from the modern version known in Wicca, though they have the same premise, that of the rules given by a great Mother Goddess to her faithful. The Charge of the Goddess is also known under the title Leviter Veslis. This has been identified by the historian Ronald Hutton, cited in an article by Roger Dearnsley "The Influence of Aleister Crowley on Ye Bok of Ye Art Magical, as a piece of medieval ecclesiastical Latin used to mean "lifting the veil." However, Hutton's interpretation does not reflect the Latin grammar as it currently stands. It may represent Gardner's attempt to write Levetur Velis, which has the literal meaning of "Let the veil be lifted." This expression would, by coincidence or design, grammatically echo the famous fiat lux (Gen. 1:3) of the Latin Vulgate.OriginsThe earliest known Wiccan version is found in a document dating from the late 1940s, Gerald Gardner's ritual notebook titled Ye Bok of Ye Art Magical. The oldest identifiable source contained in this version is the final line, which is traceable to the 17th-century Centrum Naturae Concentratum of Alipili (or Ali Puli). Gardner intended his version to be a theological statement justifying the Gardnerian sequence of initiations. Like the Charge found in Freemasonry, where the charge is a set of instructions read to a candidate standing in a temple, the Charge of the Goddess was intended to be read immediately before an initiation. The initial verse version by Doreen Valiente consisted of eight verses, the second of which was: Valiente was unhappy with this version, saying that "people seemed to have some difficulty with this, because of the various goddess-names which they found hard to pronounce", and so she rewrote it as a prose version, much of which differs from her initial version, and is more akin to Gardner's version. This prose version has since been modified and reproduced widely by other authors. References Further reading * Aidan Kelly. Crafting the Art of Magic, Book 1. St Paul, Minnesota: Lllewellyn, 1991. revised edition as Inventing Witchcraft. Thoth Publications, Loughborough, 2007. * Sorita d’Este and David Rankine. Wicca: Magical Beginnings. Avalonia, London, 2008. . External links * * [http://www.wicca-spirituality.com/charge-of-the-star-goddess.html Charge of the Star Goddess—Starhawk] * Frater T.S. [http://www.geocities.ws/nu_isis/leviter.html "Levity's Vestments: A Study in Creative Plagiarism"] Category:1940s in modern paganism Category:1949 works Category:Aphrodite Category:Artemis Category:Astarte Category:Diana (mythology) Category:Isis Category:Modern pagan poetry Category:Texts used in Wicca Category:Works by Gerald Gardner	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge_of_the_Goddess	2025-04-05T18:27:58.863871
6849	Cy Young	\|birth_place=Gilmore, Ohio, U.S. \|death_date= \|death_place=Newcomerstown, Ohio, U.S. \|debutleague = MLB \|debutdate=August 6 \|debutyear=1890 \|debutteam=Cleveland Spiders \|finalleague = MLB \|finaldate=October 11 \|finalyear=1911 \|finalteam=Boston Rustlers \|statleague = MLB \|stat1label=Win–loss record \|stat1value=511–315 \|stat2label=Earned run average \|stat2value=2.63 \|stat3label=Strikeouts \|stat3value=2,803 \|teams= As player * Cleveland Spiders (–) * St. Louis Perfectos / Cardinals (–) * Boston Americans / Red Sox (–) * Cleveland Naps (–) * Boston Rustlers () As manager * Boston Americans () \|highlights= * World Series champion (1903) * Triple Crown (1901) * 5× Wins leader (1892, 1895, 1901–1903) * 2× ERA leader (1892, 1901) * 2× Strikeout leader (1896, 1901) * Pitched a perfect game on May 5, 1904 * Pitched three no-hitters (1897, 1904, 1908) * Boston Red Sox Hall of Fame * Cleveland Guardians Hall of Fame * Major League Baseball All-Century Team MLB records * 511 career wins * 7,356 career innings pitched * 815 career games started * 749 career complete games * 25 consecutive hitless innings pitched \|hoflink = National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum \|hoftype = National \|hofdate = 1937 \|hofvote = 76.1% (second ballot) }} Denton True "Cy" Young (March 29, 1867 – November 4, 1955) was an American Major League Baseball (MLB) pitcher. Born in Gilmore, Ohio, he worked on his family's farm as a youth before starting his professional baseball career. Young entered the major leagues in 1890 with the National League's Cleveland Spiders and pitched for them until 1898. He was then transferred to the St. Louis Cardinals franchise. In 1901, Young jumped to the American League and played for the Boston Red Sox franchise until 1908, helping them win the 1903 World Series. He finished his career with the Cleveland Naps and Boston Rustlers, retiring in 1911. Young was one of the hardest-throwing pitchers in the game early in his career. After his speed diminished, he relied more on his control and remained effective into his forties. By the time Young retired, he had established numerous pitching records, some of which have stood for over a century. He holds MLB records for the most career wins, with 511, along with most career losses, earned runs, hits allowed, innings pitched, games started, batters faced, and complete games. He led his league in wins during five seasons and pitched three no-hitters, including a perfect game in 1904. In 1937, Young