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Ceuta
Sabtah (biblical figure)}} }} | settlement_type = Autonomous city | translit_lang1 | translit_lang1_type | translit_lang1_info | translit_lang1_type1 | translit_lang1_info1 | translit_lang1_type2 | translit_lang1_info2 | translit_lang2 | translit_lang2_type | translit_lang2_info | translit_lang2_type1 | translit_lang2_info1 | translit_lang2_type2 | translit_lang2_info2 | image_skyline = | image_flag = Flag Ceuta.svg | flag_size = 125px | flag_alt | flag_link | image_seal | seal_size | seal_alt | seal_link | image_shield = Escudo de Ceuta.svg | shield_size = 100x100px | shield_alt | shield_link | image_blank_emblem | blank_emblem_type | blank_emblem_size | blank_emblem_alt | blank_emblem_link | nickname | motto | anthem | mapsize | map_alt | image_map1 | mapsize1 | map_alt1 | map_caption1 | image_dot_map | dot_mapsize | dot_map_base_alt | dot_map_alt | dot_map_caption | dot_x | dot_y | image_map Localización de Ceuta.svg | map_caption = Location of Ceuta in Spain | coordinates | coor_pinpoint | coordinates_footnotes | subdivision_type = Country | subdivision_name = | established_title = First settled<!-- Settled --> | established_date = 1st millenniumBC | established_title2 = Ceded to Spain | established_date2 = 4 August 1578 | established_title3 = Autonomy status | established_date3 = 14 March 1995 | established_title1 = End of Muslim rule | established_date1 = 14 August 1415 | founder = Carthaginians | named_for | seat_type | seat | parts_type | parts_style | parts | p1 | p2 | government_footnotes | government_type Autonomous city | governing_body = Council of Government | leader_party = PP | leader_title = Mayor-President | leader_name = Juan Jesús Vivas | leader_title1 = Mayor/President | leader_name1 | total_type | unit_pref | area_footnotes | area_magnitude | area_total_km2 18.5 | area_total_sq_mi | area_total_dunam | area_land_km2 = 18.5 | area_land_sq_mi | area_water_km2 | area_water_sq_mi | area_water_percent | area_urban_footnotes | area_urban_km2 | area_urban_sq_mi | area_rural_footnotes | area_rural_km2 | area_rural_sq_mi | area_metro_footnotes | area_metro_km2 | area_metro_sq_mi | area_rank 18th | area_blank1_title | area_blank1_km2 | area_blank1_sq_mi | area_blank2_title | area_blank2_km2 | area_blank2_sq_mi | area_note | elevation_footnotes | elevation_m = 10 | elevation_ft | elevation_max_footnotes <!-- Monte Anyera --> | elevation_max_m = 349 | elevation_max_ft | elevation_min_footnotes | elevation_min_m | elevation_min_ft | population_as_of = 2024 | population_footnotes | population_total = 83,179 | population_rank = 19th | population_density_km2 = auto | population_density_sq_mi = auto | population_urban | population_density_urban_km2 | population_density_urban_sq_mi | population_rural | population_density_rural_km2 | population_density_rural_sq_mi | population_metro | population_density_metro_km2 | population_density_metro_sq_mi | population_density | population_density_rank = 2nd | population_blank1_title | population_blank1 | population_density_blank1_km2 | population_density_blank1_sq_mi | population_blank2_title | population_blank2 | population_density_blank2_km2 | population_density_blank2_sq_mi | population_demonyms Ceutan <br /> (es) <br /> ("Atlantic mackerel", colloquial) | population_note | demographics_type1 | demographics1_footnotes | demographics1_title1 | demographics1_info1 | demographics_type2 GDP | demographics2_footnotes | demographics2_title1 = Total | demographics2_info1 = €1.888 billion (2023) | demographics2_title2 = Per capita | demographics2_info2 = €22,751 (2023) | timezone1 = CET | utc_offset1 = +01:00 | timezone1_DST = CEST | utc_offset1_DST = +02:00 | timezone2 | utc_offset2 | timezone2_DST | utc_offset2_DST | postal_code_type = ISO 3166 code | postal_code = ES-CE | postal2_code_type = Postal code | postal2_code = 51001–51005 | area_code_type | area_code | geocode | iso_code | registration_plate | twin1 | twin1_country | twin2 | twin2_country | blank_name_sec1 Official language | blank_info_sec1 = Spanish | blank1_name_sec1 = Parliament | blank1_info_sec1 = Assembly of Ceuta | blank2_name_sec1 = Congress | blank2_info_sec1 = 1 deputy (out of 350) | blank3_name_sec1 = Senate | blank3_info_sec1 = 2 senators (out of 264) | blank4_name_sec2 = HDI (2022) | blank4_info_sec2 0.860<br/> · 19th | website = <!-- --> | module | footnotes | blank_name_sec2 = Currency | blank_info_sec2 = Euro (€) (EUR) }} Ceuta (, , ; ) is an autonomous city of Spain on the North African coast. Bordered by Morocco, it lies along the boundary between the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. Ceuta is one of the special member state territories of the European Union. It was a regular municipality belonging to the province of Cádiz prior to the passing of its Statute of Autonomy in March 1995, as provided by the Spanish Constitution, henceforth becoming an autonomous city. Ceuta, like Melilla and the Canary Islands, was classified as a free port before Spain joined the European Union. Its population is predominantly Christian and Muslim, with a small minority of Sephardic Jews and Sindhi Hindus, from Pakistan. Spanish is the official language, while Darija Arabic is also widely spoken. Names The name Abyla has been said to have been a Punic name ("Lofty Mountain" or "Mountain of God") for Jebel Musa, the southern Pillar of Hercules. The name of the mountain was in fact Habenna (𐤍}}, , "Stone" or "Stele") or ʾAbin-ḥīq (𐤍𐤇𐤒}}, , "Rock of the Bay"), about the nearby Bay of Benzú. The name was hellenized variously as Ápini (), ). In particular, the Roman stronghold at the site took the name "Fort at the Seven Brothers" (). This was gradually shortened to Septem ( Sépton) or, occasionally, Septum or Septa. These clipped forms continued as Berber Sebta and Arabic Sabtan or Sabtah (}}), which themselves became in Portuguese () and Spanish (locally ). History Ancient ]] Controlling access between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea, the Strait of Gibraltar is an important military and commercial chokepoint. The Phoenicians realized the extremely narrow isthmus joining the Peninsula of Almina to the African mainland made Ceuta eminently defensible and established an outpost there early in the 1st millenniumBC. The Greek geographers record it by variations of Abyla, the ancient name of nearby Jebel Musa. Beside Calpe, the other Pillar of Hercules now known as the Rock of Gibraltar, the Phoenicians established Kart at what is now San Roque, Spain. Other good anchorages nearby became Phoenician and then Carthaginian ports at what are now Tangiers and Cádiz. After Carthage's destruction in the Punic Wars, most of northwest Africa was left to the Roman client states of Numidia andaround AbylaMauretania. Punic culture continued to thrive in what the Romans knew as "Septem". After the Battle of Thapsus in 46 BC, Caesar and his heirs began annexing North Africa directly as Roman provinces but, as late as Augustus, most of Septem's Berber residents continued to speak and write in Punic. Caligula assassinated the Mauretanian king Ptolemy in AD40 and seized his kingdom, which Claudius organized in AD 42, placing Septem in the province of Tingitana and raising it to the level of a colony. It subsequently was Romanized and thrived into the late 3rd century, trading heavily with Roman Spain and becoming well known for its salted fish. Roads connected it overland with Tingis (Tangiers) and Volubilis. Under in the late 4th century, Septem still had 10,000 inhabitants, nearly all Christian citizens speaking African Romance, a local dialect of Latin. Medieval , built between the 11th and 13th centuries]] , built by order of Abu Sa'id Uthman II in 1328]] Vandals, probably invited by Count Boniface as protection against the empress dowager, crossed the strait near Tingis around 425 and swiftly overran Roman North Africa. Their king, Gaiseric, focused his attention on the rich lands around Carthage; although the Romans eventually accepted his conquests and he continued to raid them anyway, he soon lost control of Tingis and Septem in a series of Berber revolts. When Justinian decided to reconquer the Vandal lands, his victorious general Belisarius continued along the coast, making Septem a westernmost outpost of the Byzantine Empire around 533. Unlike the former ancient Roman administration, however, Eastern Rome did not push far into the hinterland and made the more defensible Septem their regional capital in place of Tingis. Epidemics, less capable successors and overstretched supply lines forced a retrenchment and left Septem isolated. It is likely that its count () was obliged to pay homage to the Visigoth Kingdom in Spain in the early 7th century. There are no reliable contemporary accounts of the end of the Islamic conquest of the Maghreb around 710. Instead, the rapid Muslim conquest of Spain produced romances concerning Count Julian of Septem and his betrayal of Christendom in revenge for the dishonor that befell his daughter at King Roderick's court. Allegedly with Julian's encouragement and instructions, the Berber convert and freedman Tariq ibn Ziyad took his garrison from Tangiers across the strait and overran the Spanish so swiftly that both he and his master Musa bin Nusayr fell afoul of a jealous caliph, who stripped them of their wealth and titles. After the death of Julian, sometimes also described as a king of the Ghomara Berbers, Berber converts to Islam took direct control of what they called Sebta. It was then destroyed during their great revolt against the Umayyad Caliphate around 740. Sebta subsequently remained a small village of Muslims and Christians surrounded by ruins until its resettlement in the 9th century by Mâjakas, chief of the Majkasa Berber tribe, who started the short-lived Banu Isam dynasty. His great-grandson briefly allied his tribe with the Idrisids, but Banu Isam rule ended in 931 when he abdicated in favor of Abd ar-Rahman III, the Umayyad ruler of Córdoba, Spain. Chaos ensued with the fall of the Caliphate of Córdoba in 1031. Following this, Ceuta and Muslim Iberia were controlled by successive North African dynasties. Starting in 1084, the Almoravid Berbers ruled the region until 1147, when the Almohads conquered the land. Apart from Ibn Hud's rebellion in 1232, they ruled until the Tunisian Hafsids established control. The Hafsids' influence in the west rapidly waned, and Ceuta's inhabitants eventually expelled them in 1249. After this, a period of political instability persisted, under competing interests from the Marinids and Granada as well as autonomous rule under the native Banu al-Azafi. The Fez finally conquered the region in 1387, with assistance from Aragon. Portuguese during the Conquest of Ceuta in azulejos at the São Bento railway station]] , built from 962 to the 18th century, and navigable moats]] On the morning of 21 August 1415, King John I of Portugal led his sons and their assembled forces in a surprise assault that would come to be known as the Conquest of Ceuta. The battle was almost anticlimactic, because the 45,000 men who traveled on 200 Portuguese ships caught the defenders of Ceuta off guard and suffered only eight casualties. By nightfall the town was captured. On the morning of 22 August, Ceuta was in Portuguese hands. Álvaro Vaz de Almada, 1st Count of Avranches was asked to hoist what was to become the flag of Ceuta, which is identical to the flag of Lisbon, but in which the coat of arms derived from that of the Kingdom of Portugal was added to the center; the original Portuguese flag and coat of arms of Ceuta remained unchanged, and the modern-day Ceuta flag features the configuration of the Portuguese shield. John's son Henry the Navigator distinguished himself in the battle, being wounded during the conquest. The looting of the city proved to be less profitable than expected for John I, so he decided to keep the city to pursue further enterprises in the area. From 1415 to 1437, Pedro de Meneses became the first governor of Ceuta. The Marinid Sultanate started the 1419 siege but was defeated by the first governor of Ceuta before reinforcements arrived in the form of John, Constable of Portugal and his brother Henry the Navigator, who were sent with troops to defend Ceuta. Under King John I's son, Duarte, the colony at Ceuta rapidly became a drain on the Portuguese treasury. Trans-Saharan trade journeyed instead to Tangier. It was soon realized that without the city of Tangier, possession of Ceuta was worthless. In 1437, Duarte's brothers Henry the Navigator and Fernando, the Saint Prince persuaded him to launch an attack on the Marinid sultanate. The resulting Battle of Tangier (1437), led by Henry, was a debacle. In the resulting treaty, Henry promised to deliver Ceuta back to the Marinids in return for allowing the Portuguese army to depart unmolested, which he reneged on. Possession of Ceuta indirectly led to further Portuguese expansion. The main area of Portuguese expansion, at this time, was the coast of the Maghreb, where there was grain, cattle, sugar, and textiles, as well as fish, hides, wax, and honey. Ceuta had to endure alone for 43 years, until the position of the city was consolidated with the taking of Ksar es-Seghir (1458), Arzila and Tangier (1471) by the Portuguese. The city was recognized as a Portuguese possession by the Treaty of Alcáçovas (1479) and by the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494). In the 1540s the Portuguese began building the Royal Walls of Ceuta as they are today including bastions, a navigable moat and a drawbridge. Some of these bastions are still standing, like the bastions of Coraza Alta, Bandera and Mallorquines. Luís de Camões lived in Ceuta between 1549 and 1551, losing his right eye in battle, which influenced his work of poetry Os Lusíadas. Union between Portugal and Spain In 1578 King Sebastian of Portugal died at the Battle of Alcácer Quibir (known as the Battle of Three Kings) in what is today northern Morocco, without descendants, triggering the 1580 Portuguese succession crisis. His grand-uncle, the elderly Cardinal Henry, succeeded him as King, but also had no descendants, having taken holy orders. When the cardinal-king died after two years later, three grandchildren of King Manuel I of Portugal claimed the throne: *Infanta Catarina, Duchess of Braganza *António, Prior of Crato *Philip II of Spain, uncle of former King Sebastian of Portugal Philip prevailed and was crowned King Philip I of Portugal in 1581, uniting the two crowns and overseas empires. During the Union with Spain, 1580 to 1640, Ceuta attracted many settlers of Spanish origin and became the only city of the Portuguese Empire that sided with Spain when Portugal regained its independence in the Portuguese Restoration War of 1640.Spanish , built in 1905]] On 1 January 1668, King Afonso VI of Portugal recognised the formal allegiance of Ceuta to Spain and ceded Ceuta to King Carlos II of Spain by the Treaty of Lisbon. The city was attacked by Moroccan forces under Moulay Ismail during the Siege of Ceuta (1694–1727). During the longest siege in history, the city underwent changes leading to the loss of its Portuguese character. While most of the military operations took place around the Royal Walls of Ceuta, there were also small-scale penetrations by Spanish forces at various points on the Moroccan coast, and seizure of shipping in the Strait of Gibraltar. During the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815), Spain allowed Britain to occupy Ceuta. Occupation began in 1810, with Ceuta being returned at the conclusion of the wars. Disagreements regarding the border of Ceuta resulted in the Hispano-Moroccan War (1859–60), which ended at the Battle of Tetuán. In July 1936, General Francisco Franco took command of the Spanish Army of Africa and rebelled against the Spanish republican government; his military uprising led to the Spanish Civil War of 1936–1939. Franco transported troops to mainland Spain in an airlift using transport aircraft supplied by Germany and Italy. Ceuta became one of the first battlegrounds of the uprising: General Franco's rebel nationalist forces seized Ceuta, while at the same time the city came under fire from the air and sea forces of the official republican government. The Llano Amarillo monument was erected to honor Francisco Franco; it was inaugurated on 13 July 1940. The tall obelisk has since been abandoned, but the shield symbols of the Falange and Imperial Eagle remain visible. Following the 1947 Partition of India, a substantial number of Sindhi Hindus from current-day Pakistan settled in Ceuta, adding to a small Hindu community that had existed in Ceuta since 1893, connected to Gibraltar's. When Spain recognized the independence of Spanish Morocco in 1956, Ceuta and the other remained under Spanish rule. Spain considered them integral parts of the Spanish state, but Morocco has disputed this point. Culturally, modern Ceuta is part of the Spanish region of Andalusia. It was attached to the province of Cádiz until 1995, the Spanish coast being only 20 km (12.5 miles) away. It is a cosmopolitan city, with a large ethnic Arab-Berber Muslim minority as well as Sephardic Jewish and Hindu minorities. On 5 November 2007, King Juan Carlos I visited the city, sparking great enthusiasm from the local population and protests from the Moroccan government. It was the first time a Spanish head of state had visited Ceuta in 80 years. Since 2010, Ceuta (and Melilla) have declared the Muslim holiday of Eid al-Adha, or Feast of the Sacrifice, an official public holiday. It is the first time a non-Christian religious festival has been officially celebrated in Spanish ruled territory since the Reconquista.Geography Ceuta is separated by from the province of Cádiz on the Spanish mainland by the Strait of Gibraltar and it shares a land border with M'diq-Fnideq Prefecture in the Kingdom of Morocco. It has an area of . It is dominated by Monte Anyera, a hill along its western frontier with Morocco, which is guarded by a Spanish military fort. Monte Hacho on the Peninsula of Almina overlooking the port is one of the possible locations of the southern pillar of the Pillars of Hercules of Greek legend (the other possibility being Jebel Musa). Important Bird Area The Ceuta Peninsula has been recognised as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because the site is part of a migratory bottleneck, or choke point, at the western end of the Mediterranean for large numbers of raptors, storks and other birds flying between Europe and Africa. These include European honey buzzards, black kites, short-toed snake eagles, Egyptian vultures, griffon vultures, black storks, white storks and Audouin's gulls. Climate Ceuta has a maritime-influenced Mediterranean climate, similar to nearby Spanish and Moroccan cities such as Tarifa, Algeciras or Tangiers. The average diurnal temperature variation is relatively low; the average annual temperature is with average yearly highs of and lows of though the Ceuta weather station has only been in operation since 2003. Ceuta has relatively mild winters for the latitude, while summers are warm yet milder than in the interior of Southern Spain, due to the moderating effect of the Straits of Gibraltar. Summers are very dry, but yearly precipitation is still at , }} Government and administration .]] Since 1995, Ceuta is, along with Melilla, one of the two autonomous cities of Spain. Ceuta is known officially in Spanish as (English: Autonomous City of Ceuta), with a rank between a standard municipality and an autonomous community. Ceuta is part of the territory of the European Union. The city was a free port before Spain joined the European Union in 1986. Now it has a low-tax system within the Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union. Since 1979, Ceuta has held elections to its 25-seat assembly every four years. The leader of its government was the Mayor until the Autonomy Statute provided for the new title of Mayor-President. , the People's Party (PP) won 18 seats, keeping Juan Jesús Vivas as Mayor-President, which he has been since 2001. The remaining seats are held by the regionalist Caballas Coalition (4) and the Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE, 3). Owing to its small population, Ceuta elects only one member of the Congress of Deputies, the lower house of the Cortes Generales (the Spanish Parliament). election, this post is held by María Teresa López of Vox. Ceuta is subdivided into 63 ("neighborhoods"), such as Barriada de Berizu, Barriada de P. Alfonso, Barriada del Sarchal, and El Hacho. Ceuta maintains its own police force. Defence and Civil Guard The defence of the enclave is the responsibility of the Spanish Armed Forces' General Command of Ceuta (COMGECEU). The Spanish Army's combat components of the command include: * 54th Regulares Infantry Regiment based in González Tablas barracks; * 2nd Tercio Duke of Alba Regiment of the Spanish Legion based in the Seraglio-Recarga cantonment; * 3rd "Montesa" Cavalry Regiment (RC-3) located in the Colonel Galindo barracks and equipped with Leopard 2 main battle tanks and Pizarro infantry fighting vehicles * 30th Mixed Artillery Regiment, one group equipped with 155/52mm towed howitzers and the other with Mistral short-range SAMs and 35/90 SKYDOR/35/90 GDF-007 anti-aircraft guns fulfilling an air defence role; and * 7th Engineer Regiment The command also includes its headquarters battalion as well as logistics elements. Ceuta itself is only distant from the main Spanish naval base at Rota on the Spanish mainland. The Spanish Air Force's Morón Air Base is also within proximity. The Civil Guard is responsible for border security and protects both the territory's fortified land border as well as its maritime approaches against frequent, and sometimes significant, migrant incursions. Economy , as viewed from Benzú. It is also known as the 'Dead Woman' because of its silhouette.]] The official currency of Ceuta is the euro. It is part of a special low tax zone in Spain. Ceuta is one of two Spanish port cities on the northern shore of Africa, along with Melilla. They are historically military strongholds, free ports, oil ports, and also fishing ports. Today the economy of the city depends heavily on its port (now in expansion) and its industrial and retail centres.Transport The city's Port of Ceuta receives high numbers of ferries each day from Algeciras in Andalusia in the south of Spain. The closest airport is Sania Ramel Airport in Morocco. A single road border checkpoint to the south of Ceuta near Fnideq allows for cars and pedestrians to travel between Morocco and Ceuta. An additional border crossing for pedestrians exists between Benzú and Belyounech on the northern coast. The rest of the border is closed and inaccessible. There is a bus service throughout the city, and while it does not pass into neighbouring Morocco, it services both frontier crossings. Hospitals The following hospitals are located within Ceuta: * University Hospital of Ceuta, established in 2010, 252 beds * Primary Care Emergency Services Jose Lafont * Ceuta Medical Centre * Spanish Military Hospital (500 beds in 1929, 2020 listed as a clinic) Demographics As of 2018, its population was 85,144. Due to its location, Ceuta is home to a mixed ethnic and religious population. The two main religious groups are Christians and Muslims. As of 2006 approximately 50% of the population was Christian and approximately 48% Muslim. As of a 2018 estimate, around 67.8% of the city's population were born in Ceuta. Spanish is the primary and official language of the enclave. Moroccan Arabic (Darija) is widely spoken. In 2021, the Council of Europe demanded that Spain formally recognize the language by 2023.Religion , completed in 1726]] Christianity has been present in Ceuta continuously from late antiquity, as evidenced by the ruins of a basilica in downtown Ceuta and accounts of the martyrdom of St. Daniel Fasanella and his Franciscans in 1227 during the Almohad Caliphate. The town's Grand Mosque had been built over a Byzantine-era church. In 1415, the year of the city's conquest, the Portuguese converted the Grand Mosque into Ceuta Cathedral. The present form of the cathedral dates to refurbishments undertaken in the late 17th century, combining baroque and neoclassical elements. It was dedicated to StMary of the Assumption in 1726. The Roman Catholic Diocese of Ceuta was established in 1417. It incorporated the suppressed Diocese of Tanger in 1570. The Diocese of Ceuta was a suffragan of Lisbon until 1675, when it became a suffragan of Seville. In 1851, Ceuta's administration was notionally merged into the Diocese of Cádiz and Ceuta as part of a concordat between Spain and the Holy See; the union was not actually accomplished, however, until 1879. Small Jewish and Hindu minorities are also present in the city. {| |+ 2019 census |- | Roman Catholicism || |- | Islam || |- | Non-religious || |- | Atheist || |} Migration Like Melilla, Ceuta attracts African migrants who try to use it as an entry to Europe. As a result, the enclave is surrounded by double fences that are high, and hundreds of migrants congregate near the fences waiting for a chance to cross them. The fences are regularly stormed by migrants trying to claim asylum once they enter Ceuta. Education The University of Granada offers undergraduate programmes at their campus in Ceuta. Like all areas of Spain, Ceuta is also served by the National University of Distance Education (UNED). While primary and secondary education are generally offered in Spanish only, a growing number of schools are entering the Bilingual Education Programme. Notable people from Ceuta up to 1800 * Qadi Ayyad (1083 in Ceuta 1149) born in Ceuta, then belonging to the Almoravids was the great imam of that city * Muhammad al-Idrisi (1100 in Ceuta 1165 in Ceuta) was a Muslim geographer, cartographer and Egyptologist. He lived in Palermo at the court of King Roger II of Sicily, known for the . * Abu al-Abbas as-Sabti (1129 in Ceuta 1204 in Marrakesh) the main Wali of Marrakesh * Joseph ben Judah of Ceuta ( 1226) a Jewish physician and poet, and disciple of Moses Maimonides * Abu al-Abbas al-Azafi (1162 in Ceuta 1236) a religious and legal scholar, member of the Banu al-Azafi who ruled Ceuta * Mohammed ibn Rushayd (1259 in Sabta 1321) a judge, writer and scholar of Hadith * Álvaro of Braganza (1440&ndash;1504) a president of Council of Castile. * George Camocke (1666&ndash;1732) a Royal Navy captain and former admiral for Spain who was exiled to Ceuta to live out the last years of his life. * Don Fernando de Leyba (1734 in Ceuta 1780) a Spanish officer who served as the third governor of Upper Louisiana from 1778 until his death. * Brigadier General Francisco Antonio García Carrasco Díaz (1742 in Ceuta 1813 in Lima, Peru) a Spanish soldier and Royal Governor of Chile * Sebastián Kindelán y O'Regan (1757 in Ceuta 1826 in Santiago de Cuba) a colonel in the Spanish Army who served as governor of East Florida 1812/1815, of Santo Domingo 1818/1821 and was provisional governor of Cuba 1822/1823 * Isidro de Alaix Fábregas Count of Vergara and Viscount of Villarrobledo, (1790 in Ceuta 1853 in Madrid) a Spanish general of the First Carlist War who backed Isabella II of Spain since 1800 * General Francisco Llano de la Encomienda (1879 in Ceuta 1963 in Mexico City), a Spanish soldier. During the Spanish Civil War (1936&ndash;1939) he remained loyal to the Second Spanish Republic * General Antonio Escobar Huertas (1879 in Ceuta executed 1940 in Barcelona), a Spanish military officer * África de las Heras Gavilán (1909 in Ceuta 1988 in Moscow), a Spanish Communist, naturalized Soviet citizen, and KGB spy who went by the code name Patria * Eugenio Martín (born 1925 in Ceuta), a Spanish film director and screenwriter * Jacob Hassan, PhD (1936 in Ceuta 2006 in Madrid), a Spanish philologist of Sephardic Jewish descent * Manuel Chaves González (born 1945 in Ceuta), a Spanish politician of the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party. He served as the Third Vice President of the Spanish Government from 2009 to 2011 * Ramón Castellano de Torres (born 1947 in Ceuta), a Spanish artist, thought by some to be an expressionist painter * Ignacio Velázquez Rivera (born 1953), first Mayor-President of Melilla * Juan Jesús Vivas Lara (born 1953 in Ceuta), became the Mayor-President of Ceuta in Spain in 2001 * Pedro Avilés Gutiérrez (born 1956 in Ceuta), a Spanish novelist from Madrid. * Eva María Isanta Foncuberta (born 1971 in Ceuta), a Spanish actress * Mohamed Taieb Ahmed (born 1975 in Ceuta), a Spanish-Moroccan drug lord responsible for trafficking hashish across the Strait of Gibraltar and into Spain.Sport * Francisco Lesmes (1924–2005) and Rafael Lesmes (1926–2012), brothers and Spanish footballers. * José Martínez Sánchez (born 1945 in Ceuta), nicknamed Pirri, a retired Spanish footballer, mainly played for Real Madrid, appearing in 561 competitive games and scoring 172 goals * José Ramón López (born 1950), a sprint canoer, silver medallist at the 1976 Summer Olympics * Miguel Bernardo Bianquetti (born 1951 in Ceuta), known as Migueli, a Spanish retired footballer, 391 caps for FC Barcelona and 32 for Spain * Nayim (born 1966 in Ceuta), a retired Spanish footballer; he scored a last-minute goal for Real Zaragoza in the 1995 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup Final. * Lorena Miranda (born 1991 in Ceuta), a Spanish female water polo player, silver medallist at the 2012 Summer Olympics. * Anuar Tuhami (born 1995 in Ceuta), a Spanish-Moroccan footballer, played one game for Morocco Twin towns and sister cities Ceuta is twinned with: * Aci Catena, Italy * Algeciras, Spain (since 1997) * Buenos Aires, Argentina * Cádiz, Spain (since 2007) * Melilla, Spain * Santarém, Portugal Dispute with Morocco The Moroccan government has repeatedly called for Spain to transfer the sovereignty of Ceuta, Melilla and the plazas de soberanía to Morocco, with Spain's refusal to do so serving as a major source of tension in Morocco–Spain relations. In Morocco, Ceuta is frequently referred to as the "occupied Sebtah", and the Moroccan government has argued that the city, along with other Spanish territories in the region, are colonies. One of the major arguments used by Morocco in their attempts to acquire sovereignty over Ceuta refers to the geographical position of the city, as Ceuta is an exclave surrounded by Moroccan territory and the Mediterranean Sea and has no territorial continuity with the rest of Spain. This argument was originally developed by one of the founders of the Moroccan Istiqlal Party, Alal-El Faasi, who openly advocated for Morocco to invade and occupy Ceuta and other North African territories under Spanish rule. Spain, in line with the majority of nations in the rest of the world, has never recognized Morocco's claim over Ceuta. The official position of the Spanish government is that Ceuta is an integral part of Spain, and has been since the 16th century, centuries prior to Morocco's independence from Spain and France in 1956. The majority of Ceuta's population support continued Spanish sovereignty and are opposed to Moroccan control over the territory. In 1986, Spain joined NATO. However, Ceuta is not under NATO protection since Article 6 of the North Atlantic Treaty limits such coverage to Europe and North America and islands north of the Tropic of Cancer. However, French Algeria was explicitly included in the treaty upon France's entry. Legal experts have claimed that other articles of the treaty could cover Spanish territories in North Africa but this interpretation has not been tested in practice. During the 2022 Madrid summit, the issue of the protection of Ceuta was raised by Spain, with NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg stating: "On which territories NATO protects and Ceuta and Melilla, NATO is there to protect all Allies against any threats. At the end of the day, it will always be a political decision to invoke Article 5, but rest assured NATO is there to protect and defend all Allies". On 21 December 2020, following statements made by Moroccan Prime Minister Saadeddine Othmani that Ceuta is "Moroccan as the Sahara", the Spanish government summoned the Moroccan ambassador, Karima Benyaich, to convey that Spain expects all its partners to respect the sovereignty and territorial integrity of its territory in Africa and asked for an explanation for Othmani's words.See also *AD Ceuta FC, football club *Hotel Tryp Ceuta *Porteadoras – mule ladies, bale workers *Spanish Morocco *European enclaves in North Africa before 1830 References Notes Citations Bibliography * }}. * }}. * . * 127, Studia Phoenicia, Vol.XVIII |publisherUitgeverij Peeters |locationLeuven |date2004 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSLSzNfdcqfoC |isbn=9789042913448 }}. * }}. * .External links * * [http://www.ceuta.es/ Official Ceuta government website] *[https://turismodeceuta.com/ Ceuta tourism website] Category:Autonomous cities of Spain Category:Enclaves and exclaves Category:Former Portuguese colonies Category:Kingdom of the Algarve Category:Mediterranean port cities and towns in Spain Category:Morocco–Spain border crossings Category:NUTS 2 statistical regions of the European Union Category:Populated places of the Byzantine Empire Category:Port cities in Africa Category:Special territories of the European Union Category:States and territories established in 1995 Category:Territorial disputes of Morocco Category:Territorial disputes of Spain Category:Populated places established in the 5th century BC Category:1415 establishments in the Portuguese Empire Category:1668 disestablishments in the Portuguese Empire Category:1668 establishments in the Spanish Empire Category:1995 disestablishments in the Spanish Empire Category:Phoenician colonies in Spain Category:Important Bird Areas of Spain Category:Important Bird Areas of Africa
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceuta
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Cleopatra (disambiguation)
Cleopatra (69–30 BC) was the last active Ptolemaic ruler of Egypt before it became a Roman province. Cleopatra may also refer to: Given name Cleopatra (given name), a list of people and fictional characters Cleopatra (Greek singer) (born 1963), who represented Greece in the 1992 Eurovision Song Contest Cleopatra (Greek myth), a list of mythological figures Arts and entertainment Film Cleopatra (1912 film), an American silent film Cleopatra (1917 film), an American silent film Cleopatra (1928 film), an American silent short film Cleopatra (1934 film), an American film by Cecil B. DeMille Cleopatra (1963 film), an American film by Joseph L. Mankiewicz starring Elizabeth Taylor and Richard Burton Cleopatra (1970 film), a Japanese anime film Cleopatra (2003 film), an Argentine film Cleopatra (2005 film), an Indian Tamil-language film Cleopatra (2007 film), a Brazilian film by Júlio Bressane Cleopatra (2013 film), an Indian Malayalam-language film Foxxy Cleopatra, a major character in the 2002 film Austin Powers in Goldmember Literature Cleopatra (Rider Haggard novel) (1889) Cleopatra (Gardner novel), a 1962 novel by Jeffrey K. Gardner La Cleopatra (poem), an epic poem by Girolamo Graziani the title character of Cleopatra in Space, an American graphic novel series for children by Mike Maihack Classical music Cleopatra (Cimarosa), a 1789 opera seria by Domenico Cimarosa Cleopatra (Rossi), an 1876 opera by Lauro Rossi Cleopatra, an opera by Johann Mattheson Cleopatra, a composition by Luigi Mancinelli Cleopatra, a symphonic poem by George Whitefield Chadwick Popular music Cleopatra Records, an American record label Cleopatra (group), a British girl group Albums Cleopatra (album), a 2016 album by The Lumineers Cleopatra (1963 soundtrack), a soundtrack by Alex North Cleopatra, a 2004 album by Isabel Bayrakdarian Handel: Cleopatra, a 2011 album by Natalie Dessay Songs "Cleopatra" (Frankie Avalon song) (1963) "Cleopatra" (Jerome Kern song) (1917) "Cleopatra" (Samira Efendi song), Azerbaijan's 2020 Eurovision song submission. "Cleopatra" (The Lumineers song) (2016) "Cleopatra" (Weezer song) (2014) "Cleopatra (I've Got to Get You Off My Mind)", a song by The Tennors "Cleopatra", a song by Adam and the Ants from their 1979 album Dirk Wears White Sox "Cleopatra", a song by Nico Fidenco "Cleopatra", a song by David Vendetta "Cleopatra", a song by Train from AM Gold (album), 2022 Paintings Cleopatra (Artemisia Gentileschi, Ferrara), by Artemisia Gentileschi, c. 1620 Cleopatra (Artemisia Gentileschi, Milan), by Artemisia Gentileschi, 1613 or 1621–1622 Cleopatra (Artemisia Gentileschi, Rome), by Artemisia Gentileschi, c. 1633–5 Television Cleopatra (miniseries), a 1999 American miniseries produced by Hallmark Entertainment Cleopatra 2525, an American science fiction television series The Cleopatras, a 1983 British series Places Cleopatra (neighborhood), a neighborhood of Alexandria, Egypt Cleopatra, Kentucky, United States, an unincorporated community Cleopatra, Missouri, United States, an unincorporated community Cleopatra (crater), an impact crater on Venus Plants and animals Cleopatra (horse), an American racehorse Cleopatra (gastropod), a genus of freshwater snails Gonepteryx cleopatra or cleopatra, a species of butterfly Neoguillauminia cleopatra, a species of tree from New Caledonia Ships , various Royal Navy ships , an East India Company paddle frigate built in 1839 and sunk by a tropical cyclone in 1847 Cleopatra (cylinder ship), a vessel constructed to convey Cleopatra's Needle from Alexandria to London in 1877 , originally named Cleopatra, a mixed passenger liner and animal carrier which sank in 1898 , a World War II Victory cargo ship renamed Cleopatra in 1956 Other uses Cleopatra (cigarette), an Egyptian brand See also Cleopatra Algemene Studentenvereniging Groningen, a student association in Groningen, the Netherlands Cleopatra's Needle, a pair of Egyptian obelisks Kleopatra (disambiguation)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleopatra_(disambiguation)
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Carcinogen
A carcinogen () is any agent that promotes the development of cancer. Carcinogens can include synthetic chemicals, naturally occurring substances, physical agents such as ionizing and non-ionizing radiation, and biologic agents such as viruses and bacteria. The specific mechanisms for carcinogenic activity is unique to each agent and cell type. Carcinogens can be broadly categorized, however, as activation-dependent and activation-independent which relate to the agent's ability to engage directly with DNA. Activation-dependent agents are relatively inert in their original form, but are bioactivated in the body into metabolites or intermediaries capable of damaging human DNA. These are also known as "indirect-acting" carcinogens. Examples of activation-dependent carcinogens include polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), heterocyclic aromatic amines, and mycotoxins. Activation-independent carcinogens, or "direct-acting" carcinogens, are those that are capable of directly damaging DNA without any modification to their molecular structure. These agents typically include electrophilic groups that react readily with the net negative charge of DNA molecules. For blood cancers, the latency period may be as short as two. Other organizations that evaluate the carcinogenicity of substances include the National Toxicology Program of the US Public Health Service, NIOSH, the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists and others. There are numerous sources of exposures to carcinogens including ultraviolet radiation from the sun, radon gas emitted in residential basements, environmental contaminants such as chlordecone, cigarette smoke and ingestion of some types of foods such as alcohol and processed meats. Occupational exposures represent a major source of carcinogens with an estimated 666,000 annual fatalities worldwide attributable to work related cancers. According to NIOSH, 3-6% of cancers worldwide are due to occupational exposures. Non-ionizing radiation Not all types of electromagnetic radiation are carcinogenic. Low-energy waves on the electromagnetic spectrum including radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation and visible light are thought not to be, because they have insufficient energy to break chemical bonds. Evidence for carcinogenic effects of non-ionizing radiation is generally inconclusive, though there are some documented cases of radar technicians with prolonged high exposure experiencing significantly higher cancer incidence. Higher-energy radiation, including ultraviolet radiation (present in sunlight) generally is carcinogenic, if received in sufficient doses. For most people, ultraviolet radiations from sunlight is the most common cause of skin cancer. In Australia, where people with pale skin are often exposed to strong sunlight, melanoma is the most common cancer diagnosed in people aged 15–44 years. Substances or foods irradiated with electrons or electromagnetic radiation (such as microwave, X-ray or gamma) are not carcinogenic. In contrast, non-electromagnetic neutron radiation produced inside nuclear reactors can produce secondary radiation through nuclear transmutation. Common carcinogens associated with food Alcohol Alcohol is a carcinogen of the head and neck, esophagus, liver, colon and rectum, and breast. It has a synergistic effect with tobacco smoke in the development of head and neck cancers. In the United States approximately 6% of cancers and 4% of cancer deaths are attributable to alcohol use. Processed meats Chemicals used in processed and cured meat such as some brands of bacon, sausages and ham may produce carcinogens. For example, nitrites used as food preservatives in cured meat such as bacon have also been noted as being carcinogenic with demographic links, but not causation, to colon cancer. Meats cooked at high temperatures Cooking food at high temperatures, for example grilling or barbecuing meats, may also lead to the formation of minute quantities of many potent carcinogens that are comparable to those found in cigarette smoke (i.e., benzo[a]pyrene). Charring of food looks like coking and tobacco pyrolysis, and produces carcinogens. There are several carcinogenic pyrolysis products, such as polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, which are converted by human enzymes into epoxides, which attach permanently to DNA. Pre-cooking meats in a microwave oven for 2–3 minutes before grilling shortens the time on the hot pan, and removes heterocyclic amine (HCA) precursors, which can help minimize the formation of these carcinogens. Acrylamide in foods Frying, grilling or broiling food at high temperatures, especially starchy foods, until a toasted crust is formed generates acrylamides. This discovery in 2002 led to international health concerns. Subsequent research has however found that it is not likely that the acrylamides in burnt or well-cooked food cause cancer in humans; Cancer Research UK categorizes the idea that burnt food causes cancer as a "myth". Biologic Agents Several biologic agents are known carcinogens. Aflatoxin B1, a toxin produced by the fungus Aspergillus flavus which is a common contaminant of stored grains and nuts is a known cause of hepatocellular cancer. The bacteria H. Pylori is known to cause stomach cancer and MALT lymphoma. Hepatitis B and C are associated with the development of hepatocellular cancer. HPV is the primary cause of cervical cancer. Cigarette smoke Tobacco smoke contains at least 70 known carcinogens and is implicated in the development of numerous types of cancers including cancers of the lung, larynx, esophagus, stomach, kidney, pancreas, liver, bladder, cervix, colon, rectum and blood. Potent carcinogens found in cigarette smoke include polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH, such as benzo(a)pyrene), benzene, and nitrosamine. Occupational carcinogens Given that populations of workers are more likely to have consistent, often high level exposures to chemicals rarely encountered in normal life, much of the evidence for the carcinogenicity of specific agents is derived from studies of workers. Lung Lightweight alloys Aerospace applications Nuclear reactors Cadmium and its compounds Prostate Yellow pigments Phosphors Solders Batteries Metal paintings and coatings Hexavalent chromium(VI) compounds Lung Paints Pigments Preservatives Nitrosamines Lung Esophagus Liver cigarette smoke nitrite-treated foods (cured meats) Ethylene oxide Leukemia commodity chemical Sterilant for hospital equipment Nickel Nose Lung Nickel plating Ferrous alloys Ceramics Batteries Stainless-steel welding byproduct Radon and its decay products Lung Uranium decay Quarries and mines Cellars and poorly ventilated places Vinyl chloride Hemangiosarcoma Liver Production of polyvinyl chloride Shift work that involves circadian disruption Breast Involuntary smoking (Passive smoking) Lung Radium-226, Radium-224, Plutonium-238, Plutonium-239 and other alpha particle emitters with high atomic weight Bone (they are bone seekers) Liver Nuclear fuel processing Radium dial manufacturing Unless otherwise specified, ref is: Others Gasoline (contains aromatics) Lead and its compounds Alkylating antineoplastic agents (e.g., mechlorethamine) Styrene Other alkylating agents (e.g., dimethyl sulfate) Ultraviolet radiation from the sun and UV lamps Other ionizing radiation (X-rays, gamma rays, etc.) Low refining or unrefined mineral oils Mechanisms of carcinogenicity Carcinogens can be classified as genotoxic or nongenotoxic. Genotoxins cause irreversible genetic damage or mutations by binding to DNA. Genotoxins include chemical agents like N-nitroso-N-methylurea (NMU) or non-chemical agents such as ultraviolet light and ionizing radiation. Certain viruses can also act as carcinogens by interacting with DNA. Nongenotoxins do not directly affect DNA but act in other ways to promote growth. These include hormones and some organic compounds. Classification + Approximate equivalencesbetween classification schemes IARC GHS NTP ACGIH EU Group 1 Cat. 1A Known A1 Cat. 1A Group 2A Cat. 1B Reasonablysuspected A2 Cat. 1B Group 2B Cat. 2   A3 Cat. 2 Group 3   A4   Group 4 A5 International Agency for Research on Cancer The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) is an intergovernmental agency established in 1965, which forms part of the World Health Organization of the United Nations. It is based in Lyon, France. Since 1971 it has published a series of Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans that have been highly influential in the classification of possible carcinogens. Group 1: the agent (mixture) is carcinogenic to humans. The exposure circumstance entails exposures that are carcinogenic to humans. Group 2A: the agent (mixture) is most likely (product more likely to be) carcinogenic to humans. The exposure circumstance entails exposures that are probably carcinogenic to humans. Group 2B: the agent (mixture) is possibly (chance of product being) carcinogenic to humans. The exposure circumstance entails exposures that are possibly carcinogenic to humans. Group 3: the agent (mixture or exposure circumstance) is not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans. Group 4: the agent (mixture) is most likely not carcinogenic to humans. Globally Harmonized System The Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) is a United Nations initiative to attempt to harmonize the different systems of assessing chemical risk which currently exist (as of March 2009) around the world. It classifies carcinogens into two categories, of which the first may be divided again into subcategories if so desired by the competent regulatory authority: Category 1: known or presumed to have carcinogenic potential for humans Category 1A: the assessment is based primarily on human evidence Category 1B: the assessment is based primarily on animal evidence Category 2: suspected human carcinogens U.S. National Toxicology Program The National Toxicology Program of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services is mandated to produce a biennial Report on Carcinogens. As of August 2024, the latest edition was the 15th report (2021). It classifies carcinogens into two groups: Known to be a human carcinogen Reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) is a private organization best known for its publication of threshold limit values (TLVs) for occupational exposure and monographs on workplace chemical hazards. It assesses carcinogenicity as part of a wider assessment of the occupational hazards of chemicals. Group A1: Confirmed human carcinogen Group A2: Suspected human carcinogen Group A3: Confirmed animal carcinogen with unknown relevance to humans Group A4: Not classifiable as a human carcinogen Group A5: Not suspected as a human carcinogen European Union The European Union classification of carcinogens is contained in the Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008. It consists of three categories: Category 1A: Carcinogenic Category 1B: May cause cancer Category 2: Suspected of causing cancer The former European Union classification of carcinogens was contained in the Dangerous Substances Directive and the Dangerous Preparations Directive. It also consisted of three categories: Category 1: Substances known to be carcinogenic to humans. Category 2: Substances which should be regarded as if they are carcinogenic to humans. Category 3: Substances which cause concern for humans, owing to possible carcinogenic effects but in respect of which the available information is not adequate for making a satisfactory assessment. This assessment scheme is being phased out in favor of the GHS scheme (see above), to which it is very close in category definitions. Safe Work Australia Under a previous name, the NOHSC, in 1999 Safe Work Australia published the Approved Criteria for Classifying Hazardous Substances [NOHSC:1008(1999)]. Section 4.76 of this document outlines the criteria for classifying carcinogens as approved by the Australian government. This classification consists of three categories: Category 1: Substances known to be carcinogenic to humans. Category 2: Substances that should be regarded as if they were carcinogenic to humans. Category 3: Substances that have possible carcinogenic effects in humans but about which there is insufficient information to make an assessment. Major carcinogens implicated in the four most common cancers worldwide In this section, the carcinogens implicated as the main causative agents of the four most common cancers worldwide are briefly described. These four cancers are lung, breast, colon, and stomach cancers. Together they account for about 41% of worldwide cancer incidence and 42% of cancer deaths (for more detailed information on the carcinogens implicated in these and other cancers, see references). Lung cancer Lung cancer (pulmonary carcinoma) is the most common cancer in the world, both in terms of cases (1.6 million cases; 12.7% of total cancer cases) and deaths (1.4 million deaths; 18.2% of total cancer deaths). Lung cancer is largely caused by tobacco smoke. Risk estimates for lung cancer in the United States indicate that tobacco smoke is responsible for 90% of lung cancers. Other factors are implicated in lung cancer, and these factors can interact synergistically with smoking so that total attributable risk adds up to more than 100%. These factors include occupational exposure to carcinogens (about 9-15%), radon (10%) and outdoor air pollution (1-2%). Tobacco smoke is a complex mixture of more than 5,300 identified chemicals. The most important carcinogens in tobacco smoke have been determined by a "Margin of Exposure" approach. Using this approach, the most important tumorigenic compounds in tobacco smoke were, in order of importance, acrolein, formaldehyde, acrylonitrile, 1,3-butadiene, cadmium, acetaldehyde, ethylene oxide, and isoprene. Most of these compounds cause DNA damage by forming DNA adducts or by inducing other alterations in DNA. DNA damages are subject to error-prone DNA repair or can cause replication errors. Such errors in repair or replication can result in mutations in tumor suppressor genes or oncogenes leading to cancer. Breast cancer Breast cancer is the second most common cancer [(1.4 million cases, 10.9%), but ranks 5th as cause of death (458,000, 6.1%)]. Estrogen appears to contribute to breast carcinogenesis by three processes; (1) the metabolism of estrogen to genotoxic, mutagenic carcinogens, (2) the stimulation of tissue growth, and (3) the repression of phase II detoxification enzymes that metabolize ROS leading to increased oxidative DNA damage. The major estrogen in humans, estradiol, can be metabolized to quinone derivatives that form adducts with DNA. These derivatives can cause depurination, the removal of bases from the phosphodiester backbone of DNA, followed by inaccurate repair or replication of the apurinic site leading to mutation and eventually cancer. This genotoxic mechanism may interact in synergy with estrogen receptor-mediated, persistent cell proliferation to ultimately cause breast cancer. Colon cancer Colorectal cancer is the third most common cancer [1.2 million cases (9.4%), 608,000 deaths (8.0%)]. In addition, substantial evidence implicates bile acids as an important factor in colon cancer. Twelve studies (summarized in Bernstein et al.) indicate that the bile acids deoxycholic acid (DCA) or lithocholic acid (LCA) induce production of DNA-damaging reactive oxygen species or reactive nitrogen species in human or animal colon cells. Furthermore, 14 studies showed that DCA and LCA induce DNA damage in colon cells. Also 27 studies reported that bile acids cause programmed cell death (apoptosis). Increased apoptosis can result in selective survival of cells that are resistant to induction of apoptosis. Overall, the available evidence indicates that DCA and LCA are centrally important DNA-damaging carcinogens in colon cancer. Stomach cancer Stomach cancer is the fourth most common cancer [990,000 cases (7.8%), 738,000 deaths (9.7%)]. ROS cause oxidative DNA damage including the major base alteration 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-OHdG). 8-OHdG resulting from ROS is increased in chronic gastritis. The altered DNA base can cause errors during DNA replication that have mutagenic and carcinogenic potential. Thus H. pylori-induced ROS appear to be the major carcinogens in stomach cancer because they cause oxidative DNA damage leading to carcinogenic mutations. Diet is also thought to be a contributing factor in stomach cancer: in Japan, where very salty pickled foods are popular, the incidence of stomach cancer is high. Preserved meat such as bacon, sausages, and ham increases the risk, while a diet rich in fresh fruit, vegetables, peas, beans, grains, nuts, seeds, herbs, and spices will reduce the risk. The risk also increases with age. See also References External links ; Category:Radiation health effects Category:Occupational safety and health
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carcinogen
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Camouflage
can change its pattern and colours to match its environment.]] .|alt=photo of a soldier putting on camouflage face paint]] Camouflage is the use of any combination of materials, color<!--yes, we use "coloration" but not "color" in BE-->ation, or illumination for concealment, either by making animals or objects hard to see, or by disguising them as something else. Examples include the leopard's spotted coat, the battledress of a modern soldier, and the leaf-mimic katydid's wings. A third approach, motion dazzle, confuses the observer with a conspicuous pattern, making the object visible but momentarily harder to locate. The majority of camouflage methods aim for crypsis, often through a general resemblance to the background, high contrast disruptive coloration, eliminating shadow, and countershading. In the open ocean, where there is no background, the principal methods of camouflage are transparency, silvering, and countershading, while the ability to produce light is among other things used for counter-illumination on the undersides of cephalopods such as squid. Some animals, such as chameleons and octopuses, are capable of actively changing their skin pattern and colours, whether for camouflage or for signalling. It is possible that some plants use camouflage to evade being eaten by herbivores. Military camouflage was spurred by the increasing range and accuracy of firearms in the 19th century. In particular the replacement of the inaccurate musket with the rifle made personal concealment in battle a survival skill. In the 20th century, military camouflage developed rapidly, especially during the World War I. On land, artists such as André Mare designed camouflage schemes and observation posts disguised as trees. At sea, merchant ships and troop carriers were painted in dazzle patterns that were highly visible, but designed to confuse enemy submarines as to the target's speed, range, and heading. During and after World War II, a variety of camouflage schemes were used for aircraft and for ground vehicles in different theatres of war. The use of radar since the mid-20th century has largely made camouflage for fixed-wing military aircraft obsolete. Non-military use of camouflage includes making cell telephone towers less obtrusive and helping hunters to approach wary game animals. Patterns derived from military camouflage are frequently used in fashion clothing, exploiting their strong designs and sometimes their symbolism. Camouflage themes recur in modern art, and both figuratively and literally in science fiction and works of literature. History Classical antiquity can change colour (and shape) for camouflage]] In ancient Greece, Aristotle (384–322 BC) commented on the colour-changing abilities, both for camouflage and for signalling, of cephalopods including the octopus, in his Historia animalium: Poulton's "general protective resemblance" was at that time considered to be the main method of camouflage, as when Frank Evers Beddard wrote in 1892 that "tree-frequenting animals are often green in colour. Among vertebrates numerous species of parrots, iguanas, tree-frogs, and the green tree-snake are examples". Beddard did however briefly mention other methods, including the "alluring coloration" of the flower mantis and the possibility of a different mechanism in the orange tip butterfly. He wrote that "the scattered green spots upon the under surface of the wings might have been intended for a rough sketch of the small flowerets of the plant [an umbellifer], so close is their mutual resemblance."}} He also explained the coloration of sea fish such as the mackerel: "Among pelagic fish it is common to find the upper surface dark-coloured and the lower surface white, so that the animal is inconspicuous when seen either from above or below." 's 1907 painting Peacock in the Woods depicted a peacock as if it were camouflaged.]] The artist Abbott Handerson Thayer formulated what is sometimes called Thayer's Law, the principle of countershading. However, he overstated the case in the 1909 book Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom, arguing that "All patterns and colors whatsoever of all animals that ever preyed or are preyed on are under certain normal circumstances obliterative" (that is, cryptic camouflage), and that "Not one 'mimicry' mark, not one 'warning color'... nor any 'sexually selected' color, exists anywhere in the world where there is not every reason to believe it the very best conceivable device for the concealment of its wearer", and using paintings such as Peacock in the Woods (1907) to reinforce his argument. Thayer was roundly mocked for these views by critics including Teddy Roosevelt. The English zoologist Hugh Cott's 1940 book Adaptive Coloration in Animals corrected Thayer's errors, sometimes sharply: "Thus we find Thayer straining the theory to a fantastic extreme in an endeavour to make it cover almost every type of coloration in the animal kingdom." Cott built on Thayer's discoveries, developing a comprehensive view of camouflage based on "maximum disruptive contrast", countershading and hundreds of examples. The book explained how disruptive camouflage worked, using streaks of boldly contrasting colour, paradoxically making objects less visible by breaking up their outlines. While Cott was more systematic and balanced in his view than Thayer, and did include some experimental evidence on the effectiveness of camouflage, his 500-page textbook was, like Thayer's, mainly a natural history narrative which illustrated theories with examples. Experimental evidence that camouflage helps prey avoid being detected by predators was first provided in 2016, when ground-nesting birds (plovers and coursers) were shown to survive according to how well their egg contrast matched the local environment. Evolution As there is a lack of evidence for camouflage in the fossil record, studying the evolution of camouflage strategies is very difficult. Furthermore, camouflage traits must be both adaptable (provide a fitness gain in a given environment) and heritable (in other words, the trait must undergo positive selection). Thus, studying the evolution of camouflage strategies requires an understanding of the genetic components and various ecological pressures that drive crypsis. Fossil history Camouflage is a soft-tissue feature that is rarely preserved in the fossil record, but rare fossilised skin samples from the Cretaceous period show that some marine reptiles were countershaded. The skins, pigmented with dark-coloured eumelanin, reveal that both leatherback turtles and mosasaurs had dark backs and light bellies. There is fossil evidence of camouflaged insects going back over 100 million years, for example lacewings larvae that stick debris all over their bodies much as their modern descendants do, hiding them from their prey. Dinosaurs appear to have been camouflaged, as a 120 million year old fossil of a Psittacosaurus has been preserved with countershading. Genetics Camouflage does not have a single genetic origin. However, studying the genetic components of camouflage in specific organisms illuminates the various ways that crypsis can evolve among lineages. Many cephalopods have the ability to actively camouflage themselves, controlling crypsis through neural activity. For example, the genome of the common cuttlefish includes 16 copies of the reflectin gene, which grants the organism remarkable control over coloration and iridescence. The reflectin gene is thought to have originated through transposition from symbiotic Aliivibrio fischeri bacteria, which provide bioluminescence to its hosts. While not all cephalopods use active camouflage, ancient cephalopods may have inherited the gene horizontally from symbiotic A. fischeri, with divergence occurred through subsequent gene duplication (such as in the case of Sepia officinalis) or gene loss (as with cephalopods with no active camouflage capabilities).<sup>[3]</sup> This is unique as an instance of camouflage arising as an instance of horizontal gene transfer from an endosymbiont. However, other methods of horizontal gene transfer are common in the evolution of camouflage strategies in other lineages. Peppered moths and walking stick insects both have camouflage-related genes that stem from transposition events. The Agouti genes are orthologous genes involved in camouflage across many lineages. They produce yellow and red coloration (phaeomelanin), and work in competition with other genes that produce black (melanin) and brown (eumelanin) colours. In eastern deer mice, over a period of about 8000 years the single agouti gene developed 9 mutations that each made expression of yellow fur stronger under natural selection, and largely eliminated melanin-coding black fur coloration. On the other hand, all black domesticated cats have deletions of the agouti gene that prevent its expression, meaning no yellow or red color is produced. The evolution, history and widespread scope of the agouti gene shows that different organisms often rely on orthologous or even identical genes to develop a variety of camouflage strategies. Ecology While camouflage can increase an organism's fitness, it has genetic and energetic costs. There is a trade-off between detectability and mobility. Species camouflaged to fit a specific microhabitat are less likely to be detected when in that microhabitat, but must spend energy to reach, and sometimes to remain in, such areas. Outside the microhabitat, the organism has a higher chance of detection. Generalized camouflage allows species to avoid predation over a wide range of habitat backgrounds, but is less effective. The development of generalized or specialized camouflage strategies is highly dependent on the biotic and abiotic composition of the surrounding environment. There are many examples of the tradeoffs between specific and general cryptic patterning. Phestilla melanocrachia, a species of nudibranch that feeds on stony coral, utilizes specific cryptic patterning in reef ecosystems. The nudibranch syphons pigments from the consumed coral into the epidermis, adopting the same shade as the consumed coral. This allows the nudibranch to change colour (mostly between black and orange) depending on the coral system that it inhabits. However, P. melanocrachia can only feed and lay eggs on the branches of host-coral, Platygyra carnosa, which limits the geographical range and efficacy in nudibranch nutritional crypsis. Furthermore, the nudibranch colour change is not immediate, and switching between coral hosts when in search for new food or shelter can be costly. The costs associated with distractive or disruptive crypsis are more complex than the costs associated with background matching. Disruptive patterns distort the body outline, making it harder to precisely identify and locate. However, disruptive patterns result in higher predation. Disruptive patterns that specifically involve visible symmetry (such as in some butterflies) reduce survivability and increase predation. Some researchers argue that because wing-shape and color pattern are genetically linked, it is genetically costly to develop asymmetric wing colorations that would enhance the efficacy of disruptive cryptic patterning. Symmetry does not carry a high survival cost for butterflies and moths that their predators views from above on a homogeneous background, such as the bark of a tree. On the other hand, natural selection drives species with variable backgrounds and habitats to move symmetrical patterns away from the centre of the wing and body, disrupting their predators' symmetry recognition. Principles Camouflage can be achieved by different methods, described below. Most of the methods help to hide against a background; but mimesis and motion dazzle protect without hiding. Methods may be applied on their own or in combination. Many mechanisms are visual, but some research has explored the use of techniques against olfactory (scent) and acoustic (sound) detection. Methods may also apply to military equipment. Background matching Some animals' colours and patterns match a particular natural background. This is an important component of camouflage in all environments. For instance, tree-dwelling parakeets are mainly green; woodcocks of the forest floor are brown and speckled; reedbed bitterns are streaked brown and buff; in each case the animal's coloration matches the hues of its habitat. Similarly, desert animals are almost all desert coloured in tones of sand, buff, ochre, and brownish grey, whether they are mammals like the gerbil or fennec fox, birds such as the desert lark or sandgrouse, or reptiles like the skink or horned viper. Military uniforms, too, generally resemble their backgrounds; for example khaki uniforms are a muddy or dusty colour, originally chosen for service in South Asia. Many moths show industrial melanism, including the peppered moth which has coloration that blends in with tree bark. The coloration of these insects evolved between 1860 and 1940 to match the changing colour of the tree trunks on which they rest, from pale and mottled to almost black in polluted areas. This is taken by zoologists as evidence that camouflage is influenced by natural selection, as well as demonstrating that it changes where necessary to resemble the local background. <gallery class"center" mode"nolines" heights"120" widths"150"> File:Lion-in-tall-grass.jpg|Lion in Kruger National Park, South Africa, blending in with the tall grass File:Tanzania 0607 cropped Nevit.jpg|Black-faced sandgrouse is coloured like its desert background. File:Caprimulgus aegyptius.jpg|Egyptian nightjar nests in open sand with only its camouflaged plumage to protect it. File:Katydid camouflaged in basil plant.jpg|Bright green katydid has the colour of fresh vegetation. </gallery> Disruptive coloration , 1940]] Disruptive patterns use strongly contrasting, non-repeating markings such as spots or stripes to break up the outlines of an animal or military vehicle, or to conceal telltale features, especially by masking the eyes, as in the common frog. Disruptive patterns may use more than one method to defeat visual systems such as edge detection. Predators like the leopard use disruptive camouflage to help them approach prey, while potential prey use it to avoid detection by predators. Disruptive patterning is common in military usage, both for uniforms and for military vehicles. Disruptive patterning, however, does not always achieve crypsis on its own, as an animal or a military target may be given away by factors like shape, shine, and shadow. The presence of bold skin markings does not in itself prove that an animal relies on camouflage, as that depends on its behaviour. For example, although giraffes have a high contrast pattern that could be disruptive coloration, the adults are very conspicuous when in the open. Some authors have argued that adult giraffes are cryptic, since when standing among trees and bushes they are hard to see at even a few metres' distance. However, adult giraffes move about to gain the best view of an approaching predator, relying on their size and ability to defend themselves, even from lions, rather than on camouflage. <gallery class"center" mode"nolines" heights"150" widths"150"> File:Great male Leopard in South Afrika-JD.JPG|Leopard: a disruptively camouflaged predator File:T-90 main battle tank (2).jpg|Russian T-90 battle tank painted in bold disruptive pattern of sand and green File:Gaboon viper (4530693343).jpg|Gaboon viper's bold markings are powerfully disruptive. File:Ptarmigan and five chicks.JPG|A ptarmigan and five chicks exhibit exceptional disruptive camouflage File:Jumping spider with prey.jpg|Jumping spider: a disruptively camouflaged invertebrate predator File:Smilax bona-nox, Colt Creek State Park, Lakeland, Florida.jpg|Many understory plants such as the saw greenbriar, Smilax bona-nox have pale markings, possibly disruptive camouflage. </gallery> Countershading Countershading uses graded colour to counteract the effect of self-shadowing, creating an illusion of flatness. Self-shadowing makes an animal appear darker below than on top, grading from light to dark; countershading 'paints in' tones which are darkest on top, lightest below, making the countershaded animal nearly invisible against a suitable background. Thayer observed that "Animals are painted by Nature, darkest on those parts which tend to be most lighted by the sky's light, and vice versa". Accordingly, the principle of countershading is sometimes called ''Thayer's Law''. Countershading is widely used by terrestrial animals, such as gazelles and grasshoppers; marine animals, such as sharks and dolphins; and birds, such as snipe and dunlin. Countershading is less often used for military camouflage, despite Second World War experiments that showed its effectiveness. English zoologist Hugh Cott encouraged the use of methods including countershading, but despite his authority on the subject, failed to persuade the British authorities. Soldiers often wrongly viewed camouflage netting as a kind of invisibility cloak, and they had to be taught to look at camouflage practically, from an enemy observer's viewpoint. At the same time in Australia, zoologist William John Dakin advised soldiers to copy animals' methods, using their instincts for wartime camouflage. The term countershading has a second meaning unrelated to "Thayer's Law". It is that the upper and undersides of animals such as sharks, and of some military aircraft, are different colours to match the different backgrounds when seen from above or from below. Here the camouflage consists of two surfaces, each with the simple function of providing concealment against a specific background, such as a bright water surface or the sky. The body of a shark or the fuselage of an aircraft is not gradated from light to dark to appear flat when seen from the side. The camouflage methods used are the matching of background colour and pattern, and disruption of outlines. The theory that the body shape of the horned lizards which live in open desert is adapted to minimise shadow is supported by the one species which lacks fringe scales, the roundtail horned lizard, which lives in rocky areas and resembles a rock. When this species is threatened, it makes itself look as much like a rock as possible by curving its back, emphasizing its three-dimensional shape. <gallery class"center" mode"nolines" heights"150px" widths"150px"> File:Ibexes.jpg|Three countershaded and cryptically coloured ibex almost invisible in the Israeli desert File:Armoured personnel carriers, Eriboll - geograph.org.uk - 1316295.jpg|"Shape, shine, shadow" make these 'camouflaged' military vehicles easily visible. File:Phrynosoma mcallii.jpg|The flat-tail horned lizard's body is flattened and fringed to minimise its shadow. File:Øvelse på Evjemoen Tropp 4.2 - camouflage nettings.jpg|Camouflage netting is draped away from a military vehicle to reduce its shadow. File:Perfect Camouflage (Caterpillar on teakwood branch).jpg|A caterpillar's fringe of bristles conceals its shadow. </gallery> Distraction Many prey animals have conspicuous high-contrast markings which paradoxically attract the predator's gaze. These distractive markings may serve as camouflage by distracting the predator's attention from recognising the prey as a whole, for example by keeping the predator from identifying the prey's outline. Experimentally, search times for blue tits increased when artificial prey had distractive markings. Cryptic behaviour sways like seaweeds to reinforce its camouflage.]] Movement catches the eye of prey animals on the lookout for predators, and of predators hunting for prey. Most methods of crypsis therefore also require suitable cryptic behaviour, such as lying down and keeping still to avoid being detected, or in the case of stalking predators such as the tiger, moving with extreme stealth, both slowly and quietly, watching its prey for any sign they are aware of its presence. As an example of the combination of behaviours and other methods of crypsis involved, young giraffes seek cover, lie down, and keep still, often for hours until their mothers return; their skin pattern blends with the pattern of the vegetation, while the chosen cover and lying position together hide the animals' shadows. In the ocean, the leafy sea dragon sways mimetically, like the seaweeds amongst which it rests, as if rippled by wind or water currents. Swaying is seen also in some insects, like Macleay's spectre stick insect, Extatosoma tiaratum. The behaviour may be motion crypsis, preventing detection, or motion masquerade, promoting misclassification (as something other than prey), or a combination of the two. Motion camouflage Most forms of camouflage are ineffective when the camouflaged animal or object moves, because the motion is easily seen by the observing predator, prey or enemy. However, insects such as hoverflies and dragonflies use motion camouflage: the hoverflies to approach possible mates, and the dragonflies to approach rivals when defending territories. Motion camouflage is achieved by moving so as to stay on a straight line between the target and a fixed point in the landscape; the pursuer thus appears not to move, but only to loom larger in the target's field of vision. Some insects sway while moving to appear to be blown back and forth by the breeze. The same method can be used for military purposes, for example by missiles to minimise their risk of detection by an enemy. <gallery class"center" mode"nolines" heights"150px" widths"150px"> File:Hoverfly August 2007-8.jpg|Male Syritta pipiens hoverflies use motion camouflage to approach females File:Australian Emperor mating and laying.jpg|Male Australian Emperor dragonflies use motion camouflage to approach rivals. File:Motion Camouflage.webm|thumbtime=2|Preying mantises exhibiting motion camouflage. </gallery> Mimesis In mimesis (also called masquerade), the camouflaged object looks like something else which is of no special interest to the observer. Mimesis is common in prey animals, for example when a peppered moth caterpillar mimics a twig, or a grasshopper mimics a dry leaf. It is also found in nest structures; some eusocial wasps, such as Leipomeles dorsata, build a nest envelope in patterns that mimic the leaves surrounding the nest. Mimesis is also employed by some predators and parasites to lure their prey. For example, a flower mantis mimics a particular kind of flower, such as an orchid. This tactic has occasionally been used in warfare, for example with heavily armed Q-ships disguised as merchant ships. The common cuckoo, a brood parasite, provides examples of mimesis both in the adult and in the egg. The female lays her eggs in nests of other, smaller species of bird, one per nest. The female mimics a sparrowhawk. The resemblance is sufficient to make small birds take action to avoid the apparent predator. The female cuckoo then has time to lay her egg in their nest without being seen to do so. The cuckoo's egg itself mimics the eggs of the host species, reducing its chance of being rejected. <gallery class"center" mode"nolines" heights"150px" widths"150px"> File:Biston betularia.png|Peppered moth caterpillars mimic twigs File:Insect camouflage PP08338.png|Flower mantis lures its insect prey by mimicking a Phalaenopsis orchid blossom File:Hooded Grasshopper (Teratodus monticollis) W IMG 0525.jpg|Hooded grasshopper Teratodus monticollis, superbly mimics a leaf with a bright orange border File:Gumleaf grasshopper.jpg|This grasshopper hides from predators by mimicking a dry leaf File:IWM-E-18461-Crusader-camouflaged-19421026.jpg|WWII tank concealed in Operation Bertram by mimicking a truck File:HMS President - geograph.org.uk - 659583.jpg|Armed WW1 Q-ship lured enemy submarines by mimicking a merchantman File:European Cuckoo Mimics Sparrowhawk.jpg|Cuckoo adult mimics sparrowhawk, giving female time to lay eggs parasitically File:Cuckoo Eggs Mimicking Reed Warbler Eggs.JPG|Cuckoo eggs mimicking smaller eggs, in this case of reed warbler File:Wrap-around spider in the genus Dolophones (Family Araneidae) Camouflage View.JPG|Wrap-around spider Dolophones mimicking a stick </gallery> Motion dazzle 's bold pattern may induce motion dazzle in observers]] Most forms of camouflage are made ineffective by movement: a deer or grasshopper may be highly cryptic when motionless, but instantly seen when it moves. But one method, motion dazzle, requires rapidly moving bold patterns of contrasting stripes. Motion dazzle distorts speed perception and is most effective at high speeds; stripes can also distort perception of size (and so, perceived range to the target). As of 2011, motion dazzle<!-- NOT THE SAME as "Dazzle Camouflage" --> had been proposed for military vehicles, but never applied. Since motion dazzle patterns<!--this is not WWI-style "dazzle painting"--> would make animals more difficult to locate accurately when moving, but easier to see when stationary, there would be an evolutionary trade-off between motion dazzle and crypsis. an experimental study by Tim Caro suggested in 2012 that the pattern reduces the attractiveness of stationary models to biting flies such as horseflies and tsetse flies. However, a simulation study by Martin How and Johannes Zanker in 2014 suggests that when moving, the stripes may confuse observers, such as mammalian predators and biting insects, by two visual illusions: the wagon-wheel effect, where the perceived motion is inverted, and the barberpole illusion, where the perceived motion is in a wrong direction. Mechanisms Animals can camouflage themselves by one or more principles using a variety of mechanisms. For example, some animals achieve background matching by changing their skin coloration to resemble their current background. Changeable skin coloration Animals such as chameleon, frog, flatfish such as the peacock flounder, squid, octopus and even the isopod idotea balthica actively change their skin patterns and colours using special chromatophore cells to resemble their current background, or, as in most chameleons, for signalling. However, Smith's dwarf chameleon does use active colour change for camouflage. Each chromatophore contains pigment of only one colour. In fish and frogs, colour change is mediated by a type of chromatophore known as melanophores that contain dark pigment. A melanophore is star-shaped; it contains many small pigmented organelles which can be dispersed throughout the cell, or aggregated near its centre. When the pigmented organelles are dispersed, the cell makes a patch of the animal's skin appear dark; when they are aggregated, most of the cell, and the animal's skin, appears light. In frogs, the change is controlled relatively slowly, mainly by hormones. In fish, the change is controlled by the brain, which sends signals directly to the chromatophores, as well as producing hormones. The skins of cephalopods such as the octopus contain complex units, each consisting of a chromatophore with surrounding muscle and nerve cells. The cephalopod chromatophore has all its pigment grains in a small elastic sac, which can be stretched or allowed to relax under the control of the brain to vary its opacity. By controlling chromatophores of different colours, cephalopods can rapidly change their skin patterns and colours. On a longer timescale, animals like the Arctic hare, Arctic fox, stoat, and rock ptarmigan have snow camouflage, changing their coat colour (by moulting and growing new fur or feathers) from brown or grey in the summer to white in the winter; the Arctic fox is the only species in the dog family to do so. However, Arctic hares which live in the far north of Canada, where summer is very short, remain white year-round. The principle of varying coloration either rapidly or with the changing seasons has military applications. Active camouflage could in theory make use of both dynamic colour change and counterillumination. Simple methods such as changing uniforms and repainting vehicles for winter have been in use since World War II. In 2011, BAE Systems announced their Adaptiv infrared camouflage technology. It uses about 1,000 hexagonal panels to cover the sides of a tank. The Peltier plate panels are heated and cooled to match either the vehicle's surroundings (crypsis), or an object such as a car (mimesis), when viewed in infrared. <gallery class"center" mode"nolines" heights"150px" widths"150px"> File:Rock Ptarmigan (Lagopus Muta).jpg|Rock ptarmigan, changing colour in springtime. The male is still mostly in winter plumage File:Norwegian Winter War Volunteers.jpg|Norwegian volunteer soldiers in Winter War, 1940, with white camouflage overalls over their uniforms File:Arctic Hare.jpg|Arctic hares in the low arctic change from brown to white in winter File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101III-Roth-173-01, Russland, Raum Charkow, Jagdpanzer.jpg|Snow-camouflaged German Marder III jagdpanzer and white-overalled crew and infantry in Russia, 1943 File:Yemen Chameleon (cropped).jpg|Veiled chameleon, Chamaeleo calyptratus, changes colour mainly in relation to mood and for signalling. File:Adaptiv infrared camouflage demo hiding tank as car.jpg|Adaptiv infrared camouflage lets an armoured vehicle mimic a car. </gallery> Self-decoration Some animals actively seek to hide by decorating themselves with materials such as twigs, sand, or pieces of shell from their environment, to break up their outlines, to conceal the features of their bodies, and to match their backgrounds. For example, a caddisfly larva builds a decorated case and lives almost entirely inside it; a decorator crab covers its back with seaweed, sponges, and stones. The nymph of the predatory masked bug uses its hind legs and a 'tarsal fan' to decorate its body with sand or dust. There are two layers of bristles (trichomes) over the body. On these, the nymph spreads an inner layer of fine particles and an outer layer of coarser particles. The camouflage may conceal the bug from both predators and prey. Similar principles can be applied for military purposes, for instance when a sniper wears a ghillie suit designed to be further camouflaged by decoration with materials such as tufts of grass from the sniper's immediate environment. Such suits were used as early as 1916, the British army having adopted "coats of motley hue and stripes of paint" for snipers. Cott takes the example of the larva of the blotched emerald moth, which fixes a screen of fragments of leaves to its specially hooked bristles, to argue that military camouflage uses the same method, pointing out that the "device is ... essentially the same as one widely practised during the Great War for the concealment, not of caterpillars, but of caterpillar-tractors, [gun] battery positions, observation posts and so forth." <gallery class"center" mode"nolines" heights"150px" widths"150px"> File:Hyastenus elatus.jpg|This decorator crab has covered its body with sponges. File:IDF-CombatEngineeringSniper001.jpg|Sniper in a Ghillie suit with plant materials File:Reduvius personatus, Masked Hunter Bug nymph camouflaged with sand grains.JPG|Reduvius personatus, masked hunter bug nymph, camouflaged with sand grains File:Battle of Lake Khasan-Camouflaged soviet tanks.jpg|Soviet tanks under netting dressed with vegetation, 1938 </gallery> Transparency jellyfish, are largely transparent.]] Many marine animals that float near the surface are highly transparent, giving them almost perfect camouflage. However, transparency is difficult for bodies made of materials that have different refractive indices from seawater. Some marine animals such as jellyfish have gelatinous bodies, composed mainly of water; their thick mesogloea is acellular and highly transparent. This conveniently makes them buoyant, but it also makes them large for their muscle mass, so they cannot swim fast, making this form of camouflage a costly trade-off with mobility. Gelatinous planktonic animals are between 50 and 90 percent transparent. A transparency of 50 percent is enough to make an animal invisible to a predator such as cod at a depth of ; better transparency is required for invisibility in shallower water, where the light is brighter and predators can see better. For example, a cod can see prey that are 98 percent transparent in optimal lighting in shallow water. Therefore, sufficient transparency for camouflage is more easily achieved in deeper waters. like Hyalinobatrachium uranoscopum use partial transparency for camouflage in the dim light of the rainforest.]] Some tissues such as muscles can be made transparent, provided either they are very thin or organised as regular layers or fibrils that are small compared to the wavelength of visible light. A familiar example is the transparency of the lens of the vertebrate eye, which is made of the protein crystallin, and the vertebrate cornea which is made of the protein collagen. Other structures cannot be made transparent, notably the retinas or equivalent light-absorbing structures of eyes – they must absorb light to be able to function. The camera-type eye of vertebrates and cephalopods must be completely opaque. Finally, some structures are visible for a reason, such as to lure prey. For example, the nematocysts (stinging cells) of the transparent siphonophore Agalma okenii resemble small copepods. Examples of transparent marine animals include a wide variety of larvae, including radiata (coelenterates), siphonophores, salps (floating tunicates), gastropod molluscs, polychaete worms, many shrimplike crustaceans, and fish; whereas the adults of most of these are opaque and pigmented, resembling the seabed or shores where they live. Adult comb jellies and jellyfish obey the rule, often being mainly transparent. Cott suggests this follows the more general rule that animals resemble their background: in a transparent medium like seawater, that means being transparent. The small Amazon River fish Microphilypnus amazonicus and the shrimps it associates with, Pseudopalaemon gouldingi, are so transparent as to be "almost invisible"; further, these species appear to select whether to be transparent or more conventionally mottled (disruptively patterned) according to the local background in the environment. Silvering , is a typical silvered fish of medium depths, camouflaged by reflection.]] Where transparency cannot be achieved, it can be imitated effectively by silvering to make an animal's body highly reflective. At medium depths at sea, light comes from above, so a mirror oriented vertically makes animals such as fish invisible from the side. Most fish in the upper ocean such as sardine and herring are camouflaged by silvering. The marine hatchetfish is extremely flattened laterally, leaving the body just millimetres thick, and the body is so silvery as to resemble aluminium foil. The mirrors consist of microscopic structures similar to those used to provide structural coloration: stacks of between 5 and 10 crystals of guanine spaced about of a wavelength apart to interfere constructively and achieve nearly 100 per cent reflection. In the deep waters that the hatchetfish lives in, only blue light with a wavelength of 500 nanometres percolates down and needs to be reflected, so mirrors 125 nanometres apart provide good camouflage. In fish such as the herring which live in shallower water, the mirrors must reflect a mixture of wavelengths, and the fish accordingly has crystal stacks with a range of different spacings. A further complication for fish with bodies that are rounded in cross-section is that the mirrors would be ineffective if laid flat on the skin, as they would fail to reflect horizontally. The overall mirror effect is achieved with many small reflectors, all oriented vertically. Silvering is found in other marine animals as well as fish. The cephalopods, including squid, octopus and cuttlefish, have multilayer mirrors made of protein rather than guanine. Counter-illumination in the firefly squid]] Counter-illumination means producing light to match a background that is brighter than an animal's body or military vehicle; it is a form of active camouflage. It is notably used by some species of squid, such as the firefly squid and the midwater squid. The latter has light-producing organs (photophores) scattered all over its underside; these create a sparkling glow that prevents the animal from appearing as a dark shape when seen from below. Counterillumination camouflage is the likely function of the bioluminescence of many marine organisms, though light is also produced to attract or to detect prey and for signalling. Counterillumination has rarely been used for military purposes. "Diffused lighting camouflage" was trialled by Canada's National Research Council during the Second World War. It involved projecting light on to the sides of ships to match the faint glow of the night sky, requiring awkward external platforms to support the lamps. The Canadian concept was refined in the American Yehudi lights project, and trialled in aircraft including B-24 Liberators and naval Avengers. The planes were fitted with forward-pointing lamps automatically adjusted to match the brightness of the night sky. Applications Military Before 1800 ]] Ship camouflage was occasionally used in ancient times. Philostratus () wrote in his Imagines that Mediterranean pirate ships could be painted blue-gray for concealment. Vegetius () says that "Venetian blue" (sea green) was used in the Gallic Wars, when Julius Caesar sent his speculatoria navigia (reconnaissance boats) to gather intelligence along the coast of Britain; the ships were painted entirely in bluish-green wax, with sails, ropes and crew the same colour. There is little evidence of military use of camouflage on land before 1800, but two unusual ceramics show men in Peru's Mochica culture from before 500 AD, hunting birds with blowpipes which are fitted with a kind of shield near the mouth, perhaps to conceal the hunters' hands and faces. Another early source is a 15th-century French manuscript, The Hunting Book of Gaston Phebus, showing a horse pulling a cart which contains a hunter armed with a crossbow under a cover of branches, perhaps serving as a hide for shooting game. Jamaican Maroons are said to have used plant materials as camouflage in the First Maroon War (). 19th-century origins firing Baker rifle 1803]] The development of military camouflage was driven by the increasing range and accuracy of infantry firearms in the 19th century. In particular the replacement of the inaccurate musket with weapons such as the Baker rifle made personal concealment in battle essential. Two Napoleonic War skirmishing units of the British Army, the 95th Rifle Regiment and the 60th Rifle Regiment, were the first to adopt camouflage in the form of a rifle green jacket, while the Line regiments continued to wear scarlet tunics. A contemporary study in 1800 by the English artist and soldier Charles Hamilton Smith provided evidence that grey uniforms were less visible than green ones at a range of 150 yards. In the American Civil War, rifle units such as the 1st United States Sharp Shooters (in the Federal army) similarly wore green jackets while other units wore more conspicuous colours. The first British Army unit to adopt khaki uniforms was the Corps of Guides at Peshawar, when Sir Harry Lumsden and his second in command, William Hodson introduced a "drab" uniform in 1848. Hodson wrote that it would be more appropriate for the hot climate, and help make his troops "invisible in a land of dust". Later they improvised by dyeing cloth locally. Other regiments in India soon adopted the khaki uniform, and by 1896 khaki drill uniform was used everywhere outside Europe; by the Second Boer War six years later it was used throughout the British Army. During the late 19th century camouflage was applied to British coastal fortifications. The fortifications around Plymouth, England were painted in the late 1880s in "irregular patches of red, brown, yellow and green." From 1891 onwards British coastal artillery was permitted to be painted in suitable colours "to harmonise with the surroundings" and by 1904 it was standard practice that artillery and mountings should be painted with "large irregular patches of different colours selected to suit local conditions." First World War painter André Mare, 1916]] In the First World War, the French army formed a camouflage corps, led by Lucien-Victor Guirand de Scévola, employing artists known as camoufleurs to create schemes such as tree observation posts and covers for guns. Other armies soon followed them. The term camouflage probably comes from camoufler, a Parisian slang term meaning to disguise, and may have been influenced by camouflet, a French term meaning ''smoke blown in someone's face''. The English zoologist John Graham Kerr, artist Solomon J. Solomon and the American artist Abbott Thayer led attempts to introduce scientific principles of countershading and disruptive patterning into military camouflage, with limited success. In early 1916 the Royal Naval Air Service began to create dummy air fields to draw the attention of enemy planes to empty land. They created decoy homes and lined fake runways with flares, which were meant to help protect real towns from night raids. This strategy was not common practice and did not succeed at first, but in 1918 it caught the Germans off guard multiple times. Ship camouflage was introduced in the early 20th century as the range of naval guns increased, with ships painted grey all over. In April 1917, when German U-boats were sinking many British ships with torpedoes, the marine artist Norman Wilkinson devised dazzle camouflage, which paradoxically made ships more visible but harder to target. In Wilkinson's own words, dazzle was designed "not for low visibility, but in such a way as to break up her form and thus confuse a submarine officer as to the course on which she was heading". <gallery class"center" mode"nolines" heights"150px" widths"150px"> File:USS West Mahomet (ID-3681) cropped.jpg|USS West Mahomet in dazzle camouflage File:CamouflagedAustralian9.2inchHowitzerYpres1917.jpeg|Siege howitzer camouflaged against observation from the air, 1917 File:Austro-Hungarian ski patrol on Italian front in snow camouflage 1915-1918.jpg|Austro-Hungarian ski patrol in two-part snow uniforms with improvised head camouflage on Italian front, 1915–1918 </gallery> Second World War In the Second World War, the zoologist Hugh Cott, a protégé of Kerr, worked to persuade the British army to use more effective camouflage methods, including countershading, but, like Kerr and Thayer in the First World War, with limited success. For example, he painted two rail-mounted coastal guns, one in conventional style, one countershaded. In aerial photographs, the countershaded gun was essentially invisible. The power of aerial observation and attack led every warring nation to camouflage targets of all types. The Soviet Union's Red Army created the comprehensive doctrine of Maskirovka for military deception, including the use of camouflage. For example, during the Battle of Kursk, General Katukov, the commander of the Soviet 1st Tank Army, remarked that the enemy "did not suspect that our well-camouflaged tanks were waiting for him. As we later learned from prisoners, we had managed to move our tanks forward unnoticed". The tanks were concealed in previously prepared defensive emplacements, with only their turrets above ground level. In the air, Second World War fighters were often painted in ground colours above and sky colours below, attempting two different camouflage schemes for observers above and below. Bombers and night fighters were often black, while maritime reconnaissance planes were usually white, to avoid appearing as dark shapes against the sky. For ships, dazzle camouflage was mainly replaced with plain grey in the Second World War, though experimentation with colour schemes continued. writing the practical Home Guard Manual of Camouflage. The film-maker Geoffrey Barkas ran the Middle East Command Camouflage Directorate during the 1941–1942 war in the Western Desert, including the successful deception of Operation Bertram. Hugh Cott was chief instructor; the artist camouflage officers, who called themselves camoufleurs, included Steven Sykes and Tony Ayrton. In Australia, artists were also prominent in the Sydney Camouflage Group, formed under the chairmanship of Professor William John Dakin, a zoologist from Sydney University. Max Dupain, Sydney Ure Smith, and William Dobell were among the members of the group, which worked at Bankstown Airport, RAAF Base Richmond and Garden Island Dockyard. In the United States, artists like John Vassos took a certificate course in military and industrial camouflage at the American School of Design with Baron Nicholas Cerkasoff, and went on to create camouflage for the Air Force. <gallery class"center" mode"nolines" heights"150px" widths"150px"> File:Catalina Góraszka 2008 204.JPG|Maritime patrol Catalina, painted white to minimise visibility against the sky File:SS Platanenmuster Sommer.jpg|1937 summer variant of Waffen SS Flecktarn Plane tree pattern File:USS Duluth (CL-87) underway in Hampton Roads on 10 October 1944 (NH 98363).jpg|USS Duluth in naval camouflage Measure 32, Design 11a, one of many dazzle schemes used on warships File:Spitfire.planform.arp.jpg|A Spitfire's underside 'azure' paint scheme, meant to hide it against the sky <!--File:Mitchell 180 Sqn RAF in especially camouflaged hangar Belgium 1944.jpg--> File:Royal Air Force 1939-1945- Fighter Command CL3979.jpg|A Luftwaffe aircraft hangar built to resemble a street of village houses, Belgium, 1944 File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-E0406-0022-001, Russland, Kesselschlacht Stalingrad.jpg|Red Army soldiers in the Battle of Stalingrad in snow camouflage overalls, January 1943 </gallery> After 1945 Camouflage has been used to protect military equipment such as vehicles, guns, ships, aircraft and buildings as well as individual soldiers and their positions. Vehicle camouflage methods begin with paint, which offers at best only limited effectiveness. Other methods for stationary land vehicles include covering with improvised materials such as blankets and vegetation, and erecting nets, screens and soft covers which may suitably reflect, scatter or absorb near infrared and radar waves. Some military textiles and vehicle camouflage paints also reflect infrared to help provide concealment from night vision devices. After the Second World War, radar made camouflage generally less effective, though coastal boats are sometimes painted like land vehicles. Many camouflaged textile patterns have been developed to suit the need to match combat clothing to different kinds of terrain (such as woodland, snow, and desert). The design of a pattern effective in all terrains has proved elusive. The American Universal Camouflage Pattern of 2004 attempted to suit all environments, but was withdrawn after a few years of service. Terrain-specific patterns have sometimes been developed but are ineffective in other terrains. The problem of making a pattern that works at different ranges has been solved with multiscale designs, often with a pixellated appearance and designed digitally, that provide a fractal-like range of patch sizes so they appear disruptively coloured both at close range and at a distance. The first genuinely digital camouflage pattern was the Canadian Disruptive Pattern (CADPAT), issued to the army in 2002, soon followed by the American Marine pattern (MARPAT). A pixellated appearance is not essential for this effect, though it is simpler to design and to print. <gallery class"center" mode"nolines" heights"150px" widths"150px"> File:CADPAT digital camouflage pattern (Temperate Woodland variant).jpg|CADPAT was the first pixellated digital camouflage pattern to be issued, in 2002. File:British dpm2.jpg|British Disruptive Pattern Material, issued to special forces in 1963 and universally by 1968 File:M05 snow pattern.jpg|2007 2-colour snow variant of Finnish Defence Forces M05 pattern File:Pla camo.svg|Main (4-colour woodland) variant of Chinese People's Liberation Army Type 99 pattern, <!--date of photo; [http://camopedia.org/index.php?title=China Camopedia says "around 1999"]--> File:Flecktarn.jpg|Modern German Flecktarn 1990, developed from a 1938 pattern, a non-digital pattern which works at different distances File:Six-Color Desert Pattern.jpg|US "Chocolate Chip" Six-Color Desert Pattern developed in 1962, widely used in Gulf War </gallery> Hunting used in field sports]] Hunters of game have long made use of camouflage in the form of materials such as animal skins, mud, foliage, and green or brown clothing to enable them to approach wary game animals. Field sports such as driven grouse shooting conceal hunters in hides (also called blinds or shooting butts). Modern hunting clothing makes use of fabrics that provide a disruptive camouflage pattern; for example, in 1986 the hunter Bill Jordan created cryptic clothing for hunters, printed with images of specific kinds of vegetation such as grass and branches. Civil structures Camouflage is occasionally used to make built structures less conspicuous: for example, in South Africa, towers carrying cell telephone antennae are sometimes camouflaged as tall trees with plastic branches, in response to "resistance from the community". Since this method is costly (a figure of three times the normal cost is mentioned), alternative forms of camouflage can include using neutral colours or familiar shapes such as cylinders and flagpoles. Conspicuousness can also be reduced by siting masts near, or on, other structures. Automotive manufacturers often use patterns to disguise upcoming products. This camouflage is designed to obfuscate the vehicle's visual lines, and is used along with padding, covers, and decals. The patterns' purpose is to prevent visual observation (and to a lesser degree photography), that would subsequently enable reproduction of the vehicle's form factors. Fashion, art and society Military camouflage patterns influenced fashion and art from the time of the First World War onwards. Gertrude Stein recalled the cubist artist Pablo Picasso's reaction in around 1915: In 1919, the attendants of a "dazzle ball", hosted by the Chelsea Arts Club, wore dazzle-patterned black and white clothing. The ball influenced fashion and art via postcards and magazine articles. The Illustrated London News announced: More recently, fashion designers have often used camouflage fabric for its striking designs, its "patterned disorder" and its symbolism. Camouflage clothing can be worn largely for its symbolic significance rather than for fashion, as when, during the late 1960s and early 1970s in the United States, anti-war protestors often ironically wore military clothing during demonstrations against the American involvement in the Vietnam War. Modern artists such as Ian Hamilton Finlay have used camouflage to reflect on war. His 1973 screenprint of a tank camouflaged in a leaf pattern, Arcadia, is described by the Tate as drawing "an ironic parallel between this idea of a natural paradise and the camouflage patterns on a tank". The title refers to the Utopian Arcadia of poetry and art, and the memento mori Latin phrase Et in Arcadia ego which recurs in Hamilton Finlay's work. In science fiction, Camouflage is a novel about shapeshifting alien beings by Joe Haldeman. The word is used more figuratively in works of literature such as Thaisa Frank's collection of stories of love and loss, A Brief History of Camouflage. In 1986, Andy Warhol began a series of monumental camouflage paintings, which helped to transform camouflage into a popular print pattern. A year later, in 1987, New York designer Stephen Sprouse used Warhol's camouflage prints as the basis for his Autumn Winter 1987 collection. <gallery class"center" mode"nolines" heights"150px" widths"150px"> File:André_Mare_1885-1932_Camouflaged_280_Gun_sketch_in_ink_and_watercolour.jpg|André Mare's Cubist sketch, , of a 280 calibre gun illustrates the interplay of art and war, as artists like Mare contributed their skills as wartime camoufleurs. File:Vietnam War protest in Washington DC April 1971.jpg|Camouflage clothing in an anti-war protest, 1971 File:Aline Campos 1c.jpg|A camouflage skirt as a fashion item, 2007 </gallery> Notes References Bibliography Camouflage in nature Early research * * * Reprinted 1985, Penguin Classics. * * General reading * *Elias, Ann (2015). Camouflage Cultures: Beyond the Art of Disappearance. Sydney University Press. . * * * Military camouflage * * * Further reading * Behrens, Roy R. (2002). False Colors: Art, Design and Modern Camouflage. Bobolink Books. . * Behrens, Roy R. (2009). Camoupedia: A Compendium of Research on Art, Architecture and Camouflage. Bobolink Books. . * Behrens, Roy R. (editor) (2012). Ship Shape: A Dazzle Camouflage Sourcebook. Bobolink Books. . * Goodden, Henrietta (2009). Camouflage and Art: Design for Deception in World War 2. Unicorn Press. . * Latimer, Jon (2001). Deception in War. John Murray. . * Newman, Alex; Blechman, Hardy (2004). DPM – Disruptive Pattern Material: An Encyclopaedia of Camouflage: Nature, Military and Culture. DPM. . * Shell, Hanna Rose (2012). Hide and Seek: Camouflage, Photography and the Media of Reconnaissance. Zone Books. . * Stevens, Martin; Merilaita, Sami (2011). Animal Camouflage: Mechanisms and Function. Cambridge University Press. . * Wickler, Wolfgang (1968). Mimicry in plants and animals. McGraw-Hill. . For children * Kalman, Bobbie; Crossingham, John (2001). What are Camouflage and Mimicry?. Crabtree Publishing. . (ages 4–8) * Mettler, Rene (2001). Animal Camouflage. First Discovery series. Moonlight Publishing. . (ages 4–8) External links * [http://camouflage.osu.edu/ Ohio State University: The Camouflage Project] – interplay of science and art * Behrens, Roy. [http://bobolinkbooks.googlepages.com/royr.behrens A Chronology of Camouflage] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Af2WmRqSvWo MACV-SOG Improvised Camo Camouflage Effectiveness] on YouTube Category:Survival skills Category:Deception Category:Hunting Category:Antipredator adaptations Category:Biological interactions Category:Evolutionary ecology
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camouflage
2025-04-05T18:27:49.587136
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Clock
made around 18th century]] A clock or chronometer<!--not timepiece--> is a device that measures and displays time. The clock is one of the oldest human inventions, meeting the need to measure intervals of time shorter than the natural units such as the day, the lunar month, and the<!-- Per WP:RETAIN and MOS:OXFORD, please do not remove comma without consensus on the talk page --> year. Devices operating on several physical processes have been used over the millennia. Some predecessors to the modern clock may be considered "clocks" that are based on movement in nature: A sundial shows the time by displaying the position of a shadow on a flat surface. There is a range of duration timers, a well-known example being the hourglass. Water clocks, along with sundials, are possibly the oldest time-measuring instruments. A major advance occurred with the invention of the verge escapement, which made possible the first mechanical clocks around 1300 in Europe, which kept time with oscillating timekeepers like balance wheels. Traditionally, in horology (the study of timekeeping), the term clock was used for a striking clock, while a clock that did not strike the hours audibly was called a timepiece. This distinction is not generally made any longer. Watches and other timepieces that can be carried on one's person are usually not referred to as clocks. Spring-driven clocks appeared during the 15th century. During the 15th and 16th centuries, clockmaking flourished. The next development in accuracy occurred after 1656 with the invention of the pendulum clock by Christiaan Huygens. A major stimulus to improving the accuracy and reliability of clocks was the importance of precise time-keeping for navigation. The mechanism of a timepiece with a series of gears driven by a spring or weights is referred to as clockwork; the term is used by extension for a similar mechanism not used in a timepiece. The electric clock was patented in 1840, and electronic clocks were introduced in the 20th century, becoming widespread with the development of small battery-powered semiconductor devices. The timekeeping element in every modern clock is a harmonic oscillator, a physical object (resonator) that vibrates or oscillates at a particular frequency. so the English word came from the Middle Low German and Middle Dutch . The word is also derived from the Middle English , Old North French , or Middle Dutch , all of which mean 'bell'. History of time-measuring devices <!--Linked from Template:Time topics--> Sundials The apparent position of the Sun in the sky changes over the course of each day, reflecting the rotation of the Earth. Shadows cast by stationary objects move correspondingly, so their positions can be used to indicate the time of day. A sundial shows the time by displaying the position of a shadow on a (usually) flat surface that has markings that correspond to the hours. Sundials can be horizontal, vertical, or in other orientations. Sundials were widely used in ancient times. With knowledge of latitude, a well-constructed sundial can measure local solar time with reasonable accuracy, within a minute or two. Sundials continued to be used to monitor the performance of clocks until the 1830s, when the use of the telegraph and trains standardized time and time zones between cities.Devices that measure duration, elapsed time and intervals can be used to keep track of elapsed time.]] Many devices can be used to mark the passage of time without respect to reference time (time of day, hours, minutes, etc.) and can be useful for measuring duration or intervals. Examples of such duration timers are candle clocks, incense clocks, and the hourglass. Both the candle clock and the incense clock work on the same principle, wherein the consumption of resources is more or less constant, allowing reasonably precise and repeatable estimates of time passages. In the hourglass, fine sand pouring through a tiny hole at a constant rate indicates an arbitrary, predetermined passage of time. The resource is not consumed, but re-used. Water clocks goldleaf in Mandalay (Myanmar)]] Water clocks, along with sundials, are possibly the oldest time-measuring instruments, with the only exception being the day-counting tally stick. Given their great antiquity, where and when they first existed is not known and is perhaps unknowable. The bowl-shaped outflow is the simplest form of a water clock and is known to have existed in Babylon and Egypt around the 16th century BC. Other regions of the world, including India and China, also have early evidence of water clocks, but the earliest dates are less certain. Some authors, however, write about water clocks appearing as early as 4000 BC in these regions of the world. The Macedonian astronomer Andronicus of Cyrrhus supervised the construction of the Tower of the Winds in Athens in the 1st century BC, which housed a large clepsydra inside as well as multiple prominent sundials outside, allowing it to function as a kind of early clocktower. The Greek and Roman civilizations advanced water clock design with improved accuracy. These advances were passed on through Byzantine and Islamic times, eventually making their way back to Europe. Independently, the Chinese developed their own advanced water clocks () by 725 AD, passing their ideas on to Korea and Japan. Some water clock designs were developed independently, and some knowledge was transferred through the spread of trade. Pre-modern societies do not have the same precise timekeeping requirements that exist in modern industrial societies, where every hour of work or rest is monitored and work may start or finish at any time regardless of external conditions. Instead, water clocks in ancient societies were used mainly for astrological reasons. These early water clocks were calibrated with a sundial. While never reaching the level of accuracy of a modern timepiece, the water clock was the most accurate and commonly used timekeeping device for millennia until it was replaced by the more accurate pendulum clock in 17th-century Europe. Islamic civilization is credited with further advancing the accuracy of clocks through elaborate engineering. In 797 (or possibly 801), the Abbasid caliph of Baghdad, Harun al-Rashid, presented Charlemagne with an Asian elephant named Abul-Abbas together with a "particularly elaborate example" of a water clock. Pope Sylvester II introduced clocks to northern and western Europe around 1000 AD. Mechanical water clocks The first known geared clock was invented by the great mathematician, physicist, and engineer Archimedes during the 3rd century BC. Archimedes created his astronomical clock, which was also a cuckoo clock with birds singing and moving every hour. It is the first carillon clock as it plays music simultaneously with a person blinking his eyes, surprised by the singing birds. The Archimedes clock works with a system of four weights, counterweights, and strings regulated by a system of floats in a water container with siphons that regulate the automatic continuation of the clock. The principles of this type of clock are described by the mathematician and physicist Hero, who says that some of them work with a chain that turns a gear in the mechanism. Another Greek clock probably constructed at the time of Alexander was in Gaza, as described by Procopius. The Gaza clock was probably a Meteoroskopeion, i.e., a building showing celestial phenomena and the time. It had a pointer for the time and some automations similar to the Archimedes clock. There were 12 doors opening one every hour, with Hercules performing his labors, the Lion at one o'clock, etc., and at night a lamp becomes visible every hour, with 12 windows opening to show the time. of Su Song's Astronomical Clock Tower, built in 11th-century Kaifeng, China. It was driven by a large waterwheel, chain drive, and escapement mechanism.]] The Tang dynasty Buddhist monk Yi Xing along with government official Liang Lingzan made the escapement in 723 (or 725) to the workings of a water-powered armillary sphere and clock drive, which was the world's first clockwork escapement. The Song dynasty polymath and genius Su Song (1020–1101) incorporated it into his monumental innovation of the astronomical clock tower of Kaifeng in 1088. His astronomical clock and rotating armillary sphere still relied on the use of either flowing water during the spring, summer, and autumn seasons or liquid mercury during the freezing temperatures of winter (i.e., hydraulics). In Su Song's waterwheel linkwork device, the action of the escapement's arrest and release was achieved by gravity exerted periodically as the continuous flow of liquid-filled containers of a limited size. In a single line of evolution, Su Song's clock therefore united the concepts of the clepsydra and the mechanical clock into one device run by mechanics and hydraulics. In his memorial, Su Song wrote about this concept: <blockquote>According to your servant's opinion there have been many systems and designs for astronomical instruments during past dynasties all differing from one another in minor respects. But the principle of the use of water-power for the driving mechanism has always been the same. The heavens move without ceasing but so also does water flow (and fall). Thus if the water is made to pour with perfect evenness, then the comparison of the rotary movements (of the heavens and the machine) will show no discrepancy or contradiction; for the unresting follows the unceasing.</blockquote> Song was also strongly influenced by the earlier armillary sphere created by Zhang Sixun (976 AD), who also employed the escapement mechanism and used liquid mercury instead of water in the waterwheel of his astronomical clock tower. The mechanical clockworks for Su Song's astronomical tower featured a great driving-wheel that was 11 feet in diameter, carrying 36 scoops, into each of which water was poured at a uniform rate from the "constant-level tank". The main driving shaft of iron, with its cylindrical necks supported on iron crescent-shaped bearings, ended in a pinion, which engaged a gear wheel at the lower end of the main vertical transmission shaft. This great astronomical hydromechanical clock tower was about ten metres high (about 30 feet), featured a clock escapement, and was indirectly powered by a rotating wheel either with falling water or liquid mercury. A full-sized working replica of Su Song's clock exists in the Republic of China (Taiwan)'s National Museum of Natural Science, Taichung city. This full-scale, fully functional replica, approximately 12 meters (39 feet) in height, was constructed from Su Song's original descriptions and mechanical drawings. The Chinese escapement spread west and was the source for Western escapement technology. in a manuscript by Al-Jazari (1206 AD) from The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices]] In the 12th century, Al-Jazari, an engineer from Mesopotamia (lived 1136–1206) who worked for the Artuqid king of Diyar-Bakr, Nasir al-Din, made numerous clocks of all shapes and sizes. The most reputed clocks included the elephant, scribe, and castle clocks, some of which have been successfully reconstructed. As well as telling the time, these grand clocks were symbols of the status, grandeur, and wealth of the Urtuq State. Knowledge of these mercury escapements may have spread through Europe with translations of Arabic and Spanish texts. Fully mechanical The word (from the Greek —'hour', and —'to tell') was used to describe early mechanical clocks, but the use of this word (still used in several Romance languages) for all timekeepers conceals the true nature of the mechanisms. For example, there is a record that in 1176, Sens Cathedral in France installed an 'horologe', but the mechanism used is unknown. According to Jocelyn de Brakelond, in 1198, during a fire at the abbey of St Edmundsbury (now Bury St Edmunds), the monks "ran to the clock" to fetch water, indicating that their water clock had a reservoir large enough to help extinguish the occasional fire. The word clock (via Medieval Latin from Old Irish , both meaning 'bell'), which gradually supersedes "horologe", suggests that it was the sound of bells that also characterized the prototype mechanical clocks that appeared during the 13th century in Europe. , Sweden]] In Europe, between 1280 and 1320, there was an increase in the number of references to clocks and horologes in church records, and this probably indicates that a new type of clock mechanism had been devised. Existing clock mechanisms that used water power were being adapted to take their driving power from falling weights. This power was controlled by some form of oscillating mechanism, probably derived from existing bell-ringing or alarm devices. This controlled release of power – the escapement – marks the beginning of the true mechanical clock, which differed from the previously mentioned cogwheel clocks. The verge escapement mechanism appeared during the surge of true mechanical clock development, which did not need any kind of fluid power, like water or mercury, to work. These mechanical clocks were intended for two main purposes: for signalling and notification (e.g., the timing of services and public events) and for modeling the solar system. The former purpose is administrative; the latter arises naturally given the scholarly interests in astronomy, science, and astrology and how these subjects integrated with the religious philosophy of the time. The astrolabe was used both by astronomers and astrologers, and it was natural to apply a clockwork drive to the rotating plate to produce a working model of the solar system. Simple clocks intended mainly for notification were installed in towers and did not always require faces or hands. They would have announced the canonical hours or intervals between set times of prayer. Canonical hours varied in length as the times of sunrise and sunset shifted. The more sophisticated astronomical clocks would have had moving dials or hands and would have shown the time in various time systems, including Italian hours, canonical hours, and time as measured by astronomers at the time. Both styles of clocks started acquiring extravagant features, such as automata. In 1283, a large clock was installed at Dunstable Priory in Bedfordshire in southern England; its location above the rood screen suggests that it was not a water clock. In 1292, Canterbury Cathedral installed a 'great horloge'. Over the next 30 years, there were mentions of clocks at a number of ecclesiastical institutions in England, Italy, and France. In 1322, a new clock was installed in Norwich, an expensive replacement for an earlier clock installed in 1273. This had a large (2 metre) astronomical dial with automata and bells. The costs of the installation included the full-time employment of two clockkeepers for two years. and modern reproductions have been made. Wallingford's clock had a large astrolabe-type dial, showing the sun, the moon's age, phase, and node, a star map, and possibly the planets. In addition, it had a wheel of fortune and an indicator of the state of the tide at London Bridge. Bells rang every hour, the number of strokes indicating the time. Spring-driven <gallery mode"packed-hover" heights"150px" caption="Examples of spring-driven clocks"> Matthew Norman carriage clock with winding key.jpg|Matthew Norman carriage clock with winding key 1908 Gilbert mantel clock decorated with Memento Mori decoupage.JPG|Decorated William Gilbert mantel clock </gallery> Clockmakers developed their art in various ways. Building smaller clocks was a technical challenge, as was improving accuracy and reliability. Clocks could be impressive showpieces to demonstrate skilled craftsmanship, or less expensive, mass-produced items for domestic use. The escapement in particular was an important factor affecting the clock's accuracy, so many different mechanisms were tried. Spring-driven clocks appeared during the 15th century, although they are often erroneously credited to Nuremberg watchmaker Peter Henlein (or Henle, or Hele) around 1511. The earliest existing spring driven clock is the chamber clock given to Phillip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, around 1430, now in the Germanisches Nationalmuseum. and some 15th-century clocks in Germany indicated minutes and seconds. An early record of a seconds hand on a clock dates back to about 1560 on a clock now in the Fremersdorf collection. During the 15th and 16th centuries, clockmaking flourished, particularly in the metalworking towns of Nuremberg and Augsburg, and in Blois, France. Some of the more basic table clocks have only one time-keeping hand, with the dial between the hour markers being divided into four equal parts making the clocks readable to the nearest 15 minutes. Other clocks were exhibitions of craftsmanship and skill, incorporating astronomical indicators and musical movements. The cross-beat escapement was invented in 1584 by Jost Bürgi, who also developed the remontoire. Bürgi's clocks were a great improvement in accuracy as they were correct to within a minute a day. These clocks helped the 16th-century astronomer Tycho Brahe to observe astronomical events with much greater precision than before. Pendulum The next development in accuracy occurred after 1656 with the invention of the pendulum clock. Galileo had the idea to use a swinging bob to regulate the motion of a time-telling device earlier in the 17th century. Christiaan Huygens, however, is usually credited as the inventor. He determined the mathematical formula that related pendulum length to time (about 99.4 cm or 39.1 inches for the one second movement) and had the first pendulum-driven clock made. The first model clock was built in 1657 in the Hague, but it was in England that the idea was taken up. The longcase clock (also known as the grandfather clock) was created to house the pendulum and works by the English clockmaker William Clement in 1670 or 1671. It was also at this time that clock cases began to be made of wood and clock faces to use enamel as well as hand-painted ceramics. In 1670, William Clement created the anchor escapement, an improvement over Huygens' crown escapement. Clement also introduced the pendulum suspension spring in 1671. The concentric minute hand was added to the clock by Daniel Quare, a London clockmaker and others, and the second hand was first introduced. Hairspring In 1675, Huygens and Robert Hooke invented the spiral balance spring, or the hairspring, designed to control the oscillating speed of the balance wheel. This crucial advance finally made accurate pocket watches possible. The great English clockmaker Thomas Tompion, was one of the first to use this mechanism successfully in his pocket watches, and he adopted the minute hand which, after a variety of designs were trialled, eventually stabilised into the modern-day configuration. The rack and snail striking mechanism for striking clocks, was introduced during the 17th century and had distinct advantages over the 'countwheel' (or 'locking plate') mechanism. During the 20th century there was a common misconception that Edward Barlow invented rack and snail striking. In fact, his invention was connected with a repeating mechanism employing the rack and snail. The repeating clock, that chimes the number of hours (or even minutes) on demand was invented by either Quare or Barlow in 1676. George Graham invented the deadbeat escapement for clocks in 1720. Marine chronometer A major stimulus to improving the accuracy and reliability of clocks was the importance of precise time-keeping for navigation. The position of a ship at sea could be determined with reasonable accuracy if a navigator could refer to a clock that lost or gained less than about 10 seconds per day. This clock could not contain a pendulum, which would be virtually useless on a rocking ship. In 1714, the British government offered large financial rewards to the value of 20,000 pounds for anyone who could determine longitude accurately. John Harrison, who dedicated his life to improving the accuracy of his clocks, later received considerable sums under the Longitude Act. In 1735, Harrison built his first chronometer, which he steadily improved on over the next thirty years before submitting it for examination. The clock had many innovations, including the use of bearings to reduce friction, weighted balances to compensate for the ship's pitch and roll in the sea and the use of two different metals to reduce the problem of expansion from heat. The chronometer was tested in 1761 by Harrison's son and by the end of 10 weeks the clock was in error by less than 5 seconds.Mass productionThe British had dominated watch manufacture for much of the 17th and 18th centuries, but maintained a system of production that was geared towards high quality products for the elite. Although there was an attempt to modernise clock manufacture with mass-production techniques and the application of duplicating tools and machinery by the British Watch Company in 1843, it was in the United States that this system took off. In 1816, Eli Terry and some other Connecticut clockmakers developed a way of mass-producing clocks by using interchangeable parts. Aaron Lufkin Dennison started a factory in 1851 in Massachusetts that also used interchangeable parts, and by 1861 was running a successful enterprise incorporated as the Waltham Watch Company. Early electric In 1815, the English scientist Francis Ronalds published the first electric clock powered by dry pile batteries. Alexander Bain, a Scottish clockmaker, patented the electric clock in 1840. The electric clock's mainspring is wound either with an electric motor or with an electromagnet and armature. In 1841, he first patented the electromagnetic pendulum. By the end of the nineteenth century, the advent of the dry cell battery made it feasible to use electric power in clocks. Spring or weight driven clocks that use electricity, either alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC), to rewind the spring or raise the weight of a mechanical clock would be classified as an electromechanical clock. This classification would also apply to clocks that employ an electrical impulse to propel the pendulum. In electromechanical clocks the electricity serves no time keeping function. These types of clocks were made as individual timepieces but more commonly used in synchronized time installations in schools, businesses, factories, railroads and government facilities as a master clock and slave clocks. Where an AC electrical supply of stable frequency is available, timekeeping can be maintained very reliably by using a synchronous motor, essentially counting the cycles. The supply current alternates with an accurate frequency of 50 hertz in many countries, and 60 hertz in others. While the frequency may vary slightly during the day as the load changes, generators are designed to maintain an accurate number of cycles over a day, so the clock may be a fraction of a second slow or fast at any time, but will be perfectly accurate over a long time. The rotor of the motor rotates at a speed that is related to the alternation frequency. Appropriate gearing converts this rotation speed to the correct ones for the hands of the analog clock. Time in these cases is measured in several ways, such as by counting the cycles of the AC supply, vibration of a tuning fork, the behaviour of quartz crystals, or the quantum vibrations of atoms. Electronic circuits divide these high-frequency oscillations to slower ones that drive the time display. Quartz The piezoelectric properties of crystalline quartz were discovered by Jacques and Pierre Curie in 1880. The first crystal oscillator was invented in 1917 by Alexander M. Nicholson, after which the first quartz crystal oscillator was built by Walter G. Cady in 1921. In 1969, Seiko produced the world's first quartz wristwatch, the Astron. Their inherent accuracy and low cost of production resulted in the subsequent proliferation of quartz clocks and watches. Atomic clocks were first theorized by Lord Kelvin in 1879. In the 1930s the development of magnetic resonance created practical method for doing this. A prototype ammonia maser device was built in 1949 at the U.S. National Bureau of Standards (NBS, now NIST). Although it was less accurate than existing quartz clocks, it served to demonstrate the concept. The first accurate atomic clock, a caesium standard based on a certain transition of the caesium-133 atom, was built by Louis Essen in 1955 at the National Physical Laboratory in the UK. Calibration of the caesium standard atomic clock was carried out by the use of the astronomical time scale ephemeris time (ET). As of 2013, the most stable atomic clocks are ytterbium clocks, which are stable to within less than two parts in 1 quintillion (). which had the potential for more accuracy. All modern clocks use oscillation. Although the mechanisms they use vary, all oscillating clocks, mechanical, electric, and atomic, work similarly and can be divided into analogous parts. They consist of an object that repeats the same motion over and over again, an oscillator, with a precisely constant time interval between each repetition, or 'beat'. Attached to the oscillator is a controller device, which sustains the oscillator's motion by replacing the energy it loses to friction, and converts its oscillations into a series of pulses. The pulses are then counted by some type of counter, and the number of counts is converted into convenient units, usually seconds, minutes, hours, etc. Finally some kind of indicator displays the result in human readable form. Power source Oscillator , the oscillator in a mechanical mantel clock. ]] The timekeeping element in every modern clock is a harmonic oscillator, a physical object (resonator) that vibrates or oscillates repetitively at a precisely constant frequency. * In mechanical clocks, this is either a pendulum or a balance wheel. * In some early electronic clocks and watches such as the Accutron, they use a tuning fork. * In quartz clocks and watches, it is a quartz crystal. * In atomic clocks, it is the vibration of electrons in atoms as they emit microwaves. * In early mechanical clocks before 1657, it was a crude balance wheel or foliot which was not a harmonic oscillator because it lacked a balance spring. As a result, they were very inaccurate, with errors of perhaps an hour a day. The advantage of a harmonic oscillator over other forms of oscillator is that it employs resonance to vibrate at a precise natural resonant frequency or "beat" dependent only on its physical characteristics, and resists vibrating at other rates. The possible precision achievable by a harmonic oscillator is measured by a parameter called its Q, or quality factor, which increases (other things being equal) with its resonant frequency. This is why there has been a long-term trend toward higher frequency oscillators in clocks. Balance wheels and pendulums always include a means of adjusting the rate of the timepiece. Quartz timepieces sometimes include a rate screw that adjusts a capacitor for that purpose. Atomic clocks are primary standards, and their rate cannot be adjusted.Synchronized or slave clocks at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich receives its timing signal from within the Royal Observatory, Greenwich.]] Some clocks rely for their accuracy on an external oscillator; that is, they are automatically synchronized to a more accurate clock: * Slave clocks, used in large institutions and schools from the 1860s to the 1970s, kept time with a pendulum, but were wired to a master clock in the building, and periodically received a signal to synchronize them with the master, often on the hour. Later versions without pendulums were triggered by a pulse from the master clock and certain sequences used to force rapid synchronization following a power failure. * Synchronous electric clocks do not have an internal oscillator, but count cycles of the 50 or 60 Hz oscillation of the AC power line, which is synchronized by the utility to a precision oscillator. The counting may be done electronically, usually in clocks with digital displays, or, in analog clocks, the AC may drive a synchronous motor which rotates an exact fraction of a revolution for every cycle of the line voltage, and drives the gear train. Although changes in the grid line frequency due to load variations may cause the clock to temporarily gain or lose several seconds during the course of a day, the total number of cycles per 24 hours is maintained extremely accurately by the utility company, so that the clock keeps time accurately over long periods. * Computer real-time clocks keep time with a quartz crystal, but can be periodically (usually weekly) synchronized over the Internet to atomic clocks (UTC), using the Network Time Protocol (NTP). * Radio clocks keep time with a quartz crystal, but are periodically synchronized to time signals transmitted from dedicated standard time radio stations or satellite navigation signals, which are set by atomic clocks. Controller This has the dual function of keeping the oscillator running by giving it 'pushes' to replace the energy lost to friction, and converting its vibrations into a series of pulses that serve to measure the time. * In mechanical clocks, this is the escapement, which gives precise pushes to the swinging pendulum or balance wheel, and releases one gear tooth of the escape wheel at each swing, allowing all the clock's wheels to move forward a fixed amount with each swing. * In electronic clocks this is an electronic oscillator circuit that gives the vibrating quartz crystal or tuning fork tiny 'pushes', and generates a series of electrical pulses, one for each vibration of the crystal, which is called the clock signal. * In atomic clocks the controller is an evacuated microwave cavity attached to a microwave oscillator controlled by a microprocessor. A thin gas of caesium atoms is released into the cavity where they are exposed to microwaves. A laser measures how many atoms have absorbed the microwaves, and an electronic feedback control system called a phase-locked loop tunes the microwave oscillator until it is at the frequency that causes the atoms to vibrate and absorb the microwaves. Then the microwave signal is divided by digital counters to become the clock signal. In mechanical clocks, the low Q of the balance wheel or pendulum oscillator made them very sensitive to the disturbing effect of the impulses of the escapement, so the escapement had a great effect on the accuracy of the clock, and many escapement designs were tried. The higher Q of resonators in electronic clocks makes them relatively insensitive to the disturbing effects of the drive power, so the driving oscillator circuit is a much less critical component. * In digital clocks a series of integrated circuit counters or dividers add the pulses up digitally, using binary logic. Often pushbuttons on the case allow the hour and minute counters to be incremented and decremented to set the time. Indicator with mechanical automaton and sound producer striking on the eighth hour on the analog dial]] This displays the count of seconds, minutes, hours, etc. in a human readable form. * The earliest mechanical clocks in the 13th century did not have a visual indicator and signalled the time audibly by striking bells. Many clocks to this day are striking clocks which strike the hour. * Analog clocks display time with an analog clock face, which consists of a dial with the numbers 1 through 12 or 24, the hours in the day, around the outside. The hours are indicated with an hour hand, which makes one or two revolutions in a day, while the minutes are indicated by a minute hand, which makes one revolution per hour. In mechanical clocks a gear train drives the hands; in electronic clocks the circuit produces pulses every second which drive a stepper motor and gear train, which move the hands. * Digital clocks display the time in periodically changing digits on a digital display. A common misconception is that a digital clock is more accurate than an analog wall clock, but the indicator type is separate and apart from the accuracy of the timing source. * Talking clocks and the speaking clock services provided by telephone companies speak the time audibly, using either recorded or digitally synthesized voices. Types Clocks can be classified by the type of time display, as well as by the method of timekeeping. Time display methods Analog . The 24 hour band moves across the static map, keeping pace with the apparent movement of the sun above ground, and a pointer fixed on London points to the current time.]] Analog clocks usually use a clock face which indicates time using rotating pointers called "hands" on a fixed numbered dial or dials. The standard clock face, known universally throughout the world, has a short "hour hand" which indicates the hour on a circular dial of 12 hours, making two revolutions per day, and a longer "minute hand" which indicates the minutes in the current hour on the same dial, which is also divided into 60 minutes. It may also have a "second hand" which indicates the seconds in the current minute. The only other widely used clock face today is the 24 hour analog dial, because of the use of 24 hour time in military organizations and timetables. Before the modern clock face was standardized during the Industrial Revolution, many other face designs were used throughout the years, including dials divided into 6, 8, 10, and 24 hours. During the French Revolution the French government tried to introduce a 10-hour clock, as part of their decimal-based metric system of measurement, but it did not achieve widespread use. An Italian 6 hour clock was developed in the 18th century, presumably to save power (a clock or watch striking 24 times uses more power). Another type of analog clock is the sundial, which tracks the sun continuously, registering the time by the shadow position of its gnomon. Because the sun does not adjust to daylight saving time, users must add an hour during that time. Corrections must also be made for the equation of time, and for the difference between the longitudes of the sundial and of the central meridian of the time zone that is being used (i.e. 15 degrees east of the prime meridian for each hour that the time zone is ahead of GMT). Sundials use some or part of the 24 hour analog dial. There also exist clocks which use a digital display despite having an analog mechanism—these are commonly referred to as flip clocks. Alternative systems have been proposed. For example, the "Twelv" clock <!-- not a typo, see http://www.gizmag.com/go/6312/ -->indicates the current hour using one of twelve colors, and indicates the minute by showing a proportion of a circular disk, similar to a moon phase. Digital <gallery mode"packed-hover" heights"150px" caption="Examples of digital clocks"> Kanazawa Station Water Clock.jpg|Digital clock<!-- outside Kanazawa Station--> displaying time by controlling valves on the fountain Digital-clock-radio-basic hf.jpg|Simplistic digital clock radio Analog clock with digital display.png|Diagram of a mechanical digital display of a flip clock Cifra 5 digital flip clock designed by Gino Valle (1957).jpg|Cifra 5 digital flip clock (1957) SAMSUNG Galaxy S22 Ultra BLACK.jpg|A digital clock on a Samsung Galaxy smartphone </gallery> Digital clocks display a numeric representation of time. Two numeric display formats are commonly used on digital clocks: * the 24-hour notation with hours ranging 00–23; * the 12-hour notation with AM/PM indicator, with hours indicated as 12AM, followed by 1AM–11AM, followed by 12PM, followed by 1PM–11PM (a notation mostly used in domestic environments). Most digital clocks use electronic mechanisms and LCD, LED, or VFD displays; many other display technologies are used as well (cathode-ray tubes, nixie tubes, etc.). After a reset, battery change or power failure, these clocks without a backup battery or capacitor either start counting from 12:00, or stay at 12:00, often with blinking digits indicating that the time needs to be set. Some newer clocks will reset themselves based on radio or Internet time servers that are tuned to national atomic clocks. Since the introduction of digital clocks in the 1960s, there has been a notable decline in the use of analog clocks. Some clocks, called 'flip clocks', have digital displays that work mechanically. The digits are painted on sheets of material which are mounted like the pages of a book. Once a minute, a page is turned over to reveal the next digit. These displays are usually easier to read in brightly lit conditions than LCDs or LEDs. Also, they do not go back to 12:00 after a power interruption. Flip clocks generally do not have electronic mechanisms. Usually, they are driven by AC-synchronous motors. Hybrid (analog-digital) Clocks with analog quadrants, with a digital component, usually minutes and hours displayed analogously and seconds displayed in digital mode. Auditory For convenience, distance, telephony or blindness, auditory clocks present the time as sounds. The sound is either spoken natural language, (e.g. "The time is twelve thirty-five"), or as auditory codes (e.g. number of sequential bell rings on the hour represents the number of the hour like the bell, Big Ben). Most telecommunication companies also provide a speaking clock service as well. Word Word clocks are clocks that display the time visually using sentences. E.g.: "It's about three o'clock." These clocks can be implemented in hardware or software. Projection Some clocks, usually digital ones, include an optical projector that shines a magnified image of the time display onto a screen or onto a surface such as an indoor ceiling or wall. The digits are large enough to be easily read, without using glasses, by persons with moderately imperfect vision, so the clocks are convenient for use in their bedrooms. Usually, the timekeeping circuitry has a battery as a backup source for an uninterrupted power supply to keep the clock on time, while the projection light only works when the unit is connected to an A.C. supply. Completely battery-powered portable versions resembling flashlights are also available. Tactile Auditory and projection clocks can be used by people who are blind or have limited vision. There are also clocks for the blind that have displays that can be read by using the sense of touch. Some of these are similar to normal analog displays, but are constructed so the hands can be felt without damaging them. Another type is essentially digital, and uses devices that use a code such as Braille to show the digits so that they can be felt with the fingertips. Multi-display Some clocks have several displays driven by a single mechanism, and some others have several completely separate mechanisms in a single case. Clocks in public places often have several faces visible from different directions, so that the clock can be read from anywhere in the vicinity; all the faces show the same time. Other clocks show the current time in several time-zones. Watches that are intended to be carried by travellers often have two displays, one for the local time and the other for the time at home, which is useful for making pre-arranged phone calls. Some equation clocks have two displays, one showing mean time and the other solar time, as would be shown by a sundial. Some clocks have both analog and digital displays. Clocks with Braille displays usually also have conventional digits so they can be read by sighted people. Purposes ]] , Taiwan.]] mantel clock, from the third quarter of the 19th century, in the Museu de Belles Arts de València from Spain]] Clocks are in homes, offices and many other places; smaller ones (watches) are carried on the wrist or in a pocket; larger ones are in public places, e.g. a railway station or church. A small clock is often shown in a corner of computer displays, mobile phones and many MP3 players. The primary purpose of a clock is to display the time. Clocks may also have the facility to make a loud alert signal at a specified time, typically to waken a sleeper at a preset time; they are referred to as alarm clocks. The alarm may start at a low volume and become louder, or have the facility to be switched off for a few minutes then resume. Alarm clocks with visible indicators are sometimes used to indicate to children too young to read the time that the time for sleep has finished; they are sometimes called training clocks. A clock mechanism may be used to control a device according to time, e.g. a central heating system, a VCR, or a time bomb (see: digital counter). Such mechanisms are usually called timers. Clock mechanisms are also used to drive devices such as solar trackers and astronomical telescopes, which have to turn at accurately controlled speeds to counteract the rotation of the Earth. Most digital computers depend on an internal signal at constant frequency to synchronize processing; this is referred to as a clock signal. (A few research projects are developing CPUs based on asynchronous circuits.) Some equipment, including computers, also maintains time and date for use as required; this is referred to as time-of-day clock, and is distinct from the system clock signal, although possibly based on counting its cycles. Time standards For some scientific work timing of the utmost accuracy is essential. It is also necessary to have a standard of the maximum accuracy against which working clocks can be calibrated. An ideal clock would give the time to unlimited accuracy, but this is not realisable. Many physical processes, in particular including some transitions between atomic energy levels, occur at exceedingly stable frequency; counting cycles of such a process can give a very accurate and consistent time—clocks which work this way are usually called atomic clocks. Such clocks are typically large, very expensive, require a controlled environment, and are far more accurate than required for most purposes; they are typically used in a standards laboratory. Navigation Until advances in the late twentieth century, navigation depended on the ability to measure latitude and longitude. Latitude can be determined through celestial navigation; the measurement of longitude requires accurate knowledge of time. This need was a major motivation for the development of accurate mechanical clocks. John Harrison created the first highly accurate marine chronometer in the mid-18th century. The Noon gun in Cape Town still fires an accurate signal to allow ships to check their chronometers. Many buildings near major ports used to have (some still do) a large ball mounted on a tower or mast arranged to drop at a pre-determined time, for the same purpose. While satellite navigation systems such as GPS require unprecedentedly accurate knowledge of time, this is supplied by equipment on the satellites; vehicles no longer need timekeeping equipment. Sports and games Clocks can be used to measure varying periods of time in games and sports. Stopwatches can be used to time the performance of track athletes. Chess clocks are used to limit the board game players' time to make a move. In various sports, measure the duration the game or subdivisions of the game, while other clocks may be used for tracking different durations; these include play clocks, shot clocks, and pitch clocks. Culture Folklore and superstition In the United Kingdom, clocks are associated with various beliefs, many involving death or bad luck. In legends, clocks have reportedly stopped of their own accord upon a nearby person's death, especially those of monarchs. The clock in the House of Lords supposedly stopped at "nearly" the hour of George III's death in 1820, the one at Balmoral Castle stopped during the hour of Queen Victoria's death, and similar legends are related about clocks associated with William IV and Elizabeth I. Many superstitions exist about clocks. One stopping before a person has died may foretell coming death. Similarly, if a clock strikes during a church hymn or a marriage ceremony, death or calamity is prefigured for the parishioners or a spouse, respectively. Death or ill events are foreshadowed if a clock strikes the wrong time. It may also be unlucky to have a clock face a fire or to speak while a clock is striking. In Chinese culture, giving a clock () is often taboo, especially to the elderly, as it is a homophone of the act of attending another's funeral (|s|firstt|psòngzhōng}}). Specific types , 1867. Drexel University, Philadelphia, US]] {| | By mechanism | By function | By style |- |style="width:30%;vertical-align:top"| <!-- by mechanism --> * Astronomical clock * Atomic clock * Candle clock * Congreve clock * Conical pendulum clock * Digital clock * Electric clock * Flip clock * Flying pendulum clock * Hourglass * Incense clock * Lamport clock * Mechanical watch * Observatory chronometer * Oil-lamp clock * Pendulum clock * Projection clock * Pulsar clock * Quantum clock * Quartz clock * Radio clock * Rolling ball clock * Spring drive watch * Steam clock * Sundial * Torsion pendulum clock ** Atmos clock * Water clock |style="width:30%;vertical-align:top"| <!-- by function --> * 10-hour clock * Alarm clock * Binary clock * Braille watch * Chronometer watch * Cuckoo clock * Duodecimal clock * Equation clock * Game clock * Japanese clock * Master clock * Musical clock * Railroad chronometer * Slave clock * Speaking clock * Stopwatch * Striking clock * Talking clock * Tide clock * Time ball * Time clock * World clock |style="width:30%;vertical-align:top"|<!-- by form factor --> * American clock * Automaton clock * Balloon clock * Banjo clock * Bracket clock * Carriage clock * Cartel clock * Cat clock * Chariot clock * Clock tower * Cuckoo clock * Doll's head clock * Floral clock * French Empire mantel clock * Grandfather clock * Mora clock * Lantern clock * Corpus Clock * Lighthouse clock * Mantel clock * Skeleton clock * Turret clock * Watch |} Awards * (GPHG) * See also<!--excessive number of links, this is not meant to be a list of all clock articles--> * 24-hour analog dial * Allan variance * Allen-Bradley Clock Tower at Rockwell Automation Headquarters Building (Wisconsin) * American Watchmakers-Clockmakers Institute * BaselWorld * Biological clock * Clockarium * The clock as herald of the Industrial Revolution (Lewis Mumford) * Clock drift * Clock ident * Clock network * Clock of the Long Now <!--* Clockmaker should be linked in the page--> * Colgate Clock (Indiana) * Colgate Clock (New Jersey), largest clock in US * Cosmo Clock 21, world's largest clock * Cox's timepiece * Cuckooland Museum * Date and time representation by country * Debt clock * Le Défenseur du Temps (automata) * Department of Defense master clock (U.S.) * Doomsday Clock * Earth clock * Federation of the Swiss Watch Industry FH * Guard tour patrol system (watchclocks) * Iron Ring Clock * Jens Olsen's World Clock * Jewel bearing * List of biggest clock faces * List of international common standards * List of largest cuckoo clocks * National Association of Watch and Clock Collectors * Replica watch * Rubik's Clock * Star clock * Singing bird box * System time * Timeline of time measurement technology * Watchmaker Notes and references Bibliography * Baillie, G.H., O. Clutton, & C.A. Ilbert. ''Britten's Old Clocks and Watches and Their Makers'' (7th ed.). Bonanza Books (1956).<!-- Yes, the title (Britten's) is accurate --> * Bolter, David J. ''Turing's Man: Western Culture in the Computer Age. The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, NC (1984). pbk. Summary of the role of "the clock" in its setting the direction of philosophic movement for the "Western World". Cf. picture on p. 25 showing the verge and foliot. Bolton derived the picture from Macey, p. 20. * * * * Edey, Winthrop. French Clocks. New York: Walker & Co. (1967). * Kak, Subhash, Babylonian and Indian Astronomy: Early Connections. 2003. * Kumar, Narendra "Science in Ancient India" (2004). . * Landes, David S. Revolution in Time: Clocks and the Making of the Modern World. Cambridge: Harvard University Press (1983). * Landes, David S. Clocks & the Wealth of Nations, Daedalus Journal, Spring 2003. * Lloyd, Alan H. "Mechanical Timekeepers", A History of Technology, Vol. III. Edited by Charles Joseph Singer et al. Oxford: Clarendon Press (1957), pp. 648–675. * Macey, Samuel L., Clocks and the Cosmos: Time in Western Life and Thought, Archon Books, Hamden, Conn. (1980). * * North, John. God's Clockmaker: Richard of Wallingford and the Invention of Time. London: Hambledon and London (2005). * Opie, Iona, & Moira Tatem. "A Dictionary of Superstitions". Oxford: Oxford University Press (1990). * Palmer, Brooks. The Book of American Clocks, The Macmillan Co. (1979). * Robinson, Tom. The Longcase Clock''. Suffolk, England: Antique Collector's Club (1981). * Smith, Alan. The International Dictionary of Clocks. London: Chancellor Press (1996). * * Tardy. French Clocks the World Over. Part I and II. Translated with the assistance of Alexander Ballantyne. Paris: Tardy (1981). * * Yoder, Joella Gerstmeyer. Unrolling Time: Christiaan Huygens and the Mathematization of Nature. New York: Cambridge University Press (1988). * Zea, Philip, & Robert Cheney. Clock Making in New England: 1725–1825. Old Sturbridge Village (1992). External links * * * [http://www.nawcc.org National Association of Watch & Clock Collectors Museum] * * * [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73581 Blackboard clock] Category:Time measurement systems Category:Articles containing video clips
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock
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Charles Proteus Steinmetz
| birth_place = Breslau, Province of Silesia, Prussia | death_date | death_place = Schenectady, New York, United States | resting_place = Vale Cemetery | nationality = American | occupation = Mathematician and electrical engineer | alma_mater = University of Breslau<br/>Union College (doctorate) | workplaces = Union College | known_for = | awards = Elliott Cresson Medal <br>Cedergren Medal | networth | spouse | website | footnotes }} Charles Proteus Steinmetz (born Karl August Rudolph Steinmetz; April 9, 1865 – October 26, 1923) was an American mathematician and electrical engineer and professor at Union College. He fostered the development of alternating current that made possible the expansion of the electric power industry in the United States, formulating mathematical theories for engineers. He made ground-breaking discoveries in the understanding of hysteresis that enabled engineers to design better electromagnetic apparatus equipment, especially electric motors for use in industry. Steinmetz was born Karl August Rudolph Steinmetz on April 9, 1865, in Breslau, Province of Silesia, Prussia (now Wrocław, Poland), the son of Caroline (Neubert) and Karl Heinrich Steinmetz. He was baptized as a Lutheran into the Evangelical Church of Prussia. Steinmetz, who stood only tall as an adult, Following Gymnasium, Steinmetz studied at the University of Breslau to begin work on his undergraduate degree in 1883. Nearing completion of his doctorate in 1888, he was forced to flee to Zurich, Switzerland, as the German government was preparing to prosecute him for his socialist activities.Political persecution and emigrationAs socialist meetings and press had been banned in Germany, Steinmetz fled to Zurich in 1889 to escape possible arrest. Cornell University Professor Ronald R. Kline, author of Steinmetz: Engineer and Socialist, points to other factors which reinforced Steinmetz's decision to leave his homeland such as financial problems and the prospect of a more harmonious life with his socialist friends and supporters than the stressful domestic circumstances of his father's household.Political activism and beliefsSteinmetz was politically active in the US as a technocratic socialist for over thirty years. Following the Bolshevik introduction of a technocratic plan to electrify Russia, Steinmetz spoke of Lenin alongside Albert Einstein as the "two greatest minds of our time."Electrical engineeringSteinmetz is known for his contribution in three major fields of alternating current (AC) systems theory: hysteresis, steady-state analysis, and transients. AC hysteresis theory Shortly after arriving in the United States, Steinmetz went to work for Rudolf Eickemeyer in Yonkers, New York, and published in the field of magnetic hysteresis, earning worldwide professional recognition. Eickemeyer's firm developed transformers for use in the transmission of electrical power among many other mechanical and electrical devices. In 1893 Eickemeyer's company, along with all of its patents and designs, was bought by the newly formed General Electric Company, where Steinmetz quickly became known as the engineering wizard in GE's engineering community. His seminal books and many other AIEE papers "taught a whole generation of engineers how to deal with AC phenomena".AC transient theorySteinmetz also greatly advanced the understanding of lightning. His systematic experiments resulted in the first laboratory created "man-made lightning", earning him the nickname the "Forger of Thunderbolts".Professional life Steinmetz acted in the following professional capacities: * At Union College, as chair of electrical engineering from 1902 to 1913 and as faculty member thereafter until his death in 1923 * First vice-president of the International Association of Municipal Electricians (IAME) {which later became the International Municipal Signal Association (IMSA)} from 1913 until his death in 1923. He was granted an honorary degree from Harvard University in 1901 Steinmetz was also an elected member of both the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the American Philosophical Society. Steinmetz wrote 13 books and 60 articles, not exclusively about engineering. He was a member and adviser to the fraternity Phi Gamma Delta at Union College, whose chapter house was one of the first electrified residences. While serving as president of the Schenectady Board of Education, Steinmetz introduced numerous progressive reforms, including extended school hours, school meals, school nurses, special classes for the children of immigrants, and the distribution of free textbooks.]] Steinmetz was affected by kyphosis, as were his father and grandfather. In spite of his love for children and family life, Steinmetz remained unmarried, to prevent his spinal deformity from being passed to any offspring. * , "System of distribution by alternating current" (January 29, 1895) * , "Inductor dynamo" * , "Three phase induction meter" * , "Inductor dynamo" * , "Induction motor" * , "System of electrical distribution" * , "Induction motor" * , "Means for producing light" (May 7, 1912) * , "Induction furnace" * , "Protective device" * , "Inductor dynamo" Works * * * * This book's first edition was expanded and updated in many subsequent editions. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * See also * Charles P. Steinmetz Academic Centre * IEEE Charles Proteus Steinmetz Award * :de:Steinmetzschaltung (Steinmetz circuit) Explanatory notes Citations General sources * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Further reading * * [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/charles-proteus-steinmetz-the-wizard-of-schenectady-51912022/ Charles Proteus Steinmetz, the Wizard of Schenectady] , Smithsonian Institution * External links * [https://edisontechcenter.org/CharlesProteusSteinmetz.html Charles Proteus Steinmetz] | Edison Tech Center * [https://www.pbs.org/video/wmht-specials-divine-discontent-charles-proteus-steinmetz/ Divine Discontent: Charles Proteus Steinmetz] | PBS * [https://arches.union.edu/do/4d738881-e323-4a1b-8096-f3e51bc11e3e Charles Proteus Steinmetz Papers] | Union College * [https://schenectadyhistorical.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/Steinmetz-Papers-updated-11-16-17.pdf Charles Steinmetz Papers Finding Aid] | Schenectady County Historical Society * Category:1865 births Category:1923 deaths Category:American agnostics Category:American democratic socialists Category:American electrical engineers Category:American inventors Category:Engineers from New York (state) Category:Engineers from Wrocław Category:European democratic socialists Category:General Electric people Category:Emigrants from the German Empire to the United States Category:Members of the Socialist Party of America Category:Socialist Party of America politicians from New York (state) Category:People from the Province of Silesia Category:People with dwarfism Category:American scientists with disabilities Category:Schenectady City Council members Category:Scientists from Schenectady, New York Category:University of Breslau alumni Category:German scientists with disabilities Category:Members of the American Philosophical Society
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Proteus_Steinmetz
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Charles Martel
}} | image = Charles Martel 01.jpg | caption 1839 sculpture of Charles by Jean Baptiste Joseph De Bay père, located in the Palace of Versailles | succession = Duke and Prince of the Franks | reign = 718 – 22 October 741 | predecessor = Pepin of Herstal | successor = | succession1 = Mayor of the Palace of Austrasia | reign1 = 715 – 22 October 741 | predecessor1 = Theudoald | successor1 = Carloman | succession2 = Mayor of the Palace of Neustria | reign2 = 718 – 22 October 741 | predecessor2 = Raganfrid | successor2 = Pepin the Short | spouse = | issue = | house = Arnulfings <br/>Carolingian (founder) | father = Pepin of Herstal | mother = Alpaida | birth_date 23 August c. 686 or 688 | birth_place = Herstal, Austrasia | death_date = 22 October 741 | death_place = Quierzy, Frankish Empire | place of burial = Basilica of St Denis | signature = }} Charles Martel (; – 22 October 741), Martel being a sobriquet in Old French for "The Hammer", was a Frankish political and military leader who, as Duke and Prince of the Franks and Mayor of the Palace, was the de facto ruler of the Franks from 718 until his death. He was a son of the Frankish statesman Pepin of Herstal and a noblewoman named Alpaida. Charles successfully asserted his claims to power as successor to his father as the power behind the throne in Frankish politics. Continuing and building on his father's work, he restored centralized government in Francia and began the series of military campaigns that re-established the Franks as the undisputed masters of all Gaul. According to a near-contemporary source, the Liber Historiae Francorum, Charles was "a warrior who was uncommonly ... effective in battle". Charles gained a victory against an Umayyad invasion of Aquitaine at the Battle of Tours, at a time when the Umayyad Caliphate controlled most of the Iberian Peninsula. Alongside his military endeavours, Charles has been traditionally credited with an influential role in the development of the Frankish system of feudalism. At the end of his reign, Charles divided Francia between his sons, Carloman and Pepin. The latter became the first king of the Carolingian dynasty. Pepin's son Charlemagne, grandson of Charles, extended the Frankish realms and became the first emperor in the West since the Fall of the Western Roman Empire. Background Charles, nicknamed "Martel" ("the Hammer") in later chronicles, was a son of Pepin of Herstal and his mistress, possible second wife, Alpaida. He had a brother named Childebrand, who later became the Frankish dux (that is, duke) of Burgundy. And is the great grandson of Arnulf of Metz. Older historiography commonly describes Charles as "illegitimate", but the dividing line between wives and concubines was not clear-cut in eighth-century Francia. It is likely that the accusation of "illegitimacy" derives from the desire of Pepin's first wife Plectrude to see her progeny as heirs to Pepin's throne. By Charles's lifetime the Merovingians had ceded power to the Mayors of the Palace, who controlled the royal treasury, dispensed patronage, and granted land and privileges in the name of the figurehead king. Charles's father, Pepin of Herstal, had united the Frankish realm by conquering Neustria and Burgundy. Pepin was the first to call himself Duke and Prince of the Franks, a title later taken up by Charles. Contesting for power In December 714, Pepin of Herstal died. A few months before his death and shortly after the murder of his son Grimoald the Younger, he had taken the advice of his wife Plectrude to designate as his sole heir Theudoald, his grandson by their deceased son Grimoald. This was immediately opposed by the Austrasian nobles because Theudoald was a child of only eight years of age. To prevent Charles using this unrest to his own advantage, Plectrude had him imprisoned in Cologne, the city which was intended to be her capital. This prevented an uprising on his behalf in Austrasia, but not in Neustria. Civil war of 715–718 Pepin's death occasioned open conflict between his heirs and the Neustrian nobles who sought political independence from Austrasian control. In 715, Dagobert III named Raganfrid mayor of the palace. On 26 September 715, Raganfrid's Neustrians met the young Theudoald's forces at the Battle of Compiègne. Theudoald was defeated and fled back to Cologne. Before the end of the year, Charles had escaped from prison and been acclaimed mayor by the nobles of Austrasia. The Battle of Cologne is the only defeat of Charles's career. Battle of Amblève Charles retreated to the hills of the Eifel to gather and train men. In April 716, he fell upon the triumphant army near Malmedy as it was returning to Neustria. In the ensuing Battle of Amblève, Charles attacked as the enemy rested at midday. According to one source, he split his forces into several groups which fell at them from many sides. Another suggests that while this was his intention, he then decided, given the enemy's unpreparedness, this was not necessary. In any event, the suddenness of the assault led them to believe they were facing a much larger host. Many of the enemy fled and Charles's troops gathered the spoils of the camp. His reputation increased considerably as a result, and he attracted more followers. This battle is often considered by historians as the turning point in Charles's struggle. Battle of Vincy Richard Gerberding points out that up to this time, much of Charles's support was probably from his mother's kindred in the lands around Liege. After Amblève, he seems to have won the backing of the influential Willibrord, founder of the Abbey of Echternach. The abbey had been built on land donated by Plectrude's mother, Irmina of Oeren, but most of Willibrord's missionary work had been carried out in Frisia. In joining Chilperic and Raganfrid, Radbod of Frisia sacked Utrecht, burning churches and killing many missionaries. Willibrord and his monks were forced to flee to Echternach. Gerberding suggests that Willibrord had decided that the chances of preserving his life's work were better with a successful field commander like Charles than with Plectrude in Cologne. Willibrord subsequently baptized Charles's son Pepin. Gerberding suggests a likely date of Easter 716. Charles also received support from bishop Pepo of Verdun. Charles took time to rally more men and prepare. By the following spring, he had attracted enough support to invade Neustria. Charles sent an envoy who proposed a cessation of hostilities if Chilperic would recognize his rights as mayor of the palace in Austrasia. The refusal was not unexpected but served to impress upon Charles's forces the unreasonableness of the Neustrians. They met near Cambrai at the Battle of Vincy on 21 March 717. The victorious Charles pursued the fleeing king and mayor to Paris, but as he was not yet prepared to hold the city, he turned back to deal with Plectrude and Cologne. He took the city and dispersed her adherents. Plectrude was allowed to retire to a convent. Theudoald lived to 741 under his uncle's protection. Consolidation of power Upon this success, Charles proclaimed Chlothar IV king in Austrasia in opposition to Chilperic and deposed Rigobert, archbishop of Reims, replacing him with Milo, a lifelong supporter. In 718, Chilperic responded to Charles's new ascendancy by making an alliance with Odo the Great (or Eudes, as he is sometimes known), the duke of Aquitaine, who had become independent during the civil war in 715, but was again defeated, at the Battle of Soissons, by Charles. Chilperic fled with his ducal ally to the land south of the Loire and Raganfrid fled to Angers. Soon Chlotar IV died and Odo surrendered King Chilperic in exchange for Charles recognizing his dukedom. Charles recognized Chilperic as king of the Franks in return for legitimate royal affirmation of his own mayoralty over all the kingdoms. Wars of 718–732 .]] Between 718 and 732, Charles secured his power through a series of victories. Having unified the Franks under his banner, Charles was determined to punish the Saxons who had invaded Austrasia. Therefore, late in 718, he laid waste their country to the banks of the Weser, the Lippe, and the Ruhr. It is more likely that this invasion or raid took place in revenge for Odo's support for a rebel Berber leader named Munnuza. Whatever the precise circumstances were, it is clear that an army under the leadership of Abd al-Rahman al-Ghafiqi headed north, and after some minor engagements marched on the wealthy city of Tours. According to British medieval historian Paul Fouracre, "Their campaign should perhaps be interpreted as a long-distance raid rather than the beginning of a war". They were, however, defeated by the army of Charles at the Battle of Tours (known in France as the Battle of Poitiers), at a location between the French cities of Tours and Poitiers, in a victory described by the Continuations of Fredegar. According to the historian Bernard Bachrach, the Arab army, mostly mounted, failed to break through the Frankish infantry. News of this battle spread, and may be recorded in Bede's Ecclesiastical History (Book V, ch. 23). However, it is not given prominence in Arabic sources from the period. Despite his victory, Charles did not gain full control of Aquitaine, and Odo remained duke until 735. Wars of 732–737 Between his victory of 732 and 735, Charles reorganized the kingdom of Burgundy, replacing the counts and dukes with his loyal supporters, thus strengthening his hold on power. He was forced, by the ventures of Bubo, Duke of the Frisians, to invade independent-minded Frisia again in 734. In that year, he slew the duke at the Battle of the Boarn. Charles ordered the Frisian pagan shrines destroyed, and so wholly subjugated the populace that the region was peaceful for twenty years after. In 735, Duke Odo of Aquitaine died. Though Charles wished to rule the duchy directly and went there to elicit the submission of the Aquitanians, the aristocracy proclaimed Odo's son, Hunald I of Aquitaine, as duke, and Charles and Hunald eventually recognised each other's position. Interregnum (737–741) In 737, at the tail end of his campaigning in Provence and Septimania, the Merovingian king, Theuderic IV, died. Charles, titling himself maior domus and princeps et dux Francorum, did not appoint a new king and nobody acclaimed one. The throne lay vacant until Charles' death. The interregnum, the final four years of Charles' life, was relatively peaceful although in 738 he compelled the Saxons of Westphalia to submit and pay tribute and in 739 he checked an uprising in Provence where some rebels united under the leadership of Maurontus. Charles used the relative peace to set about integrating the outlying realms of his empire into the Frankish church. He erected four dioceses in Bavaria (Salzburg, Regensburg, Freising, and Passau) and gave them Boniface as archbishop and metropolitan over all Germany east of the Rhine, with his seat at Mainz. Boniface had been under his protection from 723 on. Indeed, the saint himself explained to his old friend, Daniel of Winchester, that without it he could neither administer his church, defend his clergy nor prevent idolatry. In 739, Pope Gregory III begged Charles for his aid against Liutprand, but Charles was loath to fight his onetime ally and ignored the plea. Nonetheless, the pope's request for Frankish protection showed how far Charles had come from the days when he was tottering on excommunication, and set the stage for his son and grandson to assert themselves in the peninsula. Death and transition in rule .]] Charles died on 22 October 741, at Quierzy-sur-Oise in what is today the Aisne département in the Picardy region of France. He was buried at Saint Denis Basilica in Paris. His territories had been divided among his adult sons a year earlier: to Carloman he gave Austrasia, Alemannia, and Thuringia, and to Pippin the Younger Neustria, Burgundy, Provence, and Metz and Trier in the "Mosel duchy". Grifo was given several lands throughout the kingdom, but at a later date, just before Charles died. Legacy Earlier in his life Charles had many internal opponents and felt the need to appoint his own kingly claimant, Chlotar IV. Later, however, the dynamics of rulership in Francia had changed, and no hallowed Merovingian ruler was required. Charles divided his realm among his sons without opposition (though he ignored his young son Bernard). For many historians, Charles laid the foundations for his son Pepin's rise to the Frankish throne in 751, and his grandson Charlemagne's imperial acclamation in 800. However, for Paul Fouracre, while Charles was "the most effective military leader in Francia", his career "finished on a note of unfinished business". Family and children Charles married twice, his first wife being Rotrude of Treves, daughter either of Lambert II, Count of Hesbaye, or of Leudwinus, Count of Treves. They had the following children: * Hiltrud * Carloman However, alongside this there soon developed a darker reputation, for his alleged abuse of church property. A ninth-century text, the Visio Eucherii'', possibly written by Hincmar of Reims, portrayed Charles as suffering in hell for this reason. According to British medieval historian Paul Fouracre, this was "the single most important text in the construction of Charles's reputation as a seculariser or despoiler of church lands". By the eighteenth century, historians such as Edward Gibbon had begun to portray the Frankish leader as the saviour of Christian Europe from a full-scale Islamic invasion. In the nineteenth century, the German historian Heinrich Brunner argued that Charles had confiscated church lands in order to fund military reforms that allowed him to defeat the Arab conquests, in this way brilliantly combining two traditions about the ruler. However, Fouracre argued that "...there is not enough evidence to show that there was a decisive change either in the way in which the Franks fought, or in the way in which they organised the resources needed to support their warriors." Many twentieth-century European historians continued to develop Gibbon's perspectives, such as French medievalist Christian Pfister, who wrote in 1911 that And in 1993, the influential political scientist Samuel Huntington saw the battle of Tours as marking the end of the "Arab and Moorish surge west and north". Other recent historians, however, argue that the importance of the battle is dramatically overstated, both for European history in general and for Charles's reign in particular. This view is typified by Alessandro Barbero, who in 2004 wrote, Similarly, in 2002 Tomaž Mastnak wrote: More recently, the memory of Charles has been appropriated by far right and white nationalist groups, such as the 'Charles Martel Group' in France, and by the perpetrator of the Christchurch mosque shootings at Al Noor Mosque and Linwood Islamic Centre in Christchurch, New Zealand, in 2019. The memory of Charles is a topic of debate in contemporary French politics on both the right and the left. Order of the Genet In the seventeenth century, a legend emerged that Charles had formed the first regular order of knights in France. In 1620, Andre Favyn stated (without providing a source) that among the spoils Charles's forces captured after the Battle of Tours were many genets (raised for their fur) and several of their pelts. Charles gave these furs to leaders amongst his army, forming the first order of knighthood, the Order of the Genet. Favyn's claim was then repeated and elaborated in later works in English, for instance by Elias Ashmole in 1672, and James Coats in 1725. References External links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110514184310/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/199302/the.arabs.in.occitania.htm Ian Meadows, "The Arabs in Occitania"]: A sketch giving the context of the conflict from the Arab point of view. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20051222052229/http://www.standin.se/fifteen07a.htm ''Poke's edition of Creasy's 15 Most Important Battles Ever Fought According to Edward Shepherd Creasy "Chapter VII. The Battle of Tours, A.D. 732."] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b03pm7dv "The Battle of Tours"]—In Our Time'', BBC Radio 4 (2014) * [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/732tours.html Medieval Sourcebook: Arabs, Franks, and the Battle of Tours, 732] () * [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/732tours.html Arabs, Franks, and the Battle of Tours, 732: Three Accounts] () from the Internet Medieval Sourcebook * [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/g2-martellet.html Medieval Sourcebook: Gregory II to Charles Martel, 739] () * Category:680s births Category:741 deaths Category:7th-century Frankish nobility Category:8th-century Frankish nobility Category:8th-century dukes in Europe Category:Burials at the Basilica of Saint-Denis Category:Carolingian dynasty Category:Christian monarchs Category:Frankish warriors Category:Mayors of the Palace Category:People from Herstal Category:Year of birth uncertain <!--infobox gives various dates-->
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Martel
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Charles Edward Jones
| death_date = | birth_place = Clinton, Indiana, U.S. | death_place = New York City, New York, U.S. | previous_occupation = Computer programmer | alma_mater = United States Air Force Academy, B.S. 1974<br/>Massachusetts Institute of Technology, M.S. 1980 | rank = Colonel, USAF | selection = 1982 USAF Group | mission = Canceled Space Shuttle missions (STS-71-B) }} Charles Edward "Chuck" Jones (November 8, 1952 – September 11, 2001) was a United States Air Force officer, an aeronautical engineer, computer programmer, and an astronaut in the USAF Manned Spaceflight Engineer Program. He was killed during the September 11 attacks, aboard American Airlines Flight 11. Life Charles Edward Jones was born November 8, 1952, in Clinton, Indiana. He graduated from Wichita East High School in 1970, earned a Bachelor of Science degree in Astronautical Engineering from the United States Air Force Academy in 1974, and received a Master of Science degree in Astronautics from Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1980. He entered the USAF Manned Spaceflight Engineer program in 1982, and was scheduled to fly on mission STS-71-B in December 1986, but the mission was canceled after the Challenger Disaster in January 1986. He left the Manned Spaceflight Engineer program in 1987. He later worked for Defense Intelligence Agency, Bolling Air Force Base in Washington, D.C., and was Systems Program Director for Intelligence and Information Systems, Hanscom Air Force Base, Massachusetts. Jones was killed at the age of 48 in the attacks of September 11, 2001, aboard American Airlines Flight 11. Jones was flying that day on a routine business trip for BAE Systems, and had been living as a retired U.S. Air Force colonel in Bedford, Massachusetts, at the time of his death. He was survived by his wife Jeanette. 's North Pool, along with those of other passengers of Flight 11.]] Military decorations His awards include:<REF></ref> {| style="margin:1em auto; text-align:center;" |- |colspan"3"| |- |colspan"3"| |- | | | |- | | | |- | | | |- | | | |- |} {| class"wikitable" style"margin:1em auto; text-align:center;" |- |colspan="3"|Parachutist Badge |- |colspan="3"|Master Air and Space Missile Badge |- |Defense Superior Service Medal |Defense Meritorious Service Medal |Meritorious Service Medal<br>with three bronze oak leaf clusters |- |Air Force Commendation Medal |Joint Service Achievement Medal |Air Force Achievement Medal |- |Joint Meritorious Unit Award |Air Force Organizational Excellence Award<br>with three bronze oak leaf clusters |National Defense Service Medal<br>with bronze service star |- |Air Force Longevity Service Award<br>with silver leaf cluster |Small Arms Expert Marksmanship Ribbon |Air Force Training Ribbon |- |} *Senior Missile Badge See also * Casualties of the September 11 attacks References Category:1952 births Category:2001 deaths Category:American astronauts Category:American aerospace engineers Category:United States Air Force Academy alumni Category:MIT School of Engineering alumni Category:United States Air Force colonels Category:American Airlines Flight 11 victims Category:People murdered in New York City Category:Terrorism deaths in New York (state) Category:People from Bedford, Massachusetts Category:People from Clinton, Indiana Category:People from Wichita, Kansas Category:20th-century American engineers Category:Military personnel from Massachusetts Category:BAE Systems people Category:Recipients of the Defense Superior Service Medal Category:Recipients of the Meritorious Service Medal (United States) Category:21st-century American engineers
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Edward_Jones
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Ceramic
A ceramic is any of the various hard, brittle, heat-resistant, and corrosion-resistant materials made by shaping and then firing an inorganic, nonmetallic material, such as clay, at a high temperature. Common examples are earthenware, porcelain, and brick. The earliest ceramics made by humans were fired clay bricks used for building house walls and other structures. Other pottery objects such as pots, vessels, vases and figurines were made from clay, either by itself or mixed with other materials like silica, hardened by sintering in fire. Later, ceramics were glazed and fired to create smooth, colored surfaces, decreasing porosity through the use of glassy, amorphous ceramic coatings on top of the crystalline ceramic substrates. Ceramics now include domestic, industrial, and building products, as well as a wide range of materials developed for use in advanced ceramic engineering, such as semiconductors. The word ceramic comes from the Ancient Greek word (), meaning "of or for pottery" ( ()|potter's clay, tile, pottery}}). The earliest known mention of the root ceram- is the Mycenaean Greek }}, workers of ceramic, written in Linear B syllabic script. The word ceramic can be used as an adjective to describe a material, product, or process, or it may be used as a noun, either singular or, more commonly, as the plural noun ceramics. Materials Ceramic material is an inorganic, metallic oxide, nitride, or carbide material. Some elements, such as carbon or silicon, may be considered ceramics. Ceramic materials are brittle, hard, strong in compression, and weak in shearing and tension. They withstand the chemical erosion that occurs in other materials subjected to acidic or caustic environments. Ceramics generally can withstand very high temperatures, ranging from 1,000 °C to 1,600 °C (1,800 °F to 3,000 °F). of an advanced ceramic material. The properties of ceramics make fracturing an important inspection method.]] The crystallinity of ceramic materials varies widely. Most often, fired ceramics are either vitrified or semi-vitrified, as is the case with earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain. Varying crystallinity and electron composition in the ionic and covalent bonds cause most ceramic materials to be good thermal and electrical insulators (researched in ceramic engineering). With such a large range of possible options for the composition/structure of a ceramic (nearly all of the elements, nearly all types of bonding, and all levels of crystallinity), the breadth of the subject is vast, and identifiable attributes (hardness, toughness, electrical conductivity) are difficult to specify for the group as a whole. General properties such as high melting temperature, high hardness, poor conductivity, high moduli of elasticity, chemical resistance, and low ductility are the norm, with known exceptions to each of these rules (piezoelectric ceramics, low glass transition temperature ceramics, superconductive ceramics). Composites such as fiberglass and carbon fiber, while containing ceramic materials, are not considered to be part of the ceramic family. Highly oriented crystalline ceramic materials are not amenable to a great range of processing. Methods for dealing with them tend to fall into one of two categories: either making the ceramic in the desired shape by reaction in situ or "forming" powders into the desired shape and then sintering to form a solid body. Ceramic forming techniques include shaping by hand (sometimes including a rotation process called "throwing"), slip casting, tape casting (used for making very thin ceramic capacitors), injection molding, dry pressing, and other variations. Many ceramics experts do not consider materials with an amorphous (noncrystalline) character (i.e., glass) to be ceramics, even though glassmaking involves several steps of the ceramic process and its mechanical properties are similar to those of ceramic materials. However, heat treatments can convert glass into a semi-crystalline material known as glass-ceramic. Traditional ceramic raw materials include clay minerals such as kaolinite, whereas more recent materials include aluminium oxide, more commonly known as alumina. Modern ceramic materials, which are classified as advanced ceramics, include silicon carbide and tungsten carbide. Both are valued for their abrasion resistance and are therefore used in applications such as the wear plates of crushing equipment in mining operations. Advanced ceramics are also used in the medical, electrical, electronics, and armor industries. History figurines that date to 29,000–25,000 BC.]] Human beings appear to have been making their own ceramics for at least 26,000 years, subjecting clay and silica to intense heat to fuse and form ceramic materials. The earliest found so far were in southern central Europe and were sculpted figures, not dishes. The earliest known pottery was made by mixing animal products with clay and firing it at up to . While pottery fragments have been found up to 19,000 years old, it was not until about 10,000 years later that regular pottery became common. An early people that spread across much of Europe is named after its use of pottery: the Corded Ware culture. These early Indo-European peoples decorated their pottery by wrapping it with rope while it was still wet. When the ceramics were fired, the rope burned off but left a decorative pattern of complex grooves on the surface. The invention of the wheel eventually led to the production of smoother, more even pottery using the wheel-forming (throwing) technique, like the pottery wheel. Early ceramics were porous, absorbing water easily. It became useful for more items with the discovery of glazing techniques, which involved coating pottery with silicon, bone ash, or other materials that could melt and reform into a glassy surface, making a vessel less pervious to water. Archaeology Ceramic artifacts have an important role in archaeology for understanding the culture, technology, and behavior of peoples of the past. They are among the most common artifacts to be found at an archaeological site, generally in the form of small fragments of broken pottery called sherds. The processing of collected sherds can be consistent with two main types of analysis: technical and traditional. The traditional analysis involves sorting ceramic artifacts, sherds, and larger fragments into specific types based on style, composition, manufacturing, and morphology. By creating these typologies, it is possible to distinguish between different cultural styles, the purpose of the ceramic, and the technological state of the people, among other conclusions. Besides, by looking at stylistic changes in ceramics over time, it is possible to separate (seriate) the ceramics into distinct diagnostic groups (assemblages). A comparison of ceramic artifacts with known dated assemblages allows for a chronological assignment of these pieces. The technical approach to ceramic analysis involves a finer examination of the composition of ceramic artifacts and sherds to determine the source of the material and, through this, the possible manufacturing site. Key criteria are the composition of the clay and the temper used in the manufacture of the article under study: the temper is a material added to the clay during the initial production stage and is used to aid the subsequent drying process. Types of temper include shell pieces, granite fragments, and ground sherd pieces called 'grog'. Temper is usually identified by microscopic examination of the tempered material. Clay identification is determined by a process of refiring the ceramic and assigning a color to it using Munsell Soil Color notation. By estimating both the clay and temper compositions and locating a region where both are known to occur, an assignment of the material source can be made. Based on the source assignment of the artifact, further investigations can be made into the site of manufacture. Properties The physical properties of any ceramic substance are a direct result of its crystalline structure and chemical composition. Solid-state chemistry reveals the fundamental connection between microstructure and properties, such as localized density variations, grain size distribution, type of porosity, and second-phase content, which can all be correlated with ceramic properties such as mechanical strength σ by the Hall-Petch equation, hardness, toughness, dielectric constant, and the optical properties exhibited by transparent materials. Ceramography is the art and science of preparation, examination, and evaluation of ceramic microstructures. Evaluation and characterization of ceramic microstructures are often implemented on similar spatial scales to that used commonly in the emerging field of nanotechnology: from nanometers to tens of micrometers (µm). This is typically somewhere between the minimum wavelength of visible light and the resolution limit of the naked eye. The microstructure includes most grains, secondary phases, grain boundaries, pores, micro-cracks, structural defects, and hardness micro indentions. Most bulk mechanical, optical, thermal, electrical, and magnetic properties are significantly affected by the observed microstructure. The fabrication method and process conditions are generally indicated by the microstructure. The root cause of many ceramic failures is evident in the cleaved and polished microstructure. Physical properties which constitute the field of materials science and engineering include the following: Mechanical properties ]] Mechanical properties are important in structural and building materials as well as textile fabrics. In modern materials science, fracture mechanics is an important tool in improving the mechanical performance of materials and components. It applies the physics of stress and strain, in particular the theories of elasticity and plasticity, to the microscopic crystallographic defects found in real materials in order to predict the macroscopic mechanical failure of bodies. Fractography is widely used with fracture mechanics to understand the causes of failures and also verify the theoretical failure predictions with real-life failures. Ceramic materials are usually ionic or covalent bonded materials. A material held together by either type of bond will tend to fracture before any plastic deformation takes place, which results in poor toughness in these materials. Additionally, because these materials tend to be porous, the pores and other microscopic imperfections act as stress concentrators, decreasing the toughness further, and reducing the tensile strength. These combine to give catastrophic failures, as opposed to the more ductile failure modes of metals. These materials do show plastic deformation. However, because of the rigid structure of crystalline material, there are very few available slip systems for dislocations to move, and so they deform very slowly. To overcome the brittle behavior, ceramic material development has introduced the class of ceramic matrix composite materials, in which ceramic fibers are embedded and with specific coatings are forming fiber bridges across any crack. This mechanism substantially increases the fracture toughness of such ceramics. Ceramic disc brakes are an example of using a ceramic matrix composite material manufactured with a specific process. Scientists are working on developing ceramic materials that can withstand significant deformation without breaking. A first such material that can deform in room temperature was found in 2024.Ice-templating for enhanced mechanical propertiesIf a ceramic is subjected to substantial mechanical loading, it can undergo a process called ice-templating, which allows some control of the microstructure of the ceramic product and therefore some control of the mechanical properties. Ceramic engineers use this technique to tune the mechanical properties to their desired application. Specifically, the strength is increased when this technique is employed. Ice templating allows the creation of macroscopic pores in a unidirectional arrangement. The applications of this oxide strengthening technique are important for solid oxide fuel cells and water filtration devices. To process a sample through ice templating, an aqueous colloidal suspension is prepared to contain the dissolved ceramic powder evenly dispersed throughout the colloid, for example yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ). The solution is then cooled from the bottom to the top on a platform that allows for unidirectional cooling. This forces ice crystals to grow in compliance with the unidirectional cooling, and these ice crystals force the dissolved YSZ particles to the solidification front of the solid-liquid interphase boundary, resulting in pure ice crystals lined up unidirectionally alongside concentrated pockets of colloidal particles. The sample is then heated and at the same the pressure is reduced enough to force the ice crystals to sublime and the YSZ pockets begin to anneal together to form macroscopically aligned ceramic microstructures. The sample is then further sintered to complete the evaporation of the residual water and the final consolidation of the ceramic microstructure. During ice-templating, a few variables can be controlled to influence the pore size and morphology of the microstructure. These important variables are the initial solids loading of the colloid, the cooling rate, the sintering temperature and duration, and the use of certain additives which can influence the microstructural morphology during the process. A good understanding of these parameters is essential to understanding the relationships between processing, microstructure, and mechanical properties of anisotropically porous materials. Electrical properties Semiconductors Some ceramics are semiconductors. Most of these are transition metal oxides that are II-VI semiconductors, such as zinc oxide. While there are prospects of mass-producing blue light-emitting diodes (LED) from zinc oxide, ceramicists are most interested in the electrical properties that show grain boundary effects. One of the most widely used of these is the varistor. These are devices that exhibit the property that resistance drops sharply at a certain threshold voltage. Once the voltage across the device reaches the threshold, there is a breakdown of the electrical structure in the vicinity of the grain boundaries, which results in its electrical resistance dropping from several megohms down to a few hundred ohms. The major advantage of these is that they can dissipate a lot of energy, and they self-reset; after the voltage across the device drops below the threshold, its resistance returns to being high. This makes them ideal for surge-protection applications; as there is control over the threshold voltage and energy tolerance, they find use in all sorts of applications. The best demonstration of their ability can be found in electrical substations, where they are employed to protect the infrastructure from lightning strikes. They have rapid response, are low maintenance, and do not appreciably degrade from use, making them virtually ideal devices for this application. Semiconducting ceramics are also employed as gas sensors. When various gases are passed over a polycrystalline ceramic, its electrical resistance changes. With tuning to the possible gas mixtures, very inexpensive devices can be produced.Superconductivity demonstrated by levitating a magnet above a cuprate superconductor, which is cooled by liquid nitrogen]] Under some conditions, such as extremely low temperatures, some ceramics exhibit high-temperature superconductivity (in superconductivity, "high temperature" means above 30 K). The reason for this is not understood, but there are two major families of superconducting ceramics. Ferroelectricity and supersets Piezoelectricity, a link between electrical and mechanical response, is exhibited by a large number of ceramic materials, including the quartz used to measure time in watches and other electronics. Such devices use both properties of piezoelectrics, using electricity to produce a mechanical motion (powering the device) and then using this mechanical motion to produce electricity (generating a signal). The unit of time measured is the natural interval required for electricity to be converted into mechanical energy and back again. The piezoelectric effect is generally stronger in materials that also exhibit pyroelectricity, and all pyroelectric materials are also piezoelectric. These materials can be used to inter-convert between thermal, mechanical, or electrical energy; for instance, after synthesis in a furnace, a pyroelectric crystal allowed to cool under no applied stress generally builds up a static charge of thousands of volts. Such materials are used in motion sensors, where the tiny rise in temperature from a warm body entering the room is enough to produce a measurable voltage in the crystal. In turn, pyroelectricity is seen most strongly in materials that also display the ferroelectric effect, in which a stable electric dipole can be oriented or reversed by applying an electrostatic field. Pyroelectricity is also a necessary consequence of ferroelectricity. This can be used to store information in ferroelectric capacitors, elements of ferroelectric RAM. The most common such materials are lead zirconate titanate and barium titanate. Aside from the uses mentioned above, their strong piezoelectric response is exploited in the design of high-frequency loudspeakers, transducers for sonar, and actuators for atomic force and scanning tunneling microscopes. Positive thermal coefficient Temperature increases can cause grain boundaries to suddenly become insulating in some semiconducting ceramic materials, mostly mixtures of heavy metal titanates. The critical transition temperature can be adjusted over a wide range by variations in chemistry. In such materials, current will pass through the material until joule heating brings it to the transition temperature, at which point the circuit will be broken and current flow will cease. Such ceramics are used as self-controlled heating elements in, for example, the rear-window defrost circuits of automobiles. At the transition temperature, the material's dielectric response becomes theoretically infinite. While a lack of temperature control would rule out any practical use of the material near its critical temperature, the dielectric effect remains exceptionally strong even at much higher temperatures. Titanates with critical temperatures far below room temperature have become synonymous with "ceramic" in the context of ceramic capacitors for just this reason. Optical properties with synthetic sapphire output window]] Optically transparent materials focus on the response of a material to incoming light waves of a range of wavelengths. Frequency selective optical filters can be utilized to alter or enhance the brightness and contrast of a digital image. Guided lightwave transmission via frequency selective waveguides involves the emerging field of fiber optics and the ability of certain glassy compositions as a transmission medium for a range of frequencies simultaneously (multi-mode optical fiber) with little or no interference between competing wavelengths or frequencies. This resonant mode of energy and data transmission via electromagnetic (light) wave propagation, though low powered, is virtually lossless. Optical waveguides are used as components in Integrated optical circuits (e.g. light-emitting diodes, LEDs) or as the transmission medium in local and long haul optical communication systems. Also of value to the emerging materials scientist is the sensitivity of materials to radiation in the thermal infrared (IR) portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. This heat-seeking ability is responsible for such diverse optical phenomena as night-vision and IR luminescence. Thus, there is an increasing need in the military sector for high-strength, robust materials which have the capability to transmit light (electromagnetic waves) in the visible (0.4 – 0.7 micrometers) and mid-infrared (1 – 5 micrometers) regions of the spectrum. These materials are needed for applications requiring transparent armor, including next-generation high-speed missiles and pods, as well as protection against improvised explosive devices (IED). In the 1960s, scientists at General Electric (GE) discovered that under the right manufacturing conditions, some ceramics, especially aluminium oxide (alumina), could be made translucent. These translucent materials were transparent enough to be used for containing the electrical plasma generated in high-pressure sodium street lamps. During the past two decades, additional types of transparent ceramics have been developed for applications such as nose cones for heat-seeking missiles, windows for fighter aircraft, and scintillation counters for computed tomography scanners. Other ceramic materials, generally requiring greater purity in their make-up than those above, include forms of several chemical compounds, including: #Barium titanate: (often mixed with strontium titanate) displays ferroelectricity, meaning that its mechanical, electrical, and thermal responses are coupled to one another and also history-dependent. It is widely used in electromechanical transducers, ceramic capacitors, and data storage elements. Grain boundary conditions can create PTC effects in heating elements. #Sialon (silicon aluminium oxynitride) has high strength; resistance to thermal shock, chemical and wear resistance, and low density. These ceramics are used in non-ferrous molten metal handling, weld pins, and the chemical industry. #Silicon carbide (SiC) is used as a susceptor in microwave furnaces, a commonly used abrasive, and as a refractory material. #Silicon nitride (Si<sub>3</sub>N<sub>4</sub>) is used as an abrasive powder. #Steatite (magnesium silicates) is used as an electrical insulator. #Titanium carbide Used in space shuttle re-entry shields and scratchproof watches. #Uranium oxide (UO<sub>2</sub>), used as fuel in nuclear reactors. #Yttrium barium copper oxide (YBa<sub>2</sub>Cu<sub>3</sub>O<sub>7−x</sub>), a high-temperature superconductor. #Zinc oxide (ZnO), which is a semiconductor, and used in the construction of varistors. #Zirconium dioxide (zirconia), which in pure form undergoes many phase changes between room temperature and practical sintering temperatures, can be chemically "stabilized" in several different forms. Its high oxygen ion conductivity recommends it for use in fuel cells and automotive oxygen sensors. In another variant, metastable structures can impart transformation toughening for mechanical applications; most ceramic knife blades are made of this material. Partially stabilised zirconia (PSZ) is much less brittle than other ceramics and is used for metal forming tools, valves and liners, abrasive slurries, kitchen knives and bearings subject to severe abrasion.ProductsBy usage For convenience, ceramic products are usually divided into four main types; these are shown below with some examples: #Structural, including bricks, pipes, floor and roof tiles, vitrified tile #Refractories, such as kiln linings, gas fire radiants, steel and glass making crucibles #Whitewares, <!--DO NOT WIKILINK TO WHITEWARE, OR PORCELAIN--> including tableware, cookware, wall tiles, pottery products and sanitary ware<!-- REF DOES NOT SUPPORT DEFINITION GIVEN! --> #Technical, also known as engineering, advanced, special, and fine ceramics. Such items include: #*gas burner nozzles #*ballistic protection, vehicle armor #*nuclear fuel uranium oxide pellets #*biomedical implants #*coatings of jet engine turbine blades #*ceramic matrix composite gas turbine parts #*reinforced carbon–carbon ceramic disc brakes #*missile nose cones #*bearings #* thermal insulation tiles used on the Space Shuttle orbiter Ceramics made with clay Frequently, the raw materials of modern ceramics do not include clays. Those that do have been classified as: #Earthenware, fired at lower temperatures than other types #Stoneware, vitreous or semi-vitreous #Porcelain, which contains a high content of kaolin #Bone china Classification Ceramics can also be classified into three distinct material categories: # Oxides: alumina, beryllia, ceria, zirconia # Non-oxides: carbide, boride, nitride, silicide # Composite materials: particulate reinforced, fiber reinforced, combinations of oxides and non-oxides. Each one of these classes can be developed into unique material properties. Applications ]] # Knife blades: the blade of a ceramic knife will stay sharp for much longer than that of a steel knife, although it is more brittle and susceptible to breakage. # Carbon-ceramic brake disks for vehicles: highly resistant to brake fade at high temperatures. # Advanced composite ceramic and metal matrices have been designed for most modern armoured fighting vehicles because they offer superior penetrating resistance against shaped charge (HEAT rounds) and kinetic energy penetrators. # Ceramics such as alumina and boron carbide have been used as plates in ballistic armored vests to repel high-velocity rifle fire. Such plates are known commonly as small arms protective inserts, or SAPIs. Similar low-weight material is used to protect the cockpits of some military aircraft. #Ceramic ball bearings can be used in place of steel. Their greater hardness results in lower susceptibility to wear. Ceramic bearings typically last triple the lifetime of steel bearings. They deform less than steel under load, resulting in less contact with the bearing retainer walls and lower friction. In very high-speed applications, heat from friction causes more problems for metal bearings than ceramic bearings. Ceramics are chemically resistant to corrosion and are preferred for environments where steel bearings would rust. In some applications their electricity-insulating properties are advantageous. Drawbacks to ceramic bearings include significantly higher cost, susceptibility to damage under shock loads, and the potential to wear steel parts due to ceramics' greater hardness. # In the early 1980s Toyota researched production of an adiabatic engine using ceramic components in the hot gas area. The use of ceramics would have allowed temperatures exceeding 1650 °C. Advantages would include lighter materials and a smaller cooling system (or no cooling system at all), leading to major weight reduction. The expected increase of fuel efficiency (due to higher operating temperatures, demonstrated in Carnot's theorem) could not be verified experimentally. It was found that heat transfer on the hot ceramic cylinder wall was greater than the heat transfer to a cooler metal wall. This is because the cooler gas film on a metal surface acts as a thermal insulator. Thus, despite the desirable properties of ceramics, prohibitive production costs and limited advantages have prevented widespread ceramic engine component adoption. In addition, small imperfections in ceramic material along with low fracture toughness can lead to cracking and potentially dangerous equipment failure. Such engines are possible experimentally, but mass production is not feasible with current technology. # Experiments with ceramic parts for gas turbine engines are being conducted. Currently, even blades made of advanced metal alloys used in the engines' hot section require cooling and careful monitoring of operating temperatures. Turbine engines made with ceramics could operate more efficiently, providing for greater range and payload. # Recent advances have been made in ceramics which include bioceramics such as dental implants and synthetic bones. Hydroxyapatite, the major mineral component of bone, has been made synthetically from several biological and chemical components and can be formed into ceramic materials. Orthopedic implants coated with these materials bond readily to bone and other tissues in the body without rejection or inflammatory reaction. They are of great interest for gene delivery and tissue engineering scaffolding. Most hydroxyapatite ceramics are quite porous and lack mechanical strength and are therefore used solely to coat metal orthopedic devices to aid in forming a bond to bone or as bone fillers. They are also used as fillers for orthopedic plastic screws to aid in reducing inflammation and increase the absorption of these plastic materials. Work is being done to make strong, fully dense nanocrystalline hydroxyapatite ceramic materials for orthopedic weight bearing devices, replacing foreign metal and plastic orthopedic materials with a synthetic but naturally occurring bone mineral. Ultimately, these ceramic materials may be used as bone replacement, or with the incorporation of protein collagens, the manufacture of synthetic bones. # Applications for actinide-containing ceramic materials include nuclear fuels for burning excess plutonium (Pu), or a chemically inert source of alpha radiation in power supplies for uncrewed space vehicles or microelectronic devices. Use and disposal of radioactive actinides require immobilization in a durable host material. Long half-life radionuclides such as actinide are immobilized using chemically durable crystalline materials based on polycrystalline ceramics and large single crystals. # High-tech ceramics are used for producing watch cases. The material is valued by watchmakers for its light weight, scratch resistance, durability, and smooth touch. IWC is one of the brands that pioneered the use of ceramic in watchmaking. #Ceramics are used in the design of mobile phone bodies due to their high hardness, resistance to scratches, and ability to dissipate heat. Ceramic's thermal management properties help in maintaining optimal device temperatures during heavy use enhancing performance. Additionally, ceramic materials can support wireless charging and offer better signal transmission compared to metals, which can interfere with antennas. Companies like Apple and Samsung have incorporated ceramic in their devices. #Ceramics made of silicon carbide are used in pump and valve components because of their corrosion resistance characteristics. It is also used in nuclear reactors as fuel cladding materials due to their ability to withstand radiation and thermal stress. Other uses of Silicon carbide ceramics include paper manufacturing, ballistics, chemical production, and as pipe system components. See also * * * * * * on ceramic References Further reading * External links *
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramic
2025-04-05T18:27:49.723090
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Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)
|bpmfㄨˇㄒㄧㄥˊ|yngh-hàhng|ci|pojNgó͘-hân<br/>Ngó͘-hîng|buc=Ngū-hèng}} of Beijing, written in Chinese and Manchu, dedicated to the gods of the Five Movements. The Manchu word usiha, meaning "star", explains that this tablet is dedicated to the five planets: Jupiter, Mars, Saturn, Venus and Mercury and the movements which they govern.]] (), (); Korean: (); Vietnamese: ngũ hành (五行)}} usually translated as Five Phases or Five Agents, is a fivefold conceptual scheme used in many traditional Chinese fields of study to explain a wide array of phenomena, including cosmic cycles, the interactions between internal organs, the succession of political regimes, and the properties of herbal medicines. The agents are Fire, Water, Wood, Metal, and Earth.), they are Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, and Water. In the order of "mutual overcoming" (), they are Wood, Earth, Water, Fire, and Metal.}} The wuxing system has been in use since it was formulated in the second or first century BCE during the Han dynasty. It appears in many seemingly disparate fields of early Chinese thought, including music, feng shui, alchemy, astrology, martial arts, military strategy, I Ching divination, and traditional medicine, serving as a metaphysics based on cosmic analogy.Etymology diagram featuring the wuxing in the center (from the Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China by Chen Menglei)]] Wuxing originally referred to the five classical planets (from brightest to dimmest: Venus, Jupiter, Mercury, Mars, Saturn), which were with the combination of the Sun and the Moon, conceived as creating five forces of earthly life. This is why the word is composed of Chinese characters meaning "five" () and "moving" (). "Moving" is shorthand for "planets", since the word for planets in Chinese literally translates as "moving stars" (). Some of the Mawangdui Silk Texts (before 168 BC) also connect the wuxing to the wude (), the Five Virtues and Five Emotions. Scholars believe that various predecessors to the concept of wuxing were merged into one system with many interpretations during the Han dynasty. Wuxing was first translated into English as "the Five Elements", drawing deliberate parallels with the Greek arrangement of the four elements. However, this analogy is misleading. The four elements are concerned with form, substance and quantity, whereas wuxing are "primarily concerned with process, change, and quality". For example, the wuxing element "Wood" is more accurately thought of as the "vital essence" of trees rather than the physical substance wood. This led sinologist Nathan Sivin to propose the alternative translation "five phases" in 1987. But "phase" also fails to capture the full meaning of wuxing. In some contexts, the wuxing are indeed associated with physical substances. Historian of Chinese medicine Manfred Porkert proposed the (somewhat unwieldy) term "Evolutive Phase". Cycles In traditional doctrine, the five phases are connected in two cycles of interactions: a generating or creation ( shēng) cycle, also known as "mother-son"; and an overcoming or destructive ( kè) cycle, also known as "grandfather-grandson" (see diagram). Each of the two cycles can be analyzed going forward or reversed. There is also an "overacting" or excessive version of the destructive cycle.Inter-promotingThe generating cycle ( xiāngshēng) is: *Wood feeds Fire *Fire produces Earth (ash, lava) *Earth bears Metal (geological processes produce minerals) *Metal collects Water (water vapor condenses on metal, for example) *Water nourishes Wood (Water flowers, plants and other changes in forest) Weakening The reverse generating cycle (/ xiāngxiè) is: *Wood depletes Water *Water rusts Metal *Metal impoverishes Earth (erosion, destructive mining of minerals) *Earth smothers Fire *Fire burns Wood (forest fires) Inter-regulating The destructive cycle ( xiāngkè) is: *Wood grasps (or stabilizes) Earth (roots of trees can prevent soil erosion) *Earth contains (or directs) Water (dams or river banks) *Water dampens (or regulates) Fire *Fire melts (or refines or shapes) Metal *Metal chops (or carves) Wood Overacting The excessive destructive cycle ( xiāngchéng) is: *Wood depletes Earth (depletion of nutrients in soil, over-farming, overcultivation) *Earth obstructs Water (over-damming) *Water extinguishes Fire *Fire melts Metal (affecting its integrity) *Metal makes Wood rigid to easily snap. Counteracting A reverse or deficient destructive cycle ( xiāngwǔ or xiānghào) is: *Wood dulls Metal *Metal de-energizes Fire (conducting heat away) *Fire evaporates Water *Water muddies (or destabilizes) Earth *Earth rots Wood (buried wood rots) Celestial stem {| class="wikitable" ! Movement || Wood || Fire || Earth || Metal || Water |- !Heavenly Stems | Jia <br /> Yi || Bing <br /> Ding || Wu <br /> Ji || Geng <br /> Xin || Ren <br /> Gui |- !Year ends with | 4, 5 || 6, 7 || 8, 9 || 0, 1 || 2, 3 |} Ming nayin In Ziwei divination, nayin () further classifies the Five Elements into 60 ming (), or life orders, based on the ganzhi. Similar to the astrology zodiac, the ming is used by fortune-tellers to analyse individual personality and destiny. {|class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" !Order !Ganzhi !Ming !Order !Ganzhi !Ming !Element |- ||1||Jia Zi ||rowspan"2"|Sea metal ||31||Jia Wu ||rowspan"2"|Sand metal ||rowspan="2"|Metal |- ||2||Yi Chou ||32||Yi Wei |- ||3||Bing Yin ||rowspan"2"|Furnace fire ||33||Bing Shen ||rowspan"2"|Forest fire ||rowspan="2"|Fire |- ||4||Ding Mao ||34||Ding You |- ||5||Wu Chen ||rowspan"2"|Forest wood ||35||Wu Xu ||rowspan"2"|Meadow wood ||rowspan="2"|Wood |- ||6||Ji Si ||36||Ji Hai |- ||7||Geng Wu ||rowspan"2"|Road earth ||37||Geng Zi ||rowspan"2"|Adobe earth ||rowspan="2"|Earth |- ||8||Xin Wei ||38||Xin Chou |- ||9||Ren Shen ||rowspan"2"|Sword metal ||39||Ren Yin ||rowspan"2"|Foil metal ||rowspan="2"|Metal |- ||10||Gui You ||40||Gui Mao |- ||11||Jia Xu ||rowspan"2"|Volcanic fire ||41||Jia Chen ||rowspan"2"|Lamp fire ||rowspan="2"|Fire |- ||12||Yi Hai ||42||Yi Si |- ||13||Bing Zi ||rowspan"2"|Creek water ||43||Bing Wu ||rowspan"2"|Sky water ||rowspan="2"|Water |- ||14||Ding Chou ||44||Ding Wei |- ||15||Wu Yin ||rowspan"2"|Fortress earth ||45||Wu Shen ||rowspan"2"|Stage station earth ||rowspan="2"|Earth |- ||16||Ji Mao ||46||Ji You |- ||17||Geng Chen ||rowspan"2"|Pewter metal ||47||Geng Xu ||rowspan"2"|Jewellery metal ||rowspan="2"|Metal |- ||18||Xin Si ||48||Xin Hai |- ||19||Ren Wu ||rowspan"2"|Willow wood ||49||Ren Zi ||rowspan"2"|Mulberry wood ||rowspan="2"|Wood |- ||20||Gui Wei ||50||Gui Chou |- ||21||Jia Shen ||rowspan"2"|Stream water ||51||Jia Yin ||rowspan"2"|Rapids water ||rowspan="2"|Water |- ||22||Yi You ||52||Yi Mao |- ||23||Bing Xu ||rowspan"2"|Roof tiles earth ||53||Bing Chen ||rowspan"2"|Desert earth ||rowspan="2"|Earth |- ||24||Ding Hai ||54||Ding Si |- ||25||Wu Zi ||rowspan"2"|Lightning fire ||55||Wu Wu ||rowspan"2"|Sun fire ||rowspan="2"|Fire |- ||26||Ji Chou ||56||Ji Wei |- ||27||Geng Yin ||rowspan"2"|Conifer wood ||57||Geng Shen ||rowspan"2"|Pomegranate wood ||rowspan="2"|Wood |- ||28||Xin Mao ||58||Xin You |- ||29||Ren Chen ||rowspan"2"|River water ||59||Ren Xu ||rowspan"2"|Ocean water ||rowspan="2"|Water |- ||30||Gui Si ||60||Gui Hai |} Applications The wuxing schema is applied to explain phenomena in various fields. Phases of the year The five phases are around 73 days each and are usually used to describe the transformations of nature rather than their formative states. *Wood/Spring: a period of growth, expanding which generates abundant vitality, movement and wind. *Fire/Summer: a period of swollen, flowering, expanded with heat. *Earth can be seen as a period of stillness transitioning between the other phases or seasons or when relating to transformative seasonal periods it can be seen as late Summer. This period is associated with stability, leveling and dampness. *Metal/Autumn: a period of harvesting, transmuting, contracting, collecting and dryness. *Water/Winter: a period of retreat, stillness, consolidation and coolness. Cosmology and feng shui The art of feng shui (Chinese geomancy) is based on wuxing, with the structure of the cosmos mirroring the five phases, as well as the eight trigrams. Each phase has a complex network of associations with different aspects of nature (see table): colors, seasons and shapes all interact according to the cycles. An interaction or energy flow can be expansive, destructive, or exhaustive, depending on the cycle to which it belongs. By understanding these energy flows, a feng shui practitioner attempts to rearrange energy to benefit the client. {| class="wikitable" ! Movement || colspan2 | Metal || colspan2 | Wood || Water || Fire || colspan=2 | Earth |- !Trigram hanzi | | | | | | | | |- !Trigram pinyin |qián||duì||zhèn||xùn||kǎn||lí||gèn||kūn |- ! Trigrams |☰||☱||☳||☴||☵||☲||☶||☷ |- ! I Ching | Heaven || Lake || Thunder || Wind || Water || Fire || Mountain || Field |- ! Planet (Celestial Body) | colspan2 | Venus || colspan2 | Jupiter || Mercury || Mars || colspan=2 | Saturn |- ! Color | colspan2 | White || colspan2 | Green || Black || Red || colspan=2 | Yellow |- ! Day | colspan2 | Friday || colspan2 | Thursday || Wednesday || Tuesday || colspan=2 | Saturday |- ! Season | colspan2 | Autumn || colspan2 | Spring || Winter || Summer || colspan=2 | Intermediate |- ! Cardinal direction | colspan2 | West || colspan2 | East || North || South || colspan=2 | Center |} Dynastic transitions According to the Warring States period political philosopher Zou Yan ( BCE), each of the five elements possesses a personified virtue (), which indicates the foreordained destiny () of a dynasty; hence the cyclic succession of the elements also indicates dynastic transitions. Zou Yan claims that the Mandate of Heaven sanctions the legitimacy of a dynasty by sending self-manifesting auspicious signs in the ritual color (white, green, black, red, and yellow) that matches the element of the new dynasty (Metal, Wood, Water, Fire, and Earth). From the Qin dynasty onward, most Chinese dynasties invoked the theory of the Five Elements to legitimize their reign. In order to explain the integrity and complexity of the human body, Chinese medical scientists and physicians use the Five Elements theory to classify the human body's endogenous influences on organs, physiological activities, pathological reactions, and environmental or exogenous (external, environmental) influences. This diagnostic capacity is extensively used in traditional five phase acupuncture today, as opposed to the modern Confucian styled eight principles based Traditional Chinese medicine. In combination the two systems are a formative and functional study of postnatal and prenatal influencing on genetics, psychology, sociology and ecology. {| class="wikitable" ! Movement || Wood || Fire || Earth || Metal || Water |- ! Planet | Jupiter || Mars || Saturn || Venus || Mercury |- ! Mental Quality | idealism, spontaneity, curiosity || passion, intensity || agreeableness, honesty || intuition, rationality, mind ||erudition, resourcefulness, wit |- ! Emotion | anger, motivation || frenzy, joy || anxiety, planning || grief, compassion || fear, caution |- ! Virtue | Benevolence|| Propriety || Fidelity || Righteousness || Wisdom |- ! Zang (yin organs) | liver || heart/pericardium || spleen/pancreas || lung || kidney |- ! Fu (yang organs) | gall bladder || small intestine/San Jiao || stomach || large intestine || urinary bladder |- ! Sensory Organ | eyes || tongue || mouth || nose || ears |- ! Body Part | tendons || vessels || muscles || skin || bones |- ! Body Fluid | tears || sweat || saliva || mucus || urine |- ! Finger | ring finger || middle finger || thumb || index finger || pinky finger |- ! Sense | sight || taste || touch || smell || hearing |- ! Taste | sour || bitter || sweet || pungent, umami || salty |- ! Smell | rancid || scorched || fragrant || rotten || putrid |- ! Life | early childhood || youth || adulthood || senior age || old age, conception |- ! Covering | scaly || feathered || naked human || furred || shelled |- ! Hour | 3–9 || 9–15 || change || 15–21 || 21–3 |- ! Year | Spring Equinox || Summer Solstice || Summer Final || Fall Equinox || Winter Solstice |- ! 360° | 45–135° || 135–225° || Change || 225–315° || 315–45° |} Music The Huainanzi and the Yueling chapter () of the Book of Rites make the following correlations: {| class="wikitable" ! Movement || Wood || Fire || Earth || Metal || Water |- !Color | Qing (green and blue) || Red || Yellow || White || Black |- ! Arctic Direction | east || south || center || west || north |- ! Basic Pentatonic Scale pitch ||||||||| |- ! Basic Pentatonic Scale pitch pinyin |jué||zhǐ||gōng||shāng||yǔ |- !solfege | mi or E || sol or G || do or C || re or D || la or A |} * Qing is a Chinese color word used for both green and blue. Modern Mandarin has separate words for each, but like many other languages, older forms of Chinese did not distinguish between green and blue. * In most modern music, various five note or seven note scales (e.g., the major scale) are defined by selecting five or seven frequencies from the set of twelve semi-tones in the Equal tempered tuning. The Chinese ''shi'er lü system of tuning is closest to the ancient Greek tuning of Pythagoras. Martial arts Wuxing being an influential philosophical concept, there are several Chinese martial arts and a few other east Asian styles that incorporate five phases concepts into their systems. Tai chi trains and focuses on five basic qualities as part of its overarching strategy. The Five Steps () are: *Lǎo Jìnbù (老進步) – always step forward *Juébù Tuìbù (絕不退步) – never step backward *Yòupàn (右盼) – watch right *Zuǒgù (左顧) – beware left *Zhōngdìng'' (中定) – center point, neutral posture, maintain balance, maintain equilibrium These five steps are not mutable states in tai chi. As for the elemental qualities of the five traditional qualities: # 'Always Advancing' has the quality of wood. #* It is always growing outward, adding new layers onto the previous shell. #* This constant advancing eats up the opponent's space, smothers them, and breaks their posture. #* If the opponent pulls back, rush in to capitalize on their momentum. # 'Never Retreating' has the quality of metal. #* Like the density of metal, the idea is to consolidate and secure one's gains. #* Not pulling the hand back keeps one's shields up and prevents the opponent from intruding. # 'Watch Right' has the quality of water. #* Most people are right-handed, and unless taught otherwise, they lead with this hand for grabbing and striking. #* Of the two hands, it is the lead hand that is most likely to make contact with the opponent, thus martially the lead hand is used to tear open the opponent's guard, pull them off balance, or guide the opponent's hands away from the user's body. #* Ideally, the lead hand should perform all three negating actions at once: tearing open, pulling down, and leading away. # 'Beware Left' has the quality of fire. #* Whenever the lead hand retreats, this provides reciprocal force and the body flings open, shooting out the rear hand. # 'Neutral Point' has the quality of earth. #* It is the stability that allows for the other elements to manifest, it is the pivot that allows the others to cycle around it. #* Physically it is the balanced and stable posture that allows one to act of one's own volition. #* With unstable balance, one is in a state of trying to catch oneself and is vulnerable. #* With an unstable frame, any action by oneself or the opponent is liable to break either you balance, or your posture which opens you up to attack. A slightly different interpretation of the five elements in tai chi deal more specifically with the body method: * Wood - with the extremities (hands and feet) stretching outward toward the extremes * Metal - and the mid joints (knees and elbows) bowing down and out, or the mid joints pointing toward the core to shrink and densify the body. * Earth - The head is the "heavenly root" and must remain plumb and fixed relative to the rest of the body for one to move freely, and for the rest of the body to move relative to. * Fire - is the fighting spirit rising up through the body through the spine, preparing one for vigorous and immediate action. * Water - is the calming energy that pours down the front of the body, keeping one calm and focused, and not overly excited. Due to the occultation and misunderstanding of the original methods, modern Taiji Quan practice tends to have a mental framework that these elements are individual qualities to be developed individually. Thus: * wood energy is be solid and expanding, growing into the opponent's frame and collapsing theirs. * water energy to recede, match, and engulf the opponent, usually drawing them off balance or into your space when you may attack. * fire energy is bursting forward with whole body strength. This is the energy of striking, and is rarely trained. * metal energy to be heavy and dense, usually shrinking with whole body strength. This is proportional to earth energy but is used more actively to drop, be heavy, and suppress. * earth energy to be immovable, braced, and stake-like. It is used passively to glance away, uproot, and reflect incoming power. With water energy being traditionally the most famous and developed energy, the water element tends to get practiced to the detriment and exclusion of the others in many branches. More conservative branches also actively cultivate the earth element, giving the style's famous stability and strong frame. The metal energy tends to get lumped in with the water energy, receding and dropping simultaneously. Though some schools give it more thought. The wood energy tends to get lumped in with the earth energy for developing a strong frame. The fire energy tends to get almost no attention, whatsoever, except in very specific branches. Focusing on element qualities can be a viable form of practice in Taiji Quan, but that mindset is more like and possibly an influence from Xingyi Quan. Otherwise it is more normal for Taiji Quan practitioners to focus more attention on their version of the eight gates (ba gua), instead. Xingyi Quan uses the five elements metaphorically to represent ideally five different energies, but energy work is subtle, so normally one starts out learning five basic techniques with complementary footwork to teach the basic concepts behind the energies. Ideally one can use any technique with any kind of energy, but there are different levels of skill one must go through. In Xingyi Quan, realization of the five energies has three basic levels: Obvious power, subtle power, mysterious power. * Obvious power is where the shape of the body is large and gives indication as to how the power is being generated. * Subtle power is the more refined version where the movement to generate the power is very small and there is no excess motion. * Mysterious power is when there is little to no perceptible motion, but it causes a large reaction anyway. Another way of looking at the three levels involve the name of the style itself, 'Shape Intent Fist'. * Basic level: the body shape changes, but the shape of the intent does not. This is the technique level, and power cannot be generated without moving in some way. * Intermediate level: the body shape and intent change proportionally and in harmony with each other. Small moves cause large surges of power that affect the opponent. * Advanced level: the shape of the intent changes, but the shape of the body is unaffected. Any posture can be assumed while maintaining power. Ideally, different forms of power can be emitted without moving or changing position at all. A third method of looking at the skill development of Xingyi Quan has to do with its power training. * Ligong. Strength Training. This is building raw muscle power. Traditional Xingyi Quan rather infamously goes through very strenuous physical exercise to develop a strong body, capable of emitting raw power. * Jinggong. Power Training. This is building skill and body coordination to use more subtle forms of trained power using specific body mechanics. * Neigong, Internal training. The primary form of internal training in Xingyi Quan is post standing exercise Zhuanggong. One stands in place, assuming a basic posture, all the physical and internal alignments are taught and put into action. Then one stands for a long time holding the posture, trying to feel and manifest the sort of power of each element. {| class="wikitable" ! Movement ! Fist ! Chinese ! Pinyin !Direction ! Shape !Subtle Action !Energy !Feeling |- | Metal | Splitting | | Pī |Downward | Fist or palm chopping forward, hand pulling down and back, spine rolling downward |dragging down |condensing power |Dropping (jerking down) |- | Water | Drilling | | Zuān |Upward | Fist drilling upward like water under pressure, hand down and back |spiraling |relaxing power |Shocking (jerking up and down simultaneously) |- | Wood | Crushing | | Bēng |Forward | Fist shooting straight forward |wedging |linear power |Penetrating (expanding through) |- | Fire | Pounding | | Pào |Backward | Fist being propelled forward by body flinging open |flinging |reciprocal power |Launching (uprooting and countering) |- | Earth | Crossing | | Héng |Horizontal | Fist crossing horizontally and turning over to plough through |turning |torque power |Colliding (turning into a strike, falling onto a strike) |} Wuxing Tongbei Quan is a style intermediate between Taiji Quan and Tongbei Quan which uses five element theory as well. The Five Animals in Shaolin martial arts are also sometimes known as the Wuxing as their qualities parallel the five phases: * Tiger - Fire (fierce and powerful) * Monkey - Metal (hunched over) * Snake - Water (flexible) * Crane - Wind (evasive) * Mantis - Earth (steady and rooted) Gogyo Aikido () is a life art with roots in Confucian, Taoists and Buddhist theory. It centers around applied peace and health studies rather than defence or physical action. It emphasizes the unification of mind, body and environment using the physiological theory of yin, yang and five-element Traditional Chinese medicine. Its movements, exercises, and teachings cultivate, direct, and harmonise the qi. Japan adopted various philosophical disciplines such as Taoism, Chinese Buddhism and Confucianism through monks and physicians from China helping to evolve the Onmyōdō system. As opposed to theory of Godai that is form based philosophy that was introduced to Japan through India and Tibetan Buddhism. These theories have been extensively practiced in Japanese acupuncture and traditional Kampo medicine. See also * Acupuncture * Classical element * Color in Chinese culture * Flying Star Feng Shui * Humorism * Qi * Wufang Shangdi * Wuxing painting * Zangfu * Yin and yang Notes References Further reading * Feng Youlan (Yu-lan Fung), A History of Chinese Philosophy, volume 2, p. 13 * Joseph Needham, Science and Civilization in China, volume 2, pp. 262–23. * * External links * [http://www.iep.utm.edu/wuxing Wuxing (Wu-hsing)]. The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, . Category:Classical Chinese philosophy Category:Taoist cosmology Category:Eastern esotericism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wuxing_(Chinese_philosophy)
2025-04-05T18:27:49.766052
6462
Church of Christ, Scientist