was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame. He is often regarded as one of the greatest pitchers of all time, as well as a pioneer of modern pitching. In 1956, one year after his death, the Cy Young Award was created to annually honor the best pitcher in the Major Leagues (later each League) of the previous season, cementing his name as synonymous with excellence in pitching. Early life Cy Young was the oldest child born to Nancy (Mottmiller) and McKinzie Young Jr., and was christened Denton True Young. He was of part German descent. The couple had four more children: Jesse Carlton, Alonzo, Ella, and Anthony. When the couple married, McKinzie's father gave him the of farm land he owned. Young was born in Gilmore, a tiny farming community located in Washington Township, Tuscarawas County, Ohio. He was raised on one of the local farms and went by the name Dent Young in his early years. Young was also known as "Farmer Young" and "Farmboy Young". Young stopped his formal education after he completed the sixth grade so he could help out on the family's farm. In 1885, Young moved with his father to Nebraska, and in the summer of 1887, they returned to Gilmore. Young played for many amateur baseball leagues during his youth, including a semi-professional Carrollton team in 1888. Young pitched and played second base. The first box score known containing the name Young came from that season. In that game, Young played first base and had three hits in three at-bats. After the season, Young received an offer to play for the minor league Canton team, which started Young's professional career. Cy Young's nickname came from the fences that he had destroyed using his fastball. The fences looked like a cyclone had hit them. Reporters later shortened the name to "Cy", which became the nickname Young used for the rest of his life. During his one year with Canton, he was 15-15. While Young was with the Spiders, Chief Zimmer was his catcher more often than any other player. Bill James, a baseball statistician, estimated that Zimmer caught Young in more games than any other battery in baseball history. Early on, Young established himself as one of the harder-throwing pitchers in the game. Bill James wrote that Zimmer often put a piece of beefsteak inside his baseball glove to protect his catching hand from Young's fastball. Two years after Young's debut, the National League moved the pitcher's position back by . Since 1881, pitchers had pitched within a "box" whose front line was from home base, and since 1887 they had been compelled to toe the back line of the box when delivering the ball. The back line was away from home. In 1893, was added to the back line, yielding the modern pitching distance of . In the book The Neyer/James Guide to Pitchers, sports journalist Rob Neyer wrote that the speed with which pitchers like Cy Young, Amos Rusie, and Jouett Meekin threw was the impetus that caused the move. The 1892 regular season was a success for Young, who led the National League in wins (36), ERA (1.93), and shutouts (9). Just as many contemporary Minor League Baseball leagues operate today, the National League was using a split season format during the 1892 season. The Boston Beaneaters won the first half and the Spiders won the second-half, with a best-of-nine series determining the league champion. Despite the Spiders' second-half run, the Beaneaters swept the series, five games to none. Young pitched three complete games: he lost two and one ended in a scoreless tie. The Spiders faced the Baltimore Orioles in the Temple Cup, a precursor to the World Series, in 1895. Young won three games in the series and Cleveland won the Cup, four games to one. It was around this time that Young added what he called a "slow ball" to his pitching repertoire to reduce stress on his arm. The pitch today is called a changeup. On September 18, 1897, Young pitched the first no-hitter of his career in a game against the Cincinnati Reds. Although Young did not walk a batter, the Spiders committed four errors while on defense. One of the errors had originally been ruled a hit, but the Cleveland third baseman sent a note to the press box after the eighth inning, saying he had made an error, and the ruling was changed. Young later said that, despite his teammate's gesture, he considered the game to be a one-hitter.St. Louis Perfectos / Cardinals (1899–1900)Prior to the 1899 season, Frank Robison, the Spiders owner, bought the St. Louis Browns, thus owning two clubs simultaneously. The Browns were renamed the "Perfectos", and restocked with Cleveland talent. Just weeks before the season opener, most of the better Spiders players were transferred to St. Louis, including three future Hall of Famers: Young, Jesse Burkett, and Bobby Wallace. The roster maneuvers failed to create a powerhouse Perfectos team, as St. Louis finished fifth in both 1899 and 1900. Meanwhile, the depleted Spiders lost 134 games, the most in MLB history, before folding. Young spent two years with St. Louis, which is where he found his favorite catcher, Lou Criger. The two men were teammates for a decade. Boston Americans / Red Sox (1901–1908) In 1901, the rival American League declared major league status and set about raiding National League rosters. Young left St. Louis and joined the American League's Boston Americans for a $3,500 contract ($}} today). Young would remain with the Boston team until 1909. In his first year in the American League, Young was dominant. Pitching to Criger, who had also jumped to Boston, Young led the league in wins, strikeouts, and ERA, thus earning the colloquial AL Triple Crown for pitchers. Young won almost 42% of his team's games in 1901, accounting for 33 of his team's 79 wins. In February 1902, before the start of the baseball season, Young served as a pitching coach at Harvard University. The sixth-grade graduate instructing Harvard students delighted Boston newspapers. The Boston Americans played the Pittsburgh Pirates in the first modern World Series in 1903. Young, who started Game One against the visiting Pirates, thus threw the first pitch in modern World Series history. The Pirates scored four runs in that first inning, and Young lost the game. Young performed better in subsequent games, winning his next two starts. He also drove in three runs in Game Five. Young finished the series with a 2–1 record and a 1.85 ERA in four appearances, and Boston defeated Pittsburgh, five games to three. After one-hitting Boston on May 2, 1904, Philadelphia Athletics pitcher Rube Waddell taunted Young to face him so that he could repeat his performance against Boston's ace. Three days later, Young pitched a perfect game against Waddell and the Athletics. It was the first perfect game in American League history. Waddell was the 27th and last batter, and when he flied out, Young shouted, "How do you like that, you hayseed?"}} Waddell had picked an inauspicious time to issue his challenge. Young's perfect game was the centerpiece of a pitching streak. Young set major league records for the most consecutive scoreless innings pitched and the most consecutive innings without allowing a hit; the latter record still stands at innings, or 76 hitless batters. Even after he allowed a hit, Young's scoreless streak reached a then-record 45 shutout innings. Before Young, only two pitchers had thrown perfect games. This occurred in 1880, when Lee Richmond and John Montgomery Ward pitched perfect games within five days of each other, although under somewhat different rules: the front edge of the pitcher's box was only from home base (the modern release point is about farther away); walks required eight balls; and pitchers were obliged to throw side-armed. Young's perfect game was the first under the modern rules established in 1893. One year later, on July 4, 1905, Rube Waddell beat Young and the Americans, 4–2, in a 20-inning matchup. Young pitched 13 consecutive scoreless innings before he gave up a pair of unearned runs in the final inning. Young did not walk a batter and was later quoted: "For my part, I think it was the greatest game of ball I ever took part in." In 1907, Young and Waddell faced off in a scoreless 13-inning tie. In 1908, Young pitched the third no-hitter of his career. Three months past his 41st birthday, he was the oldest pitcher to record a no-hitter, a record which would stand 82 years until 43-year-old Nolan Ryan broke it. Only a walk kept Young from his second perfect game. After that runner was caught stealing, no other batter reached base. At the time, Young was the second-oldest player in either league. In another game one month before his no-hitter, he allowed just one single while facing 28 batters. When the season ended, he posted a 1.26 ERA, which gave him not only the lowest in his career, but also a major league record of being the oldest pitcher with 150+ innings and an ERA under 1.50.Cleveland Naps (1909–1911)Young was traded back to Cleveland, the place where he played over half his career, before the 1909 season, to the Cleveland Naps of the American League. The following season, 1910, he won his 500th career game on July 19 against Washington.Boston Rustlers (1911) and retirementHe split 1911, his final year, between the Naps and the Boston Rustlers. On September 22, 1911, Young shut out the Pittsburgh Pirates, 1–0, for his last career victory. In his final start two weeks later, the last eight batters of Young's career combined to hit a triple, four singles, and three doubles. By the time of his retirement, Young's control had faltered. He had also gained weight. At the time of Young's retirement, Pud Galvin had the second most career wins with 364. In addition to wins, Young still holds the major league records for most career innings pitched (7,356), most career games started (815), and most complete games (749). He also retired with 316 losses, the most in MLB history. Young's career record for strikeouts was broken by Johnson in 1921. Young's 76 career shutouts are fourth all-time. Young led his league in wins five times (1892, 1895, and 1901–1903), finishing second twice. His career high was 36 in 1892. He won at least 30 games in a season five times. He had 15 seasons with 20 or more wins, two more than Christy Mathewson and Warren Spahn. Young won two ERA titles during his career, in 1892 (1.93) and in 1901 (1.62), and was three times the runner-up. Young's earned run average was below 2.00 six times, but it was not uncommon during the dead-ball era. Although Young threw over 400 innings in each of his first four full seasons, he did not lead his league until 1902. He had 40 