| founded_place = Boston, Massachusetts, U.S. | separated_from | parent | merger | separations | associations | area United States | congregations approximately 1750 worldwide (1,153 in US as of 2010) | members = estimates range from around 400,000 to under 100,000. | footnotes = }} The Church of Christ, Scientist was founded in 1879 in Boston, Massachusetts, by Mary Baker Eddy, author of Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures, and founder of Christian Science. The church was founded "to commemorate the word and works of Christ Jesus" and "reinstate primitive Christianity and its lost element of healing". In the early decades of the 20th century, Christian Science churches were founded in communities around the world, though in the last several decades of that century, there was a marked decline in membership, except in Africa, where there has been growth. Headquartered in Boston, the church does not officially report membership, and estimates as to worldwide membership range from under 100,000 to about 400,000. In 2010, there were 1,153 churches in the United States. History The church was incorporated by Mary Baker Eddy in 1879, following a claimed personal healing in 1866, which she said resulted from reading the Bible. The Bible and Eddy's textbook on Christian healing, Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures, are together the church's key doctrinal sources and have been ordained as the church's "dual impersonal pastor". The First Church of Christ, Scientist publishes the weekly newspaper The Christian Science Monitor in print and online. Beliefs and practices Christian Scientists believe that prayer is effective for healing diseases. The Church has collected over 50,000 testimonies of incidents that it considers healing through Christian Science treatment alone. While most of these testimonies represent ailments neither diagnosed nor treated by medical professionals, the Church requires three other people to vouch for any testimony published in any of its official organs, including the Christian Science Journal, Christian Science Sentinel, and Herald of Christian Science; verifiers say that they witnessed the healing or know the testifier well enough to vouch for them. A Christian Science practitioner is someone who devotes their full time to prayer for others, but they do not use drugs or make medical diagnoses. Christian Scientists may take an intensive two-week "Primary" class from an authorized Christian Science teacher. Those who wish to become "Journal-listed" (accredited) practitioners, devoting themselves full-time to the practice of healing, must first have Primary class instruction. When they have what the church regards as a record of healing, they may submit their names for publication in the directory of practitioners and teachers in the Christian Science Journal. A practitioner who has been listed for at least three years may apply for "Normal" class instruction, given once every three years. Those who receive a certificate are authorized to teach. Both Primary and Normal classes are based on the Bible and the writings of Mary Baker Eddy. The Primary class focuses on the chapter "Recapitulation" in Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures. This chapter uses the Socratic method of teaching and contains the "Scientific Statement of Being". The "Normal" class focuses on the platform of Christian Science, contained on pages 330-340 of Science and Health.Organization and 111 Huntington Avenue are in the background.]] The First Church of Christ, Scientist is the legal title of The Mother Church and administrative headquarters of the Christian Science Church. The Mary Baker Eddy Library for the Betterment of Humanity is housed in an 11-story structure originally built for The Christian Science Publishing Society. An international newspaper, The Christian Science Monitor, founded by Eddy in 1908 and winner of seven Pulitzer Prizes, is published by the church through the Christian Science Publishing Society. Board of directors is the Mother Church and of the Christian Science Church.]] The Christian Science Board of Directors is a five-person executive entity created by Mary Baker Eddy to conduct the business of the Christian Science Church under the terms defined in the by-laws of the Church Manual. Its functions and restrictions are defined by the Manual. Controversies Broadcasting Beginning in the mid-1980s, church executives undertook a controversial and ambitious foray into electronic broadcast media. The first significant effort was to create a weekly half-hour syndicated television program, The Christian Science Monitor Reports. "Monitor Reports" was anchored in its first season by newspaper veteran Rob Nelson. He was replaced in the second by the Christian Science Monitor's former Moscow correspondent, David Willis. In October 1991, Christian Science Monitor anchor John Hart, who is not a Christian Scientist, resigned following professional disputes with the Monitor regarding Christian Science teachings and his journalistic independence. The hundreds of millions lost on broadcasting brought the church to the brink of bankruptcy. However, with the 1991 publication of The Destiny of The Mother Church by the late Bliss Knapp, the church secured a $90 million bequest from the Knapp trust. The trust dictated that the book be published as "Authorized Literature", with neither modification nor comment. Historically, the church had censured Knapp for deviating at several points from Eddy's teaching, and had refused to publish the work. The church's archivist, fired in anticipation of the book's publication, wrote to branch churches to inform them of the book's history. Many Christian Scientists thought the book violated the church's by-laws, and the editors of the church's religious periodicals and several other church employees resigned in protest. Alternate beneficiaries subsequently sued to contest the church's claim it had complied fully with the will's terms, and the church ultimately received only half of the original sum. The fallout of the broadcasting debacle also sparked a minor revolt among some prominent church members. In late 1993, a group of Christian Scientists filed suit against the Board of Directors, alleging a willful disregard for the Manual of The Mother Church in its financial dealings. The suit was thrown out by the Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts in 1997, but a lingering discontent with the church's financial matters persists to this day. The Destiny Of The Mother Church ceased publication in September 2023.Membership decline and financial setbacks In spite of its early meteoric rise, church membership has declined over the past eight decades, according to the church's former treasurer, J. Edward Odegaard. Though the Church is prohibited by the Manual from publishing membership figures, the number of branch churches in the United States has fallen steadily since World War II. In 2009, for the first time in church history, more new members came from Africa than the United States. In 2005, The Boston Globe reported that the church was considering consolidating Boston operations into fewer buildings and leasing out space in buildings it owned. Church official Philip G. Davis noted that the administration and Colonnade buildings had not been fully used for many years and that vacancy increased after staff reductions in 2004. The church posted an $8 million financial loss in fiscal 2003, and in 2004 cut 125 jobs, a quarter of the staff, at the Christian Science Monitor. Conversely, Davis noted that "the financial situation right now is excellent" and stated that the church was not facing financial problems. Use of spiritual healing in place of medical treatment The use of prayer, often in place of medical treatment, has been an area of controversy since the founding of the church; and the legality of practicing Christian Science was raised as early as 1887, when some Christian Science practitioners were charged with practicing medicine without a license. Avoidance of medical care is not a doctrinal obligation and is considered a personal choice. However, during the 1980s and 1990s in the United States, a number of Christian Scientist parents whose children died from lack of access to medical treatment were the subject of considerable controversy and were charged with manslaughter or even murder, but the outcomes of the cases were inconsistent. The lack of consensus regarding medical care is reflected in the laws of various U.S. states, which have also been inconsistent regarding religious exemptions from medical care.See also * Christian Science Reading Room * Reader (Christian Science Church) * Jewish Science * List of Christian Scientists (religious denomination) * List of Former Christian Science Churches, Societies and Buildings * Principia College, a college for Christian Scientists in Elsah, Illinois * Commonwealth v. Twitchell References External links * [http://www.christianscience.com/ Information on Christian Science and official Christian Science Church-sponsored Web sites] Christian Science Category:Christian Science churches Category:Religious organizations established in 1879 Category:Religious organizations based in Boston Category:Christian denominations established in the 19th century Category:1879 establishments in the United States Category:Religious corporations Category:Mary Baker Eddy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_Christ,_Scientist
2025-04-05T18:27:49.776813
6466
Connecticut
Conn}} | motto = (Latin) * He who transplanted still sustains | LargestMetro = New York (combined)<br />Greater Hartford (metro and urban) | LargestCity = Bridgeport | LargestCounty = Capitol (Hartford County) | population_demonym = (colloquial) * Connecticuter * Connecticutian | Governor = | Lieutenant Governor = | Legislature = General Assembly | Upperhouse = Senate | Lowerhouse = House of Representatives | Judiciary = Connecticut Supreme Court | Senators = <br /> | Representative = 5 Democrats | postal_code = CT | OfficialLang = None | area_rank = 48th | area_total_km2 14,356 | area_total_sq_mi = 5,543 | area_land_km2 = 12,559 | area_land_sq_mi = 4,849 | area_water_km2 = 1,809 | area_water_sq_mi = 698 | area_water_percent = 12.6 | population_rank = 29th | population_as_of = 2024 | 2010Pop 3,675,069 | population_density_rank = 4th | 2020Density = 288 | 2020DensityUS = 745 | MedianHouseholdIncome $ (2<span>0</span>23) | IncomeRank = 10th | AdmittanceOrder = 5th | AdmittanceDate = January 9, 1788 | timezone1 = Eastern | utc_offset1 = −05:00 | timezone1_DST = EDT | utc_offset1_DST = −04:00 | Longitude = 71°47′ W to 73°44′ W | Latitude = 40°58′ N to 42°03′ N | width_km = 177 | width_mi = 110 | length_km = 113 | length_mi = 70 | elevation_max_point Massachusetts border on south slope of Mount Frissell | elevation_max_m = 725 | elevation_max_ft = 2,379 | elevation_m = 150 | elevation_ft = 500 | elevation_min_point Long Island Sound is a state in the New England region of the Northeastern United States. It borders Rhode Island to the east, Massachusetts to the north, New York to the west, and Long Island Sound to the south. Its capital is Hartford, and its most populous city is Bridgeport. Connecticut lies between the major hubs of New York City and Boston along the Northeast Corridor, where the New York-Newark Combined Statistical Area, which includes four of Connecticut's seven largest cities, extends into the southwestern part of the state. Connecticut is the third-smallest state by area after Rhode Island and Delaware, and the 29th most populous with more than 3.6 million residents as of 2024, ranking it fourth among the most densely populated U.S. states. The state is named after the Connecticut River, the longest in New England, which roughly bisects the state and drains into the Long Island Sound between the towns of Old Saybrook and Old Lyme. The name of the river is in turn derived from anglicized spellings of , a Mohegan-Pequot word for "long tidal river". Before the arrival of the first European settlers, the region was inhabited by various Algonquian tribes. In 1633, the Dutch West India Company established a small, short-lived settlement called House of Hope in Hartford. Half of Connecticut was initially claimed by the Dutch colony New Netherland, which included much of the land between the Connecticut and Delaware Rivers, although the first major settlements were established by the English around the same time. Thomas Hooker led a band of followers from the Massachusetts Bay Colony to form the Connecticut Colony, while other settlers from Massachusetts founded the Saybrook Colony and the New Haven Colony; both had merged into the first by 1664. Connecticut's official nickname, the "Constitution State", refers to the Fundamental Orders adopted by the Connecticut Colony in 1639, which is considered by some to be the first written constitution in Western history. As one of the Thirteen Colonies that rejected British rule during the American Revolution, Connecticut was influential in the development of the federal government of the United States. In 1787, Roger Sherman and Oliver Ellsworth, state delegates to the Constitutional Convention, proposed a compromise between the Virginia and New Jersey Plans; its bicameral structure for Congress, with a respectively proportional and equal representation of the states in the House of Representatives and Senate, was adopted and remains to this day. In January 1788, Connecticut became the fifth state to ratify the Constitution. Connecticut is a developed and affluent state, performing well on the Human Development Index and on different metrics of income except for equality. It is home to a number of prestigious educational institutions, including Yale University in New Haven, as well as other liberal arts colleges and private boarding schools in and around the "Knowledge Corridor". Due to its geography, Connecticut has maintained a strong maritime tradition; the United States Coast Guard Academy is located in New London by the Thames River. The state is also associated with the aerospace industry through major companies Pratt & Whitney and Sikorsky Aircraft headquartered in East Hartford and Stratford, respectively. Historically a manufacturing center for arms, hardware, and timepieces, Connecticut, as with the rest of the region, had transitioned into an economy based on the financial, insurance, and real estate sectors; many multinational firms providing such services can be found concentrated in the state capital of Hartford and along the Gold Coast in Fairfield County.HistoryFirst peopleThe name Connecticut is derived from the Mohegan-Pequot word that has been translated as "long tidal river" and "upon the long river", both referring to the Connecticut River. Evidence of human presence in the Connecticut region dates to as far back as 10,000 years ago. Stone tools were used for hunting, fishing, and woodworking. Semi-nomadic in lifestyle, these peoples moved seasonally to take advantage of various resources in the area. They shared languages based on Algonquian. The Connecticut region was inhabited by many Native American tribes that can be grouped into the Nipmuc, the Sequin or "River Indians" (which included the Tunxis, Schaghticoke, Podunk, Wangunk, Hammonasset, and Quinnipiac), the Mattabesec or "Wappinger Confederacy" and the Pequot-Mohegan. Some of these groups still reside in Connecticut, including the Mohegans, the Pequots, and the Paugusetts.Colonial period Dutchman Adriaen Block was the first European explorer in Connecticut. He explored the region in 1614. Dutch fur traders then sailed up the Connecticut River, calling it Versche Rivier ("Fresh River") and building a fort at Dutch Point in Hartford, which they named "House of Hope" (). The Connecticut Colony originally consisted of several smaller settlements in Windsor, Wethersfield, Saybrook, Hartford, and New Haven. The first English settlers came in 1633 and settled at Windsor, then at Wethersfield the following year. John Winthrop the Younger of Massachusetts received a commission to create Saybrook Colony at the mouth of the Connecticut River in 1635. A large group of Puritans arrived in 1636 from Massachusetts Bay Colony, led by Thomas Hooker, who established the Connecticut Colony at Hartford. The Fundamental Orders of Connecticut were adopted in January 1639, and have been described as the first constitutional document in America. The Quinnipiack Colony was established by John Davenport, Theophilus Eaton, and others at New Haven in March 1638. The New Haven Colony had its own constitution called "The Fundamental Agreement of the New Haven Colony", signed on June 4, 1639. Each settlement was an independent political entity, established without official sanction of the English Crown. In 1662, Winthrop traveled to England and obtained a charter from CharlesII which united the settlements of Connecticut. Historically significant colonial settlements included Windsor (1633), Wethersfield (1634), Saybrook (1635), Hartford (1636), New Haven (1638), Fairfield (1639), Guilford (1639), Milford (1639), Stratford (1639), Farmington (1640), Stamford (1641), and New London (1646). The Pequot War marked the first significant clash between colonists and Native Americans in New England. The Pequot had been aggressively extending their area of control at the expense of the Wampanoag to the north, Narragansett (east), Connecticut River Valley Algonquian tribes and the Mohegan (west), and Lenape Algonquian people (south). Meanwhile, the Pequot had been reacting with increasing aggression to colonial territorial expansion. In response to the 1636 murder of an English privateer and his crew, followed by the murder of a trader, colonists raided a Pequot village on Block Island. The Pequots laid siege to Saybrook Colony's garrison that autumn, then raided Wethersfield in the spring of 1637. Organizing a band of militia and allies from the Mohegan and Narragansett tribes, colonists declared war and attacked a Pequot village on the Mystic River. Death toll estimates range between 300-700 Pequots. After suffering another major loss at a battle in Fairfield, the Pequots sued for peace. Connecticut's original Charter in 1662 granted it all the land to the "South Sea"—that is, to the Pacific Ocean. The Hartford Treaty with the Dutch was signed on September 19, 1650, but never ratified by the British, stated the western boundary of Connecticut ran north from Greenwich Bay for a distance of , "provided the said line come not within of Hudson River". Yale College was established in 1701, providing Connecticut with an important institution to educate clergy and civil leaders. The Congregational church dominated religious life in the colony and, by extension, town affairs in many parts. With more than of coastline including along its navigable rivers, Connecticut developed during its colonial years the antecedents of a maritime tradition that would later produce booms in shipbuilding, marine transport, naval support, seafood production, and leisure boating. Historical records list the Tryall as the first vessel built in Connecticut Colony, in 1649 at a site on the Connecticut River in present-day Wethersfield. In the two decades leading up to 1776 and the American Revolution, Connecticut boatyards launched about 100 sloops, schooners and brigs according to a database of U.S. customs records maintained online by the Mystic Seaport Museum, the largest being the 180-ton Patient Mary launched in New Haven in 1763. Connecticut's first lighthouse was constructed in 1760 at the mouth of the Thames River with the New London Harbor Lighthouse. American Revolution , from ''Low's Encyclopaedia'']] Connecticut designated four delegates to the Second Continental Congress who signed the Declaration of Independence: Samuel Huntington, Roger Sherman, William Williams, and Oliver Wolcott. Connecticut's legislature authorized the outfitting of six new regiments in 1775, in the wake of the clashes between British regulars and Massachusetts militia at Lexington and Concord. There were some 1,200 Connecticut troops on hand at the Battle of Bunker Hill in June 1775. In 1775, David Bushnell invented the Turtle which the following year launched the first submarine attack in history, unsuccessfully against a British warship at anchor in New York Harbor. In 1777, the British got word of Continental Army supplies in Danbury, and they landed an expeditionary force of some 2,000 troops in Westport. This force then marched to Danbury and destroyed homes and much of the depot. Continental Army troops and militia led by General David Wooster and General Benedict Arnold engaged them on their return march at Ridgefield in 1777. For the winter of 1778–79, General George Washington decided to split the Continental Army into three divisions encircling New York City, where British General Sir Henry Clinton had taken up winter quarters. Major General Israel Putnam chose Redding as the winter encampment quarters for some 3,000 regulars and militia under his command. The Redding encampment allowed Putnam's soldiers to guard the replenished supply depot in Danbury and to support any operations along Long Island Sound and the Hudson River Valley. Some of the men were veterans of the winter encampment at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, the previous winter. Soldiers at the Redding camp endured supply shortages, cold temperatures, and significant snow, with some historians dubbing the encampment "Connecticut's Valley Forge". The state was also the launching site for a number of raids against Long Island orchestrated by Samuel Holden Parsons and Benjamin Tallmadge, and provided soldiers and material for the war effort, especially to Washington's army outside New York City. General William Tryon raided the Connecticut coast in July 1779, focusing on New Haven, Norwalk, and Fairfield. New London and Groton Heights were raided in September 1781 by Benedict Arnold, who had turned traitor to the British. At the outset of the American Revolution, the Continental Congress assigned Nathaniel Shaw Jr. of New London as its naval agent in charge of recruiting privateers to seize British vessels as opportunities presented, with nearly 50 operating out of the Thames River which eventually drew the reprisal from the British force led by Arnold. Early statehood Early national period and industrial revolutionConnecticut ratified the U.S. Constitution on January 9, 1788, becoming the fifth state. and fisheries. After Congress established in 1790 the predecessor to the U.S. Revenue Cutter Service that would evolve into the U.S. Coast Guard, President Washington assigned Jonathan Maltbie as one of seven masters to enforce customs regulations, with Maltbie monitoring the southern New England coast with a 48-foot cutter sloop named Argus. In 1786, Connecticut ceded territory to the U.S. government that became part of the Northwest Territory. The state retained land extending across the northern part of present-day Ohio called the Connecticut Western Reserve. The Western Reserve section was settled largely by people from Connecticut, and they brought Connecticut place names to Ohio. Connecticut made agreements with Pennsylvania and New York which extinguished the land claims within those states' boundaries and created the Connecticut Panhandle. The state then ceded the Western Reserve in 1800 to the federal government, The cessation of imports from Britain stimulated the construction of factories to manufacture textiles and machinery. Connecticut came to be recognized as a major center for manufacturing, due in part to the inventions of Eli Whitney and other early innovators of the Industrial Revolution. The war led to the development of fast clippers that helped extend the reach of New England merchants to the Pacific and Indian oceans. The first half of the 19th century saw as well a rapid rise in whaling, with New London emerging as one of the New England industry's three biggest home ports after Nantucket and New Bedford. The state was known for its political conservatism, typified by its Federalist party and the Yale College of Timothy Dwight. The foremost intellectuals were Dwight and Noah Webster, who compiled his great dictionary in New Haven. Religious tensions polarized the state, as the Congregational Church struggled to maintain traditional viewpoints, in alliance with the Federalists. The failure of the Hartford Convention in 1814 hurt the Federalist cause, with the Democratic-Republican Party gaining control in 1817. Connecticut had been governed under the "Fundamental Orders" since 1639, but the state adopted a new constitution in 1818.Civil War era Connecticut manufacturers played a major role in supplying the Union forces with weapons and supplies during the Civil War. The state furnished 55,000 men, formed into thirty full regiments of infantry, including two in the U.S. Colored Troops, with several Connecticut men becoming generals. The Navy attracted 250 officers and 2,100 men, and Glastonbury native Gideon Welles was Secretary of the Navy. James H. Ward of Hartford was the first U.S. Naval Officer killed in the Civil War. Connecticut casualties included 2,088 killed in combat, 2,801 dying from disease, and 689 dying in Confederate prison camps. A surge of national unity in 1861 brought thousands flocking to the colors from every town and city. However, as the war became a crusade to end slavery, many Democrats (especially Irish Catholics) pulled back. The Democrats took a pro-slavery position and included many Copperheads willing to let the South secede. The intensely fought 1863 election for governor was narrowly won by the Republicans.Second industrial revolution ]] Connecticut's extensive industry, dense population, flat terrain, and wealth encouraged the construction of railroads starting in 1839. By 1840, of line were in operation, growing to in 1850 and in 1860. The New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad, called the New Haven or "The Consolidated", became the dominant Connecticut railroad company after 1872. J. P. Morgan began financing the major New England railroads in the 1890s, dividing territory so that they would not compete. The New Haven purchased 50 smaller companies, including steamship lines, and built a network of light rails (electrified trolleys) that provided inter-urban transportation for all of southern New England. By 1912, the New Haven operated over of track with 120,000 employees. As steam-powered passenger ships proliferated after the Civil War, Noank would produce the two largest built in Connecticut during the 19th century, with the 332-foot wooden steam paddle wheeler Rhode Island launched in 1882, and the 345-foot paddle wheeler Connecticut seven years later. Connecticut shipyards would launch more than 165 steam-powered vessels in the 19th century.20th centuryWorld War IWhen World War I broke out in 1914, Connecticut became a major supplier of weaponry to the U.S. military; by 1918, 80% of the state's industries were producing goods for the war effort. Remington Arms in Bridgeport produced half the small-arms cartridges used by the U.S. Army, with other major suppliers including Winchester in New Haven and Colt in Hartford. Connecticut was also an important U.S. Navy supplier, with Electric Boat receiving orders for 85 submarines, Lake Torpedo Boat building more than 20 subs, and the Groton Iron Works building freighters. On June 21, 1916, the Navy made Groton the site for its East Coast submarine base and school. The state enthusiastically supported the American war effort in 1917 and 1918 with large purchases of war bonds, a further expansion of industry, and an emphasis on increasing food production on the farms. Thousands of state, local, and volunteer groups mobilized for the war effort and were coordinated by the Connecticut State Council of Defense. Manufacturers wrestled with manpower shortages; Waterbury's American Brass and Manufacturing Company was running at half capacity, so the federal government agreed to furlough soldiers to work there. Interwar period In 1919, J. Henry Roraback started the Connecticut Light & Power Co. which became the state's dominant electric utility. In 1925, Frederick Rentschler spurred the creation of Pratt & Whitney in Hartford to develop engines for aircraft; the company became an important military supplier in World WarII and one of the three major manufacturers of jet engines in the world. On September 21, 1938, the most destructive storm in New England history struck eastern Connecticut, killing hundreds of people. The eye of the "Long Island Express" passed just west of New Haven and devastated the Connecticut shoreline between Old Saybrook and Stonington from the full force of wind and waves, even though they had partial protection by Long Island. The hurricane caused extensive damage to infrastructure, homes, and businesses. In New London, a sailing ship was driven into a warehouse complex, causing a major fire. Heavy rainfall caused the Connecticut River to flood downtown Hartford and East Hartford. An estimated 50,000 trees fell onto roadways. World War II The advent of lend-lease in support of Britain helped lift Connecticut from the Great Depression, with the state a major production center for weaponry and supplies used in World WarII. Connecticut manufactured 4.1% of total U.S. military armaments produced during the war, ranking ninth among the 48 states, with major factories including Colt for firearms, Pratt & Whitney for aircraft engines, Chance Vought for fighter planes, Hamilton Standard for propellers, and Electric Boat for submarines and PT boats. In Bridgeport, General Electric produced a significant new weapon to combat tanks: the bazooka. On May 13, 1940, Igor Sikorsky made an untethered flight of the first practical helicopter. The helicopter saw limited use in World War II, but future military production made Sikorsky Aircraft's Stratford plant Connecticut's largest single manufacturing site by the start of the 21st century. Post-World War II economic expansion Connecticut lost some wartime factories following the end of hostilities, but the state shared in a general post-war expansion that included the construction of highways and resulting in middle-class growth in suburban areas. Prescott Bush represented Connecticut in the U.S. Senate from 1952 to 1963; his son George H. W. Bush and grandson George W. Bush both became presidents of the United States. In 1965, Connecticut ratified its current constitution, replacing the document that had served since 1818. In 1968, commercial operation began for the Connecticut Yankee Nuclear Power Plant in Haddam; in 1970, the Millstone Nuclear Power Station began operations in Waterford. In 1974, Connecticut elected Democratic Governor Ella T. Grasso, who became the first woman in any state to be elected governor without being the wife or widow of a previous governor.Late 20th century Connecticut's dependence on the defense industry posed an economic challenge at the end of the Cold War. The resulting budget crisis helped elect Lowell Weicker as governor on a third-party ticket in 1990. Weicker's remedy was a state income tax which proved effective in balancing the budget, but only for the short-term. He did not run for a second term, in part because of this politically unpopular move. In 1992, initial construction was completed on Foxwoods Casino at the Mashantucket Pequots reservation in eastern Connecticut, which became the largest casino in the Western Hemisphere. Mohegan Sun followed four years later. Early 21st century In 2000, presidential candidate Al Gore chose Senator Joe Lieberman as his running mate, marking the first time that a major party presidential ticket included someone of the Jewish faith. Gore and Lieberman fell five votes short of George W. Bush and Dick Cheney in the Electoral College. In the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, 65 state residents were killed, mostly Fairfield County residents who were working in the World Trade Center. In 2004, Republican Governor John G. Rowland resigned during a corruption investigation, later pleading guilty to federal charges. Connecticut was hit by three major storms in just over 14 months in 2011 and 2012, with all three causing extensive property damage and electric outages. Hurricane Irene struck Connecticut August 28, and damage totaled $235 million. Two months later, the "Halloween nor'easter" dropped extensive snow onto trees, resulting in snapped branches and trunks that damaged power lines; some areas were without electricity for 11 days. Hurricane Sandy hit New Jersey and passed over Connecticut with hurricane-force winds and tides up to 12 feet above normal. Many coastal buildings were damaged or destroyed. Sandy's winds drove storm surges into streets and cut power to 98% of homes and businesses, with more than $360 million in damage. On December 14, 2012, Adam Lanza shot and killed 26 people at Sandy Hook Elementary School in Newtown, and then killed himself. The massacre spurred renewed efforts by activists for tighter laws on gun ownership nationally. In the summer and fall of 2016, Connecticut experienced a drought in many parts of the state, causing some water-use bans. As of , 45% of the state was listed at Severe Drought by the U.S. Drought Monitor, including almost all of Hartford and Litchfield counties. All the rest of the state was in Moderate Drought or Severe Drought, including Middlesex, Fairfield, New London, New Haven, Windham, and Tolland counties. This affected the agricultural economy in the state. Geography Connecticut is bordered on the south by Long Island Sound, on the west by New York, on the north by Massachusetts, and on the east by Rhode Island. The state capital and fourth largest city is Hartford, and other major cities and towns (by population) include Bridgeport, New Haven, Stamford, Waterbury, Norwalk, Danbury, New Britain, Greenwich, and Bristol. There are 169 incorporated towns in Connecticut, with cities and villages included within some towns. The highest peak in Connecticut is Bear Mountain in Salisbury in the northwest corner of the state. The highest point is just east of where Connecticut, Massachusetts, and New York meet (42°3′ N, 73°29′ W), on the southern slope of Mount Frissell, whose peak lies nearby in Massachusetts. At the opposite extreme, many of the coastal towns have areas that are less than above sea level. Connecticut has a long maritime history and a reputation based on that history—yet the state has no direct oceanfront (technically speaking). The coast of Connecticut sits on Long Island Sound, which is an estuary. The state's access to the open Atlantic Ocean is both to the west (toward New York City) and to the east (toward the "race" near Rhode Island). Due to this unique geography, Long Island Sound and the Connecticut shoreline are relatively protected from high waves from storms. The Connecticut River cuts through the center of the state, flowing into Long Island Sound. The most populous metropolitan region centered within the state lies in the Connecticut River Valley. Despite Connecticut's relatively small size, it features wide regional variations in its landscape; for example, in the northwestern Litchfield Hills, it features rolling mountains and horse farms, whereas in areas to the east of New Haven along the coast, the landscape features coastal marshes, beaches, and large scale maritime activities. Connecticut's rural areas and small towns in the northeast and northwest corners of the state contrast sharply with its industrial cities such as Stamford, Bridgeport, and New Haven, located along the coastal highways from the New York border to New London, then northward up the Connecticut River to Hartford. Many towns in northeastern and northwestern Connecticut center around a green. Near the green typically stand historical visual symbols of New England towns, such as a white church, a colonial meeting house, a colonial tavern or inn, several colonial houses, and so on, establishing a scenic historical appearance maintained for both historic preservation and tourism. Many of the areas in southern and coastal Connecticut have been built up and rebuilt over the years, and look less visually like traditional New England. The northern boundary of the state with Massachusetts is marked by the Southwick Jog or Granby Notch, an approximately square detour into Connecticut. The origin of this anomaly is clearly established in a long line of disputes and temporary agreements which were finally concluded in 1804, when southern Southwick's residents sought to leave Massachusetts, and the town was split in half. The southwestern border of Connecticut where it abuts New York State is marked by a panhandle in Fairfield County and the Western Connecticut Planning Region, containing the towns of Greenwich, Stamford, New Canaan, Darien, and parts of Norwalk and Wilton. This irregularity in the boundary is the result of territorial disputes in the late 17th century, culminating with New York giving up its claim to the area, whose residents considered themselves part of Connecticut, in exchange for an equivalent area extending northwards from Ridgefield to the Massachusetts border, as well as undisputed claim to Rye, New York. Areas maintained by the National Park Service include Appalachian National Scenic Trail, Quinebaug and Shetucket Rivers Valley National Heritage Corridor, and Weir Farm National Historic Site.Climate of Connecticut, using 1991–2020 climate normals.]] Connecticut lies at the rough transition zone between the southern end of the humid continental climate, and the northern portion of the humid subtropical climate. Northern Connecticut generally experiences a climate with hot, humid summers and moderataely cold winters with periodic snowfall. Far southern and coastal Connecticut has a climate with cool winters with a mix of rain and infrequent snow, and the long hot and humid summers typical of the middle and lower East Coast. Precipitation Connecticut sees a fairly even precipitation pattern with rainfall/snowfall spread throughout the 12 months. Connecticut averages 56% of possible sunshine (higher than the U.S. national average), averaging 2,400 hours of sunshine annually. Although summers are sunny in Connecticut, quick moving summer thunderstorms can bring brief downpours with thunder and lightning. Occasionally these thunderstorms can be severe, and the state usually averages one tornado per year. During hurricane season, the remains of tropical cyclones occasionally affect the region, though a direct hit is rare. Some notable hurricanes to impact the state include the 1938 New England hurricane, Hurricane Carol in 1954, Hurricane Sandy in 2012, and Hurricane Isaias in 2020. Weather commonly associated with the fall season typically begins in October and lasts to the first days of December. Daily high temperatures in October and November range from the 50s to 60s F. Winters (December through mid-March) are moderately generally cold from south to north in Connecticut. The coldest month (January) has average high temperatures ranging from in the coastal lowlands to in the inland and northern portions on the state. The lowest temperature recorded in Connecticut is which has been observed twice: in Falls Village on February 16, 1943, and in Coventry on January 22, 1961. Although rare, Ice storms also occur on occasion, such as the Southern New England ice storm of 1973. {| class="wikitable" | colspan"13" style"text-align:center;font-size:120%;background:#E8EAFA;" |Monthly normal high and low temperatures for various Connecticut cities (°F) |- ! style="background:#e5afaa; color:#000; height:17px;" | City ! style="background:#e5afaa; color:#000;" | Jan ! style="background:#e5afaa; color:#000;" | Feb ! style="background:#e5afaa; color:#000;" | Mar ! style="background:#e5afaa; color:#000;" | Apr ! style="background:#e5afaa; color:#000;" | May ! style="background:#e5afaa; color:#000;" | Jun ! style="background:#e5afaa; color:#000;" | Jul ! style="background:#e5afaa; color:#000;" | Aug ! style="background:#e5afaa; color:#000;" | Sep ! style="background:#e5afaa; color:#000;" | Oct ! style="background:#e5afaa; color:#000;" | Nov ! style="background:#e5afaa; color:#000;" | Dec |- ! style="background:#f8f3ca; color:#000; height:16px;" | Bridgeport | style="text-align:center; background:#0ff; color:#000;" | 38/24 | style="text-align:center; background:#0fe; color:#000;" | 40/25 | style="text-align:center; background:#00ffae; color:#000;" | 47/32 | style="text-align:center; background:#00ff5e; color:#000;" | 58/41 | style="text-align:center; background:#0f1; color:#000;" | 68/51 | style="text-align:center; background:#4f0; color:#000;" | 77/61 | style="text-align:center; background:#7f0; color:#000;" | 83/67 | style="text-align:center; background:#6eff00; color:#000;" | 81/67 | style="text-align:center; background:#3f0; color:#000;" | 75/59 | style="text-align:center; background:#00ff2f; color:#000;" | 64/48 | style="text-align:center; background:#00ff7b; color:#000;" | 53/38 | style="text-align:center; background:#00ffd4; color:#000;" | 43/30 |- ! style="background:#c5dfe1; color:#000; height:16px;" | Hartford | style="text-align:center; background:#00d9ff; color:#000;" | 35/18 | style="text-align:center; background:#00f7ff; color:#000;" | 38/20 | style="text-align:center; background:#00ffc3; color:#000;" | 47/28 | style="text-align:center; background:#00ff62; color:#000;" | 60/38 | style="text-align:center; background:#00ff08; color:#000;" | 71/48 | style="text-align:center; background:#4f0; color:#000;" | 79/57 | style="text-align:center; background:#73ff00; color:#000;" | 85/63 | style="text-align:center; background:#62ff00; color:#000;" | 83/61 | style="text-align:center; background:#1aff00; color:#000;" | 75/53 | style="text-align:center; background:#00ff48; color:#000;" | 63/42 | style="text-align:center; background:#0f9; color:#000;" | 51/33 | style="text-align:center; background:#00fff7; color:#000;" | 40/24 |- | colspan"13" style"text-align:center;font-size:90%;background:#E8EAFA;" | |} Flora Forests consist of a mix of Northeastern coastal forests of oak in southern areas of the state, to the upland New England-Acadian forests in the northwestern parts of the state. Mountain Laurel (Kalmia latifolia) is the state flower and is native to low ridges in several parts of Connecticut. Rosebay rhododendron (Rhododendron maximum) is also native to eastern uplands of Connecticut and Pachaug State Forest is home to the Rhododendron Sanctuary Trail. Atlantic white cedar (Chamaecyparis thyoides), is found in wetlands in the southern parts of the state. Connecticut has one native cactus (Opuntia humifusa), found in sandy coastal areas and low hillsides. Several types of beach grasses and wildflowers are also native to Connecticut. Connecticut spans USDA Plant Hardiness Zones 5b to 7a. Coastal Connecticut is the broad transition zone where more southern and subtropical plants are cultivated. Fauna Largest cities and towns Region | city_1 = Bridgeport, ConnecticutBridgeport | div_1 = Greater Bridgeport Planning Region, ConnecticutGreater Bridgeport | pop_1 = 148,654 | img_1 = Bridgeport Center 2.jpg | city_2 = Stamford, ConnecticutStamford | div_2 = Western Connecticut Planning Region, ConnecticutWestern | pop_2 = 135,470 | img_2 = Stamford Connecticut Skyline Aug 2017.jpg | city_3 = New Haven, ConnecticutNew Haven | div_3 = South Central Connecticut Planning Region, ConnecticutSouth Central | pop_3 = 134,023 | img_3 = New Haven 2020.png | city_4 = Hartford, ConnecticutHartford | div_4 = Capitol Planning Region, ConnecticutCapitol | pop_4 = 121,054 | img_4 = Hartford Skyline from Great River Park (Cropped).jpg | city_5 = Waterbury, ConnecticutWaterbury | div_5 = Naugatuck Valley Planning Region, ConnecticutNaugatuck Valley | pop_5 = 114,403 | img_5 | city_6 Norwalk, ConnecticutNorwalk | div_6 = Western Connecticut Planning Region, ConnecticutWestern | pop_6 = 91,184 | img_6 | city_7 Danbury, ConnecticutDanbury | div_7 = Western Connecticut Planning Region, ConnecticutWestern | pop_7 = 86,518 | img_7 | city_8 New Britain, ConnecticutNew Britain | div_8 = Capitol Planning Region, ConnecticutCapitol | pop_8 = 74,135 | img_8 | city_9 West Hartford, ConnecticutWest Hartford | div_9 = Capitol Planning Region, ConnecticutCapitol | pop_9 = 64,083 | img_9 | city_10 Greenwich, ConnecticutGreenwich | div_10 = Western Connecticut Planning Region, ConnecticutWestern | pop_10 = 63,518 | img_10 }}Demographics As of the 2020 United States census, Connecticut has a population of 3,605,944, an increase of 31,847 people (0.9%) from the 2010 United States census. Among the census records, 20.4% of the population was under 18. In 1790, 97% of the population in Connecticut was classified as "rural". The first census in which less than half the population was classified as rural was 1890. In the 2000 census, only 12.3% was considered rural. Most of western and southern Connecticut (particularly the Gold Coast) is strongly associated with New York City; this area is the most affluent and populous region of the state and has high property costs and high incomes. The center of population of Connecticut is located in the town of Cheshire. According to HUD's 2022 Annual Homeless Assessment Report, there were an estimated 2,930 homeless people in Connecticut. {| class="wikitable sortable collapsible"; text-align:right; font-size:80%;" |+ style="font-size:90%" |Racial and ethnic composition as of the 2020 census |- ! Race and ethnicity ! colspan"2" data-sort-typenumber |Alone ! colspan"2" data-sort-typenumber |Total |- | White (non-Hispanic) |align=right| |align=right| |- | Hispanic or Latino |align=right| |align=right| |- | African American (non-Hispanic) |align=right| |align=right| |- | Asian |align=right| |align=right| |- | Native American |align=right| |align=right| |- | Pacific Islander |align=right| |align=right| |- | Other |align=right| |align=right| |} {| class"wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed collapsible" style"font-size: 90%;" |+ Historical racial composition of Connecticut |- ! Racial composition !! 1990!! 2000!! 2010!! 2020 |- | White || 87.0% || 81.6% || 77.6% || 66.4% |- | Black || 8.3% || 9.1% || 10.1% || 10.8% |- | Asian || 1.5% || 2.4% || 3.8% || 4.8% |- | Native || 0.2% || 0.3% || 0.3% || 0.4% |- | Native Hawaiian and<br />other Pacific Islander || – || – || – || - |- | Other race || 2.9% || 4.3% || 5.6% || 8.3% |- | Two or more races || – || 2.2% || 2.6% || 9.2% |} In common with the majority of the United States, non-Hispanic whites have remained the dominant racial and ethnic group in Connecticut. From being 98% of the population in 1940, however, they have declined to 63% of the population as of the 2020 census. These statistics have represented fewer Americans identifying as non-Hispanic white, which has given rise to the Hispanic and Latino American population and Asian American population overall. , 46.1% of Connecticut's population younger than age1 were minorities. As of 2004, 11.4% of the population (400,000) was foreign-born. In 1870, native-born Americans had accounted for 75% of the state's population, but that had dropped to 35% by 1918. Also as of 2000, 81.69% of Connecticut residents age5 and older spoke English at home and 8.42% spoke Spanish, followed by Italian at 1.59%, French at 1.31%, and Polish at 1.20%. The largest ancestry groups since 2010 were: 19.3% Italian, 17.9% Irish, 10.7% English, 10.4% German, 8.6% Polish, 6.6% French, 3.0% French Canadian, 2.7% American, 2.0% Scottish, and 1.4% Scotch Irish. The top countries of origin for Connecticut's immigrants in 2018 were India, Jamaica, the Dominican Republic, Poland and Ecuador. Birth data Note: Births in table do not add up because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number. {| class"wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed collapsible" style"font-size: 90%;" |+ Live Births by Single Race/Ethnicity of Mother |- ! Race ! 2013 ! 2014 ! 2015 ! 2016 ! 2017 ! 2018 ! 2019 ! 2020 ! 2021 ! 2022 |- | White: | 28,454 (78.8%) | 28,543 (78.7%) | 28,164 (78.8%) | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... |- | > Non-Hispanic White | 20,704 (57.4%) | 20,933 (57.7%) | 20,395 (57.0%) | 19,551 (54.3%) | 18,842 (53.5%) | 18,488 (53.2%) | 18,366 (53.6%) | 17,785 (53.2%) | 19,136 (53.6%) | 18,681 (52.9%) |- | Black | 5,103 (14.1%) | 5,154 (14.2%) | 4,988 (14.0%) | 4,453 (12.4%) | 4,301 (12.2%) | 4,423 (12.7%) | 4,221 (12.3%) | 4,056 (12.1%) | 4,357 (12.2%) | 4,298 (12.2%) |- | Asian | 2,221 (6.1%) | 2,280 (6.3%) | 2,497 (7.0%) | 2,583 (7.2%) | 2,475 (7.0%) | 2,232 (6.4%) | 2,199 (6.4%) | 1,992 (6.0%) | 1,921 (5.4%) | 1,878 (5.3%) |- | American Indian | 307 (0.9%) | 308 (0.8%) | 97 (0.3%) | 26 (0.1%) | 28 (0.1%) | 38 (0.1%) | 24 (0.1%) | 35 (0.1%) | 33 (0.1%) | 33 (0.1%) |- | Hispanic (of any race) | 8,208 (22.7%) | 8,129 (22.4%) | 8,275 (23.1%) | 8,622 (23.9%) | 8,833 (25.1%) | 8,762 (25.2%) | 8,728 (25.5%) | 8,861 (26.5%) | 9,482 (26.6%) | 9,597 (27.2%) |- | Total Connecticut | 36,085 (100%) | 36,285 (100%) | 35,746 (100%) | 36,015 (100%) | 35,221 (100%) | 34,725 (100%) | 34,258 (100%) | 33,460 (100%) | 35,670 (100%) | 35,332 (100%) |} the 2020 PRRI survey found Connecticut to be 40% Protestant and 28% Catholic (with the remainder of Christians being Mormon at 2%, and Orthodox at 1%). The PRRI survey found Jewish citizens to be 2% of the population and, like the Pew survey: Hindus, Buddhists, and Muslims to be 1% each. Economy .]] The total 2023 gross state product for Connecticut was $345.9 billion, up from $321.7 billion in 2022. Connecticut's adjusted per capita personal income in 2022 was estimated at $77,940, third-highest among states. There is a large disparity in incomes throughout the state; Connecticut was tied with California and Massachusetts for the second highest (after New York's 0.52) Gini coefficient, at 0.50, as of 2020. According to a 2018 study by Phoenix Marketing International, Connecticut had the third-largest number of millionaires per capita in the United States, with a ratio of 7.75%. New Canaan is the wealthiest town in Connecticut, with a per capita income of $105,846. Hartford is the poorest municipality in Connecticut, with a per capita income of $16,798 in 2020. At the county level, per capita income ranged from $48,295 in Fairfield County to $26,585 in Windham County, which is close to the United States average. but economists expected record new levels of layoffs as a result of business closures in the spring of 2020 due to the coronavirus pandemic.TaxationTax is collected by the Connecticut Department of Revenue Services and by local municipalities. As of 2012, Connecticut residents had the second highest rate in the nation of combined state and local taxes after New York, at 12.6% of income compared to the national average of 9.9% as reported by the Tax Foundation. Before 1991, Connecticut had an investment-only income tax system. Income from employment was untaxed, but income from investments was taxed at 13%, the highest rate in the U.S., with no deductions allowed for costs of producing the investment income, such as interest on borrowing. In 1991, under Governor Lowell P. Weicker Jr., an independent, the system was changed to one in which the taxes on employment income and investment income were equalized at a maximum rate of 4%. The new tax policy drew investment firms to Connecticut; , Fairfield County was home to the headquarters for 16 of the 200 largest hedge funds in the world. , the income tax rates on Connecticut individuals were divided into seven tax brackets of 3% (on income up to $10,000); 5% ($10,000–$50,000); 5.5% ($50,000–$100,000); 6% ($100,000–$200,000); 6.5% ($200,000–$250,000); 6.9% ($250,000–$500,000); and 6.99% above $500,000, with additional amounts owed depending on the bracket. All wages of Connecticut residents are subject to the state's income tax, even if earned outside the state. However, in those cases, Connecticut income tax must be withheld only to the extent the Connecticut tax exceeds the amount withheld by the other jurisdiction. Since New York has higher income tax rates than Connecticut, this effectively means that Connecticut residents who work in New York have no Connecticut income tax withheld. Connecticut permits a credit for taxes paid to other jurisdictions, but since residents who work in other states are still subject to Connecticut income taxation, they may owe taxes if the jurisdictional credit does not fully offset the Connecticut tax amount. Some items and services in general are not subject to sales and use taxes unless specifically enumerated as taxable by statute. A provision excluding clothing under $50 from sales tax was repealed . State law authorizes municipalities to tax property, including real estate, vehicles and other personal property, with state statute providing varying exemptions, credits and abatements. All assessments are at 70% of fair market value. and any excess may not be refunded or carried forward. According to the Tax Foundation, on a per capita basis in the 2017 fiscal year Connecticut residents paid the 3rd highest average property taxes in the nation after New Hampshire and New Jersey. , gasoline taxes and fees in Connecticut were 40.13 cents per gallon, 11th highest in the United States which had a nationwide average of 36.13 cents a gallon excluding federal taxes. Diesel taxes and fees as of January 2020 in Connecticut were 46.50 cents per gallon, ninth highest nationally with the U.S. average at 37.91 cents.Real estateIn 2019, sales of single-family homes in Connecticut totaled 33,146 units, a 2.1 percent decline from the 2018 transaction total. The median home sold in 2019 recorded a transaction amount of $260,000, up 0.4 percent from 2018. Connecticut had the seventh highest rate of home foreclosure activity in the country in 2019 at 0.53 percent of the total housing stock.Industries Finance, insurance and real estate was Connecticut's largest industry in 2018 as ranked by gross domestic product, generating $75.7 billion in GDP that year. Major employers include The Hartford, Travelers, Harman International, Cigna, the Aetna subsidiary of CVS Health, Mass Mutual, People's United Financial, Bank of America, Realogy, Bridgewater Associates, GE Capital, William Raveis Real Estate, and Berkshire Hathaway through reinsurance and residential real estate subsidiaries. The combined educational, health and social services sector was the largest single industry as ranked by employment, with a combined workforce of 342,600 people at the end of 2019, ranking fourth the year before in GDP at $28.3 billion. The broad business and professional services sector had the second highest GDP total in Connecticut in 2018 at an estimated $33.7 billion. Lockheed Martin subsidiary Sikorsky Aircraft operates Connecticut's single largest manufacturing plant in Stratford, Other major manufacturers include the Electric Boat division of General Dynamics, which makes submarines in Groton, Boehringer Ingelheim, a pharmaceuticals manufacturer with its U.S. headquarters in Ridgefield, Connecticut historically was a center of gun manufacturing, and four gun-manufacturing firms continued to operate in the state , employing 2,000 people: Colt, Stag, Ruger, and Mossberg. Marlin, owned by Remington, closed in April 2011. Other large components of the Connecticut economy in 2018 included wholesale trade ($18.1 billion in GDP); information services ($13.8 billion); retail ($13.7 billion); arts, entertainment and food services ($9.1 billion); and construction ($8.3 billion). Foxwoods Resort Casino and Mohegan Sun are the two biggest tourist draws and number among the state's largest employers; both are located on Native American reservations in the southeastern Connecticut. Connecticut's agricultural production totaled $580 million in 2017, with just over half of that revenue the result of nursery stock production. Milk production totaled $81 million that year, with other major product categories including eggs, vegetables and fruit, tobacco and shellfish. Energy Connecticut's economy uses less energy to produce each dollar of GDP than all other states except California, Massachusetts, and New York. It uses less energy on a per-capita basis than all but six other states. It has no fossil-fuel resources, but does have renewable resources. Average retail electricity prices are the highest among the 48 contiguous states. While most of the state's energy consumption is generated using fossil fuels, nuclear power delivered over 40% of state's electricity generation in 2019. Refuse-derived fuels and other biomass provided the largest share of renewable electricity at about a 3% share. Solar and wind generation have grown in recent years. More than three-quarters of solar generation came from distributed small-scale installations such as rooftop solar in 2019, and there is planning underway to significantly increase renewable generation with the state's offshore wind resource.TransportRoads , locally known as the QBridge, carries ten lanes over the Quinnipiac River in New Haven, along the Connecticut Turnpike.]] The Interstate highways in the state are Interstate 95 (I-95) traveling southwest to northeast along the coast, I-84 traveling southwest to northeast in the center of the state, I-91 traveling north to south in the center of the state, and I-395 traveling north to south near the eastern border of the state. The other major highways in Connecticut are the Merritt Parkway and Wilbur Cross Parkway, which together form Connecticut Route 15 (Route 15), traveling from the Hutchinson River Parkway in New York parallel to I-95 before turning north of New Haven and traveling parallel to I-91, finally becoming a surface road in Berlin. I-95 and Route 15 were originally toll roads; they relied on a system of toll plazas at which all traffic stopped and paid fixed tolls. A series of major crashes at these plazas eventually contributed to the decision to remove the tolls in 1988. Other major arteries in the state include U.S. Route7 (US7) in the west traveling parallel to the New York state line, Route8 farther east near the industrial city of Waterbury and traveling north–south along the Naugatuck River Valley nearly parallel with US7, and Route9 in the east. Between New Haven and New York City, I-95 is one of the most congested highways in the United States. Although I-95 has been widened in several spots, some areas are only three lanes and this strains traffic capacity, resulting in frequent and lengthy rush hour delays. Frequently, the congestion spills over to clog the parallel Merritt Parkway and even US1. The state has encouraged traffic reduction schemes, including rail use and ride-sharing. Connecticut also has a very active bicycling community, with one of the highest rates of bicycle ownership and use in the United States, particularly in New Haven. According to the U.S. Census 2006 American Community Survey, New Haven has the highest percentage of commuters who bicycle to work of any major metropolitan center on the East Coast. Rail ]] Rail is a popular travel mode between New Haven and New York City's Grand Central Terminal. Southwestern Connecticut is served by the Metro-North Railroad's New Haven Line, operated by the Metropolitan Transportation Authority. Metro-North provides commuter service between New York City and New Haven, with branches to New Canaan, Danbury, and Waterbury. Connecticut lies along Amtrak's Northeast Corridor, which features frequent Northeast Regional and Acela Express service from New Haven south to New York City, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Washington, DC, and Norfolk, VA, as well as north to New London, Providence and Boston. Since 1990, coastal cities and towns between New Haven and New London are also served by the Shore Line East commuter line. In June 2018, a commuter rail service called the Hartford Line began operating between New Haven and Springfield on Amtrak's New Haven-Springfield Line. Hartford Line service is provided by both Amtrak and the Connecticut Department of Transportation's CT Rail, and in addition to its termini serves New Haven State Street, Wallingford, Meriden, Berlin, Hartford, Windsor, and Windsor Locks. Several infill stations are planned to be added in the near future as of 2021. Amtrak's Vermonter runs from Washington to St. Albans, Vermont via the same line. In July 2019, Amtrak launched the Valley Flyer, which runs between New Haven and Greenfield, Massachusetts. A proposed commuter rail service, the Central Corridor Rail Line, would connect New London with Norwich, Willimantic, Storrs via the main campus of the University of Connecticut, and Stafford Springs, with service continuing into Massachusetts and Brattleboro, Vermont. The proposal also adds stops to service popular tourist destinations Foxwoods Resort Casino and Mohegan Sun.BusStatewide bus service is supplied by Connecticut Transit, owned by the Connecticut Department of Transportation, with smaller municipal authorities providing local service. Bus networks are an important part of the transportation system in Connecticut, especially in urban areas like Hartford, Stamford, Norwalk, Bridgeport and New Haven. Connecticut Transit also operates CTfastrak, a bus rapid transit service between New Britain and Hartford, which opened to the public on March 28, 2015.Air , the state's largest]] Connecticut's largest airport is Bradley International Airport in Windsor Locks, north of Hartford. Many residents of central and southern Connecticut also make heavy use of JFK International Airport and Newark International Airports, especially for international travel. Smaller regional air service is provided at Tweed New Haven Regional Airport. Larger civil airports include Danbury Municipal Airport and Waterbury-Oxford Airport in western Connecticut, Hartford–Brainard Airport in central Connecticut, and Groton-New London Airport in eastern Connecticut. Sikorsky Memorial Airport is located in Stratford and mostly services cargo, helicopter and private aviation.FerrySeveral ferry services cross Long Island Sound and connect the state to Long Island. The Bridgeport & Port Jefferson Ferry travels between Bridgeport, Connecticut, and Port Jefferson, New York. Ferry service also operates out of New London to Orient, New York; Fishers Island, New York; and Block Island, Rhode Island, which are popular tourist destinations. and Susan Bysiewicz is the Lieutenant Governor; both are Democrats. From 1639 until the adoption of the 1818 constitution, the governor presided over the General Assembly. In 1974, Ella Grasso was elected as the governor of Connecticut. This was the first time in United States history when a woman was a governor without her husband being governor first. In addition to the governor and lieutenant governor, there are four other executive officers named in the state constitution that are elected directly by voters: secretary of the state, treasurer, comptroller, and attorney general. All executive officers are elected to four-year terms. , Matthew Ritter is the Speaker of the House of Connecticut. , Connecticut's United States Senators are Richard Blumenthal (Democrat) and Chris Murphy (Democrat). Connecticut has five representatives in the U.S. House, all of whom are Democrats. Locally elected representatives also develop local ordinances to govern cities and towns. The town ordinances often include noise control and zoning guidelines. However, the State of Connecticut also provides statewide ordinances for noise control as well. Judicial The highest court of Connecticut's judicial branch is the Connecticut Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice of Connecticut. The Supreme Court is responsible for deciding on the constitutionality of laws, or cases as they relate to the law. Its proceedings are similar to those of the United States Supreme Court: no testimony is given by witnesses, and the lawyers of the two sides each present oral arguments no longer than thirty minutes. Following a court proceeding, the court may take several months to arrive at a judgment. , the Chief Justice is Richard A. Robinson. In 1818, the court became a separate entity, independent of the legislative and executive branches. The Connecticut Appellate Court is a lesser statewide court, and the Superior Courts are lower courts that resemble county courts of other states. Local government Connecticut does not have county government, unlike all other states except Rhode Island. Connecticut county governments were mostly eliminated in 1960, with the exception of sheriffs elected in each county. In 2000, the county sheriff was abolished and replaced with the state marshal system, which has districts that follow the old county territories. The judicial system is divided into judicial districts at the trial-court level which largely follow the old county lines. The eight counties are still widely used for purely geographical and statistical purposes, such as weather reports and census reporting, although the latter will cease using the counties in 2024. The state is divided into nine regional councils of government defined by the state Office of Planning and Management, which facilitate regional planning and coordination of services between member towns.<!--, with the exception of the Town of Stafford in Tolland County.--> The Intragovernmental Policy Division of this Office coordinates regional planning with the administrative bodies of these regions. Each region has an administrative body made up chief executive officers of the member towns. The regions are established for the purpose of planning "coordination of regional and state planning activities; redesignation of logical planning regions and promotion of the continuation of regional planning organizations within the state; and provision for technical aid and the administration of financial assistance to regional planning organizations". This proposal was approved by the Census Bureau in 2022, and will be fully implemented by 2024. Connecticut shares with the rest of New England a governmental institution called the New England town. The state is divided into 169 towns which serve as the fundamental political jurisdictions. Naugatuck is a consolidated town and borough. Politics Connecticut is a blue state. As of 2024, both of its U.S. Senators, all five of its U.S. House representatives, as well as its Governor, Lt. Governor, Attorney General, and Secretary of State, are members of the Democratic Party. The last Republican presidential candidate to win Connecticut's votes in the Electoral College was George H. W. Bush in 1988.Registered votersConnecticut residents who register to vote may declare an affiliation to a political party, may become unaffiliated at will, and may change affiliations subject to certain waiting periods. , around 58% of registered voters are enrolled in a political party. The Democratic Party of Connecticut is the largest party in the state by voter registration, with 36% of voters, followed by the Connecticut Republican Party with approximately 21%. An additional 1.6% are registered to third parties. As of 2022, 4 third parties have statewide enrollment privileges (meaning any state resident may register as a member), including the Libertarian Party of Connecticut, the Independent Party of Connecticut, the Connecticut Green Party, and the Connecticut Working Families Party. Connecticut allows electoral fusion, where the same candidate can run on the ballot of more than one political party; this is often used by the Connecticut Working Families Party to cross-endorse Democratic candidates. {| class=wikitable ! colspan 6 | Party registration as of October 31, 2024 |- ! colspan = 2 | Party ! Total voters ! Percentage |- | | Unaffiliated | align=center | 1,066,435 | align=center | 42.1% |- | | Democratic | align=center | 900,721 | align=center | 35.6% |- | | Republican | align=center | 524,977 | align=center | 20.7% |- | |Minor parties | align=center | 39,466 | align=center | 1.6% |- ! colspan = 2 | Total ! align=center | 2,531,599 ! align=center | 100% |} Voting In July 2009, the Connecticut legislature overrode a veto by Governor M. Jodi Rell to pass SustiNet, the first significant public-option health care reform legislation in the nation. In April 2012, both houses of the Connecticut state legislature passed a bill (20 to 16 and 86 to 62) that abolished capital punishment for all future crimes, while 11 inmates who were waiting on the death row at the time could still be executed. Education motto means "light and truth".]]Connecticut ranked third in the nation for educational performance, according to Education Week's Quality Counts 2018 report. It earned an overall score of 83.5 out of 100 points. On average, the country received a score of 75.2. Connecticut posted a B-plus in the Chance-for-Success category, ranking fourth on factors that contribute to a person's success both within and outside the K-12 education system. Connecticut received a mark of B-plus and finished fourth for School Finance. It ranked 12th with a grade of C on the K-12 Achievement Index. Notable private schools include Choate Rosemary Hall, The Hotchkiss School, Loomis Chaffee School, and Taft School. Colleges and universities Connecticut was home to the nation's first law school, Litchfield Law School, which operated from 1773 to 1833 in Litchfield. Well known universities in the state include Yale University, Wesleyan University, Trinity College, Sacred Heart University, Fairfield University, Quinnipiac University, and the University of Connecticut. The Connecticut State University System includes 4 state universities, and the state also has 12 community colleges. The United States Coast Guard Academy is located in New London. Sports There are two Connecticut teams in the American Hockey League. The Bridgeport Islanders is a farm team for the New York Islanders which competes at the Total Mortgage Arena in Bridgeport. The Hartford Wolf Pack is an affiliate of the New York Rangers; they play in the XL Center in Hartford. The Hartford Yard Goats of the Double-A Northeast are a AA affiliate of the Colorado Rockies. Also, the Norwich Sea Unicorns play in the Futures Collegiate Baseball League. The New Britain Bees play in the Atlantic League of Professional Baseball. The Connecticut Sun of the WNBA currently play at the Mohegan Sun Arena in Uncasville. In soccer, Hartford Athletic began play in the USL Championship in 2019. The state hosts several major sporting events. Since 1952, a PGA Tour golf tournament has been played in the Hartford area. It was originally called the "Insurance City Open" and later the "Greater Hartford Open" and is now known as the Travelers Championship. , a home of the American Le Mans Series]] Lime Rock Park in Salisbury is a road racing course, home to the International Motor Sports Association, SCCA, United States Auto Club, and K&N Pro Series East races. Thompson International Speedway, Stafford Motor Speedway, and Waterford Speedbowl are oval tracks holding weekly races for NASCAR Modifieds and other classes, including the NASCAR Whelen Modified Tour. The state also hosts several major mixed martial arts events for Bellator MMA and the Ultimate Fighting Championship.Professional sports teamsThe Hartford Whalers of the National Hockey League played in Hartford from 1975 to 1997 at the Hartford Civic Center. They departed to Raleigh, North Carolina, after disputes with the state over the construction of a new arena, and they are now known as the Carolina Hurricanes. A baseball team known as the Hartfords (or Hartford Dark Blues) played in the National Association from 1874 to 1875, before becoming charter members of the National League in 1876. The team moved to Brooklyn, New York, and then disbanded one season later. In 1926, Hartford also had a franchise in the National Football League known as the Hartford Blues. From 2000 until 2006 the city was home to the Hartford FoxForce of World TeamTennis. {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !Team !Sport !League |- |Bridgeport Islanders |Ice hockey |American Hockey League |- |Hartford Wolf Pack |Ice hockey |American Hockey League |- |Hartford Yard Goats |Baseball |Double-A Northeast |- |Norwich Sea Unicorns |Baseball |Futures Collegiate Baseball League |- |New Britain Bees |Baseball |Futures Collegiate Baseball League |- |Connecticut Sun |Basketball |Women's National Basketball Association |- |- |Hartford Athletic |Soccer |USL Championship |- | AC Connecticut | Soccer | USL League Two |} College sports " between Yale and Harvard. The Bowl was also the home of the NFL's New York Giants in 1973–74.]] The Connecticut Huskies are the team of the University of Connecticut (UConn); they play NCAA Division I sports. Both the men's basketball and women's basketball teams have won multiple national championships. In 2004, UConn became the first school in NCAA DivisionI history to have its men's and women's basketball programs win the national title in the same year; they repeated the feat in 2014 and are still the only DivisionI school to win both titles in the same year. The UConn women's basketball team holds the record for the longest consecutive winning streak in NCAA college basketball at 111 games, a streak that ended in 2017. Both teams play in the historic Harry A. Gampel Pavilion and XL Center in Hartford. The UConn Huskies football team has played in the Football Bowl Subdivision since 2002, and has played in four bowl games. New Haven biennially hosts "The Game" between the Yale Bulldogs and the Harvard Crimson, the country's second-oldest college football rivalry. Yale alumnus Walter Camp is deemed the "Father of American Football", and he helped develop modern football while living in New Haven. Other Connecticut universities which feature DivisionI sports teams are Quinnipiac University, Fairfield University, Central Connecticut State University and Sacred Heart University. Etymology and symbols |shell = Eastern oyster |ship = , |slogan = Full of Surprises |song = |tartan = [http://portal.ct.gov/About/State-Symbols/The-State-Tartan/ Connecticut State Tartan] |image_route = Connecticut Highway 15.svg |image_quarter = 1999 CT Proof.png |quarter_release_date = 1999 }} The name "Connecticut" originated with the Mohegan word quonehtacut, meaning "place of long tidal river". Connecticut's official nickname is "The Constitution State", adopted in 1959 and based on its colonial constitution of 1638–1639 which was the first in America and, arguably, the world. Connecticut is also unofficially known as "The Nutmeg State", "Nutmegger" is sometimes used, as is "Yankee". The official state song is "Yankee Doodle". The traditional abbreviation of the state's name is "Conn."; the official postal abbreviation is CT. Commemorative stamps issued by the United States Postal Service with Connecticut themes include Nathan Hale, Eugene O'Neill, Josiah Willard Gibbs, Noah Webster, Eli Whitney, the whaling ship the Charles W. Morgan, which is docked at Mystic Seaport, and a decoy of a broadbill duck. <gallery widths"200px" heights"160px"> File:Charter Oak in Hartford CT.jpg|The Charter Oak File:SS-571-Nautilus-trials.gif|The </gallery> {| class"wikitable" style"margin: 1em auto 1em auto" |+ Connecticut state insignia and historical figures<br /><sup>Source Sites, Seals & Symbols except where noted.</sup> |- |State aircraft || Vought F4U Corsair |- |State hero || Nathan Hale |- |State heroine || Prudence Crandall |- |State composer || Charles Edward Ives |- |State statues in Statuary Hall || Roger Sherman and Jonathan Trumbull |- <!-- STATE PEOPLE, HONORARY POSTS --> |State poet laureate || Margaret Gibson |- |Connecticut State Troubadour || Nekita Waller |- |State composer laureate || Jacob Druckman |} Notable people See also * Index of Connecticut-related articles * Outline of Connecticut * List of states and territories of the United States * USS Connecticut, 7 ships Notes References External links * [https://portal.ct.gov/ Official website] * [https://ctvisit.com/ CTVisit.com]—Official tourism website * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110613102359/http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/09000.html Connecticut QuickFacts]—U.S. Census Bureau Library of Congress *[https://guides.loc.gov/connecticut-state-guide Connecticut: State Resource Guide] Category:1788 establishments in the United States Category:New England states Category:Northeastern United States Category:States and territories established in 1788 Category:States of the East Coast of the United States Category:States of the United States Category:Contiguous United States
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connecticut
2025-04-05T18:27:49.910212
6468
Country Liberal Party
| foundation |July 1974}}}} | ideology |Historical: |Populism }} | founders | merger | headquarters = 229 McMillans Road, Jingili, Northern Territory | website = | country = Australia | colours |bordersilver}} Orange (official)<br />|border=silver}} Blue (occasionally customary) | leader1_title = Leader | leader1_name = Lia Finocchiaro | leader2_title = Deputy Leader | leader2_name = Gerard Maley | leader3_title = President | leader3_name = Shane Stone | leader4_title = Senate Leader | leader4_name = Jacinta Nampijinpa Price | position | national = Liberal–National Coalition | youth_wing = Young Country Liberals | slogan = The Territory Party <!-- Unused parameter: Holds government: Federal (in Coalition) --> | seats1_title = Legislative Assembly | seats1 = }} | seats2_title = House of Representatives | seats2 = }} (NT seats) | seats3_title = Senate | seats3 = }} (NT seats) }} The Country Liberal Party of the Northern Territory (CLP), commonly known as the Country Liberals, is a centre-right and conservative political party in Australia's Northern Territory. In territory politics, it operates in a two-party system with the Australian Labor Party (ALP). It also contests federal elections as an affiliate of the Liberal Party of Australia and National Party of Australia, the two partners in the federal coalition. The CLP originated in 1971 as a division of the Country Party (later renamed the National Party), the first local branches of which were formed in 1966. It adopted its current name in 1974 to attract Liberal Party supporters, but maintained a sole affiliation with the Country Party until 1979, when it acquired observer status with the Liberals while maintaining full voting rights in the Country Party. The party dominated the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly from the inaugural election in 1974 through to its defeat at the 2001 election, winning eight consecutive elections and providing the territory's first seven chief ministers. Following its defeat in 2001, the party did not return to power until 2012, but was defeated at the 2016 election. It remained in opposition until the 2024 election, in which it regained government in a landslide and the party's leader Lia Finocchiaro, who was elected party leader and leader of the opposition in February 2020, became Chief Minister. At federal level, the CLP contests elections for the Northern Territory's House of Representatives and Senate seats, which also cover the Australian Indian Ocean Territories. It is registered with the Australian Electoral Commission (AEC). Its candidates do not form a separate parliamentary party but instead join either the Liberal or National party rooms – for instance, CLP senator Nigel Scullion was a long-serving deputy leader of the Nationals. Its sole current federal legislator Jacinta Nampijinpa Price, also a senator, sits with the National Party. The CLP's constitution describes it as an "independent conservative" party and commits it to Northern Territory statehood. It has typically prioritised economic development of the territory and originally drew most of its support from Outback towns and the pastoral industry. It later developed a voter base among the urban middle-class populations of Darwin, Palmerston and Alice Springs (the latter two of which are strongholds for the party). The CLP party provided the territory's first Indigenous MP (Hyacinth Tungutalum) and Australia's first Indigenous head of government (Adam Giles). History Origins A party system did not develop in the Northern Territory until the 1960s, due to its small population and lack of regular elections. The Australian Labor Party (ALP) contested elections as early as 1905, but rarely faced an organised opposition; anti-Labor candidates usually stood as independents. The regionalist North Australia Party (NAP), established by Lionel Rose for the 1965 Legislative Council election, has been cited as a predecessor of the CLP. A Darwin branch of the Country Party was established on 20 July 1966, following by an Alice Springs branch on 29 July. The creation of the branches was spurred by the upcoming 1966 federal election and the announcement by the Northern Territory's federal MP Jock Nelson that he would be retiring from politics. The Country Party achieved its first electoral success with the election of Sam Calder as Nelson's replacement. It subsequently won four out of eleven seats at the 1968 Legislative Council election. A third branch of the party was established in Katherine in February 1971. The branches affiliated with the Federal Council of the Australian Country Party in July 1971, establishing a formal entity with a central council, executive and annual conference. The party was formally named the "Australian Country Party – Northern Territory". The Country Party primarily drew its support from Alice Springs, small towns, and the pastoral industry, including "a fair proportion of the non-urban Aboriginal vote". The party did not have a strong presence in Darwin. A branch of the Liberal Party, the Country Party's coalition partner at a federal level, had been established in Darwin in 1966, representing commercial interests and urban professionals. The Liberals fielded candidates at the 1968 Legislative Council elections, but by 1970 the local branch had ceased to function. In 1973, the Country Party began actively working to include Liberal supporters within its organisation, spurred by the Whitlam government's announcement of a fully elective Northern Territory Legislative Assembly. Following informal negotiations led by Goff Letts, a joint committee was established to determine changes to the Country Party's constitution and policy. These were officially approved, along with the adoption of the name Country Liberal Party, at the party's annual conference in Alice Springs on 20 July 1974. Per its 2018 constitution, the party reckons 1974 as its founding date. 1974–2001: Foundation and early dominance The Whitlam government passed legislation in 1974 to establish a fully elected unicameral Northern Territory Legislative Assembly, replacing the previous partly elected Legislative Council, which had been in existence since 1947. The CLP won 17 out of 19 seats at the inaugural elections in October 1974, with independents holding the other two seats. Goff Letts became the inaugural majority leader, a title changed to chief minister after the granting of self-government in 1978. The CLP governed the Northern Territory from 1974 until the 2001 election. During this time, it never faced more than nine opposition members. Indeed, the CLP's dominance was so absolute that its internal politics were seen as a bigger threat than any opposition party. This was especially pronounced in the mid-1980s, when a series of party-room coups resulted in the Territory having three Chief Ministers during the 1983–87 term and also saw the creation of the Northern Territory Nationals as a short-lived splinter group under the leadership of former CLP chief minister Ian Tuxworth. According to ABC election analyst Antony Green, the CLP weathered these severe ructions because Territory Labor was "unelectable" at the time. The Whitlam government also passed legislation to give the Northern Territory and Australian Capital Territory (ACT) representation in the federal Senate, with each territory electing two senators. Bernie Kilgariff was elected as the CLP's first senator at the 1975 federal election, sitting alongside Sam Calder in the parliamentary National Country Party. On 3 February 1979 a special conference of the CLP resolved that "the Federal CLP Parliamentarians be permitted to sit in the Party Rooms of their choice in Canberra". Despite personal misgivings, Kilgariff chose to sit with the parliamentary Liberal Party from 8 March 1979 in order that the CLP have representation in both parties, a practice which has been maintained where possible. 2001–2012: In opposition At the 2001 election, the Australian Labor Party won government by one seat, ending 27 years of CLP government. In the 2004 federal election, the CLP held one seat in the House of Representatives, and one seat in the Senate. The CLP lost its federal lower house seat in the 2007 federal election, defeating the incumbent Labor government led by Paul Henderson. In the lead up to the Territory election, CLP Senator Nigel Scullion sharply criticised the Federal Labor government for its suspension of the live cattle trade to Indonesia - an economic mainstay of the territory. The election victory ended 11 years of ALP rule in the Northern Territory. The victory was also notable for the support it achieved from indigenous people in pastoral and remote electorates. Large swings were achieved in remote Territory electorates (where the indigenous population comprised around two-thirds of voters) and a total of five Aboriginal CLP candidates won election to the Assembly. Among the indigenous candidates elected were high-profile Aboriginal activist Bess Price and former ALP member Alison Anderson. Anderson was appointed Minister for Indigenous Advancement. In a nationally reported speech in November 2012, Anderson condemned welfare dependency and a culture of entitlement in her first ministerial statement on the status of Aboriginal communities in the Territory and said the CLP would focus on improving education and on helping create real jobs for indigenous people. Leadership spills Adam Giles replaced Mills as Chief Minister of the Northern Territory and party leader at the 2013 CLP leadership ballot on 13 March while Mills was on a trade mission in Japan. Giles was sworn in as Chief Minister on 14 March, becoming the first indigenous head of government of an Australian state or territory. Willem Westra van Holthe challenged Giles at the 2015 CLP leadership ballot on 2 February and was elected leader by the party room in a late night vote conducted by phone. However, Giles refused to resign as Chief Minister following the vote. On 3 February, ABC News reported that officials were preparing an instrument for Giles' removal by the Administrator. The swearing-in of Westra van Holthe, which had been scheduled for 11:00 local time (01:30 UTC), was delayed. After a meeting of the parliamentary wing of the CLP, Giles announced that he would remain as party leader and Chief Minister, and that Westra van Holthe would be his deputy. Defections and minority government After four defections during the parliamentary term, the CLP was reduced to minority government by July 2015. Giles raised the possibility of an early election on 20 July stating that he would "love" to call a snap poll, but that it was "pretty much impossible to do". Crossbenchers dismissed the notion of voting against a confidence motion to bring down the government. Federally, a MediaReach seat-level opinion poll of 513 voters in the seat of Solomon conducted 22−23 June ahead of the 2016 federal election held on 2 July surprisingly found Labor candidate Luke Gosling heavily leading two-term CLP incumbent Natasha Griggs 61–39 on the two-party vote from a large 12.4 percent swing. The CLP lost Solomon to Labor at the election, with Gosling defeating Griggs 56–44 on the two-party vote from a 7.4 percent swing. Polling ahead of the 2016 Territory election indicated a large swing against the CLP, including a near-total collapse in Darwin/Palmerston. By the time the writs were dropped, commentators had almost universally written off the CLP. At 27 August Territory election, the CLP was swept from power in a massive Labor landslide, suffering easily the worst defeat of a sitting government in Territory history and one of the worst defeats a governing party has ever suffered at the state or territory level in Australia. The party not only lost all of the bush seats it picked up in 2012, but was all but shut out of Darwin/Palmerston, winning only one seat there. All told, the CLP only won two seats, easily its worst showing in an election. Giles himself lost his own seat, becoming the second Majority Leader/Chief Minister to lose his own seat. Even before Giles' defeat was confirmed, second-term MP Gary Higgins—the only surviving member of the Giles cabinet—was named the party's new leader, with Lia Finocchiaro as his deputy. On 20 January 2020, Higgins announced his resignation as party leader and announced his retirement at the next election. Finocchiaro succeeded him as CLP leader and leader of the opposition on 1 February 2020. Finocchiaro led the CLP to a modest recovery at the 2020 Territory election. The CLP picked up a six-seat swing, boosting its seat count to eight. However, it failed to make significant inroads in the Darwin/Palmerston area, winning only two seats there, including that of Finocchiaro. The CLP lost the seat of Daly to Labor in a 2021 by-election, the first time an incumbent government had won a seat from the opposition in territory history. The CLP won a landslide victory in the 2024 Northern Territory general election. 2024–present: Return to government Ideology The CLP stands for office in the Northern Territory Assembly and Federal Parliament of Australia and primarily concerns itself with representing Territory interests. It is a regionally based party, that has parliamentary representation in both the Federal Parliament and at the territory level. It brands as a party with strong roots in the Territory. The CLP competes against the Territory Labor Party (the local branch of Australia's largest social democratic party). It is closely affiliated with, but is independent from the Liberal Party of Australia (a mainly urban, pro-business party comprising mainly liberal membership) and the National Party of Australia (a conservative and regional interests party). The foreword to the constitution of the party describes it as an "independent conservative political party". The party promotes traditional Liberal Party values such as individualism and private enterprise, and what it describes as "progressive" political policy such as full statehood for the Northern Territory.Voter base Traditionally, the CLP's voting base has been mostly concentrated in Palmerston, Alice Springs, Katherine and parts of Darwin, as well as in rural towns where the majority of people are white. Initially, remote Indigenous communities around Australia voted strongly for Labor, but in recent years, Indigenous Australians have been more frequently voting for the Coalition, particularly in remote communities. At the same time, Labor has become stronger in Darwin and Palmerston. At the 2012 general election, the CLP won government by gaining five remote seats where the majority of the population identify as Aboriginal and that were traditionally considered safe seats for Labor. In 2016, the CLP was defeated by Labor in a landslide, and thus lost most of its ground territory-wide. However, in 2020, the CLP gained back some of its ground in remote areas (including narrowly gaining the seat of Barkly, which they did not win in 2012, with a huge swing to them). The CLP's rule was once so tight, that a former minister once said the CLP had a "'rightful inheritance of being the party that runs this place'". Demographics A 2023 poll conducted by the Redbridge Group, which found that the CLP would win the 2024 general election in a landslide, looked at demographics by voting intention in the Northern Territory. The poll found that the CLP has a support base among many demographics. The poll found that the CLP is overwhelmingly more popular than Labor among middle and high-income earners and people over 40, and that the CLP had more support than Labor among both Indigenous and non-Indigenous people, English and non-English speakers, and both men and women. The poll found that people aged between 18 and 40 are still more likely to vote for the CLP than they are any party, but by a smaller margin than people over 40. As less parties and candidates contest Northern Territory general elections than they do Australian federal elections in the Northern Territory, the CLP, Labor and independents usually have a higher vote share at territory elections than at federal elections in the Northern Territory due to the absence of right-wing minor parties such as Pauline Hanson's One Nation and the fact that the Greens do not run in every seat at territory elections. On the territory level, the Redbridge poll found that 25% of One Nation supporters would vote for the CLP on the territory level, second to only the Shooters, Fishers and Farmers Party (SFF) at 33%. }} See also *2016 Northern Territory general election Notes References Further reading * * Category:Liberal Party of Australia Category:National Party of Australia Category:Conservative parties in Australia Category:Political parties established in 1974 Category:Political parties in the Northern Territory Category:Political schisms Category:1974 establishments in Australia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Country_Liberal_Party
2025-04-05T18:27:49.939015
6469
Canon law
Canon law (from , , a 'straight measuring rod, ruler') is a set of ordinances and regulations made by ecclesiastical authority (church leadership) for the government of a Christian organization or church and its members. The way that such church law is legislated, interpreted and at times adjudicated varies widely among these four bodies of churches. In all three traditions, a canon was originally a rule adopted by a church council; these canons formed the foundation of canon law. Etymology Greek / , Arabic / , Hebrew / , 'straight'; a rule, code, standard, or measure; the root meaning in all these languages is 'reed'; see also the Romance-language ancestors of the English word cane. In the fourth century, the First Council of Nicaea (325) calls canons the disciplinary measures of the church: the term canon, κανὠν, means in Greek, a rule. There is a very early distinction between the rules enacted by the church and the legislative measures taken by the state called , Latin for laws. or Ecclesiastical Canons of the Same Holy Apostles is a collection of ancient ecclesiastical decrees (eighty-five in the Eastern, fifty in the Western Church) concerning the government and discipline of the Early Christian Church, incorporated with the Apostolic Constitutions which are part of the Ante-Nicene Fathers. Catholic Church In the Catholic Church, canon law is the system of laws and legal principles made and enforced by the church's hierarchical authorities to regulate its external organization and government and to order and direct the activities of Catholics toward the mission of the church. It was the first modern Western legal system and is the oldest continuously functioning legal system in the West. In the Latin Church, positive ecclesiastical laws, based directly or indirectly upon immutable divine law or natural law, derive formal authority in the case of universal laws from the supreme legislator (i.e., the Supreme Pontiff), who possesses the totality of legislative, executive, and judicial power in his person, while particular laws derive formal authority from a legislator inferior to the supreme legislator. The actual subject material of the canons is not just doctrinal or moral in nature, but all-encompassing of the human condition, and therefore extending beyond what is taken as revealed truth. The Catholic Church also includes the main five rites (groups) of churches which are in full union with the Holy See and the Latin Church: Alexandrian Rite Churches which include the Coptic Catholic Church, Eritrean Catholic Church, and Ethiopian Catholic Church. West Syriac Rite which includes the Maronite Church, Syriac Catholic Church and the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church. Armenian Rite Church which includes the Armenian Catholic Church. Byzantine Rite Churches which include the Albanian Greek Catholic Church, Belarusian Greek Catholic Church, Bulgarian Greek Catholic Church, Greek Catholic Church of Croatia and Serbia, Greek Byzantine Catholic Church, Hungarian Greek Catholic Church, Italo-Albanian Catholic Church, Macedonian Greek Catholic Church, Melkite Greek Catholic Church, Romanian Greek Catholic Church, Russian Greek Catholic Church, Ruthenian Greek Catholic Church, Slovak Greek Catholic Church and Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church. East Syriac Rite Churches which includes the Chaldean Catholic Church and Syro-Malabar Church. All of these church groups are in full communion with the Supreme Pontiff and are subject to the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches. History, sources of law, and codifications thumb|left|upright=1.35|Image of pages from the of Burchard of Worms, an 11th-century book of canon law The Catholic Church has what is claimed to be the oldest continuously functioning internal legal system in Western Europe, much later than Roman law but predating the evolution of modern European civil law traditions. The history of Latin canon law can be divided into four periods: the jus antiquum, the jus novum, the jus novissimum and the Code of Canon Law. In relation to the Code, history can be divided into the jus vetus (all law before the Code) and the jus novum (the law of the Code, or jus codicis). Catholic canon law as legal system Roman Catholic canon law is a fully developed legal system, with all the necessary elements: courts, lawyers, judges, a fully articulated legal code, principles of legal interpretation, and coercive penalties, though it lacks civilly-binding force in most secular jurisdictions. One example where conflict between secular and canon law occurred was in the English legal system, as well as systems, such as the U.S., that derived from it. Here criminals could apply for the benefit of clergy. Being in holy orders, or fraudulently claiming to be, meant that criminals could opt to be tried by ecclesiastical rather than secular courts. The ecclesiastical courts were generally more lenient. Under the Tudors, the scope of clerical benefit was steadily reduced by Henry VII, Henry VIII, and Elizabeth I. The papacy disputed secular authority over priests' criminal offenses. The benefit of clergy was systematically removed from English legal systems over the next 200 years, although it still occurred in South Carolina in 1855. In English Law, the use of this mechanism, which by that point was a legal fiction used for first offenders, was abolished by the Criminal Law Act 1827. The academic degrees in Catholic canon law are the J.C.B. (Juris Canonici Baccalaureatus, Bachelor of Canon Law, normally taken as a graduate degree), J.C.L. (Juris Canonici Licentiatus, Licentiate of Canon Law) and the J.C.D. (Juris Canonici Doctor, Doctor of Canon Law). Because of its specialized nature, advanced degrees in civil law or theology are normal prerequisites for the study of canon law. Much of Catholic canon law's legislative style was adapted from the Roman Code of Justinian. As a result, Roman ecclesiastical courts tend to follow the Roman Law style of continental Europe with some variation, featuring collegiate panels of judges and an investigative form of proceeding, called "inquisitorial", from the Latin "inquirere", to enquire. This is in contrast to the adversarial form of proceeding found in the common law system of English and U.S. law, which features such things as juries and single judges. The institutions and practices of Catholic canon law paralleled the legal development of much of Europe, and consequently, both modern civil law and common law bear the influences of canon law. As Edson Luiz Sampel, a Brazilian expert in Catholic canon law, says, canon law is contained in the genesis of various institutes of civil law, such as the law in continental Europe and Latin American countries. Indirectly, canon law has significant influence in contemporary society. Catholic Canonical jurisprudential theory generally follows the principles of Aristotelian-Thomistic legal philosophy. the Catechism of the Catholic Church cites Aquinas in defining law as "an ordinance of reason for the common good, promulgated by the one who is in charge of the community" and reformulates it as "a rule of conduct enacted by competent authority for the sake of the common good". Code for the Eastern Churches The law of the Eastern Catholic Churches in full communion with the Roman papacy was in much the same state as that of the Latin Church before 1917; much more diversity in legislation existed in the various Eastern Catholic Churches. Each had its own special law, in which custom still played an important part. One major difference in Eastern Europe however, specifically in the Eastern Orthodox Christian churches, was in regards to divorce. Divorce started to slowly be allowed in specific instances such as adultery being committed, abuse, abandonment, impotence, and barrenness being the primary justifications for divorce. Eventually, the church began to allow remarriage to occur (for both spouses) post-divorce. but finalized nearly 30 years later. After the Second Vatican Council (1962 - 1965), the Vatican produced the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches which became the first code of Eastern Catholic Canon Law. Eastern Orthodox Church The Eastern Orthodox Church, principally through the work of 18th-century Athonite monastic scholar Nicodemus the Hagiorite, has compiled canons and commentaries upon them in a work known as the (, 'Rudder'), so named because it is meant to "steer" the church in her discipline. The dogmatic determinations of the Councils are to be applied rigorously since they are considered to be essential for the church's unity and the faithful preservation of the Gospel. Anglican Communion In the Church of England, the ecclesiastical courts that formerly decided many matters such as disputes relating to marriage, divorce, wills, and defamation, still have jurisdiction of certain church-related matters (e.g. discipline of clergy, alteration of church property, and issues related to churchyards). Their separate status dates back to the 12th century when the Normans split them off from the mixed secular/religious county and local courts used by the Saxons. In contrast to the other courts of England, the law used in ecclesiastical matters is at least partially a civil law system, not common law, although heavily governed by parliamentary statutes. Since the Reformation, ecclesiastical courts in England have been royal courts. The teaching of canon law at the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge was abrogated by Henry VIII; thereafter practitioners in the ecclesiastical courts were trained in civil law, receiving a Doctor of Civil Law (D.C.L.) degree from Oxford, or a Doctor of Laws (LL.D.) degree from Cambridge. Such lawyers (called "doctors" and "civilians") were centered at "Doctors Commons", a few streets south of St Paul's Cathedral in London, where they monopolized probate, matrimonial, and admiralty cases until their jurisdiction was removed to the common law courts in the mid-19th century. Other churches in the Anglican Communion around the world (e.g., the Episcopal Church in the United States and the Anglican Church of Canada) still function under their own private systems of canon law. In 2002 a Legal Advisors Consultation meeting at Canterbury concluded:(1) There are principles of canon law common to the churches within the Anglican Communion; (2) Their existence can be factually established; (3) Each province or church contributes through its own legal system to the principles of canon law common within the Communion; (4) these principles have strong persuasive authority and are fundamental to the self-understanding of each of the member churches; (5) These principles have a living force, and contain within themselves the possibility for further development; and (6) The existence of the principles both demonstrates and promotes unity in the Communion. Presbyterian and Reformed churches In Presbyterian and Reformed churches, canon law is known as "practice and procedure" or "church order", and includes the church's laws respecting its government, discipline, legal practice, and worship. Roman canon law had been criticized by the Presbyterians as early as 1572 in the Admonition to Parliament. The protest centered on the standard defense that canon law could be retained so long as it did not contradict the civil law. According to Polly Ha, the Reformed church government refuted this, claiming that the bishops had been enforcing canon law for 1500 years. Lutheranism The Book of Concord is the historic doctrinal statement of the Lutheran Church, consisting of ten credal documents recognized as authoritative in Lutheranism since the 16th century. However, the Book of Concord is a confessional document (stating orthodox belief) rather than a book of ecclesiastical rules or discipline, like canon law. Each Lutheran national church establishes its own system of church order and discipline, though these are referred to as "canons". United Methodist Church The Book of Discipline contains the laws, rules, policies, and guidelines for The United Methodist Church. Its latest edition was published in 2024. See also Abrogation of Old Covenant laws Akribeia Canon law (Church of England) Canon law (Episcopal Church in the United States) Canonical Inquisition Collections of ancient canons Doctor of both laws Economy (religion) Fetha Nagast Halakha Ius remonstrandi List of canon lawyers Religious law Rule according to higher law Sharia State religion References Further reading Baker, J.H. An Introduction to English Legal History, 4th edn. London: Butterworths, 2002. Beal, John P., James A. Coriden, & Thomas J. Green. New Commentary on the Code of Canon Law. New York: Paulist Press, 2000. Brundage, James A. The Medieval Origins of the Legal Profession: Canonists, Civilians, and Courts. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, c2008. Brundage, James A. Medieval Canon Law. London/New York: Longman, 1995. Coriden, James A. An Introduction to Canon Law, 3rd edn., revised & updated. New York: Paulist Press, 2019. Coriden, James A., Thomas J. Green, & Donald E. Heintschel, eds. The Code of Canon Law: A Text and Commentary. New York: Paulist Press, 1985. Coughlin, John J., O.F.M. Canon Law: A Comparative Study with Anglo-American Legal Theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010. Della Rocca, Fernando. Manual of Canon Law. Trans. by Rev. Anselm Thatcher, O.S.B. Milwaukee: The Bruce Publishing Company, 1959. The Episcopal Church. Constitution and Canons, together with the Rules of Order for the Government of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America, otherwise known as The Episcopal Church. New York: Church Publishing, Inc., 2006. Hartmann, Wilfried & Kenneth Pennington, eds. The History of Medieval Canon Law in the Classical Period, 1140-1234: From Gratian to the Decretals of Pope Gregory IX. Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press, 2008. Hartmann, Wilfried & Kenneth Penningon, eds. The History of Byzantine and Eastern Canon Law to 1500. Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press, 2011. R. C. Mortimer. Western Canon Law. London: A. and C. Black, 1953. Robinson, O.F., T.D. Fergus, & W.M. Gordon. European Legal History, 3rd edn. London: Butterworths, 2000. Ulanov, M. S., Badmaev, V. N., Holland, E. C. Buddhism and Kalmyk Secular Law in the Seventeenth to Nineteenth Centuries. Inner Asia. no. 19. P. 297–314. Wagschal, David. Law and Legality in the Greek East: The Byzantine Canonical Tradition, 381–883. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015. Witte, John Jr. & Frank S. Alexander, eds. Christianity and Law: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008. On Armenian Oriental canon law. External links Catholic Codex Iuris Canonici (1983), original text in Latin (the only official text) Code of Canon Law (1983) but with the 1998 modification of canons 750 and 1371, English translation by the Canon Law Society of America, on the Vatican website Code of Canon Law (1983), English translation by the Canon Law Society of Great Britain and Ireland, assisted by the Canon Law Society of Australia and New Zealand and the Canadian Canon Law Society Codex canonum ecclesiarum orientalium (1990), original text in Latin "Code of canons of Oriental Churchs" (1990), English translation Codex Iuris Canonici (1917), original text in Latin Anglican "Canons of the Church of England" * Category:Christian terminology Category:Religious law
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_law
2025-04-05T18:27:49.964951
6501
Columbanus
| death_place = Bobium, Kingdom of the Lombards | venerated_in = Eastern Orthodox Church<br />Roman Catholic Church | beatified_date | beatified_place | beatified_by | canonized_date | canonized_place | canonized_by | major_shrine | feast_day 23 November | attributes | patronage }} Saint Columbanus (; 543 – 23 November 615) was an Irish missionary notable for founding a number of monasteries after 590 in the Frankish and Lombard kingdoms, most notably Luxeuil Abbey in present-day France and Bobbio Abbey in present-day Italy. Columbanus taught an Irish monastic rule and penitential practices for those repenting of sins, which emphasised private confession to a priest, followed by penances imposed by the priest in reparation for the sins. Columbanus is one of the earliest identifiable Hiberno-Latin writers. and Jonas of Susa's Vita Columbani (Life of Columbanus), which was written between 639 and 641. Jonas entered Bobbio after Columbanus' death but relied on reports of monks who still knew Columbanus. A description of miracles of Columbanus written by an anonymous monk of Bobbio is of much later date. In the second volume of his Acta Sanctorum O.S.B., Mabillon gives the life in full, together with an appendix on the miracles of Columbanus, written by an anonymous member of the Bobbio community. Under Sinell's instruction, Columbanus composed a commentary on the Psalms. Columbanus then moved to Bangor Abbey where he studied to become a teacher of the Bible. when Comgall reluctantly gave him permission to travel to the continent. and landed in Saint-Malo, Brittany. the bishops assembled to judge Columbanus, but he did not appear before them as requested. Instead, he sent a letter to the prelates – a strange mixture of freedom, reverence, and charity – admonishing them to hold synods more frequently, and advising them to pay more attention to matters of equal importance to that of the date of Easter. In defence of his following his traditional paschal cycle, he wrote: | caption = Columbanus in the Alps and Italy }} Columbanus arrived in Milan in 612 and was welcomed by King Agilulf and Queen Theodelinda of the Lombards. He immediately began refuting the teachings of Arianism, which had enjoyed a degree of acceptance in Italy. He wrote a treatise against Arianism, Pope Gregory I had tolerated in Lombardy those persons who defended the Three Letters, among them King Agilulf. Columbanus agreed to take up the issue on behalf of the king. The letter has a diplomatic tone and begins with an apology that a "foolish Scot" (, Irishman) would be writing for a Lombard king. After acquainting the pope with the imputations brought against him, he entreats the pontiff to prove his orthodoxy and assemble a council. When critiquing Boniface, he writes that his freedom of speech is consistent with the custom of his country. Columbanus was tactful when making critiques, as he begins the letter he expresses with the most affectionate and impassioned devotion to the Holy See. Later, he reveals charges against the Papacy so as to encourage Boniface to make concessions: Columbanus' deference towards Rome is sufficiently clear, calling the pope "his Lord and Father in Christ", the "Chosen Watchman", and the "First Pastor, set higher than all mortals", also asserting that "we Irish, inhabitants of the world’s edge, are disciples of Saints Peter and Paul and of all the disciples" and that "the unity of faith has produced in the whole world a unity of power and privilege." King Agilulf gave Columbanus a tract of land called Bobbio between Milan and Genoa near the Trebbia river, situated in a defile of the Apennine Mountains, to be used as a base for the conversion of the Lombard people. The area contained a ruined church and wastelands known as Ebovium, which had formed part of the lands of the papacy prior to the Lombard invasion. Columbanus wanted this secluded place, for while enthusiastic in the instruction of the Lombards he preferred solitude for his monks and himself. Next to the little church, which was dedicated to Peter the Apostle, Columbanus erected a monastery in 614. Bobbio Abbey at its foundation followed the Rule of Saint Columbanus, based on the monastic practices of Celtic Christianity. For centuries it remained the stronghold of orthodoxy in northern Italy. Columbanus died at Bobbio on 21 November 615 and is buried there. In the first chapter, Columbanus introduces the great principle of his Rule: obedience, absolute and unreserved. The words of seniors should always be obeyed, just as "Christ obeyed the Father up to death for us". In the second chapter, Columbanus instructs that the rule of silence be "carefully observed", since it is written: "But the nurture of righteousness is silence and peace". He also warns, "Justly will they be damned who would not say just things when they could, but preferred to say with garrulous loquacity what is evil". In the eighth chapter, Columbanus stresses the importance of discretion in the lives of monks to avoid "the downfall of some, who beginning without discretion and passing their time without a sobering knowledge, have been unable to complete a praiseworthy life". Monks are instructed to pray to God to "illumine this way, surrounded on every side by the world's thickest darkness". Columbanus' Rule regarding diet was very strict. Monks were to eat a limited diet of beans, vegetables, flour mixed with water and a small bread of a loaf, taken in the evenings. The habit of the monks consisted of a tunic of undyed wool, over which was worn the cuculla, or cowl, of the same material. A great deal of time was devoted to various kinds of manual labour, not unlike the life in monasteries of other rules. The Rule of Saint Columbanus was approved of by the Fourth Council of Mâcon in 627, but it was superseded at the close of the century by the Rule of Saint Benedict. For several centuries in some of the greater monasteries the two rules were observed conjointly.}}LegacyHistorian Alexander O'Hara states that Columbanus had a "very strong sense of Irish identity ... He's the first person to write about Irish identity, he's the first Irish person that we have a body of literary work from, so even on that point of view he’s very important in terms of Irish identity." In 1950 a congress celebrating the 1,400th anniversary of his birth took place in Luxeuil, France. It was attended by Robert Schuman, Seán MacBride, the future Pope John XXIII, and John A. Costello who said "All statesmen of today might well turn their thoughts to St Columban and his teaching. History records that it was by men like him that civilisation was saved in the 6th century." Columbanus is also remembered as the first Irish person to be the subject of a biography. An Italian monk named Jonas of Bobbio wrote a biography of him some twenty years after Columbanus' death. At Saint-Malo in Brittany, there is a granite cross bearing Columbanus's name to which people once came to pray for rain in times of drought. The nearby village of Saint-Coulomb commemorates him in name. In France, the ruins of Columbanus' first monastery at Annegray are legally protected through the efforts of the Association Internationale des Amis de St Columban, which purchased the site in 1959. The association also owns and protects the site containing the cave, which served as Columbanus' cell, and the holy well that he created nearby. These disciples of Columbanus are credited with founding more than a hundred different monasteries. The canton and town still bearing the name of St. Gallen testify to how well one of his disciples succeeded. Bobbio Abbey became a renowned center of learning in the Early Middle Ages, so famous that it rivaled the monastic community at Monte Cassino in wealth and prestige. St. Attala continued St. Columbanus' work at Bobbio, proselytizing and collecting religious texts for the abbey's library. In 2024, the XXV International Meeting of Columban Associations for the "Columban’s Day 2024" took place in Piacenza, Italy. The Holy Father said Columbanus enhanced the Catholic Church. "The life and labours of the Columban monks proved decisive for the preservation and renewal of European culture", he said. The Missionary Society of Saint Columban, founded in 1916, and the Missionary Sisters of St. Columban, founded in 1924, are both dedicated to Columbanus. Veneration crypt]] The remains of Columbanus are preserved in the crypt at Bobbio Abbey. Many miracles have been credited to his intercession. In 1482, the relics were placed in a new shrine and laid beneath the altar of the crypt. The sacristy at Bobbio possesses a portion of the skull of Columbanus, his knife, wooden cup, bell, and an ancient water vessel, formerly containing sacred relics and said to have been given to him by Pope Gregory I. According to some authorities, twelve teeth of Columbanus were taken from the tomb in the fifteenth century and kept in the treasury, but these have since disappeared. Columbanus is named in the Roman Martyrology on 23 November, which is his feast day in Ireland. His feast is observed by the Benedictines on 21 November. In art, Columbanus is represented bearded, bearing the monastic cowl, holding in his hand a book with an Irish satchel, and standing in the midst of wolves. Sometimes he is depicted in the attitude of taming a bear, or with sun-beams over his head. The Bishop of Hereford, John Oliver, suggested Columbanus as a patron of motorcyclists because of his extensive travels through Europe during his lifetime. His patronage was declared by the Vatican in 2002. References Notes Citations Bibliography * * * * * * * Gray, Patrick T. R., and Michael W. Herren (1994). "Columbanus and the Three Chapters Controversy" in Journal of Theological Studies, NS, 45, pp. 160–170. * * * * * * * * * * * * * External links * * [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/columban.asp The Life of St. Columban, by the Monk Jonas] (Internet Medieval Sourcebook) * * * [http://www.knightsofstcolumbanus.ie/ The Order of the Knights of Saint Columbanus] * [https://celt.ucc.ie//published/T201053/index.html Sermons of Columbanus] (CELT) * [https://celt.ucc.ie/published/T201054/index.html Letters of Columbanus] (CELT) Category:6th-century writers in Latin Category:7th-century writers in Latin Category:543 births Category:615 deaths Category:Irish Christian missionaries Category:Founders of Catholic religious communities Category:7th-century Christian saints Category:Burials at Bobbio Abbey Category:Medieval Irish saints Category:6th-century Irish abbots Category:7th-century Irish Christian clergy Category:People from County Meath Category:Irish expatriates in France Category:Irish expatriates in Italy Category:Medieval Irish saints on the Continent Category:Founders of Christian monasteries Category:7th-century Irish writers Category:6th-century Irish writers Category:Irish writers in Latin Category:Missionary linguists Category:People from Bobbio
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbanus
2025-04-05T18:27:49.989301
6503
Concord, New Hampshire