or more complete games nine times. Young also led his league in strikeouts twice (140 in 1896 and 158 in 1901), and in shutouts seven times. In addition, Young pitched three no-hitters, including the third perfect game in baseball history, first in baseball's "modern era". Young also was an above average hitting pitcher. He posted a .210 batting average (623-for-2960) with 325 runs, 290 RBIs, 18 home runs, and 81 walks. From 1891 through 1905, he drove in 10 or more runs for 15 straight seasons, with a high of 28 in 1896. after baseball and working on his farm. In 1913, he served as manager of the Cleveland Green Sox of the Federal League, which was at the time an outlaw league. However, he never worked in baseball after that. Young was a Freemason. In 1916, he ran for county treasurer in Tuscarawas County, Ohio. Young's wife, Roba, whom he had known since childhood, died in 1933. He appeared on the television show ''I've Got a Secret'' on April 13, 1955. On November 4, 1955, Young died on the Benedums' farm at the age of 88.Legacy ]] Young's career is seen as a bridge from baseball's earliest days to its modern era; he pitched against stars such as Cap Anson, already an established player when the National League was first formed in 1876, as well as against Eddie Collins, who played until 1930. When Young's career began, pitchers delivered the baseball underhand and fouls were not counted as strikes. The pitcher's mound was not moved back to its present position of until Young's fourth season; he did not wear a glove until his sixth season. In 1956, about one year after Young's death, the Cy Young Award was created to honor the best pitcher in Major League Baseball for each season. The first award was given to Brooklyn's Don Newcombe. Originally, it was a single award covering all of baseball. The honor was divided into two Cy Young Awards in 1967, one for each league. On September 23, 1993, a statue dedicated to him was unveiled by Northeastern University on the site of the Red Sox's original stadium, the Huntington Avenue Grounds. It was there that Young had pitched the first game of the 1903 World Series, as well as the first perfect game in the modern era of baseball. A home plate-shaped plaque next to the statue reads: <blockquote> On October 1, 1903 the first modern World Series between the American League champion Boston Pilgrims (later known as the Red Sox) and the National League champion Pittsburgh Pirates was played on this site. General admission tickets were fifty cents. The Pilgrims, led by twenty-eight game winner Cy Young, trailed the series three games to one but then swept four consecutive victories to win the championship five games to three. </blockquote> In 1999, 88 years after his final major league appearance and 44 years after his death, editors at The Sporting News ranked Young 14th on their list of "Baseball's 100 Greatest Players". That same year, baseball fans named him to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team. See also * Major League Baseball titles leaders * Major League Baseball Triple Crown * List of Major League Baseball career wins leaders * List of Major League Baseball career ERA leaders * List of Major League Baseball career FIP leaders * List of Major League Baseball career strikeout leaders * List of Major League Baseball career shutout leaders * List of Major League Baseball career hit batsmen leaders * List of Major League Baseball annual wins leaders * List of Major League Baseball annual ERA leaders * List of Major League Baseball annual strikeout leaders * List of Major League Baseball annual shutout leaders * List of Major League Baseball annual saves leaders * List of Major League Baseball individual streaks * List of Major League Baseball no-hitters * List of Major League Baseball perfect games * List of Major League Baseball player-managers * List of Major League Baseball all-time leaders in home runs by pitchers Notes References External links * * * * }} Category:1867 births Category:1955 deaths Category:19th-century baseball players Category:19th-century American sportsmen Category:National Baseball Hall of Fame inductees Category:Major League Baseball pitchers Category:Major League Baseball player-managers Category:Boston Americans players Category:Boston Red Sox managers Category:Boston Red Sox players Category:Boston Rustlers players Category:Cleveland Naps players Category:Cleveland Spiders players Category:St. Louis Perfectos players Category:Major League Baseball pitchers who have pitched a perfect game Category:American League pitching Triple Crown winners Category:American League ERA champions Category:American League strikeout champions Category:American League wins champions Category:National League ERA champions Category:National League strikeout champions Category:National League (baseball) wins champions Category:Minor league baseball managers Category:Canton Nadjys players Category:Canton Statesmen players Category:Harvard Crimson baseball coaches Category:People from Harrison County, Ohio Category:Baseball players from Tuscarawas County, Ohio Category:Cleveland Green Sox players Category:American Freemasons	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cy_Young	2025-04-05T18:27:58.889137

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