| image_seal = Seal of Concord, New Hampshire.png | imagesize | image_caption | image_flag = Flag of Concord, New Hampshire.jpeg | image_blank_emblem = Emblem of Concord, New Hampshire.png | blank_emblem_type = Logo | image_map = Merrimack County New Hampshire incorporated and unincorporated areas Concord highlighted.svg | mapsize = 250px | map_caption = Location in Merrimack County and the state of New Hampshire | image_map1 | mapsize1 | map_caption1 | pushpin_map USA | pushpin_label = Concord | pushpin_map_caption = Location in the United States | subdivision_type = Country | subdivision_name = United States | subdivision_type1 = State | subdivision_name1 = New Hampshire | subdivision_type2 = County | subdivision_name2 = Merrimack | subdivision_type3 = Region | subdivision_name3 = New England | government_type = Mayor–council | leader_title = Mayor | leader_name = Byron Champlin | leader_title1 = City council | leader_name1 | leader_title2 = City manager | leader_name2 = Thomas J. Aspell Jr. | established_title = Settled | established_date 1659 | established_title2 = Incorporated | established_date2 1733 | area_total_km2 = 174.02 | area_total_sq_mi = 67.19 | area_land_km2 = 165.66 | area_land_sq_mi = 63.96 | area_water_km2 = 8.36 | area_water_sq_mi = 3.23 | area_water_percent | population_as_of 2020 | population_total = 43976 | population_footnotes | timezone = EST | utc_offset = −05:00 | timezone_DST = EDT | utc_offset_DST = −04:00 | postal_code_type = ZIP Codes | postal_code = 03301, 03302, 03303, 03305 | area_code = 603 | coordinates | elevation_m = 83 | elevation_ft = 272 | blank_name = FIPS code | blank_info = 33-14200 | blank1_name = GNIS feature ID | blank1_info [http://geonames.usgs.gov/pls/gnispublic/f?pgnispq:3:::NO::P3_FID:873303 873303] | website = | footnotes | unit_pref Imperial | elevation_footnotes }} Concord () is the capital city of the U.S. state of New Hampshire and the seat of Merrimack County. As of the 2020 United States census the population was 43,976, making it the 3rd most populous city in New Hampshire after Manchester and Nashua. The area was first settled by Europeans in 1659. Interstate 89 and Interstate 93 are the two main interstate highways serving the city, and general aviation access is via Concord Municipal Airport. The nearest airport with commercial air service is Manchester–Boston Regional Airport, to the south. There has been no passenger rail service to Concord since 1981. The tribe fished for migrating salmon, sturgeon, and alewives with nets strung across the rapids of the Merrimack River. The stream was also the transportation route for their birch bark canoes, which could travel from Lake Winnipesaukee to the Atlantic Ocean. The broad sweep of the Merrimack River valley floodplain provided good soil for farming beans, gourds, pumpkins, melons and maize. The area was first settled by Europeans in 1659 as Penacook, after the Abenaki word "pannukog" meaning "bend in the river," referencing the steep bends of the Merrimack River through the area. Citizens displaced by the resulting border adjustment were given land elsewhere as compensation. In 1779, New Pennacook Plantation was granted to Timothy Walker Jr. and his associates at what would be incorporated in 1800 as Rumford, Maine, the site of Pennacook Falls. Concord grew in prominence throughout the 18th century, and some of the earliest houses from this period survive at the northern end of Main Street. In the years following the Revolution, Concord's central geographical location made it a logical choice for the state capital, particularly after Samuel Blodget in 1807 opened a canal and lock system to allow vessels passage around the Amoskeag Falls downriver, connecting Concord with Boston by way of the Middlesex Canal. In 1808, Concord was named the official seat of state government, Construction on the State House was completed in 1819, and it remains the oldest capitol in the nation in which the state's legislative branches meet in their original chambers. Concord was also named the seat of Merrimack County in 1823, and the Merrimack County Courthouse was constructed in 1857 in the North End at the site of the Old Town House. In the early 19th century, much of the city's economy was dominated by furniture-making, printing, and granite quarrying; granite had become a popular building material for many monumental halls in the early United States, and Concord granite was used in the construction of both the New Hampshire State House and the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C. In 1828, Lewis Downing joined J. Stephens Abbot to form Abbot and Downing. The State Hospital continued to expand throughout the following decades, and in 1891 Concord Hospital opened its doors as Margaret Pillsbury General Hospital, the first general hospital in the state of New Hampshire. Concord's economy changed once again in the 20th century with the declining railroad and textile industry. The city developed into a center for national politics due to New Hampshire's first-in-the-nation primary, and many presidential candidates still visit the Concord area during campaign season. The city also developed an identity within the emerging space industry, with the McAuliffe-Shepard Discovery Center opening in 1990 to commemorate Alan Shepard, the first American in space from nearby Derry, and Christa McAuliffe, a teacher at Concord High School who died in the 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger disaster. Today, Concord remains a center for politics, law, healthcare, and insurance companies. <gallery> Image:First Concord Bridge.GIF| First Concord Bridge, 1795 Image:State House, Concord, NH.jpg|State House Image:Main Street, Concord, NH.jpg|Main Street Image:City Hall, Concord, NH.jpg|City Hall in 1913 Image:Old Library, Concord, NH.jpg|Old Library Image:Post Office, Concord, NH.jpg|Old Post Office in 1910 </gallery> Geography Concord is located in south-central New Hampshire at (43.2070, −71.5371). It is north of the Massachusetts border, west of the Maine border, east of the Vermont border, and south of the Canadian border at Pittsburg. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of . of it are land and of it are water, comprising 4.81% of the city. Concord is drained by the Merrimack River. Penacook Lake, the largest lake in the city and its main source of water, is in the west. The highest point in Concord is above sea level on Oak Hill, just west of the hill's summit in neighboring Loudon. Concord lies fully within the Merrimack River watershed and is centered on the river, which runs from northwest to southeast through the city. Downtown is located on a low terrace to the west of the river, with residential neighborhoods climbing hills to the west and extending southwards towards the town of Bow. To the east of the Merrimack, atop a bluff, is a flat, sandy plain known as Concord Heights, which has seen most of the city's commercial development since 1960. The eastern boundary of Concord (with the town of Pembroke) is formed by the Soucook River, a tributary of the Merrimack. The Turkey River winds through the southwestern quarter of the city, passing through the campus of St. Paul's School before entering the Merrimack River in Bow. In the northern part of the city, the Contoocook River enters the Merrimack at the village of Penacook. Concord is north of Manchester, New Hampshire's largest city, and north of Boston. Villages The city of Concord is made up of its downtown, including its North End and South End neighborhoods, plus the four distinct villages of Penacook, Concord Heights, East Concord, and West Concord. Adjacent municipalities * Canterbury (north) * Loudon (northeast) * Pembroke (southeast) * Bow (south) * Hopkinton (west) * Webster (northwest) * Boscawen (north-northwest) Climate Concord, as with much of New England, is within the humid continental climate zone (Köppen Dfb), with long, cold, snowy winters, warm (and at times humid) summers, and relatively brief autumns and springs. In winter, successive storms deliver moderate to at times heavy snowfall amounts, contributing to the relatively reliable snow cover. In addition, lows reach below on an average 15 nights per year, and the city straddles the border between USDA Hardiness Zone 5b and 6a. However, thaws are frequent, with one to three days per month with + highs from December to February. Summer can bring stretches of humid conditions as well as thunderstorms, and there is an average of 12 days of + highs annually. The window for freezing temperatures on average begins on September 27 and expires on May 14. <br />Population estimate<br/> U.S. Decennial Census<br /> 1767-1786: NH Provincial & State Papers }} <!-- Concord has too low of a population density for a dot distribution map to show any meaningful pattern: --> As of the 2020 United States census, there were 43,976 people residing in the city. The population density was . At the 2010 Census there were 42,695 residents and 10,052 families in the city, as well as 18,852 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city in 2020 was 84.5% White, 4.9% Black or African American, 1.0% Native American, 4.9% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 0.4% from some other race, and 1.8% from two or more races. 4.9% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. In 2010 there were 17,592 households, out of which 28.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 41.3% were headed by married couples living together, 11.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 42.9% were non-families. 33.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.0% were someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.26, and the average family size was 2.90. {| class="wikitable" |+2020 census Demographics !Race !Percentage |- |White, not Hispanic or Latino |84.5% |- |Asian |4.9% |- |Black or African American |4.9% |- |Hispanic or Latino |3.1% |} Economy Top employers In 2020, the top employer in the city remained the State of New Hampshire, with over 6,000 employed workers, while the largest private employer was Concord Hospital, with just under 3,000 employees. According to the City of Concord's Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top 10 employers in the city for the Fiscal Year 2020 were: {| class="wikitable" |- ! # ! Employer ! Employees |- |1 | State of New Hampshire |6,069 |- |2 | Capital Region Health Care – Concord Hospital |2,998 |- |3 | Concord School District |809 |- |4 | City of Concord |556 |- |5 |Lincoln Financial Group |405 |- |6 | Market Basket |405 |- |7 |Genesis HealthCare |385 |- |8 | NHHEAF Network Organizations |332 |- |9 | St. Paul's School |330 |- |10 | Merrimack Valley School District |328 |} Transportation Highways Interstate 89 and Interstate 93 are the two main interstate highways serving Concord, and join just south of the city limits. Interstate 89 links Concord with Lebanon and the state of Vermont to the northwest, while Interstate 93 connects the city to Plymouth, Littleton, and the White Mountains to the north and Manchester and Boston to the south. Interstate 393 is a spur highway leading east from Concord and merging with U.S. Route 4 as a direct route to New Hampshire's Seacoast region. North-south U.S. Route 3 serves as Concord's Main Street, while U.S. Route 202 and New Hampshire Route 9 cross the city from east to west. State routes 13 and 132 also serve the city: Route 13 leads southwest out of Concord towards Goffstown and Milford, while Route 132 travels north parallel to Interstate 93. New Hampshire Route 106 passes through the easternmost part of Concord, crossing I-393 and NH 9 before crossing the Soucook River south into the town of Pembroke. To the north, NH 106 leads to Loudon, Belmont and Laconia. Railroads Historically, Concord served as an important railroad terminal and station for the Boston and Maine Railroad. The former Concord Station was located at what is now a Burlington department store on Storrs Street. The station itself was built in 1860, but the fourth and most famous iteration of the station was built in 1885, which had a brick head house designed by Bradford L. Gilbert. The head house was demolished in 1959 and replaced by a smaller "McGinnis Era" station. By 1967, all passenger rail services to Concord had been discontinued. For 13 months in 1980 and 1981, MBTA Commuter Rail ran two round trips a day between Boston and Concord. Since then, there has not been any passenger rail service to Concord. In 2021, Amtrak announced their plan to implement new service between Boston and Concord by 2035. Bus Local bus service is provided by Concord Area Transit (CAT), with three routes through the city. Regional bus service provided by Concord Coach Lines and Greyhound Lines is available from the Concord Transportation Center at 30 Stickney Avenue next to Exit 14 on Interstate 93, with service south to Boston and points in between, as well as north to Littleton and northeast to Berlin. Other modes General aviation services are available through Concord Municipal Airport, located east of downtown. There is no commercial air service within the city limits; the nearest such airport is Manchester–Boston Regional Airport, to the south. Complete Streets Improvement Project Concord's downtown underwent a significant renovation between 2015 and 2016, during the city's "Complete Streets Improvement Project". At a proposed cost of $12 million, the project promised to deliver on categories of maintenance to aging infrastructure, improved accessibility, increased sustainability, a safer experience for walkers, bikers and motorists alike, and to stimulate economic growth in an increasingly idle downtown. The main infrastructural change was reducing the four-lane street (two in each direction) to two lanes plus a turning lane in the center. The freed-up space would contribute to extra width for bikes to ride in either direction, increased curb size and an added median where there is no need for a turning lane. Concord opted to add shared lane markings for bikes, rather than a dedicated protected bike lane. By adding curb space, this project created new opportunities for pedestrians to enjoy the downtown. Many power lines were buried, and street trees, colorful benches, art installations, and other green spaces were added, all allowing people to reclaim a space long dominated by cars. Another aspect of the new construction was adding heated sidewalk capabilities, utilizing excess steam from the local Concord Steam plant, and minimizing sand and snow blowing needed during the winter months. After scrapping some of the most expensive offenders, the budget ended up at $14.2 million, with the project actually coming in $1.1 million below that. Although adding final aesthetic touches with the extra money were debated, the city council ended up deciding to save for financially straining years ahead. Notable people Government {| class"wikitable" style"float:right; margin:1em; font-size:95%;" |+ Concord city vote<br /> by party in presidential elections |- style="background:lightgrey;" ! Year ! Democratic ! Republican ! Third Parties |- |align="center" |2024 |align="center" |63.00% 15,216 |align="center" |35.90% 8,670 |align="center" |1.11% 267 |- |align="center" |2020 |align="center" |64.99% 15,511 |align="center" |33.45% 7,983 |align="center" |1.57% 374 |- |align="center" |2016 |align="center" |58.09% 12,984 |align="center" |34.95% 7,812 |align="center" |6.95% 1,554 |- |align="center" |2012 |align="center" |65.07% 14,218 |align="center" |33.52% 7,325 |align="center" |1.41% 309 |- |align="center" |2008 |align="center" |64.81% 14,302 |align="center" |33.97% 7,496 |align="center" |1.23% 271 |- |align="center" |2004 |align="center" |60.16% 12,675 |align="center" |38.97% 8,210 |align="center" |0.87% 183 |- |align="center" |2000 |align="center" |56.25% 10,025 |align="center" |39.17% 6,981 |align="center" |4.58% 817 |- |align="center" |1996 |align="center" |60.03% 9,719 |align="center" |31.39% 5,082 |align="center" |8.58% 1,389 |- |align="center" |1992 |align="center" |49.19% 8,325 |align="center" |33.39% 5,651 |align="center" |17.41% 2,947 |- |align="center" |1988 |align="center" |46.95% 6,698 |align="center" |52.15% 7,439 |align="center" |0.90% 128 |- |align="center" |1984 |align="center" |41.69% 5,172 |align="center" |57.96% 7,190 |align="center" |0.35% 43 |- |align="center" |1980 |align="center" |33.92% 4,330 |align="center" |47.72% 6,092 |align="center" |18.36% 2,343 |- |align="center" |1976 |align="center" |43.62% 5,256 |align="center" |54.99% 6,627 |align="center" |1.39% 168 |- |align="center" |1972 |align="center" |35.76% 4,554 |align="center" |63.46% 8,082 |align="center" |0.78% 99 |- |align="center" |1968 |align="center" |40.55% 4,975 |align="center" |56.73% 6,960 |align="center" |2.71% 333 |- |align="center" |1964 |align="center" |64.27% 8,042 |align="center" |35.73% 4,470 |align="center" |0.00% 0 |- |align="center" |1960 |align="center" |40.21% 5,473 |align="center" |59.79% 8,137 |align="center" |0.00% 0 |} {| class"wikitable" style"float:right; font-size:85%; margin:10px" |+Concord city election results from state and federal races !Year !Office !Results |- | rowspan="3" |2010 |Senator | align="right" |Hodes 50–47% |- |House | align="right" |Kuster 59–38% |- |Governor | align="right" |Lynch 67–30% |- | rowspan="3" |2012 |President | align="right" |Obama 65-34% |- |House | align="right" |Kuster 60–36% |- |Governor | align="right" |Hassan 67–30% |- | rowspan="3" |2014 |Senator | align="right" |Shaheen 67–33% |- |House | align="right" |Kuster 66–33% |- |Governor | align="right" |Hassan 68–32% |- | rowspan="4" |2016 |President | align="right" |Clinton 59–36% |- |Senator | align="right" |Hassan 60–37% |- |House | align="right" |Kuster 61–35% |- |Governor | align="right" |Van Ostern 61–36% |- | rowspan="2" |2018 |House | align="right" |Kuster 67–31% |- |Governor | align="right" |Kelly 58–41% |- | rowspan="4" |2020 |President | align="right" |Biden 65–32% |- |Senator | align="right" |Shaheen 70–28% |- |House | align="right" |Kuster 66–32% |- |Governor | align="right" |Sununu 52–47% |- | rowspan="3" |2022 |Senator | align="right" |Hassan 67–31% |- |House | align="right" |Kuster 69–31% |- |Governor | align="right" |Sherman 56–43% |- | rowspan="2" |2024 |House | align="right" |Goodlander 63–37% |- |Governor | align="right" |Craig 57–41% |- |} Concord is governed via the council-manager system. The city council consists of a mayor and 14 councilors, ten of which are elected to two-year terms representing each of the city wards, while the other four are elected at-large to four-year terms. The mayor is elected directly every two years. The current mayor as of 2024 is Byron Champlin, who was elected on November 7, 2023, with more than 75% of the vote. According to the Concord city charter, the mayor chairs the council, currently Thomas J. Aspell Jr. The current police chief is Bradley S. Osgood. In the New Hampshire Senate, Concord is in the 15th District, represented by Democrat Becky Whitley since December 2020. On the New Hampshire Executive Council, Concord is in the 2nd District, represented by Cinde Warmington, the sole Democrat on the council. In the United States House of Representatives, Concord is in New Hampshire's 2nd congressional district, represented by Democrat Maggie Goodlander. New Hampshire Department of Corrections operates the New Hampshire State Prison for Men and New Hampshire State Prison for Women in Concord. .]] Concord leans strongly Democratic in presidential elections; the last Republican nominee to carry the city was then Vice President George H. W. Bush in 1988. Voter turnout was 72.7% in the 2020 general election, down from 76.2% in 2016, but still above the 2020 national turnout of 66.7%.Media Newspapers and journals *Concord Monitor (daily) *Concord NH Patch (daily) *New Hampshire Bulletin (daily) * The Concord Insider (weekly) *The Hippo (weekly) Radio *WKXL 1450 AM (News Talk Information) *WNHN-LP 94.7 FM (Jazz, Blues, Progressive Talk) *WEVO 89.1 FM (Public radio) *WCNH 90.5 FM (Classical Music) *WJYY 105.5 FM (Top 40) *WAKC 102.3 FM (Contemporary Christian) *WICX 102.7 FM (Catholic Radio) The city is otherwise served by Manchester area stations. New Hampshire Public Radio is headquartered in Concord. Television *WPXG-TV (Channel 21) (Ion Television) *Concord TV Public-access television cable TV station Sites of interest ]] The New Hampshire State House, designed by architect Stuart Park and constructed between 1815 and 1818, is the oldest state house in which the legislature meets in its original chambers. The building was remodeled in 1866, and the third story and west wing were added in 1910. Across from the State House is the Eagle Hotel on Main Street, which has been a downtown landmark since its opening in 1827. U.S. Presidents Ulysses S. Grant, Rutherford Hayes, and Benjamin Harrison all dined there, and Franklin Pierce spent the night before departing for his inauguration. Other well-known guests included Jefferson Davis, Charles Lindbergh, Eleanor Roosevelt, Richard M. Nixon (who carried New Hampshire in all three of his presidential bids), and Thomas E. Dewey. The hotel closed in 1961. South from the Eagle Hotel on Main Street is Phenix Hall, which replaced "Old" Phenix Hall, which burned in 1893. Both the old and new buildings featured multi-purpose auditoriums used for political speeches, theater productions, and fairs. Abraham Lincoln spoke at the old hall in 1860; Theodore Roosevelt, at the new hall in 1912. North on Main Street is the Walker-Woodman House, also known as the Reverend Timothy Walker House, the oldest standing two-story house in Concord. It was built for the Reverend Timothy Walker between 1733 and 1735. On the north end of Main Street is the Pierce Manse, in which President Franklin Pierce lived in Concord before and following his presidency. The mid-1830s Greek Revival house was moved from Montgomery Street to North Main Street in 1971 to prevent its demolition. Beaver Meadow Golf Course, located in the northern part of Concord, is one of the oldest golf courses in New England. Besides this golf course, other important sporting venues in Concord include Everett Arena and Memorial Field. The SNOB (Somewhat North Of Boston) Film Festival, started in the fall of 2002, brings independent films and filmmakers to Concord and has provided an outlet for local filmmakers to display their films. SNOB Film Festival was a catalyst for the building in 2007 of Red River Theatres, a locally owned, nonprofit, independent cinema named after the 1948 film featuring John Wayne. Other sites of interest include the Capitol Center for the Arts, the New Hampshire Historical Society, which has two facilities in Concord, and the McAuliffe-Shepard Discovery Center, a science museum named after Christa McAuliffe, the Concord teacher who died during the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster in 1986, and Alan Shepard, the Derry-born astronaut who was the second person and first American in space as well as the fifth and oldest person to walk on the Moon. Education Public schools Concord's public schools are within the Concord School District, except for schools in the Penacook area of the city, which are within the Merrimack Valley School District, a district which also includes several towns north of Concord. The only public high school in the Concord School District is Concord High School, which had about 1,450 students as of Fall 2023. The only public middle school in the Concord School District is Rundlett Middle School, which had roughly 770 students as of Fall 2023. Concord School District's elementary schools underwent a major re-configuration in 2012, with three newly constructed schools opening and replacing six previous schools. Kimball School and Walker School were replaced by Christa McAuliffe School on the Kimball School site, Conant School (and Rumford School, which closed a year earlier) were replaced by Abbot-Downing School at the Conant site, and Eastman and Dame schools were replaced by Mill Brook School, serving kindergarten through grade two, located next to Broken Ground Elementary School, serving grades three to five. Beaver Meadow School, the remaining elementary school, was unaffected by the changes. Concord schools in the Merrimack Valley School District include Merrimack Valley High School and Merrimack Valley Middle School, which are adjacent to each other and to Rolfe Park in Penacook village, and Penacook Elementary School, just south of the village. Private and charter schools Concord has two parochial schools, Bishop Brady High School and Saint John Regional School. Other area private schools include Concord Christian Academy, Parker Academy, Trinity Christian School, and Shaker Road School. Also in Concord is St. Paul's School, a boarding school located in the city's West End neighborhood. Post-secondary schools Concord is home to New Hampshire Technical Institute, the city's primary community college, and Granite State College, which offers online two-year and four-year degrees. The University of New Hampshire School of Law is located near downtown, and the Franklin Pierce University Doctorate of Physical Therapy program also has a location in the city. Concord Hospital recently announced plans to open a joint program with the New England College School of Nursing as part of their Bachelor of Nursing degree. Concord is also a major clinical site of Dartmouth College's Geisel School of Medicine, New Hampshire's only medical school. Notes References Further reading * External links * * [https://www.sau8.org/ Concord School District] * [https://www.nhes.nh.gov/elmi/products/cp/profiles-htm/concord.htm New Hampshire Economic and Labor Market Information Bureau Profile] * [https://nhhistory.org/ New Hampshire Historical Society] * [https://www.concordnhchamber.com/ Greater Concord Chamber of Commerce] * [https://www.visitconcord-NH.com/ Visit Concord NH] Category:Cities in New Hampshire Category:Cities in Merrimack County, New Hampshire Category:County seats in New Hampshire Category:Populated places established in 1725 Category:Micropolitan areas of New Hampshire Category:1725 establishments in New Hampshire Category:18th-century establishments in New Hampshire Category:New Hampshire populated places on the Merrimack River Category:State capitals in the United States
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concord,_New_Hampshire
2025-04-05T18:27:50.034637
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Chlorophyceae
The Chlorophyceae, also known as chlorophycean algae, are one of the classes of green algae, within the phylum Chlorophyta. They are a large assemblage of mostly freshwater and terrestrial organisms; many members are important primary producers in the ecosystems they inhabit. Their body plans are diverse and range from single flagellated or non-flagellated cells to colonies or filaments of cells. The class Chlorophyceae has been distinguished on the basis of ultrastructural morphology; molecular traits are also being used to classify taxa within the class. They are usually green due to the presence of chlorophyll a and b; they can also contain the pigment beta-carotene. Chloroplasts are diverse in morphology and include many forms, including, cup-shaped (e.g. Chlamydomonas), or axial, or parietal and reticulate (e.g. Oedogonium). Some algae may also store food in the form of oil droplets. The inner cell wall layer is made of cellulose and the outer layer of pectose.UltrastructureCells of Chlorophyceae usually have two or four flagella, but in some cases may have numerous flagella. The flagella emerge from the apex of the cell, and are connected to the nucleus via rhizoplasts. A combination of ultrastructural features are characteristic of the Chlorophyceae. These include: closed mitosis, the telophase spindle collapsing before cytokinesis, and a system of microtubules called a phycoplast running parallel to the plane of cytokinesis. In addition to normal asexual reproduction, some genera such as Chlamydomonas and Dunaliella can go through a temporary phase known as the "palmella stage", in which flagella are absent and the cells divide vegetatively within a common mucilaginous envelope. Algae enter the palmella stage in response to stressful conditions, such as changes in salinity or predation. Additionally, Haematococcus produces resistant stages with thick cell walls, termed akinetes. Sexual reproduction shows considerable variation in the type and formation of sex cells; it may be isogamous (with two morphologically identical gamete types), anisogamous (with two morphologically distinct gamete types), and oogamous (with larger, nonmotile eggs and smaller motile sperm cells). Members of Chlorophyceae that undergo sexual reproduction have a zygotic life cycle, in which the zygotes are the only diploid stages. Zygotes may have thick and/or spiny cell walls; these are called hypnozygotes and they also function as resting stages. However, unlike higher plants they do not go through a multicellular alternation of generations. * Chlorococcales – Chlorococcum and Chlorococcaceae are placed in Chlamydomonadales by AlgaeBase * Microsporales – Microspora and Microsporaceae are placed in Sphaeropleales by AlgaeBase * Tetrasporales – Tetraspora and Tetrasporaceae are placed in Chlamydomonadales by AlgaeBase Phylogeny Current thinking of phylogenetic relationships are as follows: |label2=OCC clade |2= }} }} |2=Trebouxiophyceae (outgroup) }} }} See also * List of Chlorophyceae genera References External links * [http://www.algaebase.org/browse/taxonomy/?id4355&-sessionabv4:4E5E144B1b45e25996Ihq2483A24 AlgaeBase] Category:Green algae classes
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorophyceae
2025-04-05T18:27:50.065124
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Cyril
Saint Cyril}} | gender = Male | meaning | region | origin = Greek | related names = Cirillo, Cyrille, Cyryl, Cyrillus, Kiril, Kirill, Kyrillos, Kiryl, Kyrylo, Kiro, Kyril, Quirrel | footnotes = }} Cyril (also Cyrillus or Cyryl) is a masculine given name. It is derived from the Greek name (Kýrillos), meaning 'lordly, masterful', which in turn derives from Greek (kýrios) 'lord'. There are various variant forms of the name Cyril such as Cyrill, Cyrille, Ciril, Kirill, Kiryl, Kirillos, Kyrylo, Kiril, Kiro, Kyril, Kyrill and Quirrel. It may also refer to: Christian patriarchs or bishops * Cyril of Jerusalem (386), theologian and bishop * Cyril of Alexandria (444), Patriarch of Alexandria * Cyril the Philosopher (826–869), co-invented the Slavic alphabet (Glagolitic) and translated the Bible into Old Church Slavonic; namesake of the Cyrillic alphabet * Pope Cyril II of Alexandria, reigned 1078–1092 * Greek Patriarch Cyril II of Alexandria, reigned in the 12th century * Cyril of Turaw (1130–1182), Belarusian bishop and orthodox saint * Pope Cyril III of Alexandria, reigned 1235–1243 * Cyril I of Serbia, reigned 1407–1419 * Cyril, Metropolitan of Moscow (died 1572), Metropolitan of Moscow and all Rus' from 1568 to 1572 * Cyril Lucaris (Patriarch Cyril I of Constantinople), reigned for six terms between 1612 and 1638 * Cyril II of Constantinople, patriarch in 1633, 1635–1636, 1638–1639 * Patriarch Cyril III of Constantinople, patriarch in 1652 and 1654 * Cyril IV of Constantinople, patriarch 1711–1713 * Cyril V Zaim, Melkite patriarch of Antioch died 1720 * Cyril VI Tanas, Melkite patriarch of Antioch 1724–1760 * Patriarch Cyril V of Constantinople, patriarch in 1748–1751, 1752–1757 * Cyril II of Serbia, reigned 1759–1763 * Cyril VII Siaj, Melkite patriarch of Antioch 1794–1796 * Patriarch Cyril VI of Constantinople, patriarch in 1813–1818 * Cyril, Metropolitan of Belgrade, Metropolitan of Belgrade during 1825–1827 * Patriarch Cyril II of Jerusalem, reigned 1845–1875 * Patriarch Cyril VII of Constantinople, patriarch in 1855–1860 * Pope Cyril IV of Alexandria, reigned 1854–1861 * Pope Cyril V of Alexandria, reigned 1874–1921 * Cyril VIII Jaha, Melkite patriarch of Antioch 1902–1916 * Cyril IX Moghabghab, Melkite patriarch of Antioch 1925–1946 * Patriarch Cyril of Bulgaria, reigned 1953–1971 * Pope Cyril VI of Alexandria, reigned 1959–1971 * Patriarch Cyril I of Moscow, reigning from 2009 Other individuals * Cyrillus, 5th-century Greek jurist * Cyril Abiteboul (born 1977), French motor racing engineer and manager, formerly the managing director of Renault Sport F1 Team * Cyril Almeida, Pakistani journalist * Cyril Eugene Attygalle, Sri Lankan Sinhala politician * Cyril Benson, founder of British company Bensons for Beds * Cyril Bourlon de Rouvre (born 1945), French businessman and politician * Sir Cyril Burt (1883–1971), psychologist * Cyril Connolly (1903–1974), English literary critic and writer * Cyril Delevanti (1889–1975), British actor * Cyril Despres (born 1974), French motorcycle rider * Cyril De Zoysa (1896–1978), Sri Lankan businessman and Buddhist revivalist * Cyril Dissanayaka, Sri Lankan Sinhala senior police officer * Cyril Dodd (1844–1913), British politician * Cyril Domoraud (born 1971), Ivorian football player * Cyril Dunne (1941–2024), Irish Gaelic footballer * Cyril Fernando (1895–1974), Sri Lankan Sinhala clinician and researcher * Cyril Fletcher (1913–2005), English comedian, actor and businessman * Ciryl Gane (born 1990), French mixed martial artist, former interim UFC heavyweight champion * Cyril Gautier (born 1987), French racing cyclist * Cyril Goulden (1897–1981), Welsh/Canadian geneticist, statistician, and agronomist * Cyril Grayson (born 1993), American football player * Cyril Haran (1931–2014), Gaelic footballer and manager, priest, scholar and schoolteacher * Cyril Stanley Harrison (1915–1998), English cricketer * Cyril Leo Heraclius, Prince Toumanoff (born Toumanishvili) (1913–1997), Russian-born historian and genealogist who was a Professor Emeritus at Georgetown University * Cyril Herath (died 2011), Inspector-General of Sri Lanka Police from 1985 to 1988 * Cyril Jordan (born 1948), American guitarist and founder of the Flamin' Groovies * Cyril Keeper (born 1943), Canadian politician * Cyril Knowles (1944–1991), English footballer * C. M. Kornbluth (1923–1958), American science fiction author * Cyril Lawrence (1920–2020), English footballer * Cyril Lewis (1909–1999), Welsh footballer * Sister M. Cyril Mooney (1936–2023), educational innovator in India * Cyril Nicholas (1898–1961), Sri Lankan Burgher army captain, civil servant, and forester * Cyril Ornadel (1924–2011), British conductor and composer * Elder Cyril Pavlov (1919–2017), Russian Orthodox Christian monk, mystic and wonder-worker * Cyril Pearl (1904–1987), Australian journalist * Cyril Perkins (1911–2013), English cricketer * Cyril C. Perera (1923–2016), Sri Lankan Sinhala author, translator of world literature into Sinhala * Cyril E. S. Perera (1892–1968), Sri Lankan Sinhala member of the Ceylon House of Representatives * Cyril Pinto Jayatilake Seneviratne (1918–1984), Sri Lankan Sinhala military officer and politician * Cyril Ponnamperuma (1923–1994), Sri Lankan Sinhala scientist in the fields of chemical evolution and the origin of life * Cyril Ramaphosa (born 1952), South African president, businessman, and trade unionist * Cyril Ranatunga, Sri Lankan Sinhala army general * Cyril Richardson (born 1990), American football player * Cyril Riley, known mononymously as Cyril, an Australian musician, best known for his version of "Stumblin' In" * Cyril Rioli (born 1989), Australian rules footballer * Cyril Smith (1928–2010), English Liberal politician * Cyril Stapleton (1914–1974), English musician and bandleader * Cyril Symes (born 1943), Canadian politician * Cyril Takayama (born 1973), American-Japanese magician * Cyril Wickramage (born 1932), Sri Lankan Sinhala actor, director, and vocalist Fictional characters * Cyril "Blakey" Blake, the bus depot inspector from the 1970s British comedy TV series On the Buses * Cyril Fielding, character in E. M. Forster's novel A Passage to India * Cyril Figgis, character in the TV series Archer * Cyril Gray, character from the film Nanny McPhee and the Big Bang, played by Eros Vlahos * Cyril Kinnear, the menacing and urbane mastermind from the 1971 British crime film Get Carter * Cyril Orchard, the murder victim in the 1948 Nero Wolfe mystery And Be a Villain * Cyril Playfair, the reverend from the 1952 film The Quiet Man * Cyril Proudbottom, Mr. Toad's horse from the 1949 film The Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad * Cyril O'Reily, character from television series Oz * Cyril Sneer, the villain aardvark of the 1980s cartoon series The Raccoons * Cyril Woodcock, from the film Phantom Thread, played by Lesley Manville * Cyril the Fogman, a character from the television series Thomas & Friends * Cyril, a character from Doctor Who * Cyril, a character from Fire Emblem: Three Houses * Cyril the Ice Dragon, from The Legend of Spyro * Cyril the Squirrel, from Maisy *Cyril, the main character in ''The Heart's Invisible Furies'' by John Boyne *Cyril, a giant squirrel kaiju from Rampage: Total Destruction *Cyril Bassington-Bassington, from "Jeeves and the Chump Cyril" See also * * * Cyrille * Cyrillus (crater), on the Moon * Cirillo * Kyril * Kyrylo Category:English masculine given names Category:Given names of Greek language origin Category:Masculine given names Category:Unisex given names
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyril
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Computational complexity
In computer science, the computational complexity or simply complexity of an algorithm is the amount of resources required to run it. Particular focus is given to computation time (generally measured by the number of needed elementary operations) and memory storage requirements. The complexity of a problem is the complexity of the best algorithms that allow solving the problem. The study of the complexity of explicitly given algorithms is called analysis of algorithms, while the study of the complexity of problems is called computational complexity theory. Both areas are highly related, as the complexity of an algorithm is always an upper bound on the complexity of the problem solved by this algorithm. Moreover, for designing efficient algorithms, it is often fundamental to compare the complexity of a specific algorithm to the complexity of the problem to be solved. Also, in most cases, the only thing that is known about the complexity of a problem is that it is lower than the complexity of the most efficient known algorithms. Therefore, there is a large overlap between analysis of algorithms and complexity theory. As the amount of resources required to run an algorithm generally varies with the size of the input, the complexity is typically expressed as a function , where is the size of the input and is either the worst-case complexity (the maximum of the amount of resources that are needed over all inputs of size ) or the average-case complexity (the average of the amount of resources over all inputs of size ). Time complexity is generally expressed as the number of required elementary operations on an input of size , where elementary operations are assumed to take a constant amount of time on a given computer and change only by a constant factor when run on a different computer. Space complexity is generally expressed as the amount of memory required by an algorithm on an input of size . Resources Time The resource that is most commonly considered is time. When "complexity" is used without qualification, this generally means time complexity. The usual units of time (seconds, minutes etc.) are not used in complexity theory because they are too dependent on the choice of a specific computer and on the evolution of technology. For instance, a computer today can execute an algorithm significantly faster than a computer from the 1960s; however, this is not an intrinsic feature of the algorithm but rather a consequence of technological advances in computer hardware. Complexity theory seeks to quantify the intrinsic time requirements of algorithms, that is, the basic time constraints an algorithm would place on any computer. This is achieved by counting the number of elementary operations that are executed during the computation. These operations are assumed to take constant time (that is, not affected by the size of the input) on a given machine, and are often called steps. Bit complexity Formally, the bit complexity refers to the number of operations on bits that are needed for running an algorithm. With most models of computation, it equals the time complexity up to a constant factor. On computers, the number of operations on machine words that are needed is also proportional to the bit complexity. So, the time complexity and the bit complexity are equivalent for realistic models of computation. Space Another important resource is the size of computer memory that is needed for running algorithms. Communication For the class of distributed algorithms that are commonly executed by multiple, interacting parties, the resource that is of most interest is the communication complexity. It is the necessary amount of communication between the executing parties. Others The number of arithmetic operations is another resource that is commonly used. In this case, one talks of arithmetic complexity. If one knows an upper bound on the size of the binary representation of the numbers that occur during a computation, the time complexity is generally the product of the arithmetic complexity by a constant factor. For many algorithms the size of the integers that are used during a computation is not bounded, and it is not realistic to consider that arithmetic operations take a constant time. Therefore, the time complexity, generally called bit complexity in this context, may be much larger than the arithmetic complexity. For example, the arithmetic complexity of the computation of the determinant of a integer matrix is O(n^3) for the usual algorithms (Gaussian elimination). The bit complexity of the same algorithms is exponential in , because the size of the coefficients may grow exponentially during the computation. On the other hand, if these algorithms are coupled with multi-modular arithmetic, the bit complexity may be reduced to . In sorting and searching, the resource that is generally considered is the number of entry comparisons. This is generally a good measure of the time complexity if data are suitably organized. Complexity as a function of input size It is impossible to count the number of steps of an algorithm on all possible inputs. As the complexity generally increases with the size of the input, the complexity is typically expressed as a function of the size (in bits) of the input, and therefore, the complexity is a function of . However, the complexity of an algorithm may vary dramatically for different inputs of the same size. Therefore, several complexity functions are commonly used. The worst-case complexity is the maximum of the complexity over all inputs of size , and the average-case complexity is the average of the complexity over all inputs of size (this makes sense, as the number of possible inputs of a given size is finite). Generally, when "complexity" is used without being further specified, this is the worst-case time complexity that is considered. Asymptotic complexity It is generally difficult to compute precisely the worst-case and the average-case complexity. In addition, these exact values provide little practical application, as any change of computer or of model of computation would change the complexity somewhat. Moreover, the resource use is not critical for small values of , and this makes that, for small , the ease of implementation is generally more interesting than a low complexity. For these reasons, one generally focuses on the behavior of the complexity for large , that is on its asymptotic behavior when tends to the infinity. Therefore, the complexity is generally expressed by using big O notation. For example, the usual algorithm for integer multiplication has a complexity of O(n^2), this means that there is a constant c_u such that the multiplication of two integers of at most digits may be done in a time less than c_un^2. This bound is sharp in the sense that the worst-case complexity and the average-case complexity are \Omega(n^2), which means that there is a constant c_l such that these complexities are larger than c_ln^2. The radix does not appear in these complexity, as changing of radix changes only the constants c_u and c_l. Models of computation The evaluation of the complexity relies on the choice of a model of computation, which consists in defining the basic operations that are done in a unit of time. When the model of computation is not explicitly specified, it is generally implicitely assumed as being a multitape Turing machine, since several more realistic models of computation, such as random-access machines are asymptotically equivalent for most problems. It is only for very specific and difficult problems, such as integer multiplication in time O(n\log n), that the explicit definition of the model of computation is required for proofs. Deterministic models A deterministic model of computation is a model of computation such that the successive states of the machine and the operations to be performed are completely determined by the preceding state. Historically, the first deterministic models were recursive functions, lambda calculus, and Turing machines. The model of random-access machines (also called RAM-machines) is also widely used, as a closer counterpart to real computers. When the model of computation is not specified, it is generally assumed to be a multitape Turing machine. For most algorithms, the time complexity is the same on multitape Turing machines as on RAM-machines, although some care may be needed in how data is stored in memory to get this equivalence. Non-deterministic computation In a non-deterministic model of computation, such as non-deterministic Turing machines, some choices may be done at some steps of the computation. In complexity theory, one considers all possible choices simultaneously, and the non-deterministic time complexity is the time needed, when the best choices are always done. In other words, one considers that the computation is done simultaneously on as many (identical) processors as needed, and the non-deterministic computation time is the time spent by the first processor that finishes the computation. This parallelism is partly amenable to quantum computing via superposed entangled states in running specific quantum algorithms, like e.g. Shor's factorization of yet only small integers (: 21 = 3 × 7). Even when such a computation model is not realistic yet, it has theoretical importance, mostly related to the P NP problem, which questions the identity of the complexity classes formed by taking "polynomial time" and "non-deterministic polynomial time" as least upper bounds. Simulating an NP-algorithm on a deterministic computer usually takes "exponential time". A problem is in the complexity class NP, if it may be solved in polynomial time on a non-deterministic machine. A problem is NP-complete if, roughly speaking, it is in NP and is not easier than any other NP problem. Many combinatorial problems, such as the Knapsack problem, the travelling salesman problem, and the Boolean satisfiability problem are NP-complete. For all these problems, the best known algorithm has exponential complexity. If any one of these problems could be solved in polynomial time on a deterministic machine, then all NP problems could also be solved in polynomial time, and one would have P NP. it is generally conjectured that with the practical implication that the worst cases of NP problems are intrinsically difficult to solve, i.e., take longer than any reasonable time span (decades!) for interesting lengths of input. Parallel and distributed computation Parallel and distributed computing consist of splitting computation on several processors, which work simultaneously. The difference between the different model lies mainly in the way of transmitting information between processors. Typically, in parallel computing the data transmission between processors is very fast, while, in distributed computing, the data transmission is done through a network and is therefore much slower. The time needed for a computation on processors is at least the quotient by of the time needed by a single processor. In fact this theoretically optimal bound can never be reached, because some subtasks cannot be parallelized, and some processors may have to wait a result from another processor. The main complexity problem is thus to design algorithms such that the product of the computation time by the number of processors is as close as possible to the time needed for the same computation on a single processor. Quantum computing A quantum computer is a computer whose model of computation is based on quantum mechanics. The Church–Turing thesis applies to quantum computers; that is, every problem that can be solved by a quantum computer can also be solved by a Turing machine. However, some problems may theoretically be solved with a much lower time complexity using a quantum computer rather than a classical computer. This is, for the moment, purely theoretical, as no one knows how to build an efficient quantum computer. Quantum complexity theory has been developed to study the complexity classes of problems solved using quantum computers. It is used in post-quantum cryptography, which consists of designing cryptographic protocols that are resistant to attacks by quantum computers. Problem complexity (lower bounds) The complexity of a problem is the infimum of the complexities of the algorithms that may solve the problem, including unknown algorithms. Thus the complexity of a problem is not greater than the complexity of any algorithm that solves the problems. It follows that every complexity of an algorithm, that is expressed with big O notation, is also an upper bound on the complexity of the corresponding problem. On the other hand, it is generally hard to obtain nontrivial lower bounds for problem complexity, and there are few methods for obtaining such lower bounds. For solving most problems, it is required to read all input data, which, normally, needs a time proportional to the size of the data. Thus, such problems have a complexity that is at least linear, that is, using big omega notation, a complexity \Omega(n). The solution of some problems, typically in computer algebra and computational algebraic geometry, may be very large. In such a case, the complexity is lower bounded by the maximal size of the output, since the output must be written. For example, a system of polynomial equations of degree in indeterminates may have up to d^n complex solutions, if the number of solutions is finite (this is Bézout's theorem). As these solutions must be written down, the complexity of this problem is \Omega(d^n). For this problem, an algorithm of complexity d^{O(n)} is known, which may thus be considered as asymptotically quasi-optimal. A nonlinear lower bound of \Omega(n\log n) is known for the number of comparisons needed for a sorting algorithm. Thus the best sorting algorithms are optimal, as their complexity is O(n\log n). This lower bound results from the fact that there are ways of ordering objects. As each comparison splits in two parts this set of orders, the number of of comparisons that are needed for distinguishing all orders must verify 2^N>n!, which implies N =\Omega(n\log n), by Stirling's formula. A standard method for getting lower bounds of complexity consists of reducing a problem to another problem. More precisely, suppose that one may encode a problem of size into a subproblem of size of a problem , and that the complexity of is \Omega(g(n)). Without loss of generality, one may suppose that the function increases with and has an inverse function . Then the complexity of the problem is \Omega(g(h(n))). This is the method that is used to prove that, if P ≠ NP (an unsolved conjecture), the complexity of every NP-complete problem is \Omega(n^k), for every positive integer . Use in algorithm design Evaluating the complexity of an algorithm is an important part of algorithm design, as this gives useful information on the performance that may be expected. It is a common misconception that the evaluation of the complexity of algorithms will become less important as a result of Moore's law, which posits the exponential growth of the power of modern computers. This is wrong because this power increase allows working with large input data (big data). For example, when one wants to sort alphabetically a list of a few hundreds of entries, such as the bibliography of a book, any algorithm should work well in less than a second. On the other hand, for a list of a million of entries (the phone numbers of a large town, for example), the elementary algorithms that require O(n^2) comparisons would have to do a trillion of comparisons, which would need around three hours at the speed of 10 million of comparisons per second. On the other hand, the quicksort and merge sort require only n\log_2 n comparisons (as average-case complexity for the former, as worst-case complexity for the latter). For , this gives approximately 30,000,000 comparisons, which would only take 3 seconds at 10 million comparisons per second. Thus the evaluation of the complexity may allow eliminating many inefficient algorithms before any implementation. This may also be used for tuning complex algorithms without testing all variants. By determining the most costly steps of a complex algorithm, the study of complexity allows also focusing on these steps the effort for improving the efficiency of an implementation. See also Computational complexity of mathematical operations Chinese Postman Problem Complexity List Master theorem (analysis of algorithms) References Category:Analysis of algorithms Category:Computational complexity theory Category:Computational resources
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_complexity
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Coercion
}} Coercion involves compelling a party to act in an involuntary manner through the use of threats, including threats to use force against that party. It involves a set of forceful actions which violate the free will of an individual in order to induce a desired response. These actions may include extortion, blackmail, or even torture and sexual assault. Common-law systems codify the act of violating a law while under coercion as a duress crime. Coercion used as leverage may force victims to act in a way contrary to their own interests. Coercion can involve not only the infliction of bodily harm, but also psychological abuse (the latter intended to enhance the perceived credibility of the threat). The threat of further harm may also lead to the acquiescence of the person being coerced. The concepts of coercion and persuasion are similar, but various factors distinguish the two. These include the intent, the willingness to cause harm, the result of the interaction, and the options available to the coerced party. Political authors such as John Rawls, Thomas Nagel, and Ronald Dworkin contend whether governments are inherently coercive. In 1919, Max Weber (1864–1920), building on the view of Ihering (1818–1892), defined a state as "a human community that (successfully) claims a monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force". Morris argues that the state can operate through incentives rather than coercion. a practice which raises ethical concerns. Such practices has also been shown to cause moral distress among healthcare staff, especially when staff attitudes toward coercive measures are negative. To minimize the need for coercion in psychiatric care, various models such as Safewards and Six Core Strategies have been implemented with promising results.OverviewThe purpose of coercion is to substitute one's aims with weaker ones that the aggressor wants the victim to have. For this reason, many social philosophers have considered coercion as the polar opposite to freedom. Various forms of coercion are distinguished: first on the basis of the kind of injury threatened, second according to its aims and scope, and finally according to its effects, from which its legal, social, and ethical implications mostly depend.Physical Physical coercion is the most commonly considered form of coercion, where the content of the conditional threat is the use of force against a victim, their relatives or property. An often used example is "putting a gun to someone's head" (at gunpoint) or putting a "knife under the throat" (at knifepoint or cut-throat) to compel action under the threat that non-compliance may result in the attacker harming or even killing the victim. These are so common that they are also used as metaphors for other forms of coercion. Armed forces in many countries use firing squads to maintain discipline and intimidate the masses, or opposition, into submission or silent compliance. However, there also are nonphysical forms of coercion, where the threatened injury does not immediately imply the use of force. Byman and Waxman (2000) define coercion as "the use of threatened force, including the limited use of actual force to back up the threat, to induce an adversary to behave differently than it otherwise would." Coercion does not in many cases amount to destruction of property or life since compliance is the goal. Pain compliance See also Notes References * * Lifton, Robert J. (1961) Thought Reform and the Psychology of Totalism, Penguin Books. External links * * . * Carter, Barry E. [https://opil.ouplaw.com/view/10.1093/law:epil/9780199231690/law-9780199231690-e1518?prd=EPIL Economic Coercion], Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (subscription required) Category:Abuse Category:Authority Category:Harassment and bullying Category:Legal terminology Category:Psychological abuse Category:Interrogation techniques Category:Power (social and political) concepts
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coercion
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Client–server model
The client–server model is a distributed application structure that partitions tasks or workloads between the providers of a resource or service, called servers, and service requesters, called clients. Often clients and servers communicate over a computer network on separate hardware, but both client and server may be on the same device. A server host runs one or more server programs, which share their resources with clients. A client usually does not share its computing resources, but it requests content or service from a server and may share its own content as part of the request. Clients, therefore, initiate communication sessions with servers, which await incoming requests. Examples of computer applications that use the client–server model are email, network printing, and the World Wide Web. Client and server role The server component provides a function or service to one or many clients, which initiate requests for such services. Servers are classified by the services they provide. For example, a web server serves web pages and a file server serves computer files. A shared resource may be any of the server computer's software and electronic components, from programs and data to processors and storage devices. The sharing of resources of a server constitutes a service. Whether a computer is a client, a server, or both, is determined by the nature of the application that requires the service functions. For example, a single computer can run a web server and file server software at the same time to serve different data to clients making different kinds of requests. The client software can also communicate with server software within the same computer. Communication between servers, such as to synchronize data, is sometimes called inter-server or server-to-server communication. Client and server communication Generally, a service is an abstraction of computer resources and a client does not have to be concerned with how the server performs while fulfilling the request and delivering the response. The client only has to understand the response based on the relevant application protocol, i.e. the content and the formatting of the data for the requested service. Clients and servers exchange messages in a request–response messaging pattern. The client sends a request, and the server returns a response. This exchange of messages is an example of inter-process communication. To communicate, the computers must have a common language, and they must follow rules so that both the client and the server know what to expect. The language and rules of communication are defined in a communications protocol. All protocols operate in the application layer. The application layer protocol defines the basic patterns of the dialogue. To formalize the data exchange even further, the server may implement an application programming interface (API). The API is an abstraction layer for accessing a service. By restricting communication to a specific content format, it facilitates parsing. By abstracting access, it facilitates cross-platform data exchange. A server may receive requests from many distinct clients in a short period. A computer can only perform a limited number of tasks at any moment, and relies on a scheduling system to prioritize incoming requests from clients to accommodate them. To prevent abuse and maximize availability, the server software may limit the availability to clients. Denial of service attacks are designed to exploit a server's obligation to process requests by overloading it with excessive request rates. Encryption should be applied if sensitive information is to be communicated between the client and the server. Example When a bank customer accesses online banking services with a web browser (the client), the client initiates a request to the bank's web server. The customer's login credentials are compared against a database, and the webserver accesses that database server as a client. An application server interprets the returned data by applying the bank's business logic and provides the output to the webserver. Finally, the webserver returns the result to the client web browser for display. In each step of this sequence of client–server message exchanges, a computer processes a request and returns data. This is the request-response messaging pattern. When all the requests are met, the sequence is complete. This example illustrates a design pattern applicable to the client–server model: separation of concerns. Server-side Server-side refers to programs and operations that run on the server. This is in contrast to client-side programs and operations which run on the client. Computer security In a computer security context, server-side vulnerabilities or attacks refer to those that occur on a server computer system, rather than on the client side, or in between the two. For example, an attacker might exploit an SQL injection vulnerability in a web application in order to maliciously change or gain unauthorized access to data in the server's database. Alternatively, an attacker might break into a server system using vulnerabilities in the underlying operating system and then be able to access database and other files in the same manner as authorized administrators of the server. Examples In the case of distributed computing projects such as SETI@home and the Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search, while the bulk of the operations occur on the client side, the servers are responsible for coordinating the clients, sending them data to analyze, receiving and storing results, providing reporting functionality to project administrators, etc. In the case of an Internet-dependent user application like Google Earth, while querying and display of map data takes place on the client side, the server is responsible for permanent storage of map data, resolving user queries into map data to be returned to the client, etc. In the context of the World Wide Web, commonly encountered server-side computer languages include: * C# or Visual Basic in ASP.NET environments * Java * Perl * PHP * Python * Ruby * Node.js * Swift However, web applications and services can be implemented in almost any language, as long as they can return data to standards-based web browsers (possibly via intermediary programs) in formats which they can use. Client side Client-side refers to operations that are performed by the client in a computer network. General concepts Typically, a client is a computer application, such as a web browser, that runs on a user's local computer, smartphone, or other device, and connects to a server as necessary. Operations may be performed client-side because they require access to information or functionality that is available on the client but not on the server, because the user needs to observe the operations or provide input, or because the server lacks the processing power to perform the operations in a timely manner for all of the clients it serves. Additionally, if operations can be performed by the client, without sending data over the network, they may take less time, use less bandwidth, and incur a lesser security risk. When the server serves data in a commonly used manner, for example according to standard protocols such as HTTP or FTP, users may have their choice of a number of client programs (e.g. most modern web browsers can request and receive data using both HTTP and FTP). In the case of more specialized applications, programmers may write their own server, client, and communications protocol which can only be used with one another. Programs that run on a user's local computer without ever sending or receiving data over a network are not considered clients, and so the operations of such programs would not be termed client-side operations. Computer security In a computer security context, client-side vulnerabilities or attacks refer to those that occur on the client / user's computer system, rather than on the server side, or in between the two. As an example, if a server contained an encrypted file or message which could only be decrypted using a key housed on the user's computer system, a client-side attack would normally be an attacker's only opportunity to gain access to the decrypted contents. For instance, the attacker might cause malware to be installed on the client system, allowing the attacker to view the user's screen, record the user's keystrokes, and steal copies of the user's encryption keys, etc. Alternatively, an attacker might employ cross-site scripting vulnerabilities to execute malicious code on the client's system without needing to install any permanently resident malware. and RFC 4. This usage was continued at Xerox PARC in the mid-1970s. One context in which researchers used these terms was in the design of a computer network programming language called Decode-Encode Language (DEL). By 1992, the word server had entered into general parlance. Centralized computing The client-server model does not dictate that server-hosts must have more resources than client-hosts. Rather, it enables any general-purpose computer to extend its capabilities by using the shared resources of other hosts. Centralized computing, however, specifically allocates a large number of resources to a small number of computers. The more computation is offloaded from client-hosts to the central computers, the simpler the client-hosts can be. It relies heavily on network resources (servers and infrastructure) for computation and storage. A diskless node loads even its operating system from the network, and a computer terminal has no operating system at all; it is only an input/output interface to the server. In contrast, a rich client, such as a personal computer, has many resources and does not rely on a server for essential functions. As microcomputers decreased in price and increased in power from the 1980s to the late 1990s, many organizations transitioned computation from centralized servers, such as mainframes and minicomputers, to rich clients. This afforded greater, more individualized dominion over computer resources, but complicated information technology management. During the 2000s, web applications matured enough to rival application software developed for a specific microarchitecture. This maturation, more affordable mass storage, and the advent of service-oriented architecture were among the factors that gave rise to the cloud computing trend of the 2010s.Comparison with peer-to-peer architecture In addition to the client-server model, distributed computing applications often use the peer-to-peer (P2P) application architecture. In the client-server model, the server is often designed to operate as a centralized system that serves many clients. The computing power, memory and storage requirements of a server must be scaled appropriately to the expected workload. Load-balancing and failover systems are often employed to scale the server beyond a single physical machine. Load balancing is defined as the methodical and efficient distribution of network or application traffic across multiple servers in a server farm. Each load balancer sits between client devices and backend servers, receiving and then distributing incoming requests to any available server capable of fulfilling them. In a peer-to-peer network, two or more computers (peers) pool their resources and communicate in a decentralized system. Peers are coequal, or equipotent nodes in a non-hierarchical network. Unlike clients in a client-server or client-queue-client network, peers communicate with each other directly. In peer-to-peer networking, an algorithm in the peer-to-peer communications protocol balances load, and even peers with modest resources can help to share the load. If a node becomes unavailable, its shared resources remain available as long as other peers offer it. Ideally, a peer does not need to achieve high availability because other, redundant peers make up for any resource downtime; as the availability and load capacity of peers change, the protocol reroutes requests. Both client-server and master-slave are regarded as sub-categories of distributed peer-to-peer systems. See also Notes Category:Servers (computing) Category:Clients (computing) * Category:Inter-process communication Category:Network architecture
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Client–server_model
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County Dublin
| settlement_type = County | image_flag | image_shield Coat of arms of County Dublin.png | shield_size = 100px | nickname | motto <br />"Action to match our speech" | image_map = Island_of_Ireland_location_map_Dublin.svg | map_alt = map showing County Dublin as a small area of darker green on the east coast within the lighter green background of the Republic of Ireland, with Northern Ireland in pink | map_caption = County Dublin shown darker on the green of the Republic of Ireland, with Northern Ireland in pink | subdivision_type = Country | subdivision_name = Ireland | subdivision_type2 = Province | subdivision_name2 = Leinster | subdivision_type3 = Region | subdivision_name3 = Eastern and Midland | leader_title2 = Dáil constituencies | leader_name2 = | leader_title3 = EP constituency | leader_name3 = Dublin | seat_type = County town | seat = Dublin | area_total_km2 = 922 | area_rank = 30th | population_as_of = 2022 | population_rank = 1st | population_density_km2 = 1581.5 | population_demonym = Dubliner <br /> Dub | blank_name_sec1 = Vehicle index<br />mark code | blank_info_sec1 = D | website | population 1,458,154 | timezone = GMT | utc_offset = ±0 | timezone_DST = IST | utc_offset_DST = +1 | established_title = Established | established_date 1190s | area_code_type = Telephone area codes | area_code = 01 | postal_code_type = Eircode routing keys | postal_code = D01–D18, D6W, D20, D22, D24, A41, A42, A45, A94, A96, K34, K45, K67, K78 | elevation_max_m = 757 | elevation_max_point = Kippure | module | iso_code = IE-D }} County Dublin ( or ) is a county in Ireland, and holds its capital city, Dublin. It is located on the island's east coast, within the province of Leinster. Until 1994, County Dublin (excluding the city) was a single local government area; in that year, the county council was divided into three new administrative counties: Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown, Fingal and South Dublin. The three administrative counties together with Dublin City proper form a NUTS III statistical region of Ireland (coded IE061). County Dublin remains a single administrative unit for the purposes of the courts (including the Dublin County Sheriff, but excluding the bailiwick of the Dublin City Sheriff) and Dublin County combined with Dublin City forms the Judicial County of Dublin, including Dublin Circuit Court, the Dublin County Registrar and the Dublin Metropolitan District Court. Dublin also sees law enforcement (the Garda Dublin metropolitan division) and fire services (Dublin Fire Brigade) administered county-wide. Dublin is Ireland's most populous county, with a population of 1,458,154 – approximately 28% of the Republic of Ireland's total population. Dublin city is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Ireland, as well as the largest city on the island of Ireland. Roughly 9 out of every 10 people in County Dublin lives within Dublin city and its suburbs. Several sizeable towns that are considered separate from the city, such as Rush, Donabate and Balbriggan, are located in the far north of the county. Swords, while separated from the city by a green belt around Dublin Airport, is considered a suburban commuter town and an emerging small city. The third smallest county by land area, Dublin is bordered by Meath to the west and north, Kildare to the west, Wicklow to the south and the Irish Sea to the east. The southern part of the county is dominated by the Dublin Mountains, which rise to around and contain numerous valleys, reservoirs and forests. The county's east coast is punctuated by several bays and inlets, including Rogerstown Estuary, Broadmeadow Estuary, Baldoyle Bay and most prominently, Dublin Bay. The northern section of the county, today known as Fingal, varies enormously in character, from densely populated suburban towns of the city's commuter belt to flat, fertile plains, which are some of the country's largest horticultural and agricultural hubs. Dublin is the oldest county in Ireland, and was the first part of the island to be shired following the Norman invasion in the late 1100s. While it is no longer a local government area, Dublin retains a strong identity, and continues to be referred to as both a region and county interchangeably, including at government body level. Etymology , 841]] County Dublin is named after the city of Dublin, which is an anglicisation of its Old Norse name . The city was founded in the 9th century AD by Viking settlers who established the Kingdom of Dublin. The Viking settlement was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical site known as , from which took its name. derives from the Middle Irish word (literally "Blackpool"), from "black, dark" and "pool", referring to a dark tidal pool. This tidal pool was located where the River Poddle entered the Liffey, to the rear of Dublin Castle. The hinterland of Dublin in the Norse period was named . In addition to , a Gaelic settlement known as ('ford of hurdles') was located further up the Liffey, near present-day Father Mathew Bridge. means 'town of the hurdled ford', with referring to a fording point along the river. As with , an early Christian monastery was also located at , on the site that is currently occupied by the Whitefriar Street Carmelite Church. Dublin was the first county in Ireland to be shired after the Norman Conquest in the late 12th century. The Normans captured the Kingdom of Dublin from its Norse-Gael rulers and the name was used as the basis for the county's official Anglo-Norman (and later English) name. However, in Modern Irish the region was named after the Gaelic settlement of or simply . As a result, Dublin is one of four counties in Ireland with a different name origin for both Irish and English – the others being Wexford, Waterford, and Wicklow, whose English names are also derived from Old Norse. History at Tibradden]] The earliest recorded inhabitants of present-day Dublin settled along the mouth of the River Liffey. The remains of five wooden fish traps were discovered near Spencer Dock in 2007. These traps were designed to catch incoming fish at high tide and could be retrieved at low tide. Thin-bladed stone axes were used to craft the traps and radiocarbon dating places them in the Late Mesolithic period (–5,700 BCE). The Vikings invaded the region in the mid-9th century AD and founded what would become the city of Dublin. Over time they mixed with the natives of the area, becoming Norse–Gaels. The Vikings raided across Ireland, Britain, France and Spain during this period and under their rule Dublin developed into the largest slave market in Western Europe. While the Vikings were formidable at sea, the superiority of Irish land forces soon became apparent, and the kingdom's Norse rulers were first exiled from the region as early as 902. Dublin was captured by the High King of Ireland, Máel Sechnaill II, in 980, who freed the kingdom's Gaelic slaves. Dublin was again defeated by Máel Sechnaill in 988 and forced to accept Brehon law and pay taxes to the High King. Successive defeats at the hands of Brian Boru in 999 and, most famously, at the Battle of Clontarf in 1014, relegated Dublin to the status of lesser kingdom. in the 10th Century]] In 1170, the ousted King of Leinster, Diarmait Mac Murchada, and his Norman allies agreed to capture Dublin at a war council in Waterford. They evaded the intercepting army of High King Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair by marching through the Wicklow Mountains, arriving outside the walls of Dublin in late September. The King of Dublin, Ascall mac Ragnaill, met with Mac Murchada for negotiations; however, while talks were ongoing, the Normans, led by de Cogan and FitzGerald, stormed Dublin and overwhelmed its defenders, forcing mac Ragnaill to flee to the Northern Isles. Separate attempts to retake Dublin were launched by both Ua Conchobair and mac Ragnaill in 1171, both of which were unsuccessful. The authority over Ireland established by the Anglo-Norman King Henry II was gradually lost during the Gaelic resurgence from the 13th century onwards. English power diminished so significantly that by the early 16th century English laws and customs were restricted to a small area around Dublin known as "The Pale". The Earl of Kildare's failed rebellion in 1535 reignited Tudor interest in Ireland, and Henry VIII proclaimed the Kingdom of Ireland in 1542, with Dublin as its capital. Over the next 60 years the Tudor conquest spread to every corner of the island, which was fully subdued by 1603. ]] Despite harsh penal laws and unfavourable trade restrictions imposed upon Ireland, Dublin flourished in the 18th century. The Georgian buildings which still define much of Dublin's architectural landscape to this day were mostly built over a 50-year period spanning from about 1750 to 1800. Bodies such as the Wide Streets Commission completely reshaped the city, demolishing most of medieval Dublin in the process. During the Enlightenment, the penal laws were gradually repealed and members of the Protestant Ascendancy began to regard themselves as citizens of a distinct Irish nation. The Irish Patriot Party, led by Henry Grattan, agitated for greater autonomy from Great Britain, which was achieved under the Constitution of 1782. These freedoms proved short-lived, as the Irish Parliament was abolished under the Acts of Union 1800 and Ireland was incorporated into the United Kingdom. Dublin lost its political status as a capital and went into a marked decline throughout the 19th century, leading to widespread demands to repeal the union. Although at one time the second city of the British Empire, by the late 1800s Dublin was one of the poorest cities in Europe. The city had the worst housing conditions of anywhere in the United Kingdom, and overcrowding, disease and malnourishment were rife within central Dublin. In 1901, The Irish Times'' reported that the disease and mortality rates in Calcutta during the 1897 bubonic plague outbreak compared "favourably with those of Dublin at the present moment". Most of the upper and middle class residents of Dublin had moved to wealthier suburbs, and the grand Georgian homes of the 1700s were converted en masse into tenement slums. In 1911, over 20,000 families in Dublin were living in one-room tenements which they rented from wealthy landlords. Henrietta Street was particularly infamous for the density of its tenements, with 845 people living on the street in 1911, including 19 families – totalling 109 people – living in just one house. , September 1920]] After decades of political unrest, Ireland appeared to be on the brink of civil war as a result of the Home Rule Crisis. Despite being the centre of Irish unionism outside of Ulster, Dublin was overwhelmingly in favour of Home Rule. Unionist parties had performed poorly in the county since the 1870s, leading contemporary historian W. E. H. Lecky to conclude that "Ulster unionism is the only form of Irish unionism that is likely to count as a serious political force". Unlike their counterparts in the north, "southern unionists" were a clear minority in the rest of Ireland, and as such were much more willing to co-operate with the Irish Parliamentary Party (IPP) to avoid partition. Following the Anglo-Irish Treaty, Belfast unionist Dawson Bates decried the "effusive professions of loyalty and confidence in the Provisional Government" that was displayed by former unionists in the new Irish Free State. The question of Home Rule was put on hold due to the outbreak of the First World War but was never to be revisited as a series of missteps by the British government, such as executing the leaders of the 1916 Easter Rising and the Conscription Crisis of 1918, fuelled the Irish revolutionary period. The IPP were nearly wiped out by Sinn Féin in the 1918 general election and, following a brief war of independence, 26 of Ireland's 32 counties seceded from the United Kingdom in December 1922, with Dublin becoming the capital of the Irish Free State, and later the Republic of Ireland. From the 1960s onwards, Dublin city greatly expanded due to urban renewal works and the construction of large suburbs such as Tallaght, Coolock and Ballymun, which resettled both the rural and urban poor of County Dublin in newer state-built accommodation. Dublin was the driving force behind Ireland's Celtic Tiger period, an era of rapid economic growth that started in the early 1990s. In stark contrast to the turn of the 20th century, Dublin entered the 21st century as one of Europe's richest cities, attracting immigrants and investment from all over the world. Geography and subdivisions ) at Dalkey Island and a fallow deer () in Phoenix Park | alt2 = }} ]] Dublin is the third smallest of Ireland's 32 counties by area, and the largest in terms of population. It is the third-smallest of Leinster's 12 counties in size and the largest by population. Dublin shares a border with three counties – Meath to the north and west, Kildare to the west and Wicklow to the south. To the east, Dublin has an Irish Sea coastline which stretches for . Dublin is a topographically varied region. The city centre is generally very low-lying, and many areas of coastal Dublin are at or near sea-level. In the south of the county, the topography rises steeply from sea-level at the coast to over in just a few kilometres. This natural barrier has resulted in densely populated coastal settlements in Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown and westward urban sprawl in South Dublin. In contrast, Fingal is generally rural in nature and much less densely populated than the rest of the county. Consequently, Fingal is significantly larger than the other three local authorities and covers about 49.5% of County Dublin's land area. Fingal is also perhaps the flattest region in Ireland, with the low-lying Naul Hills rising to a maximum height of just . Dublin is bounded to the south by the Wicklow Mountains. Where the mountains extend into County Dublin, they are known locally as the Dublin Mountains (Sléibhte Bhaile Átha Cliath). Kippure, on the Dublin–Wicklow border, is the county's highest mountain, at above sea level. Crossed by the Dublin Mountains Way, they are a popular amenity area, with Two Rock, Three Rock, Tibradden, Ticknock, Montpelier Hill, and Glenasmole being among the most heavily foot-falled hiking destinations in Ireland. Forest cover extends to over within the county, nearly all of which is located in the Dublin Mountains. With just 6.5% of Dublin under forest, it is the 6th least forested county in Ireland. Much of the county is drained by its three major rivers – the River Liffey, the River Tolka in north Dublin, and the River Dodder in south Dublin. The Liffey, at in length, is the 8th longest river in Ireland, and rises near Tonduff in County Wicklow, reaching the Irish Sea at the Dublin Docklands. The Liffey cuts through the centre of Dublin city, and the resultant Northside–Southside divide is an often used social, economic and linguistic distinction. Notable inlets include the central Dublin Bay, Rogerstown Estuary, the estuary of the Broadmeadow and Killiney Bay, under Killiney Hill. Headlands include Howth Head, Drumanagh and the Portraine Shore. In terms of biodiversity, these estuarine and coastal regions are home to a wealth ecologically important areas. County Dublin contains 11 EU-designated Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) and 11 Special Protection Areas (SPAs). The bedrock geology of Dublin consists primarily of Lower Carboniferous limestone, which underlies about two thirds of the entire county, stretching from Skerries to Booterstown. During the Lower Carboniferous (ca. 340 Mya), the area was part of a warm tropical sea inhabited by an abundance of corals, crinoids and brachiopods. The oldest rocks in Dublin are the Cambrian shales located on Howth Head, which were laid down ca. 500 Mya. Disruption following the closure of the Iapetus Ocean approximately 400 Mya resulted in the formation of granite. This is now exposed at the surface from the Dublin Mountains to the coastal areas of Dún Laoghaire. 19th-century Lead extraction and smelting at the Ballycorus Leadmines caused widespread lead poisoning, and the area was once nicknamed "Death Valley".Climate is the highest point in the county]] ]] ]] Dublin is in a maritime temperate oceanic region according to Köppen climate classification. Its climate is characterised by cool winters, mild humid summers, and a lack of temperature extremes. Met Éireann have a number of weather stations in the county, with its two primary stations at Dublin Airport and Casement Aerodrome. Annual temperatures typically fall within a narrow range. In Merrion Square, the coldest month is February, with an average minimum temperature of , and the warmest month is July, with an average maximum temperature of . Due to the urban heat island effect, Dublin city has the warmest summertime nights in Ireland. The average minimum temperature at Merrion Square in July is , similar to London and Berlin, and the lowest July temperature ever recorded at the station was on 3 July 1974. At Dublin Airport, the driest month is February with of rainfall, and the wettest month is November, with of rain on average. As the prevailing wind direction in Ireland is from the south and west, the Wicklow Mountains create a rain shadow over much of the county. Dublin's sheltered location makes it the driest place in Ireland, receiving only about half the rainfall of the west coast. Ringsend in the south of Dublin city records the lowest rainfall in the country, with an average annual precipitation of . The wettest area of the county is the Glenasmole Valley, which receives of rainfall per year. As a temperate coastal county, snow is relatively uncommon in lowland areas; however, Dublin is particularly vulnerable to heavy snowfall on rare occasions where cold, dry easterly winds dominate during the winter. During the late summer and early autumn, Dublin can experience Atlantic storms, which bring strong winds and torrential rain to Ireland. Dublin was the county worst-affected by Hurricane Charley in 1986. It caused severe flooding, especially along the River Dodder, and is reputed to be the worst flood event in Dublin's history. Rainfall records were shattered across the county. Kippure recorded of rain over a 24-hour period, the greatest daily rainfall total ever recorded in Ireland. The government allocated IR£6,449,000 (equivalent to US$20.5 million in 2020) to repair the damage wrought by Charley. The two reservoirs at Bohernabreena in the Dublin Mountains were upgraded in 2006 after a study into the impact of Hurricane Charley concluded that a slightly larger storm would have caused the reservoir dams to burst, which would have resulted in catastrophic damage and significant loss of life.Offshore islandsIn contrast with the Atlantic Coast, the east coast of Ireland has relatively few islands. County Dublin has one of the highest concentrations of islands on the Irish east coast. Colt Island, St. Patrick's Island, Shenick Island and numerous smaller islets are clustered off the coast of Skerries, and are collectively known as the "Skerries Islands Natural Heritage Area". Further out lies Rockabill, which is Dublin's most isolated island, at about offshore. Lambay Island, at , is the largest island off Ireland's east coast and the easternmost point of County Dublin. Lambay supports one of the largest seabird colonies in Ireland and, curiously, also supports a population of non-native Red-necked wallabies. To the south of Lambay lies a smaller island known as Ireland's Eye – the result of a mistranslation of the island's Irish name by invading Vikings. Bull Island is a man-made island lying roughly parallel to the shoreline which began to form following the construction of the Bull Wall in 1825. The island is still growing and is currently long and wide. In 1981, North Bull Island (Oileán an Tairbh Thuaidh) was designated as a UNESCO biosphere. |File:Beach on Ireland's Eye (42046045192).jpg | alt2= | | File:Lambay Island - Reachrainn - geograph.org.uk - 1350641.jpg | alt3= | | File:Skerries Lighthouse.jpg | alt4= | | File:Skerries Islands Dublin.jpg | alt5= | }} Subdivisions s. They include the city's historic postal districts and the newer A and K Dublin codes. ]] For statistical purposes at European level, the county as a whole forms the Dublin Region – a NUTS III entity – which is in turn part of the Eastern and Midland Region, a NUTS II entity. Each of the local authorities have representatives on the Eastern and Midland Regional Assembly. Baronies There are ten historic baronies in the county. While baronies continue to be officially defined units, they ceased to have any administrative function following the Local Government Act 1898, and any changes to county boundaries after the mid-19th century are not reflected in their extent. The last boundary change of a barony in Dublin was in 1842, when the barony of Balrothery was divided into Balrothery East and Balrothery West. The largest recorded barony in Dublin in 1872 was Uppercross, at , and the smallest barony was Dublin, at . {| class"wikitable sortable collapsible nowrap" style"font-size: 100%; text-align: right; display:inline-table" |+ Historic baronies of County Dublin |- ! Barony !! Irish name !! Area<br /><small>(acres)</small><br /> |- | style="text-align: left;" | Balrothery East || Baile an Ridire Thoir || 30,229 |- | style="text-align: left;" | Balrothery West || Baile an Ridire Thiar || 24,818 |- | style="text-align: left;" | Castleknock || Caisleán Cnucha || 22,911 |- | style="text-align: left;" |Coolock || An Chúlóg || 29,664 |- | style="text-align: left;" | Dublin || Baile Átha Cliath || 1,693 |- | style="text-align: left;" | Dublin City || Cathair Baile Átha Cliath || 3,736 |- | style="text-align: left;" | Nethercross || An Chrois Íochtarach || 22,616 |- | style="text-align: left;" | Newcastle || An Caisleán Nua || 21,238 |- | style="text-align: left;" | Rathdown || Ráth an Dúin || 29,974 |- | style="text-align: left;" | Uppercross|| An Chrois Uachtarach || 39,032 |} Townlands in the Dublin Mountains, within the townland of Ticknock]] Townlands are the smallest officially defined geographical divisions in Ireland. There are 1,090 townlands in Dublin, of which 88 are historic town boundaries. These town boundaries are registered as their own townlands and are much larger than rural townlands. The smallest rural townlands in Dublin are just 1 acre in size, most of which are offshore islands (Clare Rock Island, Lamb Island, Maiden Rock, Muglins, Thulla Island). The largest rural townland in Dublin is 2,797 acres (Caastlekelly). The average size of a townland in the county (excluding towns) is 205 acres. Towns and suburbs Urban and rural districts Under the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898, County Dublin was divided into urban districts of Blackrock, Clontarf, Dalkey, Drumcondra, Clonliffe and Glasnevin, Killiney and Ballybrack, Kingstown, New Kilmainham, Pembroke, and Rathmines and Rathgar, and the rural districts of Balrothery, Celbridge No. 2, North Dublin, Rathdown, and South Dublin. Howth, formerly within the rural district of Dublin North, became an urban district in 1919. Kingstown was renamed Dún Laoghaire in 1920. The rural districts were abolished in 1930. Balbriggan, in the rural district of Balrothery, had town commissioners under the Towns Improvement (Ireland) Act 1854. This became a town council in 2002. In common with all town councils, it was abolished in 2014. The urban districts were gradually absorbed by the city of Dublin, except for four coastal districts of Blackrock, Dalkey, Dún Laoghaire, and Killiney and Ballybrack, which formed the borough of Dún Laoghaire in 1930.County boundaries{| class"wikitable" |+ Changes to county boundaries |- ! Year !! Changes |- | 1900 || Abolition of the urban districts of Clontarf, Drumcondra, Clonliffe and Glasnevin and New Kilmainham and transfer with the surrounding areas to the city |- | 1930 || Abolition of the urban districts of Pembroke and Rathmines and Rathgar, and transfer to the city |- | 1931 || Transfer of Drumcondra, Glasnevin, Donnybrook and Terenure to the city |- | 1941 || Transfer of Crumlin to the city |- | 1942 || Abolition of the urban district of Howth, and transfer to the city |- | 1953 || Transfer of Finglas, Coolock and Ballyfermot to the city |- | 1985 || Transfer of Santry and Phoenix Park to the city<br />transfer of Howth, Sutton and parts of Kilbarrack including Bayside from the city |- | 1994 || Abolition of County Dublin and the borough of Dún Laoghaire on the establishment of new counties |} Counties and the city on Parnell Square]] ; 2. Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown; 3. Fingal; 4. South Dublin.]] The city of Dublin had been administered separately since the 13th century. Under the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898, the two areas were defined as the administrative county of Dublin and the county borough of Dublin, with the latter in the city area. In 1985, County Dublin was divided into three electoral counties: Dublin–Belgard to the southwest (South Dublin from 1991), Dublin–Fingal to the north (Fingal from 1991), and Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown to the southeast. On 1 January 1994, under the Local Government (Dublin) Act 1993, the County Dublin ceased to exist as a local government area, and was succeeded by the counties of Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown, Fingal and South Dublin, each coterminous (with minor boundary adjustments) with the area of the corresponding electoral county. In discussing the legislation, Avril Doyle TD said, "The Bill before us today effectively abolishes County Dublin, and as one born and bred in these parts of Ireland I find it rather strange that we in this House are abolishing County Dublin. I am not sure whether Dubliners realise that that is what we are about today, but in effect that is the case." Although the Electoral Commission should, as far as practicable, avoid breaching county boundaries when recommending Dáil constituencies, this does not include the boundaries of a city or the boundary between the three counties in Dublin. There is also still a sheriff appointed for County Dublin. The term "County Dublin" is still in common usage. Many organisations and sporting teams continue to organise on a County Dublin basis. The Placenames Branch of the Department of Tourism, Culture, Arts, Gaeltacht, Sport and Media maintains a Placenames Database that records all placenames, past and present. County Dublin is listed in the database along with the subdivisions of that county. It is also used as an address for areas within Dublin outside of the Dublin postal district system. For a period in 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic, to reduce person-to-person contact, government regulations restricted activity to "within the county in which the relevant residence is situated". Within the regulations, the local government areas of "Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown, Fingal, South Dublin and Dublin City" were deemed to be a single county (as were the city and the county of Cork, and the city and the county of Galway). The latest Ordnance Survey Ireland "Discovery Series" (Third Edition 2005) 1:50,000 map of the Dublin Region, Sheet 50, shows the boundaries of the city and three surrounding counties of the region. Extremities of the Dublin Region, in the north and south of the region, appear in other sheets of the series, 43 and 56 respectively. Local government , Dún Laoghaire, one of the four local assembly buildings of County Dublin]] There are four local authorities whose remit collectively encompasses the geographic area of the county and city of Dublin. These are Dublin City Council, South Dublin County Council, Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown County Council and Fingal County Council. Until 1 January 1994, the administrative county of Dublin was administered by Dublin County Council. From that date, its functions were succeeded by Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown County Council, Fingal County Council and South Dublin County Council, each with its county seat, respectively administering the new counties established on that date. The city was previously designated a county borough and administered by Dublin Corporation. Under the Local Government Act 2001, the country was divided into local government areas of cities and counties, with the county borough of Dublin being designated a city for all purposes, now administered by Dublin City Council. Each local authority is responsible for certain local services such as sanitation, planning and development, libraries, the collection of motor taxation, local roads and social housing. Dublin, comprising the four local government areas in the county, is a strategic planning area within the Eastern and Midland Regional Assembly (EMRA). It is a NUTS Level III region of Ireland. The region is one of eight regions of Ireland for Eurostat statistics at NUTS 3 level. Its NUTS code is IE061. This area formerly came under the remit of the Dublin Regional Authority. This Authority was dissolved in 2014. {| classwikitable style"margin:auto; border-collapse:collapse;" |- ! ! Dublin City ! Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown ! Fingal ! South Dublin |- ! Coat of arms | style="text-align: center;" | | style="text-align: center;" | | style="text-align: center;" | | style="text-align: center;" | |- ! Motto | style="text-align: center;" | <br />"An Obedient Citizenry <br /> Produces a Happy City" | style="text-align: center;" | <br />"From Harbour to Mountain" | style="text-align: center;" | <br />"Abundance of Land and Sea" | style="text-align: center;" | <br />"This We Hold in Trust" |- ! County town | style="text-align: center;" | Dublin | style="text-align: center;" | Dún Laoghaire | style="text-align: center;" | Swords | style="text-align: center;" | Tallaght |- ! Dáil constituencies | style="text-align: center;" | Dublin Central<br />Dublin Bay North<br />Dublin Bay South<br />Dublin North-West<br />Dublin South-Central<br />Dublin West | style="text-align: center;" | Dún Laoghaire <br /> Dublin Rathdown | style="text-align: center;" | Dublin Bay North <br /> Dublin Fingal <br /> Dublin North-West <br /> Dublin West | style="text-align: center;" | Dublin Mid-West<br />Dublin South-Central<br />Dublin South-West |- ! Local authority | style="text-align: center;" | Dublin City Council | style="text-align: center;" | Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown <br /> County Council | style="text-align: center;" | Fingal County Council | style="text-align: center;" | South Dublin County Council |- ! Council Seats | style="text-align: center;" | 63 | style="text-align: center;" | 40 | style="text-align: center;" | 40 | style="text-align: center;" | 40 |- ! Chairperson | style="text-align: center;" | James Geoghegan <br /> (Lord Mayor) | style="text-align: center;" | Jim O'Leary <br /> (Cathaoirleach) | style="text-align: center;" | Brian McDonagh <br /> (Mayor) | style="text-align: center;" | Baby Pereppadan <br /> (Mayor) |- ! EMRA Seats | style="text-align: center;" | 7 | style="text-align: center;" | 3 | style="text-align: center;" | 3 | style="text-align: center;" | 3 |- ! Population (2022) | style="text-align: center;" | 592,713 | style="text-align: center;" | 233,860 | style="text-align: center;" | 330,506 | style="text-align: center;" | 301,705 |- ! Increase since 2016 | style="text-align: center;" | 6.1% | style="text-align: center;" | 7.1% | style="text-align: center;" | 11.2% | style="text-align: center;" | 7.5% |- ! Area | style"text-align: center;" | | style"text-align: center;" | | style"text-align: center;" | | style"text-align: center;" | |- ! Density | style="text-align: center;" | 5,032/km<sup>2</sup> | style="text-align: center;" | 1,859/km<sup>2</sup> | style="text-align: center;" | 725/km<sup>2</sup> | style="text-align: center;" | 1,355/km<sup>2</sup> |- ! Highest elevation | style="text-align: center;" | N/A | style"text-align: center;" | Two Rock <br /> | style"text-align: center;" | Knockbrack <br />   | style"text-align: center;" | Kippure <br /> |- ! Website | style="text-align: center;" | | style="text-align: center;" | | style="text-align: center;" | | style="text-align: center;" | |} Demographics Population is the largest city in Ireland]] As of the 2022 census, the population of Dublin was 1,458,154, an 8.4% increase since the 2016 Census. The county's population first surpassed 1 million in 1981, and is projected to reach 1.8 million by 2036. Dublin is Ireland's most populous county, a position it has held since the 1926 Census, when it overtook County Antrim. As of 2022, County Dublin has over twice the population of County Antrim and two and a half times the population of County Cork. Approximately 21% of Ireland's population lives within County Dublin (28% if only the Republic of Ireland is counted). Additionally, Dublin has more people than the combined populations of Ireland's 16 smallest counties. With an area of just , Dublin is by far the most densely populated county in Ireland. The population density of the county is 1,582 people per square kilometre – over 7 times higher than Ireland's second most densely populated county, County Down in Northern Ireland. During the Celtic Tiger period, a large number of Dublin natives (Dubliners) moved to the rapidly expanding commuter towns in the adjoining counties. As of 2022, approximately 27.2% (345,446) of Dubliners were living outside of County Dublin. People born within Dublin account for 28% of the population of Meath, 32% of Kildare, and 37% of Wicklow. There are 922,744 Dublin natives living within the county, accounting for 63.3% of the population. People born in other Irish counties living within Dublin account for roughly 11% of the population. Between 2016 and 2022, international migration produced a net increase of 88,300 people. Dublin has the highest proportion of international residents of any county in Ireland, with around 25% of the county's population being born outside of the Republic of Ireland. As of the 2022 census, 5.6 percent of the county's population was reported as younger than 5 years old, 25.7 percent were between 5 and 25, 55.3 percent were between 25 and 65, and 13.4 percent of the population was older than 65. Of this latter group, 48,865 people (3.4 percent) were over the age of 80, more than doubling since 2016. Across all age groups, there were slightly more females (51.06 percent) than males (48.94 percent). In 2021, there were 16,596 births within the county, and the average age of a first time mother was 31.9.MigrationOver a quarter (25.2 percent) of County Dublin's population was born outside of the Republic of Ireland. In 2022, Dublin City had the highest percentage of non-nationals in the county (27.3 percent), and South Dublin had the lowest (20.9 percent). Historically, the immigrant population of Dublin was mainly from the United Kingdom and other European Union member states. However, results from the 2022 census revealed that immigrants from non-EU/UK countries were the largest source of foreign-born residents for the first time, accounting for 12.9 percent of the county's population. Those from other European Union member states accounted for 8.3 percent of Dublin's population, and those from the United Kingdom a further 4.1 percent. Prior to the 2000s, the UK was consistently the largest single source of non-nationals living in Dublin. After declining in the previous two census periods, the number of UK-born residents living in Dublin increased by 5.8 percent between 2016 and 2022. There was a large difference between the number of people living in Dublin who were born in the UK (58,586) and those who held sole-UK citizenship in the 2022 census (22,936). This discrepancy can arise for a variety of factors, such as people born in Northern Ireland claiming Irish citizenship rather than UK citizenship, Irish people born in the UK who now live in Dublin, British people who have become natural citizens, and foreign residents of Dublin who were born in the UK but are not UK citizens. Depending on an individual's responses in the census, all of these examples could result in the country of birth being registered by the CSO as the United Kingdom, but nationality being registered as Irish or a third country. Following its accession to the EU, the Polish quickly became the fastest growing immigrant community in Dublin. Just 188 Poles applied for Irish work permits in 1999. By 2006 this number had grown to 93,787. After the 2008 Irish economic downturn, as many as 3,000 Poles left Ireland each month. Despite this, Poles remain one of Dublin's largest foreign-born groups. In contrast to more recent arrivals, a large percentage of Dublin's Polish citizens (30.9 percent) also hold Irish citizenship. {| class="wikitable" |+ Foreign citizenship by country, 2022 |- ! Country ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! <small></small> |- | Citizenship <br> <small>(country only)</small> | 24,755 | 22,936 | 17,062 | 23,730 | 15,631 | 5,912 | 10,947 | 10,016 | 7,245 | 8,196 |- | Citizenship <br> <small>(dual Irish–other country)</small> | 3,485 | 4,803 | 7,627 | 210 | 810 | 7,926 | 962 | 945 | 1,216 | 234 |- | Combined population (2022) | 28,240 | 27,739 | 24,689 | 23,940 | 16,441 | 13,838 | 11,909 | 10,961 | 8,461 | 8,430 |} Outside of Europe, Indians and Brazilians are the predominant foreign-national groups. As of 2022, Indians were the fastest growing major immigrant group in Dublin, and they are now the county's second largest foreign-born group after the UK. Dublin's Indian community grew by 155.2 percent between 2016 and 2022. There were 29,582 Indian-born residents within Dublin as of 2022, up from 9,884 in the 2011 census. The influx of Indians is driven in part by multinational tech companies such as Microsoft, Google and Meta who have located their European headquarters within the county, in areas such as the Silicon Docks and Sandyford. In August 2020, the first dedicated Hindu temple in Ireland was built in Walkinstown. The number of Brazilian citizens living in Dublin more than tripled between 2011 and 2022, from 4,641 to 16,441. This increase is mainly a result of Ireland's participation in the Brazilian government's Ciência sem Fronteiras programme, which sees thousands of Brazilian students come to study in Ireland each year, many of whom remain in the country afterwards. Although not fully captured during the census period, Dublin also houses a significant number of Ukrainian refugees under the Temporary Protection Directive. As of October 2023, the number of Ukrainians living in emergency accommodation within the county is estimated to be around 14,000.Ethnicity According to the Central Statistics Office, in 2022 the population of County Dublin self-identified as: * 80.4% White (68.0% White Irish, 12.0% Other White Background, 0.4% Irish Traveller) * 5.8% Asian * 3.0% Mixed background * 2.2% Black * 8.5% Not stated In terms of total numbers, Dublin has the largest non-white population in Ireland, with an estimated 158,653 residents, accounting for 11.1% of the county's population. Over two-fifths (42.2 percent) of Ireland's black residents live within the county. In terms of percentage of population, Fingal has the highest percentage of both black (3.6 percent) and non-white (12.4 percent) residents of any local authority in Ireland. Conversely, Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown in the south of the county has one of Ireland's lowest percentages of black residents, with only 0.77% of the population identifying as black in 2022. Additionally, 43.3% of Ireland's multiracial population lives within County Dublin. Those who did not state their ethnicity more than doubled between 2016 and 2022, from 4.1% to 8.5%. Religion }} , founded in 1191]] The largest religious denomination by both number of adherents and as a percentage of Dublin's population in 2022 was the Roman Catholic Church, at 57.4 percent. All other Christian denominations including Church of Ireland, Eastern Orthodox, Presbyterian and Methodist accounted for 8.1 percent of Dublin's population. Together, all denominations of Christianity accounted for 65.5 percent of the county's population. According to the 2022 census, Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown is the least religious local authority in Ireland, with 23.9 percent of the population declaring themselves non-religious, followed closely by Dublin city (22.6 percent). In the county as a whole, those unaffiliated with any religion represented 20.1 percent of the population, which is the largest percentage of non-religious people of any county in Ireland. A further 9.1 percent of the population did not state their religion, up from just 4.1 percent in 2016. Of the non-Christian religions, Islam is the largest in terms of number of adherents, with Muslims accounting for 2.6% of the population. After Islam, the largest non-Christian religions in 2022 were Hinduism (1.4 percent) and Buddhism (0.27 percent). While relatively small in absolute terms, County Dublin contains over half of Ireland's Hindu (58.7 percent) residents, and just under half of its Eastern Orthodox (45.3 percent), Islamic (45.0 percent) and Buddhist (41.7 percent) residents. Dublin and its hinterland has been a Christian diocese since 1028. For centuries, the Primacy of Ireland was disputed between Dublin, the social and political capital of Ireland, and Armagh, site of Saint Patrick's main church, which was founded in 445 AD. In 1353 the dispute was settled by Pope Innocent VI, who proclaimed that the Archbishop of Dublin was Primate of Ireland, while the Archbishop of Armagh was titled Primate of All Ireland. These two distinct titles were replicated in the Church of Ireland following the Reformation. Historically, County Dublin was the epicentre of Protestantism in Ireland outside of Ulster. Records from the 1891 census show that the county was 21.4 percent Protestant towards the end of the 19th century. By the 1911 census this had gradually declined to around 20% due to poor economic conditions, as Dublin Protestants moved to industrial Belfast. Following the War of Independence (1919–1921), Dublin's Protestant community went into a steady decline, falling to 8.5 percent of the population by 1936. Between 2016 and 2022, the fastest growing religions in Dublin were Hinduism (148.9 percent), Eastern Orthodox (51.6 percent), and Islam (27.9 percent), while the most rapidly declining religions were Evangelicalism (−10.4 percent), Catholicism (−8.7 percent), Jehovah's Witnesses (−5.9 percent) and Buddhism (−5.4 percent). Metropolitan area Dublin city The boundaries of Dublin City Council form the urban core of the city, often referred to as "Dublin city centre", an area of 117.8 square kilometres. This encompasses the central suburbs of the city, extending as far south as Terenure and Donnybrook; as far north as Ballymun and Donaghmede; and as far west as Ballyfermot. As of 2022, there were 592,713 people living within Dublin city centre. However, as the continuous built-up area extends beyond the city boundaries, the term "Dublin city and suburbs" is commonly employed when referring to the actual extent of Dublin. Dublin city and suburbs Dublin city and suburbs is a CSO-designated urban area which includes the densely populated contiguous built-up area which surrounds Dublin city centre. As of the 2022 census, Dublin city and suburbs encompassed 345 km<sup>2</sup>, expanding in size by 8.7 percent (or 27.5 km<sup>2</sup>) since the 2016 census. The population of Dublin city and suburbs grew from 1,173,179 in 2016 to 1,263,219 in 2022, an increase of 7.7 percent. Following the 2022 census, Dublin city and suburbs was designated a cross-county settlement for the first time, as the CSO included the Kribensis Manor housing development within the contiguous built-up area of the city. The houses are located in County Meath, along the R149 road between Hilltown and the village of Clonee. Approximately 87% of County Dublin's population lives within Dublin city and suburbs as of the 2022 census. The remainder of the county covers roughly two thirds of Dublin's land area, but is home to just 196,140 people. Dublin metropolitan area As the city proper does not extend beyond Dublin Airport, nearby towns such as Swords, Donabate, Portmarnock and Malahide are not considered part of the city, and are recorded by the CSO as separate settlements. However, under Ireland's National Planning Framework, these towns are considered part of the Dublin Metropolitan Area Strategic Plan (MASP). The MASP also includes towns outside of the county, such as Naas, Leixlip and Maynooth in County Kildare, Dunboyne in County Meath, and Bray, Kilmacanogue and Greystones in County Wicklow, but does not include Balbriggan, Lusk, Rush or Skerries, which are located in the far north of County Dublin.Greater Dublin AreaThe Greater Dublin Area (GDA) is a commonly used planning jurisdiction which extends to the wider network of commuter towns that are economically connected to Dublin city. The GDA consists of County Dublin and its three neighboring counties, Kildare, Meath and Wicklow. With a population of 2.1 million and an area of 6,986 square kilometres, it contains 40% of the population of the State, and covers 9.9% of its land area. {| class"wikitable" style"margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none" |+ Metropolitan area statistics |- !Statistical area !Population (2022) !Area (km2) !Density (per km2) !Local authorities |- | Dublin City | 592,713 | 117.8 | 5,032 | Dublin |- | Dublin City and suburbs | 1,263,219 | 345 | 3,662 | Dublin, Fingal, South Dublin, Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown, Meath |- | County Dublin | 1,458,154 | 922 | 1,582 | Dublin, Fingal, South Dublin, Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown |- | Dublin Metropolitan Area | 1,512,543 | 882 | 1,715 | Dublin, Fingal, South Dublin, Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown, Meath, Kildare, Wicklow |- | Greater Dublin Area | 2,082,605 | 6,986 | 298 | Dublin, Fingal, South Dublin, Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown, Meath, Kildare, Wicklow |} Urban areas Under CSO classification, an "Urban Area" is a town with a population greater than 1,500. Dublin is the most urbanised county in Ireland, with 98% of its residents residing in urban areas as of 2022. Of Dublin's three non-city local authorities, Fingal has the highest proportion of people living in rural areas (7.9%), while Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown has the lowest (1.19%). The western suburbs of Dublin city such as Tallaght and Blanchardstown have experienced rapid growth in recent decades, and both areas have a population roughly equivalent to Galway city. Local authority |city_1=DublinDublin |div_1=DublinDublin City |pop_1=592,713 |img_1=Sunset In Grand Canal Dublin Ireland (66307731).jpeg |city_2=TallaghtTallaght |div_2=South Dublin |pop_2=81,022 |img_2=Tallaght - LUAS Tram terminus - geograph.org.uk - 4634923.jpg |city_3=Blanchardstown |div_3=Fingal |pop_3=79,769 |img_3=County Dublin - Talbot Bridge (Blanchardstown) - 20170819143036.jpg |city_4= Lucan, DublinLucan |div_4=Lucan, DublinSouth Dublin, Fingal |pop_4=57,550 |img_4=Lucan Bridge4.jpg |city_5=Clondalkin |div_5=South Dublin |pop_5=47,938 |img_5|city_6Swords, DublinSwords |div_6=Fingal |pop_6=40,776 |img_6|city_7Dún LaoghaireDún Laoghaire |div_7=Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown |pop_7=31,239 |img_7|city_8Castleknock |div_8=Fingal |pop_8=27,332 |img_8|city_9Dundrum, DublinDundrum |div_9=Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown |pop_9=25,414 |img_9|city_10Balbriggan |div_10=Fingal |pop_10=24,322 |img_10}}Transportation train arriving at Malahide]] County Dublin has the oldest and most extensive transportation infrastructure in Ireland. The Dublin and Kingstown Railway, opened in December 1834, was Ireland's first railway line. The line, which ran from Westland Row to Dún Laoghaire, was originally intended to be used for cargo. However, it proved far more popular with passengers and became the world's first commuter railway line. The line has been upgraded multiple times throughout its history and is still in use to this day, making it the oldest commuter railway route in the world. was Europe's 13th-busiest airport in 2023]] Public transport in Dublin was managed by the Dublin Transportation Office until 2009, when it was replaced by the National Transport Authority (NTA). The three pillars currently underpinning the public transport network of the Greater Dublin Area (GDA) are Dublin Suburban Rail, the Luas and the bus system. There are six commuter lines in Dublin, which are managed by Iarnród Éireann. Five of these lines serve as routes between Dublin and towns across the GDA and beyond. The sixth route, known as Dublin Area Rapid Transit (DART), is electrified and serves only Dublin and northern Wicklow. The newest addition to Dublin's public transport network is a tram system called the Luas. The service began with two disconnected lines in 2004, with three extensions opened in 2009, 2010 and 2011 before a cross-city link between the lines and further extension opened in 2017. Historically, Dublin had an extensive tram system which commenced in 1871 and at its peak had over of active line. It was operated by the Dublin United Transport Company (DUTC) and was very advanced for its day, with near-full electrification from 1901. From the 1920s onwards, the DUTC began to acquire private bus operators and gradually closed some of its lines. Further declines in passenger numbers were driven in part by a belief at the time that trams were outdated and archaic. All tram lines terminated in 1949, except for the tram to Howth, which ran until 1959. Dublin Bus is the county's largest bus operator, carrying 138 million passengers in 2019. For much of the city, particularly west Dublin, the bus is the only public transport option available, and there are numerous smaller private bus companies in operation across County Dublin. National bus operator Bus Éireann provides long-distance routes to towns and villages located outside of Dublin city and its immediate hinterland. In November 2005, the government announced a €34 billion initiative called Transport 21 which included a substantial expansion to Dublin's transport network. The project was cancelled in May 2011 in the aftermath of the 2008 recession. Consequently, by 2017 Hugh Creegan, deputy chief of the NTA, stated that there had been a "chronic underinvestment in public transport for more than a decade". By 2019, Dublin was reportedly the 17th most congested city in the world, and had the 5th highest average commute time in the European Union. The Luas and rail network regularly experience significant overcrowding and delays during peak hours, and in 2019 Iarnród Éireann was widely ridiculed for asking commuters to "stagger morning journeys" to alleviate the problem. The M50 is a orbital motorway around Dublin city, and is the busiest motorway in the country. It serves as the centre of both Dublin and Ireland's motorway network, and most of the national primary roads to other cities begin at the M50 and radiate outwards. The current route was built in various sections over the course of 27 years, from 1983 to 2010. All major roads in Ireland are managed by Transport Infrastructure Ireland (TII), which is headquartered in Parkgate Street, Dublin 8. As of 2019, there were over 550,000 cars registered in County Dublin, accounting for 25.3% of all cars registered in the State. Due to the county's small area and high degree of urbanisation, there is a preference for "D" registered used cars throughout Ireland, as they are considered to have undergone less wear and tear. For international travel, around 1.7 million passengers travel by ferry through Dublin Port each year. A Dún Laoghaire to Holyhead ferry was formerly operated by Stena Line, but the route was closed in 2015. Dublin Airport is Ireland's largest airport, and 32.9 million passengers passed through it in 2019, making it Europe's 12th-busiest airport.Economy The Dublin Region, which is conterminous with County Dublin, has the largest and most highly developed economy in Ireland, accounting for over two-fifths of national Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The Central Statistics Office estimates that the GDP of the Dublin Region in 2020 was €157.2 billion ($187 billion / £141 billion at 2020 exchange rates). In nominal terms, Dublin's economy is larger than roughly 140 sovereign states. The county's GDP per capita is €107,808 ($117,688 / £92,620), one of the highest regional GDPs per capita in the EU. As of 2019, Dublin also had the highest Human Development Index in Ireland at 0.965, placing it among the most developed places in the world in terms of life expectancy, education and per capita income. Affluence by Small Area in Dublin]] In 2020, average disposable income per person in Dublin was €27,686, or 118% of the national average (€23,400), the highest of any county in Ireland. As Ireland's most populous county, Dublin has the highest total household income in the country, at an estimated €46.8 billion in 2017 – higher than the Border, Midlands, West and South-East regions combined. Dublin residents were the highest per capita tax contributors in the State, returning a total of €15.1 billion in taxes in 2017. Many of Ireland's most prominent political, educational, cultural and media centres are concentrated south of the River Liffey in Dublin city. Further south, areas like Dún Laoghaire, Dalkey and Killiney have long been some of Dublin's most affluent areas, and Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown consistently has the highest average house prices in Ireland. This has resulted in a perceived socio-economic divide in Dublin, between the generally less affluent Northside and the wealthier Southside. In Dublin (both city and county), residents will commonly refer to themselves as a "Northsider" or a "Southsider", and the division is often caricatured in Irish comedy, media and literature, for example Ross O'Carroll-Kelly and Damo and Ivor. References to the divide have also become colloquialisms in their own right, such as "D4" (referring to the Dublin 4 postal district), which is a pejorative term for an upper middle class Irish person. While the northside-southside divide remains prevalent in popular culture, economic indices such as the Pobal HP deprivation index have shown that the distinction does not reflect economic reality. Many of Dublin's most affluent areas (Clontarf, Raheny, Howth, Portmarnock, Malahide) are located in the north of the county, and many of its most deprived areas (Jobstown, Ballyogan, Ballybrack, Dolphin's Barn, Clondalkin) are located in the south of the county. Utilising CSO data from the past three censuses, Pobal HP revealed that there was a much higher concentration of below average, disadvantaged and very disadvantaged areas in west Dublin. In 2012, Irish Times columnist Fintan O'Toole posited that the real economic divide in Dublin was not north–south, but east–west – between the older coastal areas of eastern Dublin and the newer sprawling suburbs of western Dublin – and that the perpetuation of the northside–southside "myth" was a convenient way to gloss over class division within the county. O'Toole argued that framing the city's wealth divide as a light-hearted north–south stereotype was easier than having to address the socio-economic impacts of deliberate government policy to remove working-class people from the city centre and settle them on the margins. Finance ]] Dublin is both a European and Global financial hub, and around 200 of the world's leading financial services firms have operations within the county. In 2017 and 2018 respectively, Dublin was ranked 5th in Europe and 31st globally in the Global Financial Centres Index (GFCI). In the mid-1980s, parts of central Dublin had fallen into a state of dereliction and the Irish government pursued an urban regeneration programme. An 11-hectare special economic zone (SEZ) was set up in 1987, known as the International Financial Services Centre (IFSC). At the time of its establishment, the SEZ had the lowest corporate tax rate in the EU. The IFSC has since expanded into a 37.8-hectare site centred around the Dublin Docklands. As of 2020, over €1.8 trillion of funds are administered from Ireland. There was renewed interest in Dublin's financial services sector in the wake of the UK's vote to withdraw from the European Union in 2016. Many firms, including Barclays and Bank of America, pre-emptively moved some of their operations from London to Dublin in anticipation of restricted EU market access. A survey conducted by Ernst & Young in 2021 found that Dublin was the most popular destination for firms in the UK considering relocating to the EU, ahead of Luxembourg and Frankfurt. It is estimated that Dublin's financial sector will grow by about 25% as a direct result of Brexit, and as many as 13,000 jobs could move from the UK to County Dublin in the years immediately after its withdrawal. Industry and energy ]] -based Ryanair is Europe's largest airline]] handles over 50% of Ireland's international trade]] The economy of Dublin benefits from substantial amounts of both indigenous and foreign investment. In 2018, the Financial Times ranked Dublin the most attractive large city in the world for Foreign Direct Investment, and the city has been consistently ranked by Forbes as one of the world's most business-friendly. The economy is centered on financial services, the pharmaceuticals and biotechnology industries, information technology, logistics and storage, professional services, agriculture and tourism. IDA Ireland, the state agency responsible for attracting foreign direct investment, was founded in Dublin in 1949. Dublin has four power plants, all of which are concentrated in the docklands area of Dublin city. Three are natural-gas plants operated by the ESB, and the Poolbeg Incinerator is operated by Covanta Energy. The four plants have a combined capacity of 1.039 GW, roughly 12.5% of the island of Ireland's generation capacity as of 2019. The disused Poolbeg chimneys are the tallest structures in the county, and were granted protection by Dublin city council in 2014. As a result of Dublin city's location within a sheltered bay at the mouth of a navigable river, shipping has been a key industry in the county since medieval times. By the 18th-century, Dublin was a bustling maritime city and large-scale engineering projects were undertaken to enhance the port's capacity, such as the Great South Wall, which was the largest sea wall in the world at the time of its construction in 1715. Dublin Port was originally located along the Liffey, but gradually moved towards the coast over the centuries as vessel size increased. It is today the largest and busiest port in Ireland. It handles 50% of the Republic of Ireland's trade, and receives 60% of all vessel arrivals. Dublin Port occupies an area of in one of the most expensive places in the country, with an estimated price per acre of around €10 million. Since the 2000s, there have been calls to relocate Dublin Port out of the city and free up its land for residential and commercial development. This was first proposed by the Progressive Democrats at the height of the Celtic Tiger in 2006, who valued the land at between €25 and €30 billion, although nothing became of this proposal. During the housing crisis of the late 2010s the idea again began to attract supporters, among them economist David McWilliams. Currently, there are no official plans to move the port elsewhere, and the Dublin Port Company strongly opposes relocation. Dublin hosts the headquarters of some of Ireland's largest multinational corporations, including 14 of the 20 companies which make up the ISEQ 20 index – those with the highest trading volume and market capitalisation of all Irish Stock Exchange listed companies. These are: AIB, Applegreen, Bank of Ireland, Cairn Homes, Continental Group, CRH, Dalata Hotel Group, Flutter Entertainment, Greencoat Renewables, Hibernia REIT, IRES, Origin Enterprises, Ryanair and Smurfit Kappa. Tourism , Ireland's most visited tourist attraction]] County Dublin receives by far the most overseas tourists of any county in Ireland. This is primarily due to Dublin city's status as Ireland's largest city and its transportation hub. Dublin is also Ireland's most popular destination for domestic tourists. According to Fáilte Ireland, in 2017 Dublin received nearly 6 million overseas tourists, and just under 1.5 million domestic tourists. Most of Ireland's international flights transit through Dublin Airport, and the vast majority of passenger ferry arrivals dock at Dublin Port. In 2019, the port also facilitated 158 cruise ship arrivals. The tourism industry in the county is worth approximately €2.3 billion per year. As of 2019, 4 of the top 10 fee-paying tourist attractions in Ireland are located within County Dublin, as well as 5 of the top 10 free attractions. The Guinness Storehouse at St. James's Gate is Ireland's most visited tourist attraction, receiving 1.7 million visitors in 2019, and over 20 million total visits since 2000. Additionally, Dublin also contains Ireland's 3rd (Dublin Zoo), 4th (Book of Kells) and 6th (St Patrick's Cathedral) most visited fee-paying attractions. The top free attractions in Dublin are the National Gallery of Ireland, the National Botanic Gardens, the National Museum of Ireland and the Irish Museum of Modern Art, all of which receive over half a million visitors per year.AgricultureDespite having the smallest farmed area of any county, Dublin is one of Ireland's major agricultural producers. Dublin is the largest producer of fruit and vegetables in Ireland, the third largest producer of oilseed rape and has the fifth largest fishing industry. Fingal alone produces 55% of Ireland's fresh produce, including soft fruits and berries, apples, lettuces, peppers, asparagus, potatoes, onions, and carrots. As of 2020, the Irish Farmers' Association estimates that the total value of Dublin's agricultural produce is €205 million. According to the CSO, fish landings in the county are worth a further €20 million. Approximately 41% of the county's land area (38,576 ha) is farmed. Of this, is under tillage, the 9th highest in the country, and is dedicated to fruit & horticulture, the 4th highest. Rural County Dublin is considered a peri-urban region, where an urban environment transitions into a rural one. Due to the growth of Dublin city and its commuter towns in the north of the county, the region is considered to be under significant pressure from urban sprawl. Between 1991 and 2010, the amount of agricultural land within the county decreased by 22.9%. In 2015, the local authorities of Fingal, South Dublin and Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown developed a joint Dublin Rural Local Development Strategy aimed at enhancing the region's agricultural output, while also managing and minimising the impact of urbanisation on biodiversity and the identity and culture of rural Dublin. The county has a small forestry industry that is based almost entirely in the upland areas of south County Dublin. According to the 2017 National Forestry Inventory, of the county was under forest, of which was private forestry. The majority of Dublin's forests are owned by the national forestry company, Coillte. In the absence of increased private planting, the county's commercial timber capacity is expected to decrease in the coming decades, as Coillte intends to convert much of their holdings in the Dublin Mountains into non-commercial mixed forests. Dublin has 810 individual farms with an average size of , the largest average farm size of any county in Ireland. Roughly 9,400 people within the county are directly employed in either agriculture or the food and drink processing industry. Numerous Irish and multinational food and drink companies are either based in Dublin or have facilities within the county, including Mondelez, Coca-Cola, Mars, Diageo, Kellogg's, Danone, Ornua, Pernod Ricard and Glanbia. In 1954, Tayto Crisps were established in Coolock and developed into cultural phenomenon throughout much of the Republic of Ireland. Its operations and headquarters have since moved to neighbouring County Meath. Another popular crisp brand, Keogh's, are based in Oldtown, Fingal. Education In Ireland, spending on education is controlled by the government and the allocation of funds is decided each year in the annual budget. Local authorities retain limited responsibilities such as funding for school meals, service supports costs and the upkeep of libraries. There are hundreds of primary and secondary schools within County Dublin, most of which are English-language schools. Several international schools are based in Dublin, such as St Kilian's German School and Lycée Français d'Irlande, which teach in foreign languages. There is also a large minority of students attending gaelscoileanna (Irish-language primary schools). There are 34 gaelscoileanna and 10 gaelcholáistí (Irish-language secondary schools) in the county, with a total of 12,950 students as of 2018. In terms of college acceptance rates, gaelcholáistí are consistently the best performing schools in Dublin, and among the best performing in Ireland. Although the government pays for a large majority of school costs, including teachers' salaries, the Roman Catholic Church is the largest owner of schools in Dublin, and preference is given to Catholic students over non-Catholic students in oversubscribed areas. This has resulted in a growing movement towards non-denominational and co-educational schools in the county. The majority of private secondary schools in Dublin are still single sex, and continue to have religious patronages with either congregations of the Catholic Church (Spiritans, Sisters of Loreto, Jesuits) or Protestant denominations (Church of Ireland, Presbyterian). Newer private schools which cater for the Leaving Cert cycle such as the Institute of Education and Ashfield College are generally non-denominational and co-educational. In 2018, Nord Anglia International School Dublin opened in Leopardstown, becoming the most expensive private school in Ireland. As of 2023–24, four of Dublin's third level institutions are listed in the Top 500 of either the Times Higher Education Rankings or the QS World Rankings, placing them amongst the top 5% of all third level institutions in the world. TCD (81), UCD (171) and DCU (436) are within the Top 500 of the QS rankings; and TCD (161), RCSI (201–250), UCD (201–250) and DCU (451–500) and are within the Top 500 of the Times rankings. Newly amalgamated TUD also placed within the world's Top 1,000 universities in the QS rankings, and within the Top 500 for Engineering and Electronics. County Dublin has four public universities, as well as numerous other colleges, institutes of technology and institutes of further education. Several of Dublin's largest third level institutions and their associated abbreviations are listed below: , Dublin". 1837.]] *Dublin Business School (DBS) *Dublin City University (DCU) *Dún Laoghaire Institute of Art, Design and Technology (IADT) *Griffith College Dublin (GCD) *National College of Ireland (NCI) *Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland (RCSI) *Technological University Dublin (TUD) *Trinity College Dublin (TCD) *University College Dublin (UCD) Politics Elections of County Dublin]] For elections to Dáil Éireann, the area of the county is currently divided into eleven constituencies: Dublin Bay North, Dublin Bay South, Dublin Central, Dublin Fingal, Dublin Mid-West, Dublin North-West, Dublin Rathdown, Dublin South-Central, Dublin South-West, Dublin West, and Dún Laoghaire. Together they return 45 deputies (TDs) to the Dáil. The first Irish Parliament convened in the small village of Castledermot, County Kildare on 18 June 1264. Representatives from seven constituencies were present, one of which was the constituency of Dublin City. Dublin was historically represented in the Irish House of Commons through the constituencies of Dublin City and County Dublin. Three smaller constituencies had been created by the 17th century: Swords; which was created sometime between 1560 and 1585, with Walter Fitzsimons and Thomas Taylor being its first recorded MPs; Newcastle in the west of the county, created in 1613; and Dublin University, which was a university constituency covering Trinity College, also created in 1613. While proceedings of the Irish Parliament were well-documented, many of the records from this time were lost during the shelling of the Four Courts in July 1922. Following the Acts of Union 1800, Dublin was represented in Westminster through three constituencies from 1801 to 1885: Dublin City, County Dublin and the Dublin University. A series of local government and electoral reforms in the late 19th century radically alerted the county's political map, and by 1918 there were twelve constituencies within County Dublin. Throughout the twentieth century the representation in Dublin expanded as the population grew. In the Electoral Act 1923, the first division of constituencies arranged by Irish legislation, geographical constituencies in Dublin were 23 of the 147 TDs in geographical constituencies; this contrasts with 45 of 160 at the most recent division. Twenty-three Dáil Éireann constituencies have been created and abolished within the county since independence, the most recent being the constituencies of Dublin South, Dublin North, Dublin North-Central, Dublin North-East and Dublin South-East, which were abolished in 2016. Of the fifteen people to have held the office of Taoiseach since 1922, more than half were either born or raised within County Dublin: W. T. Cosgrave, John A. Costello, Seán Lemass, Liam Cosgrave, Charles Haughey (born in County Mayo but raised in Dublin), Garret FitzGerald, Bertie Ahern and Leo Varadkar (Cosgrave held the office of President of the Executive Council; by convention, Taoisigh are numbered to include this position). Conversely, just one of Ireland's nine presidents have hailed from the county, namely Seán T. O'Kelly, who served as president from 1945 to 1959. European elections The four local government areas in County Dublin form the 4-seat constituency of Dublin in European Parliament elections.National government ]] , residence of the President of Ireland]] , the official Irish State guesthouse]] As the capital city, Dublin is the seat of the national parliament of Ireland, the Oireachtas. It is composed of the President of Ireland, Dáil Éireann as a house of representatives, and Seanad Éireann as an upper house. Both houses of the Oireachtas meet in Leinster House, a former ducal palace on Kildare Street. It has been the home of the Irish government since the creation of the Irish Free State. The First Dáil of the revolutionary Irish Republic met in the Round Room of the Mansion House, the present-day residence of the Lord Mayor of Dublin, in January 1919. The former Irish Parliament, which was abolished in 1801, was located at College Green; Parliament House now holds a branch of Bank of Ireland. Government Buildings, located on Merrion Street, houses the Department of the Taoiseach, the Council Chamber, the Department of Finance, and the Office of the Attorney General. The president resides in Áras an Uachtaráin in Phoenix Park, a stately ranger's lodge built in 1757. The house was bought by the Crown in 1780 to be used as the summer residence of the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, the British viceroy in the Kingdom of Ireland. Following independence, the lodge was earmarked as the potential home of the Governor-General, but this was highly controversial as it symbolised continued British rule over Ireland, so it was left empty for many years. President Douglas Hyde "temporarily" occupied the building in 1938, as Taoiseach Éamon de Valera intended to demolish it and build a more modest presidential bungalow on the site. Those plans were scrapped during The Emergency and the lodge became the president's permanent residence. Much like Áras an Uachtaráin, many of the grand estate homes of the former aristocracy were re-purposed for State use in the 20th century. The Deerfield Residence, also in Phoenix Park, is the official residence of the United States Ambassador to Ireland, while Glencairn House in south Dublin is used as the British Ambassador's residence. Farmleigh House, one of the Guinness family residences, was acquired by the government in 1999 for use as the official Irish state guest house. Many other prominent judicial and political organs are located within Dublin, including the Four Courts, which is the principal seat of the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, the High Court and the Dublin Circuit Court; and the Custom House, which houses the Department of Housing, Local Government and Heritage. Once the centuries-long seat of the British government's administration in Ireland, Dublin Castle is now only used for ceremonial purposes, such as policy launches, hosting of State visits, and the inauguration of the president.Social issues and ideologyDublin is among the most socially liberal places in Ireland, and popular sentiment on issues such as LGBT rights, abortion and divorce has often foreran the rest of the island. Referendums held on these issues have consistently received much stronger support within Dublin, particularly the south of the county, than the majority of the country. While over 66% of voters nationally voted in favour of the Eighth Amendment in 1983, 58% of voters in Dún Laoghaire and 55% in Dublin South voted against it. In 2018, over 75.5% of voters in County Dublin voted to repeal the amendment, compared with 66.4% nationally. In 1987, Dublin Senator David Norris took the Irish government to the European Court of Human Rights (see Norris v. Ireland) over the criminalisation of homosexual acts. In 1988, the Court ruled that the law criminalising same sex activities was contrary to the European Convention on Human Rights, in particular Article 8 which protects the right to respect for private life. The law was held to infringe on the right of adults to engage in acts of their own choice. This led directly to the repeal of the law in 1993. Numerous LGBT events and venues are now located within the county. Dublin Pride is an annual pride parade held on the last Saturday of June and is Ireland's largest public LGBT event. In 2018, an estimated 60,000 people attended. During the 2015 vote to allow same-sex marriage, 71% of County Dublin voted in favour, compared with 62% nationally. In general, the south-eastern coastal regions of the county such as Dún Laoghaire and Dublin Bay South are a stronghold for the liberal-conservative Fine Gael party. Since the late-2000s the Green Party has also developed a strong support base in these areas. The democratic socialist Sinn Féin party generally performs well in south-central and west Dublin, in areas like Tallaght and Crumlin. In recent elections Sinn Féin have increasingly taken votes in traditional Labour Party areas, whose support has been on the decline since 2016. As a result of the economic crisis, centre-right Fianna Fáil failed to gain a single seat in Dublin in the 2011 general election. This was a first for the long-time dominant party of Irish politics. The party regained a footing in 7 of the 11 Dublin constituencies in 2020, and were also the largest party in Dublin City, Fingal and South Dublin in the 2019 local elections. Sport GAA mural in Ballybough]] Dublin is a dual county in Gaelic games, and it competes at a similar level in both hurling/camogie and Gaelic football. The Dublin county board is the governing body for Gaelic games within the county. The county's current GAA crest, adopted in 2004, represents Dublin's four constituent areas. The castle represents Dublin city, the raven represents Fingal, the Viking longboat represents Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown and the book of Saint Tamhlacht in the centre represents South Dublin. In Gaelic football, the Dublin county team competes annually in Division 1 of the National Football League and the provincial Leinster Senior Football Championship. Dublin is the dominant force of Leinster football, with 62 Leinster Senior Championship wins. Nationally, the county is second only to Kerry for All-Ireland Senior Football Championship titles. The two counties are fierce rivals, and a meeting between them is considered the biggest game in Gaelic football. Dublin has won the All-Ireland on 31 occasions, including a record 6 in a row from 2015 to 2020. In hurling, the Dublin hurling team currently compete in Division 1B of the National Hurling League and in the Leinster Senior Hurling Championship. Dublin is the second most successful hurling county in Leinster after Kilkenny, albeit a distant second, with 24 Leinster hurling titles. The county has seen less success in the All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship, ranking joint-fifth alongside Wexford. Dublin has been in 21 All-Ireland hurling finals, winning just 6, the most recent of which was in 1938. Within the county, Gaelic football and hurling clubs compete in the Dublin Senior Football Championship and the Dublin Senior Hurling Championship, which were both established in 1887. St Vincents based in Marino and Faughs based in Templeogue are by far the most successful clubs in Dublin their respective sports. Four Dublin football teams have won the All-Ireland Senior Club Football Championship; St Vincents, Kilmacud Crokes, UCD and Ballyboden St Enda's. Despite their historic dominance in Dublin, Faughs have never won an All-Ireland Senior Club Hurling Championship. Since the early 2010s, Dalkey's Cuala have been the county's main hurling force, and the club won back-to-back All-Ireland's in 2017 and 2018. Soccer ]] and national rugby team of Ireland are based in the Aviva Stadium]] Association football (soccer) is one of the most popular sports within the county. While Gaelic games are the most watched sport in Dublin, association football is the most widely played, and there are over 200 amateur football clubs in County Dublin. Dalymount Park in Phibsborough is known as the "home of Irish football", as it is both the country's oldest stadium and the former home ground for the national team from 1904 until 1990. The Republic of Ireland national football team is currently based in the 52,000 seater Aviva Stadium, which was built on the site of the old Lansdowne Road stadium in 2010. The Aviva Stadium has hosted the final of the UEFA Europa League twice, in 2011 and 2024. Five League of Ireland football clubs are based within County Dublin; Bohemians F.C., Shamrock Rovers, St Patrick's Athletic, University College Dublin and Shelbourne. Shamrock Rovers, formerly of Milltown but now based in Tallaght, are the most successful club in the country, with 21 League of Ireland titles. They were also the first Irish side to reach the group stages of a European competition when they qualified for the 2011–12 UEFA Europa League group stage. The Dublin University Football Club, founded in 1854, are technically the world's oldest extant football club. However, the club currently only plays rugby union. Bohemians are Ireland's third oldest club currently playing football, after Belfast's Cliftonville F.C. and Athlone Town A.F.C. The Bohemians–Shamrock Rovers rivalry not only involves Dublin's two biggest clubs, but it is also a Northside-Southside rivalry, making it the most intense derby match in the county. {| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" ! Club !! League !! Stadium (capacity) !! Established !! Titles |- | Bohemians || rowspan="4" | LOI Premier Division || Dalymount Park (3,400) || 1890 || 11 |- | '''St Patrick's Athletic || Richmond Park (5,340) || 1929 || 8 |- | Shamrock Rovers || Tallaght Stadium (8,000) || 1899 || 21 |- | Shelbourne || Tolka Park (4,400) || 1895 || 13 |- | University College Dublin''' || rowspan="1" | LOI First Division || UCD Bowl (3,000) || 1895 || 0 |- |} Other sports ]] Rugby Union is the county's third most popular sport, after Gaelic games and football. Leinster Rugby play their competitive home games in the RDS Arena & the Aviva Stadium. Donnybrook Stadium hosts Leinster's friendlies and A games, as well as the Ireland A and Women's teams, Leinster Schools and Youths and the home club games of All Ireland League sides Old Wesley and Bective Rangers. County Dublin is home to 13 of the senior rugby union clubs in Ireland, including 5 of the 10 sides in the top division 1A. Other popular sports in the county include: cricket, hockey, golf, tennis, athletics and equestrian activities. Dublin has two ODI cricket grounds in Castle Avenue and Malahide Cricket Club Ground, and the Phoenix Cricket Club, founded in 1830, is the oldest in Ireland. As with many other sporting organisations in the county, the Fitzwilliam Lawn Tennis Club is one of the world's oldest. It hosted the now-discontinued Irish Open from 1879 until 1983. Field hockey, particularly women's field hockey, is becoming increasingly popular within the county. The Ireland women's national field hockey team made it to the 2018 World Cup final, and many of the players on that team were from Dublin clubs, such as UCD, Old Alex, Loreto, Monkstown, Muckross and Railway Union. The Dublin Horse Show takes place at the RDS, which hosted the Show Jumping World Championships in 1982, and the county has a horse racing track at Leopardstown which hosts the Irish Champion Stakes every September. Dublin houses the national stadium for both boxing (National Stadium) and basketball (National Basketball Arena), and the city hosted the 2003 Special Olympics. Although a small county in size, Dublin contains one third of Leinster's 168 golf courses, and three-time major winner Pádraig Harrington is from Rathfarnham.Media Local radio stations include 98FM, FM104, Dublin City FM, Q102, SPIN 1038, Sunshine 106.8, Raidió Na Life and Radio Nova. Local newspapers include The Echo, and the Liffey Champion. Most of the area can receive the five main UK television channels as well as the main Irish channels, along with Sky TV and Virgin Media Ireland cable television. Places of interest ]] ]] ]] * 3Arena * Abbey Theatre * Aviva Stadium * Blanchardstown Centre * Bord Gáis Energy Theatre * Broadmeadow Estuary * Bull Island * Chester Beatty Library * Christ Church Cathedral * Clondalkin Round Tower * College Green * Convention Centre Dublin * Croke Park (stadium) * The Custom House * Dalkey Island * Douglas Hyde Gallery * Drimnagh Castle * Drumanagh Head * Dublin Castle * Dublin Zoo * Dundrum Town Centre * EPIC – The Irish Emigration Museum * The Forty Foot * Four Courts * Gaiety Theatre * Gate Theatre * The General Post Office (GPO) * George's Street Arcade * Glasnevin Cemetery * Glenasmole Valley * Grafton Street * Grand Canal Dock * Guinness Storehouse * Henry Street * Howth Castle * Howth Head * Hugh Lane Gallery * Irish Museum of Modern Art * Irish National War Memorial Gardens * James Joyce Centre * Jameson Distillery * Killiney Hill * Kilmainham Gaol * Kilmashogue Wedge Tomb * Kippure * Lambay Island * Leinster House * Leopardstown Racecourse * Liberty Hall * The Little Museum of Dublin * Malahide Castle * Marlay Park * Martello Towers * Merrion Square * Montpelier Hill * Mount Jerome Cemetery * Museum of Literature Ireland * National Botanic Gardens * National Concert Hall * National Gallery of Ireland * National Library of Ireland * National Museum of Ireland * National Wax Museum * Natural History Museum * Olympia Theatre * Phoenix Park * Poolbeg Lighthouse * Portrane Beach * Rathfarnham Castle * Richmond Barracks * Royal Hibernian Academy * Rush Beach (North & South) * Seapoint * Skerries Natural Heritage Area * Spire of Dublin * St Macuilin's Church, Lusk * St Anne's Park * Saint Enda's Park and the Pearse Museum * St Mary's Pro-Cathedral * St Patrick's Cathedral * St Stephen's Green * St Michan's Church * Temple Bar * Three Rock * Tibradden * Ticknock Forest * Trinity College Dublin, including the Old Library * Two Rock * Velvet Strand See also * List of regions of Ireland References Bibliography * * External links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20040719074422/http://www.dra.ie/ Dublin Regional Authority] * [https://www.dublinhistoricmaps.ie/boundaries/dublin-city-limits/index.html Dublin Historic Maps, Boundaries & an OSM Miscellany] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20040618040951/http://www.irish-architecture.com/buildings_ireland/dublin/ Architecture of County Dublin] * [http://www.irishtimes.com/ancestor/fuses/civilparish/index.cfm?fuseactionGetMap&CityCountyDublin Civil parishes of County Dublin, from Ireland.com] * [http://www.likeplace.ie/places/index_state.php?state=Dublin Score for 'Quality of Life' in County Dublin] * [http://www.gaelscoileanna.ie/assets/Staitisticí-2010-2011_Gaeilge.pdf Gaelscoil stats] Notes <!-- see WP:SUBCAT#Topic_article_rule --> Dublin Dublin Category:NUTS statistical regions of the Republic of Ireland
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Dublin
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Cosmological argument
In the philosophy of religion, a cosmological argument is an argument for the existence of God based upon observational and factual statements concerning the universe (or some general category of its natural contents) typically in the context of causation, change, contingency or finitude. In referring to reason and observation alone for its premises, and precluding revelation, this category of argument falls within the domain of natural theology. A cosmological argument can also sometimes be referred to as an argument from universal causation, an argument from first cause, the causal argument or the prime mover argument. The concept of causation is a principal underpinning idea in all cosmological arguments, particularly in affirming the necessity for a First Cause. The latter is typically determined in philosophical analysis to be God, as identified within classical conceptions of theism. The origins of the argument date back to at least Aristotle, developed subsequently within the scholarly traditions of Neoplatonism and early Christianity, and later under medieval Islamic scholasticism through the 9th to 12th centuries. It would eventually be re-introduced to Christian theology in the 13th century by Thomas Aquinas. In the 18th century, it would become associated with the principle of sufficient reason formulated by Gottfried Leibniz and Samuel Clarke, itself an exposition of the Parmenidean causal principle that "nothing comes from nothing". Contemporary defenders of cosmological arguments include William Lane Craig, Robert Koons, John Lennox, Stephen Meyer, and Alexander Pruss. History <!--- this section is linked to from the article Celestial spheres. Please do not change its title without either adding an appropriate anchor or appropriately amending all other articles which link to it ---> and Aristotle, depicted here in Raphael's The School of Athens, both developed first cause arguments.]] Classical philosophy Plato (c. 427–347 BC) and Aristotle (c. 384–322 BC) both posited first cause arguments, though each had certain notable caveats. In The Laws (Book X), Plato posited that all movement in the world and the Cosmos was "imparted motion". This required a "self-originated motion" to set it in motion and to maintain it. In Timaeus, Plato posited a "demiurge" of supreme wisdom and intelligence as the creator of the Cosmos. Aristotle argued against the idea of a first cause, often confused with the idea of a "prime mover" or "unmoved mover" ( or primus motor) in his Physics and Metaphysics. Aristotle argued in favor of the idea of several unmoved movers, one powering each celestial sphere, which he believed lived beyond the sphere of the fixed stars, and explained why motion in the universe (which he believed was eternal) had continued for an infinite period of time. Aristotle argued the atomist's assertion of a non-eternal universe would require a first uncaused cause – in his terminology, an efficient first cause – an idea he considered a nonsensical flaw in the reasoning of the atomists. Like Plato, Aristotle believed in an eternal cosmos with no beginning and no end (which in turn follows Parmenides' famous statement that "nothing comes from nothing"). In what he called "first philosophy" or metaphysics, Aristotle did intend a theological correspondence between the prime mover and a deity; functionally, however, he provided an explanation for the apparent motion of the "fixed stars" (now understood as the daily rotation of the Earth). According to his theses, immaterial unmoved movers are eternal unchangeable beings that constantly think about thinking, but being immaterial, they are incapable of interacting with the cosmos and have no knowledge of what transpires therein. From an "aspiration or desire", the celestial spheres, imitate that purely intellectual activity as best they can, by uniform circular motion. The unmoved movers inspiring the planetary spheres are no different in kind from the prime mover, they merely suffer a dependency of relation to the prime mover. Correspondingly, the motions of the planets are subordinate to the motion inspired by the prime mover in the sphere of fixed stars. Aristotle's natural theology admitted no creation or capriciousness from the immortal pantheon, but maintained a defense against dangerous charges of impiety. Late antiquity to the Islamic Golden Age Plotinus, a third-century Platonist, taught that the One transcendent absolute caused the universe to exist simply as a consequence of its existence (creatio ex deo). His disciple Proclus stated, "The One is God". In the 6th century, Syriac Christian neo-Platonist John Philoponus (c. 490–c. 570) examined the contradiction between Greek pagan adherences to the concept of a past-eternal world and Aristotelian rejection of the existence of actual infinities. Thereupon, he formulated arguments in defense of temporal finitism, which underpinned his arguments for the existence of God. Philosopher Steven M. Duncan notes that Philoponus's ideas eventually received their fullest articulation "at the hands of Muslim and Jewish exponents of kalam", or medieval Islamic scholasticism. In the 11th century, Islamic philosopher Avicenna (c. 980–1037) inquired into the question of being, in which he distinguished between essence (māhiyya) and existence (wuǧūd). He argued that the fact of existence could not be inferred from or accounted for by the essence of existing things, and that form and matter by themselves could not originate and interact with the movement of the universe or the progressive actualization of existing things. Thus, he reasoned that existence must be due to an agent cause that necessitates, imparts, gives, or adds existence to an essence. To do so, the cause must coexist with its effect and be an existing thing. Medieval Christian theology Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225–1274) adapted and enhanced the argument he found in his reading of Aristotle, Avicenna (the Proof of the Truthful) and Maimonides to formulate one of the most influential versions of the cosmological argument. His conception of the first cause was the idea that the universe must be caused by something that is itself uncaused, which he claimed is 'that which we call God': In the context of the cosmological argument the term 'regress' usually refers to causal regress, in which the series is a chain of cause and effect, with each element in the series arising from causal activity of the prior member. Some variants of the argument may also refer to temporal regress, wherein the elements are past events (discrete units of time) arranged in a temporal sequence. The cosmological argument is a type of positive infinite regress argument given that it defends a proposition (in this case, the existence of a first cause) by arguing that its negation would lead to a vicious regress. An infinite regress may be vicious due to various reasons: *Explanatory failure: A failure of explanatory goals resulting in an infinite regress of explanations. This may arise in the case of logical fallacies such as begging the question or from an attempt to investigate causes concerning origins or fundamental principles. Accidental and essential ordering of causes Aquinas refers to the distinction found in Aristotle's Physics (8.5) that a series of causes may either be accidental or essential, though the designation of this terminology would follow later under John Duns Scotus at the turn of the 14th century. Based upon this distinction Frederick Copleston (1907–1994) characterises two types of causation: Causes in fieri, which cause an effect's becoming, or coming into existence, and causes in esse, which causally sustain an effect, in being, once it exists. Two specific properties of an essentially ordered series have significance in the context of the cosmological argument: :"Each member of the series of causes possesses being solely by virtue of the actual present operation of a superior cause ... Life is dependent inter alia on a certain atmospheric pressure, this again on the continual operation of physical forces, whose being and operation depends on the position of the earth in the solar system, which itself must endure relatively unchanged, a state of being which can only be continuously produced by a definite—if unknown—constitution of the material universe. This constitution, however, cannot be its own cause ... We are thus irresistibly led to posit a first efficient cause which, while itself uncaused, shall impart causality to a whole series." Versions of the argument Aquinas's argument from contingency In the scholastic era, Aquinas formulated the "argument from contingency", following Aristotle, in claiming that there must be something to explain the existence of the universe. Since the universe could, under different circumstances, conceivably not exist (i.e. it is contingent) its existence must have a cause. This cause cannot be embodied in another contingent thing, but something that exists by necessity (i.e. that must exist in order for anything else to exist). he states: "... and this we understand to be God." :"Why is there something rather than nothing? The sufficient reason ... is found in a substance which ... is a necessary being bearing the reason for its existence within itself." Alexander Pruss formulates the argument as follows: # Every contingent fact has an explanation. # There is a contingent fact that includes all other contingent facts. # Therefore, there is an explanation of this fact. # This explanation must involve a necessary being. # This necessary being is God. Premise 1 expresses the principle of sufficient reason. In premise 2, Leibniz proposes the existence of a logical conjunction of all contingent facts, referred to in later literature as the Big Conjunctive Contingent Fact (BCCF), representing the sum total of contingent reality. Premise 3 applies the principle of sufficient reason to the BCCF, given that it too, as a contingency, has a sufficient explanation. It follows, in statement 4, that the explanation of the BCCF must be necessary, not contingent, given that the BCCF incorporates all contingent facts. Statement 5 proposes that the necessary being explaining the totality of contingent facts is God. Philosophers Joshua Rasmussen and T. Ryan Byerly have argued in defence of the inference from statement 4 to statement 5. Duns Scotus's metaphysical argument At the turn of the 14th century, medieval Christian theologian John Duns Scotus (1265/66–1308) formulated a metaphysical argument for the existence of God inspired by Aquinas's argument of the unmoved mover. Like other philosophers and theologians, Scotus believed that his statement for God's existence could be considered distinct to that of Aquinas. The form of the argument can be summarised as follows: #An effect cannot be produced by itself. #An effect cannot be produced by nothing. #A circle of causes is impossible. #Therefore, an effect must be produced by something else. #An accidentally ordered causal series cannot exist without an essentially ordered series. <ol style="list-style-type: lower-alpha;margin-left: 5.2em;"> <li>Each member in an accidentally ordered series (except a possible first) exists via causal activity of a prior member.</li> <li>That causal activity is exercised by virtue of a certain form.</li> <li>Therefore, that form is required by each member to effect causation.</li> <li>The form itself is not a member of the series.</li> <li>Therefore [c,d], accidentally ordered causes cannot exist without higher-order (essentially ordered) causes.</li> </ol> <ol start="6"><li>An essentially ordered causal series cannot regress to infinity.</li> <li>Therefore [4,5,6], there exists a first agent.</li></ol> Scotus affirms, in premise 5, that an accidentally ordered series of causes is impossible without higher-order laws and processes that govern the basic principles of accidental causation, which he characterises as essentially ordered causes. Premise 6 continues, in accordance with Aquinas's discourses on the Second Way and Third Way, that an essentially ordered series of causes cannot be an infinite regress. On this, Scotus posits that, if it is merely possible that a first agent exists, then it is necessarily true that a first agent exists, given that the non-existence of a first agent entails the impossibility of its own existence (by virtue of being a first cause in the chain). With the formulation of this argument, Scotus establishes the first component of his 'triple primacy': The characterisation of a being that is first in efficient causality, final causality and pre-eminence, or maximal excellence, which he ascribes to God. developed within the proceedings of medieval Islamic scholasticism through the 9th to 12th centuries, eventually returning to Christian theological scholarship in the 13th century. These ideas were revitalised for modern discourse by philosopher and theologian William Lane Craig through publications such as The Kalām Cosmological Argument (1979) and the Blackwell Companion to Natural Theology (2009). The form of the argument popularised by Craig is expressed in two parts, as an initial deductive syllogism followed by further philosophical analysis. <ol start="4"><li> If the universe has a cause, then an uncaused, personal Creator of the universe exists who sans (without) the universe is beginningless, changeless, immaterial, timeless, spaceless and enormously powerful.</li> <li> Therefore, an uncaused, personal Creator of the universe exists, who sans the universe is beginningless, changeless, immaterial, timeless, spaceless and enormously powerful.</li> </ol> For scientific evidence of the finitude of the past, Craig refers to the Borde-Guth-Vilenkin theorem, which posits a past boundary to cosmic inflation, and the general consensus on the standard model of cosmology, which refers to the origin of the universe in the Big Bang. For philosophical evidence, he cites Hilbert's paradox of the grand hotel and Bertrand Russell's tale of Tristram Shandy to prove (respectively) the impossibility of actual infinites existing in reality and of forming an actual infinite by successive addition. He concludes that past events, in comprising a series of events that are instantiated in reality and formed by successive addition, cannot extend to an infinite past. Craig remarks upon the theological implications that follow from the conclusion of the argument: :"... our whole universe was caused to exist by something beyond it and greater than it. For it is no secret that one of the most important conceptions of what theists mean by 'God' is Creator of heaven and earth." Criticism and discourse "What caused the first cause?" Objections to the cosmological argument may question why a first cause is unique in that it does not require any causes. Critics contend that the concept of a first cause qualifies as special pleading, or that arguing for the first cause's exemption raises the question of why there should be a first cause at all. Defenders maintain that this question is addressed by various formulations of the cosmological argument, emphasizing that none of its major iterations rests on the premise that everything requires a cause. Andrew Loke refers to the Kalam cosmological argument, in which the causal premise ("whatever begins to exist has a cause") stipulates that only things which begin to exist require a cause. William Lane Craig asserts that—even if one posits a plurality of causes for the existence of the universe—a first uncaused cause is necessary, otherwise an infinite regress of causes would arise, which he argues is impossible. Various arguments have been presented to demonstrate the metaphysical impossibility of an actually infinite regress occurring in the real world, referring to thought experiments such as Hilbert's Hotel, the tale of Tristram Shandy, and variations. "Does the universe need a cause?" Craig maintains that the causal principle is predicated in the metaphysical intuition that nothing comes from nothing. If such intuitions are false, he argues it would be inexplicable why anything and everything does not randomly come into existence without a cause. Whereas J. L. Mackie argues that cause and effect cannot be extrapolated to the origins of the universe based upon our inductive experiences and intellectual preferences, Craig proposes that causal laws are unrestricted metaphysical truths that are "not contingent upon the properties, causal powers, and dispositions of the natural kinds of substances which happen to exist". Identifying the first cause Secular philosophers such as Michael Martin argue that a cosmological argument may establish the existence of a first cause, but falls short of identifying that cause as personal, or as God as defined within classical or other specific conceptions of theism. In Scotus's Ordinatio, his metaphysical argument is the first component of the 'triple primacy' through which he characterises the first cause as a being with the attributes of maximal excellence. J. Richard Gott and James E. Gunn assert that the question of "What was there before the Universe?" makes no sense and that the concept of before becomes meaningless when considering a timeless state. They add that questioning what occurred before the Big Bang is akin to questioning what is north of the North Pole. He affirms that the history of 20th century cosmology belies the proposition that researchers have no strong intuition to pursue a causal explanation of the origin of time and the universe. Feser also notes that versions of the cosmological argument presented by classical philosophers do not require a commitment to the Big Bang, or even to a cosmic origin. The Hume-Edwards principle William L. Rowe characterises the Hume-Edwards principle, referring to arguments presented by David Hume, and later Paul Edwards, in their criticisms of the cosmological argument: The principle stipulates that a causal series—even one that regresses to infinity—requires no explanatory causes beyond those that are members within that series. If every member of a series has a causal explanation within the sequence, the series in itself is explanatorily complete. Causal loop arguments Some objections to the cosmological argument refer to the possibility of loops in the structure of cause and effect that would avoid the need for a first cause. Gott and Li refer to the curvature of spacetime and closed timelike curves as possible mechanisms by which the universe may bring about its own existence. Richard Hanley contends that causal loops are neither logically nor physically impossible, remarking: "[In timed systems] the only possibly objectionable feature that all causal loops share is that coincidence is required to explain them." Andrew Loke argues that there is insufficient evidence to postulate a causal loop of the type that would avoid a first cause. He proposes that such a mechanism would suffer from the problem of vicious circularity, rendering it metaphysically impossible. See also * Creatio ex nihilo * Ex nihilo nihil fit * Argument * Biblical cosmology * Chaos * Cosmogony * Creation myth * Dating Creation * Determinism * First Principle * First cause * Infinitism * Logos * Present * Psychology * Quinque viae * Semantics * Semiotics * Temporal finitism * Timeline of the Big Bang * Transtheism * Unmoved mover References External links * Category:Arguments for the existence of God Category:Causality Category:Christian apologetics Category:Concepts in metaphysics Category:Philosophy of religion
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmological_argument
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Clutch
thumb|right|Friction disk for a dry clutch A clutch is a mechanical device that allows an output shaft to be disconnected from a rotating input shaft. The clutch's input shaft is typically attached to a motor, while the clutch's output shaft is connected to the mechanism that does the work. In a motor vehicle, the clutch acts as a mechanical linkage between the engine and transmission. By disengaging the clutch, the engine speed (RPM) is no longer determined by the speed of the driven wheels. Another example of clutch usage is in electric drills. The clutch's input shaft is driven by a motor and the output shaft is connected to the drill bit (via several intermediate components). The clutch allows the drill bit to either spin at the same speed as the motor (clutch engaged), spin at a lower speed than the motor (clutch slipping) or remain stationary while the motor is spinning (clutch disengaged). Types Dry clutch thumb|right|Diagram of a dry clutch A dry clutch uses dry friction to transfer power from the input shaft to the output shaft, for example a friction disk presses against a car engine's flywheel by a spring mechanism. The wheels of the vehicle only rotate when the flywheel is in contact with the friction disk. To stop the transfer of power, the friction disk is moved away from the flywheel by means of a lever mechanism. The majority of automotive clutches on manual transmissions are dry clutches. Slippage of a friction clutch (where the clutch is partially engaged but the shafts are rotating at different speeds) is sometimes required, such as when a motor vehicle accelerates from a standstill; however the slippage should be minimised to avoid increased wear rates. In a pull-type clutch, pressing the pedal pulls the release bearing to disengage the clutch. In a push-type clutch, pressing the pedal pushes the release bearing to disengage the clutch. A multi-plate clutch consists of several friction plates arranged concentrically. In some cases, it is used instead of a larger diameter clutch. Drag racing cars use multi-plate clutches to control the rate of power transfer to the wheels as the vehicle accelerates from a standing start. Some clutch disks include springs designed to change the natural frequency of the clutch disc, in order to reduce NVH within the vehicle. Also, some clutches for manual transmission cars use a clutch delay valve to avoid abrupt engagements of the clutch. Wet clutch In a wet clutch, the friction material sits in an oil bath (or has flow-through oil) which cools and lubricates the clutch. This can provide smoother engagement and a longer lifespan of the clutch, however wet clutches can have a lower efficiency due to some energy being transferred to the oil. Since the surfaces of a wet clutch can be slippery (as with a motorcycle clutch bathed in engine oil), stacking multiple clutch discs can compensate for the lower coefficient of friction and so eliminate slippage under power when fully engaged. Wet clutches often use a composite paper material. Centrifugal clutch A centrifugal clutch automatically engages as the speed of the input shaft increases and disengages as the input shaft speed decreases. Applications include small motorcycles, motor scooters, chainsaws, and some older automobiles. Cone clutch A cone clutch is similar to dry friction plate clutch, except the friction material is applied to the outside of a conical shaped object. This conical shape allows wedging action to occur during engagement. A common application for cone clutches is the synchronizer ring in a manual transmission. Dog clutch A dog clutch is a non-slip design of clutch which is used in non-synchronous transmissions. Single-revolution clutch thumb|Cascaded-pawl single-revolution clutch in a teleprinter The single-revolution clutch was developed in the 19th century to power machinery such as shears or presses where a single pull of the operating lever or (later) press of a button would trip the mechanism, engaging the clutch between the power source and the machine's crankshaft for exactly one revolution before disengaging the clutch. When the clutch is disengaged, the driven member is stationary. Early designs were typically dog clutches with a cam on the driven member used to disengage the dogs at the appropriate point. Greatly simplified single-revolution clutches were developed in the 20th century, requiring much smaller operating forces and in some variations, allowing for a fixed fraction of a revolution per operation. Fast action friction clutches replaced dog clutches in some applications, eliminating the problem of impact loading on the dogs every time the clutch engaged. In addition to their use in heavy manufacturing equipment, single-revolution clutches were applied to numerous small machines. In tabulating machines, for example, pressing the operate key would trip a single revolution clutch to process the most recently entered number. In typesetting machines, pressing any key selected a particular character and also engaged a single rotation clutch to cycle the mechanism to typeset that character. Similarly, in teleprinters, the receipt of each character tripped a single-revolution clutch to operate one cycle of the print mechanism. In 1928, Frederick G. Creed developed a single-turn wrap spring clutch that was particularly well suited to the repetitive start-stop action required in teleprinters. In 1942, two employees of Pitney Bowes Postage Meter Company developed an improved single turn spring clutch. In these clutches, a coil spring is wrapped around the driven shaft and held in an expanded configuration by the trip lever. When tripped, the spring rapidly contracts around the power shaft engaging the clutch. At the end of one revolution, if the trip lever has been reset, it catches the end of the spring (or a pawl attached to it), and the angular momentum of the driven member releases the tension on the spring. These clutches have long operating lives—many have performed tens and perhaps hundreds of millions of cycles without the need of maintenance other than occasional lubrication. Cascaded-pawl single-revolution clutches superseded wrap-spring single-revolution clutches in page printers, such as teleprinters, including the Teletype Model 28 and its successors, using the same design principles. IBM Selectric typewriters also used them. These are typically disc-shaped assemblies mounted on the driven shaft. Inside the hollow disc-shaped drive drum are two or three freely floating pawls arranged so that when the clutch is tripped, the pawls spring outward much like the shoes in a drum brake. When engaged, the load torque on each pawl transfers to the others to keep them engaged. These clutches do not slip once locked up, and they engage very quickly, on the order of milliseconds. A trip projection extends out from the assembly. If the trip lever engaged this projection, the clutch was disengaged. When the trip lever releases this projection, internal springs and friction engage the clutch. The clutch then rotates one or more turns, stopping when the trip lever again engages the trip projection. Other designs Kickback clutch-brakes: Found in some types of synchronous-motor-driven electric clocks built before the 1940s, to prevent the clock from running backwards. The clutch consisted of a wrap-spring clutch-brake that was coupled to the rotor by one or two stages of reduction gearing. The clutch-brake locked up when rotated backwards, but also had some spring action. The inertia of the rotor going backwards engaged the clutch and wound the spring. As it unwound, it restarted the motor in the correct direction. Belt clutch: used on agricultural equipment, lawnmowers, tillers, and snow blowers. Engine power is transmitted via a set of belts that are slack when the engine is idling, but an idler pulley can tighten the belts to increase friction between the belts and the pulleys. BMA clutch: Invented by Waldo J Kelleigh in 1949, used for transmitting torque between two shafts consisting of a fixed driving member secured to one of said shafts, and a movable driving member, having a contacting surface with a plurality of indentations. Electromagnetic clutch: typically engaged by an electromagnet that is an integral part of the clutch assembly. Another type, the magnetic particle clutch, contains magnetically influenced particles in a chamber between driving and driven members—application of direct current makes the particles clump together and adhere to the operating surfaces. Engagement and slippage are notably smooth. Wrap-spring clutch: has a helical spring, typically wound with square-cross-section wire. These were developed in the late 19th and early 20th-century. In simple form the spring is fastened at one end to the driven member; its other end is unattached. The spring fits closely around a cylindrical driving member. If the driving member rotates in the direction that would unwind the spring expands minutely and slips although with some drag. Because of this, spring clutches must typically be lubricated with light oil. Rotating the driving member the other way makes the spring wrap itself tightly around the driving surface and the clutch locks up very quickly. The torque required to make a spring clutch slip grows exponentially with the number of turns in the spring, obeying the capstan equation. Usage in automobiles Manual transmissions Most cars and trucks with a manual transmission use a dry clutch, which is operated by the driver using the left-most pedal. The motion of the pedal is transferred to the clutch using mechanical linkage, hydraulics (master and slave cylinders) or a cable. The clutch is only disengaged at times when the driver is pressing on the clutch pedal, therefore the default state is for the transmission to be connected to the engine. A "neutral" gear position is provided, so that the clutch pedal can be released with the vehicle remaining stationary. The clutch is required for standing starts and in vehicles whose transmissions lack synchronising means to assist in matching the speeds of the engine and transmission during gear changes to avoid gear “crashing,” which can cause serious damage to gear teeth. The clutch is usually mounted directly to the face of the engine's flywheel, as this already provides a convenient large-diameter steel disk that can act as one driving plate of the clutch. Some racing clutches use small multi-plate disk packs that are not part of the flywheel. Both clutch and flywheel are enclosed in a conical bellhousing for the gearbox. The friction material used for the clutch disk varies, with a common material being an organic compound resin with a copper wire facing or a ceramic material. Automatic transmissions In an automatic transmission, the role of the clutch is performed by a torque converter. However, the transmission itself often includes internal clutches, such as a lock-up clutch to prevent slippage of the torque converter, in order to reduce the energy loss through the transmission and therefore improve fuel economy. Fans and compressors Older belt-driven engine cooling fans often use a heat-activated clutch, in the form of a bimetallic strip. When the temperature is low, the spring winds and closes the valve, which lets the fan spin at about 20% to 30% of the crankshaft speed. As the temperature of the spring rises, it unwinds and opens the valve, allowing fluid past the valve, making the fan spin at about 60% to 90% of crankshaft speed. A vehicle's air-conditioning compressor often uses magnetic clutches to engage the compressor as required. Usage in motorcycles thumb|right|200px|A basket clutch Motorcycles typically employ a wet clutch with the clutch riding in the same oil as the transmission. These clutches are usually made up of a stack of alternating friction plates and steel plates. The friction plates have lugs on their outer diameters that lock them into a basket that is turned by the crankshaft. The steel plates have lugs on their inner diameters that lock them to the transmission input shaft. A set of coil springs or a diaphragm spring plate force the plates together when the clutch is engaged. On motorcycles the clutch is operated by a hand lever on the left handlebar. No pressure on the lever means that the clutch plates are engaged (driving), while pulling the lever back towards the rider disengages the clutch plates through cable or hydraulic actuation, allowing the rider to shift gears or coast. Racing motorcycles often use slipper clutches to eliminate the effects of engine braking, which, being applied only to the rear wheel, can cause instability. See also Clutch control Coupling Freewheel Gear shift Saxomat Torque converter Torque limiter References Category:Automotive transmission technologies
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clutch
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Cow tipping
Cow Tipping (Beavis and Butt-Head episode)}} Cow tipping is the purported activity of sneaking up on any unsuspecting or sleeping upright cow and pushing it over for entertainment. The practice of cow tipping is generally considered an urban legend and stories of such feats viewed as tall tales. The concept of cow tipping apparently developed in the 1970s, though tales of animals that cannot rise if they fall has historical antecedents dating to the Roman Empire. Cows routinely lie down and can easily regain their footing unless sick or injured. Scientific studies have been conducted to determine if cow tipping is theoretically possible, with varying conclusions. All agree that cows are large animals that are difficult to surprise and will generally resist attempts to be tipped. Estimates suggest a force of between is needed, and that at least four and possibly as many as fourteen people would be required to achieve this. In real-life situations where cattle have to be laid on the ground, or "cast", such as for branding, hoof care or veterinary treatment, either rope restraints are required or specialized mechanical equipment is used that confines the cow and then tips it over. On rare occasions, cattle can lie down or fall down in proximity to a ditch or hill that restricts their normal ability to rise without help. Cow tipping has many references in popular culture and is also used as a figure of speech. Scientific study Some versions of the urban legend suggest that because cows sleep standing up, it is possible to approach them and push them over without the animals reacting. They lie down to sleep deeply. A 2005 study led by Margo Lillie, a zoologist at the University of British Columbia, and her student Tracy Boechler, concluded that tipping a cow would require a force of nearly and is therefore impossible to accomplish by a single person. Her calculations found that it would require more than four people to apply enough force to push over a cow, Lillie and Boechler's analysis found that if a cow did not move, the principles of static physics suggest that two people might be able to tip a cow if its centre of mass were pushed over its hooves before the cow could react. However, cows are not rigid or unresponsive, and the faster humans have to move, the less force they can exert. Thus Lillie and Boechler concluded that it is unlikely that cows can actually be tipped over in this way. Vogel suggests that someone applying force at the requisite height to topple a cow might generate a maximum push of no more than 300 newtons. By this calculation, at least 10 people would be needed to tip over a non-reacting cow. However, this combined force requirement, he says, might not be the greatest impediment to such a prank. Standing cows are not asleep and, like other animals, have ever-vigilant reflexes. "If the cow does no more than modestly widen its stance without an overall shift of its center of gravity", he says, "about 4,000 newtons or 14 pushers would be needed—quite a challenge to deploy without angering the cow." Historical origins The belief that certain animals cannot rise if pushed over has historical antecedents. Julius Caesar recorded a belief that a European elk had no knee joints and could not get up if it fell. Pliny said the same about the hind legs of an animal he called the achlis, which Pliny's 19th-century translators Bostock and Riley said was merely another name for the elk. They noted that Pliny's belief about the jointless back legs of the achlis (elk) was false. A drawing by the historian Matthew Paris for his Chronica Majora can be seen in his bestiary at Parker Library of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. Journalist Jake Steelhammer believes the American urban myth of cow tipping originated in the 1970s. It "stampeded into the '80s", he says, "when movies like Tommy Boy and Heathers featured cow tipping expeditions." Stories about cow tipping tend to be second-hand, he says, told by someone who does not claim to have tipped a cow but who knows someone else who says they did. A calf table or calf cradle, also called a "tipping table" or a "throw down", is a relatively modern invention designed to be used on calves that are being branded. A calf is run into a chute, confined, and then tipped by the equipment onto its side for easier branding and castration. Hydraulic tilt tables for adult cattle have existed since the 1970s and are designed to lift and tip cattle onto their sides to enable veterinary care, particularly of the animals' genitalia, and for hoof maintenance. One design, developed at the Western College of Veterinary Medicine in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, included "cow comfort" as a unique aspect of care using this type of apparatus. Involuntary recumbency Cows may inadvertently tip themselves. Due to their bulk and relatively short legs, cattle cannot roll over. Those that lie down and roll to their sides with their feet pointing uphill may become stuck and unable to rise without assistance, with potentially fatal results. In such cases, two humans can roll or flip a cow onto its other side, so that its feet are aimed downhill, thus allowing it to rise on its own. In one documented case of "real-life cow tipping", a pregnant cow rolled into a gully in New Hampshire and became trapped in an inverted state until rescued by volunteer fire fighters. The owner of the cow commented that he had seen this happen "once or twice" before. Trauma or illness may also result in a cow unable to rise to its feet. Such animals are sometimes called "downers." Sometimes this occurs as a result of muscle and nerve damage from calving or a disease such as mastitis. Downer cows are encouraged to get to their feet and have a much greater chance of recovery if they do. If unable to rise, some have survived—with medical care—as long as 14 days and were ultimately able to get back on their feet. Appropriate medical treatment for a downer cow to prevent further injury includes rolling from one side to the other every three hours, careful and frequent feeding of small amounts of fodder, and access to clean water. Death Dead animals may appear to have been tipped over, but this is actually the process of rigor mortis, which stiffens the muscles of the carcass, beginning six to eight hours after death and lasting for one to two days. It is particularly noticeable in the limbs, which stick out straight. Post-mortem bloat also occurs because of gas formation inside the body. The process may result in cattle carcasses that wind up on their back with all four feet in the air. In popular culture ]] Assorted individuals have claimed to have performed cow tipping, often while under the influence of alcohol. These claims, to date, cannot be reliably verified, Pranksters have sometimes pushed over artificial cows. Along Chicago's Michigan Avenue in 1999, two "apparently drunk" men felled six fiberglass cows that were part of a Cows on Parade public art exhibit. Four other vandals removed a "Wow cow" sculpture from its lifeguard chair at Oak Street Beach and abandoned it in a pedestrian underpass. A year later, New York City anchored its CowParade art cows, including "A Streetcow Named Desire", to concrete bases "to prevent the udder disrespect of cow-tippers and thieves." Cow tipping has been featured in films from the 1980s and later, such as Heathers (1988), Tommy Boy (1995), Barnyard (2006), and I Love You, Beth Cooper (2009). It was also used in the title of a 1992 documentary film by Randy Redroad, Cow Tipping—The Militant Indian Waiter. Variants of cow tipping have also been seen in popular media such as the film Cars (2006), which features a vehicular variant called tractor-tipping, and the video game Fallout: New Vegas, which allows the character to sneak up on and tip over a Brahmin, the game's two-headed cow-like animal. The board game Battle Cattle is based on the practice, with heavily armed cows having "Tipping Defense Numbers." In the Little Willies song "Lou Reed" from their 2006 self-titled debut album, Norah Jones sings about a fictional event during which musician Lou Reed tips cows in Texas. In another medium, The Big Bang Theory, a television show, uses cow tipping lore as an element to establish the nature of a rural character, Penny. The term cow tipping is sometimes used as a figure of speech for pushing over something big. In A Giant Cow-Tipping by Savages, author John Weir Close uses the term to describe contemporary mergers and acquisitions. "Tipping sacred cows" has been used as a deliberate mixed metaphor in titles of books on Christian ministry and business management. References Further reading * * External links * [http://research.udmercy.edu/find/special_collections/digital/cfa/index.php?fieldkeyword&termcow%20tipping Cow tipping] James T. Callow Folklore Archive at University of Detroit Mercy * [http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/821/is-there-really-such-a-thing-as-cow-tipping The Straight Dope on Cow Tipping] * Category:Cattle Category:Fictional activities Category:Urban legends Category:Stereotypes of rural people
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cow_tipping
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Cassandra
(1898, London); Cassandra in front of the burning city of Troy, depicted with disheveled hair denoting the insanity ascribed to her by the Trojans]] , circa 450 BC]] Cassandra or Kassandra (; , , sometimes referred to as Alexandra; ) in Greek mythology was a Trojan priestess dedicated to the god Apollo and fated by him to utter true prophecies but never to be believed. In modern usage her name is employed as a rhetorical device to indicate a person whose accurate prophecies, generally of impending disaster, are not believed. Cassandra was a daughter of King Priam and Queen Hecuba of Troy. Her elder brother was Hector, the hero of the Greek-Trojan War. The older and most common versions of the myth state that she was admired by the god Apollo, who sought to win her love by means of the gift of seeing the future. According to Aeschylus, she promised him her favours, but after receiving the gift, she went back on her word. As the enraged Apollo could not revoke a divine power, he added to it the curse that nobody would believe her prophecies. In other sources, such as Hyginus and Pseudo-Apollodorus, Cassandra broke no promise to Apollo, but rather the power of foresight was given to her as an enticement to enter into a romantic engagement, the curse being added only when it failed to produce the result desired by the god. Later versions on the contrary describe her falling asleep in a temple, where snakes licked (or whispered into) her ears which enabled her to hear the future. Etymology Hjalmar Frisk (Griechisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch, Heidelberg, 1960–1970) notes "unexplained etymology", citing "various hypotheses" found in Wilhelm Schulze, Edgar Howard Sturtevant, J. Davreux, and R. S. P. Beekes cites García Ramón's derivation of the name from the Proto-Indo-European root *(s)kend- "raise". The Online Etymology Dictionary states "though the second element looks like a fem. form of Greek andros "of man, male human being." Watkins suggests PIE *(s)kand- "to shine" as source of second element. The name also has been connected to kekasmai "to surpass, excel." Description Cassandra was described by the chronicler Malalas in his account of the Chronography as "shortish, round-faced, white, mannish figure, good nose, good eyes, dark pupils, blondish, curly, good neck, bulky breasts, small feet, calm, noble, priestly, an accurate prophet foreseeing everything, practicing hard, virgin". Meanwhile, in the account of Dares the Phrygian, she was illustrated as ". . .of moderate stature, round-mouthed, and auburn-haired. Her eyes flashed. She knew the future." Biography German translation by Heinrich Steinhöwel of Giovanni Boccaccio's De mulieribus claris, printed by at Ulm ca. 1474.]] Cassandra was one of the many children born to the king and queen of Troy, Priam and Hecuba. She is the fraternal twin sister of Helenus, as well as the sister to Hector and Paris. One of the oldest and most common versions of her myth states that Cassandra was admired for her beauty and intelligence by the god Apollo, who sought to win her with the gift to see the future. According to Aeschylus, Cassandra promised Apollo favors, but, after receiving the gift, went back on her word and refused Apollo. Since the enraged Apollo could not revoke a divine power, he added a curse that nobody would believe Cassandra's prophecies.Mythology Cassandra appears in texts written by Homer, Virgil, Aeschylus and Euripides. Each author depicts her prophetic powers differently. In Homer's work, Cassandra is mentioned a total of four times "as a virgin daughter of Priam, as bewailing Hector's death, as chosen by Agamemnon as his slave mistress after the sack of Troy, and is killed by Clytemnestra over Agamemnon's corpse after Clytemnestra murders him on his return home." In Virgil's work, Cassandra appears in book two of his epic poem titled Aeneid, with her powers of prophecy restored. In Book 2 of the Aeneid, unlike Homer, Virgil presents Cassandra as having fallen into a mantic state and her prophecies reflect it. Likewise Seneca the Younger, in his play Agamemnon, has her prophesy why Agamemnon deserves his recorded death:<blockquote>Quid me vocatis sospitem solam e meis, umbrae meorum? te sequor, tota pater Troia sepulte; frater, auxilium Phrygum terrorque Danaum, non ego antiquum decus video aut calentes ratibus ambustis manus, sed lacera membra et saucios vinclo gravi illos lacertos. te sequor… (Ag. 741–747)<br><br> Why do you call me, the lone survivor of my family, My shades? I follow you, father buried with all of Troy; Brother, bulwark of Trojans, terrorizer of Greeks, I do not see your beauty of old or hands warmed by burnt ships, But your lacerated limbs and those famous shoulders savaged By heavy chains. I follow you..."Gift of prophecy Cassandra was given the gift of prophecy, but was also cursed by the god Apollo so that her true prophecies would not be believed. Many versions of the myth relate that she incurred the god's wrath by refusing him sexual favours after promising herself to him in exchange for the power of prophecy. In Aeschylus' Agamemnon, she bemoans her relationship with Apollo: <blockquote><poem>Apollo, Apollo! God of all ways, but only Death's to me, Once and again, O thou, Destroyer named, Thou hast destroyed me, thou, my love of old!</poem></blockquote> And she acknowledges her fault: <blockquote><poem>I consented [marriage] to Loxias [Apollo] but broke my word. ... Ever since that fault I could persuade no one of anything.</poem></blockquote> Latin author Hyginus in Fabulae says: Louise Bogan, an American poet, writes that another way Cassandra, as well as her twin brother Helenus, had earned their prophetic powers: "''she and her brother Helenus were left overnight in the temple of the Thymbraean Apollo. No reason has been advanced for this night in the temple; perhaps it was a ritual routinely performed by everyone. When their parents looked in on them the next morning, the children were entwined with serpents, which flicked their tongues into the children's ears. This enabled Cassandra and Helenus to divine the future.''" It would not be until Cassandra is much older that Apollo appears in the same temple and tried to seduce Cassandra, who rejects his advances, and curses her by making her prophecies not be believed. Her cursed gift from Apollo became an endless pain and frustration to her. She was seen as a liar and a madwoman by her family and by the Trojan people. Because of this, her father, Priam, had locked her away in a chamber and guarded her like the madwoman she was believed to be. captures Helen in Troy, Ajax the Lesser drags Cassandra from Palladium before eyes of Priam, Roman mural from the Casa del Menandro, Pompeii]] Cassandra and the Fall of Troy Before the fall of Troy Before the fall of Troy took place, Cassandra foresaw that if Paris went to Sparta and brought Helen back as his wife, the arrival of Helen would spark the downfall and destruction of Troy during the Trojan War. Despite the prophecy and ignoring Cassandra's warning, Paris still went to Sparta and returned with Helen. While the people of Troy rejoiced, Cassandra, angry with Helen's arrival, furiously snatched away Helen's golden veil and tore at her hair.During the fall of TroyCoroebus and Othronus came to the aid of Troy during the Trojan War out of love for Cassandra and in exchange for her hand in marriage, but both were killed. According to one account, Priam offered Cassandra to Telephus's son Eurypylus, in order to induce Eurypylus to fight on the side of the Trojans. Cassandra was also the first to see the body of her brother Hector being brought back to the city. for revenge against Ajax, by Jerome-Martin Langlois, 1810–1838.]]In The Fall of Troy, told by Quintus Smyrnaeus, Cassandra attempted to warn the Trojan people that Greek warriors were hiding in the Trojan Horse while they were celebrating their victory over the Greeks with feasting. Disbelieving Cassandra, the Trojans resorted to calling her names and hurling insults at her. Attempting to prove herself right, Cassandra took an axe in one hand and a burning torch in the other, and ran towards the Trojan Horse, intent on destroying the Greeks herself, but the Trojans stopped her. The Greeks hiding inside the Horse were relieved, but alarmed by how clearly she had divined their plan. '' by Solomon J. Solomon, 1886.]] At the fall of Troy, Cassandra sought shelter in the temple of Athena. There she embraced the wooden statue of Athena in supplication for her protection, but was abducted and brutally raped by Ajax the Lesser. Cassandra clung so tightly to the statue of the goddess that Ajax knocked it from its stand as he dragged her away. The actions of Ajax were a sacrilege because Cassandra was a supplicant at the sanctuary under the protection of the goddess Athena, and Ajax further defiled the temple by raping Cassandra. In Apollodorus chapter 6, section 6, Ajax's death comes at the hands of both Athena and Poseidon: "Athena threw a thunderbolt at the ship of Ajax; and when the ship went to pieces he made his way safe to a rock, and declared that he was saved in spite of the intention of Athena. But Poseidon smote the rock with his trident and split it, and Ajax fell into the sea and perished; and his body, being washed up, was buried by Thetis in Myconos". (1819–1891), Tuileries Garden, Paris]] In some versions, Cassandra intentionally left a chest behind in Troy, with a curse on whichever Greek opened it first. Inside the chest was an image of Dionysus, made by Hephaestus and presented to the Trojans by Zeus. It was given to the Greek leader Eurypylus as a part of his share of the victory spoils of Troy. When he opened the chest and saw the image of the god, he went mad. The final resting place of Cassandra is either in Amyclae or Mycenae. Statues of Cassandra exist both in Amyclae and across the Peloponnese peninsula from Mycenae to Leuctra. In Mycenae, German business man and pioneer archeologist Heinrich Schliemann discovered in Grave Circle A the graves of Cassandra and Agamemnon and telegraphed back to King George I of Greece:<blockquote>With great joy I announce to Your Majesty that I have discovered the tombs which the tradition proclaimed by Pausanias indicates to be the graves of Agamemnon, Cassandra, Eurymedon and their companions, all slain at a banquet by Clytemnestra and her lover Aegisthos.</blockquote>However, it was later discovered that the graves predated the Trojan War by at least 300 years.Agamemnon by Aeschyluskylix by the , c. 440–430 BC, Louvre]] The play Agamemnon from Aeschylus's trilogy Oresteia depicts the king treading the scarlet cloth laid down for him, and walking offstage to his death. She has been onstage, silent and ignored. Her madness that is unleashed now is not the physical torment of other characters in Greek tragedy, such as in Euripides' Heracles or Sophocles' Ajax. According to author Seth Schein, two further familiar descriptions of her madness are that of Heracles in The Women of Trachis or Io in Prometheus Bound. witnessing past and future events. Schein says, "She evokes the same awe, horror and pity as do schizophrenics". on the powerful contrasts between declaimed and sung dialogue in this scene. The frightened and respectful chorus are unable to comprehend her. She goes to her inevitable offstage murder by Clytemnestra with full knowledge of what is to befall her. See also * Apollo archetype * Novikov self-consistency principle * The Boy Who Cried Wolf * Tiresias Notes References Primary sources * Homer. Iliad XXIV, 697–706; Odyssey XI, 405–434; * Aeschylus. Agamemnon * Euripides. The Trojan Women; Electra * Bibliotheca III, xii, 5; Epitome V, 17–22; VI, 23 * Virgil. Aeneid II, 246–247, 341–346, 403–408 * Lycophron. Alexandra * Triphiodorus: The Sack of Troy * Quintus Smyrnaeus: Posthomerica Further reading * * Clarke, Lindsay. The Return from Troy. HarperCollins (2005). . * Marion Zimmer Bradley. The Firebrand. * Patacsil, Par. Cassandra. In The Likhaan Book of Plays 1997–2003. Villanueva and Nadera, eds. University of the Philippines Press (2006). * Passfield, John. [https://rocksmillspress.com/shop/ols/products/john-and-cassandra-fair-is-fair-john-passfield John and Cassandra: Fair is Fair] (Rock's Mills Press) Fiction. ISBN:978-1-77244-319-6 * Ukrainka, Lesya. [https://web.archive.org/web/20070206111152/http://www.utoronto.ca/elul/English/Ukrainka/Ukrainka-Cassandra.pdf "Cassandra".] Original Publication: Lesya Ukrainka. Life and work by Constantine Bida. Selected works, translated by Vera Rich. Toronto: Published for the Women's Council of the Ukrainian Canadian Committee by University of Toronto Press (1968). pp. 181–239 * Schapira, Laurie L. [http://www.innercitybooks.net/book.php?id36 The Cassandra Complex: Living with Disbelief: A Modern Perspective on Hysteria.] Toronto: [http://www.innercitybooks.net/index.html Inner City Books] (1988). . Category:Classical oracles Category:Mythological Greek seers Category:Greek mythological priestesses Category:Mythological rape victims Category:Princesses in Greek mythology Category:Trojans Category:Children of Priam Category:Women of Apollo Category:Women of the Trojan war Category:Characters in the Aeneid Category:Metamorphoses characters Category:Greek mythological slaves Category:Slave concubines
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassandra
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Couplet
In poetry, a couplet ( ) or distich ( ) is a pair of successive lines that rhyme and have the same metre. A couplet may be formal (closed) or run-on (open). In a formal (closed) couplet, each of the two lines is end-stopped, implying that there is a grammatical pause at the end of a line of verse. In a run-on (open) couplet, the meaning of the first line continues to the second. Background The word "couplet" comes from the French word meaning "two pieces of iron riveted or hinged together". The term "couplet" was first used to describe successive lines of verse in Sir P. Sidney's Arcadia in 1590: "In singing some short coplets, whereto the one halfe beginning, the other halfe should answere." While couplets traditionally rhyme, not all do. Poems may use white space to mark out couplets if they do not rhyme. Couplets in iambic pentameter are called heroic couplets. John Dryden in the 17th century and Alexander Pope in the 18th century were both well known for their writing in heroic couplets. The Poetic epigram is also in the couplet form. Couplets can also appear as part of more complex rhyme schemes, such as sonnets. Rhyming couplets are one of the simplest rhyme schemes in poetry. Because the rhyme comes so quickly, it tends to call attention to itself. Good rhyming couplets tend to "explode" as both the rhyme and the idea come to a quick close in two lines. Here are some examples of rhyming couplets where the sense as well as the sound "rhymes": True wit is nature to advantage dress'd; What oft was thought, but ne'er so well express'd. — Alexander Pope Whether or not we find what we are seeking Is idle, biologically speaking. — Edna St. Vincent Millay (at the end of a sonnet) On the other hand, because rhyming couplets have such a predictable rhyme scheme, they can feel artificial and plodding. Here is a Pope parody of the predictable rhymes of his era: Where-e'er you find "the cooling western breeze," In the next line, it "whispers through the trees;" If crystal streams "with pleasing murmurs creep," The reader's threatened (not in vain) with "sleep." In English poetry Regular rhyme was not originally a feature of English poetry: Old English verse came in metrically paired units somewhat analogous to couplets, but constructed according to alliterative verse principles. The rhyming couplet entered English verse in the early Middle English period through the imitation of medieval Latin and Old French models. The earliest surviving examples are a metrical paraphrase of the Lord's Prayer in short-line couplets, and the Poema Morale in septenary (or "heptameter") couplets, both dating from the twelfth century. Rhyming couplets were often used in Middle English and early modern English poetry. Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, for instance, is predominantly written in rhyming couplets, and Chaucer also incorporated a concluding couplet into his rhyme royal stanza. Similarly, Shakespearean sonnets often employ rhyming couplets at the end to emphasize the theme. Take one of Shakespeare's most famous sonnets, Sonnet 18, for example (the rhyming couplet is shown in italics): Shall I compare thee to a summer's day? Thou art more lovely and more temperate: Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May, And summer's lease hath all too short a date: Sometimes too hot the eye of heaven shines, And often is his gold complexion dimm'd; And every fair from fair sometime declines, By chance or nature's changing course untrimm'd; But thy eternal summer shall not fade Nor lose possession of that fair thou owest; Nor shall Death brag thou wander'st in his shade, When in eternal lines to time thou growest: So long as men can breathe or eyes can see, So long lives this and this gives life to thee. In the late seventeenth century and early eighteenth-century English rhyming couplets achieved the zenith of their prestige in English verse, in the popularity of heroic couplets. The heroic couplet was used by famous poets for ambitious translations of revered Classical texts, for instance, in John Dryden's translation of the Aeneid and in Alexander Pope's translation of the Iliad. Though poets still sometimes write in couplets, the form fell somewhat from favour in English in the twentieth century; contemporary poets writing in English sometimes prefer unrhymed couplets, distinguished by layout rather than by matching sounds. In Chinese poetry thumb|A chunlian on doorway Couplets called duilian may be seen on doorways in Chinese communities worldwide. Duilian displayed as part of the Chinese New Year festival, on the first morning of the New Year, are called chunlian (春聯; 春联). These are usually purchased at a market a few days before and glued to the doorframe. The text of the couplets is often traditional and contains hopes for prosperity. Other chunlian reflect more recent concerns. For example, the CCTV New Year's Gala usually promotes couplets reflecting current political themes in mainland China. Some duilian may consist of two lines of four characters each. Duilian are read from top to bottom where the first line starts from the right. In Tamil poetry thumb|A Kural couplet on display inside a Chennai Metro train Tamil literature contains some of the notable examples of ancient couplet poetry. The Tamil language has a rich and refined grammar for couplet poetry, and distichs in Tamil poetry follow the venpa metre. One of the most notable examples of Tamil couplet poetry is the ancient Tamil moral text of the Tirukkural, which contains a total of 1330 couplets written in the kural venpa metre from which the title of the work was derived centuries later. Each Kural couplet is made of exactly 7 words—4 in the first line and 3 in the second. The first word may rhyme with the fourth or the fifth word. Below is an example of a couplet: . (Tirukkural, verse 205) Transliteration: Ilan endru theeyavai seyyarkka seyyin Ilanaagum matrum peyartthu Translation: Make not thy poverty a plea for ill; Thine evil deeds will make thee poorer still. (Pope, 1886) Kabir (also known as Kabirdas) is thought to be one of the greatest composers of Hindustani couplets. Distich The American poet J. V. Cunningham was noted for many distichs included in the various forms of epigrams included in his poetry collections, as exampled here: Deep summer, and time passes. Sorrow wastesTo a new sorrow. While Time heals time hastes See also Antithetical couplet Biblical poetry Chastushka Closed couplet Coupletist Elegiac couplet Kabirdas Monostich Parallelism Tristich References External links Category:Poetic forms Category:Poetic rhythm Category:2 (number)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Couplet
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Charlotte Brontë
| birth_date | birth_place = Thornton, Yorkshire, England | death_date | death_place = Haworth, Yorkshire, England | resting_place = St Michael and All Angels' Church, Haworth | occupation = Novelist, poet, governess | genre = Fiction, poetry | notableworks = | spouse = | parents = | relatives = Brontë family | signature = Charlotte Bronte Signature.jpg }} Charlotte Nicholls (; 21 April 1816 – 31 March 1855), commonly known as Charlotte Brontë (, <small>commonly</small> ), was an English novelist and poet, the eldest of the three Brontë sisters who survived into adulthood and whose novels became classics of English literature. She is best known for her novel Jane Eyre, which she published under the male pseudonym Currer Bell. Jane Eyre went on to become a success in publication, and is widely held in high regard in the gothic fiction genre of literature. Brontë enrolled in school at Roe Head, Mirfield, in January 1831, aged 14 years. She left the year after to teach her sisters, Emily and Anne, at home, then returned to Roe Head in 1835 as a teacher. In 1839, she undertook the role of governess for the Sidgwick family, but left after a few months. The three sisters attempted to open a school in Haworth but failed to attract pupils. Instead, they turned to writing; they each first published in 1846 under the pseudonyms of Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell. Although her first novel, The Professor, was rejected by publishers, her second novel, Jane Eyre, was published in 1847. The sisters admitted to their Bell pseudonyms in 1848, and by the following year were celebrated in London literary circles. Brontë was the last to die of all her siblings. She became pregnant shortly after her wedding in June 1854 but died on 31 March 1855, almost certainly from hyperemesis gravidarum, a complication of pregnancy which causes excessive nausea and vomiting. Early years and education Charlotte Brontë was born on 21 April 1816 in Market Street, Thornton (in a house now known as the Brontë Birthplace), west of Bradford in the West Riding of Yorkshire, the third of the six children of Maria (née Branwell) and Patrick Brontë (formerly surnamed Brunty), an Irish Anglican clergyman. In 1820 her family moved a few miles to the village of Haworth, on the edge of the moors, where her father had been appointed perpetual curate of St Michael and All Angels Church. Maria died of cancer on 15 September 1821, leaving five daughters, Maria, Elizabeth, Charlotte, Emily and Anne, and a son, Branwell, to be taken care of by her sister, Elizabeth Branwell. In August 1824, Patrick sent Charlotte, Emily, Maria, and Elizabeth to the Clergy Daughters' School at Cowan Bridge in Lancashire. Charlotte maintained that the school's poor conditions permanently affected her health and physical development, and hastened the deaths of Maria (born 1814) and Elizabeth (born 1815), who both died of tuberculosis in May (Maria) and June (Elizabeth) 1825. After the deaths of his older daughters, Patrick removed Charlotte and Emily from the school. Charlotte used the school as the basis for Lowood School in Jane Eyre, which is similarly affected by tuberculosis that is exacerbated by the poor conditions. At home in Haworth Parsonage, Brontë acted as "the motherly friend and guardian of her younger sisters". Brontë wrote her first known poem at the age of 13 in 1829, and was to go on to write more than 200 poems in the course of her life. Many of her poems were "published" in their homemade magazine ''Branwell's Blackwood's Magazine, and concerned the fictional world of Glass Town. She and her surviving siblings – Branwell, Emily and Anne – created this shared world, and began chronicling the lives and struggles of the inhabitants of their imaginary kingdom in 1827. Charlotte, in private letters, called Glass Town'' "her 'world below', a private escape where she could act out her desires and multiple identities". Charlotte's "predilection for romantic settings, passionate relationships, and high society is at odds with Branwell's obsession with battles and politics and her young sisters' homely North Country realism, none the less at this stage there is still a sense of the writings as a family enterprise". However, from 1831 onwards, Emily and Anne 'seceded' from the Glass Town Confederacy to create a 'spin-off' called Gondal, which included many of their poems. After 1831, Charlotte and Branwell concentrated on an evolution of the Glass Town Confederacy called Angria. Christine Alexander, a Brontë juvenilia historian, wrote "both Charlotte and Branwell ensured the consistency of their imaginary world. When Branwell exuberantly kills off important characters in his manuscripts, Charlotte comes to the rescue and, in effect, resurrects them for the next stories [...]; and when Branwell becomes bored with his inventions, such as the Glass Town magazine he edits, Charlotte takes over his initiative and keeps the publication going for several more years". The sagas the siblings created were episodic and elaborate, and they exist in incomplete manuscripts, some of which have been published as juvenilia. They provided them with an obsessive interest during childhood and early adolescence, which prepared them for literary vocations in adulthood. ]] Between 1831 and 1832, Brontë continued her education at a boarding school twenty miles away in Mirfield, Roe Head (now part of Hollybank Special School), where she met her lifelong friends and correspondents Ellen Nussey and Mary Taylor. In 1833 she wrote a novella, The Green Dwarf, using the name Wellesley. Around about 1833, her stories shifted from tales of the supernatural to more realistic stories. She returned to Roe Head as a teacher from 1835 to 1838. Unhappy and lonely as a teacher at Roe Head, Brontë took out her sorrows in poetry, writing a series of melancholic poems. In "We wove a Web in Childhood" written in December 1835, Brontë drew a sharp contrast between her miserable life as a teacher and the vivid imaginary worlds she and her siblings had created. In another poem "Morning was its freshness still" written at the same time, Brontë wrote "Tis bitter sometimes to recall/Illusions once deemed fair". Many of her poems concerned the imaginary world of Angria, often concerning Byronic heroes, and in December 1836 she wrote to the Poet Laureate Robert Southey asking him for encouragement of her career as a poet. Southey replied, famously, that "Literature cannot be the business of a woman's life, and it ought not to be. The more she is engaged in her proper duties, the less leisure will she have for it even as an accomplishment and a recreation." This advice she respected but did not heed. In 1839 Brontë took up the first of many positions as governess to families in Yorkshire, a career she pursued until 1841. In particular, from May to July 1839 she was employed by the Sidgwick family at their summer residence, Stone Gappe, in Lothersdale, where one of her charges was John Benson Sidgwick (1835–1927), an unruly child who on one occasion threw the Bible at Charlotte, an incident that may have been the inspiration for a part of the opening chapter of Jane Eyre in which John Reed throws a book at the young Jane. Brontë did not enjoy her work as a governess, noting her employers treated her almost as a slave, constantly humiliating her. She was of slight build and was less than tall. Brussels and Haworth ]] In 1842 Charlotte and Emily travelled to Brussels to <!-- This article is written in British English, in which "enrol" is correct; do not change to "enroll" -->enrol at the boarding school run by Constantin Heger (1809–1896) and his wife Claire Zoé Parent Heger (1804–1887). During her time in Brussels, Brontë, who favoured the Protestant ideal of an individual in direct contact with God, objected to the stern Catholicism of Madame Heger, which she considered a tyrannical religion that enforced conformity and submission to the Pope. In return for board and tuition Charlotte taught English and Emily taught music. Their time at the school was cut short when their aunt Elizabeth Branwell, who had joined the family in Haworth to look after the children after their mother's death, died of internal obstruction in October 1842. Charlotte returned alone to Brussels in January 1843 to take up a teaching post at the school. Her second stay was not happy: she was homesick and deeply attached to Constantin Heger. She returned to Haworth in January 1844 and used the time spent in Brussels as the inspiration for some of the events in The Professor and Villette. After returning to Haworth, Charlotte and her sisters made headway with opening their own boarding school in the family home. It was advertised as "The Misses Brontë's Establishment for the Board and Education of a limited number of Young Ladies" and inquiries were made to prospective pupils and sources of funding. But none were attracted and in October 1844, the project was abandoned. First publication In May 1846, Charlotte, Emily, and Anne self-financed the publication of a joint collection of poems under their assumed names Currer, Ellis and Acton Bell. The pseudonyms veiled the sisters' sex while preserving their initials; thus Charlotte was Currer Bell. "Bell" was the middle name of Haworth's curate, Arthur Bell Nicholls whom Charlotte later married, and "Currer" was the surname of Frances Mary Richardson Currer who had funded their school (and maybe their father). Of the decision to use noms de plume, Charlotte wrote: Although only two copies of the collection of poems were sold, the sisters continued writing for publication and began their first novels, continuing to use their noms de plume when sending manuscripts to potential publishers. The Professor and Jane Eyre '']] Brontë's first manuscript, 'The Professor', did not secure a publisher, although she was heartened by an encouraging response from Smith, Elder & Co. of Cornhill, who expressed an interest in any longer works Currer Bell might wish to send. Brontë responded by finishing and sending a second manuscript in August 1847. Six weeks later, Jane Eyre was published. It tells the story of a plain governess, Jane, who, after difficulties in her early life, falls in love with her employer, Mr Rochester. They marry, but only after Rochester's insane first wife, of whom Jane initially has no knowledge, dies in a dramatic house fire. The book's style was innovative, combining Romanticism, naturalism with gothic melodrama, and broke new ground in being written from an intensely evoked first-person female perspective. Brontë believed art was most convincing when based on personal experience; in Jane Eyre she transformed the experience into a novel with universal appeal. Jane Eyre had immediate commercial success and initially received favourable reviews. G. H. Lewes wrote that it was "an utterance from the depths of a struggling, suffering, much-enduring spirit", and declared that it consisted of "suspiria de profundis!" (sighs from the depths). Speculation about the identity and gender of the mysterious Currer Bell heightened with the publication of Wuthering Heights by Ellis Bell (Emily) and Agnes Grey by Acton Bell (Anne). Accompanying the speculation was a change in the critical reaction to Brontë's work, as accusations were made that the writing was "coarse", a judgement more readily made once it was suspected that Currer Bell was a woman. However, sales of Jane Eyre continued to be strong and may even have increased as a result of the novel developing a reputation as an "improper" book. A talented amateur artist, Brontë personally did the drawings for the second edition of Jane Eyre and in the summer of 1834 two of her paintings were shown at an exhibition by the Royal Northern Society for the Encouragement of the Fine Arts in Leeds.Shirley and bereavements In 1848 Brontë began work on the manuscript of her second novel, Shirley. It was only partially completed when the Brontë family suffered the deaths of three of its members within eight months. In September 1848 Branwell died of chronic bronchitis and marasmus, exacerbated by heavy drinking, although Brontë believed that his death was due to tuberculosis. Branwell may have had a laudanum addiction. Emily became seriously ill shortly after his funeral and died of pulmonary tuberculosis in December 1848. Anne died of the same disease in May 1849. Brontë was unable to write at this time. After Anne's death Brontë resumed writing as a way of dealing with her grief, and Shirley, which deals with themes of industrial unrest and the role of women in society, was published in October 1849. Unlike Jane Eyre, which is written in the first person, Shirley is written in the third person and lacks the emotional immediacy of her first novel, and reviewers found it less shocking. Brontë, as her late sister's heir, suppressed the republication of Anne's second novel, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, an action which had a deleterious effect on Anne's popularity as a novelist and has remained controversial among the sisters' biographers ever since.In societyIn view of the success of her novels, particularly Jane Eyre, Brontë was persuaded by her publisher to make occasional visits to London, where she revealed her true identity and began to move in more exalted social circles, becoming friends with Elizabeth Gaskell and Harriet Martineau whose sister Rachel had taught Gaskell's daughters. Brontë sent an early copy of Shirley to Martineau whose home at Ambleside she visited. The two friends shared an interest in racial relations and the abolitionist movement; recurrent themes in their writings. Brontë was also acquainted with William Makepeace Thackeray and G. H. Lewes. She never left Haworth for more than a few weeks at a time, as she did not want to leave her ageing father. Thackeray's daughter, writer Anne Isabella Thackeray Ritchie, recalled a visit to her father by Brontë: Brontë's friendship with Elizabeth Gaskell, while not particularly close, was significant in that Gaskell wrote the first biography of Brontë after her death in 1855. Villette Brontë's third novel, the last published in her lifetime, was Villette, which appeared in 1853. Its main themes include isolation, how such a condition can be borne, and the internal conflict brought about by social repression of individual desire. Its main character, Lucy Snowe, travels abroad to teach in a boarding school in the fictional town of Villette, where she encounters a culture and religion different from her own and falls in love with a man (Paul Emanuel) whom she cannot marry. Her experiences result in a breakdown but eventually, she achieves independence and fulfilment through running her own school. A substantial amount of the novel's dialogue is in the French language. Villette marked Brontë's return to writing from a first-person perspective (that of Lucy Snowe), the technique she had used in Jane Eyre. Another similarity to Jane Eyre lies in the use of aspects of her own life as inspiration for fictional events, in particular her reworking of the time she spent at the pensionnat in Brussels. Villette was acknowledged by critics of the day as a potent and sophisticated piece of writing although it was criticised for "coarseness" and for not being suitably "feminine" in its portrayal of Lucy's desires. Marriage has long been mistaken for one of her friend Charlotte Brontë. The photo is a copy made by the photographer, Sir Emery Walker, from an original carte de visite photo which was then privately owned.]] Before the publication of Villette, Brontë received an expected proposal of marriage from Irishman Arthur Bell Nicholls, her father's curate, who had long been in love with her. She initially refused him and her father objected to the union at least partly because of Nicholls's poor financial status. Elizabeth Gaskell, who believed that marriage provided "clear and defined duties" that were beneficial for a woman, encouraged Brontë to consider the positive aspects of such a union and tried to use her contacts to engineer an improvement in Nicholls's finances. According to James Pope-Hennessy in The Flight of Youth, it was the generosity of Richard Monckton Milnes that made the marriage possible. Brontë, meanwhile, was increasingly attracted to Nicholls and by January 1854, she had accepted his proposal. They gained the approval of her father by April and married on 29 June. Her father Patrick had intended to give Charlotte away, but at the last minute decided he could not, and Charlotte had to make her way to the church without him. Because her father did not attend it was Miss Wooler (Charlotte's former teacher at Roe Head School, and life-long friend), as "friend", who "gave away" Charlotte (Gaskell: Vol II, Chap XIII). The married couple took their honeymoon in Banagher, County Offaly, Ireland. By all accounts, her marriage was a success and Brontë found herself very happy in a way that was new to her. Death ]] Brontë became pregnant soon after her wedding, but her health declined rapidly and, according to Gaskell, she was attacked by "sensations of perpetual nausea and ever-recurring faintness". She died, with her unborn child, on 31 March 1855, three weeks before her 39th birthday. Her death certificate gives the cause of death as phthisis, but biographers including Claire Harman and others suggest that she died from dehydration and malnourishment due to vomiting caused by severe morning sickness or hyperemesis gravidarum. Brontë was buried in the family vault in the Church of St Michael and All Angels at Haworth. The Professor, the first novel Brontë had written, was published posthumously in 1857. The fragment of a new novel she had been writing in her last years has been twice completed by recent authors, the more famous version being Emma Brown: A Novel from the Unfinished Manuscript by Charlotte Brontë by Clare Boylan in 2003. Most of her writings about the imaginary country Angria have also been published since her death. In 2018, The New York Times published a belated obituary for her.ReligionThe daughter of an Irish Anglican clergyman, Brontë was herself an Anglican. In a letter to her publisher, she claims to "love the Church of England. Her Ministers indeed, I do not regard as infallible personages, I have seen too much of them for that – but to the Establishment, with all her faults – the profane Athanasian Creed excluded – I am sincerely attached." In a letter to Ellen Nussey she wrote: Nussey lettersBrontë held lifelong correspondence with her former schoolmate Ellen Nussey. 350 of the some 500 letters sent by Brontë to Nussey survive, whereas all of Nussey's letters to Brontë were burned at Nicholls's request. The surviving letters provide most of the information known on Charlotte Brontë's life and are the backbone of her biographies. Brontë's letters to Nussey seem to have romantic undertones: Some scholars believe it is possible, given their passionate friendship, that Charlotte Brontë was in a romantic or sexual relationship with Ellen Nussey.Heger lettersOn 29 July 1913 The Times of London printed four letters Brontë had written to Constantin Heger after leaving Brussels in 1844. Written in French except for one postscript in English, the letters broke the prevailing image of Brontë as an angelic martyr to Christian and female duties that had been constructed by many biographers, beginning with Gaskell. The letters, which formed part of a larger and somewhat one-sided correspondence in which Heger frequently appears not to have replied, reveal that she had been in love with a married man, although they are complex and have been interpreted in numerous ways, including as an example of literary self-dramatisation and an expression of gratitude from a former pupil. In 1980 a commemorative plaque was unveiled at the Centre for Fine Arts, Brussels, on the site of the Madam Heger's school, in honour of Charlotte and Emily. Legacy Kazuo Ishiguro, when asked to name his favourite novelist, answered "Charlotte Brontë's recently edged out Dostoevsky...I owe my career, and a lot else besides, to Jane Eyre and Villette." Publications , Painting of the 3 Brontë Sisters, left to right: Anne, Emily and Charlotte Brontë. Branwell painted himself out of this portrait of his three sisters. National Portrait Gallery, London.]] portrait by Duyckinick, 1873, based on a drawing by George Richmond]] Juvenilia * ''The Young Men's Magazine, Volumes 1–3 (August 1830) * A Book of Ryhmes (1829) * The Spell * The Secret * Lily Hart * Albion and Marina * Tales of Angria (written 1838–1839 – a collection of childhood and young adult writings including five short novels) ** Mina Laury--> The Green Dwarf, A Tale of the Perfect Tense was written in 1833 under the pseudonym Lord Charles Albert Florian Wellesley. It shows the influence of Walter Scott, and Brontë's modifications to her earlier gothic style have led Christine Alexander to comment that, in the work, "it is clear that Brontë was becoming tired of the gothic mode per se". "At the end of 1839, Brontë said goodbye to her fantasy world in a manuscript called Farewell to Angria. More and more, she was finding that she preferred to escape to her imagined worlds over remaining in reality – and she feared that she was going mad. So she said goodbye to her characters, scenes and subjects. [...] She wrote of the pain she felt at wrenching herself from her 'friends' and venturing into lands unknown". the actual author was Constance Savery. ** Emma Brown, by Clare Boylan, published 2003 Poetry * * Selected Poems of the Brontës, Everyman Poetry (1997) Media portrayals * In the 1946 Curtis Bernhardt film Devotion, a fictionalized biography of the Brontë sisters, Olivia de Havilland plays Charlotte. * A November 15, 1953 episode of the Loretta Young Show, "The Bronte Story", features Loretta Young as Charlotte. * The 2018 comic Die features a fictionalised version of Charlotte within the Brontes' fictional kingdom of Angria. * In the 2022 Frances O'Connor film Emily, about Emily Brontë, Alexandra Dowling plays Charlotte. Notes ReferencesSources* * * * * * * * * Further reading * The Letters of Charlotte Brontë, 3 volumes edited by Margaret Smith, 2007 * The Life of Charlotte Brontë, Elizabeth Gaskell, 1857 * Charlotte Brontë, Winifred Gérin * Charlotte Brontë: a passionate life, Lyndal Gordon * The Literary Protégées of the Lake Poets, Dennis Low (Chapter 1 contains a revisionist contextualisation of Robert Southey's infamous letter to Charlotte Brontë) * Charlotte Brontë: Unquiet Soul, Margot Peters * In the Footsteps of the Brontës, Ellis Chadwick * The Brontës, Juliet Barker * Charlotte Brontë and her Dearest Nell, Barbara Whitehead * The Brontë Myth, Lucasta Miller * A Life in Letters, selected by Juliet Barker * Charlotte Brontë and Defensive Conduct: The Author and the Body at Risk, Janet Gezari, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992 * Charlotte Brontë: Truculent Spirit, by Valerie Grosvenor Myer, 1987 * Charlotte Brontë and her Family, Rebecca Fraser * ''The Oxford Reader's Companion to the Brontës, Christine Alexander & Margaret Smith * Charlotte & Arthur'', Pauline Clooney (2021) . Reimagining Charlotte Brontë's honeymoon in Ireland & Wales. * A Brontë Family Chronology, Edward Chitham * The Crimes of Charlotte Brontë, James Tully, 1999 * A book about Brontë through the eyes of a working-class woman * Fictionalised account of Arthur Bells Nicholls' romance of Charlotte Brontë * Charlotte Brontë and Arthur Bell Nicholls' wedding trip and Irish Odyssey. External links * [http://www.bronte.org.uk/ Website of the Brontë Society and Parsonage Museum in Haworth, Yorkshire] * [https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1109794 Modern Day Images of Charlotte Brontë Residences] (Archived) * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090220202739/http://www.umd.umich.edu/casl/hum/eng/classes/434/charweb/ Charlotte's Web: A Hypertext on Charlotte Brontë's Jane Eyre] (Archived) * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-50458343 Rare Charlotte Bronte book coming home after museum's auction success] * [http://www.eng-poetry.ru/english/Poet.php?PoetId=75 Poems by Charlotte Brontё] * [https://www.thebrontes.net/ The Brontës] Electronic editions * * * * * * [https://arheve.org/en/bronte-c Works by Charlotte Brontë in the online library ARHEVE.org] and in the free [https://library.arheve.org/ ARHEVE app] Category:1816 births Category:1855 deaths Category:19th-century English novelists Category:19th-century English women writers Category:19th-century English writers Category:19th-century pseudonymous writers Charlotte Category:Burials in West Yorkshire Category:Anglican writers Category:Christian novelists Category:Deaths from typhus in the United Kingdom Category:English Anglicans Category:English governesses Category:English people of Cornish descent Category:English people of Irish descent Category:English women novelists Category:English women poets Category:Infectious disease deaths in England Category:People from Thornton and Allerton Category:Writers from Bradford Category:Pseudonymous women writers Category:Victorian novelists Category:Victorian women writers Category:Victorian writers Category:Writers of Gothic fiction
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte_Brontë
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Charles Williams (British writer)
| birth_place = London, England | death_date | death_place = Oxford, England | occupation = Editor, novelist | spouse = Florence Conway | nationality = English | citizenship | genre Fantasy | movement | notableworks War in Heaven <br /> The Place of the Lion <br /> The Greater Trumps<br /> Descent into Hell | signature = }} Charles Walter Stansby Williams (20 September 1886 – 15 May 1945) was an English poet, novelist, playwright, theologian and literary critic. Most of his life was spent in London, where he was born, but in 1939 he moved to Oxford with the university press for which he worked until his death. Early life and education Charles Williams was born in London in 1886, the only son of (Richard) Walter Stansby Williams (1848–1929) and Mary (née Wall). His father Walter was a journalist and foreign business correspondent for an importing firm, writing in French and German, who was a 'regular and valued' contributor of verse, stories and articles to many popular magazines. His mother Mary, the sister of the ecclesiologist and historian J. Charles Wall, of Islington. He had one sister, Edith, born in 1889. The Williams family lived in 'shabby-genteel' circumstances, owing to Walter's increasing blindness and the decline of the firm by which he was employed, in Holloway. Educated at St Albans School, Williams was awarded a scholarship to University College London, but he left in 1904 without attempting to gain a degree due to an inability to pay tuition fees. Williams began work in 1904 in a Methodist bookroom. He was employed by the Oxford University Press (OUP) as a proofreading assistant in 1908 and quickly climbed to the position of editor. He continued to work at the OUP in various positions of increasing responsibility until his death in 1945. One of his greatest editorial achievements was the publication of the first major English-language edition of the works of Søren Kierkegaard. His work was part of the literature event in the art competition at the 1924 Summer Olympics. Although chiefly remembered as a novelist, Williams also published poetry, works of literary criticism, theology, drama, history, biography, and a voluminous number of book reviews. Some of his best-known novels are War in Heaven (1930), Descent into Hell (1937), and ''All Hallows' Eve'' (1945). T. S. Eliot, who wrote an introduction for the last of these, described Williams's novels as "supernatural thrillers" because they explore the sacramental intersection of the physical with the spiritual while also examining the ways in which power, even spiritual power, can corrupt as well as sanctify. All of Williams's fantasies, unlike those of J. R. R. Tolkien and most of those of C. S. Lewis, are set in the contemporary world. Williams has been described by Colin Manlove as one of the three main writers of "Christian fantasy" in the twentieth century (the other two being C. S. Lewis and T. F. Powys). Some writers of fantasy novels with contemporary settings, notably Tim Powers, cite Williams as their inspiration. W. H. Auden, one of Williams's greatest admirers, reportedly re-read Williams's extraordinary and highly unconventional history of the church, The Descent of the Dove (1939), every year. Williams's study of Dante entitled The Figure of Beatrice (1944) was very highly regarded at its time of publication and continues to be consulted by Dante scholars today. His work inspired Dorothy L. Sayers to undertake her translation of The Divine Comedy. Williams, however, regarded his most important work to be his extremely dense and complex Arthurian poetry, of which two books were published, Taliessin through Logres (1938) and The Region of the Summer Stars (1944), and more remained unfinished at his death. Some of Williams's essays were collected and published posthumously in Image of the City and Other Essays (1958), edited by Anne Ridler. Williams gathered many followers and disciples during his lifetime. He was, for a period, a member of the Salvator Mundi Temple of the Fellowship of the Rosy Cross. He met fellow Anglican Evelyn Underhill in 1937 and later wrote the introduction to her published Letters in 1943. When World War II broke out in 1939, Oxford University Press moved its offices from London to Oxford. Williams was reluctant to leave his beloved city, and his wife Florence refused to go. From the nearly 700 letters he wrote to his wife during the war years, a generous selection has been published — "primarily… love letters," the editor calls them. The move to Oxford did allow him to participate regularly in Lewis's literary society, the Inklings. In this setting Williams read (and improved) his final published novel, ''All Hallows' Eve. He heard J. R. R. Tolkien read aloud to the group some of his early drafts of The Lord of the Rings''. In addition to meeting in Lewis's rooms at Oxford, they regularly met at The Eagle and Child pub in Oxford. During this time Williams gave lectures at Oxford on John Milton, William Wordsworth, and other authors, and received an honorary M.A. degree. Williams is buried in Holywell Cemetery in Oxford. His headstone bears the word "poet" followed by the words "Under the Mercy", a phrase often used by Williams himself.Personal life in Oxford]] In 1917 Williams married his first sweetheart, Florence Conway, following a long courtship during which he presented her with a sonnet sequence that would later become his first published book of poetry, The Silver Stair. Their son Michael was born in 1922. Williams was an unswerving and devoted member of the Church of England, reputedly with a tolerance of the scepticism of others and a firm belief in the necessity of a "doubting Thomas" in any apostolic body. Although Williams attracted the attention and admiration of some of the most notable writers of his day, including T. S. Eliot and W. H. Auden, his greatest admirer was probably C. S. Lewis, whose novel That Hideous Strength (1945) has been regarded as partially inspired by his acquaintance with both the man and his novels and poems. Williams came to know Lewis after reading Lewis's then-recently published study The Allegory of Love; he was so impressed he jotted down a letter of congratulation and dropped it in the mail. Coincidentally, Lewis had just finished reading Williams's novel The Place of the Lion and had written a similar note of congratulation. The letters crossed in the mail and led to an enduring and fruitful friendship. Lewis wrote the Preface to Essays presented to Charles Williams, originally intended as a festschrift for Williams, but published after his death. Essays were contributed by Lewis, Sayers, Tolkien, Owen Barfield, Gervase Mathew and Warren Lewis. Theology Williams developed the concept of co-inherence and gave rare consideration to the theology of romantic love. Falling in love for Williams was a form of mystical envisioning in which one saw the beloved as he or she was seen through the eyes of God. Co-inherence was a term used in Patristic theology to describe the relationship between the human and divine natures of Jesus Christ and the relationship between the persons of the blessed Trinity. Williams extended the term to include the ideal relationship between the individual parts of God's creation, including human beings. It is our mutual indwelling: Christ in us and we in Christ, interdependent. It is also the web of interrelationships, social and economic and ecological, by which the social fabric and the natural world function. But especially for Williams, co-inherence is a way of talking about the Body of Christ and the communion of saints. He proposed founding an order, to be called the Companions of the Co-inherence, who would practice substitution and exchange, living in love-in-God, truly bearing one another's burdens, being willing to sacrifice and to forgive, living from and for one another in Christ. According to Gunnar Urang, co-inherence is the focus of all Williams's novels.Works Fiction * 1930: War in Heaven (London: Victor Gollancz) – The Holy Grail surfaces in an obscure country parish and becomes variously a sacramental object to protect or a vessel of power to exploit. * 1930: Many Dimensions (London: Victor Gollancz) – An evil antiquarian illegally purchases the fabled Stone of Suleiman (Williams uses this Muslim form rather than the more familiar King Solomon) from its Islamic guardian and returns to England to discover not only that the Stone can multiply itself infinitely without diminishing the original, but that it also allows its possessor to transcend the barriers of space and time. * "Et in Sempiternum Pereant," a short story first published in The London Mercury, December 1935, in which Lord Arglay (protagonist in Many Dimensions) has his life put at risk encountering a ghost on the path to damnation. Later included in The Oxford Book of English Ghost Stories (London: Oxford University Press, 1986) * 1931: The Place of the Lion (London: Mundanus) – Platonic archetypes begin to appear around an English country town, wreaking havoc and drawing to the surface the spiritual strengths and flaws of individual characters. * 1932: The Greater Trumps (London: Victor Gollancz) – The original Tarot deck is used to unlock enormous metaphysical powers by allowing the possessors to see across space and time, create matter, and raise powerful natural storms. * 1933: Shadows of Ecstasy (London: Victor Gollancz) – A humanistic adept has discovered that by focusing his energies inward he can extend his life almost indefinitely. He undertakes an experiment using African lore to die and resurrect his own body thereby assuring his immortality. His followers begin a revolutionary movement to supplant European civilisation. The first of Williams's novels to be written, though not the first published. – Generally thought to be Williams's best novel, Descent deals with various forms of selfishness, and how the cycle of sin brings about the necessity for redemptive acts. In it, an academic becomes so far removed from the world that he fetishises a woman to the extent that his perversion takes the form of a succubus. Other characters include a doppelgänger, the ghost of a suicidal Victorian labourer, and a playwright modelled in some ways on the author. Illustrates Williams's belief in the replacement of sin and substitutional love. * 1945: ''All Hallows' Eve (London: Faber & Faber) – Follows the fortunes of two women after death and their interactions with those they knew before, contrasting the results of action based either on selfishness or an accepting love. * 1970–72: The Noises That Weren't There. Unfinished. First three chapters published in Mythlore 6 (Autumn 1970), 7 (Winter 1971) and 8 (Winter 1972). Plays * c. 1912: The Chapel of the Thorn (edited by Sørina Higgins; Berkeley: Apocryphile Press, 2014) * 1930: A Myth of Shakespeare (London: Oxford University Press) * 1930: A Myth of Francis Bacon (Published in the Charles Williams Society Newsletter, 11, 12, and 14) * 1929–31: Three Plays (London: Oxford University Press) ** The Rite of the Passion (1929) ** The Chaste Wanton (1930) ** The Witch (1931) * 1963: Collected Plays by Charles Williams (edited by John Heath-Stubbs; London: Oxford University Press) ** Thomas Cranmer of Canterbury'' (1936). Canterbury Festival play, following T. S. Eliot's Murder in the Cathedral in the preceding (inaugural) year. ** Seed of Adam (1937) ** Judgement at Chelmsford (1939) ** The Death of Good Fortune (1939) ** The House by the Stable (1939) ** Terror of Light (1940) ** Grab and Grace (1941) ** The Three Temptations (1942) ** House of the Octopus (1945) * 2000: The Masques of Amen House (edited by David Bratman. Mythopoeic Press). ** The Masque of the Manuscript (1927) ** The Masque of Perusal (1929) ** The Masque of the Termination of Copyright (1930) Poetry * 1912: The Silver Stair (London: Herbert and Daniel) * 1917: Poems of Conformity (London: Oxford University Press) * 1920: Divorce (London: Oxford University Press) * 1924: Windows of Night (London: Oxford University Press) * 1930: Heroes and Kings (London: Sylvan Press) * 1954: Taliessin through Logres (1938) and The Region of the Summer Stars (1944) (London: Oxford University Press) * 1991: Charles Williams, ed. David Llewellyn Dodds (Woodbridge and Cambridge, UK: Boydell & Brewer: Arthurian Poets series). Part II, Uncollected and unpublished poems (pp. 149–281). Theology * 1938: He Came Down from Heaven (London: Heinemann). * 1939: The Descent of the Dove: A Short History of the Holy Spirit in the Church (London: Longmans, Green) * 1941: Witchcraft (London: Faber & Faber) * 1942: The Forgiveness of Sins (London: G. Bles) * 1958: The Image of the City and Other Essays (edited by Anne Ridler; London: Oxford University Press). Parts II through V * 1990: Outlines of Romantic Theology (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans) Literary criticism * 1930: Poetry at Present (Oxford: Clarendon Press). * 1932: The English Poetic Mind (Oxford: Clarendon Press). * 1933: Reason and Beauty in the Poetic Mind (Oxford: Clarendon Press) * 1940: Introduction to Milton (based on a lecture at Oxford University), in The English Poems of John Milton (Oxford University Press) * 1941: Religion and Love in Dante: The Theology of Romantic Love (Dacre Press, Westminster). * 1943: The Figure of Beatrice (London: Faber & Faber) * 1948: The Figure of Arthur (unfinished), in Arthurian Torso, ed. C. S. Lewis (London: Oxford University Press) * 1958: The Image of the City and Other Essays (edited by Anne Ridler; London: Oxford University Press). Parts I and VI * 2003: The Detective Fiction Reviews of Charles Williams (edited by Jared C. Lobdell; McFarland) * 2017: The Celian Moment and Other Essays (edited by Stephen Barber; Oxford: The Greystones Press) Biography * 1933: Bacon (London: Arthur Barker) * 1933: A Short Life of Shakespeare (Oxford: Clarendon Press). Abridgment of the 2-volume work by Sir Edmund Chambers * 1934: James I (London: Arthur Barker) * 1935: Rochester (London: Arthur Barker) * 1936: Queen Elizabeth (London: Duckworth) * 1937: Henry VII (London: Arthur Barker) * 1937: Stories of Great Names (London: Oxford University Press). Alexander, Julius Caesar, Charlemagne, Joan of Arc, Shakespeare, Voltaire, John Wesley * 1946: Flecker of Dean Close (London: Canterbury Press) Other works * 1931: Introduction, Poems of Gerard Manley Hopkins (Ed. Robert Bridges; 2nd ed.; London: Oxford University Press; ) * 1936: The Story of the Aeneid (London: Oxford University Press; ) * 1939: The Passion of Christ (Oxford University Press, New York, London ) * 1940: Introduction, Søren Kierkegaard's The Present Age (trans. Dru and Lowrie; Oxford University Press; ) * 1943: Introduction, The Letters of Evelyn Underhill (Longmans, Green and Co.) * 1958: The New Christian Year (Oxford University Press ) * 1989: Letters to Lalage: The Letters of Charles Williams to Lois Lang-Sims (Kent State University Press) * 2002: To Michal from Serge: Letters from Charles Williams to His Wife, Florence, 1939–1945 (edited by Roma King Jr.; Kent State University Press) Sources * . * . * . * . * . * . * . * . * . * Hillegas, Mark R., ed. (1969), Shadows of Imagination: The Fantasies of C. S. Lewis, J. R. R. Tolkien, and Charles Williams, Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press. * . * . * . * . * King, Roma A. Jr. (1990), The Pattern in the Web: The Mythical Poetry of Charles Williams. Kent, O., and London: Kent State University Press. * Lewis, C. S. (1948), "Williams and the Arthuriad," in Arthurian Torso, ed. C. S. Lewis, London: Oxford University Press, pp. 93–200. * * Moorman, Charles (1960), Arthurian Triptych: Mythic Materials in Charles Williams, C. S. Lewis, and T. S. Eliot, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. * Moorman, Charles (1966), The Precincts of Felicity: The Augustinian City of the Oxford Christians. Gainesville: University of Florida Press. * Roukema, Aren (2018), [https://brill.com/view/title/24813 Esotericism and Narrative: The Occult Fiction of Charles Williams]. Brill * . * features Charles Williams, C.S. Lewis, and J.R.R. Tolkien as the main characters. * . * . * . * Wendling, Susan (2006), "Charles Williams: Priest of the Co-inherence", in INKLINGS Forever, Vol. V, a collection of essays presented at the Fifth Frances White Ewbank Colloquium on C.S. Lewis and Friends, presented at Taylor University. References External links * [http://charleswilliamssociety.org.uk/ The Charles Williams Society] * * [http://www.wheaton.edu/wadecenter/ The Marion E. Wade Center] * * * * [http://gutenberg.net.au/plusfifty-n-z.html Public Domain books by Charles Williams at Project Gutenburg Australia] * [http://theoddestinkling.wordpress.com/2013/06/05/intro/ An Introduction to Charles Williams] Category:1886 births Category:1945 deaths Category:Alumni of University College London Category:Writers of modern Arthurian fiction Category:Christian writers Category:Protestant mystics Category:English fantasy writers Category:20th-century English theologians Category:20th-century Christian mystics Category:Inklings Category:Mythopoeic writers Category:Oxford University Press people Category:Writers from St Albans Category:People educated at St Albans School, Hertfordshire Category:Taliesin Category:British male poets Category:English male short story writers Category:English short story writers Category:English male novelists Category:20th-century English poets Category:20th-century English novelists Category:English Christian theologians Category:20th-century British short story writers Category:Christian novelists Category:Burials at Holywell Cemetery Category:Olympic competitors in art competitions
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Williams_(British_writer)
2025-04-05T18:27:50.404168
6535
Celery
}} Celery ('''Apium graveolens Dulce Group or Apium graveolens var. dulce') is a cultivated plant belonging to the species Apium graveolens'' in the family Apiaceae that has been used as a vegetable since ancient times. The original wild species has been selectively bred over centuries into three primary cultivar groups: stalk celery (Dulce Group), consumed for its fibrous edible stalks; leaf celery (Secalinum Group), grown for its aromatic leaves; and celeriac (Rapaceum Group), cultivated for its large, edible hypocotyl. Celery is characterized by its long, ribbed stalks, pinnate leaves, and small white flowers arranged in umbels. Celery is composed primarily of water (95%) but contains large amounts of vitamin K and negligible fat. The vegetable is commonly consumed raw in salads, cooked in soups and stews, or juiced. Celery seeds, which have a strong, aromatic flavor, are used as a spice or processed into celery salt. Celery is among a small group of foods that may provoke allergic reactions. Historically, celery has held medicinal, culinary, and symbolic significance. Literary evidence shows evidence of celery cultivation in Ancient Greece, while ancient Egyptians incorporated it into funeral garlands. Celery remains eaten around the world. Description Celery leaves are pinnate to bipinnate with rhombic leaflets long and broad. The flowers are creamy-white, in diameter, and are produced in dense compound umbels. The seeds are broad ovoid to globose, long and wide. Modern cultivars have been selected for either solid petioles, leaf stalks, or a large hypocotyl. Chemistry The main chemicals responsible for the aroma and taste of celery are butylphthalide and sedanolide.EtymologyFirst attested and printed in English as "sellery" by John Evelyn in 1664, the modern English word "celery" derives from the French céleri, in turn from Italian seleri, the plural of selero, which comes from Late Latin selinon, the latinisation of the , "celery". The earliest-attested form of the word is the Mycenaean Greek se-ri-no, written in Linear B syllabic script. Taxonomy The species Apium graveolens was described by Carl Linnaeus in Volume One of his Species Plantarum in 1753. Cultivated celery has been called Apium graveolens var. dulce or Apium graveolens Dulce Group. Celery was first grown as a winter and early spring vegetable. It was considered a cleansing tonic to counter the deficiencies of a winter diet based on salted meats without fresh vegetables. In North America, commercial production of celery is dominated by the cultivar called 'Pascal' celery. Gardeners can grow a range of cultivars, many of which differ from the wild species, mainly in having stouter leaf stems. They are ranged under two classes, white and red. The stalks grow in tight, straight, parallel bunches, and are typically marketed fresh that way. They are sold without roots and only a small amount of green leaf remaining. The stalks can be eaten raw, or as an ingredient in salads, or as a flavouring in soups, stews, and pot roasts. Harvesting and storage Harvesting occurs when the average size of celery in a field is marketable; due to extremely uniform crop growth, fields are harvested only once. The petioles and leaves are removed and harvested; celery is packed by size and quality (determined by colour, shape, straightness and thickness of petiole, stalk and midrib length and absence of disease, cracks, splits, insect damage and rot). During commercial harvesting, celery is packaged into cartons which contain between 36 and 48 stalks and weigh up to . Under optimal conditions, celery can be stored for up to seven weeks from . Inner stalks may continue growing if kept at temperatures above . Shelf life can be extended by packaging celery in anti-fogging, micro-perforated shrink wrap. Freshly cut petioles of celery are prone to decay, which can be prevented or reduced through the use of sharp blades during processing, gentle handling, and proper sanitation. Celery stalk may be preserved through pickling by first removing the leaves, then boiling the stalks in water before finally adding vinegar, salt, and vegetable oil. Sulfites In the past, restaurants used to store celery in a container of water with powdered vegetable preservative, but it was found that the sulfites in the preservative caused allergic reactions in some people. In 1986, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration banned the use of sulfites on fruits and vegetables intended to be eaten raw. Allergic reactions Celery is among a small group of foods that may provoke allergic reactions; for people with celery allergy, exposure can cause potentially fatal anaphylactic shock. Cases of allergic reaction to ingestion of celery root have also been reported in pollen-sensitive individuals resulting in gastrointestinal disorders and other symptoms, although in most cases, celery sensitivity is not considered clinically significant. In the European Union and the United Kingdom, foods that contain or may contain celery, even in trace amounts, must be clearly marked. The Apium graveolens plant has an OPALS allergy scale rating of 4 out of 10, indicating moderate potential to cause allergic reactions, exacerbated by over-use of the same plant throughout a garden. Celery has caused skin rashes and cross-reactions with carrots and ragweed. It is used in the Iranian stew khoresh karafs.LeavesCelery leaves are frequently used in cooking to add a mild spicy flavour to foods, similar to, but milder than black pepper. Celery leaves are suitable dried and sprinkled on baked, fried or roasted fish or meats, or as part of a blend of fresh seasonings suitable for use in soups and stews. They may also be eaten raw, mixed into a salad or as a garnish.Seeds In temperate countries, celery is also grown for its seeds. Actually very small fruit, these "seeds" yield a valuable essential oil that is used in the perfume industry. The oil contains the chemical compound apiole. Celery seeds can be used as flavouring or spice, either as whole seeds or ground. Celery salt Celery seeds can be ground and mixed with salt to produce celery salt. Celery salt can be made from an extract of the roots or by using dried leaves. Celery salt is used as a seasoning, in cocktails (commonly to enhance the flavour of Bloody Mary cocktails), on the Chicago-style hot dog, and in Old Bay Seasoning. Similarly, combinations of celery powder and salt are used to flavour and preserve cured pork and other processed meats as an alternative to industrial curing salt. The naturally occurring nitrates in celery work synergistically with the added salt to cure food. Celery juice In 2019, a trend of drinking celery juice was reported in the United States, based on "detoxification" claims posted on a blog. The claims have no scientific basis, but the trend caused a sizable spike in celery prices. In culture didrachm coin bearing a selinon (celery) leaf, c. 515–470 BCE]] '' illustration from Barbarus Apuleius' Herbarium, c. 1400 CE]] Daniel Zohary and Maria Hopf note that celery leaves and inflorescences were part of the garlands found in the tomb of pharaoh Tutankhamun (died 1323 BCE), and celery mericarps dated to the seventh century BCE were recovered in the Heraion of Samos. However, they note A. graveolens grows wild in these areas, it is hard to decide whether these remains represent wild or cultivated forms." Only by classical antiquity is it thought that celery was cultivated. M. Fragiska mentions an archeological find of celery dating to the 9th century BCE, at Kastanas; however, the literary evidence for ancient Greece is far more abundant. In Homer's Iliad, the horses of the Myrmidons graze on wild celery that grows in the marshes of Troy, and in Odyssey, there is mention of the meadows of violet and wild celery surrounding Calypso's Cave. In the Capitulary of Charlemagne, compiled c. 800, apium appears, as does olisatum, or alexanders, among medicinal herbs and vegetables the Frankish emperor desired to see grown. At some later point in medieval Europe, celery displaced alexanders. The name "celery" retraces the plant's route of successive adoption in European cooking, as the English "celery" (1664) is derived from the French céleri coming from the Lombard term, seleri, from the Latin selinon, borrowed from Greek. Celery's late arrival in the English kitchen is an end-product of the long tradition of seed selection needed to reduce the sap's bitterness and increase its sugars. By 1699, John Evelyn could recommend it in his Acetaria. A Discourse of Sallets: "Sellery, apium Italicum, (and of the Petroseline Family) was formerly a stranger with us (nor very long since in Italy) is a hot and more generous sort of Macedonian Persley or Smallage... and for its high and grateful Taste is ever plac'd in the middle of the Grand Sallet, at our Great Men's tables, and Praetors feasts, as the Grace of the whole Board". Celery makes a minor appearance in colonial American gardens; its culinary limitations are reflected in the observation by the author of A Treatise on Gardening, by a Citizen of Virginia that it is "one of the species of parsley". Its first extended treatment in print was in Bernard M'Mahon's ''American Gardener's Calendar'' (1806). After the mid-19th century, continued selections for refined crisp texture and taste brought celery to American tables, where it was served in celery vases to be salted and eaten raw. Celery was so popular in the United States during the 19th and early 20th centuries that the New York Public Library's [http://menus.nypl.org/ historical menu archive] shows that it was the third-most-popular dish in New York City menus during that time, behind only coffee and tea. In those days, celery cost more than caviar, as it was difficult to cultivate. There were also many varieties of celery back then that are no longer around because they are difficult to grow and do not ship well. A chthonian symbol among the ancient Greeks, celery was said to have sprouted from the blood of Kadmilos, father of the Cabeiri, chthonian divinities celebrated in Samothrace, Lemnos, and Thebes. The spicy odor and dark leaf colour encouraged this association with the cult of death. In classical Greece, celery leaves were used as garlands for the dead, and the wreaths of the winners at the Isthmian Games were first made of celery before being replaced by crowns made of pine. According to Pliny the Elder, in Achaea, the garland worn by the winners of the sacred Nemean Games was also made of celery.<ref nameFragiska/> The Ancient Greek colony of Selinous (, Selinous), on Sicily, was named after wild parsley that grew abundantly there; Selinountian coins depicted a parsley leaf as the symbol of the city. See also * Apium virus Y * Celery mosaic virus * Celery powder * Celery vase * Liriomyza trifolii – celery leaf miner * Vallisneria americana – wild celery * List of vegetables References External links * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130530223346/http://database.prota.org/dbtw-wpd/exec/dbtwpub.dll?ACQBE_QUERY&BUhttp%3A%2F%2Fdatabase.prota.org%2Fsearch.htm&TNPROTAB~1&QB0AND&QF0Species+Code&QI0Apium+graveolens&RF=Webdisplay Apium graveolens] in Plant Resources of Tropical Africa (PROTA) * [https://www.ams.usda.gov/grades-standards/celery-grades-and-standards Quality standards], from the USDA website Category:Apium Category:Edible Apiaceae Category:Leaf vegetables Category:Medicinal plants Category:Spices Category:Stem vegetables Category:Aphrodisiac foods Category:Calypso (mythology)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celery
2025-04-05T18:27:50.445877
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CPM
CPM may refer to: Advertising Cost per mille, the advertising cost per thousand views Cost per thousand impressions, the online advertising equivalent Management Certified Practising Marketer, a qualification for Australian marketers Certified Project Manager, an international recognized qualification in the field of project management offered by various professional organizations and institutions Certified Property Manager Certified Public Manager Comparable Profits Method, a commonly used transfer pricing method for managing internal sales between two divisions of the same company Corporate performance management is another name for business performance management used in Gartner reports on software systems Critical path method, an algorithm for scheduling project activities Organizations Asia The Pentecostal Mission (formerly Ceylon Pentecostal Mission), Sri Lanka Communist Party of India (Marxist) Communist Party of Malaya, the Malayan Communist Party Europe Coalition for Melilla (), a political party in Melilla Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova Congregatio Presbyterorum a Misericordia or Fathers of Mercy, a Catholic order in France North America Central Park Media, a U.S. entertainment company Chicago Public Media, a National Public Radio member organization Chosen People Ministries, a Messianic Jewish evangelical organization Clement Payne Movement, a Barbadian political party Content Planning Module, a component of the U.S. Navy's Authoring Instructional Materials Science, technology, and medicine Biology and medicine Carboxypeptidase M, an enzyme Cellular Potts model, a computer simulation of cellular structures Central pontine myelinolysis, a neurological disease Certified Professional Midwife, a direct-entry midwife certification Chinese patent medicine, herbal medicines in Traditional Chinese medicine Chlorphenamine, an antihistamine drug Confined placental mosaicism, a condition of pregnancy Continuous passive motion, a physical therapy technique CPM (gene), the human gene to encode carboxypeptidase M Cucurbit powdery mildew, a fungal infection of melons and cucumbers Cyclopropylmescaline, a psychedelic drug Computing CP/M, an early microcomputer operating system Compressed pattern matching, string searches within uncompressed text Communications Processor Module, a networking engine in Motorola/Freescale QUICC processors Characters per minute, the speed of a typist; WPM (words per minute) is CPM divided by five Cloud management platform software, in cloud computing Combinatorial pattern matching, a research area (and a conference) for algorithms Other uses in science and technology Clique percolation method, a clustering algorithm for networks Continuous phase modulation, a data modulation method commonly used in wireless modems Counts per minute, a unit of radioactivity Cpm, a process capability index Crucible Particle Metallurgy, a steel-making process developed by Crucible Industries Cycle per minute, a unit similar to revolution per minute Other uses Challenge ProMode Arena, a modification to the game Quake III Arena Church planting movement Colonial Police Medal Communication privacy management theory, a theory of privacy in interpersonal communication Compton/Woodley Airport (IATA code CPM)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPM
2025-04-05T18:27:50.452634
6537
Celestines
thumb|220px|right|Religious habit of the Celestine Order (18th century image). The Celestines were a Roman Catholic monastic order, a branch of the Benedictines, founded in 1244. At the foundation of the new rule, they were called Hermits of St Damiano, or Moronites (or Murronites), and did not assume the appellation of Celestines until after the election of their founder, Peter of Morone (Pietro Murrone), to the Papacy as Celestine V. The last house closed in 1785. Founding The fame of the holy life and the austerities practised by Pietro Morone in his solitude on the Mountain of Majella, near Sulmona, attracted many visitors, several of whom were moved to remain and share his mode of life. They built a small convent on the spot inhabited by the holy hermit, which became too small for the accommodation of those who came to share their life of privations. Peter of Morone (later Pope Celestine V), their founder, built a number of other small oratories in that neighborhood. Around the year 1254, Peter of Morone gave the order a rule formulated in accordance with his own practices. In 1264 the new institution was approved as a branch of the Benedictines by Urban IV; The administration of the order was carried on somewhat after the pattern of Cluny, that is all monasteries were subject to the Abbey of the Holy Ghost at Sulmona, and these dependent houses were divided into provinces. The Celestines had ninety-six houses in Italy, twenty-one in France, and a few in Germany. Subsequently, the French Celestines, with the consent of the Italian superiors of the order, and of Pope Martin V in 1427, obtained the privilege of making new constitutions for themselves, which they did in the 17th century in a series of regulations accepted by the provincial chapter in 1667. At that time the French congregation of the order was composed of twenty-one monasteries, the head of which was that of Paris, and was governed by a Provincial with the authority of General. Paul V was a notable benefactor of the order. The order became extinct in the eighteenth century. Description of order According to their special constitutions the Celestines were bound to say matins in the choir at two o'clock in the morning, and always to abstain from eating meat, save in illness. The distinct rules of their order with regard to fasting are numerous, but not more severe than those of similar congregations, though much more so than is required by the old Benedictine rule. In reading their minute directions for divers degrees of abstinence on various days, it is impossible to avoid being struck by the conviction that the great object of the framers of these rules was the general purpose of ensuring an ascetic mode of life. The Celestines wore a white woollen cassock bound with a linen band, and a leathern girdle of the same colour, with a scapular unattached to the body of the dress, and a black hood. It was not permitted to them to wear any shirt save of serge. Their dress in short was very like that of the Cistercians. But it is a tradition in the order that in the time of the founder they wore a coarse brown cloth. The church and monastery of San Pietro in Montorio originally belonged to the Celestines in Rome; but they were turned out of it by Sixtus IV to make way for Franciscans, receiving from the Pope in exchange the Church of St Eusebius of Vercelli with the adjacent mansion for a monastery. References External links Category:1244 establishments in Europe Category:Catholic orders and societies Category:Religious organizations established in the 1240s Category:Christian religious orders established in the 13th century
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestines
2025-04-05T18:27:50.457052
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Cessna
| founders = Clyde Cessna<br>Victor Roos | defunct | successor | location = Wichita, Kansas, United States | key_people Scott A. Ernest (CEO from May 31, 2011) | industry = Aerospace | products = List of models | revenue | operating_income | net_income | num_employees 8,500 (2013) | owner = Textron Aviation (from 2014) | parent = Textron Inc. | subsid = McCauley Propeller Systems | website = }} Cessna () is an American brand of general aviation aircraft owned by Textron Aviation since 2014, headquartered in Wichita, Kansas. Originally, it was a brand of the Cessna Aircraft Company, an American general aviation aircraft manufacturing corporation also headquartered in Wichita. The company produced small, piston-powered aircraft, as well as business jets. For much of the mid-to-late 20th century, Cessna was one of the highest-volume and most diverse producers of general aviation aircraft in the world. It was founded in 1927 by Clyde Cessna and Victor Roos and was purchased by General Dynamics in 1985, then by Textron, Inc. in 1992. In March 2014, when Textron purchased the Beechcraft and Hawker Aircraft corporations, Cessna ceased operations as a subsidiary company, and joined the others as one of the three distinct brands produced by Textron Aviation. Throughout its history, and especially in the years following World War II, Cessna became best known for producing small, high-wing, piston aircraft. Its most popular and iconic aircraft is the Cessna 172, delivered since 1956 (with a break from 1986 to 1996), with more sold than any other aircraft in history. Since the first model was delivered in 1972, the brand has also been well known for its Citation family of low-wing business jets which vary in size. History Origins Clyde Cessna, a farmer in Rago, Kansas, built his own aircraft and flew it in June 1911. He was the first person to do so between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains. Cessna started his wood-and-fabric aircraft ventures in Enid, Oklahoma, testing many of his early planes on the salt flats. When bankers in Enid refused to lend him more money to build his planes, he moved to Wichita. , circa 1930s]] Cessna Aircraft was formed when Clyde Cessna and Victor Roos became partners in the Cessna-Roos Aircraft Company in 1927. Roos resigned just one month into the partnership, selling back his interest to Cessna. Shortly afterward, Roos's name was dropped from the company name. The Cessna DC-6 earned certification on the same day as the stock market crash of 1929, October 29, 1929. at Blackpool (Squires Gate) Airport in 1950]] The Cessna C-37 was introduced in 1937 as Cessna's first seaplane when equipped with Edo floats.Postwar boom , circa 1954]] Cessna returned to commercial production in 1946, after the revocation of wartime production restrictions (L-48), with the release of the Model 120 and Model 140. The approach was to introduce a new line of all-metal aircraft that used production tools, dies and jigs, rather than the hand-built tube-and-fabric construction process used before the war. The Model 140 was named by the US Flight Instructors Association as the "Outstanding Plane of the Year" in 1948. ]] Cessna introduced the Cessna 172 in 1956. It became the most produced airplane in history. In 1959, Cessna acquired Aircraft Radio Corporation (ARC), of Boonton, New Jersey, a leading manufacturer of aircraft radios. During these years, Cessna expanded the ARC product line, and rebranded ARC radios as "Cessna" radios, making them the "factory option" for avionics in new Cessnas. However, during this time, ARC radios suffered a severe decline in quality and popularity. Cessna kept ARC as a subsidiary until 1983, selling it to avionics-maker Sperry. In 1960, Cessna acquired McCauley Industrial Corporation, of Ohio, a leading manufacturer of propellers for light aircraft. McCauley became the world's leading producer of general aviation aircraft propellers, largely through their installation on Cessna airplanes. In 1960, Cessna affiliated itself with Reims Aviation of Reims, France. In 1963, Cessna produced its 50,000th airplane, a Cessna 172. In 1985, Cessna ceased to be an independent company. It was purchased by General Dynamics Corporation and became a wholly owned subsidiary. Production of the Cessna Caravan began. General Dynamics in turn sold Cessna to Textron in 1992. -designed Cessna 350]] Late in 2007, Cessna purchased the bankrupt Columbia Aircraft company for US$26.4M and would continue production of the Columbia 350 and 400 as the Cessna 350 and Cessna 400 at the Columbia factory in Bend, Oregon. However, production of both aircraft had ended by 2018.Chinese production controversy ]] On November 27, 2007, Cessna announced the then-new Cessna 162 would be built in China by Shenyang Aircraft Corporation, which is a subsidiary of the China Aviation Industry Corporation I (AVIC I), a Chinese government-owned consortium of aircraft manufacturers. Cessna reported that the decision was made to save money and also that the company had no more plant capacity in the United States at the time. Cessna received much negative feedback for this decision, with complaints centering on the recent quality problems with Chinese production of other consumer products, China's human rights record, exporting of jobs and China's less than friendly political relationship with the United States. The customer backlash surprised Cessna and resulted in a company public relations campaign. In early 2009, the company attracted further criticism for continuing plans to build the 162 in China while laying off large numbers of workers in the United States. In the end, the Cessna 162 was not a commercial success and only a small number were delivered before production was cancelled.2008–2010 economic crisis The company's business suffered notably during the late-2000s recession, laying off more than half its workforce between January 2009 and September 2010. ]] On November 4, 2008, Cessna's parent company, Textron, indicated that Citation production would be reduced from the original 2009 target of 535 "due to continued softening in the global economic environment" and that this would result in an undetermined number of lay-offs at Cessna. On November 8, 2008, at the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA) Expo, CEO Jack Pelton indicated that sales of Cessna aircraft to individual buyers had fallen, but piston and turboprop sales to businesses had not. "While the economic slowdown has created a difficult business environment, we are encouraged by brisk activity from new and existing propeller fleet operators placing almost 200 orders for 2009 production aircraft," Pelton stated. Beginning in January 2009, a total of 665 jobs were cut at Cessna's Wichita and Bend, Oregon, plants. The Cessna factory at Independence, Kansas, which builds the Cessna piston-engined aircraft and the Cessna Mustang, did not see any layoffs, but one third of the workforce at the former Columbia Aircraft facility in Bend was laid off. This included 165 of the 460 employees who built the Cessna 350 and 400. The remaining 500 jobs were eliminated at the main Cessna Wichita plant. In January 2009, the company laid off an additional 2,000 employees, bringing the total to 4,600. The job cuts included 120 at the Bend, Oregon, facility reducing the plant that built the Cessna 350 and 400 to fewer than half the number of workers that it had when Cessna bought it. Other cuts included 200 at the Independence, Kansas, plant that builds the single-engined Cessnas and the Mustang, reducing that facility to 1,300 workers. On April 29, 2009, the company suspended the Citation Columbus program and closed the Bend, Oregon, facility. The Columbus program was finally cancelled in early July 2009. The company reported, "Upon additional analysis of the business jet market related to this product offering, we decided to formally cancel further development of the Citation Columbus". With the 350 and 400 production moving to Kansas, the company indicated that it would lay off 1,600 more workers, including the remaining 150 employees at the Bend plant and up to 700 workers from the Columbus program. In early June 2009, Cessna laid off an additional 700 salaried employees, bringing the total number of lay-offs to 7,600, which was more than half the company's workers at the time. The company closed its three Columbus, Georgia, manufacturing facilities between June 2010 and December 2011. The closures included the new facility that was opened in August 2008 at a cost of US$25M, plus the McCauley Propeller Systems plant. These closures resulted in total job losses of 600 in Georgia. Some of the work was relocated to Cessna's Independence, Kansas, or Mexican facilities. Cessna's parent company, Textron, posted a loss of US$8M in the first quarter of 2010, largely driven by continuing low sales at Cessna, which were down 44%. Half of Cessna's workforce remained laid-off and CEO Jack Pelton stated that he expected the recovery to be long and slow. In September 2010, a further 700 employees were laid off, bringing the total to 8,000 jobs lost. CEO Jack Pelton indicated this round of layoffs was due to a "stalled [and] lackluster economy" and noted that while the number of orders cancelled for jets had been decreasing, new orders had not met expectations. Pelton added, "our strategy is to defend and protect our current markets while investing in products and services to secure our future, but we can do this only if we succeed in restructuring our processes and reducing our costs." 2010s On May 2, 2011, CEO Jack J. Pelton retired. The new CEO, Scott A. Ernest, started on May 31, 2011. Ernest joined Textron after 29 years at General Electric, where he had most recently served as vice president and general manager, global supply chain for GE Aviation. Ernest previously worked for Textron CEO Scott Donnelly when both worked at General Electric. In September 2011, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) proposed a US$2.4 million fine against the company for its failure to follow quality assurance requirements while producing fiberglass components at its plant in Chihuahua, Mexico. Excess humidity meant that the parts did not cure correctly and quality assurance did not detect the problems. The failure to follow procedures resulted in the delamination in flight of a section of one Cessna 400's wing skin from the spar while the aircraft was being flown by an FAA test pilot. The aircraft was landed safely. The FAA also discovered 82 other aircraft parts that had been incorrectly made and not detected by the company's quality assurance. The investigation resulted in an emergency Airworthiness Directive that affected 13 Cessna 400s. Since March 2012, Cessna has been pursuing building business jets in China as part of a joint venture with Aviation Industry Corporation of China (AVIC). The company stated that it intends to eventually build all aircraft models in China, saying "The agreements together pave the way for a range of business jets, utility single-engine turboprops and single-engine piston aircraft to be manufactured and certified in China." In late April 2012, the company added 150 workers in Wichita as a result of anticipated increased demand for aircraft production. Overall, they have cut more than 6000 jobs in the Wichita plant since 2009. In March 2014, Cessna ceased operations as a company and instead became a brand of Textron Aviation.Company terminology Cessna marketing terminology includes: *Para-Lift Flaps – Large Fowler flaps Cessna introduced on the 170B in 1952, replacing the narrow chord plain flaps then in use. *Land-O-Matic – In 1956, Cessna introduced sprung-steel tricycle landing gear on the 172. The marketing department chose "Land-O-Matic" to imply that these aircraft were much easier to land and take off than the preceding conventional landing gear equipped Cessna 170. They even went as far as to say pilots could do "drive-up take-offs and drive-in landings", implying that flying these aircraft was as easy as driving a car. In later years, some Cessna models had their steel sprung landing gear replaced with steel tube gear legs. The 206 retains the original spring steel landing gear today. *Stabila-Tip – Cessna started commonly using wingtip fuel tanks, carefully shaped for aerodynamic effect rather than being tubular-shaped. Tip tanks do have an advantage of reducing free surface effect of fuel affecting the balance of the aircraft in rolling maneuvers. Aircraft ]] of the Swiss Air Force]] In October 2020, Textron Aviation was producing the following Cessna-branded models: *Cessna 172 Skyhawk – high-wing, single piston-engined, four-seat aircraft in production since 1956 *Cessna 182 Skylane – high-wing, single piston-engined, four-seat aircraft in production since 1956 *Cessna 206 Stationair – high-wing, single piston-engined, six-seat utility aircraft in production since 1962 *Cessna 208 Caravan – high-wing single-turboprop utility aircraft in production since 1984 *Cessna 408 SkyCourier – high-wing twin-turboprop utility aircraft in production since 2022 *Cessna Citation family – twin-engined business jets **Cessna Citation 525 M2/CJ series – in production since 1991 **Cessna Citation 560XL Excel – in production since 1996 **Cessna Citation 680 Sovereign – out of production since 2021 **Cessna Citation 680A Latitude – in production since 2014 **Cessna Citation 700 Longitude – in production since 2019 References External links * * * * * [http://www.flickr.com/photos/sdasmarchives/albums/72157634327306950 Mort Brown Cessna Special Collection] – Personal collection of documents belonging to a former chief test pilot Category:Aircraft manufacturers of the United States Category:Manufacturing companies based in Kansas Category:General Dynamics Category:Textron Category:Companies based in Wichita, Kansas Category:American companies established in 1927 Category:Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1927 Category:1927 establishments in Kansas Category:Collier Trophy recipients Category:1985 mergers and acquisitions Category:1992 mergers and acquisitions
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cessna
2025-04-05T18:27:50.476445
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Czesław Miłosz
| birth_place = Šeteniai, Kovno Governorate, Russian Empire | death_date | death_place = Kraków, Poland | occupation = | nationality = Polish, American | citizenship |Stateless (1951–1970)|United States (from 1970)|Poland (from 1995)}} | spouse = * }} | children = Anthony (born 1947)<br />John Peter (born 1951) | notable_works = Rescue (1945)<br />The Captive Mind (1953)<br />A Treatise on Poetry (1957) | awards = Neustadt International Prize for Literature (1978)<br />Nobel Prize in Literature (1980)<br />National Medal of Arts (1989)<br />Order of the White Eagle (1994)<br />Nike Award (1998) | signature = Czesław Miłosz signature 1985.svg }} Czesław Miłosz ( , , or in American English, or in British English. poet, prose writer, translator, and diplomat. He primarily wrote his poetry in Polish. Regarded as one of the great poets of the 20th century, he won the 1980 Nobel Prize in Literature. In its citation, the Swedish Academy called Miłosz a writer who "voices man's exposed condition in a world of severe conflicts". Miłosz survived the German occupation of Warsaw during World War II and became a cultural attaché for the Polish government during the postwar period. When communist authorities threatened his safety, he defected to France and ultimately chose exile in the United States, where he became a professor at the University of California, Berkeley. His poetry—particularly about his wartime experience—and his appraisal of Stalinism in a prose book, The Captive Mind, brought him renown as a leading émigré artist and intellectual. Throughout his life and work, Miłosz tackled questions of morality, politics, history, and faith. As a translator, he introduced Western works to a Polish audience, and as a scholar and editor, he championed a greater awareness of Slavic literature in the West. Faith played a role in his work as he explored his Catholicism and personal experience. He wrote in Polish and English. Miłosz died in Kraków, Poland, in 2004. He is interred in Skałka, a church known in Poland as a place of honor for distinguished Poles. Life in Europe Origins and early life Czesław Miłosz was born on 30 June 1911, in the village of Šeteniai (), Kovno Governorate, Russian Empire (now Kėdainiai district, Kaunas County, Lithuania). He was the son of Aleksander Miłosz (1883–1959), a Polish civil engineer, and his wife, Weronika (née Kunat; 1887–1945). Miłosz was born into a prominent family. On his mother's side, his grandfather was Zygmunt Kunat, a descendant of a Polish family that traced its lineage to the 13th century and owned an estate in Krasnogruda (in present-day Poland). Having studied agriculture in Warsaw, Zygmunt settled in Šeteniai after marrying Miłosz's grandmother, Jozefa, a descendant of the noble Syruć family, which was of Lithuanian origin. One of her ancestors, , had been personal secretary to Stanisław I, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania. Miłosz's paternal grandfather, Artur Miłosz, was also from a noble family and fought in the 1863 January Uprising for Polish independence. Miłosz's grandmother, Stanisława, was a doctor's daughter from Riga, Latvia, and a member of the German-Polish von Mohl family. The Miłosz estate was in Serbinai, a name that Miłosz's biographer has suggested could indicate Serbian origin; it is possible the Miłosz family originated in Serbia and settled in present-day Lithuania after being expelled from Germany centuries earlier. Miłosz's father was born and educated in Riga. Miłosz's mother was born in Šeteniai and educated in Kraków. Despite this noble lineage, Miłosz's childhood on his maternal grandfather's estate in Šeteniai lacked the trappings of wealth or the customs of the upper class. He memorialized his childhood in a 1955 novel, , and a 1959 memoir, . In these works, he described the influence of his Catholic grandmother, Jozefa, his burgeoning love for literature, and his early awareness, as a member of the Polish gentry in Lithuania, of the role of class in society. , Wilno, 1930]] Miłosz's early years were marked by upheaval. When his father was hired to work on infrastructure projects in Siberia, he and his mother traveled to be with him. After World War I broke out in 1914, Miłosz's father was conscripted into the Russian army, tasked with engineering roads and bridges for troop movements. Miłosz and his mother were sheltered in Vilnius when the German army captured it in 1915. Afterward, they once again joined Miłosz's father, following him as the front moved further into Russia, where, in 1917, Miłosz's brother, Andrzej, was born. Finally, after moving through Estonia and Latvia, the family returned to Šeteniai in 1918. But the Polish–Soviet War broke out in 1919, during which Miłosz's father was involved in a failed attempt to incorporate the newly independent Lithuania into the Second Polish Republic, resulting in his expulsion from Lithuania and the family's move to what was then known as Wilno, which had come under Polish control after the Polish–Lithuanian War of 1920. The Polish-Soviet War continued, forcing the family to move again. At one point during the conflict, Polish soldiers fired at Miłosz and his mother, an episode he recounted in Native Realm. The family returned to Wilno after the war ended in 1921. Despite the interruptions of wartime wanderings, Miłosz proved to be an exceptional student with a facility for languages. He ultimately learned Polish, Lithuanian, Russian, English, French, and Hebrew. After graduation from Sigismund Augustus Gymnasium in Wilno, he entered Stefan Batory University in 1929 as a law student. While at university, Miłosz joined a student group called and a student poetry group called , along with the young poets Jerzy Zagórski, Teodor Bujnicki, , Jerzy Putrament, and . His first published poems appeared in the university's student magazine in 1930. Returning to Wilno, Miłosz's early awareness of class difference and sympathy for those less fortunate than himself inspired his defense of Jewish students at the university who were being harassed by an anti-Semitic mob. Stepping between the mob and the Jewish students, Miłosz fended off attacks. One student was killed when a rock was thrown at his head. Miłosz's first volume of poetry, , was published in Polish in 1933. In the same year, he publicly read his poetry at an anti-racist "Poetry of Protest" event in Wilno, occasioned by Hitler's rise to power in Germany. In 1934, he graduated with a law degree, and the poetry group Żagary disbanded. Miłosz relocated to Paris on a scholarship to study for one year and write articles for a newspaper back in Wilno. In Paris, he frequently met with his cousin Oscar. By 1936, he had returned to Wilno, where he worked on literary programs at Polish Radio Wilno. His second poetry collection, Three Winters, was published that same year, eliciting from one critic a comparison to Adam Mickiewicz. After only one year at Radio Wilno, Miłosz was dismissed due to an accusation that he was a left-wing sympathizer: as a student, he had adopted socialist views from which, by then, he had publicly distanced himself, and he and his boss, , had produced programming that included performances by Jews and Byelorussians, which angered right-wing nationalists. After Byrski made a trip to the Soviet Union, an anonymous complaint was lodged with the management of Radio Wilno that the station housed a communist cell, and Byrski and Miłosz were dismissed. In summer 1937, Miłosz moved to Warsaw, where he found work at Polish Radio and met his future wife, (née Dłuska; 1909–1986), who was at the time married to another man.World War IIMiłosz was in Warsaw when it was bombarded as part of the German invasion of Poland in September 1939. Along with colleagues from Polish Radio, he escaped the city, making his way to Lwów. But when he learned that Janina had remained in Warsaw with her parents, he looked for a way back. The Soviet invasion of Poland thwarted his plans, and, to avoid the incoming Red Army, he fled to Bucharest. There he obtained a Lithuanian identity document and Soviet visa that allowed him to travel by train to Kyiv and then Wilno. After the Red Army invaded Lithuania, he procured fake documents that he used to enter the part of German-occupied Poland the Germans had dubbed the "General Government". It was a difficult journey, mostly on foot, that ended in summer 1940. Finally back in Warsaw, he reunited with Janina. Like many Poles at the time, to evade notice by German authorities, Miłosz participated in underground activities. For example, with higher education officially forbidden to Poles, he attended underground lectures by Władysław Tatarkiewicz, the Polish philosopher and historian of philosophy and aesthetics. He translated Shakespeare's As You Like It and T. S. Eliot's The Waste Land into Polish. Along with his friend the novelist Jerzy Andrzejewski, he also arranged for the publication of his third volume of poetry, , under a pseudonym in September 1940. The pseudonym was "Jan Syruć" and the title page said the volume had been published by a fictional press in Lwów in 1939; in fact, it may have been the first clandestine book published in occupied Warsaw. In 1942, Miłosz arranged for the publication of an anthology of Polish poets, Invincible Song: Polish Poetry of War Time, by an underground press. World Congress, Warsaw, May 1999]] Miłosz's riskiest underground wartime activity was aiding Jews in Warsaw, which he did through an underground socialist organization called Freedom. His brother, Andrzej, was also active in helping Jews in Nazi-occupied Poland; in 1943, Andrzej transported the Polish Jew Seweryn Tross and his wife from Vilnius to Warsaw. Miłosz took in the Trosses, found them a hiding place, and supported them financially. The Trosses ultimately died during the Warsaw Uprising. Miłosz helped at least three other Jews in similar ways: Felicja Wołkomińska and her brother and sister. Despite his willingness to engage in underground activity and vehement opposition to the Nazis, Miłosz did not join the Polish Home Army. In later years, he explained that this was partly out of an instinct for self-preservation and partly because he saw its leadership as right-wing and dictatorial. He also did not participate in the planning or execution of the Warsaw Uprising. According to Polish literary historian Irena Grudzińska-Gross, he saw the uprising as a "doomed military effort" and lacked the "patriotic elation" for it. He called the uprising "a blameworthy, lightheaded enterprise", but later criticized the Red Army for failing to support it when it had the opportunity to do so. buildings, 1944]] As German troops began torching Warsaw buildings in August 1944, Miłosz was captured and held in a prisoner transit camp; he was later rescued by a Catholic nun—a stranger to him—who pleaded with the Germans on his behalf. Once freed, he and Janina escaped the city, ultimately settling in a village outside Kraków, where they were staying when the Red Army swept through Poland in January 1945, after Warsaw had been largely destroyed. In the preface to his 1953 book The Captive Mind, Miłosz wrote, "I do not regret those years in Warsaw, which was, I believe, the most agonizing spot in the whole of terrorized Europe. Had I then chosen emigration, my life would certainly have followed a very different course. But my knowledge of the crimes which Europe has witnessed in the twentieth century would be less direct, less concrete than it is". Immediately after the war, Miłosz published his fourth poetry collection, Rescue; it focused on his wartime experiences and contains some of his most critically praised work, including the 20-poem cycle "The World," composed like a primer for naïve schoolchildren, and the cycle "Voices of Poor People". The volume also contains some of his most frequently anthologized poems, including "A Song on the End of the World", "", and "A Poor Christian Looks at the Ghetto". Diplomatic career From 1945 to 1951, Miłosz served as a cultural attaché for the newly formed People's Republic of Poland. It was in this capacity that he first met Jane Zielonko, the future translator of The Captive Mind, with whom he had a brief relationship. He moved from New York City to Washington, D.C., and finally to Paris, organizing and promoting Polish cultural occasions such as musical concerts, art exhibitions, and literary and cinematic events. Although he was a representative of Poland, which had become a Soviet satellite country behind the Iron Curtain, he was not a member of any communist party. In The Captive Mind, he explained his reasons for accepting the role:<blockquote>My mother tongue, work in my mother tongue, is for me the most important thing in life. And my country, where what I wrote could be printed and could reach the public, lay within the Eastern Empire. My aim and purpose was to keep alive freedom of thought in my own special field; I sought in full knowledge and conscience to subordinate my conduct to the fulfillment of that aim. I served abroad because I was thus relieved from direct pressure and, in the material which I sent to my publishers, could be bolder than my colleagues at home. I did not want to become an émigré and so give up all chance of taking a hand in what was going on in my own country.</blockquote>Miłosz did not publish a book while he was a representative of the Polish government. Instead, he wrote articles for various Polish periodicals introducing readers to British and American writers like Eliot, William Faulkner, Ernest Hemingway, Norman Mailer, Robert Lowell, and W. H. Auden. He also translated into Polish Shakespeare's Othello and the work of Walt Whitman, Carl Sandburg, Pablo Neruda, and others. In 1947, Miłosz's son, Anthony, was born in Washington, D.C. In 1949, Miłosz visited Poland for the first time since joining its diplomatic corps and was appalled by the conditions he saw, including an atmosphere of pervasive fear of the government. After returning to the U.S., he began to look for a way to leave his post, even soliciting advice from Albert Einstein, whom he met in the course of his duties. As the Polish government, influenced by Joseph Stalin, became more oppressive, his superiors began to view Miłosz as a threat: he was outspoken in his reports to Warsaw and met with people not approved by his superiors. Consequently, his superiors called him "an individual who ideologically is totally alien". Toward the end of 1950, when Janina was pregnant with their second child, Miłosz was recalled to Warsaw, where in December 1950 his passport was confiscated, ostensibly until it could be determined that he did not plan to defect. After intervention by Poland's foreign minister, Zygmunt Modzelewski, Miłosz's passport was returned. Realizing that he was in danger if he remained in Poland, Miłosz left for Paris in January 1951. Asylum in France Upon arriving in Paris, Miłosz went into hiding, aided by the staff of the Polish émigré magazine Kultura. With his wife and son still in the United States, he applied to enter the U.S. and was denied. At the time, the U.S. was in the grip of McCarthyism, and influential Polish émigrés had convinced American officials that Miłosz was a communist. Unable to leave France, Miłosz was not present for the birth of his second son, John Peter, in Washington, D.C., in 1951. With the United States closed to him, Miłosz requested—and was granted—political asylum in France. After three months in hiding, he announced his defection at a press conference and in a Kultura article, "No", that explained his refusal to live in Poland or continue working for the Polish regime. He was the first artist of note from a communist country to make public his reasons for breaking ties with his government. His case attracted attention in Poland, where his work was banned and he was attacked in the press, and in the West, where prominent individuals voiced criticism and support. For example, the future Nobel laureate Pablo Neruda, then a supporter of the Soviet Union, attacked him in a communist newspaper as "The Man Who Ran Away". On the other hand, Albert Camus, another future Nobel laureate, visited Miłosz and offered his support. Another supporter during this period was the Swiss philosopher Jeanne Hersch, with whom Miłosz had a brief romantic affair. Miłosz was finally reunited with his family in 1953, when Janina and the children joined him in France. That same year saw the publication of The Captive Mind, a nonfiction work that uses case studies to dissect the methods and consequences of Soviet communism, which at the time had prominent admirers in the West. The book brought Miłosz his first readership in the United States, where it was credited by some on the political left (such as Susan Sontag) with helping to change perceptions about communism. The German philosopher Karl Jaspers described it as a "significant historical document". It became a staple of political science courses and is considered a classic work in the study of totalitarianism. Miłosz's years in France were productive. In addition to The Captive Mind, he published two poetry collections (Daylight (1954) and A Treatise on Poetry (1957)), two novels ( (1955) and The Issa Valley (1955)), and a memoir (Native Realm (1959)). All were published in Polish by an émigré press in Paris. Andrzej Franaszek has called A Treatise on Poetry Miłosz's magnum opus, while the scholar Helen Vendler compared it to The Waste Land, a work "so powerful that it bursts the bounds in which it was written—the bounds of language, geography, epoch". A long poem divided into four sections, A Treatise on Poetry surveys Polish history, recounts Miłosz's experience of war, and explores the relationship between art and history. In 1956, Miłosz and Janina were married.|namemarriage|grouplower-alpha}} Life in the United States University of California, Berkeley In 1960, Miłosz was offered a position as a visiting lecturer at the University of California, Berkeley. With this offer, and with the climate of McCarthyism abated, he was able to move to the United States. He proved to be an adept and popular teacher, and was offered tenure after only two months. The rarity of this, and the degree to which he had impressed his colleagues, are underscored by the fact that Miłosz lacked a PhD and teaching experience. Yet his deep learning was obvious, and after years of working administrative jobs that he found stifling, he told friends that he was in his element in a classroom. With stable employment as a tenured professor of Slavic languages and literatures, Miłosz was able to secure American citizenship and purchase a home in Berkeley. Miłosz began to publish scholarly articles in English and Polish on a variety of authors, including Fyodor Dostoevsky. But despite his successful transition to the U.S., he described his early years at Berkeley as frustrating, as he was isolated from friends and viewed as a political figure rather than a great poet. (In fact, some of his Berkeley faculty colleagues, unaware of his creative output, expressed astonishment when he won the Nobel Prize.) His poetry was not available in English, and he was not able to publish in Poland. As part of an effort to introduce American readers to his poetry, as well as to his fellow Polish poets' work, Miłosz conceived and edited the anthology , which was published in English in 1965. American poets like W.S. Merwin, and American scholars like Clare Cavanagh, have credited it with a profound impact. It was many English-language readers' first exposure to Miłosz's poetry, as well as that of Polish poets like Wisława Szymborska, Zbigniew Herbert, and Tadeusz Różewicz. (In the same year, Miłosz's poetry also appeared in the first issue of Modern Poetry in Translation, an English-language journal founded by prominent literary figures Ted Hughes and Daniel Weissbort. The issue also featured Miroslav Holub, Yehuda Amichai, Ivan Lalić, Vasko Popa, Zbigniew Herbert, and Andrei Voznesensky.) In 1969, Miłosz's textbook The History of Polish Literature was published in English. He followed this with a volume of his own work, Selected Poems (1973), some of which he translated into English himself. This was his first anthology of poetry published in English language. At the same time, Miłosz continued to publish in Polish with an émigré press in Paris. His poetry collections from this period include King Popiel and Other Poems (1962), Bobo’s Metamorphosis (1965), City Without a Name (1969), and From the Rising of the Sun (1974). During Miłosz's time at Berkeley, the campus became a hotbed of student protest, notably as the home of the Free Speech Movement, which has been credited with helping to "define a generation of student activism" across the United States. Miłosz's relationship to student protesters was sometimes antagonistic: he called them "spoiled children of the bourgeoisie" and their political zeal naïve. At one campus event in 1970, he mocked protesters who claimed to be demonstrating for peace and love: "Talk to me about love when they come into your cell one morning, line you all up, and say 'You and you, step forward—it’s your time to die—unless any of your friends loves you so much he wants to take your place!'" Comments like these were in keeping with his stance toward American counterculture of the 1960s in general. For example, in 1968, when Miłosz was listed as a signatory of an open letter of protest written by poet and counterculture figure Allen Ginsberg and published in The New York Review of Books, Miłosz responded by calling the letter "dangerous nonsense" and insisting that he had not signed it. After 18 years, Miłosz retired from teaching in 1978. To mark the occasion, he was awarded a "Berkeley Citation", the University of California's equivalent of an honorary doctorate. But when his wife, Janina, fell ill and required expensive medical treatment, Miłosz returned to teaching seminars. The year 1978 also marked the publication of his second English-language poetry anthology, Bells in Winter. Nobel laureate On 9 October 1980, the Swedish Academy announced that Miłosz had won the Nobel Prize in Literature. The award catapulted him to global fame. On the day the prize was announced, Miłosz held a brief press conference and then left to teach a class on Dostoevsky. In his Nobel lecture, Miłosz described his view of the role of the poet, lamented the tragedies of the 20th century, and paid tribute to his cousin Oscar. Many Poles became aware of Miłosz for the first time when he won the Nobel Prize. After a 30-year ban in Poland, his writing was finally published there in limited selections. He was also able to visit Poland for the first time since fleeing in 1951 and was greeted by crowds with a hero's welcome. He met with leading Polish figures like Lech Wałęsa and Pope John Paul II. At the same time, his early work, until then only available in Polish, began to be translated into English and many other languages. In 1981, Miłosz was appointed the Norton Professor of Poetry at Harvard University, where he was invited to deliver the Charles Eliot Norton Lectures. He used the opportunity, as he had before becoming a Nobel laureate, to draw attention to writers who had been unjustly imprisoned or persecuted. The lectures were published as (1983). Miłosz continued to publish work in Polish through his longtime publisher in Paris, including the poetry collections Hymn of the Pearl (1981) and Unattainable Earth (1986), and the essay collection Beginning with My Streets (1986). In 1986, Miłosz's wife, Janina, died. In 1988, Miłosz's Collected Poems appeared in English; it was the first of several attempts to collect all his poetry into a single volume. After the fall of communism in Poland, he split his time between Berkeley and Kraków, and he began to publish his writing in Polish with a publisher based in Kraków. When Lithuania broke free from the Soviet Union in 1991, Miłosz visited for the first time since 1939. In 2000, he moved to Kraków. In 1992, Miłosz married Carol Thigpen, an academic at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia. They remained married until her death in 2002. His work from the 1990s includes the poetry collections Facing the River (1994) and (1997), and the collection of short prose Miłosz’s ABC’s (1997). Miłosz's last stand-alone volumes of poetry were (2000), and The Second Space (2002). Uncollected poems written afterward appeared in English in New and Selected Poems (2004) and, posthumously, in Selected and Last Poems (2011).Death Roman Catholic Church, Kraków]] . The Latin inscription reads "May you rest well"; the Polish inscription reads "The cultivation of learning, too, is love."|alt=]] Czesław Miłosz died on 14 August 2004, at his Kraków home, aged 93. He was given a state funeral at the historic Mariacki Church in Kraków. Polish Prime Minister Marek Belka attended, as did the former president of Poland, Lech Wałęsa. Thousands of people lined the streets to witness his coffin moved by military escort to his final resting place at Skałka Roman Catholic Church, where he was one of the last to be commemorated. In front of that church, the poets Seamus Heaney, Adam Zagajewski, and Robert Hass read Miłosz's poem "In Szetejnie" in Polish, French, English, Russian, Lithuanian, and Hebrew—all the languages Miłosz knew. Media from around the world covered the funeral. Protesters threatened to disrupt the proceedings on the grounds that Miłosz was anti-Polish, anti-Catholic, and had signed a petition supporting gay and lesbian freedom of speech and assembly. Pope John Paul II, along with Miłosz's confessor, issued public messages confirming that Miłosz had received the sacraments, which quelled the protest. Family Miłosz's brother, Andrzej Miłosz (1917–2002), was a Polish journalist, translator, and documentary film producer. His work included Polish documentaries about his brother. Miłosz's son, Anthony, is a composer and software designer. He studied linguistics, anthropology, and chemistry at the University of California at Berkeley, and neuroscience at the University of California, San Francisco Medical Center. In addition to releasing recordings of his own compositions, he has translated some of his father's poems into English. Honors , 100th anniversary of Miłosz's birth]] In addition to the Nobel Prize in Literature, Miłosz received the following awards: * Polish PEN Translation Prize (1974) *Neustadt International Prize for Literature (1978) *National Medal of Arts (United States, 1989) *Robert Kirsch Award (1990) *Order of the White Eagle (Poland, 1994) Miłosz was named a distinguished visiting professor or fellow at many institutions, including the University of Michigan and University of Oklahoma, where he was a Puterbaugh Fellow in 1999. He was an elected member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American Academy of Arts and Letters, and the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts. He received honorary doctorates from Harvard University, the University of Michigan, the University of California at Berkeley, Jagiellonian University, and Vytautas Magnus University in Lithuania. Vytautas Magnus University and Jagiellonian University have academic centers named for Miłosz. In 1992, Miłosz was made an honorary citizen of Lithuania, where his birthplace was made into a museum and conference center. In 1993, he was made an honorary citizen of Kraków. The Seizure of Power received the Prix Littéraire Européen (European Literary Prize). The collection Roadside Dog received a Nike Award in Poland. In 1989, Miłosz was named one of the "Righteous Among the Nations" at Israel's Yad Vashem memorial to the Holocaust, in recognition of his efforts to save Jews in Warsaw during World War II. at Yale University, and at the Dublin Writers Festival, among many other locations. The same year, he was featured on a Lithuanian postage stamp. Streets are named for him near Paris, Vilnius, and in the Polish cities of Kraków, Poznań, Gdańsk, Białystok, and Wrocław. In Gdańsk there is a Czesław Miłosz Square. In 2013, a primary school in Vilnius was named for Miłosz, joining schools in Mierzecice, Poland, and Schaumburg, Illinois, that bear his name. Legacy Cultural impact , Poland]] In 1978, the Russian-American poet Joseph Brodsky called Miłosz "one of the great poets of our time; perhaps the greatest". Miłosz has been cited as an influence by numerous writers—contemporaries and succeeding generations. For example, scholars have written about Miłosz's influence on the writing of Seamus Heaney, and Clare Cavanagh has identified the following poets as having benefited from Miłosz's influence: Robert Pinsky, Edward Hirsch, Rosanna Warren, Robert Hass, Charles Simic, Mary Karr, Carolyn Forché, Mark Strand, Ted Hughes, Joseph Brodsky, and Derek Walcott. By being smuggled into Poland, Miłosz's writing was a source of inspiration to the anti-communist Solidarity movement there in the early 1980s. Lines from his poem "" are inscribed on the Monument to the Fallen Shipyard Workers of 1970 in Gdańsk, where Solidarity originated. Of the effect of Miłosz's edited volume Postwar Polish Poetry on English-language poets, Merwin wrote, "Miłosz’s book had been a talisman and had made most of the literary bickering among the various ideological encampments, then most audible in the poetic doctrines in English, seem frivolous and silly". Miłosz's writing continues to be the subject of academic study, conferences, and cultural events. His papers, including manuscripts, correspondence, and other materials, are housed at the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University. From May 2024, Czesław Miłosz's Nobel Prize medal, Nobel Prize notebook of Czesław Miłosz and a fair copy of his poem Rays of Dazzling Light (Polish: Jasności promieniste) are presented at a permanent exhibition in the Palace of the Commonwealth in Warsaw. Controversies Nationality Miłosz's birth in a time and place of shifting borders and overlapping cultures, and his later naturalization as an American citizen, have led to competing claims about his nationality. Although his family identified as Polish and Polish was his primary language, and although he frequently spoke of Poland as his country, he also publicly identified himself as one of the last citizens of the multi-ethnic Grand Duchy of Lithuania. But in his Nobel lecture, he said, "My family in the 16th century already spoke Polish, just as many families in Finland spoke Swedish and in Ireland English, so I am a Polish, not a Lithuanian, poet". Others have viewed Miłosz as an American author, hosting exhibitions and writing about him from that perspective and including his work in anthologies of American poetry. But in The New York Review of Books in 1981, the critic John Bayley wrote, "nationality is not a thing [Miłosz] can take seriously; it would be hard to imagine a greater writer more emancipated from even its most subtle pretensions". Echoing this notion, the scholar and diplomat Piotr Wilczek argued that, even when he was greeted as a national hero in Poland, Miłosz "made a distinct effort to remain a universal thinker". Catholicism Though raised Catholic, Miłosz as a young man came to adopt a "scientific, atheistic position mostly", though he later returned to the Catholic faith. He translated parts of the Bible into Polish, and allusions to Catholicism pervade his poetry, culminating in a long 2001 poem, "A Theological Treatise". For some critics, Miłosz's belief that literature should provide spiritual fortification was outdated: Franaszek suggests that Miłosz's belief was evidence of a "beautiful naïveté", while David Orr, citing Miłosz's dismissal of "poetry which does not save nations or people", accused him of "pompous nonsense". Miłosz expressed some criticism of both Catholicism and Poland (a majority-Catholic country), causing furor in some quarters when it was announced that he would be interred in Kraków's historic Skałka church. Cynthia Haven writes that, to some readers, Miłosz's embrace of Catholicism can seem surprising and complicates the understanding of him and his work. Work Form While Miłosz is best known for his poetry, his body of work spans multiple other literary genres: fiction (particularly the novel), memoir, criticism, personal essay, and lectures. His letters are also of interest to scholars and lay readers; for example, his correspondence with writers such as Jerzy Andrzejewski, Witold Gombrowicz, and Thomas Merton have been published. At the outset of his career, Miłosz was known as a "catastrophist" poet—a label critics applied to him and other poets from the Żagary poetry group to describe their use of surreal imagery and formal inventiveness in reaction to a Europe beset by extremist ideologies and war. While Miłosz evolved away from the apocalyptic view of catastrophist poetry, he continued to pursue formal inventiveness throughout his career. As a result, his poetry demonstrates a wide-ranging mastery of form, from long or epic poems (e.g., A Treatise on Poetry) to poems of just two lines (e.g., "On the Death of a Poet" from the collection This), and from prose poems and free verse to classic forms such as the ode or elegy. Some of his poems use rhyme, but many do not. In numerous cases, Miłosz used form to illuminate meaning in his poetry; for example, by juxtaposing variable stanzas to accentuate ideas or voices that challenge each other. Themes Miłosz's work is known for its complexity; according to the scholars Leonard Nathan and Arthur H. Quinn, Miłosz "prided himself on being an esoteric writer accessible to a mere handful of readers". Nevertheless, some common themes are readily apparent throughout his body of work. The poet, critic, and frequent Miłosz translator Robert Hass has described Miłosz as "a poet of great inclusiveness", with a fidelity to capturing life in all of its sensuousness and multiplicities. According to Hass, Miłosz's poems can be viewed as "dwelling in contradiction", where one idea or voice is presented only to be immediately challenged or changed. According to English poet Donald Davie, this allowance for contradictory voices—a shift from the solo lyric voice to a chorus—is among the most important aspects of Miłosz's work. The poetic chorus is deployed not just to highlight the complexity of the modern world but also to search for morality, another of Miłosz's recurrent themes. Nathan and Quinn write, "Miłosz’s work is devoted to unmasking man’s fundamental duality; he wants to make his readers admit the contradictory nature of their own experience" because doing so "forces us to assert our preferences as preferences". That is, it forces readers to make conscious choices, which is the arena of morality. At times, Miłosz's exploration of morality was explicit and concrete, such as when, in The Captive Mind, he ponders the right way to respond to three Lithuanian women who were forcibly moved to a Russian communal farm and wrote to him for help, or when, in the poems "Campo Dei Fiori" and "A Poor Christian Looks at the Ghetto", he addresses survivor's guilt and the morality of writing about another's suffering. Miłosz's exploration of morality takes place in the context of history, and confrontation with history is another of his major themes. Vendler wrote, "for Miłosz, the person is irrevocably a person in history, and the interchange between external event and the individual life is the matrix of poetry". Having experienced both Nazism and Stalinism, Miłosz was particularly concerned with the notion of "historical necessity", which, in the 20th century, was used to justify human suffering on a previously unheard-of scale. Yet Miłosz did not reject the concept entirely. Nathan and Quinn summarize Miłosz's appraisal of historical necessity as it appears in his essay collection : "Some species rise, others fall, as do human families, nations, and whole civilizations. There may well be an internal logic to these transformations, a logic that when viewed from sufficient distance has its own elegance, harmony, and grace. Our reason tempts us to be enthralled by this superhuman splendor; but when so enthralled we find it difficult to remember, except perhaps as an element in an abstract calculus, the millions of individuals, the millions upon millions, who unwillingly paid for this splendor with pain and blood". Miłosz's willingness to accept a form of logic in history points to another recurrent aspect of his writing: his capacity for wonder, amazement, and, ultimately, faith—not always religious faith, but "faith in the objective reality of a world to be known by the human mind but not constituted by that mind". At other times, Miłosz was more explicitly religious in his work. According to scholar and translator Michael Parker, "crucial to any understanding of Miłosz’s work is his complex relationship to Catholicism". His writing is filled with allusions to Christian figures, symbols, and theological ideas, though Miłosz was closer to Gnosticism, or what he called Manichaeism, in his personal beliefs, viewing the universe as ruled by an evil whose influence human beings must try to escape. From this perspective, "he can at once admit that the world is ruled by necessity, by evil, and yet still find hope and sustenance in the beauty of the world. History reveals the pointlessness of human striving, the instability of human things; but time also is the moving image of eternity". According to Hass, this viewpoint left Miłosz "with the task of those heretical Christians…to suffer time, to contemplate being, and to live in the hope of the redemption of the world". Influences Miłosz had numerous literary and intellectual influences, although scholars of his work—and Miłosz himself, in his writings—have identified the following as significant: Oscar Miłosz (who inspired Miłosz's interest in the metaphysical) and, through him, Emanuel Swedenborg; Lev Shestov; Simone Weil (whose work Miłosz translated into Polish); Dostoevsky; William Blake (whose concept of "Ulro" Miłosz borrowed for his book ), and Eliot.Selected bibliographyPoetry collections * 1933: Poemat o czasie zastygłym (A Poem on Frozen Time); Wilno: Kolo Polonistów Sluchaczy Uniwersytetu Stefana Batorego * 1936: Trzy zimy (Three Winters); Warsaw: Władysława Mortkowicz * 1940: Wiersze (Poems); Warsaw (clandestine publication) * 1945: Ocalenie (Rescue); Warsaw: Spółdzielnia Wydawnicza Czytelnik * 1954: Światło dzienne (Daylight); Paris: Instytut Literacki * 1957: Traktat poetycki (A Treatise on Poetry); Paris: Instytut Literacki * 1962: Król Popiel i inne wiersze (King Popiel and Other Poems); Paris: Instytut Literacki * 1965: Gucio zaczarowany (Gucio Enchanted); Paris: Instytut Literacki * 1969: Miasto bez imienia (City Without a Name); Paris: Instytut Literacki * 1974: Gdzie słońce wschodzi i kedy zapada (Where the Sun Rises and Where it Sets); Paris: Instytut Literacki * 1982: Hymn o Perle (Hymn of the Pearl); Paris: Instytut Literacki * 1984: Nieobjęta ziemia (Unattainable Earth); Paris: Instytut Literacki * 1989: Kroniki (Chronicles); Paris: Instytut Literacki * 1991: Dalsze okolice (Farther Surroundings); Kraków: Społeczny Instytut Wydawniczy Znak * 1994: Na brzegu rzeki (Facing the River); Kraków: Społeczny Instytut Wydawniczy Znak * 1997: Piesek przydrożny (Roadside Dog); Kraków: Społeczny Instytut Wydawniczy Znak * 2000: To (This), Kraków: Społeczny Instytut Wydawniczy Znak * 2002: Druga przestrzen (The Second Space); Kraków: Społeczny Instytut Wydawniczy Znak * 2003: Orfeusz i Eurydyka (Orpheus and Eurydice); Kraków: Wydawnictwo Literackie * 2006: Wiersze ostatnie (Last Poems) Kraków: Społeczny Instytut Wydawniczy Znak * 2025: Poet in the New World--Poems, 1946-1953; HarperCollins Prose collections * 1953: Zniewolony umysł (The Captive Mind); Paris: Instytut Literacki * 1959: Rodzinna Europa (Native Realm); Paris: Instytut Literacki * 1969: The History of Polish Literature; London-New York: MacMillan * 1969: Widzenia nad Zatoką San Francisco (A View of San Francisco Bay); Paris: Instytut Literacki * 1974: Prywatne obowiązki (Private Obligations); Paris: Instytut Literacki * 1976: Emperor of the Earth; Berkeley: University of California Press * 1977: Ziemia Ulro (The Land of Ulro); Paris: Instytut Literacki * 1979: Ogród Nauk (The Garden of Science); Paris: Instytut Literacki * 1981: Nobel Lecture; New York: Farrar, Straus, Giroux * 1983: The Witness of Poetry; Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press * 1985: Zaczynając od moich ulic (Starting from My Streets); Paris: Instytut Literacki * 1986: A mi Európánkról (About our Europe); New York: Hill and Wang * 1989: Rok myśliwego (A year of the hunter); Paris: Instytut Literacki * 1992: Szukanie ojczyzny (In Search of a Homeland); Kraków: Społeczny Instytut Wydawniczy Znak * 1995: Metafizyczna pauza (The Metaphysical Pause); Kraków: Społeczny Instytut Wydawniczy Znak * 1996: Legendy nowoczesności (Modern Legends, War Essays); Kraków: Wydawnictwo Literackie * 1997: Zycie na wyspach (Life on Islands); Kraków: Społeczny Instytut Wydawniczy Znak * 1997: Abecadło Milosza (''Milosz's ABC's); Kraków: Wydawnictwo Literackie * 1998: Inne Abecadło (A Further Alphabet); Kraków: Wydawnictwo Literackie * 1999: Wyprawa w dwudziestolecie (An Excursion through the Twenties and Thirties); Kraków: Wydawnictwo Literackie * 2001: To Begin Where I Am: Selected Essays; New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux * 2004: Spiżarnia literacka (A Literary Larder); Kraków: Wydawnictwo Literackie * 2004: Przygody młodego umysłu; Kraków: Społeczny Instytut Wydawniczy Znak * 2004: O podróżach w czasie; (On time travel) Kraków: Społeczny Instytut Wydawniczy Znak Novels * 1955: Zdobycie władzy (The Seizure of Power); Paris: Instytut Literacki * 1955: Dolina Issy (The Issa Valley); Paris: Instytut Literacki * 1987: The Mountains of Parnassus; Yale University Press Translations by Miłosz * 1968: Selected Poems by Zbigniew Herbert translated by Czesław Miłosz and Peter Dale Scott, Penguin Books * 1996: Talking to My Body by Anna Swir translated by Czesław Miłosz and Leonard Nathan, Copper Canyon Press See also *List of Poles *Polish literature *List of Polish Nobel laureates Notes References Further reading * Baranczak, Stanislaw, Breathing Under Water and Other East European Essays, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990. *Cavanagh, Clare, Lyric Poetry and Modern Politics: Russia, Poland, and the West, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009. *Davie, Donald, Czesław Miłosz and the Insufficiency of Lyric, Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1986. * Faggen, Robert, editor, Striving Towards Being: The Letters of Thomas Merton and Czesław Miłosz, New York: Farrar Straus & Giroux, 1996. *Fiut, Aleksander, The Eternal Moment: The Poetry of Czesław Miłosz, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990. *Franaszek, Andrzej, Miłosz: A Biography, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2017. *Golubiewski, Mikołaj, The Persona of Czesław Miłosz: Authorial Poetics, Critical Debates, Reception Games, Bern: Peter Lang, 2018. *Grudzinska Gross, Irena, Czesław Miłosz and Joseph Brodsky: Fellowship of Poets, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009. * Haven, Cynthia L., editor, Czesław Miłosz: Conversations, Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2006. * Haven, Cynthia L., editor, An Invisible Rope: Portraits of Czesław Miłosz, Athens: Ohio University Press, 2011. *Kay, Magdalena, "Czesław Miłosz in the World: The Will to Transcendence", in A Companion to World Literature, John Wiley & Sons, 2020. *Kraszewski, Charles, Irresolute Heresiarch: Catholicism, Gnosticism, and Paganism in the Poetry of Czesław Miłosz, Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2012. *Możejko, Edward, editor, Between Anxiety and Hope: The Poetry and Writing of Czesław Miłosz, Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 1988. * Nathan, Leonard, and Arthur Quinn, The Poet's Work: An Introduction to Czesław Miłosz, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991. *Rzepa, Joanna, Modernism and Theology: Rainer Maria Rilke, T.S. Eliot, Czesław Miłosz, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2021. *Tischner, Łukasz, Miłosz and the Problem of Evil, Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 2015. *Zagajewski, Adam, editor, Polish Writers on Writing, San Antonio: Trinity University Press, 2007. External links Profiles *[https://culture.pl/en/artist/czeslaw-milosz Profile of the poet at Culture.pl] *[https://poezja.org/wz/Czeslaw_Milosz/ Czesław Miłosz] biography and poetry on poezja.org * * *[http://www.poets.org/poet.php/prmPID/206 Profile at the American Academy of Poets]. Retrieved 2010-08-04 *[http://www.poetryfoundation.org/bio/czeslaw-milosz Profile and works] at the Poetry Foundation Articles * *[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/5195 Interview with Nathan Gardels for the New York Review of Books, February 1986]. Retrieved 2010-08-04 *[https://web.archive.org/web/20110514231442/http://www.lpl.arizona.edu/~rhill/Cynthia/articles/SacredVision.html Georgia Review 2001]. Retrieved 2010-08-04 *[http://economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=3104407 Obituary The Economist]. Retrieved 2010-08-04 *[https://www.nytimes.com/2004/09/12/books/review/12WIESELTIER.html Obituary New York Times]. Retrieved 2010-08-04 *[https://web.archive.org/web/20110916020740/http://www.bookinstitute.pl/en,ik,site,40,78,115.php Biography and selected works listing. The Book Institute]. Retrieved 2010-08-04 *Czeslaw Milosz Papers. General Collection, [http://www.library.yale.edu/beinecke/index.html Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library], Yale University. Biographies, memoirs, photographs *[https://web.archive.org/web/20060409161320/http://serwisy.gazeta.pl/kultura/1,53421,1956033.html Czesław Miłosz 1911–2004 – The life („Gazeta.pl”)] *[https://poezja.org/wz/Mi%C5%82osz_Czes%C5%82aw/ Czesław Miłosz] - biography and poems at poezja.org * Haven, Cynthia L.,[https://www.heydaybooks.com/catalog/czeslaw-milosz-a-california-life Czesław Miłosz: A California Life]: Berkeley, CA: Heyday Books, 2021. *[http://www.tygodnik.com.pl/apokryf/16/mojmilosz.html My Milosz – the memories of Nobel Prize winners, including Seamus Heaney and Maria Janion] *[http://www.sejm-wielki.pl/b/sw.10762 Genealogia Czesława Miłosza w: M.J. Minakowski, Genealogy descendants of the Great Diet] * Barbara Gruszka-Zych, Mój Poeta – osobiste wspomnienia o Czesławie Miłoszu, VIDEOGRAF II, *[https://web.archive.org/web/20160428133614/http://www.postscriptum.us.edu.pl/archiwum.php?p6 Milosz – the centenary since the birth] Bibliography *[http://www.biblioteka.zabrze.pl/wp-content/uploads/pliki/prezentacje/czeslaw_milosz.pdf Presentation of the subject-object] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20160416040309/http://www.bp.ostroleka.pl/testowy/index.php?optioncom_content&taskview&id=523 Bibliography in question 1981–2010 (journal articles in chronological order, the title)] *[http://www.instytutksiazki.pl/autorzy-detal,literatura-polska,15,milosz-czeslaw.html Translations into other languages] *[http://www.pedagogiczna.edu.pl/zest111.htm Bibliography in question in the choice in alphabetical order] *[http://teatrnn.pl/leksykon/node/3220/czes%C5%82aw_mi%C5%82osz_bibliografia?quicktabs_2=1 Bibliography subject-object] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20160423234459/http://www.pbw.bydgoszcz.pl/milosz.html Bibliografiasubject-object in choosing] *[http://www.m-ws.pl/bibula_/bzmilzo.html Polskie wydawnictwa niezależne 1976–1989. Printed compact Milosz] Archives * Czesław Miłosz Papers. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University. }} Category:1911 births Category:2004 deaths Category:People from Kėdainiai District Municipality Category:People from Kovensky Uyezd Category:20th-century Polish nobility Category:American Nobel laureates Category:American Catholic poets Category:American translators Category:Vilnius University alumni Category:Polish dissidents Category:Polish Roman Catholic writers Category:Polish political writers Category:Polish male poets Category:Polish emigrants to the United States Category:Polish Nobel laureates Category:Polish Righteous Among the Nations Category:Polish–English translators Category:Exophonic writers Category:Polish defectors Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States Category:Catholic Righteous Among the Nations Category:Diplomats of the Polish People's Republic Category:Nike Award winners Category:Nobel laureates in Literature Category:Translators from Polish Category:United States National Medal of Arts recipients Category:University of California, Berkeley College of Letters and Science faculty Category:Members of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts Category:20th-century translators Category:20th-century American poets Category:20th-century Polish poets Category:World War II poets Category:Polish prisoners of war Category:World War II prisoners of war held by Germany Category:Cultural attachés Category:Writers from Vilnius Category:People associated with Kultura (magazine) Category:Foreign members of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czesław_Miłosz
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Carnivore
Carnivorous (album)}} are obligate carnivores consuming only animal flesh for their nutritional requirements.]] A carnivore , or meat-eater (Latin, caro, genitive carnis, meaning meat or "flesh" and vorare meaning "to devour"), is an animal or plant whose nutrition and energy requirements are met by consumption of animal tissues (mainly muscle, fat and other soft tissues) as food, whether through predation or scavenging. , a carnivorous plant.]] Outside the animal kingdom, there are several genera containing carnivorous plants (predominantly insectivores) and several phyla containing carnivorous fungi (preying mostly on microscopic invertebrates, such as nematodes, amoebae, and springtails). Subcategories of carnivory Carnivores are sometimes characterized by their type of prey. For example, animals that eat mainly insects and similar terrestrial arthropods are called insectivores, while those that eat mainly soft-bodied invertebrates are called vermivores. Those that eat mainly fish are called piscivores. Carnivores may alternatively be classified according to the percentage of meat in their diet. The diet of a hypercarnivore consists of more than 70% meat, that of a mesocarnivore 30–70%, and that of a hypocarnivore less than 30%, with the balance consisting of non-animal foods, such as fruits, other plant material, or fungi. Omnivores also consume both animal and non-animal food, and apart from their more general definition, there is no clearly defined ratio of plant vs. animal material that distinguishes a facultative carnivore from an omnivore. Paleozoic The degradation of seafloor microbial mats due to the Cambrian substrate revolution led to increased active predation among animals, likely triggering various evolutionary arms races that contributed to the rapid diversification during the Cambrian explosion. Radiodont arthropods, which produced the first apex predators such as Anomalocaris, quickly became the dominant carnivores of the Cambrian sea. After their decline due to the Cambrian-Ordovician extinction event, the niches of large carnivores were taken over by nautiloid cephalopods such as Cameroceras and later eurypterids such as Jaekelopterus during the Ordovician and Silurian periods. The first vertebrate carnivores appeared after the evolution of jawed fish, especially armored placoderms such as the massive Dunkleosteus. The dominance of placoderms in the Devonian ocean forced other fish to venture into other niches, and one clade of bony fish, the lobe-finned fish, became the dominant carnivores of freshwater wetlands formed by early land plants. Some of these fish became better adapted for breathing air and eventually giving rise to amphibian tetrapods. These early tetrapods were large semi-aquatic piscivores and riparian ambush predators that hunt terrestrial arthropods (mainly arachnids and myriopods), and one group in particular, the temnospondyls, became terrestrial apex predators that hunt other tetrapods. }} <!-- end "refs" -->Further reading* Category:Biological interactions Category:Animals by eating behaviors Category:Ethology *
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnivore
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Celts
upright=1.5|thumb|right|Distribution of Celtic peoples over time, in the traditional view: | | | | }}]] '', an ancient Roman statue at the Capitoline Museums of Rome, Italy]] The Celts ( , see pronunciation for different usages) or Celtic peoples ( ) were<!--this article is about the historic Celts--> a collection of Indo-European peoples in Europe and Anatolia, identified by their use of Celtic languages and other cultural similarities. Major Celtic groups included the Gauls; the Celtiberians and Gallaeci of Iberia; the Britons, Picts, and Gaels of Britain and Ireland; the Boii; and the Galatians. The interrelationships of ethnicity, language and culture in the Celtic world are unclear and debated; for example over the ways in which the Iron Age people of Britain and Ireland should be called Celts. In current scholarship, 'Celt' primarily refers to 'speakers of Celtic languages' rather than to a single ethnic group. which flourished from around 1200 BC. This theory links the Celts with the Iron Age Hallstatt culture which followed it (–500 BC), named for the rich grave finds in Hallstatt, Austria, and with the following La Tène culture ( onward), named after the La Tène site in Switzerland. It proposes that Celtic culture spread westward and southward from these areas by diffusion or migration. A newer theory, "Celtic from the West", suggests proto-Celtic arose earlier, was a lingua franca in the Atlantic Bronze Age coastal zone, and spread eastward. Another newer theory, "Celtic from the Centre", suggests proto-Celtic arose between these two zones, in Bronze Age Gaul, then spread in various directions. After the Celtic settlement of Southeast Europe in the 3rd century BC, Celtic culture reached as far east as central Anatolia, Turkey. , Stuttgart, Germany, c. 530 BC]] The earliest undisputed examples of Celtic language are the Lepontic inscriptions from the 6th century BC. Continental Celtic languages are attested almost exclusively through inscriptions and place-names. Insular Celtic languages are attested from the 4th century AD in Ogham inscriptions, though they were being spoken much earlier. Celtic literary tradition begins with Old Irish texts around the 8th century AD. Elements of Celtic mythology are recorded in early Irish and early Welsh literature. Most written evidence of the early Celts comes from Greco-Roman writers, who often grouped the Celts as barbarian tribes. They followed an ancient Celtic religion overseen by druids. The Celts were often in conflict with the Romans, such as in the Roman–Gallic wars, the Celtiberian Wars, the conquest of Gaul and conquest of Britain. By the 1st century AD, most Celtic territories had become part of the Roman Empire. By c. 500, due to Romanisation and the migration of Germanic tribes, Celtic culture had mostly become restricted to Ireland, western and northern Britain, and Brittany. Between the 5th and 8th centuries, the Celtic-speaking communities in these Atlantic regions emerged as a reasonably cohesive cultural entity. They had a common linguistic, religious and artistic heritage that distinguished them from surrounding cultures. Insular Celtic culture diversified into that of the Gaels (Irish, Scots and Manx) and the Celtic Britons (Welsh, Cornish, and Bretons) of the medieval and modern periods. A modern Celtic identity was constructed as part of the Romanticist Celtic Revival in Britain, Ireland, and other European territories such as Galicia. Today, Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Welsh, and Breton are still spoken in parts of their former territories, while Cornish and Manx are undergoing a revival.Names and terminology from Galicia, 2nd century, referring to "<small>CELTICA SUPERTAM(arica)</small>"]] Ancient The first recorded use of the name 'Celts' – as () in Ancient Greek – was by Greek geographer Hecataeus of Miletus in 517 BC, when writing about a people living near Massilia (modern Marseille), southern Gaul. In the fifth century BC, Herodotus referred to living around the source of the Danube and in the far west of Europe. The etymology of is unclear. Possible roots include Indo-European *kʲel 'to hide' (seen also in Old Irish , and Modern Welsh ), *kʲel 'to heat' or *kel 'to impel'. It may come from the Celtic language. Linguist Kim McCone supports this view and notes that Celt- is found in the names of several ancient Gauls such as Celtillus, father of Vercingetorix. He suggests it meant the people or descendants of "the hidden one", noting the Gauls claimed descent from an underworld god (according to Commentarii de Bello Gallico), and linking it with the Germanic Hel. Others view it as a name coined by Greeks; among them linguist Patrizia de Bernardo Stempel, who suggests it meant "the tall ones". In the first century BC, Roman leader Julius Caesar reported that the Gauls called themselves 'Celts', , in their own tongue. Thus whether it was given to them by others or not, it was used by the Celts themselves. Greek geographer Strabo, writing about Gaul towards the end of the first century BC, refers to the "race which is now called both Gallic and Galatic", though he also uses Celtica as another name for Gaul. He reports Celtic peoples in Iberia too, calling them Celtiberi and Celtici. Pliny the Elder noted the use of Celtici in Lusitania as a tribal surname, which epigraphic findings have confirmed. A Latin name for the Gauls, (), may come from a Celtic ethnic name, perhaps borrowed into Latin during the Celtic expansion into Italy from the early fifth century BC. Its root may be Proto-Celtic *galno, meaning "power, strength" (whence Old Irish gal "boldness, ferocity", Welsh gallu "to be able, power"). The Greek name Γαλάται (, Latinized Galatae) most likely has the same origin, referring to the Gauls who invaded southeast Europe and settled in Galatia. The suffix -atai might be a Greek inflection. Linguist Kim McCone suggests it comes from Proto-Celtic *galatis ("ferocious, furious"), and was not originally an ethnic name but a name for young warrior bands. He says "If the Gauls' initial impact on the Mediterranean world was primarily a military one typically involving fierce young *galatīs, it would have been natural for the Greeks to apply this name for the type of Keltoi that they usually encountered". 'Celt' is a modern English word, first attested in 1707 in the writing of Edward Lhuyd, whose work, along with that of other late 17th-century scholars, brought academic attention to the languages and history of the early Celtic inhabitants of Great Britain. The English words Gaul, Gauls () and Gaulish (first recorded in the 16–17th centuries) come from French and , a borrowing from Frankish *, 'Roman-land' , the root of which is Proto-Germanic , 'foreigner, Roman, Celt', whence the English word Welsh (Old English ). Proto-Germanic comes from the name of the Volcae, a Celtic tribe who lived first in southern Germany and central Europe, then migrated to Gaul. This means that English Gaul, despite its superficial similarity, is not actually derived from Latin (which should have produced * in French), though it does refer to the same ancient region. Celtic refers to a language family and, more generally, means 'of the Celts' or 'in the style of the Celts'. Several archaeological cultures are considered Celtic, based on unique sets of artefacts. The link between language and artefact is aided by the presence of inscriptions. The modern idea of a Celtic cultural identity or "Celticity" focuses on similarities among languages, works of art, and classical texts, and sometimes also among material artefacts, social organisation, homeland and mythology. Earlier theories held that these similarities suggest a common "racial" (race is now a contested concept) origin for the various Celtic peoples, but more recent theories hold that they reflect a common cultural and linguistic heritage more than a genetic one. Celtic cultures seem to have been diverse, with the use of a Celtic language being the main thing they had in common. Continental Celts are the Celtic-speaking people of mainland Europe and Insular Celts are the Celtic-speaking people of the British and Irish islands, and their descendants. The Celts of Brittany derive their language from migrating Insular Celts from Britain and so are grouped accordingly. Origins The Celtic languages are a branch of the Indo-European languages. By the time Celts are first mentioned in written records around 400 BC, they were already split into several language groups, and spread over much of western mainland Europe, the Iberian Peninsula, Ireland and Britain. The languages developed into Celtiberian, Goidelic and Brittonic branches, among others. Urnfield-Hallstatt theory and La Tène cultures.<small> The territories of some major Celtic tribes of the late La Tène period are labelled.</small>]] The mainstream view during most of the twentieth century is that the Celts and the proto-Celtic language arose out of the Urnfield culture of central Europe around 1000 BC, spreading westward and southward over the following few hundred years. The Urnfield culture was preeminent in central Europe during the late Bronze Age, circa 1200 BC to 700 BC. The spread of iron-working led to the Hallstatt culture (c. 800 to 500 BC) developing out of the Urnfield culture in a wide region north of the Alps. The Hallstatt culture developed into the La Tène culture from about 450 BC, which came to be identified with Celtic art. In 1846, Johann Georg Ramsauer unearthed an ancient grave field with distinctive grave goods at Hallstatt, Austria. Because the burials "dated to roughly the time when Celts are mentioned near the Danube by Herodotus, Ramsauer concluded that the graves were Celtic". Similar sites and artifacts were found over a wide area, which were named the 'Hallstatt culture'. In 1857, the archaeological site of La Tène was discovered in Switzerland. The theory was also partly based on the abundance of inscriptions bearing Celtic personal names in the Eastern Hallstatt region (Noricum). However, Patrick Sims-Williams notes that these date to the later Roman era, and says they suggest "relatively late settlement by a Celtic-speaking elite". Martín Almagro Gorbea (2001) also proposed that Celtic arose in the 3rd millennium BC, suggesting that the spread of the Bell Beaker culture explained the wide dispersion of the Celts throughout western Europe, as well as the variability of the Celtic peoples. John T. Koch and Barry Cunliffe have developed this 'Celtic from the West' theory. It proposes that the proto-Celtic language arose along the Atlantic coast and was the lingua franca of the Atlantic Bronze Age cultural network, later spreading inland and eastward. 'Celtic from the Centre' theory Celticist Patrick Sims-Williams (2020) notes that in current scholarship, 'Celt' is primarily a linguistic label. In his 'Celtic from the Centre' theory, he argues that the proto-Celtic language did not originate in central Europe nor the Atlantic, but in-between these two regions. He suggests that it "emerged as a distinct Indo-European dialect around the second millennium BC, probably somewhere in Gaul [centered in modern France] ... whence it spread in various directions and at various speeds in the first millennium BC". Sims-Williams says this avoids the problematic idea "that Celtic was spoken over a vast area for a very long time yet somehow avoided major dialectal splits", and "it keeps Celtic fairly close to Italy, which suits the view that Italic and Celtic were in some way linked". Genetic evidence Arnaiz-Villena et al. (2017) demonstrated that Celtic-related populations of the European Atlantic (Orkney Islands, Scottish, Irish, British, Bretons, Basques, Galicians) shared a common HLA system. Other genetic research does not support the notion of a significant genetic link between these populations, beyond the fact that they are all West Europeans. Early European Farmers did settle Britain (and all of Northern Europe) in the Neolithic; however, recent genetics research has found that, between 2400 and 2000 BC, over 90% of British DNA was overturned by European Steppe Herders in a migration that brought large amounts of Steppe DNA (including the R1b haplogroup) to western Europe. Modern autosomal genetic clustering is testament to this fact, as both modern and Iron Age British and Irish samples cluster genetically very closely with other North Europeans, and less so with Galicians, Basques or those from the south of France. Archaeological evidence The concept that the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures could be seen not just as chronological periods but as "Culture Groups", entities composed of people of the same ethnicity and language, had started to grow by the end of the 19th century. At the beginning of the 20th century the belief that these "Culture Groups" could be thought of in racial or ethnic terms was held by Gordon Childe, whose theory was influenced by the writings of Gustaf Kossinna. As the 20th century progressed, the ethnic interpretation of La Tène culture became more strongly rooted, and any findings of La Tène culture and flat inhumation cemeteries were linked to the Celts and the Celtic language. <!-- The Iron Age Hallstatt (c. 800–475 BC) and La Tène (c. 500–50 BC) cultures are typically associated with Proto-Celtic and Celtic culture. --> In various academic disciplines, the Celts were considered a Central European Iron Age phenomenon, through the cultures of Hallstatt and La Tène. However, archaeological finds from the Halstatt and La Tène culture were rare in Iberia, southwestern France, northern and western Britain, southern Ireland and Galatia and did not provide enough evidence for a culture like that of Central Europe. It is equally difficult to maintain that the origin of the Iberian Celts can be linked to the preceding Urnfield culture. This has resulted in a newer theory that introduces a 'proto-Celtic' substratum and a process of Celticisation, having its initial roots in the Bronze Age Bell Beaker culture. The La Tène culture developed and flourished during the late Iron Age (from 450 BC to the Roman conquest in the 1st century BC) in eastern France, Switzerland, Austria, southwest Germany, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary. It developed out of the Hallstatt culture without any definite cultural break, under the impetus of considerable Mediterranean influence from Greek, and later Etruscan civilisations. A shift of settlement centres took place in the 4th century. The western La Tène culture corresponds to historical Celtic Gaul. Whether this means that the whole of La Tène culture can be attributed to a unified Celtic people is difficult to assess; archaeologists have repeatedly concluded that language and material culture do not necessarily run parallel. Frey notes that in the 5th century, "burial customs in the Celtic world were not uniform; rather, localised groups had their own beliefs, which, in consequence, also gave rise to distinct artistic expressions". Thus, while the La Tène culture is certainly associated with the Gauls, the presence of La Tène artefacts may be due to cultural contact and does not imply the permanent presence of Celtic speakers.Historical evidence ]] The Greek historian Ephorus of Cyme in Asia Minor, writing in the 4th century BC, believed the Celts came from the islands off the mouth of the Rhine and were "driven from their homes by the frequency of wars and the violent rising of the sea". Polybius published a history of Rome about 150 BC in which he describes the Gauls of Italy and their conflict with Rome. Pausanias in the 2nd century AD says that the Gauls "originally called Celts", "live on the remotest region of Europe on the coast of an enormous tidal sea". Posidonius described the southern Gauls about 100 BC. Though his original work is lost, later writers such as Strabo used it. The latter, writing in the early 1st century AD, deals with Britain and Gaul as well as Hispania, Italy, and Galatia. Caesar wrote extensively about his Gallic Wars in 58–51 BC. Diodorus Siculus wrote about the Celts of Gaul and Britain in his 1st-century history. Diodorus Siculus and Strabo both suggest that the heartland of the people they call Celts was in southern Gaul. The former says that the Gauls were to the north of the Celts, but that the Romans referred to both as Gauls (linguistically the Gauls were certainly Celts). Before the discoveries at Hallstatt and La Tène, it was generally considered that the Celtic heartland was southern Gaul, see Encyclopædia Britannica for 1813.DistributionContinentalGaul The Romans knew the Celts then living in present-day France as Gauls. The territory of these peoples probably included the Low Countries, the Alps and present-day northern Italy. Julius Caesar in his Gallic Wars described the 1st-century BC descendants of those Gauls. Eastern Gaul became the centre of the western La Tène culture. In later Iron Age Gaul, the social organisation resembled that of the Romans, with large towns. From the 3rd century BC the Gauls adopted coinage. Texts with Greek characters from southern Gaul have survived from the 2nd century BC. Greek traders founded Massalia about 600 BC, with some objects (mostly drinking ceramic vessels) being traded up the Rhône valley. But trade became disrupted soon after 500 BC and re-oriented over the Alps to the Po valley in the Italian peninsula. The Romans arrived in the Rhone valley in the 2nd century BC and encountered a mostly Celtic-speaking Gaul. Rome wanted land communications with its Iberian provinces and fought a major battle with the Saluvii at Entremont in 124–123 BC. Gradually Roman control extended, and the Roman province of Gallia Transalpina developed along the Mediterranean coast. The Romans knew the remainder of Gaul as , 'Long-haired Gaul'. In 58 BC, the Helvetii planned to migrate westward but Julius Caesar forced them back. He then became involved in fighting the various tribes in Gaul, and by 55 BC had overrun most of Gaul. In 52 BC, Vercingetorix led a revolt against Roman occupation but was defeated at the Battle of Alesia and surrendered. Following the Gallic Wars of 58–51 BC, Caesar's Celtica formed the main part of Roman Gaul, becoming the province of Gallia Lugdunensis. This territory of the Celtic tribes was bounded on the south by the Garonne and on the north by the Seine and the Marne. The Romans attached large swathes of this region to neighbouring provinces Belgica and Aquitania, particularly under Augustus. Place- and personal-name analysis and inscriptions suggest that Gaulish was spoken over most of what is now France. Iberia , showing Celtic languages in beige, c. 300 BC]] Until the end of the 19th century, traditional scholarship dealing with the Celts did acknowledge their presence in the Iberian Peninsula as a material culture relatable to the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures. However, since according to the definition of the Iron Age in the 19th century Celtic populations were supposedly rare in Iberia and did not provide a cultural scenario that could easily be linked to that of Central Europe, the presence of Celtic culture in that region was generally not fully recognised. Modern scholarship, however, has proven that Celtic presence and influences were most substantial in what is today Spain and Portugal (with perhaps the highest settlement saturation in Western Europe), particularly in the central, western and northern regions. In addition to Gauls infiltrating from the north of the Pyrenees, the Roman and Greek sources mention Celtic populations in three parts of the Iberian Peninsula: the eastern part of the Meseta (inhabited by the Celtiberians), the southwest (Celtici, in modern-day Alentejo) and the northwest (Gallaecia and Asturias). A modern scholarly review found several archaeological groups of Celts in Spain: * The Celtiberian group in the Upper-Douro Upper-Tagus Upper-Jalón area. Archaeological data suggest a continuity at least from the 6th century BC. In this early period, the Celtiberians inhabited in hill-forts (Castros). Around the end of the 3rd century BC, Celtiberians adopted more urban ways of life. From the 2nd century BC, they minted coins and wrote inscriptions using the Celtiberian script. These inscriptions make the Celtiberian Language the only Hispano-Celtic language classified as Celtic with unanimous agreement. In the late period, before the Roman Conquest, both archaeological evidence and Roman sources suggest that the Celtiberians were expanding into different areas in the Peninsula (e.g. Celtic Baeturia). * The Vetton group in the western Meseta, between the Tormes, Douro and Tagus Rivers. They were characterised by the production of Verracos, sculptures of bulls and pigs carved in granite. * The Vaccean group in the central Douro valley. They were mentioned by Roman sources already in the 220 BC. Some of their funerary rituals suggest strong influences from their Celtiberian neighbours. terminal, Museum of Castro de Santa Tegra, A Guarda]] * The Castro Culture in northwestern Iberia, modern day Galicia and Northern Portugal. Its high degree of continuity, from the Late Bronze Age, makes it difficult to support that the introduction of Celtic elements was due to the same process of Celticisation of the western Iberia, from the nucleus area of Celtiberia. Two typical elements are the sauna baths with monumental entrances, and the "Gallaecian Warriors", stone sculptures built in the 1st century AD. A large group of Latin inscriptions contain Celtic linguistic features, while others are similar to those found in the non-Celtic Lusitanian language. The origins of the Celtiberians might provide a key to understanding the Celticisation process in the rest of the Peninsula. The process of Celticisation of the southwestern area of the peninsula by the Keltoi and of the northwestern area is, however, not a simple Celtiberian question. Recent investigations about the Callaici and Bracari in northwestern Portugal are providing new approaches to understanding Celtic culture (language, art and religion) in western Iberia. John T. Koch of Aberystwyth University suggested that Tartessian inscriptions of the 8th century BC might be classified as Celtic. This would mean that Tartessian is the earliest attested trace of Celtic by a margin of more than a century. Germany, Alps and Italy by the Danube, Germany, c. 600 BC, the oldest city north of the Alps.]] right|thumb|250px| Expansion of early Germanic culture|early Germanic tribes into Central Europe, helping press its previous Celts further south and southeast In Germany by the late Bronze Age, the Urnfield culture () had replaced the Bell Beaker, Unetice and Tumulus cultures in central Europe, whilst the Nordic Bronze Age had developed in Scandinavia and northern Germany. The Hallstatt culture, which had developed from the Urnfield culture, was the predominant Western and Central European culture from the 12th to 8th centuries BC and during the early Iron Age (8th to 6th centuries BC). It was followed by the La Tène culture (5th to 1st centuries BC). The people who had adopted these cultural characteristics in central and southern Germany are regarded as Celts. Celtic cultural centres developed in central Europe during the late Bronze Age ( until 700 BC). Some, like the Heuneburg, the oldest city north of the Alps, grew to become important cultural centres of the Iron Age in Central Europe, that maintained trade routes to the Mediterranean. In the 5th century BC the Greek historian Herodotus mentioned a Celtic city at the Danube – Pyrene, that historians attribute to the Heuneburg. Beginning around 700 BC (or later), Germanic peoples (Germanic tribes) from southern Scandinavia and northern Germany expanded south and gradually replaced the Celtic peoples in Central Europe. The Canegrate culture represented the first migratory wave of the proto-Celtic population from the northwest part of the Alps that, through the Alpine passes, had already penetrated and settled in the western Po valley between Lake Maggiore and Lake Como (Scamozzina culture). It has also been proposed that a more ancient proto-Celtic presence can be traced back to the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age, when North Westwern Italy appears closely linked regarding the production of bronze artefacts, including ornaments, to the western groups of the Tumulus culture. La Tène cultural material appeared over a large area of mainland Italy, the southernmost example being the Celtic helmet from Canosa di Puglia. Italy is home to Lepontic, the oldest attested Celtic language (from the 6th century BC). Anciently spoken in Switzerland and in Northern-Central Italy, from the Alps to Umbria. According to the Recueil des Inscriptions Gauloises, more than 760 Gaulish inscriptions have been found throughout present-day France – with the notable exception of Aquitaine – and in Italy, which testifies the importance of Celtic heritage in the peninsula. In 391 BC, Celts "who had their homes beyond the Alps streamed through the passes in great strength and seized the territory that lay between the Apennine Mountains and the Alps" according to Diodorus Siculus. The Po Valley and the rest of northern Italy (known to the Romans as Cisalpine Gaul) was inhabited by Celtic-speakers who founded cities such as Milan. Later the Roman army was routed at the battle of Allia and Rome was sacked in 390 BC by the Senones. At the battle of Telamon in 225 BC, a large Celtic army was trapped between two Roman forces; the Celtic army was crushed. The defeat of the combined Samnite, Celtic and Etruscan alliance by the Romans in the Third Samnite War sounded the beginning of the end of the Celtic domination in mainland Europe, but it was not until 192 BC that the Roman armies conquered the last remaining independent Celtic kingdoms in Italy.Expansion east and south The Celts also expanded down the Danube river and its tributaries. One of the most influential tribes, the Scordisci, established their capital at Singidunum (present-day Belgrade, Serbia) in the 3rd century BC. The concentration of hill-forts and cemeteries shows a dense population in the Tisza valley of modern-day Vojvodina, Serbia, Hungary and into Ukraine. Expansion into Romania was however blocked by the Dacians. The Serdi were a Celtic tribe inhabiting Thrace. They were located around and founded Serdika (, , ), now Sofia in Bulgaria, which reflects their ethnonym. They would have established themselves in this area during the Celtic migrations at the end of the 4th century BC, though there is no evidence for their existence before the 1st century BC. Serdi are among traditional tribal names reported into the Roman era. They were gradually Thracianized over the centuries but retained their Celtic character in material culture up to a late date. According to other sources they may have been simply of Thracian origin, according to others they may have become of mixed Thraco-Celtic origin. Further south, Celts settled in Thrace (Bulgaria), which they ruled for over a century, and Anatolia, where they settled as the Galatians (see also: Gallic Invasion of Greece). Despite their geographical isolation from the rest of the Celtic world, the Galatians maintained their Celtic language for at least 700 years. St Jerome, who visited Ancyra (modern-day Ankara) in 373 AD, likened their language to that of the Treveri of northern Gaul. For Venceslas Kruta, Galatia in central Turkey was an area of dense Celtic settlement. The Boii tribe gave their name to Bohemia, Bologna and possibly Bavaria, and Celtic artefacts and cemeteries have been discovered further east in what is now Poland and Slovakia. A Celtic coin (Biatec) from Bratislava's mint was displayed on the old Slovak 5-crown coin. As there is no archaeological evidence for large-scale invasions in some of the other areas, one current school of thought holds that Celtic language and culture spread to those areas by contact rather than invasion. However, the Celtic invasions of Italy and the expedition in Greece and western Anatolia, are well documented in Greek and Latin history. There are records of Celtic mercenaries in Egypt serving the Ptolemies. Thousands were employed in 283–246 BC and they were also in service around 186 BC. They attempted to overthrow Ptolemy II. Insular . ]] All living Celtic languages today belong to the Insular Celtic languages, derived from the Celtic languages spoken in Iron Age Britain and Ireland. They separated into a Goidelic and a Brittonic branch early on. By the time of the Roman conquest of Britain in the 1st century AD, the Insular Celts were made up of the Celtic Britons, the Gaels (or Scoti), and the Picts (or Caledonians). The renown of insular Celts has caused a popular belief that Celtic clans only lived in the British Isles. Linguists have debated whether a Celtic language came to the British Isles and then split, or whether the two branches arrived separately. The older view was that Celtic influence in the Isles was the result of successive migrations or invasions from the European mainland by diverse Celtic-speaking peoples over several centuries, accounting for the P-Celtic vs. Q-Celtic isogloss. This view has been challenged by the hypothesis that the islands' Celtic languages form an Insular Celtic dialect group. In the 19th and 20th centuries, scholars often dated the "arrival" of Celtic culture in Britain (via an invasion model) to the 6th century BC, corresponding to archaeological evidence of Hallstatt influence and the appearance of chariot burials in what is now England. Cunliffe and Koch propose in their newer 'Celtic from the West' theory that Celtic languages reached the Isles earlier, with the Bell Beaker culture c.2500 BC, or even before this. More recently, a major archaeogenetics study uncovered a migration into southern Britain in the Bronze Age from 1300 to 800 BC. The newcomers were genetically most similar to ancient individuals from Gaul. but not northern Britain. Like many Celtic peoples on the mainland, the Insular Celts followed an Ancient Celtic religion overseen by druids. Some of the southern British tribes had strong links with Gaul and Belgica, and minted their own coins. During the Roman occupation of Britain, a Romano-British culture emerged in the southeast. The Britons and Picts in the north, and the Gaels of Ireland, remained outside the empire. During the end of Roman rule in Britain in the 400s AD, there was significant Anglo-Saxon settlement of eastern and southern Britain, and some Gaelic settlement of its western coast. During this time, some Britons migrated to the Armorican peninsula, where their culture became dominant. Meanwhile, much of northern Britain (Scotland) became Gaelic. By the 10th century AD, the Insular Celtic peoples had diversified into the Brittonic-speaking Welsh (in Wales), Cornish (in Cornwall), Bretons (in Brittany) and Cumbrians (in the Old North); and the Gaelic-speaking Irish (in Ireland), Scots (in Scotland) and Manx (on the Isle of Man). Classical writers did not call the inhabitants of Britain and Ireland or (), In general, classical writers referred to the Britons as Pretannoi (in Greek) or Britanni (in Latin). Strabo, writing in Roman times, distinguished between the Celts and Britons. However, Roman historian Tacitus says the Britons resembled the Celts of Gaul in customs and religion.Society , Roman copy of a Hellenistic sculpture of a dying Celtic couple, Palazzo Massimo alle Terme.]] To the extent that sources are available, they depict a pre-Christian Iron Age Celtic social structure based formally on class and kingship, although this may only have been a particular late phase of organisation in Celtic societies. Patron-client relationships similar to those of Roman society are also described by Caesar and others in the Gaul of the 1st century BC. In the main, the evidence is of tribes being led by kings, although some argue that there is also evidence of oligarchical republican forms of government eventually emerging in areas which had close contact with Rome. Most descriptions of Celtic societies portray them as being divided into three groups: a warrior aristocracy; an intellectual class including professions such as druid, poet, and jurist; and everyone else. In historical times, the offices of high and low kings in Ireland and Scotland were filled by election under the system of tanistry, which eventually came into conflict with the feudal principle of primogeniture in which succession goes to the first-born son. , with spiral and trumpet motifs typical of La Tène Celtic art in Britain]] Little is known of family structure among the Celts. Patterns of settlement varied from decentralised to urban. The popular stereotype of non-urbanised societies settled in hillforts and duns, drawn from Britain and Ireland (there are about 3,000 hill forts known in Britain) contrasts with the urban settlements present in the core Hallstatt and La Tène areas, with the many significant oppida of Gaul late in the first millennium BC, and with the towns of Gallia Cisalpina. Slavery, as practised by the Celts, was very likely similar to the better documented practice in ancient Greece and Rome. Slaves were acquired from war, raids, and penal and debt servitude. though manumission was possible. The Old Irish and Welsh words for 'slave', cacht and caeth respectively, are cognate with Latin captus 'captive' suggesting that the slave trade was an early means of contact between Latin and Celtic societies. Manumissions were discouraged by law and the word for 'female slave', cumal, was used as a general unit of value in Ireland. There are only very limited records from pre-Christian times written in Celtic languages. These are mostly inscriptions in the Roman and sometimes Greek alphabets. The ogham script, an Early Medieval alphabet, was mostly used in early Christian times in Ireland and Scotland (but also in Wales and England), and was only used for ceremonial purposes such as inscriptions on gravestones. The available evidence is of a strong oral tradition, such as that preserved by bards in Ireland, and eventually recorded by monasteries. Celtic art also produced a great deal of intricate and beautiful metalwork, examples of which have been preserved by their distinctive burial rites. In some regards the Atlantic Celts were conservative: for example, they still used chariots in combat long after they had been reduced to ceremonial roles by the Greeks and Romans. However, despite being outdated, Celtic chariot tactics were able to repel the invasions of Britain attempted by Julius Caesar. According to Diodorus Siculus: Clothing During the later Iron Age, the Gauls generally wore long-sleeved shirts or tunics and long trousers (called braccae by the Romans). Clothes were made of wool or linen, with some silk being used by the rich. Cloaks were worn in the winter. Brooches and armlets were used, but the most famous item of jewellery was the torc, a neck collar of metal, sometimes gold. The horned Waterloo Helmet in the British Museum, which long set the standard for modern images of Celtic warriors, is in fact a unique survival; it may have been a piece for ceremonial rather than military wear. Trade and coinage Archaeological evidence suggests that the pre-Roman Celtic societies were linked to the network of overland trade routes that spanned Eurasia. Archaeologists have discovered large prehistoric trackways crossing bogs in Ireland and Germany. Due to their substantial nature, these are believed to have been created for wheeled transport as part of an extensive roadway system that facilitated trade. The territory held by the Celts contained tin, lead, iron, silver and gold. Celtic smiths and metalworkers created weapons and jewellery for international trade, particularly with the Romans. The myth that the Celtic monetary system consisted of wholly barter is a common one, but is in part false. The monetary system was complex and is still not understood (much like the late Roman coinages), and due to the absence of large numbers of coin items, it is assumed that "proto-money" was used. This included bronze items made from the early La Tène period and onwards, which were often in the shape of axeheads, rings, or bells. Due to the large number of these present in some burials, it is thought they had a relatively high monetary value, and could be used for "day to day" purchases. Low-value coinages of potin, a bronze alloy with high tin content, were minted in most Celtic areas of the continent and in South-East Britain prior to the Roman conquest of these lands. Higher-value coinages, suitable for use in trade, were minted in gold, silver, and high-quality bronze. Gold coinage was much more common than silver coinage, despite being worth substantially more, as while there were around 100 mines in Southern Britain and Central France, silver was more rarely mined. This was due partly to the relative sparsity of mines and the amount of effort needed for extraction compared to the profit gained. As the Roman civilisation grew in importance and expanded its trade with the Celtic world, silver and bronze coinage became more common. This coincided with a major increase in gold production in Celtic areas to meet the Roman demand, due to the high value Romans put on the metal. The large number of gold mines in France is thought to be a major reason why Caesar invaded. Gender and sexual norms , Germany]] Very few reliable sources exist regarding Celtic views on gender roles, though some archaeological evidence suggests their views may have differed from those of the Greco-Roman world, which tended to be less egalitarian. Some Iron Age burials in northeastern Gaul suggest women may have had roles in warfare during the earlier La Tène period, but the evidence is far from conclusive. Celtic individuals buried with both female jewellery and weaponry have been found, such as the Vix Grave in northeastern Gaul, and there are questions about the gender of some individuals buried with weaponry. However, it has been suggested that the weapons indicate high social rank rather than masculinity. Most written accounts of the Ancient Celts are from the Romans and Greeks, though it is not clear how accurate these are. Roman historians Ammianus Marcellinus and Tacitus mentioned Celtic women inciting, participating in, and leading battles. Plutarch reports that Celtic women acted as ambassadors to avoid a war among Celtic chiefdoms in the Po valley during the 4th century BC. Posidonius' anthropological comments on the Celts had common themes, primarily primitivism, extreme ferocity, cruel sacrificial practices, and the strength and courage of their women. Cassius Dio suggests there was great sexual freedom among women in Celtic Britain: Barry Cunliffe writes that such references are "likely to be ill-observed" and meant to portray the Celts as outlandish "barbarians". Historian Lisa Bitel argues the descriptions of Celtic women warriors are not credible. She says some Roman and Greek writers wanted to show that the barbarian Celts lived in "an upside-down world ... and a standard ingredient in such a world was the manly warrior woman". The Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote in his Politics that the Celts of southeastern Europe approved of male homosexuality. Greek historian Diodorus Siculus wrote in his Bibliotheca historica that although Gaulish women were beautiful, the men had "little to do with them" and it was a custom for men to sleep on animal skins with two younger males. He further claimed that "the young men will offer themselves to strangers and are insulted if the offer is refused". His claim was later repeated by Greco-Roman writers Athenaeus and Ammianus. H. David Rankin, in Celts and the Classical World, suggests some of these claims refer to bonding rituals in warrior groups, which required abstinence from women at certain times, and says it probably reflects "the warlike character of early contacts between the Celts and the Greeks". Under Brehon Law, which was written down in early Medieval Ireland after conversion to Christianity, a woman had the right to divorce her husband and gain his property if he was unable to perform his marital duties due to impotence, obesity, homosexual inclination or preference for other women.Celtic art , a ceremonial bronze shield dated 3rd–1st century BC, is an example of La Tène Celtic art from Britain]] Celtic art is generally used by art historians to refer to art of the La Tène period across Europe, while the Early Medieval art of Britain and Ireland, that is what "Celtic art" evokes for much of the general public, is called Insular art in art history. Both styles absorbed considerable influences from non-Celtic sources, but retained a preference for geometrical decoration over figurative subjects, which are often extremely stylised when they do appear; narrative scenes only appear under outside influence. Energetic circular forms, triskeles and spirals are characteristic. Much of the surviving material is in precious metal, which no doubt gives a very unrepresentative picture, but apart from Pictish stones and the Insular high crosses, large monumental sculpture, even with decorative carving, is very rare; possibly it was originally common in wood. Celts were also able to create developed musical instruments such as the carnyces, these famous war trumpets used before the battle to frighten the enemy, as the best preserved found in Tintignac (Gaul) in 2004 and which were decorated with a boar head or a snake head. The interlace patterns that are often regarded as typical of "Celtic art" were characteristic of the whole of the British Isles, a style referred to as Insular art, or Hiberno-Saxon art. This artistic style incorporated elements of La Tène, Late Roman, and, most importantly, animal Style II of Germanic Migration Period art. The style was taken up with great skill and enthusiasm by Celtic artists in metalwork and illuminated manuscripts. Equally, the forms used for the finest Insular art were all adopted from the Roman world: Gospel books like the Book of Kells and Book of Lindisfarne, chalices like the Ardagh Chalice and Derrynaflan Chalice, and penannular brooches like the Tara Brooch and Roscrea Brooch. These works are from the period of peak achievement of Insular art, which lasted from the 7th to the 9th centuries, before the Viking attacks sharply set back cultural life. In contrast the less well known but often spectacular art of the richest earlier Continental Celts, before they were conquered by the Romans, often adopted elements of Roman, Greek and other "foreign" styles (and possibly used imported craftsmen) to decorate objects that were distinctively Celtic. After the Roman conquests, some Celtic elements remained in popular art, especially Ancient Roman pottery, of which Gaul was actually the largest producer, mostly in Italian styles, but also producing work in local taste, including figurines of deities and wares painted with animals and other subjects in highly formalised styles. Roman Britain also took more interest in enamel than most of the Empire, and its development of champlevé technique was probably important to the later Medieval art of the whole of Europe, of which the energy and freedom of Insular decoration was an important element. Rising nationalism brought Celtic revivals from the 19th century.Gallic calendarThe Coligny calendar, which was found in 1897 in Coligny, Ain, was engraved on a bronze tablet, preserved in 73 fragments, that originally was wide and high (Lambert p. 111). Based on the style of lettering and the accompanying objects, it probably dates to the end of the 2nd century. It is written in Latin inscriptional capitals, and is in Gaulish. The restored tablet contains 16 vertical columns, with 62 months distributed over 5 years. French archaeologist J. Monard speculated that it was recorded by druids wishing to preserve their tradition of timekeeping in a time when the Julian calendar was imposed throughout the Roman Empire. However, the general form of the calendar suggests the public peg calendars (or parapegmata) found throughout the Greek and Roman world. Warfare and weapons , Hellenistic art, 250–200 BC]] Tribal warfare appears to have been a regular feature of Celtic societies. While epic literature depicts this as more of a sport focused on raids and hunting rather than organised territorial conquest, the historical record is more of tribes using warfare to exert political control and harass rivals, for economic advantage, and in some instances to conquer territory. The Celts were described by classical writers such as Strabo, Livy, Pausanias, and Florus as fighting like "wild beasts", and as hordes. Dionysius said that their: Polybius (2.33) indicates that the principal Celtic weapon was a long bladed sword which was used for hacking edgewise rather than stabbing. Celtic warriors are described by Polybius and Plutarch as frequently having to cease fighting in order to straighten their sword blades. This claim has been questioned by some archaeologists, who note that Noric steel, steel produced in Celtic Noricum, was famous in the Roman Empire period and was used to equip the Roman military. However, Radomir Pleiner, in The Celtic Sword (1993) argues that "the metallographic evidence shows that Polybius was right up to a point", as around one third of surviving swords from the period might well have behaved as he describes. In addition to these long bladed slashing swords, spears and specialized javelins were also used. Polybius also asserts that certain of the Celts fought naked: "The appearance of these naked warriors was a terrifying spectacle, for they were all men of splendid physique and in the prime of life." According to Livy, this was also true of the Celts of Asia Minor. Head hunting , Czech Republic, wearing a torc, late La Tène culture, 150-50 BC]] Celts had a reputation as head hunters. Paul Jacobsthal says: "Amongst the Celts the human head was venerated above all else, since the head was to the Celt the soul, centre of the emotions as well as of life itself, a symbol of divinity and of the powers of the other-world." Writing in the first century BC, Greek historians Posidonius and Diodorus Siculus said Celtic warriors cut off the heads of enemies slain in battle, hung them from the necks of their horses, then nailed them up outside their homes. In another example, at the southern Gaulish site of Entremont, there stood a pillar carved with skulls, within which were niches where human skulls were kept, nailed into position. Roquepertuse nearby has similar carved heads and skull niches. Many lone carved heads have been found in Celtic regions, some with two or three faces. Examples include the Mšecké Žehrovice Head and the Corleck Head. Severed heads are a common motif in Insular Celtic myths, and there are many tales in which 'living heads' preside over feasts or speak prophecies. Religion and mythology on the Gundestrup cauldron.]] Ancient Celtic religion ", Germany, with a leaf crown, perhaps indicating a priest, .]] Like other European Iron Age societies, the Celts practised a polytheistic religion and believed in an afterlife. Celtic religion varied by region and over time, but had "broad structural similarities", Because the ancient Celts did not have writing, evidence about their religion is gleaned from archaeology, Greco-Roman accounts, and literature from the early Christian period. The names of over two hundred Celtic deities have survived (see list of Celtic deities), although it is likely that many of these were alternative names, regional names or titles for the same deity. (Dea Matrona probably being one name for her). The mother goddess could also take the form of a war goddess as protectress of her tribe and its land. for example the Three Mothers. Celtic religious ceremonies were overseen by priests known as druids, who also served as judges, teachers, and lore-keepers. Other classes of druids performed sacrifices for the perceived benefit of the community. There is evidence that ancient Celtic peoples sacrificed animals, almost always livestock or working animals. It appears some were offered wholly to the gods (by burying or burning), while some were shared between gods and humans (part eaten and part offered). There is also some evidence that ancient Celts sacrificed humans, and some Greco-Roman sources claim the Gauls sacrificed criminals by burning them in a wicker man. The Romans said the Celts held ceremonies in sacred groves and other natural shrines, called nemetons.Insular Celtic mythology Most surviving Celtic mythology belongs to the Insular Celtic peoples: Irish mythology has the largest written body of myths, followed by Welsh mythology. These were written down in the early Middle Ages, mainly by Christian scribes. The supernatural race called the Tuatha Dé Danann are believed to represent the main Celtic gods of Ireland. Their traditional rivals are the Fomóire, whom they defeat in the Battle of Mag Tuired. Barry Cunliffe says the underlying structure in Irish myth was a dualism between the male tribal god and the female goddess of the land. In Insular Celtic myth, the Otherworld is a parallel realm where the gods dwell. Some mythical heroes visit it by entering ancient burial mounds or caves, by going under water or across the western sea, or after being offered a silver apple branch by an Otherworld resident. Irish myth says that the spirits of the dead travel to the house of Donn (Tech Duinn), a legendary ancestor; this echoes Caesar's comment that the Gauls believed they all descended from a god of the dead and underworld.<ref name"Cunliffe religion" /> Insular Celtic peoples celebrated four seasonal festivals, known to the Gaels as Beltaine (1 May), Lughnasa (1 August), Samhain (1 November) and Imbolc (1 February).<ref name"Cunliffe religion" />Roman influence The Roman invasion of Gaul brought a great deal of Celtic peoples into the Roman Empire. Roman culture had a profound effect on the Celtic tribes which came under the empire's control. Roman influence led to many changes in Celtic religion, the most noticeable of which was the weakening of the druid class, especially religiously; the druids were to eventually disappear altogether. Romano-Celtic deities also began to appear: these deities often had both Roman and Celtic attributes, combined the names of Roman and Celtic deities, or included couples with one Roman and one Celtic deity. Other changes included the adaptation of the Jupiter Column, a sacred column set up in many Celtic regions of the empire, primarily in northern and eastern Gaul. Another major change in religious practice was the use of stone monuments to represent gods and goddesses. The Celts had probably only created wooden cult images (including monuments carved into trees, which were known as sacred poles) before the Roman conquest.<ref name"Inse Jones 1995" />Celtic Christianity While the regions under Roman rule adopted Christianity along with the rest of the Roman empire, unconquered areas of Ireland and Scotland began to move from Celtic polytheism to Christianity in the 5th century. Ireland was converted by missionaries from Britain, such as Saint Patrick. Later missionaries from Ireland were a major source of missionary work in Scotland, Anglo-Saxon parts of Britain, and central Europe (see Hiberno-Scottish mission). Celtic Christianity, the forms of Christianity that took hold in Britain and Ireland at this time, had for some centuries only limited and intermittent contact with Rome and continental Christianity, as well as some contacts with Coptic Christianity. Some elements of Celtic Christianity developed, or retained, features that made them distinct from the rest of Western Christianity, most famously their conservative method of calculating the date of Easter. In 664, the Synod of Whitby began to resolve these differences, mostly by adopting the current Roman practices, which the Gregorian Mission from Rome had introduced to Anglo-Saxon England.Genetics in Europe. The majority of ancient Celtic males have been found to be carriers of this sub-lineage.]] Genetic studies on the limited amount of material available suggest continuity between Iron Age people from areas considered Celtic and the earlier Bell Beaker culture of Bronze Age Western Europe. Like the Bell Beakers, ancient Celts carried a substantial amount of Western Steppe Herders ancestry, which is derived from Yamnaya pastoralists who expanded westwards from the Pontic–Caspian steppe during the late Neolithic and the early Bronze Age and associated with the initial spread of Indo-European languages. This ancestry was particularly prevalent among Celts of Northwest Europe. Examined individuals overwhelmingly carry types of the paternal haplogroup R-M269, while the maternal haplogroups H and U are frequent. These lineages are associated with steppe ancestry. The spread of Celts into Iberia and the emergence of the Celtiberians is associated with an increase in north-central European ancestry in Iberia, and may be connected to the expansion of the Urnfield culture. The paternal haplogroup haplogroup I2a1a1a has been detected among Celtiberians. There appears to have been significant gene flow among Celtic peoples of Western Europe during the Iron Age. While the Gauls of southern France display genetic links with the Celtiberians, the Gauls of northern France display links with Great Britain and Sweden. Modern populations of Western Europe, particularly those who still speak Celtic languages, display substantial genetic continuity with the Iron Age populations of the same areas. See also * List of ancient Celtic peoples and tribes * Ethnic groups in Europe * Celtic F.C., soccer club in Glasgow References Citations Sources * Alberro, Manuel and Arnold, Bettina (eds.), [http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/ e-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies] , [http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/index.html Volume 6: The Celts in the Iberian Peninsula] , University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, Center for Celtic Studies, 2005. * |archive-date11 July 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180711204423/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Celt-people |url-statuslive }} * |doi-access=free }} * Collis, John. The Celts: Origins, Myths and Inventions. Stroud: Tempus Publishing, 2003. . Historiography of Celtic studies. * Cunliffe, Barry. The Ancient Celts. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. . * Cunliffe, Barry. Iron Age Britain. London: Batsford, 2004. * Cunliffe, Barry. The Celts: A Very Short Introduction. 2003 * *|doi-accessfree }} * |doi-accessfree }} * }} * Freeman, Philip Mitchell The Earliest Classical Sources on the Celts: A Linguistic and Historical Study. Diss. Harvard University, 1994. [https://www.proquest.com/docview/304090918 (link)] * Gamito, Teresa J. "[http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_11/gamito_6_11.html The Celts in Portugal] ", E-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies, 6 (2005). * Haywood, John. Historical Atlas of the Celtic World. 2001. * Herm, Gerhard. The Celts: The People who Came out of the Darkness. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1977. * James, Simon. The World of the Celts. New York: Thames & Hudson. 3rd ed. 2005 [1993]. * James, Simon. The Atlantic Celts – Ancient People Or Modern Invention? Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1999. . * James, Simon & Rigby, Valerie. Britain and the Celtic Iron Age. London: British Museum Press, 1997. . * Kruta, Venceslas, Otto Hermann Frey, Barry Raftery and M. Szabo. eds. The Celts. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1991. . A translation of Les Celtes: Histoire et dictionnaire 2000. * Laing, Lloyd. The Archaeology of Late Celtic Britain and Ireland c. 400–1200 AD. London: Methuen, 1975. * Laing, Lloyd and Jenifer Laing. Art of the Celts, London: Thames and Hudson, 1992 * MacKillop, James. A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998. * Maier, Bernhard: Celts: A History from Earliest Times to the Present. University of Notre Dame Press, 2003. *}} * McEvedy, Colin. The Penguin Atlas of Ancient History. New York: Penguin, 1985. * Mallory, J. P. In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth. London: Thames and Hudson, 1991. . * O'Rahilly, T. F. Early Irish History Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1946. * }} * Powell, T. G. E. The Celts. New York: Thames & Hudson. 3rd ed. 1997 [1980]. . * * * * Raftery, Barry. Pagan Celtic Ireland: The Enigma of the Irish Iron Age. London: Thames & Hudson, 1994. . * *}} * * External links * [http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_music Ancient Celtic music] – in the Citizendium * [http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/index.html Essays on Celtiberian topics] – in e-Keltoi, University of Wisconsin, Madison * [http://skyelander.orgfree.com/menu10.html Ancient Celtic Warriors in History] * [https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/celts-descended-from-spanish-fishermen-study-finds-416727.html Celts descended from Spanish fishermen, study finds] * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20020221.shtml Discussion] – with academic Barry Cunliffe, on BBC Radio 4's In Our Time, 21 February 2002. (Streaming RealPlayer format) Geography * [http://resourcesforhistory.com/map.htm An interactive map showing the lands of the Celts between 800 BC and 305 AD.] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081006160601/http://www.arqueotavira.com/Mapas/Iberia/Populi.htm Detailed map of the Pre-Roman Peoples of Iberia (around 200 BC), showing the Celtic territories] * [http://www.resourcesforhistory.com/map.htm Map of Celtic lands] Organisations * [http://newworldcelts.org/ newworldcelts.org] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20091030071249/http://www.celtic-congress-2007.com/ XIII. International Congress of Celtic Studies in Bonn] <!--please leave the empty space as standard-->
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celts
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Conductor
Conductor or conduction may refer to: Biology and medicine Bone conduction, the conduction of sound to the inner ear Conduction aphasia, a language disorder Mathematics Conductor (ring theory) Conductor of an abelian variety Conductor of a Dirichlet character Conductor (class field theory) Artin conductor, of a Galois group Conductor of a Numerical semigroup Music Conductor (music), a person who leads a musical ensemble Conductor, an album by The Comas Conduction, the musical improvisation method of Butch Morris Physics Electrical conductor Electrical resistivity and conductivity Electrical resistance and conductance Fast-ion conductor Mixed conductor, ionic and electronic Electrical conduction system of the heart Thermal conduction Thermal conductivity Transport Bus conductor, checking tickets Conductor (rail), on a train Conductor (underground railroad), freeing slaves Other uses Mr. Conductor, a character in Shining Time Station and Thomas and the Magic Railroad Conductor (architecture), a downspout Conductor (company), search engine optimisation company, New York City, US Conductor (military appointment), UK warrant officer Conductor (software), microservice orchestration The Conductor (film), by Pavel Lungin, Russia, 2012 Part of the palpal bulb of male spiders The Orchestra Conductor, a 1980 Polish film by Andrzej Wajda Teacher in conductive pedagogy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conductor
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Claude Monet
}} | birth_name = Oscar-Claude Monet | birth_date | birth_place = Paris, Kingdom of France | death_date | death_place = Giverny, France | nationality = <!-- use only when necessary per WP:INFONAT --> | field = Painting | movement = Impressionism | education }} | years_active = 1865–1926 | works = | patrons = | awards | spouse |}} | children = |module }}Oscar-Claude Monet (, ; ; 14 November 1840 – 5 December 1926) was a French painter and founder of Impressionism painting who is seen as a key precursor to modernism, especially in his attempts to paint nature as he perceived it. During his long career, he was the most consistent and prolific practitioner of Impressionism's philosophy of expressing one's perceptions of nature, especially as applied to plein air (outdoor) landscape painting. The term "Impressionism" is derived from the title of his painting Impression, soleil levant, which was first exhibited in the so-called "exhibition of rejects" of 1874–an exhibition initiated by Monet and like-minded artists as an alternative to the Salon. Monet was raised in Le Havre, Normandy, and became interested in the outdoors and drawing from an early age. Although his mother, Louise-Justine Aubrée Monet, supported his ambitions to be a painter, his father, Claude-Adolphe, disapproved and wanted him to pursue a career in business. He was very close to his mother, but she died in January 1857 when he was sixteen years old, and he was sent to live with his childless, widowed but wealthy aunt, Marie-Jeanne Lecadre. He went on to study at the Académie Suisse, and under the academic history painter Charles Gleyre, where he was a classmate of Auguste Renoir. His early works include landscapes, seascapes, and portraits, but attracted little attention. A key early influence was Eugène Boudin, who introduced him to the concept of plein air painting. From 1883, Monet lived in Giverny, also in northern France, where he purchased a house and property and began a vast landscaping project, including a water-lily pond. Monet's ambition to document the French countryside led to a method of painting the same scene many times so as to capture the changing of light and the passing of the seasons. Among the best-known examples are his series of haystacks (1890–1891), paintings of Rouen Cathedral (1892–1894), and the paintings of water lilies in his garden in Giverny, which occupied him for the last 20 years of his life. Frequently exhibited and successful during his lifetime, Monet's fame and popularity soared in the second half of the 20th century when he became one of the world's most famous painters and a source of inspiration for a burgeoning group of artists. Biography Birth and childhood Claude Monet was born on 14 November 1840 on the fifth floor of 45 rue Laffitte, in the 9th arrondissement of Paris. He was the second son of Claude Adolphe Monet (1800–1871) and Louise Justine Aubrée Monet (1805–1857), both of them second-generation Parisians. On 20 May 1841, he was baptised in the local Paris church, Notre-Dame-de-Lorette, as Oscar-Claude, but his parents called him simply Oscar. Although baptised Catholic, Monet later became an atheist. In 1845, his family moved to Le Havre in Normandy. His father, a wholesale merchant, wanted him to go into the family's ship-chandling and grocery business, but Monet wanted to become an artist. His mother was a singer, and supported Monet's desire for a career in art. On 1 April 1851, he entered Le Havre secondary school of the arts. He was an apathetic student who, after showing skill in art from a young age, began drawing caricatures and portraits of acquaintances at age 15 for money. In around 1858, he met fellow artist Eugène Boudin, who would encourage Monet to develop his techniques, teach him the "en plein air" (outdoor) techniques for painting and take Monet on painting excursions. Monet thought of Boudin as his master, whom "he owed everything to" for his later success. In 1857, his mother died. He lived with his father and aunt, Marie-Jeanne Lecadre; Lecadre would be a source of support for Monet in his early art career. His time in Algeria had a powerful effect on Monet, who later said that the light and vivid colours of North Africa "contained the gem of my future researches". Illness forced his return to Le Havre, where he bought out his remaining service and met Johan Barthold Jongkind, who together with Boudin was an important mentor to Monet.]] Upon his return to Paris, with the permission of his father, he divided his time between his childhood home and the countryside and enrolled in Charles Gleyre's studio, where he met Pierre-Auguste Renoir and Frédéric Bazille. Having debuted at the Salon in 1865 with La Pointe de la Hève at Low Tide and Mouth of the Seine at Honfleur to large praise, he hoped would help him break through into the Salon of 1866. He could not finish it in a timely manner and instead submitted The Woman in the Green Dress and Pavé de Chailly to acceptance. There he immersed himself in his work, although a temporary problem with his eyesight, probably related to stress, prevented him from working in sunlight. With help from the art collector Louis-Joachim Gaudibert, he reunited with Camille and moved to Étretat the following year. He did evolve his painting technique and integrate stylistic experimentation in his plein-air style—as evidenced by The Beach at Sainte-Adresse and On the Bank of the Seine respectively, the former being his "first sustained campaign of painting that involved tourism". Monet would later be financially supported by the artist and art collector Gustave Caillebotte, Bazille and perhaps Gustave Courbet, although creditors still pursued him. During the war, he and his family lived in London and the Netherlands to avoid conscription. He repeatedly painted the Thames, Hyde Park and Green Park. Following the successful exhibition of some maritime paintings and the winning of a silver medal at Le Havre, Monet's paintings were seized by creditors, from whom they were bought back by a shipping merchant, Gaudibert, who was also a patron of Boudin. Impressionism (Impression, soleil levant)'', 1872; the painting that gave its name to the style and artistic movement. Musée Marmottan Monet, Paris]] When Durand-Ruel's previous support of Monet and his peers began to decline, Monet, Renoir, Pissarro, Sisley, Paul Cézanne, Edgar Degas, and Berthe Morisot exhibited their work independently; they did so under the name the Anonymous Society of Painters, Sculptors and Engravers for which Monet was a leading figure in its formation. The group, whose title was chosen to avoid association with any style or movement, were unified in their independence from the Salon and rejection of the prevailing academicism. Monet gained a reputation as the foremost landscape painter of the group. At the first exhibition, in 1874, Monet displayed, among others, Impression, Sunrise, The Luncheon and Boulevard des Capucines. The art critic Louis Leroy wrote a hostile review. Taking particular notice of Impression, Sunrise (1872), a hazy depiction of Le Havre port and stylistic detour, he coined the term "Impressionism". Conservative critics and the public derided the group, with the term initially being ironic and denoting the painting as unfinished. The exhibition was open to anyone prepared to pay 60 francs and gave artists the opportunity to show their work without the interference of a jury. The paintings were well received by critics, who especially praised the way he captured the arrival and departures of the trains. Monet, Renoir, Pissarro, Morisot, Cézanne and Sisley proceeded to experiment with new methods of depicting reality. They rejected the dark, contrasting lighting of romantic and realist paintings, in favour of the pale tones of their peers' paintings such as those by Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot and Boudin. After developing methods for painting transient effects, Monet would go on to seek more demanding subjects, new patrons and collectors; his paintings produced in the early 1870s left a lasting impact on the movement and his peers—many of whom moved to Argenteuil as a result of admiring his depiction. File:Claude Monet - La Vague Verte.jpg|The Green Wave, 1866, Metropolitan Museum of Art File:Claude Monet 024.jpg|Women in the Garden, 1866–1867, Musée d'Orsay, Paris File:Claude Monet 022.jpg|Woman in the Garden, 1867, Hermitage, St. Petersburg; a study in the effect of sunlight and shadow on colour. File:Claude Monet - Jardin à Sainte-Adresse.jpg|Garden at Sainte-Adresse ("Jardin à Sainte-Adresse"), 1867, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York File:Claude Monet - The Luncheon - Google Art Project.jpg|The Luncheon, 1868, Städel, which features Camille Doncieux and Jean Monet, was rejected by the Paris Salon of 1870 but included in the first Impressionists' exhibition in 1874. File:Claude Monet La Grenouillére.jpg|La Grenouillére 1869, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; a small plein-air painting created with broad strokes of intense colour. File:Claude Monet - On the Bank of the Seine, Bennecourt - 1922.427 - Art Institute of Chicago.jpg|On the Bank of the Seine, Bennecourt, 1868, Art Institute of Chicago File:Claude Monet - The Magpie - Google Art Project.jpg|The Magpie, 1868–1869. Musée d'Orsay, Paris; one of Monet's early attempts at capturing the effect of snow on the landscape. See also Snow at Argenteuil File:Claude Monet, 1870, Le port de Trouville (Breakwater at Trouville, Low Tide), oil on canvas, 54 x 65.7 cm, Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest.jpg|Le port de Trouville (Breakwater at Trouville, Low Tide), 1870, Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest File:Claude Monet 002.jpg|La plage de Trouville, 1870, National Gallery, London. The left figure may be Camille, on the right possibly the wife of Eugène Boudin, whose beach scenes influenced Monet. File:Houses on the Achterzaan MET DT719.jpg|Houses on the Achterzaan, 1871, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York File:Claude Monet - Jean Monet on his Hobby Horse.jpg|Jean Monet On His Hobby Horse, 1872. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York File:Claude Monet - Springtime - Google Art Project.jpg|Springtime 1872, Walters Art Museum File:Ships Riding on the Seine at Rouen by Claude Monet, 1872.jpg|Ships Riding on the Seine at Rouen, 1872, National Gallery of Art, Washington DC </gallery> Death of Camille and Vétheuil , Paris]] In 1875, Monet returned to figure painting with Woman with a Parasol - Madame Monet and Her Son, after effectively abandoning it with The Luncheon. His interest in the figure continued for the next four years—reaching its crest in 1877 and concluding altogether in 1890. Their second son, Michel, was born in 1878, after which Camille's health deteriorated further. She died the next year. John Berger describes the work as "a blizzard of white, grey, purplish paint ... a terrible blizzard of loss which will forever efface her features. In fact there can be very few death-bed paintings which have been so intensely felt or subjectively expressive." Monet's study of the Seine continued. He submitted two paintings to the Salon in 1880, one of which was accepted. The stay in Poissy would not last very long. In December 1882 the Seine had overflowed its banks and there was a danger of flooding the Monet residence. His personal life influenced his distancing from the Impressionists. Alice's third daughter, Suzanne, would become Monet's "preferred model", after Camille. In April 1883 Monet informs Durand-Ruel that he was searching for a house around Vernon, a city he knew well and had passed through every time he had travelled between Paris and Normandy. On April 29 he finally moves in to a rented house in Giverny near Vernon with some of his children, followed by Alice Hoschedé the day after. This is the house we later will learn to be the permanent home of the Monet family. That same year his first major retrospective show was held. Bordighera and a turn to prosperity In December 1883 Claude Monet and Auguste Renoir left Paris by train for a short painting trip to Italy, along the Italian Riviera and to Genoa. On the way back, Monet and Renoir stopped briefly at l´Estaque, near Marseille, to visit Cezanne, before returning to Giverny late December. During this trip Monet discovered the small town of Bordighera which he found particularly attractive: in a letter to Durand-Ruel on January 12, 1884, he described it as “one of the most beautiful places we saw on our trip” In the years leading up to 1883, Bordighera, with its mild climate and stunning coastal views, had become widely popular as a winter destination for tourists, particularly among the European elite as well as artists and intellectuals. One of the town’s main attractions were the Moreno Gardens which, in tourist guidebooks of that time, were described not only as one of the most attractive and delightful locations of the Mediterranean, but also as some of the most beautiful and renowned gardens in Europe. Earlier in 1883 the famous architect Charles Garnier wrote a piece in a travel book called Artistic features of Bordighera. In the first chapter, he claims that “in truth, Bordighera is far less Italy than Palestine…” referring to the old town, the free growing palm trees and the exotic gardens. In his text Garnier recommends eight point of views which he finds most interesting for any artist to paint. Soon after his return to Giverny, Monet wrote to his art dealer Paul Durand-Ruel expressing his desire to go back to Italy and Bordighera for a longer stay. He put forward his desire to go on his own and asked Durand-Ruel not to mention his wish to anyone, especially not to Renoir. Monet was deeply affected by the beauty of Bordighera and its surroundings, which he described as magic - a fairy tale country. The unique light and luxuriant vegetation presented themselves as a completely new challenge. In a letter to Alice Horschedé, he wrote “These palm trees are exasperating, and also the motifs are extremely difficult to render, to put down on canvas, everything is so lush”. During his sojourn in Bordighera Monet had initially intended to paint “orange and lemon trees against the blue sea” but he could not find any that really pleased him therefore he only produced one painting with a citrus tree motif, Under the Lemon Trees. During his stay in Bordighera, Monet went to nearby Dolceaqua where he painted the bridge which he called “a little gem of elegance”. Some of the most notable compositions from his stay in Bordighera are View of Bordighera, Olive Trees, Villas at Bordighera, The Moreno Garden, Valley of Sasso and Dolceacqua. The Bordighera paintings are not so well known to the public as some of his work. One explanation presented is that following the Paris Stock market crash of 1882 Monet’s art dealer Durand-Ruels suffered a severe financial loss and consequently, he had to pawn several of Monet’s Bordighera paintings as soon as he had received them. Monet, who had been eager to hear what critics would say about his latest work, was devasted when he found out that they would never be exhibited. Eventually, after Durand-Ruel left for the United States in 1886, Monet could only express his utter frustration by writing letters where he accused the dealer of being “only concerned with the United States while we (the Impressionists) are being forgotten in France”. Finally leaving Bordighera, Monet stopped in Menton to paint the Cap Martin and Monte Carlo before embarking on the 24 hour trip back to Giverny. In a letter sent to Monet in 1884, Paul Durand-Ruel mentions Monet's financial worries, and tells him that both the stockbroker Theodore-Charles Gadala and Georges Clemenceau have purchased paintings. Monet's struggles with creditors ended following his prosperous trips; to Bordighera in 1884, The family worked and built up the gardens, and Monet's fortunes began to change for the better as Durand-Ruel had increasing success in selling his paintings. The gardens were Monet's greatest source of inspiration for 40 years. In 1890, Monet purchased the house. During the 1890s, Monet built a greenhouse and a second studio, a spacious building well lit with skylights. Monet wrote daily instructions to his gardener, precise designs and layouts for plantings, and invoices for his floral purchases and his collection of botany books. As Monet's wealth grew, his garden evolved. He remained its architect, even after he hired seven gardeners. Monet purchased additional land with a water meadow. In 1902, he increased the size of his water garden by nearly 4000 square metres; the pond was enlarged in 1901 and 1910 with easels installed all around to allow different perspectives to be captured. Monet chose the location in the hope of finding a "new aesthetic language that bypassed learned formulas, one that would be both true to nature and unique to him as an individual, not like anyone else." He had exhibited this first group of pictures of the garden, devoted primarily to his Japanese bridge, in 1900. Monet's final journey would be to Venice, with Alice in 1908. By the mid-1910s Monet had achieved "a completely new, fluid, and somewhat audacious style of painting in which the water-lily pond became the point of departure for an almost abstract art". Claude Roger-Marx noted in a review of Monet's successful 1909 exhibition of the first Water Lilies series that he had "reached the ultimate degree of abstraction and imagination joined to the real". This exhibition, entitled Waterlilies, a Series of Waterscape, consisted of 42 canvases, his "largest and most unified series to date". Their deaths left Monet depressed, as Blanche cared for him. In 1913, Monet travelled to London to consult the German ophthalmologist Richard Liebreich. He was prescribed new glasses and rejected cataract surgery for the right eye. The next year, Monet, encouraged by Clemenceau, made plans to construct a new, large studio that he could use to create a "decorative cycle of paintings devoted to the water garden". He became deeply dedicated to the decorations of his garden during the war. <gallery widths"180px" heights"150px" perrow"4" caption"Late paintings"> File:Nymphéas reflets de saule 1916-19.jpg|Water Lilies and Reflections of a Willow (1916–1919), Musée Marmottan Monet File:Claude Monet, Water-Lily Pond and Weeping Willow.JPG|Water-Lily Pond and Weeping Willow, 1916–1919, Sale Christie's New York, 1998 File:Claude Monet, Weeping Willow.JPG|Weeping Willow, 1918, Columbus Museum of Art File:Claude Monet Weeping Willow.jpg|Weeping Willow, 1918–19, Kimball Art Museum, Fort Worth, Monet's Weeping Willow paintings were an homage to the fallen French soldiers of World War I File:Monet - Das Haus in den Rosen.jpeg|House Among the Roses, between 1917 and 1919, Albertina, Vienna File:Monet- Der Rosenweg in Giverny.jpeg|The Rose Walk, Giverny, 1920–1922, Musée Marmottan Monet File:1920-22 Claude Monet The Japanese Footbridge MOMA NY anagoria.JPG|The Japanese Footbridge, 1920–1922, Museum of Modern Art File:Claude Monet - Wisteria - Google Art Project.jpg|Wisteria, 1920–1925, Kunstmuseum Den Haag </gallery> Method , Claude Monet in Argenteuil, 1874, Neue Pinakothek]] Monet has been described as "the driving force behind Impressionism". Crucial to the art of the Impressionist painters was the understanding of the effects of light on the local colour of objects, and the effects of the juxtaposition of colours with each other. His free flowing style and use of colour have been described as "almost ethereal" and the "[epitome] of impressionist style"; Impression, Sunrise is an example of the "fundamental" Impressionist principle of depicting only that which is purely visible. , Claude Monet Painting by the Edge of a Wood, 1885, Tate Britain]] Monet made light the central focus of his paintings. To capture its variations, he would sometimes complete a painting in one sitting, often without preparation. He wished to demonstrate how light altered colour and perception of reality. Boudin, Daubigny, Jongkind, Courbet, and Corot were among Monet's influences and he would often work in accordance with developments in avant-garde art. In 1877 a series of paintings at St-Lazare Station had Monet looking at smoke and steam and the way that they affected colour and visibility, being sometimes opaque and sometimes translucent. He was to further use this study in the painting of the effects of mist and rain on the landscape. The study of the effects of atmosphere was to evolve into a number of series of paintings in which Monet repeatedly painted the same subject (such as his water lilies series) in different lights, at different hours of the day, and through the changes of weather and season. This process began in the 1880s and continued until the end of his life in 1926. In his later career, Monet "transcended" the Impressionist style and begun to push the boundaries of art. Monet often travelled alone at this time—from France to Normandy to London; to the Rivera and Rouen—in search of new and more challenging subjects., Williamstown, Massachusetts]]The stylistic change was likely a by-product of the disorder and not an intentional choice. For this series, he experimented with creating his own frames. His first series exhibited was of haystacks, painted from different points of view and at different times of the day. Fifteen of the paintings were exhibited at the Galerie Durand-Ruel in 1891. In 1892 he produced twenty-six views of Rouen Cathedral.}} <gallery heights"150" widths"180" perrow"4" caption"Series of paintings"> File:La Gare Saint-Lazare - Claude Monet.jpg|La Gare Saint-Lazare, 1877, Musée d'Orsay File:Claude Monet - Arrival of the Normandy Train, Gare Saint-Lazare - Google Art Project.jpg|Arrival of the Normandy Train, Gare Saint-Lazare, 1877, The Art Institute of Chicago, a part of Monet's Gare Saint-Lazare series. File:Claude Monet The Cliffs at Etretat.jpg|The Cliffs at Etretat, 1885, Clark Art Institute File:Monet - Segelboote hinter der Nadel bei Eretat 1885.jpg|Sailboats behind the needle at Etretat, 1885 File:Scogli a Belle-Île.jpg|The Pyramides at Port-Coton, Rough Sea, 1886, Pushkin Museum, Moscow File:Claude Monet - Les Pyramides de Port-Coton, effet de soleil.jpg|The Pyramides at Port-Coton, Sun Effect, 1886, Private collection File:Claude Monet, Grainstacks in the Sunlight, Morning Effect, 1890, oil on canvas 65 x 100 cm.jpg|Two paintings from a series of grainstacks, 1890–91: Grainstacks in the Sunlight, Morning Effect File:1270 Wheatstacks, 1890-91, 65.8 x 101 cm, 25 7-8 x 39 3-4 in, The Art Institute of Chicago.jpg|Grainstacks, end of day, Autumn, 1890–1891, Art Institute of Chicago File:Monet-fondazione-magnani-rocca.png|Falaise a Pourville soleil levant, 1897, Magnani-Rocca Foundation File:Falaise à Pourville (1896) Claude Monet (W 1421).jpg|Falaise a Pourville soleil levant, 1897, private collection File:Claude Monet - Les Peupliers.jpg|Poplars (Autumn), 1891, Philadelphia Museum of Art File:Monet Poplars on the River Epte.jpg|Poplars at the River Epte, 1891 Tate, London File:Claude Monet - Rouen Cathedral, Facade (Sunset).JPG|Rouen Cathedral at sunset, 1893, Musée Marmottan Monet File:Getty monet rouen cathedral.jpg|Rouen Cathedral, Morning Light, 1894, J. Paul Getty Museum File:Claude Monet - Branch of the Seine near Giverny.JPG|The Seine Near Giverny, 1897, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston File:Claude Monet - Morning on the Seine - Google Art Project.jpg|Morning on the Seine, 1898, National Museum of Western Art, Tokyo File:Charing Cross Bridge, Monet.jpg|Charing Cross Bridge, 1899, Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, Madrid File:Claude Monet - Charing Cross Bridge (Saint Louis).jpg|Charing Cross Bridge, London, 1899–1901, Saint Louis Art Museum File:Claude Monet, Houses of Parliament, London, 1900-1903, 1933.1164, Art Institute of Chicago.jpg|Two paintings from a series of The Houses of Parliament, London, 1900–01, Art Institute of Chicago File:London, the Houses of Parliament, Sunlight Opening in Fog, by Claude Monet.jpg|London, Houses of Parliament. The Sun Shining through the Fog, 1904, Musée d'Orsay File:Claude Monet, Le Grand Canal.jpg|Grand Canal, Venice, 1908, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston File:Monet Grand Canal Legion of Honor.jpg|Grand Canal, Venice, 1908, Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco File:Claude Monet, Saint-Georges majeur au crépuscule.jpg|San Giorgio Maggiore at Dusk, 1908, National Museum Cardiff, Wales File:Monet, Claude - The Church of San Giorgio Maggiore, Venice - Google Art Project.jpg|San Giorgio Maggiore, 1908, Indianapolis Museum of Art </gallery> Water lilies Following his return from London, Monet painted mostly from nature, in his own garden; its water lilies, its pond and its bridge. From 22 November to 15 December 1900, another exhibition dedicated to him was held at the Durand-Ruel gallery, with around ten versions of the Water Lilies exhibited. This same exhibition was organized in February 1901 in New York City, where it was met with great success. The canvases dedicated to the water lilies evolved with the changes made to his garden. In addition, around 1905, Monet gradually modified his aesthetics by abandoning the perimeter of the body of water and therefore modifying his perspective. He also changed the shape and size of his canvases by moving from rectangular stretchers to square and then circular stretchers. At his funeral, Clemenceau removed the black cloth draped over the coffin, stating: "No black for Monet!" and replaced it with a flower-patterned cloth. At the time of his death, Waterlilies was "technically unfinished". In addition to souvenirs of Monet and other objects of his life, the house contains his collection of Japanese woodcut prints, which had a pronounced influence on his art. The house and garden, along with the Museum of Impressionism, are major attractions in Giverny, which hosts tourists from all over the world.LegacySpeaking of Monet's body of work, Wildenstein said that it is "so extensive that its very ambition and diversity challenges our understanding of its importance". His paintings produced at Giverny and under the influence of cataracts have been said to create a link between Impressionism and twentieth-century art and modern abstract art, respectively. Ellsworth Kelly, following a formative experience at Giverny, paid homage to Monet's works created there with Tableau Vert (1952). Monet has been called an "intermediary" between tradition and modernism—his work has been examined in relation to postmodernism and influenced Bazille, Sisley, Renoir, and Pissarro. Monet is now the most famous of the Impressionists; as a result of his contributions to the movement, he "exerted a huge influence on late 19th-century art". '' on display in the Musée de l'Orangerie in Paris]] In May 1927, 27 panel paintings were displayed in the Musée de l'Orangerie, following lengthy negotiations with the French government. Because his later works were ignored by artists, art historians, critics, and the public, few attended the showing. In the 1950s, Monet's later works were "rediscovered" by the Abstract Expressionists, who used similar canvases and were uninterested in the blunt and ideological art of the war. In 2006, the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society published a paper providing evidence that these were painted in situ at St. Thomas' Hospital over the river Thames. In 1981, Ronald Pickvance noted that Monet's works after 1880 were increasingly receiving scholarly attention. Falaises près de Dieppe (Cliffs Near Dieppe) has been stolen on two occasions, once in 1998 (in which the museum's curator was convicted of the theft and jailed for five years and two months, along with two accomplices) and again in August 2007. It was recovered in June 2008. On 14 November 2001, a Google Doodle was made for Claude Monet's 161st birthday, depicting the Google logo in Monet's signature style. It was the first Google Doodle made for someone's birthday. Monet's Le Pont du chemin de fer à Argenteuil, an 1873 painting of a railway bridge spanning the Seine near Paris, was bought by an anonymous telephone bidder for a record $41.4 million at Christie's auction in New York on 6 May 2008. The previous record for a Monet painting stood at $36.5 million. A few weeks later, Le bassin aux nymphéas (from the water lilies series) sold at Christie's 24 June 2008 auction in London for £40,921,250 ($80,451,178), nearly doubling the record for the artist. This purchase represented one of the top 20 highest prices paid for a painting at the time. In October 2013, Monet's paintings ''L'Eglise de Vétheuil and Le Bassin aux Nympheas became subjects of a legal case in New York against New York-based Vilma Bautista, one-time aide to Imelda Marcos, wife of dictator Ferdinand Marcos, after she sold Le Bassin aux Nympheas'' for $32 million to a Swiss buyer. The said Monet paintings, along with two others, were acquired by Imelda during her husband's presidency and allegedly bought using the nation's funds. Bautista's lawyer claimed that the aide sold the painting for Imelda but did not have a chance to give her the money. The Philippine government seeks the return of the painting. and Book II. Monet's documented attack of hysterical blindness is reimagined and cured through hypnosis by the dream collector, Julie Forette. Nazi looting Under the Nazi regime, both in Germany from 1933 and in German-occupied countries until 1945, Jewish art collectors of Monet were robbed by Nazis and their agents. Several of the stolen artworks have been returned to their rightful owners, while others have been the object of court battles. In 2014, during the spectacular discovery of a hidden trove of art in Munich, a Monet that had belonged to a Jewish retail magnate was found in the suitcase of Cornelius Gurlitt, the son of one of Hitler's official dealers of looted art, Hildebrand Gurlitt. Examples of Nazi-looted Monet works include: *Bord de Mer, purchased by Austrians Adalbert and Hilda Parlagi in 1936. After the Anschluss, they fled in 1938, leaving it in a Vienna warehouse. It resurfaced in France in 2016 and was restored to the Parlagis' granddaughters in 2024. *Haystacks at Giverny belonged to René Gimpel, a French Jewish art dealer killed in a Nazi concentration camp. * Nymphéas, stolen by Nazis in 1940 from Paul Rosenberg. * Au Parc Monceau, previously owned by Ludwig Kainer, whose vast collection was looted by the Nazis. * Le Repos Dans Le Jardin Argenteuil, previously owned by Henry and Maria Newman, stolen from a Berlin bank vault, settlement with the Metropolitan Museum of Art. * La Seine à Asnières/Les Péniches sur la Seine, formerly owned by Mrs. Fernand Halphen, taken by agents of the German Embassy in Paris on 10 July 1940. Monet's Le Palais Ducal, and his 1880 work, Poppy Field near Vétheuil, formerly in the collection of Max Emden, have been the object of restitution claims. "La Mare, Snow Effect" ("La Mare, effect de neige") was the object of a settlement with the heirs of Richard Semmel. See also * List of paintings by Claude Monet Footnotes References Sources * * * Berger, John (1985). The White Bird. London: Chatto & Windus. * * * * * * * * * Further reading * Ganz, James A. and Richard Kendall (2007). The Unknown Monet: Pastels and Drawings. Williamstown, Mass. : Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute. * Rey, Jean-Dominique and Denis Rouart (2008). ''Monet, les nymphéas : l'intégralité (in French). Paris: Flammarion. * Wildenstein, Daniel (1974–1991). [https://wpi.art/2019/01/14/claude-monet/ Claude Monet : biographie et catalogue raisonné] (in French). Vol. I–V. Lausanne; Paris: Wildenstein Institute and La Bibliothèque des Arts. * Wullschläger, Jackie (2023). Monet: The Restless Vision. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. External links * * [http://www.culturecommunication.gouv.fr/collections_locales/Search?rid0&ref1&typefacet&nameQUI&valueMONET%2C_CLAUDE&p0&xsl=maisons_illustres Claude Monet, Ministère de la culture et de la communication] * [http://www.culture.gouv.fr/public/mistral/joconde_fr?ACTIONCHERCHER&FIELD_1AUTR&VALUE_1MONET%20Claude&REL_SPECIFIC1&IMAGE_ONLY=CHECKED Claude Monet, Joconde, Portail des collections des musées de France] * [http://giverny.org/monet/welcome.htm Monet at Giverny] * [http://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?findclaude+monet&role&nation&prev_page1&subjectid=500019484 Union List of Artist Names, Getty Vocabularies] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20131124100728/http://www.guggenheim.org/new-york/collections/collection-online/artists/692/Claude%20Monet Claude Monet at The Guggenheim] * [https://www.nortonsimon.org/art/browse-by-artist/artist/865/claude-monet Monet at Norton Simon Museum] * [http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/78705/rec/222 Impressionism: a centenary exhibition], an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Monet (p. 131–167) * [https://www.kimbellart.org/content/news-monet-late-years Monet: The Late Years'' exhibition at Kimbell Art Museum] * [https://digitalprojects.wpi.art/monet/introduction Claude Monet: The Revised Catalogue Raisonné, The Pastels], the digital catalogue raisonné at the [https://wpi.art/ Wildenstein Plattner Institute] * [https://digitalprojects.wpi.art/archive/search/detail?id=593837-claude-monet-research-archives Claude Monet Research Archives (1901–1987)] Category:1840 births Category:1926 deaths Category:19th-century French painters Category:20th-century French painters Category:20th-century French male artists Category:École des Beaux-Arts alumni Category:Painters from Paris Category:Burials in Normandy Category:Deaths from lung cancer in France Category:French atheists Category:French Impressionist painters Category:French male painters Category:Legion of Honour refusals Category:Artists from Le Havre Category:People from Eure Category:Artists from Normandy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Monet
2025-04-05T18:27:50.692270
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Carthage
|region = Tunis Governorate |coordinates |type |part_of |length |width |area |height |builder |material |built |abandoned |epochs |cultures |dependency_of |occupants |event |excavations |archaeologists |condition |ownership |management |public_access |website |notes | designation1 WHS | designation1_date = 1979 <small>(3rd session)</small> | designation1_type = Cultural | designation1_criteria = ii, iii, vi | designation1_number = [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/37 37] | designation1_free1name = Region | designation1_free1value = North Africa }} Carthage ; ; , .}} was an ancient city in Northern Africa, on the eastern side of the Lake of Tunis in what is now Tunisia. Carthage was one of the most important trading hubs of the Ancient Mediterranean and one of the most affluent cities of the classical world. It became the capital city of the civilization of Ancient Carthage and later Roman Carthage. The city developed from a Phoenician colony into the capital of a Punic empire which dominated large parts of the Southwest Mediterranean during the first millennium BC. The legendary Queen Elissa, Alyssa or Dido, originally from Tyre, is regarded as the founder of the city, though her historicity has been questioned. In the myth, Dido asked for land from a local tribe, which told her that she could get as much land as an oxhide could cover. She cut the oxhide into strips and laid out the perimeter of the new city. As Carthage prospered at home, the polity sent colonists abroad as well as magistrates to rule the colonies. The ancient city was destroyed in the nearly three year siege of Carthage by the Roman Republic during the Third Punic War in 146 BC. It was re-developed a century later as Roman Carthage, which became the major city of the Roman Empire in the province of Africa. The question of Carthaginian decline and demise has remained a subject of literary, political, artistic, and philosophical debates in both ancient and modern histories. Late antique and medieval Carthage continued to play an important cultural and economic role in the Byzantine period. The city was sacked and destroyed by Umayyad forces after the Battle of Carthage in 698 to prevent it from being reconquered by the Byzantine Empire. The open-air Carthage Paleo-Christian Museum has exhibits excavated under the auspices of UNESCO from 1975 to 1984. The site of the ruins is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Etymology The name Carthage ( ) is the Early Modern anglicisation of Middle French , from Latin and (cf. Greek () and Etruscan ) from the Punic )}} "new city", , Hebrew and Arabic ; adjective "Carthaginian"}} implying it was a "new Tyre". The Latin adjective , meaning "Phoenician", is reflected in English in some borrowings from Latinnotably the Punic Wars and the Punic language. The Modern Standard Arabic form () is an adoption of French , replacing an older local toponym reported as Cartagenna that directly continued the Latin name. According to the history of Herodian, Carthage rivaled Alexandria for second place in the Roman empire.LayoutThe Punic Carthage was divided into four equally sized residential areas with the same layout. It had religious areas, market places, a council house, towers, a theatre, and a huge necropolis; roughly in the middle of the city stood a high citadel called the Byrsa. Surrounding Carthage were walls "of great strength" said in places to rise above 13 m, being nearly 10 m thick, according to ancient authors. To the west, three parallel walls were built. The walls altogether ran for about to encircle the city. The heights of the Byrsa were additionally fortified; this area being the last to succumb to the Romans in 146 BC. Originally the Romans had landed their army on the strip of land extending southward from the city. Outside the city walls of Carthage is the Chora or farm lands of Carthage. Chora encompassed a limited area: the north coastal tell, the lower Bagradas river valley (inland from Utica), Cape Bon, and the adjacent sahel on the east coast. Punic culture here achieved the introduction of agricultural sciences first developed for lands of the eastern Mediterranean, and their adaptation to local African conditions. The urban landscape of Carthage is known in part from ancient authors, augmented by modern digs and surveys conducted by archeologists. The "first urban nucleus" dating to the seventh century, in area about , was apparently located on low-lying lands along the coast (north of the later harbours). As confirmed by archaeological excavations, Carthage was a "creation ex nihilo", built on 'virgin' land, and situated at what was then the end of a peninsula. Here among "mud brick walls and beaten clay floors" (recently uncovered) were also found extensive cemeteries, which yielded evocative grave goods like clay masks. "Thanks to this burial archaeology we know more about archaic Carthage than about any other contemporary city in the western Mediterranean." Already in the eighth century, fabric dyeing operations had been established, evident from crushed shells of murex (from which the 'Phoenician purple' was derived). Nonetheless, only a "meager picture" of the cultural life of the earliest pioneers in the city can be conjectured, and not much about housing, monuments or defenses. The Roman poet Virgil (70–19 BC) imagined early Carthage, when his legendary character Aeneas had arrived there: <blockquote> "Aeneas found, where lately huts had been,<br /> marvelous buildings, gateways, cobbled ways,<br /> and din of wagons. There the Tyrians<br /> were hard at work: laying courses for walls,<br /> rolling up stones to build the citadel,<br /> while others picked out building sites and plowed<br /> a boundary furrow. Laws were being enacted,<br /> magistrates and a sacred senate chosen.<br /> Here men were dredging harbors, there they laid<br /> the deep foundations of a theatre,<br /> and quarried massive pillars... ."<br /> </blockquote> The two inner harbors, named cothon in Punic, were located in the southeast; one being commercial, and the other for war. Their definite functions are not entirely known, probably for the construction, outfitting, or repair of ships, perhaps also loading and unloading cargo. Larger anchorages existed to the north and south of the city. North and west of the cothon were located several industrial areas, e.g., metalworking and pottery (e.g., for amphora), which could serve both inner harbors, and ships anchored to the south of the city. Considering the importance of the Byrsa, the citadel area to the north, our knowledge of it is patchy. Its prominent heights were the scene of fierce combat during the fiery destruction of the city in 146 BC. The Byrsa was the reported site of the Temple of Eshmun (the healing god), at the top of a stairway of sixty steps. A temple of Tanit (the city's queen goddess) was likely situated on the slope of the 'lesser Byrsa' immediately to the east, which runs down toward the sea. Also situated on the Byrsa were luxury homes. South of the citadel, near the cothon was the tophet, a special and very old cemetery, which when begun lay outside the city's boundaries. Here the Salammbô was located, the Sanctuary of Tanit, not a temple but an enclosure for placing stone stelae. These were mostly short and upright, carved for funeral purposes. The presence of infant skeletons from here may indicate the occurrence of child sacrifice, as claimed in the Bible and Greco-Roman sources, although there has been considerable doubt among archeologists as to this interpretation and many consider it simply a cemetery devoted to infants. Probably the tophet burial fields were "dedicated at an early date, perhaps by the first settlers." Recent studies, on the other hand, indicate that child sacrifice was practiced by the Carthaginians. According to K.L. Noll, many scholars believe that child sacrifice took place in Carthage. Between the sea-filled cothon for shipping and the Byrsa heights lay the agora [Greek: "market"], the city-state's central marketplace for business and commerce. The agora was also an area of public squares and plazas, where the people might formally assemble, or gather for festivals. It was the site of religious shrines, and the location of whatever were the major municipal buildings of Carthage. Here beat the heart of civic life. In this district of Carthage, more probably, the ruling suffets presided, the council of elders convened, the tribunal of the 104 met, and justice was dispensed at trials in the open air. Early residential districts wrapped around the Byrsa from the south to the north east. Houses usually were whitewashed and blank to the street, but within were courtyards open to the sky. In these neighborhoods multistory construction later became common, some up to six stories tall according to an ancient Greek author. Several architectural floorplans of homes have been revealed by recent excavations, as well as the general layout of several city blocks. Stone stairs were set in the streets, and drainage was planned, e.g., in the form of soakaways leaching into the sandy soil. Along the Byrsa's southern slope were located not only fine old homes, but also many of the earliest grave-sites, juxtaposed in small areas, interspersed with daily life. Artisan workshops were located in the city at sites north and west of the harbours. The location of three metal workshops (implied from iron slag and other vestiges of such activity) were found adjacent to the naval and commercial harbours, and another two were further up the hill toward the Byrsa citadel. Sites of pottery kilns have been identified, between the agora and the harbours, and further north. Earthenware often used Greek models. A fuller's shop for preparing woolen cloth (shrink and thicken) was evidently situated further to the west and south, then by the edge of the city. Carthage also produced objects of rare refinement. During the 4th and 3rd centuries, the sculptures of the sarcophagi became works of art. "Bronze engraving and stone-carving reached their zenith." The elevation of the land at the promontory on the seashore to the north-east (now called Sidi Bou Saïd), was twice as high above sea level as that at the Byrsa (100 m and 50 m). In between runs a ridge, several times reaching 50 m; it continues northwestward along the seashore, and forms the edge of a plateau-like area between the Byrsa and the sea. Newer urban developments lay here in these northern districts. Due to the Roman's leveling of the city, the original Punic urban landscape of Carthage was largely lost. Since 1982, French archaeologist Serge Lancel excavated a residential area of the Punic Carthage on top of Byrsa hill near the Forum of the Roman Carthage. The neighborhood can be dated back to early second century BC, and with its houses, shops, and private spaces, is significant for what it reveals about daily life of the Punic Carthage. The remains have been preserved under embankments, the substructures of the later Roman forum, whose foundation piles dot the district. The housing blocks are separated by a grid of straight streets about wide, with a roadway consisting of clay; in situ stairs compensate for the slope of the hill. Construction of this type presupposes organization and political will, and has inspired the name of the neighborhood, "Hannibal district", referring to the legendary Punic general or sufet (consul) at the beginning of the second century BC. The habitat is typical, even stereotypical. The street was often used as a storefront/shopfront; cisterns were installed in basements to collect water for domestic use, and a long corridor on the right side of each residence led to a courtyard containing a sump, around which various other elements may be found. In some places, the ground is covered with mosaics called punica pavement, sometimes using a characteristic red mortar.Society and local economy Punic culture and agricultural sciences, after arriving at Carthage from the eastern Mediterranean, gradually adapted to the local conditions. The merchant harbor at Carthage was developed after settlement of the nearby Punic town of Utica, and eventually the surrounding African countryside was brought into the orbit of the Punic urban centers, first commercially, then politically. Direct management over cultivation of neighbouring lands by Punic owners followed. A 28-volume work on agriculture written in Punic by Mago, a retired army general (), was translated into Latin and later into Greek. The original and both translations have been lost; however, some of Mago's text has survived in other Latin works. Olive trees (e.g., grafting), fruit trees (pomegranate, almond, fig, date palm), viniculture, bees, cattle, sheep, poultry, implements, and farm management were among the ancient topics which Mago discussed. As well, Mago addresses the wine-maker's art (here a type of sherry). In Punic farming society, according to Mago, the small estate owners were the chief producers. They were, two modern historians write, not absent landlords. Rather, the likely reader of Mago was "the master of a relatively modest estate, from which, by great personal exertion, he extracted the maximum yield." Mago counselled the rural landowner, for the sake of their own 'utilitarian' interests, to treat carefully and well their managers and farm workers, or their overseers and slaves. Yet elsewhere these writers suggest that rural land ownership provided also a new power base among the city's nobility, for those resident in their country villas. By many, farming was viewed as an alternative endeavour to an urban business. Another modern historian opines that more often it was the urban merchant of Carthage who owned rural farming land to some profit, and also to retire there during the heat of summer. It may seem that Mago anticipated such an opinion, and instead issued this contrary advice (as quoted by the Roman writer Columella): <blockquote>The man who acquires an estate must sell his house, lest he prefer to live in the town rather than in the country. Anyone who prefers to live in a town has no need of an estate in the country." "One who has bought land should sell his town house, so that he will have no desire to worship the household gods of the city rather than those of the country; the man who takes greater delight in his city residence will have no need of a country estate.</blockquote> The issues involved in rural land management also reveal underlying features of Punic society, its structure and stratification. The hired workers might be considered 'rural proletariat', drawn from the local Berbers. Whether there remained Berber landowners next to Punic-run farms is unclear. Some Berbers became sharecroppers. Slaves acquired for farm work were often prisoners of war. In lands outside Punic political control, independent Berbers cultivated grain and raised horses on their lands. Yet within the Punic domain that surrounded the city-state of Carthage, there were ethnic divisions in addition to the usual quasi feudal distinctions between lord and peasant, or master and serf. This inherent instability in the countryside drew the unwanted attention of potential invaders. Yet for long periods Carthage was able to manage these social difficulties. The many amphorae with Punic markings subsequently found about ancient Mediterranean coastal settlements testify to Carthaginian trade in locally made olive oil and wine. Carthage's agricultural production was held in high regard by the ancients, and rivaled that of Romethey were once competitors, e.g., over their olive harvests. Under Roman rule, however, grain production (wheat and barley) for export increased dramatically in 'Africa'; yet these later fell with the rise in Roman Egypt's grain exports. Thereafter olive groves and vineyards were re-established around Carthage. Visitors to the several growing regions that surrounded the city wrote admiringly of the lush green gardens, orchards, fields, irrigation channels, hedgerows (as boundaries), as well as the many prosperous farming towns located across the rural landscape. Accordingly, the Greek author and compiler Diodorus Siculus (fl. 1st century BC), who enjoyed access to ancient writings later lost, and on which he based most of his writings, described agricultural land near the city of Carthage c. 310 BC: <blockquote>It was divided into market gardens and orchards of all sorts of fruit trees, with many streams of water flowing in channels irrigating every part. There were country homes everywhere, lavishly built and covered with stucco. ... Part of the land was planted with vines, part with olives and other productive trees. Beyond these, cattle and sheep were pastured on the plains, and there were meadows with grazing horses.</blockquote> Ancient history Greek cities contested with Carthage for the Western Mediterranean culminating in the Sicilian Wars and the Pyrrhic War over Sicily, while the Romans fought three wars against Carthage, known as the Punic Wars, from the Latin "Punicus" meaning "Phoenician", as Carthage was a Phoenician colony grown into an empire. Punic Republic thumb|upright=1.15|Downfall of the Carthaginian Empire }} }} }} ]] The Carthaginian republic was one of the longest-lived and largest states in the ancient Mediterranean. Reports relay several wars with Syracuse and finally, Rome, which eventually resulted in the defeat and destruction of Carthage in the Third Punic War. The Carthaginians were Phoenician settlers of primarily Southern Mediterranean and Southern European ancestry. Phoenicians had originated in the Mediterranean coast of the Levant. They spoke Canaanite, a Semitic language, and followed a local variety of the ancient Canaanite religion, the Punic religion. The Carthaginians travelled widely across the seas and set up numerous colonies. Unlike Greek, Phoenician, and Tyrian colonizers who "only required colonies to pay due respect for their home-cities", Carthage is said to have "sent its own magistrates to govern overseas settlements". Despite initial devastating Roman naval losses and Hannibal's 15-year occupation of much of Roman Italy, who was on the brink of defeat but managed to recover, the end of the series of wars resulted in the end of Carthaginian power and the complete destruction of the city by Scipio Aemilianus. The Romans pulled the Phoenician warships out into the harbor and burned them before the city, and went from house to house, capturing and enslaving the people. About 50,000 Carthaginians were sold into slavery. The city was set ablaze and razed to the ground, leaving only ruins and rubble. After the fall of Carthage, Rome annexed the majority of the Carthaginian colonies, including other North African locations such as Volubilis, Lixus, Chellah. Today a "Carthaginian peace" can refer to any brutal peace treaty demanding total subjugation of the defeated side.Salting legend Since at least 1863, it has been claimed that Carthage was sown with salt after being razed, but there is no evidence for this.Roman Carthage City Center]] ]] When Carthage fell, its nearby rival Utica, a Roman ally, was made capital of the region and replaced Carthage as the leading center of Punic trade and leadership. It had the advantageous position of being situated on the outlet of the Medjerda River, Tunisia's only river that flowed all year long. However, grain cultivation in the Tunisian mountains caused large amounts of silt to erode into the river. This silt accumulated in the harbor until it became useless, and Rome was forced to rebuild Carthage. By 122 BC, Gaius Gracchus founded a short-lived colony, called Colonia Iunonia, after the Latin name for the Punic goddess Tanit, Iuno Caelestis. The purpose was to obtain arable lands for impoverished farmers. The Senate abolished the colony some time later, to undermine Gracchus' power. After this ill-fated effort, a new city of Carthage was built on the same land by Julius Caesar in the period from 49 to 44 BC, and by the first century, it had grown to be the second-largest city in the western half of the Roman Empire, with a peak population of 500,000. It was the center of the province of Africa, which was a major breadbasket of the Empire. Among its major monuments was an amphitheater. Carthage also became a center of early Christianity (see Carthage (episcopal see)). In the first of a string of rather poorly reported councils at Carthage a few years later, no fewer than 70 bishops attended. Tertullian later broke with the mainstream that was increasingly represented in the West by the primacy of the Bishop of Rome, but a more serious rift among Christians was the Donatist controversy, against which Augustine of Hippo spent much time and parchment arguing. At the Council of Carthage (397), the biblical canon for the western Church was confirmed. The Christians at Carthage conducted persecutions against the pagans, during which the pagan temples, notably the famous Temple of Juno Caelesti, were destroyed. in 500, centered on Carthage]] The Vandals under Gaiseric invaded Africa in 429. They relinquished the facade of their allied status to Rome and defeated the Roman general Bonifacius to seize Carthage, the once most treasured province of Rome. Once in power, the ecclesiastical authorities were persecuted, the locals were aggressively taxed, and naval raids were routinely launched on Romans in the Mediterranean. After a failed attempt to recapture the city in the fifth century, the Eastern Roman Empire finally subdued the Vandals in the Vandalic War in 533–534 and made Carthage capital of Byzantine North Africa. Thereafter, the city became the seat of the praetorian prefecture of Africa, which was made into an exarchate during the emperor Maurice's reign, as was Ravenna on the Italian Peninsula. These two exarchates were the western bulwarks of the Byzantine Empire, all that remained of its power in the West. In the early seventh century Heraclius the Elder, the exarch of Carthage, overthrew the Byzantine emperor Phocas, whereupon his son Heraclius succeeded to the imperial throne. Islamic period The Roman Exarchate of Africa was not able to withstand the seventh-century Muslim conquest of the Maghreb. The Umayyad Caliphate under Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan in 686 sent a force led by Zuhayr ibn Qays, who won a battle over the Romans and Berbers led by King Kusaila of the Kingdom of Altava on the plain of Kairouan, but he could not follow that up. In 695, Hassan ibn al-Nu'man captured Carthage and advanced into the Atlas Mountains. An imperial fleet arrived and retook Carthage, but in 698, Hasan ibn al-Nu'man returned and defeated Emperor Tiberios III at the 698 Battle of Carthage. Roman imperial forces withdrew from all of Africa except Ceuta. Fearing that the Byzantine Empire might reconquer it, they decided to destroy Roman Carthage in a scorched earth policy and establish their headquarters somewhere else. Its walls were torn down, the water supply from its aqueducts cut off, the agricultural land was ravaged and its harbors made unusable. The destruction of the Exarchate of Africa marked a permanent end to the Byzantine Empire's influence in the region. It is clear from archaeological evidence that the town of Carthage continued to be occupied, as did the neighborhood of Bjordi Djedid. The Baths of Antoninus continued to function in the Arab period and the eleventh-century historian Al-Bakri stated that they were still in good condition at that time. They also had production centers nearby. It is difficult to determine whether the continued habitation of some other buildings belonged to Late Byzantine or Early Arab period. The Bir Ftouha church may have continued to remain in use although it is not clear when it became uninhabited. Constantine the African was born in Carthage. The Medina of Tunis, originally a Berber settlement, was established as the new regional center under the Umayyad Caliphate in the early 8th century. Under the Aghlabids, the people of Tunis revolted numerous times, but the city profited from economic improvements and quickly became the second most important in the kingdom. It was briefly the national capital, from the end of the reign of Ibrahim II in 902, until 909, when the Shi'ite Berbers took over Ifriqiya and founded the Fatimid Caliphate. Carthage remained a residential see until the high medieval period, and is mentioned in two letters of Pope Leo IX dated 1053, written in reply to consultations regarding a conflict between the bishops of Carthage and Gummi. In each of the two letters, Pope Leo declares that, after the Bishop of Rome, the first archbishop and chief metropolitan of the whole of Africa is the bishop of Carthage. Later, an archbishop of Carthage named Cyriacus was imprisoned by the Arab rulers because of an accusation by some Christians. Pope Gregory VII wrote Cyriacus a letter of consolation, repeating the hopeful assurances of the primacy of the Church of Carthage, "whether the Church of Carthage should still lie desolate or rise again in glory". By 1076, Cyriacus was set free, but there was only one other bishop in the province. These are the last of whom there is mention in that period of the history of the see. The fortress of Carthage was used by the Muslims until Hafsid era and was captured by the Crusaders during the Eighth Crusade. The inhabitants of Carthage were slaughtered by the Crusaders after they took it, and it was used as a base of operations against the Hafsids. After repelling them, Muhammad I al-Mustansir decided to raze Cathage's defenses in order to prevent a repeat.Modern history between Sidi Bou Said and Le Kram]] . This was published in Jean Emile Humbert's ''Notice sur quatre cippes sépulcraux et deux fragments, découverts en 1817, sur le sol de l'ancienne Carthage.]] Carthage is some east-northeast of Tunis; the settlements nearest to Carthage were the town of Sidi Bou Said to the north and the village of Le Kram to the south. Sidi Bou Said was a village which had grown around the tomb of the eponymous sufi saint (d. 1231), which had been developed into a town under Ottoman rule in the 18th century. Le Kram was developed in the late 19th century under French administration as a settlement close to the port of La Goulette. In 1881, Tunisia became a French protectorate, and in the same year Charles Lavigerie, who was archbishop of Algiers, became apostolic administrator of the vicariate of Tunis. In the following year, Lavigerie became a cardinal. He "saw himself as the reviver of the ancient Christian Church of Africa, the Church of Cyprian of Carthage", and, on 10 November 1884, was successful in his great ambition of having the metropolitan see of Carthage restored, with himself as its first archbishop. In line with the declaration of Pope Leo IX in 1053, Pope Leo XIII acknowledged the revived Archdiocese of Carthage as the primatial see of Africa and Lavigerie as primate. The Acropolium of Carthage (Saint Louis Cathedral of Carthage) was erected on Byrsa hill in 1884. Archaeological sites ]] The Danish consul Christian Tuxen Falbe conducted a first survey of the topography of the archaeological site (published in 1833). Antiquarian interest was intensified following the publication of Flaubert's Salammbô in 1858. Charles Ernest Beulé performed some preliminary excavations of Roman remains on Byrsa hill in 1860. In 1866, Muhammad Khaznadar, the son of the Prime Minister of Tunisia, carried out the first locally led excavations. A more systematic survey of both Punic and Roman-era remains is due to Alfred Louis Delattre, who was sent to Tunis by cardinal Charles Lavigerie in 1875 on both an apostolic and an archaeological mission. Audollent cites Delattre and Lavigerie to the effect that in the 1880s, locals still knew the area of the ancient city under the name of Cartagenna (i.e. reflecting the Latin n-stem Carthāgine). Auguste Audollent divided the area of Roman Carthage into four quarters, Cartagenna, Dermèche, Byrsa and La Malga. Cartagenna and Dermèche correspond with the lower city, including the site of Punic Carthage; Byrsa is associated with the upper city, which in Punic times was a walled citadel above the harbour; and La Malga is linked with the more remote parts of the upper city in Roman times. French-led excavations at Carthage began in 1921, and from 1923 reported finds of a large quantity of urns containing a mixture of animal and children's bones. René Dussaud identified a 4th-century BC stela found in Carthage as depicting a child sacrifice. A temple at Amman (1400–1250 BC) excavated and reported upon by J.B. Hennessy in 1966, shows the possibility of bestial and human sacrifice by fire. While evidence of child sacrifice in Canaan was the object of academic disagreement, with some scholars arguing that merely children's cemeteries had been unearthed in Carthage, the mixture of children's with animal bones as well as associated epigraphic evidence involving mention of mlk led some to believe that, at least in Carthage, child sacrifice was indeed common practice. However, though the animals were surely sacrificed, this does not entirely indicate that the infants were, and in fact the bones indicate the opposite. Rather, the animal sacrifice was likely done to, in some way, honour the deceased. A study conducted in 1970 by M. Chabeuf, the then Doctor of Science from the University of Paris, showed little difference between 17 modern Tunisians, and 68 Punic remains. An analysis the following year on 42 North-West African skulls dating back to Roman times concluded that they were overall similar to modern Berbers and other Mediterranean populations, especially eastern Iberians. They also noted the presence of one outlier in Tunisia who appears to have inherited mechtoid traits, which led them to hypothesize the persistence of such affinities well into the Punic and Roman era. M. C. Chamla and D Ferembach (1988) in their entry dealing with the craniometric conclusions of Protohistorical Algerians and Punics in the region of Tunisia, found strong sexual dimorphism with male skulls being robust. Mediterranean elements were dominant, but Mechtoid features, as well as 'Negroid' traits were present in some of the samples. Overall, Punic burials showed affinities with Algerians, Roman Era skulls from Tarragona (Spain), Guanches, and to a lesser extent Abydos (XVIIIth dynasty), Etruscans, Bronze Age Syrians (Euphrates) and skulls from Lozere (France). The anthropological position of the Algerian and Punic people when it comes to populations of the Mediterranean Basin agreed quite well with the geographical situation. Jehan Desanges stated that "In the Punic burial grounds, negroid remains were not rare and there were black auxiliaries in the Carthaginian army who were certainly not Nilotics". In 1990, Shomarka Keita, a biological anthropologist, had conducted a craniometric study which featured a set of remains from Northern Africa. He examined a sample of 49 Maghreban crania which included skulls from pre-Roman Carthage and concluded that, although they were heterogeneous, many of them showed physical similarities to crania from equatorial Africa, ancient Egypt, and Kush; with most having traits conforming to the northern (Lower) Egyptian pattern. S.O.Y. Keita's later report in 2018, found the pre-Roman Carthaginian series to be intermediate between the Phoenician and Maghreban. He noted the findings are consistent with an interpretation that it reflects both local and Levantine ancestry due to specific interactions in the ancient period. Joel. D. Irish, when measuring for dental affinities in 2001, found strong similarities and very small distances between the Canary Islanders and Punic Carthaginians (who originated in West Asia), suggesting a particularly close affinity, despite the geographic distance between these two populations. This result according to Irish, may reflect Berber/Carthaginian admixture. Overall, the findings discovered that "the Canary Island sample is most similar to the four samples from Northwest Africa: the Shawia Berbers, Kabyle Berbers, Bedouin Arabs and Carthaginians, less similar to the three Egyptian samples and least like the three Nubian samples." In 2016, an ancient Carthaginian individual, who was excavated from a Punic tomb in Byrsa Hill, was found to belong to the rare U5b2c1 maternal haplogroup. The Young Man of Byrsa specimen dates from the late 6th century BC, and his lineage is believed to represent early gene flow from Iberia to the Maghreb. Craniometric analysis of the young man indicated likely Mediterranean/European ancestry as opposed to African or Asian.Climate change Due to its coastal location, Carthage Archeological Site is vulnerable to sea level rise. In 2022, the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report included it in the list of African cultural sites which would be threatened by flooding and coastal erosion by the end of the century, but only if climate change followed RCP 8.5, which is the scenario of high and continually increasing greenhouse gas emissions associated with the warming of over , and is no longer considered very likely. The other, more plausible scenarios result in lower warming levels and consequently lower sea level rise: yet, sea levels would continue to increase for about 10,000 years under all of them. Even if the warming is limited to , global sea level rise is still expected to exceed after 2,000 years (and higher warming levels will see larger increases by then), consequently exceeding 2,100 levels of sea level rise under RCP 8.5 (~ with a range of ) well before the year 4000. Thus, it is a matter of time before the Carthage Archeological Site is threatened by rising water levels, unless it can be protected by adaptation efforts such as sea walls. Commune The commune of Carthage was created by a decree of the Bey of Tunis on 15 June 1919, during the rule of Naceur Bey. In 1920, the first seaplane base was built on the Lake of Tunis for the seaplanes of Compagnie Aéronavale. The Tunis Airfield opened in 1938, serving around 5,800 passengers annually on the Paris-Tunis route. During World War II, the airport was used by the United States Army Air Force Twelfth Air Force as a headquarters and command control base for the Italian Campaign of 1943. Construction on the Tunis-Carthage Airport, which was fully funded by France, began in 1944, and in 1948 the airport become the main hub for Tunisair. In the 1950s the Lycée Français de Carthage was established to serve French families in Carthage. In 1961 it was given to the Tunisian government as part of the Independence of Tunisia, so the nearby Collège Maurice Cailloux in La Marsa, previously an annex of the Lycée Français de Carthage, was renamed to the Lycée Français de La Marsa and began serving the lycée level. It is currently the Lycée Gustave Flaubert. After Tunisian independence in 1956, the Tunis conurbation gradually extended around the airport, and Carthage (قرطاج Qarṭāj) is now a suburb of Tunis, covering the area between Sidi Bou Said and Le Kram. Its population as of January 2013 was estimated at 21,276, mostly attracting the more wealthy residents. If Carthage is not the capital, it tends to be the political pole, a "place of emblematic power" according to Sophie Bessis, leaving to Tunis the economic and administrative roles. The Carthage Palace (the Tunisian presidential palace) is located in the coast. The suburb has six train stations of the TGM line between Le Kram and Sidi Bou Said: Carthage Salammbo (named for the ancient children's cemetery where it stands), Carthage Byrsa (named for Byrsa hill), Carthage Dermech (Dermèche), Carthage Hannibal (named for Hannibal), Carthage Présidence (named for the Presidential Palace) and Carthage Amilcar (named for Hamilcar). <!--In February 1985, Ugo Vetere, the mayor of Rome, and Chedly Klibi, the mayor of Carthage, signed a symbolic treaty "officially" ending the conflict between their cities, which had been supposedly extended by the lack of a peace treaty for more than 2,100 years. --> Trade and business The merchants of Carthage were in part heirs of the Mediterranean trade developed by Phoenicia, and so also heirs of the rivalry with Greek merchants. Business activity was accordingly both stimulated and challenged. Cyprus had been an early site of such commercial contests. The Phoenicians then had ventured into the western Mediterranean, founding trading posts, including Utica and Carthage. The Greeks followed, entering the western seas where the commercial rivalry continued. Eventually it would lead, especially in Sicily, to several centuries of intermittent war. Although Greek-made merchandise was generally considered superior in design, Carthage also produced trade goods in abundance. That Carthage came to function as a manufacturing colossus was shown during the Third Punic War with Rome. Carthage, which had previously disarmed, then was made to face the fatal Roman siege. The city "suddenly organised the manufacture of arms" with great skill and effectiveness. According to Strabo (63 BC – AD 21) in his Geographica: <blockquote>[Carthage] each day produced one hundred and forty finished shields, three hundred swords, five hundred spears, and one thousand missiles for the catapults... . Furthermore, [Carthage although surrounded by the Romans] built one hundred and twenty decked ships in two months... for old timber had been stored away in readiness, and a large number of skilled workmen, maintained at public expense.</blockquote> The textile industry in Carthage probably started in private homes, but the existence of professional weavers indicates that a sort of factory system later developed. Products included embroidery, carpets, and use of the purple murex dye (for which the Carthaginian isle of Djerba was famous). Metalworkers developed specialized skills, i.e., making various weapons for the armed forces, as well as domestic articles, such as knives, forks, scissors, mirrors, and razors (all articles found in tombs). Artwork in metals included vases and lamps in bronze, also bowls, and plates. Other products came from such crafts as the potters, the glassmakers, and the goldsmiths. Inscriptions on votive stele indicate that many were not slaves but 'free citizens'. Phoenician and Punic merchant ventures were often run as a family enterprise, putting to work its members and its subordinate clients. Such family-run businesses might perform a variety of tasks: own and maintain the ships, providing the captain and crew; do the negotiations overseas, either by barter or buying and selling, of their own manufactured commodities and trade goods, and native products (metals, foodstuffs, etc.) to carry and trade elsewhere; and send their agents to stay at distant outposts in order to make lasting local contacts, and later to establish a warehouse of shipped goods for exchange, and eventually perhaps a settlement. Over generations, such activity might result in the creation of a wide-ranging network of trading operations. Ancillary would be the growth of reciprocity between different family firms, foreign and domestic. State protection was extended to its sea traders by the Phoenician city of Tyre and later likewise by the daughter city-state of Carthage. Stéphane Gsell, the well-regarded French historian of ancient North Africa, summarized the major principles guiding the civic rulers of Carthage with regard to its policies for trade and commerce: * to open and maintain markets for its merchants, whether by entering into direct contact with foreign peoples using either treaty negotiations or naval power, or by providing security for isolated trading stations * the reservation of markets exclusively for the merchants of Carthage, or where competition could not be eliminated, to regulate trade by state-sponsored agreements with its commercial rivals * suppression of piracy, and promotion of Carthage's ability to freely navigate the seas Both the Phoenicians and the Carthaginians were well known in antiquity for their secrecy in general, and especially pertaining to commercial contacts and trade routes. Both cultures excelled in commercial dealings. Strabo (63 BC–AD 21), the Greek geographer, wrote that before its fall (in 146 BC) Carthage enjoyed a population of 700,000 and directed an alliance of 300 cities. The Greek historian Polybius (–120) referred to Carthage as "the wealthiest city in the world". Constitution of state ]] A "suffet" (possibly two) was elected by the citizens, and held office with no military power for a one-year term. Carthaginian generals marshalled mercenary armies and were separately elected. From about 550 to 450 the Magonid family monopolized the top military position; later the Barcid family acted similarly. Eventually it came to be that, after a war, the commanding general had to testify justifying his actions before a court of 104 judges. Aristotle (384–322) discusses Carthage in his work, Politica; he begins: "The Carthaginians are also considered to have an excellent form of government." He briefly describes the city as a "mixed constitution", a political arrangement with cohabiting elements of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy, i.e., a king (Gk: basileus), a council of elders (Gk: gerusia), and the people (Gk: demos). Later Polybius of Megalopolis (–122, Greek) in his Histories would describe the Roman Republic in more detail as a mixed constitution in which the Consuls were the monarchy, the Senate the aristocracy, and the Assemblies the democracy. Evidently Carthage also had an institution of elders who advised the Suffets, similar to a Greek '' or the Roman Senate. We do not have a Punic name for this body. At times its members would travel with an army general on campaign. Members also formed permanent committees. The institution had several hundred members drawn from the wealthiest class who held office for life. Vacancies were probably filled by recruitment from among the elite, i.e., by co-option. From among its members were selected the 104 Judges mentioned above. Later the 104 would come to evaluate not only army generals but other office holders as well. Aristotle regarded the 104 as most important; he compared it to the ephorate of Sparta with regard to control over security. In Hannibal's time, such a Judge held office for life. At some stage there also came to be independent self-perpetuating boards of five who filled vacancies and supervised (non-military) government administration. Popular assemblies also existed at Carthage. When deadlocked the Suffets and the quasi-senatorial institution of elders might request the assembly to vote; also, assembly votes were requested in very crucial matters in order to achieve political consensus and popular coherence. The assembly members had no legal wealth or birth qualification. How its members were selected is unknown, e.g., whether by festival group or urban ward or another method. The Greeks were favourably impressed by the constitution of Carthage; Aristotle had a separate study of it made which unfortunately is lost. In his Politica he states: "The government of Carthage is oligarchical, but they successfully escape the evils of oligarchy by enriching one portion of the people after another by sending them to their colonies." "[T]heir policy is to send some [poorer citizens] to their dependent towns, where they grow rich." Yet Aristotle continues, "[I]f any misfortune occurred, and the bulk of the subjects revolted, there would be no way of restoring peace by legal means." Aristotle remarked also: <blockquote>Many of the Carthaginian institutions are excellent. The superiority of their constitution is proved by the fact that the common people remain loyal to the constitution; the Carthaginians have never had any rebellion worth speaking of, and have never been under the rule of a tyrant.</blockquote> The city-state of Carthage, whose citizens were mainly Libyphoenicians (of Phoenician ancestry born in Africa), dominated and exploited an agricultural countryside composed mainly of native Berber sharecroppers and farmworkers, whose affiliations to Carthage were open to divergent possibilities. Beyond these more settled Berbers and the Punic farming towns and rural manors, lived the independent Berber tribes, who were mostly pastoralists. In the brief, uneven review of government at Carthage found in his Politica Aristotle mentions several faults. Thus, "that the same person should hold many offices, which is a favorite practice among the Carthaginians." Aristotle disapproves, mentioning the flute-player and the shoemaker. Also, that "magistrates should be chosen not only for their merit but for their wealth." Aristotle's opinion is that focus on pursuit of wealth will lead to oligarchy and its evils. <blockquote>[S]urely it is a bad thing that the greatest offices... should be bought. The law which allows this abuse makes wealth of more account than virtue, and the whole state becomes avaricious. For, whenever the chiefs of the state deem anything honorable, the other citizens are sure to follow their example; and, where virtue has not the first place, their aristocracy cannot be firmly established.</blockquote> In Carthage the people seemed politically satisfied and submissive, according to the historian Warmington. They in their assemblies only rarely exercised the few opportunities given them to assent to state decisions. Popular influence over government appears not to have been an issue at Carthage. Being a commercial republic fielding a mercenary army, the people were not conscripted for military service, an experience which can foster the feel for popular political action. But perhaps this misunderstands the society; perhaps the people, whose values were based on small-group loyalty, felt themselves sufficiently connected to their city's leadership by the very integrity of the person-to-person linkage within their social fabric. Carthage was very stable; there were few openings for tyrants. Only after defeat by Rome devastated Punic imperial ambitions did the people of Carthage seem to question their governance and to show interest in political reform. In 196, following the Second Punic War (218–201), Hannibal, still greatly admired as a Barcid military leader, was elected suffet. When his reforms were blocked by a financial official about to become a judge for life, Hannibal rallied the populace against the 104 judges. He proposed a one-year term for the 104, as part of a major civic overhaul. Additionally, the reform included a restructuring of the city's revenues, and the fostering of trade and agriculture. The changes rather quickly resulted in a noticeable increase in prosperity. Yet his incorrigible political opponents cravenly went to Rome, to charge Hannibal with conspiracy, namely, plotting war against Rome in league with Antiochus the Hellenic ruler of Syria. Although the Roman Scipio Africanus resisted such manoeuvre, eventually intervention by Rome forced Hannibal to leave Carthage. Thus, corrupt city officials efficiently blocked Hannibal in his efforts to reform the government of Carthage. Mago (6th century) was King of Carthage; the head of state, war leader, and religious figurehead. His family was considered to possess a sacred quality. Mago's office was somewhat similar to that of a pharaoh, but although kept in a family it was not hereditary, it was limited by legal consent. Picard, accordingly, believes that the council of elders and the popular assembly are late institutions. Carthage was founded by the king of Tyre who had a royal monopoly on this trading venture. Thus it was the royal authority stemming from this traditional source of power that the King of Carthage possessed. Later, as other Phoenician ship companies entered the trading region, and so associated with the city-state, the King of Carthage had to keep order among a rich variety of powerful merchants in their negotiations among themselves and over risky commerce across the Mediterranean. Under these circumstance, the office of king began to be transformed. Yet it was not until the aristocrats of Carthage became wealthy owners of agricultural lands in Africa that a council of elders was institutionalized at Carthage. Contemporary sources votive inscription, palm motif, and sign of Tanit, from the Carthage tophet, now in the Museum of Fine Arts, Lyon]] Most ancient literature concerning Carthage comes from Greek and Roman sources as Carthage's own documents were destroyed by the Romans. Apart from inscriptions, hardly any Punic literature has survived, and none in its own language and script. A brief catalogue would include: * three short treaties with Rome (Latin translations); * several pages of Hanno the Navigator's log-book concerning his fifth century maritime exploration of the Atlantic coast of west Africa (Greek translation); * fragments quoted from Mago's fourth/third century 28-volume treatise on agriculture (Latin translations); * the Roman playwright Plautus ( – 184) in his Poenulus incorporates a few fictional speeches delivered in Punic, whose written lines are transcribed into Latin letters phonetically; * the thousands of inscriptions made in Punic script, thousands, but many extremely short, e.g., a dedication to a deity with the personal name(s) of the devotee(s). "[F]rom the Greek author Plutarch [(c. 46 – c. 120)] we learn of the 'sacred books' in Punic safeguarded by the city's temples. Few Punic texts survive, however." Once "the City Archives, the Annals, and the scribal lists of Suffets" existed, but evidently these were destroyed in the horrific fires during the Roman capture of the city in 146 BC. Yet some Punic books (Latin: libri punici) from the libraries of Carthage reportedly did survive the fires. These works were apparently given by Roman authorities to the newly augmented Berber rulers. Over a century after the fall of Carthage, the Roman politician-turned-author Gaius Sallustius Crispus or Sallust (86–34) reported his having seen volumes written in Punic, which books were said to be once possessed by the Berber king, Hiempsal II (r. 88–81). By way of Berber informants and Punic translators, Sallust had used these surviving books to write his brief sketch of Berber affairs. , reigned 25 BC – AD 23]] Probably some of Hiempsal II's libri punici, that had escaped the fires that consumed Carthage in 146 BC, wound up later in the large royal library of his grandson Juba II (r. 25 BC–AD 24). Juba II not only was a Berber king, and husband of Cleopatra's daughter, but also a scholar and author in Greek of no less than nine works. He wrote for the Mediterranean-wide audience then enjoying classical literature. The libri punici inherited from his grandfather surely became useful to him when composing his Libyka, a work on North Africa written in Greek. Unfortunately, only fragments of Libyka survive, mostly from quotations made by other ancient authors. It may have been Juba II who 'discovered' the five-centuries-old 'log book' of Hanno the Navigator, called the Periplus, among library documents saved from fallen Carthage. In the end, however, most Punic writings that survived the destruction of Carthage "did not escape the immense wreckage in which so many of Antiquity's literary works perished." Accordingly, the long and continuous interactions between Punic citizens of Carthage and the Berber communities that surrounded the city have no local historian. Their political arrangements and periodic crises, their economic and work life, the cultural ties and social relations established and nourished (infrequently as kin), are not known to us directly from ancient Punic authors in written accounts. Neither side has left us their stories about life in Punic-era Carthage. Regarding Phoenician writings, few remain and these seldom refer to Carthage. The more ancient and most informative are cuneiform tablets, c. 1600–1185, from ancient Ugarit, located to the north of Phoenicia on the Syrian coast; it was a Canaanite city politically affiliated with the Hittites. The clay tablets tell of myths, epics, rituals, medical and administrative matters, and also correspondence. The highly valued works of Sanchuniathon, an ancient priest of Beirut, who reportedly wrote on Phoenician religion and the origins of civilization, are themselves completely lost, but some little content endures twice removed. Sanchuniathon was said to have lived in the 11th century, which is considered doubtful. Much later a Phoenician History by Philo of Byblos (64–141) reportedly existed, written in Greek, but only fragments of this work survive. An explanation proffered for why so few Phoenician works endured: early on (11th century) archives and records began to be kept on papyrus, which does not long survive in a moist coastal climate. Also, both Phoenicians and Carthaginians were well known for their secrecy. Thus, of their ancient writings we have little of major interest left to us by Carthage, or by Phoenicia the country of origin of the city founders. "Of the various Phoenician and Punic compositions alluded to by the ancient classical authors, not a single work or even fragment has survived in its original idiom." "Indeed, not a single Phoenician manuscript has survived in the original [language] or in translation." We cannot therefore access directly the line of thought or the contour of their worldview as expressed in their own words, in their own voice. Ironically, it was the Phoenicians who "invented or at least perfected and transmitted a form of writing [the alphabet] that has influenced dozens of cultures including our own." As noted, the celebrated ancient books on agriculture written by Mago of Carthage survives only via quotations in Latin from several later Roman works. In art and literature The scant remains of what was once a great city are reflected upon in Letitia Elizabeth Landon's poetical illustration, Carthage, to an engraving of a painting by J. Salmon, published in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1837 with quotes from Sir Grenville Temple's Journal. The protagonist in Isaac Asimov's 1956 science-fiction short story "The Dead Past" is an academic professor obsessed with debunking historical perceptions of Carthage. See also * History of Carthage * Carthage tophet * Asterius Chapel * Mosaic of the Horses of Carthage Notes References Sources * |titleLa vie quotidienne à Carthage au temps d'Hannibal [Daily Life in Carthage in the Time of Hannibal] |locationParis |publisherHachette |date=1958 }}. * . * . * |titleCarthage: Uncovering the Mysteries and Splendors of Ancient Tunisia |locationNew York |publisherSimon & Schuster |date1990 }}. * . * * . * * . * . * Li, Hansong (2022). [https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/imp/hpt/2022/00000043/00000002/art00003 "Locating Mobile Sovereignty: Carthage in Natural Jurisprudence"] History of Political Thought 43(2): 246–272. External links * * * Category:Phoenician cities Category:Destroyed populated places Category:Former populated places in Tunisia Category:Populated places established in the 9th century BC Category:Populated places disestablished in the 7th century Category:Phoenician colonies in Tunisia Category:Tourist attractions in Tunisia Category:Child sacrifice
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carthage
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Coprime integers
In number theory, two integers and are coprime, relatively prime or mutually prime if the only positive integer that is a divisor of both of them is 1. Consequently, any prime number that divides does not divide , and vice versa. This is equivalent to their greatest common divisor (GCD) being 1. One says also is prime to or is coprime with . The numbers 8 and 9 are coprime, despite the fact that neither—considered individually—is a prime number, since 1 is their only common divisor. On the other hand, 6 and 9 are not coprime, because they are both divisible by 3. The numerator and denominator of a reduced fraction are coprime, by definition. Notation and testing When the integers and are coprime, the standard way of expressing this fact in mathematical notation is to indicate that their greatest common divisor is one, by the formula or . In their 1989 textbook Concrete Mathematics, Ronald Graham, Donald Knuth, and Oren Patashnik proposed an alternative notation <math>a\perp b</math> to indicate that and are relatively prime and that the term "prime" be used instead of coprime (as in is prime to ). A fast way to determine whether two numbers are coprime is given by the Euclidean algorithm and its faster variants such as binary GCD algorithm or Lehmer's GCD algorithm. The number of integers coprime with a positive integer , between 1 and , is given by Euler's totient function, also known as Euler's phi function, . A set of integers can also be called coprime if its elements share no common positive factor except 1. A stronger condition on a set of integers is pairwise coprime, which means that and are coprime for every pair of different integers in the set. The set {{math|{2, 3, 4} }} is coprime, but it is not pairwise coprime since 2 and 4 are not relatively prime. Properties The numbers 1 and −1 are the only integers coprime with every integer, and they are the only integers that are coprime with 0. A number of conditions are equivalent to and being coprime: *No prime number divides both and . *There exist integers such that (see Bézout's identity). *The integer has a multiplicative inverse modulo , meaning that there exists an integer such that . In ring-theoretic language, is a unit in the ring of integers modulo . *Every pair of congruence relations for an unknown integer , of the form and , has a solution (Chinese remainder theorem); in fact the solutions are described by a single congruence relation modulo . *The least common multiple of and is equal to their product , i.e. . As a consequence of the third point, if and are coprime and , then . That is, we may "divide by " when working modulo . Furthermore, if are both coprime with , then so is their product (i.e., modulo it is a product of invertible elements, and therefore invertible); this also follows from the first point by Euclid's lemma, which states that if a prime number divides a product , then divides at least one of the factors . As a consequence of the first point, if and are coprime, then so are any powers and . If and are coprime and divides the product , then divides . This can be viewed as a generalization of Euclid's lemma. ]] The two integers and are coprime if and only if the point with coordinates in a Cartesian coordinate system would be "visible" via an unobstructed line of sight from the origin , in the sense that there is no point with integer coordinates anywhere on the line segment between the origin and . (See figure 1.) In a sense that can be made precise, the probability that two randomly chosen integers are coprime is , which is about 61% (see , below). Two natural numbers and are coprime if and only if the numbers and are coprime. As a generalization of this, following easily from the Euclidean algorithm in base : : <math>\gcd\left(n^a - 1, n^b - 1\right) n^{\gcd(a, b)} - 1.</math> Coprimality in sets <!-- Coprime set redirects here --> A set of integers <math>S=\{a_1,a_2, \dots, a_n\}</math> can also be called coprime or setwise coprime if the greatest common divisor of all the elements of the set is 1. For example, the integers 6, 10, 15 are coprime because 1 is the only positive integer that divides all of them. If every pair in a set of integers is coprime, then the set is said to be pairwise coprime (or pairwise relatively prime, mutually coprime or mutually relatively prime). Pairwise coprimality is a stronger condition than setwise coprimality; every pairwise coprime finite set is also setwise coprime, but the reverse is not true. For example, the integers 4, 5, 6 are (setwise) coprime (because the only positive integer dividing all of them is 1), but they are not pairwise coprime (because ). The concept of pairwise coprimality is important as a hypothesis in many results in number theory, such as the Chinese remainder theorem. It is possible for an infinite set of integers to be pairwise coprime. Notable examples include the set of all prime numbers, the set of elements in Sylvester's sequence, and the set of all Fermat numbers. Coprimality in ring ideals Two ideals and in a commutative ring are called coprime (or comaximal) if <math>A+BR.</math> This generalizes Bézout's identity: with this definition, two principal ideals () and () in the ring of integers are coprime if and only if and are coprime. If the ideals and of are coprime, then <math>ABA\cap B;</math> furthermore, if is a third ideal such that contains , then contains . The Chinese remainder theorem can be generalized to any commutative ring, using coprime ideals. Probability of coprimality Given two randomly chosen integers and , it is reasonable to ask how likely it is that and are coprime. In this determination, it is convenient to use the characterization that and are coprime if and only if no prime number divides both of them (see Fundamental theorem of arithmetic). Informally, the probability that any number is divisible by a prime (or in fact any integer) is {{tmath|\tfrac{1}{p};}} for example, every 7th integer is divisible by 7. Hence the probability that two numbers are both divisible by is {{tmath|\tfrac{1}{p^2},}} and the probability that at least one of them is not is {{tmath|1-\tfrac{1}{p^2}.}} Any finite collection of divisibility events associated to distinct primes is mutually independent. For example, in the case of two events, a number is divisible by primes and if and only if it is divisible by ; the latter event has probability {{tmath|\tfrac{1}{pq}.}} If one makes the heuristic assumption that such reasoning can be extended to infinitely many divisibility events, one is led to guess that the probability that two numbers are coprime is given by a product over all primes, : <math>\prod_{\text{prime } p} \left(1-\frac{1}{p^2}\right) \left( \prod_{\text{prime } p} \frac{1}{1-p^{-2}} \right)^{-1} \frac{1}{\zeta(2)} = \frac{6}{\pi^2} \approx 0.607927102 \approx 61\%.</math> Here refers to the Riemann zeta function, the identity relating the product over primes to is an example of an Euler product, and the evaluation of as is the Basel problem, solved by Leonhard Euler in 1735. There is no way to choose a positive integer at random so that each positive integer occurs with equal probability, but statements about "randomly chosen integers" such as the ones above can be formalized by using the notion of natural density. For each positive integer , let }} be the probability that two randomly chosen numbers in <math>\{1,2,\ldots,N\}</math> are coprime. Although }} will never equal exactly, with work one can show that in the limit as <math>N \to \infty,</math> the probability }} approaches . More generally, the probability of randomly chosen integers being setwise coprime is {{tmath|\tfrac{1}{\zeta(k)}.}} Generating all coprime pairs at (2, 1). The root (2, 1) is marked red, its three children are shown in orange, third generation is yellow, and so on in the rainbow order.]] All pairs of positive coprime numbers (with ) can be arranged in two disjoint complete ternary trees, one tree starting from (for even–odd and odd–even pairs), and the other tree starting from (for odd–odd pairs). The children of each vertex are generated as follows: *Branch 1: <math>(2m-n,m)</math> *Branch 2: <math>(2m+n,m)</math> *Branch 3: <math>(m+2n,n)</math> This scheme is exhaustive and non-redundant with no invalid members. This can be proved by remarking that, if <math>(a,b)</math> is a coprime pair with <math>a>b,</math> then *if <math>a>3b,</math> then <math>(a,b)</math> is a child of <math>(m,n)=(a-2b, b)</math> along branch 3; *if <math>2b<a<3b,</math> then <math>(a,b)</math> is a child of <math>(m,n)=(b, a-2b)</math> along branch 2; *if <math>b<a<2b,</math> then <math>(a,b)</math> is a child of <math>(m,n)=(b, 2b-a)</math> along branch 1. In all cases <math>(m,n)</math> is a "smaller" coprime pair with <math>m>n.</math> This process of "computing the father" can stop only if either <math>a2b</math> or <math>a3b.</math> In these cases, coprimality, implies that the pair is either <math>(2,1)</math> or <math>(3,1).</math> Another (much simpler) way to generate a tree of positive coprime pairs (with ) is by means of two generators <math>f:(m,n)\rightarrow(m+n,n)</math> and <math>g:(m,n)\rightarrow(m+n,m)</math>, starting with the root <math>(2,1)</math>. The resulting binary tree, the Calkin–Wilf tree, is exhaustive and non-redundant, which can be seen as follows. Given a coprime pair one recursively applies <math>f^{-1}</math> or <math>g^{-1}</math> depending on which of them yields a positive coprime pair with . Since only one does, the tree is non-redundant. Since by this procedure one is bound to arrive at the root, the tree is exhaustive. Applications In machine design, an even, uniform gear wear is achieved by choosing the tooth counts of the two gears meshing together to be relatively prime. When a 1:1 gear ratio is desired, a gear relatively prime to the two equal-size gears may be inserted between them. In pre-computer cryptography, some Vernam cipher machines combined several loops of key tape of different lengths. Many rotor machines combine rotors of different numbers of teeth. Such combinations work best when the entire set of lengths are pairwise coprime. Generalizations This concept can be extended to other algebraic structures than for example, polynomials whose greatest common divisor is 1 are called coprime polynomials. See also *Euclid's orchard *Superpartient number Notes References * * * * Further reading*. Category:Number theory
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coprime_integers
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Control unit
The control unit (CU) is a component of a computer's central processing unit (CPU) that directs the operation of the processor. A CU typically uses a binary decoder to convert coded instructions into timing and control signals that direct the operation of the other units (memory, arithmetic logic unit and input and output devices, etc.). Most computer resources are managed by the CU. It directs the flow of data between the CPU and the other devices. John von Neumann included the control unit as part of the von Neumann architecture. In modern computer designs, the control unit is typically an internal part of the CPU with its overall role and operation unchanged since its introduction. Multicycle control units The simplest computers use a multicycle microarchitecture. These were the earliest designs. They are still popular in the very smallest computers, such as the embedded systems that operate machinery. In a computer, the control unit often steps through the instruction cycle successively. This consists of fetching the instruction, fetching the operands, decoding the instruction, executing the instruction, and then writing the results back to memory. When the next instruction is placed in the control unit, it changes the behavior of the control unit to complete the instruction correctly. So, the bits of the instruction directly control the control unit, which in turn controls the computer. The control unit may include a binary counter to tell the control unit's logic what step it should do. Multicycle control units typically use both the rising and falling edges of their square-wave timing clock. They operate a step of their operation on each edge of the timing clock, so that a four-step operation completes in two clock cycles. This doubles the speed of the computer, given the same logic family. Many computers have two different types of unexpected events. An interrupt occurs because some type of input or output needs software attention in order to operate correctly. An exception is caused by the computer's operation. One crucial difference is that the timing of an interrupt cannot be predicted. Another is that some exceptions (e.g. a memory-not-available exception) can be caused by an instruction that needs to be restarted. Control units can be designed to handle interrupts in one of two typical ways. If a quick response is most important, a control unit is designed to abandon work to handle the interrupt. In this case, the work in process will be restarted after the last completed instruction. If the computer is to be very inexpensive, very simple, very reliable, or to get more work done, the control unit will finish the work in process before handling the interrupt. Finishing the work is inexpensive, because it needs no register to record the last finished instruction. It is simple and reliable because it has the fewest states. It also wastes the least amount of work. Exceptions can be made to operate like interrupts in very simple computers. If virtual memory is required, then a memory-not-available exception must retry the failing instruction. It is common for multicycle computers to use more cycles. Sometimes it takes longer to take a conditional jump, because the program counter has to be reloaded. Sometimes they do multiplication or division instructions by a process, something like binary long multiplication and division. Very small computers might do arithmetic, one or a few bits at a time. Some other computers have very complex instructions that take many steps. Pipelined control units Many medium-complexity computers pipeline instructions. This design is popular because of its economy and speed. In a pipelined computer, instructions flow through the computer. This design has several stages. For example, it might have one stage for each step of the Von Neumann cycle. A pipelined computer usually has "pipeline registers" after each stage. These store the bits calculated by a stage so that the logic gates of the next stage can use the bits to do the next step. It is common for even numbered stages to operate on one edge of the square-wave clock, while odd-numbered stages operate on the other edge. This speeds the computer by a factor of two compared to single-edge designs. In a pipelined computer, the control unit arranges for the flow to start, continue, and stop as a program commands. The instruction data is usually passed in pipeline registers from one stage to the next, with a somewhat separated piece of control logic for each stage. The control unit also assures that the instruction in each stage does not harm the operation of instructions in other stages. For example, if two stages must use the same piece of data, the control logic assures that the uses are done in the correct sequence. When operating efficiently, a pipelined computer will have an instruction in each stage. It is then working on all of those instructions at the same time. It can finish about one instruction for each cycle of its clock. When a program makes a decision, and switches to a different sequence of instructions, the pipeline sometimes must discard the data in process and restart. This is called a "stall." When two instructions could interfere, sometimes the control unit must stop processing a later instruction until an earlier instruction completes. This is called a "pipeline bubble" because a part of the pipeline is not processing instructions. Pipeline bubbles can occur when two instructions operate on the same register. Interrupts and unexpected exceptions also stall the pipeline. If a pipelined computer abandons work for an interrupt, more work is lost than in a multicycle computer. Predictable exceptions do not need to stall. For example, if an exception instruction is used to enter the operating system, it does not cause a stall. For the same speed of electronic logic, a pipelined computer can execute more instructions per second than a multicycle computer. Also, even though the electronic logic has a fixed maximum speed, a pipelined computer can be made faster or slower by varying the number of stages in the pipeline. With more stages, each stage does less work, and so the stage has fewer delays from the logic gates. A pipelined model of a computer often has less logic gates per instruction per second than multicycle and out-of-order computers. This is because the average stage is less complex than a multicycle computer. An out-of-order computer usually has large amounts of idle logic at any given instant. Similar calculations usually show that a pipelined computer uses less energy per instruction. However, a pipelined computer is usually more complex and more costly than a comparable multicycle computer. It typically has more logic gates, registers and a more complex control unit. In a like way, it might use more total energy, while using less energy per instruction. Out-of-order CPUs can usually do more instructions per second because they can do several instructions at once. Preventing stalls Control units use many methods to keep a pipeline full and avoid stalls. For example, even simple control units can assume that a backwards branch, to a lower-numbered, earlier instruction, is a loop, and will be repeated. So, a control unit with this design will always fill the pipeline with the backwards branch path. If a compiler can detect the most frequently-taken direction of a branch, the compiler can just produce instructions so that the most frequently taken branch is the preferred direction of branch. In a like way, a control unit might get hints from the compiler: Some computers have instructions that can encode hints from the compiler about the direction of branch. Some control units do branch prediction: A control unit keeps an electronic list of the recent branches, encoded by the address of the branch instruction. that detects when an instruction can be issued. The "height" of the array is the number of execution units, and the "length" and "width" are each the number of sources of operands. When all the items come together, the signals from the operands and execution unit will cross. The logic at this intersection detects that the instruction can work, so the instruction is "issued" to the free execution unit. An alternative style of issuing control unit implements the Tomasulo algorithm, which reorders a hardware queue of instructions. In some sense, both styles utilize a queue. The scoreboard is an alternative way to encode and reorder a queue of instructions, and some designers call it a queue table. With some additional logic, a scoreboard can compactly combine execution reordering, register renaming and precise exceptions and interrupts. Further it can do this without the power-hungry, complex content-addressable memory used by the Tomasulo algorithm. Translating control units Some computers translate each single instruction into a sequence of simpler instructions. The advantage is that an out of order computer can be simpler in the bulk of its logic, while handling complex multi-step instructions. x86 Intel CPUs since the Pentium Pro translate complex CISC x86 instructions to more RISC-like internal micro-operations. In these, the "front" of the control unit manages the translation of instructions. Operands are not translated. The "back" of the CU is an out-of-order CPU that issues the micro-operations and operands to the execution units and data paths. Control units for low-powered computers Many modern computers have controls that minimize power usage. In battery-powered computers, such as those in cell-phones, the advantage is longer battery life. In computers with utility power, the justification is to reduce the cost of power, cooling or noise. Most modern computers use CMOS logic. CMOS wastes power in two common ways: By changing state, i.e. "active power", and by unintended leakage. The active power of a computer can be reduced by turning off control signals. Leakage current can be reduced by reducing the electrical pressure, the voltage, making the transistors with larger depletion regions or turning off the logic completely. Active power is easier to reduce because data stored in the logic is not affected. The usual method reduces the CPU's clock rate. Most computer systems use this method. It is common for a CPU to idle during the transition to avoid side-effects from the changing clock. Most computers also have a "halt" instruction. This was invented to stop non-interrupt code so that interrupt code has reliable timing. However, designers soon noticed that a halt instruction was also a good time to turn off a CPU's clock completely, reducing the CPU's active power to zero. The interrupt controller might continue to need a clock, but that usually uses much less power than the CPU. These methods are relatively easy to design, and became so common that others were invented for commercial advantage. Many modern low-power CMOS CPUs stop and start specialized execution units and bus interfaces depending on the needed instruction. Some computers even arrange the CPU's microarchitecture to use transfer-triggered multiplexers so that each instruction only utilises the exact pieces of logic needed. One common method is to spread the load to many CPUs, and turn off unused CPUs as the load reduces. The operating system's task switching logic saves the CPUs' data to memory. In some cases, one of the CPUs can be simpler and smaller, literally with fewer logic gates. So, it has low leakage, and it is the last to be turned off, and the first to be turned on. Also it then is the only CPU that requires special low-power features. A similar method is used in most PCs, which usually have an auxiliary embedded CPU that manages the power system. However, in PCs, the software is usually in the BIOS, not the operating system. Theoretically, computers at lower clock speeds could also reduce leakage by reducing the voltage of the power supply. This affects the reliability of the computer in many ways, so the engineering is expensive, and it is uncommon except in relatively expensive computers such as PCs or cellphones. Some designs can use very low leakage transistors, but these usually add cost. The depletion barriers of the transistors can be made larger to have less leakage, but this makes the transistor larger and thus both slower and more expensive. Some vendors use this technique in selected portions of an IC by constructing low leakage logic from large transistors that some processes provide for analog circuits. Some processes place the transistors above the surface of the silicon, in "fin fets", but these processes have more steps, so are more expensive. Special transistor doping materials (e.g. hafnium) can also reduce leakage, but this adds steps to the processing, making it more expensive. Some semiconductors have a larger band-gap than silicon. However, these materials and processes are currently (2020) more expensive than silicon. Managing leakage is more difficult, because before the logic can be turned-off, the data in it must be moved to some type of low-leakage storage. Some CPUs make use of a special type of flip-flop (to store a bit) that couples a fast, high-leakage storage cell to a slow, large (expensive) low-leakage cell. These two cells have separated power supplies. When the CPU enters a power saving mode (e.g. because of a halt that waits for an interrupt), data is transferred to the low-leakage cells, and the others are turned off. When the CPU leaves a low-leakage mode (e.g. because of an interrupt), the process is reversed. Older designs would copy the CPU state to memory, or even disk, sometimes with specialized software. Very simple embedded systems sometimes just restart. Integrating with the Computer All modern CPUs have control logic to attach the CPU to the rest of the computer. In modern computers, this is usually a bus controller. When an instruction reads or writes memory, the control unit either controls the bus directly, or controls a bus controller. Many modern computers use the same bus interface for memory, input and output. This is called "memory-mapped I/O". To a programmer, the registers of the I/O devices appear as numbers at specific memory addresses. x86 PCs use an older method, a separate I/O bus accessed by I/O instructions. A modern CPU also tends to include an interrupt controller. It handles interrupt signals from the system bus. The control unit is the part of the computer that responds to the interrupts. There is often a cache controller to cache memory. The cache controller and the associated cache memory is often the largest physical part of a modern, higher-performance CPU. When the memory, bus or cache is shared with other CPUs, the control logic must communicate with them to assure that no computer ever gets out-of-date old data. Many historic computers built some type of input and output directly into the control unit. For example, many historic computers had a front panel with switches and lights directly controlled by the control unit. These let a programmer directly enter a program and debug it. In later production computers, the most common use of a front panel was to enter a small bootstrap program to read the operating system from disk. This was annoying. So, front panels were replaced by bootstrap programs in read-only memory. Most PDP-8 models had a data bus designed to let I/O devices borrow the control unit's memory read and write logic. This reduced the complexity and expense of high speed I/O controllers, e.g. for disk. The Xerox Alto had a multitasking microprogrammable control unit that performed almost all I/O. This design provided most of the features of a modern PC with only a tiny fraction of the electronic logic. The dual-thread computer was run by the two lowest-priority microthreads. These performed calculations whenever I/O was not required. High priority microthreads provided (in decreasing priority) video, network, disk, a periodic timer, mouse, and keyboard. The microprogram did the complex logic of the I/O device, as well as the logic to integrate the device with the computer. For the actual hardware I/O, the microprogram read and wrote shift registers for most I/O, sometimes with resistor networks and transistors to shift output voltage levels (e.g. for video). To handle outside events, the microcontroller had microinterrupts to switch threads at the end of a thread's cycle, e.g. at the end of an instruction, or after a shift-register was accessed. The microprogram could be rewritten and reinstalled, which was very useful for a research computer. Functions of the control unit Thus a program of instructions in memory will cause the CU to configure a CPU's data flows to manipulate the data correctly between instructions. This results in a computer that could run a complete program and require no human intervention to make hardware changes between instructions (as had to be done when using only punch cards for computations before stored programmed computers with CUs were invented). Hardwired control unit thumb|Animation of the control matrix of a simple hardwired control unit performing an LDA-instruction Hardwired control units are implemented through use of combinational logic units, featuring a finite number of gates that can generate specific results based on the instructions that were used to invoke those responses. Hardwired control units are generally faster than the microprogrammed designs. This design uses a fixed architecture—it requires changes in the wiring if the instruction set is modified or changed. It can be convenient for simple, fast computers. A controller that uses this approach can operate at high speed; however, it has little flexibility. A complex instruction set can overwhelm a designer who uses ad hoc logic design. The hardwired approach has become less popular as computers have evolved. Previously, control units for CPUs used ad hoc logic, and they were difficult to design. Microprogram control unit The idea of microprogramming was introduced by Maurice Wilkes in 1951 as an intermediate level to execute computer program instructions. Microprograms were organized as a sequence of microinstructions and stored in special control memory. The algorithm for the microprogram control unit, unlike the hardwired control unit, is usually specified by flowchart description. The main advantage of a microprogrammed control unit is the simplicity of its structure. Outputs from the controller are by microinstructions. The microprogram can be debugged and replaced similarly to software. Combination methods of design A popular variation on microcode is to debug the microcode using a software simulator. Then, the microcode is a table of bits. This is a logical truth table, that translates a microcode address into the control unit outputs. This truth table can be fed to a computer program that produces optimized electronic logic. The resulting control unit is almost as easy to design as microprogramming, but it has the fast speed and low number of logic elements of a hard wired control unit. The practical result resembles a Mealy machine or Richards controller. See also Processor design Computer architecture Richards controller Controller (computing) References Category:Central processing unit Category:Digital electronics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_unit
2025-04-05T18:27:50.799098
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Cello
1660 from bass violin |range|related *Violin family (violin, viola) *Double bass |musicians|articles |sound sample = }} The violoncello ( , ), normally simply abbreviated as cello ( ), is a middle pitched bowed (sometimes plucked and occasionally hit) string instrument of the violin family. Its four strings are usually tuned in perfect fifths: from low to high, C<sub>2</sub>, G<sub>2</sub>, D<sub>3</sub> and A<sub>3</sub>. The viola's four strings are each an octave higher. Music for the cello is generally written in the bass clef; the tenor clef and treble clef are used for higher-range passages. Played by a cellist or violoncellist, it enjoys a large solo repertoire with and without accompaniment, as well as numerous concerti. As a solo instrument, the cello uses its whole range, from bass to soprano, and in chamber music, such as string quartets and the orchestra's string section, it often plays the bass part, where it may be reinforced an octave lower by the double basses. Figured bass music of the Baroque era typically assumes a cello, viola da gamba or bassoon as part of the basso continuo group alongside chordal instruments such as organ, harpsichord, lute, or theorbo. Cellos are found in many other ensembles, from modern Chinese orchestras to cello rock bands. Etymology The name cello is derived from the ending of the Italian violoncello, which means "little violone". Violone ("big viola") was a large-sized member of viol (viola da gamba) family or the violin (viola da braccio) family. The term "violone" today usually refers to the lowest-pitched instrument of the viols, a family of stringed instruments that went out of fashion around the end of the 17th century in most countries except England and, especially, France, where they survived another half-century before the louder violin family came into greater favour in that country as well. In modern symphony orchestras, it is the second largest stringed instrument (the double bass is the largest). Thus, the name "violoncello" contained both the augmentative "-one" ("big") and the diminutive "-cello" ("little"). By the turn of the 20th century, it had become common to shorten the name to 'cello, with the apostrophe indicating the missing stem. It is now customary to use "cello" without apostrophe as the full designation. From the Classical era, the two concertos by Joseph Haydn in C major and D major stand out, as do the five sonatas for cello and pianoforte of Ludwig van Beethoven, which span the important three periods of his compositional evolution. Other outstanding examples include the three Concerti by Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, Capricci by dall'Abaco, and Sonatas by Flackton, Boismortier, and Luigi Boccherini. A Divertimento for Piano, Clarinet, Viola and Cello is among the surviving works by Duchess Anna Amalia of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (1739–1807). Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart supposedly wrote a Cello Concerto in F major, K. 206a in 1775, but this has since been lost. His Sinfonia Concertante in A major, K. 320e includes a solo part for cello, along with the violin and viola, although this work is incomplete and only exists in fragments, therefore it is given an Anhang number (Anh. 104). Well-known works of the Romantic era include the Robert Schumann Concerto, the Antonín Dvořák Concerto, the first Camille Saint-Saëns Concerto, as well as the two sonatas and the Double Concerto by Johannes Brahms. A review of compositions for cello in the Romantic era must include the German composer Fanny Mendelssohn (1805–1847), who wrote Fantasia in G Minor for cello and piano and a Capriccio in A-flat for cello.<!--Who claims these are important or even well-known works?--> Compositions from the late 19th and early 20th century include three cello sonatas (including the Cello Sonata in C Minor written in 1880) by Dame Ethel Smyth (1858–1944), Edward Elgar's Cello Concerto in E minor, Claude Debussy's Sonata for Cello and Piano, and unaccompanied cello sonatas by Zoltán Kodály and Paul Hindemith. Pieces including cello were written by American Music Center founder Marion Bauer (1882–1955) (two trio sonatas for flute, cello, and piano) and Ruth Crawford Seeger (1901–1953) (Diaphonic suite No. 2 for bassoon and cello). The cello's versatility made it popular with many composers in this era, such as Sergei Prokofiev, Dmitri Shostakovich, Benjamin Britten, György Ligeti, Witold Lutoslawski and Henri Dutilleux. Polish composer Grażyna Bacewicz (1909–1969) was writing for cello in the mid 20th century with Concerto No. 1 for Cello and Orchestra (1951), Concerto No. 2 for Cello and Orchestra (1963) and in 1964 composed her Quartet for four cellos. In the 2010s, the instrument is found in popular music, but was more commonly used in 1970s pop and disco music. Today it is sometimes featured in pop and rock recordings, examples of which are noted later in this article. The cello has also appeared in major hip-hop and R & B performances, such as singers Rihanna and Ne-Yo's 2007 performance at the American Music Awards. The instrument has also been modified for Indian classical music by Nancy Lesh and Saskia Rao-de Haas.<sup>[5]</sup>History <!--'Viola da spalla' redirects here--> The violin family, including cello-sized instruments, emerged as a family of instruments distinct from the viola da gamba family. The earliest depictions of the violin family, from Italy , show three sizes of instruments, roughly corresponding to what we now call violins, violas, and cellos. Contrary to a popular misconception, the cello did not evolve from the viola da gamba, but existed alongside it for about two and a half centuries. The violin family is also known as the viola da braccio (meaning viola for the arm) family, a reference to the primary way the members of the family are held. This is to distinguish it from the viola da gamba (meaning viola for the leg) family, in which all the members are all held with the legs. The likely predecessors of the violin family include the lira da braccio and the rebec. The earliest surviving cellos are made by Andrea Amati, the first known member of the celebrated Amati family of luthiers.<!--The instrument described is clearly stated to have been a three-string bass, later cut down and remade into a cello.--> The direct ancestor to the violoncello was the bass violin.<sup>[unt. library]</sup> Monteverdi referred to the instrument as "basso de viola da braccio" in Orfeo (1607). Although the first bass violin, possibly invented as early as 1538, was most likely inspired by the viol, it was created to be used in consort with the violin. The bass violin was actually often referred to as a "violone", or "large viola", as were the viols of the same period. Instruments that share features with both the bass violin and the viola da gamba appear in Italian art of the early 16th century. The invention of wire-wound strings (fine wire around a thin gut core), in Bologna, allowed for a finer bass sound than was possible with purely gut strings on such a short body. Bolognese makers exploited this new technology to create the cello, a somewhat smaller instrument suitable for solo repertoire due to both the timbre of the instrument and the fact that the smaller size made it easier to play virtuosic passages. This instrument had disadvantages as well, however. The cello's light sound was not as suitable for church and ensemble playing, so it had to be doubled by organ, theorbo, or violone. Around 1700, Italian players popularized the cello in northern Europe, although the bass violin (basse de violon) continued to be used for another two decades in France.<!--I believe you, I would just like to know where you got the info--> Many existing bass violins were literally cut down in size to convert them into cellos according to the smaller pattern developed by Stradivarius, who also made a number of old pattern large cellos (the 'Servais'). The sizes, names, and tunings of the cello varied widely by geography and time. The fingerboard is usually shorter than that of the modern cello, as the highest notes are not often called for in baroque music. Modern cellos have an endpin at the bottom to support the instrument (and transmit some of the sound through the floor), while Baroque cellos are held only by the calves of the player. Modern bows curve in and are held at the frog; Baroque bows curve out and are held closer to the bow's point of balance. Modern strings are normally flatwound with a metal (or synthetic) core; Baroque strings are made of gut, with the G and C strings wire-wound. Modern cellos often have fine tuners connecting the strings to the tailpiece, which makes it much easier to tune the instrument, but such pins are rendered ineffective by the flexibility of the gut strings used on Baroque cellos. Overall, the modern instrument has much higher string tension than the Baroque cello, resulting in a louder, more projecting tone, with fewer overtones. In addition, the instrument was less standardized in size and number of strings; a smaller, five-string variant (the violoncello piccolo) was commonly used as a solo instrument and five-string instruments are occasionally specified in the Baroque repertoire. BWV 1012 (Bach's 6th Cello Suite) was written for 5-string cello. The additional high E string on the five-string cello is an octave below the same string on the Violin, so anything written for the violin can be played on the 5 string cello, sounding an octave lower than written. Few educational works specifically devoted to the cello existed before the 18th century and those that do exist contain little value to the performer beyond simple accounts of instrumental technique. One of the earliest cello manuals is Michel Corrette's Méthode, thèorique et pratique pour apprendre en peu de temps le violoncelle dans sa perfection (Paris, 1741).Modern use 's Sonata for Two Cellos in C Major, 1st movement: Allegro moderato performed by Alisa Weilerstein and 8-year-old Sujari Britt]] Orchestral Cellos are part of the standard symphony orchestra, which usually includes eight to twelve cellists. The cello section, in standard orchestral seating, is located on stage left (the audience's right) in the front, opposite the first violin section. However, some orchestras and conductors prefer switching the positioning of the viola and cello sections. The principal cellist is the section leader, determining bowings for the section in conjunction with other string principals, playing solos, and leading entrances (when the section begins to play its part). Principal players always sit closest to the audience. The cellos are a critical part of orchestral music; all symphonic works involve the cello section, and many pieces require cello soli or solos. Much of the time, cellos provide part of the low-register harmony for the orchestra. Often, the cello section plays the melody for a brief period, before returning to the harmony role. There are also cello concertos, which are orchestral pieces that feature a solo cellist accompanied by an entire orchestra. Solo There are numerous cello concertos – where a solo cello is accompanied by an orchestra – notably 25 by Vivaldi, 12 by Boccherini, at least three by Haydn, three by C. P. E. Bach, two by Saint-Saëns, two by Dvořák, and one each by Robert Schumann, Lalo, and Elgar. There were also some composers who, while not otherwise cellists, did write cello-specific repertoire, such as Nikolaus Kraft, who wrote six cello concertos. Beethoven's Triple Concerto for Cello, Violin and Piano and Brahms' Double Concerto for Cello and Violin are also part of the concertante repertoire, although in both cases the cello shares solo duties with at least one other instrument. Moreover, several composers wrote large-scale pieces for cello and orchestra, which are concertos in all but name. Some familiar "concertos" are Richard Strauss' tone poem Don Quixote, Tchaikovsky's Variations on a Rococo Theme, Bloch's Schelomo and Bruch's Kol Nidrei. In the 20th century, the cello repertoire grew immensely. This was partly due to the influence of virtuoso cellist Mstislav Rostropovich, who inspired, commissioned, and premiered dozens of new works. Among these, Prokofiev's Symphony-Concerto, Britten's Cello Symphony, the concertos of Shostakovich and Lutosławski as well as Dutilleux's Tout un monde lointain... have already become part of the standard repertoire. Other major composers who wrote concertante works for him include Messiaen, Jolivet, Berio, and Penderecki. In addition, Arnold, Barber, Glass, Hindemith, Honegger, Ligeti, Myaskovsky, Penderecki, Rodrigo, Villa-Lobos and Walton wrote major concertos for other cellists, notably for Gaspar Cassadó, Aldo Parisot, Gregor Piatigorsky, Siegfried Palm and Julian Lloyd Webber. There are also many sonatas for cello and piano. Those written by Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Chopin, Brahms, Grieg, Rachmaninoff, Debussy, Fauré, Shostakovich, Prokofiev, Poulenc, Carter, and Britten are particularly well known. Other important pieces for cello and piano include Schumann's five Stücke im Volkston and transcriptions like Schubert's Arpeggione Sonata (originally for arpeggione and piano), César Franck's Cello Sonata (originally a violin sonata, transcribed by Jules Delsart with the composer's approval), Stravinsky's Suite italienne (transcribed by the composer – with Gregor Piatigorsky – from his ballet Pulcinella) and Bartók's first rhapsody (also transcribed by the composer, originally for violin and piano). There are pieces for cello solo, Johann Sebastian Bach's six Suites for Cello (which are among the best-known solo cello pieces), Kodály's Sonata for Solo Cello and Britten's three Cello Suites. Other notable examples include Hindemith's and Ysaÿe's Sonatas for Solo Cello, Dutilleux's Trois Strophes sur le Nom de Sacher, Berio's Les Mots Sont Allés, Cassadó's Suite for Solo Cello, Ligeti's Solo Sonata, Carter's two Figments and Xenakis' Nomos Alpha and Kottos. There are also modern solo pieces written for cello, such as Julie-O by Mark Summer. Quartets and other ensembles The cello is a member of the traditional string quartet as well as string quintets, sextet or trios and other mixed ensembles. There are also pieces written for two, three, four, or more cellos; this type of ensemble is also called a "cello choir" and its sound is familiar from the introduction to Rossini's William Tell Overture as well as Zaccharia's prayer scene in Verdi's Nabucco. Tchaikovsky's 1812 Overture also starts with a cello ensemble, with four cellos playing the top lines and two violas playing the bass lines. As a self-sufficient ensemble, its most famous repertoire is Heitor Villa-Lobos' first of his Bachianas Brasileiras for cello ensemble (the fifth is for soprano and 8 cellos). Other examples are Offenbach's cello duets, quartet, and sextet, Pärt's Fratres for eight cellos and Boulez' Messagesquisse for seven cellos, or even Villa-Lobos' rarely played Fantasia Concertante (1958) for 32 cellos. The 12 cellists of the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra (or "the Twelve" as they have since taken to being called) specialize in this repertoire and have commissioned many works, including arrangements of well-known popular songs. Popular music, jazz, world music and neoclassical at the 2009 Ilosaarirock festival.]] The cello is less common in popular music than in classical music. Several bands feature a cello in their standard line-up, including Hoppy Jones of the Ink Spots and Joe Kwon of the Avett Brothers. The more common use in pop and rock is to bring the instrument in for a particular song. In the 1960s, artists such as the Beatles and Cher used the cello in popular music, in songs such as The Beatles' "Yesterday", "Eleanor Rigby" and "Strawberry Fields Forever", and Cher's "Bang Bang (My Baby Shot Me Down)". "Good Vibrations" by the Beach Boys includes the cello in its instrumental ensemble, which includes a number of instruments unusual for this sort of music. Bass guitarist Jack Bruce, who had originally studied music on a performance scholarship for cello, played a prominent cello part in "As You Said" on Cream's Wheels of Fire studio album (1968). In the 1970s, the Electric Light Orchestra enjoyed great commercial success taking inspiration from so-called "Beatlesque" arrangements, adding the cello (and violin) to the standard rock combo line-up and in 1978 the UK-based rock band Colosseum II collaborated with cellist Julian Lloyd Webber on the recording Variations. Most notably, Pink Floyd included a cello solo in their 1970 epic instrumental "Atom Heart Mother". Bass guitarist Mike Rutherford of Genesis was originally a cellist and included some cello parts in their Foxtrot album. Established non-traditional cello groups include Apocalyptica, a group of Finnish cellists best known for their versions of Metallica songs; Rasputina, a group of cellists committed to an intricate cello style intermingled with Gothic music; the Massive Violins, an ensemble of seven singing cellists known for their arrangements of rock, pop and classical hits; Von Cello, a cello-fronted rock power trio; Break of Reality, who mix elements of classical music with the more modern rock and metal genre; Cello Fury, a cello rock band that performs original rock/classical crossover music; and Jelloslave, a Minneapolis-based cello duo with two percussionists. These groups are examples of a style that has become known as cello rock. The crossover string quartet Bond also includes a cellist. Silenzium and Cellissimo Quartet are Russian (Novosibirsk) groups playing rock and metal and having more and more popularity in Siberia. Cold Fairyland from Shanghai, China is using a cello along with a pipa as the main solo instrument to create East meets West progressive (folk) rock. More recent bands who have used the cello include Clean Bandit, Aerosmith, The Auteurs, Nirvana, Oasis, Ra Ra Riot, Smashing Pumpkins, James, Talk Talk, Phillip Phillips, OneRepublic, Electric Light Orchestra and the baroque rock band Arcade Fire. An Atlanta-based trio, King Richard's Sunday Best, also uses a cellist in their lineup. So-called "chamber pop" artists like Kronos Quartet, The Vitamin String Quartet and Margot and the Nuclear So and So's have also recently made cello common in modern alternative rock. Heavy metal band System of a Down has also made use of the cello's rich sound. The indie rock band The Stiletto Formal are known for using a cello as a major staple of their sound; similarly, the indie rock band Canada employs two cello players in their lineup. The orch-rock group The Polyphonic Spree, which has pioneered the use of stringed and symphonic instruments, employs the cello in creative ways for many of their "psychedelic-esque" melodies. The first-wave screamo band I Would Set Myself On Fire For You featured a cello as well as a viola to create a more folk-oriented sound. The band Panic! at the Disco uses a cello in their song "Build God, Then We'll Talk", with lead vocalist Brendon Urie recording the cello solo himself. The Lumineers added cellist Nela Pekarek to the band in 2010. Radiohead makes frequent use of cello in their music, notably for the songs "Burn The Witch" and "Glass Eyes" in 2016. In jazz, bassists Oscar Pettiford and Harry Babasin were among the first to use the cello as a solo instrument; both tuned their instruments in fourths, an octave above the double bass. Fred Katz (who was not a bassist) was one of the first notable jazz cellists to use the instrument's standard tuning and arco technique. Contemporary jazz cellists include Abdul Wadud, Diedre Murray, Ron Carter, Dave Holland, David Darling, Lucio Amanti, Akua Dixon, Ernst Reijseger, Fred Lonberg-Holm, Tom Cora and Erik Friedlander. Modern musical theatre pieces like Jason Robert Brown's The Last Five Years, Duncan Sheik's Spring Awakening, Adam Guettel's Floyd Collins, and Ricky Ian Gordon's My Life with Albertine use small string ensembles (including solo cellos) to a prominent extent. In Indian classical music, Saskia Rao-de Haas is a well-established soloist as well as playing duets with her sitarist husband, Pt. Shubhendra Rao. Other cellists performing Indian classical music are Nancy Lesh (Dhrupad) and Anup Biswas. Both Rao and Lesh play the cello sitting cross-legged on the floor. The cello can also be used in bluegrass and folk music, with notable players including Ben Sollee of the Sparrow Quartet and the "Cajun cellist" Sean Grissom, as well as Vyvienne Long, who, in addition to her own projects, has played for those of Damien Rice. Cellists such as Natalie Haas, Abby Newton, and Liz Davis Maxfield have contributed significantly to the use of cello playing in Celtic folk music, often with the cello featured as a primary melodic instrument and employing the skills and techniques of traditional fiddle playing. Lindsay Mac is becoming well known for playing the cello like a guitar, with her cover of The Beatles' "Blackbird". Construction The cello is typically made from carved wood, although other materials such as carbon fiber or aluminum may be used. A traditional cello has a spruce top, with maple for the back, sides, and neck. Other woods, such as poplar or willow, are sometimes used for the back and sides. Less expensive cellos frequently have tops and backs made of laminated wood. Laminated cellos are widely used in elementary and secondary school orchestras and youth orchestras, because they are much more durable than carved wood cellos (i.e., they are less likely to crack if bumped or dropped) and they are much less expensive. The top and back are traditionally hand-carved, though less expensive cellos are often machine-produced. The sides, or ribs, are made by heating the wood and bending it around forms. The cello body has a wide top bout, narrow middle formed by two C-bouts, and wide bottom bout, with the bridge and F holes just below the middle. The top and back of the cello have a decorative border inlay known as purfling. While purfling is attractive, it is also functional: if the instrument is struck, the purfling can prevent cracking of the wood. A crack may form at the rim of the instrument but spreads no further. Without purfling, cracks can spread up or down the top or back. Playing, traveling and the weather all affect the cello and can increase a crack if purfling is not in place. The fingerboard and pegs on a cello are generally made from ebony, as it is strong and does not wear out easily. Alternative materials In the late 1920s and early 1930s, the Aluminum Company of America (Alcoa) as well as German luthier G.A. Pfretzschner produced an unknown number of aluminum cellos (in addition to aluminum double basses and violins). Cello manufacturer Luis & Clark constructs cellos from carbon fibre. Carbon fibre instruments are particularly suitable for outdoor playing because of the strength of the material and its resistance to humidity and temperature fluctuations. Luis & Clark has produced over 1000 cellos, some of which are owned by cellists such as Yo-Yo Ma and Josephine van Lier.Neck, fingerboard, pegbox, and scroll Above the main body is the carved neck. The neck has a curved cross-section on its underside, which is where the player's thumb runs along the neck during playing. The neck leads to a pegbox and the scroll, which are all normally carved out of a single piece of wood, usually maple. The fingerboard is glued to the neck and extends over the body of the instrument. The fingerboard is given a curved shape, matching the curve on the bridge. Both the fingerboard and bridge need to be curved so that the performer can bow individual strings. If the cello were to have a flat fingerboard and bridge, as with a typical guitar, the performer would only be able to bow the leftmost and rightmost two strings or bow all the strings. The performer would not be able to play the inner two strings alone. The nut is a raised piece of wood, fitted where the fingerboard meets the pegbox, in which the strings rest in shallow slots or grooves to keep them the correct distance apart. The pegbox houses four tapered tuning pegs, one for each string. The pegs are used to tune the cello by either tightening or loosening the string. The pegs are called "friction pegs", because they maintain their position by friction. The scroll is a traditional ornamental part of the cello and a feature of all other members of the violin family. Ebony is usually used for the tuning pegs, fingerboard, and nut, but other hardwoods, such as boxwood or rosewood, can be used. Black fittings on low-cost instruments are often made from inexpensive wood that has been blackened or "ebonized" to look like ebony, which is much harder and more expensive. Ebonized parts such as tuning pegs may crack or split, and the black surface of the fingerboard will eventually wear down to reveal the lighter wood underneath. Strings Historically, cello strings had cores made out of catgut, which, despite its name, is made from sheep or goat intestines. Most modern strings used in the 2010s are wound with metallic materials like aluminum, titanium and chromium. Cellists may mix different types of strings on their instruments. The pitches of the open strings are C, G, D, and A (black note heads in the playing range figure above), unless alternative tuning (scordatura) is specified by the composer. Some composers (e.g. Ottorino Respighi in the final movement of The Pines of Rome) ask that the low C be tuned down to a B-flat so that the performer can play a different low note on the lowest open string. Tailpiece and endpin The tailpiece and endpin are found in the lower part of the cello. The tailpiece is the part of the cello to which the "ball ends" of the strings are attached by passing them through holes. The tailpiece is attached to the bottom of the cello. The tailpiece is traditionally made of ebony or another hardwood, but can also be made of plastic or steel on lower-cost instruments. It attaches the strings to the lower end of the cello and can have one or more fine tuners. The fine tuners are used to make smaller adjustments to the pitch of the string. The fine tuners can increase the tension of each string (raising the pitch) or decrease the tension of the string (lowering the pitch). When the performer is putting on a new string, the fine tuner for that string is normally reset to a middle position, and then the peg is turned to bring the string up to pitch. The fine turners are used for subtle, minor adjustments to pitch, such as tuning a cello to the oboe's 440 Hz A note or tuning the cello to a piano. The endpin or spike is made of wood, metal, or rigid carbon fiber and supports the cello in playing position. The endpin can be retracted into the hollow body of the instrument when the cello is being transported in its case. This makes the cello easier to move about. When the performer wishes to play the cello, the endpin is pulled out to lengthen it. The endpin is locked into the player's preferred length with a screw mechanism. The adjustable nature of endpins enables performers of different ages and body sizes to adjust the endpin length to suit them. In the Baroque period, the cello was held between the calves, as there was no endpin at that time. The endpin was "introduced by Adrien Servais 1845 to give the instrument greater stability". Modern endpins are retractable and adjustable; older ones were removed when not in use. (The word "endpin" sometimes also refers to the button of wood located at this place in all instruments in the violin family, but this is usually called "tailpin".) The sharp tip of the cello's endpin is sometimes capped with a rubber tip that protects the tip from dulling and prevents the cello from slipping on the floor. Many cellists use a rubber pad with a metal cup to keep the tip from slipping on the floor. A number of accessories exist to keep the endpin from slipping; these include ropes that attach to the chair leg and other devices.Bridge and f-holesThe bridge holds the strings above the cello and transfers their vibrations to the top of the instrument and the soundpost inside (see below). The bridge is not glued but rather held in place by the tension of the strings. The bridge is usually positioned by the cross point of the "f-hole" (i.e., where the horizontal line occurs in the "f"). The f-holes, named for their shape, are located on either side of the bridge and allow air to move in and out of the instrument as part of the sound-production process. The f-holes also act as access points to the interior of the cello for repairs or maintenance. Sometimes a small length of rubber hose containing a water-soaked sponge, called a Dampit, is inserted through the f-holes and serves as a humidifier. This keeps the wood components of the cello from drying out.Internal featuresInternally, the cello has two important features: a bass bar, which is glued to the underside of the top of the instrument, and a round wooden sound post, a solid wooden cylinder which is wedged between the top and bottom plates. The bass bar, found under the bass foot of the bridge, serves to support the cello's top and distribute the vibrations from the strings to the body of the instrument. The soundpost, found under the treble side of the bridge, connects the back and front of the cello. Like the bridge, the soundpost is not glued but is kept in place by the tensions of the bridge and strings. Together, the bass bar and sound post transfer the strings' vibrations to the top (front) of the instrument (and to a lesser extent the back), acting as a diaphragm to produce the instrument's sound.GlueCellos are constructed and repaired using hide glue, which is strong but reversible, allowing for disassembly when needed. Tops may be glued on with diluted glue since some repairs call for the removal of the top. Theoretically, hide glue is weaker than the body's wood, so as the top or back shrinks side-to-side, the glue holding it lets go and the plate does not crack. Cellists repairing cracks in their cello do not use regular wood glue, because it cannot be steamed open when a repair has to be made by a luthier.Bow Traditionally, bows are made from pernambuco or brazilwood. Both come from the same species of tree (Caesalpinia echinata), but Pernambuco, used for higher-quality bows, is the heartwood of the tree and is darker in color than brazilwood (which is sometimes stained to compensate). Pernambuco is a heavy, resinous wood with great elasticity, <!--and high sound velocity-->which makes it an ideal wood for instrument bows. Horsehair is stretched out between the two ends of the bow. The taut horsehair is drawn over the strings, while being held roughly parallel to the bridge and perpendicular to the strings, to produce sound. A small knob is twisted to increase or decrease the tension of the horsehair. The tension on the bow is released when the instrument is not being used. The amount of tension a cellist puts on the bow hair depends on the preferences of the player, the style of music being played, and for students, the preferences of their teacher. Bows are also made from other materials, such as carbon fibre—stronger than wood—and fiberglass (often used to make inexpensive, lower-quality student bows). An average cello bow is long (shorter than a violin or viola bow) high (from the frog to the stick) and wide. The frog of a cello bow typically has a rounded corner like that of a viola bow, but is wider. A cello bow is roughly heavier than a viola bow, which in turn is roughly heavier than a violin bow. <!-- for example, see http://www.codabow.com/info_buyfirstbow.html --> Bow hair is traditionally horsehair, though synthetic hair, in varying colors, is also used. Prior to playing, the musician tightens the bow by turning a screw to pull the frog (the part of the bow under the hand) back and increase the tension of the hair. Rosin is applied by the player to make the hair sticky. Bows need to be re-haired periodically. Baroque-style (1600–1750) cello bows were much thicker and were formed with a larger outward arch than modern cello bows. The inward arch of a modern cello bow produces greater tension, which in turn produces a louder sound. The cello bow has also been used to play electric guitars. Jimmy Page pioneered its application on tracks such as "Dazed and Confused". The post-rock Icelandic band Sigur Rós's lead singer often plays guitar using a cello bow. In 1989, the German cellist Michael Bach began developing a curved bow, encouraged by John Cage, Dieter Schnebel, Mstislav Rostropovich and Luigi Colani: and since then many pieces have been composed especially for it. This curved bow (BACH.Bow) is a convex curved bow which, unlike the ordinary bow, renders possible polyphonic playing on the various strings of the instrument. The BACH.Bow is particularly well-suited to the solo repertoire for violin and cello by J. S. Bach; which requires both polyphonic and monophonic playing. ]] Physics Physical aspects When a string is bowed or plucked, it vibrates and moves the air around it, producing sound waves. Because the string is quite thin, not much air is moved by the string itself, and consequently, if the string was not mounted on a hollow body, the sound would be weak. In acoustic stringed instruments such as the cello, this lack of volume is solved by mounting the vibrating string on a larger hollow wooden body. The vibrations are transmitted to the larger body, which can move more air and produce a louder sound. Different designs of the instrument produce variations in the instrument's vibrational patterns and thus change the character of the sound produced. A string's fundamental pitch can be adjusted by changing its stiffness, which depends on tension and length. Tightening a string stiffens it by increasing both the outward forces along its length and the net forces it experiences during a distortion. A cello can be tuned by adjusting the tension of its strings, by turning the tuning pegs mounted on its pegbox and tension adjusters (fine tuners) on the tailpiece. A string's length also affects its fundamental pitch. Shortening a string stiffens it by increasing its curvature during a distortion and subjecting it to larger net forces. Shortening the string also reduces its mass, but does not alter the mass per unit length, and it is the latter ratio rather than the total mass which governs the frequency. The string vibrates in a standing wave whose speed of propagation is given by <math display"inline">\sqrt{\frac{T}{m}}</math>, where is the tension and is the mass per unit length; there is a node at either end of the vibrating length, and thus the vibrating length is half a wavelength. Since the frequency of any wave is equal to the speed divided by the wavelength, we have <math display"inline">\mathrm{frequency} \frac{1}{2l} \cdot \sqrt{\frac{T}{m}}</math>. (Some writers, including Muncaster (cited below), use the Greek letter in place of .) Thus shortening a string increases the frequency, and thus the pitch. Because of this effect, you can raise and change the pitch of a string by pressing it against the fingerboard in the cello's neck and effectively shortening it. Likewise strings with less mass per unit length, if under the same tension, will have a higher frequency and thus higher pitch than more massive strings. This is a prime reason the different strings on all string instruments have different fundamental pitches, with the lightest strings having the highest pitches. of a D chord arpeggiated on the cello. Yellow bands at the same level indicate the same harmonics excited by the bowing of different notes. Notes played from left to right: D–F–A–F–D.]] A played note of E or F has a frequency that is often very close to the natural resonating frequency of the body of the instrument, and if the problem is not addressed this can set the body into near resonance. This may cause an unpleasant sudden amplification of this pitch, and additionally a loud beating sound results from the interference produced between these nearby frequencies; this is known as the "wolf tone" because it is an unpleasant growling sound. The wood resonance appears to be split into two frequencies by the driving force of the sounding string. These two periodic resonances beat with each other. This wolf tone must be eliminated or significantly reduced for the cello to play the nearby notes with a pleasant tone. This can be accomplished by modifying the cello front plate, attaching a wolf eliminator (a metal cylinder or a rubber cylinder encased in metal), or moving the soundpost. When a string is bowed or plucked to produce a note, the fundamental note is accompanied by higher frequency overtones. Each sound has a particular recipe of frequencies that combine to make the total sound. Playing technique Playing the cello is done while seated with the instrument supported on the floor by the endpin. The right hand bows (or sometimes plucks) the strings to sound the notes. The left-hand fingertips stop the strings along their length, determining the pitch of each fingered note. Stopping the string closer to the bridge results in a higher-pitched sound because the vibrating string length has been shortened. On the contrary, a string stopped closer to the tuning pegs produces a lower sound. In the neck positions (which use just less than half of the fingerboard, nearest the top of the instrument), the thumb rests on the back of the neck, some people use their thumb as a marker of their position; in thumb position (a general name for notes on the remainder of the fingerboard) the thumb usually rests alongside the fingers on the string. Then, the side of the thumb is used to play notes. The fingers are normally held curved with each knuckle bent, with the fingertips in contact with the string. If a finger is required on two (or more) strings at once to play perfect fifths (in double stops or chords), it is used flat. The contact point can move slightly away from the nail to the finger's pad in slower or more expressive playing, allowing a fuller vibrato. Vibrato is a small oscillation in the pitch of a note, usually considered an expressive technique. The closer towards the bridge the note is, the smaller the oscillation needed to create the effect. Harmonics played on the cello fall into two classes; natural and artificial. Natural harmonics are produced by lightly touching (but not depressing) the string at certain places and then bowing (or, rarely, plucking) the string. For example, the halfway point of the string will produce a harmonic that is one octave above the unfingered (open) string. Natural harmonics only produce notes that are part of the harmonic series on a particular string. Artificial harmonics (also called false harmonics or stopped harmonics), in which the player depresses the string fully with one finger while touching the same string lightly with another finger, can produce any note above middle C. Glissando (Italian for "sliding") is an effect achieved by sliding the finger up or down the fingerboard without releasing the string. This causes the pitch to rise and fall smoothly, without separate, discernible steps. In cello playing, the bow is much like the breath of a wind instrument player. Arguably, it is a major factor in the expressiveness of the playing. The right hand holds the bow and controls the duration and character of the notes. In general, the bow is drawn across the strings roughly halfway between the end of the fingerboard and the bridge, in a direction perpendicular to the strings; however, the player may wish to move the bow's point of contact higher or lower depending on the desired sound. The bow is held and manipulated with all five fingers of the right hand, with the thumb opposite the fingers and closer to the cellist's body. Tone production and volume of sound depend on a combination of several factors. The four most important ones are weight applied to the string, the angle of the bow on the string, bow speed, and the point of contact of the bow hair with the string (sometimes abbreviated WASP). Double stops involve the playing of two notes simultaneously. Two strings are fingered at once, and the bow is drawn to sound them both. Often, in pizzicato playing, the string is plucked directly with the fingers or thumb of the right hand. However, the strings may be plucked with a finger of the left hand in certain advanced pieces, either so that the cellist can play bowed notes on another string along with pizzicato notes or because the speed of the piece would not allow the player sufficient time to pluck with the right hand. In musical notation, pizzicato is often abbreviated as "pizz." The position of the hand in pizzicato is commonly slightly over the fingerboard and away from the bridge. A player using the col legno technique strikes or rubs the strings with the wood of the bow rather than the hair. In spiccato playing, the bow still moves in a horizontal motion on the string but is allowed to bounce, generating a lighter, somewhat more percussive sound. In staccato, the player moves the bow a small distance and stops it on the string, making a short sound, the rest of the written duration being taken up by silence. Legato is a technique in which notes are smoothly connected without breaks. It is indicated by a slur (curved line) above or below – depending on their position on the staff – the notes of the passage that is to be played legato. Sul ponticello ("on the bridge") refers to bowing closer to (or nearly on) the bridge, while sul tasto ("on the fingerboard") calls for bowing nearer to (or over) the end of the fingerboard. At its extreme, sul ponticello produces a harsh, shrill sound with emphasis on overtones and high harmonics. In contrast, sul tasto produces a more flute-like sound that emphasizes the note's fundamental frequency and produces softened overtones. Composers have used both techniques, particularly in an orchestral setting, for special sounds and effects. Sizes Standard-sized cellos are referred to as "full-size" or "" but are also made in smaller (fractional) sizes, including , , , , , , , and . The fractions refer to volume rather than length, so a size cello is much longer than half the length of a full size. The smaller cellos are identical to standard cellos in construction, range, and usage, but are simply scaled-down for the benefit of children and shorter adults. Cellos in sizes larger than do exist, and cellists with unusually large hands may require such a non-standard instrument. Cellos made before tended to be considerably larger than those made and commonly played today. Around 1680, changes in string-making technology made it possible to play lower-pitched notes on shorter strings. The cellos of Stradivari, for example, can be clearly divided into two models: the style made before 1702, characterized by larger instruments (of which only three exist in their original size and configuration), and the style made during and after 1707, when Stradivari began making smaller cellos. This later model is the design most commonly used by modern luthiers. The scale length of a cello is about . The new size offered fuller tonal projection and a greater range of expression. The instrument in this form was able to contribute to more pieces musically and offered the possibility of greater physical dexterity for the player to develop technique. {| class="wikitable" |- ! Approximate dimensions for size cello ! Average size |- | Approximate width horizontally from A peg to C peg ends | |- | Back length excluding half-round where neck joins | |- | Upper bouts (shoulders) | |- | Lower bouts (hips) | |- | Bridge height | |- | Rib depth at shoulders including edges of front and back | |- | Rib depth at hips including edges | |- | Distance beneath fingerboard to surface of belly at neck join | |- | Bridge to back total depth | |- | Overall height excluding end pin | |- | End pin unit and spike | |} Accessories .)]] There are many accessories for the cello. * Cases are used to protect the cello and bow (or multiple bows). * Rosin, made from resins tapped from conifers, is applied to the bow hair to increase the effectiveness of the friction, grip or bite, and allow proper sound production. Rosin may have additives to modify the friction such as beeswax, gold, silver or tin. Commonly, rosins are classified as either dark or light, referring to color. * Endpin stops or straps (tradenames include Rock stop and Black Hole) keep the cello from sliding if the endpin does not have a rubber piece on the end, or if a floor is particularly slippery. * Wolf tone eliminators are placed on cello strings between the tailpiece and the bridge to eliminate acoustic anomalies known as wolf tones or "wolfs". * Mutes are used to change the sound of the cello by adding mass and stiffness to the bridge. They alter the overtone structure, modifying the timbre and reducing the overall volume of sound produced by the instrument. * Metronomes provide a steady tempo by sounding out a certain number of beats per minute. This tool is often used to instill a sense of rhythm into a musician. It acts as a mirror for rhythmic stability, allowing the musician to analyze where they rush or drag a tempo. *Fine tuners, located on the tailpiece, allow the cello to be tuned easily and with greater accuracy. Instrument makers Cellos are made by luthiers, specialists in building and repairing stringed instruments, ranging from guitars to violins. The following luthiers are notable for the cellos they have produced: *Nicolò Amati and others in the Amati family *Nicolò Gagliano *Matteo Goffriller *Giovanni Battista Guadagnini *Andrea Guarneri *Pietro Guarneri *Charles Mennégand *Domenico Montagnana *Giovanni Battista Rogeri *Francesco Ruggieri *Stefano Scarampella *Antonio Stradivari *David Tecchler *Carlo Giuseppe Testore *Jean Baptiste Vuillaume Cellists A person who plays the cello is called a cellist. For a list of notable cellists, see the list of cellists and :Category:Cellists. Famous instruments 's National Museum of American History]] Specific instruments are famous (or become famous) for a variety of reasons. An instrument's notability may arise from its age, the fame of its maker, its physical appearance, its acoustic properties, and its use by notable performers. The most famous instruments are generally known for all of these things. The most highly prized instruments are now collector's items and are priced beyond the reach of most musicians. These instruments are typically owned by some kind of organization or investment group, which may loan the instrument to a notable performer. For example, the Davidov Stradivarius, which is currently in the possession of one of the most widely known living cellists, Yo-Yo Ma, is actually owned by the Vuitton Foundation. Some notable cellos: *the "King", by Andrea Amati, is one of the oldest known cellos, built between 1538 and 1560—it is in the collection of the National Music Museum in South Dakota. *Servais Stradivarius is in the collection of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC. *Batta-Piatigorsky Stradivarius, played by Gregor Piatigorsky. *Davidov Stradivarius, played by Jacqueline du Pré, currently played by Yo-Yo Ma. *Barjansky Stradivarius, played by Julian Lloyd Webber. *Bonjour Stradivarius, played by Soo Bae. *Paganini-Ladenburg Stradivarius, played by Clive Greensmith of the Tokyo String Quartet. *Duport Stradivarius, formerly played by Mstislav Rostropovich. *Piatti Stradivarius, 1720, played by Carlos Prieto See also * :Category:Composers for cello * Brahms guitar * Electric cello * List of compositions for cello and orchestra * List of compositions for cello and organ * List of compositions for cello and piano * List of double concertos for violin and cello * List of solo cello pieces * Queen Elisabeth Competition § Cello * String instrument repertoire * Triple concerto for violin, cello, and piano * Ütőgardon, a percussive Hungarian folk instrument similar in construction to the cello <!-- Notes --> References Sources * Stephen Bonta. "Violoncello", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (accessed January 28, 2006), [https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000044041 grovemusic.com] (subscription access). * * * * * * * With a preface by Mario Brunello. * Further reading * Machover, Tod (2007). [http://web.media.mit.edu/~tod/media/pdfs/MachoverMyCello.pdf "My Cello"]. In Evocative Objects: Things We Think With, Turkle, Sherry (editor), Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. External links * [http://violoncellofoundation.org/ The Violoncello Foundation] Category:C instruments Category:Articles containing video clips Category:String section Category:Basso continuo instruments Category:Italian inventions
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cello
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Control store
A control store is the part of a CPU's control unit that stores the CPU's microprogram. It is usually accessed by a microsequencer. A control store implementation whose contents are unalterable is known as a Read Only Memory (ROM) or Read Only Storage (ROS); one whose contents are alterable is known as a Writable Control Store (WCS). <!-- WCS is not a form of ROM --> Implementation Early use Early control stores were implemented as a diode-array accessed via address decoders, a form of read-only memory. This tradition dates back to the program timing matrix on the MIT Whirlwind, first described in 1947. Modern VLSI processors instead use matrices of field-effect transistors to build the ROM and/or PLA structures used to control the processor as well as its internal sequencer in a microcoded implementation. IBM System/360 used a variety of techniques: CCROS (Card Capacitor Read-Only Storage) on the Model 30, TROS (Transformer Read-Only Storage) on the Model 40, and BCROS (Balanced Capacitor Read-Only Storage) on Models 50, 65 and 67. Writable stores Some computers are built using "writable microcode" — rather than storing the microcode in ROM or hard-wired logic, the microcode is stored in a RAM called a writable control store or WCS. Such a computer is sometimes called a Writable Instruction Set Computer or WISC. Many of these machines were experimental laboratory prototypes, such as the WISC CPU/16 and the RTX 32P. The original System/360 models have read-only control store, but later System/360, System/370 and successor models load part or all of their microprograms from floppy disks or other DASD into a writable control store consisting of ultra-high speed random-access read–write memory. The System/370 architecture includes a facility called Initial-Microprogram Load (IML or IMPL) that can be invoked from the console, as part of Power On Reset (POR) or from another processor in a tightly coupled multiprocessor complex. This permitted IBM to easily repair microprogramming defects in the field. Even when the majority of the control store is stored in ROM, computer vendors would often sell writable control store as an option, allowing the customers to customize the machine's microprogram. Other vendors, e.g., IBM, use the WCS to run microcode for emulator features and hardware diagnostics. Other commercial machines that use writable microcode include the Burroughs Small Systems (1970s and 1980s), the Xerox processors in their Lisp machines and Xerox Star workstations, the DEC VAX 8800 ("Nautilus") family, and the Symbolics L- and G-machines (1980s). Some DEC PDP-10 machines store their microcode in SRAM chips (about 80 bits wide x 2 Kwords), which is typically loaded on power-on through some other front-end CPU. Many more machines offer user-programmable writable control stores as an option (including the HP 2100, DEC PDP-11/60 and Varian Data Machines V-70 series minicomputers). The Mentec M11 and Mentec M1 store its microcode in SRAM chips, loaded on power-on through another CPU. The Data General Eclipse MV/8000 ("Eagle") has a SRAM writable control store, loaded on power-on through another CPU. WCS offers several advantages including the ease of patching the microprogram and, for certain hardware generations, faster access than ROMs could provide. User-programmable WCS allow the user to optimize the machine for specific purposes. However, it also had the disadvantage of making it harder to debug programs, and making it possible for malicious users to negatively affect the system and data. Some CPU designs compile the instruction set to a writable RAM or FLASH inside the CPU (such as the Rekursiv processor and the Imsys Cjip), or an FPGA (reconfigurable computing). Several Intel CPUs in the x86 architecture family have writable microcode, starting with the Pentium Pro in 1995. This has allowed bugs in the Intel Core 2 microcode and Intel Xeon microcode to be fixed in software, rather than requiring the entire chip to be replaced. Such fixes can be installed by Linux, FreeBSD, Microsoft Windows, or the motherboard BIOS. Timing, latching and avoiding a race condition The control store usually has a register on its outputs. The outputs that go back into the sequencer to determine the next address have to go through some sort of register to prevent the creation of a race condition. In most designs all of the other bits also go through a register. This is because the machine will work faster if the execution of the next microinstruction is delayed by one cycle. This register is known as a pipeline register. Very often the execution of the next microinstruction is dependent on the result of the current microinstruction, which will not be stable until the end of the current microcycle. It can be seen that either way, all of the outputs of the control store go into one big register. Historically it used to be possible to buy EPROMs with these register bits on the same chip. The clock signal determining the clock rate, which is the cycle time of the system, primarily clocks this register. References Further reading * (132 pages) * (79 pages) * Category:Instruction processing Category:Firmware
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_store
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Columba
}} Columba () or Colmcille; ; ; or at least partly reinterpreted as }} (7 December 521 – 9 June 597 AD) was an Irish abbot and missionary evangelist credited with spreading Christianity in what is today Scotland at the start of the Hiberno-Scottish mission. He is the patron saint of Derry. He was highly regarded by both the Gaels of Dál Riata and the Picts, and is remembered today as a Catholic saint and one of the Twelve Apostles of Ireland. Columba studied under some of Ireland's most prominent church figures and founded several monasteries in the country. Around 563 AD he and his twelve companions crossed to Dunaverty near Southend, Argyll, in Kintyre before settling in Iona in Scotland, then part of the Ulster kingdom of Dál Riata, where they founded a new abbey as a base for spreading Celtic Christianity among the pagan Northern Pictish kingdoms. He remained active in Irish politics, though he spent most of the remainder of his life in Scotland. Three surviving early-medieval Latin hymns are attributed to him. Early life in Ireland Columba was born to Fedlimid and Eithne of the Cenél Conaill in Gartan, a district beside Lough Gartan, in Tír Chonaill (mainly modern County Donegal) in what is now Ulster, the northern province in Ireland. On his father's side, he is claimed as being the great-great-grandson of Niall of the Nine Hostages, a pseudo-historical Irish high king of the 5th century. Tradition holds that he was born in Gartan. One tradition holds that he was born on a flagstone called Leac na Cumha in the townland of Lacknacoo. He was baptised in Temple-Douglas, in the County Donegal parish of Conwal (midway between Gartan and Letterkenny), by his teacher and foster-uncle Cruithnechán. Columba lived in the remote district of what is now Glencolmcille for roughly five years, which was named after him. It is not known for sure if his name at birth was Colmcille or if he adopted this name later in life; Adomnán (Eunan) of Iona thought it was his birth name but other Irish sources have claimed his name at birth was Crimthann (meaning 'fox'). In the Irish language his name means 'dove', which is the same name as the Prophet Jonah (Jonah in Hebrew is also 'dove'), which Adomnán of Iona, as well as other early Irish writers, were aware of, although it is not clear if he was deliberately named after Jonah or not. Columba is also Latin for dove, and the name of the bird genus. , County Donegal]] When sufficiently advanced in letters he entered the monastic school of Movilla, at Newtownards, under Finnian of Movilla who had studied at Ninian's "Magnum Monasterium" on the shores of Galloway. He was about twenty, and a deacon when, having completed his training at Movilla, he travelled southwards into Leinster, where he became a pupil of an aged bard named Gemman. On leaving him, Columba entered the monastery of Clonard, governed at that time by Finnian, noted for sanctity and learning. Here he imbibed the traditions of the Welsh Church, for Finnian had been trained in the schools of David. The study of Latin learning and Christian theology in monasteries flourished. Columba became a pupil at the monastic school at Clonard Abbey, situated on the River Boyne in modern County Meath. During the sixth century, some of the most significant names in the history of Celtic Christianity studied at the Clonard monastery. The average number of scholars under instruction at Clonard was said to be 300. Another preceptor of Columba was Mobhí Clárainech, whose monastery at Glasnevin was frequented by such famous men as Cainnech of Aghaboe, Comgall, and Ciarán. A pestilence which devastated Ireland in 544 caused the dispersion of Mobhi's disciples, and Columba returned to Ulster, the land of his kindred. He was a striking figure of great stature and powerful build, with a loud, melodious voice which could be heard from one hilltop to another. The foundation of several important monasteries marked the following years: Derry, at the southern edge of Inishowen; Durrow, County Offaly; Kells, County Meath; and Swords. While at Derry it is said that he planned a pilgrimage to Rome and Jerusalem, but did not proceed farther than Tours. From Tours, he brought a copy of those gospels that had lain on the bosom of Martin for 100 years. This relic was deposited in Derry. Some traditions assert that sometime around 560 Columba became involved in a quarrel with Finnian of Moville of Movilla Abbey over a psalter. Columba copied the manuscript at the scriptorium under Finnian, intending to keep the copy. Finnian disputed his right to keep it. There is a suggestion that this conflict resulted in the Battle of Cúl Dreimhne in Cairbre Drom Cliabh (now in County Sligo) in 561, during which many men were killed. Richard Sharpe, translator of Adomnán's Life of St. Columba (referenced in the bibliography below) makes a stern caution at this point against accepting the many references that link the battle and Columba's leaving of Ireland, even though there is evidence in the annals that Columba supported his own king against the high king. Political conflicts that had existed for some time resulted in the clan Neill's battle against King Diarmait at Cooldrevny in 561. An issue, for example, was the king's violation of the right of sanctuary belonging to Columba's person as a monk on the occasion of the murder of Prince Curnan, Columba's kinsman. He left Ireland, but through the following years, he returned several times to visit the communities he had founded there. Scotland In 563, he travelled to Scotland with twelve companions (said to include Odran of Iona) in a wicker currach covered with leather. According to legend he first landed on the Kintyre Peninsula, near Southend. However, being still in sight of Ulster, he moved farther north up the west coast of Scotland. The island of Iona was made over to him by his kinsman Conall mac Comgaill King of Dál Riata, who perhaps had invited him to come to Scotland in the first place. There are also many stories of miracles which he performed during his work to convert the Picts, the most famous being his encounter with an unidentified animal that some have equated with the Loch Ness Monster in 565. It is said that he banished a ferocious "water beast" to the depths of the River Ness after it had killed a Pict and then tried to attack Columba's disciple, Lugne (see Vita Columbae Book 2 below). He visited the pagan King Bridei, King of Fortriu, at his base in Inverness, winning Bridei's respect, although not his conversion. He subsequently played a major role in the politics of the country. He was also very energetic in his work as a missionary, and, in addition to founding several churches in the Hebrides, he worked to turn his monastery at Iona into a school for missionaries. He was a renowned man of letters, having written several hymns and being credited with having transcribed 300 books. One of the few, if not the only, times he left Scotland was towards the end of his life, when he returned to Ireland to found the monastery at Durrow. According to traditional sources, Columba died in Iona on Sunday, 9 June 597, and was buried by his monks in the abbey he created. However, Dr. Daniel P. Mc Carthy disputes this and assigns a date of 593 to Columba's death. The Annals record the first raid made upon Iona in 795, with further raids occurring in 802, 806 and 825. Columba's relics were finally removed in 849 and divided between Scotland and Ireland.LegacyIreland In Ireland, the saint is commonly known as Colmcille. Colmcille is one of the three patron saints of Ireland, after Patrick and Brigid of Kildare. Colmcille is the patron saint of the city of Derry, where he founded a monastic settlement in c. 540. St. Colmcille's Primary School and St. Colmcille's Community School are two schools in Knocklyon, Dublin, named after him, with the former having an annual day dedicated to the saint on 9 June. The town of Swords, Dublin was reputedly founded by Colmcille in 560 AD. St. Colmcille's Boys' National School and St. Colmcille's Girls' National School, both located in the town of Swords, are also named after the Saint as is one of the local gaelic teams, Naomh Colmcille. The Columba Press, a religious and spiritual book company based in Dublin, is named after Colmcille. Aer Lingus, Ireland's national flag carrier has named one of its Airbus A330 aircraft in commemoration of the saint (reg: EI-DUO). The MacKinnons included Green Abbots who were never priests and who were corrupt. The Macdonald Lords of the Isles dealt with them, imprisoning one who was convicted of treachery since Iona was the spiritual seat of Clan Donald. The cathedral of the Catholic Diocese of Argyll and the Isles is placed under the patronage of Saint Columba, as are numerous Catholic schools and parishes throughout the nation. The Scottish Episcopal Church, the Church of Scotland, and the Evangelical Lutheran Church of England also have parishes dedicated to him. The village of Kilmacolm in Renfrewshire is also derived from Colmcille's name. St Columba's Hospice, a prominent hospice in Edinburgh, is named after the saint. Poetry Columba currently has two poems attributed to him: "Adiutor Laborantium" and "Altus Prosator". Both poems are examples of Abecedarian hymns in Latin written while Columba was at the Iona Abbey. The shorter of the two poems, "Adiutor Laborantium" consists of twenty-seven lines of eight syllables each, with each line following the format of an Abecedarian hymn using the Classical Latin alphabet save for lines 10–11 and 25–27. The content of the poem addresses God as a helper, ruler, guard, defender and lifter for those who are good and an enemy of sinners whom he will punish. "Altus Prosator" consists of twenty-three stanzas sixteen syllables long, with the first containing seven lines and six lines in each subsequent stanza. It uses the same format and alphabet as "Adiutor Laborantium" except with each stanza starting with a different letter rather than each line. The poem tells a story over three parts split into the beginning of time, the history of Creation, and the Apocalypse or end of time. Other Columba is honoured in the Anglican communion, including the Church of England and the Episcopal Church, on 9 June. The Church of St. Columba in Ottawa is part of the Anglican Diocese of Ottawa. St. Columba Anglican Church is located in Tofino, British Columbia. St. Columba's Episcopal Church is in Washington, D.C. There is a St. Columba's Presbyterian Church in Peppermint Grove, Washington. The Saint-Columba Presbyterian Church in Palmerstone, Vacoas-Phoenix is part of the Presbyterian Church in Mauritius. Columba is the patron saint of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Youngstown, Ohio. The Cathedral there is named for him. Iona University, in New Rochelle, New York, is named after the island on which Columba established his first monastery in Scotland, as is Iona College in Windsor, Ontario, Iona Presentation College, Perth, and Iona College Geelong in Charlemont, Victoria. In Bangor, Pennsylvania, there is a megalith park called Columcille, which is open to the public. There are at least four pipe bands named for him; one each from Tullamore, Ireland, from Derry, Northern Ireland, from Kearny, New Jersey, and from Cape Cod, Massachusetts. St. Columba's School, one of the most prominent English-Medium schools in India, run by the Irish Christian Brothers, is also named after the saint. The Munich GAA is named München Colmcilles. Saint Columba's Feast Day, 9 June, has been designated as International Celtic Art Day. The Book of Kells and the Book of Durrow, great medieval masterpieces of Celtic art, are associated with Columba. Benjamin Britten composed A Hymn of St Columba for choir and organ in 1962, setting a poem by the saint, on the occasion of the 1,400th anniversary of his voyage to Iona. Sources The main source of information about Columba's life is the Life of Columba (), a hagiography written by Adomnán, one of Columba's successors at Iona, in the style of "saints' lives" narratives that had become widespread throughout medieval Europe. Both the Life of Columba and Bede (672/673–735) record Columba's visit to Bridei. Whereas Adomnán just tells us that Columba visited Bridei, Bede relates a later, perhaps Pictish tradition, whereby Columba actually converts the Pictish king. Another early source is a poem in praise of Columba, most probably commissioned by Columba's kinsman, the King of the Uí Néill clan. It was almost certainly written within three or four years of Columba's death and is the earliest vernacular poem in European history. It consists of twenty-five stanzas of four verses of seven syllables each, called the Amra Coluim Chille. Through the reputation of its venerable founder and its position as a major European centre of learning, Columba's Iona became a place of pilgrimage. Columba is historically revered as a warrior saint and was often invoked for victory in battle. Some of his relics were removed in 849 and divided between Alba and Ireland. Relics of Columba were carried before Scottish armies in the reliquary made at Iona in the mid-8th century called the Brecbennoch. Legend has it that the Brecbennoch was carried to the Battle of Bannockburn (24 June 1314) by the vastly outnumbered Scots army and the intercession of Columba helped them to victory. Since the 19th century the "Brecbennoch of St. Columba" has been identified with the Monymusk Reliquary, although this is now doubted by scholars. In the Antiphoner of Inchcolm Abbey, the "Iona of the East" (situated on an island in the Firth of Forth), a 14th-century prayer begins O Columba spes Scotorum... "O Columba, hope of the Scots".See also * Celtic Christianity * Early Christian Ireland * List of people on the postage stamps of Ireland * St. Columba's School * Saint Columba, patron saint archive * Scotland in the Early Middle Ages References Notes Citations Sources * * |year1995|publisherPenguin Books|isbn978-0-14-190741-3}} * * * * * * |year1989|publisherShepheard-Walwyn|isbn=978-0-85683-089-1}} * * * * * * Further reading * * * Bullough, Donald A. "Columba, Adomnan, and the Achievement of Iona," Scottish Historical Review 43, 44 (1964–65): 111–30, 17–33. * * Finlay, Ian, Columba London: Gollancz, 1979. * Forbes, Andrew ; Henley, David (2012). Pages from the Book of Kells. Chiang Mai: Cognoscenti Books. ASIN: B00AN4JVI0 * * * * * McLean, Scott A. "Columba 521–597," in ''Reader's Guide to British History (London: Routledge, 2003) online at Credo Reference. Historiography * External links * [http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/T201011/index.html CELT: On the Life of Saint Columba (Betha Choluim Chille) (tr. W. Stokes)] * [http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/T201040/index.html CELT: The Life of Columba, written by Adamnan'' (tr. W. Reeves)] * * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/scottishhistory/earlychurch/features_earlychurch_iona.shtml BBC: St Columba] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060813184854/http://www.stthomasirondequoit.com/SaintsAlive/id176.htm St Columba on SaintsAlive] * [https://www.a-wee-bit-of-ireland.com/eire_2007/gartan_05.html Photo of the birthplace of Columcille at Gartan] * * [http://foundationsirishculture.ie/record/?id=52 The foundations of Irish Culture] Category:Medieval Gaels from Scotland Category:People from County Donegal Category:Pictish people Category:Abbots of Iona Category:Scottish folklore Category:6th-century writers in Latin Category:6th-century Irish abbots Category:6th-century Christian saints Category:Medieval Irish saints Category:Medieval Scottish saints Category:Burials in Iona Category:Irish expatriates in Scotland Category:6th-century Irish writers Category:521 births Category:597 deaths Category:Angelic visionaries Category:6th-century Scottish people Category:Irish Christian missionaries Category:Colombanian saints Category:Christian missionaries in Scotland Category:Medieval legends Category:Anglican saints Category:Poet priests Category:6th-century Christian abbots
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columba
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Conditional proof
A conditional proof is a proof that takes the form of asserting a conditional, and proving that the antecedent of the conditional necessarily leads to the consequent. Overview The assumed antecedent of a conditional proof is called the conditional proof assumption (CPA). Thus, the goal of a conditional proof is to demonstrate that if the CPA were true, then the desired conclusion necessarily follows. The validity of a conditional proof does not require that the CPA be true, only that if it were true it would lead to the consequent. Conditional proofs are of great importance in mathematics. Conditional proofs exist linking several otherwise unproven conjectures, so that a proof of one conjecture may immediately imply the validity of several others. It can be much easier to show a proposition's truth to follow from another proposition than to prove it independently. A famous network of conditional proofs is the NP-complete class of complexity theory. There is a large number of interesting tasks (see List of NP-complete problems), and while it is not known if a polynomial-time solution exists for any of them, it is known that if such a solution exists for some of them, one exists for all of them. Similarly, the Riemann hypothesis has many consequences already proven. Symbolic logic As an example of a conditional proof in symbolic logic, suppose we want to prove A → C (if A, then C) from the first two premises below: 1. A → B    ("If A, then B") 2. B → C ("If B, then C") 3. A (conditional proof assumption, "Suppose A is true") 4. B (follows from lines 1 and 3, modus ponens; "If A then B; A, therefore B") 5. C (follows from lines 2 and 4, modus ponens; "If B then C; B, therefore C") 6. A → C (follows from lines 3–5, conditional proof; "If A, then C") See also Deduction theorem Logical consequence Propositional calculus References Robert L. Causey, Logic, sets, and recursion, Jones and Barlett, 2006. Dov M. Gabbay, Franz Guenthner (eds.), Handbook of philosophical logic, Volume 8, Springer, 2002. Category:Logic Category:Conditionals Category:Mathematical proofs Category:Methods of proof
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conditional_proof
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Conjunction introduction
Conjunction introduction (often abbreviated simply as conjunction and also called and introduction or adjunction) is a valid rule of inference of propositional logic. The rule makes it possible to introduce a conjunction into a logical proof. It is the inference that if the proposition P is true, and the proposition Q is true, then the logical conjunction of the two propositions P and Q is true. For example, if it is true that "it is raining", and it is true that "the cat is inside", then it is true that "it is raining and the cat is inside". The rule can be stated: \frac{P,Q}{\therefore P \land Q} where the rule is that wherever an instance of "P" and "Q" appear on lines of a proof, a "P \land Q" can be placed on a subsequent line. Formal notation The conjunction introduction rule may be written in sequent notation: P, Q \vdash P \land Q where P and Q are propositions expressed in some formal system, and \vdash is a metalogical symbol meaning that P \land Q is a syntactic consequence if P and Q are each on lines of a proof in some logical system; References Category:Rules of inference Category:Theorems in propositional logic
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjunction_introduction
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English in the Commonwealth of Nations
thumb|upright|English and Kinyarwanda text in Kigali, Rwanda. Rwanda, a Commonwealth country, was never associated with the British Empire. The use of the English language in current and former countries of the Commonwealth was largely inherited from British colonisation, with some exceptions. English forms part of the Commonwealth's common culture and serves as the medium of inter-Commonwealth relations. Commonwealth English refers to English as practised in the Commonwealth; the term is most often interchangeable with British English, but is also used to distinguish between British English and that in the rest of the Commonwealth. English in the Commonwealth is diverse, and many regions have developed their own local varieties of the language. The official status of English varies; in Bangladesh, it lacks any but is widely used, and likewise in Cyprus, it is not official but is used as the . Written English in current and former Commonwealth countries generally favours British English spelling as opposed to that of American English, with some exceptions, particularly in Canada, where there are strong influences from neighbouring American English. Native varieties thumb|Multilingual stop sign in a First Nations reserve in Canada, featuring the Abenaki, French and English languagesSouthern Hemisphere native varieties of English began to develop during the 18th century, with the colonisation of Australasia and South Africa. Australian English and New Zealand English are closely related to each other and share some similarities with South African English. Nonetheless, South African English has unique influences from indigenous African languages, and Dutch influences inherited alongside the evolution of Afrikaans, while New Zealand English has a lot of influences from the Māori language. Canadian English contains elements of British English and American English, as well as many Canadianisms and some French influences. It is the product of several waves of immigration and settlement, from Britain, Ireland, France, the United States, and around the world, over a period of more than two centuries. thumb|The mother tongue of Anglo-Indians is English, whilst most Indians speak it as a second language. In many Commonwealth countries, there exists a relatively small native Anglophone minority amongst a larger population who speak English as a second language; Anglo-Indians speak English as their mother tongue, but it is not the first language of most Indians. Africa In addition to South Africa, a number of Commonwealth countries in Africa have native varieties of English. A community of native English speakers exists in Zimbabwe; the country's dialect bears features of British English, South African English and other Southern Hemisphere varieties of Commonwealth English. Also in Southern Africa and with historical influence from South Africa, Namibia and Botswana have their own dialects, with smaller native English-speaking populations. The same is true of Kenya and Uganda in East Africa. Caribbean thumb|Sign in Belizean Creole, an English-based creole language thumb|William Shakespeare memorial in Sydney, Australia. English is part of the common culture of the Commonwealth. Caribbean English is drawn from British English and West African languages. It is influenced by constant contact with English-based Creoles. There is considerable influence from Hindustani and other South Asian languages in countries with language Indian populations, including Trinidad and Tobago, and Guyana. Jamaican English and Barbadian English bear influences of Irish English. Non-native varieties Second-language varieties of English in Africa and Asia have often undergone "indigenisation"; that is, each English-speaking community has developed (or is in the process of developing) its own standards of usage, often under the influence of local languages. These dialects are sometimes referred to as New Englishes (McArthur, p. 36); most of them inherited non-rhoticity from Southern British English. Africa Several dialects of West African English exist, with considerable regional variation, though there is a set of common tendencies of pronunciation. Nigerian and Ghanaian English are the varieties with the largest number of speakers; English also holds official or national status in Sierra Leone, Cameroon’s Anglophone provinces, the Gambia, and Saint Helena, a British territory. It also holds official status in Liberia, which is not a Commonwealth country but rather has a history connected to the United States of America. National varieties of English are also spoken in Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania. Prior to Togo's admission at the 2022 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting, Togolese Foreign Minister Robert Dussey said that he expected Commonwealth membership to provide opportunities for Togolese citizens to learn English, and remarked that the country sought closer ties with the Anglophone world. Asia Hong Kong Hong Kong ceased to be part of the Commonwealth by virtue of being a British territory in 1997. Nonetheless, the English language there still enjoys official status. Indian subcontinent English was introduced to the subcontinent by the British Raj. India has the largest English-speaking population in the Commonwealth, although comparatively very few speakers of Indian English are first-language speakers. The same is true of English spoken in other parts of South Asia, including Pakistani English, Sri Lankan English, Bangladeshi English and Myanmar English; though Myanmar is not a Commonwealth country, English is the mother tongue of the Anglo-Burmese population. South Asian English is fairly homogeneous across the subcontinent, though there are some differences based on various regional factors. Malay Archipelago Southeast Asian English includes Singapore English, Malaysian English, and Brunei English as well as other varieties in non-Commonwealth countries; it is not only the result of British colonisation but also American colonisation (as in the case of the Philippines) and globalisation. It has interacted with diverse local ecologies, shaping its form, function and status in the region. See also British English English-speaking world American English EF English Proficiency Index Other languages: Community of Portuguese Language Countries Dutch Language Union Latin Union References McArthur, Tom (2002). The Oxford Guide to World English. Oxford: Oxford University Press. . Peters, Pam (2004). The Cambridge Guide to English Usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. . Trudgill, Peter & Hannah, Jean (2002). International English: A Guide to the Varieties of Standard English; 4th ed. London: Arnold. . Commonwealth of Nations Category:Symbols of the Commonwealth of Nations
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_in_the_Commonwealth_of_Nations
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Charles McCarry
| birth_place = Pittsfield, Massachusetts, U.S. | death_date = | death_place = Fairfax County, Virginia, U.S. | occupation = Author | genre = Spy fiction | period = 1961–2019 }} Charles McCarry (June 14, 1930 – February 26, 2019) was an American writer, primarily of spy fiction, and a former undercover operative for the Central Intelligence Agency.BiographyMcCarry's family came from The Berkshires area of western Massachusetts. He was born in Pittsfield, and lived in Virginia. He graduated from Dalton High School. McCarry began his writing career in the United States Army as a correspondent for Stars and Stripes. He served from 1948 to 1951 and achieved the rank of sergeant. In 1958, at the invitation of Cord Meyer, he accepted a post with the CIA, for whom he traveled the globe as a deep cover operative. He took a leave of absence to work for the 1960 Nixon campaign, writing for vice-presidential candidate Henry Cabot Lodge. He left the CIA for the last time in 1967, becoming a writer of spy novels. McCarry was also an editor-at-large for National Geographic and contributed pieces to The New York Times, The Wall Street Journal, The Washington Post, the Saturday Evening Post, and other national publications. In 1988 McCarry described the themes of his novels to date as "ordinary things – love, death, betrayal and the American dream." McCarry wrote that: "After I resigned [from the CIA], intending to spend the rest of my life writing fiction and knowing what tricks the mind can play when the gates are thrown wide open, as they are by the act of writing, between the imagination and that part of the brain in which information is stored, I took the precaution of writing a closely remembered narrative of my clandestine experiences. After correcting the manuscript, I burned it. What I kept for my own use was the atmosphere of secret life: How it worked on the five senses and what it did to the heart and mind. All the rest went up in flames, setting me free henceforth to make it all up. In all important matters, such as the creation of characters and the invention of plots, with rare and minor exceptions, that is what I have done. And, as might be expected, when I have been weak enough to use something that really happened as an episode in a novel, it is that piece of scrap, buried in a landfill of the imaginary, readers invariably refuse to believe." McCarry was an admirer of the work of Eric Ambler The New Republic magazine called him "poet laureate of the CIA"; and Otto Penzler described him as "the greatest espionage writer that America has ever produced." In 2004 P. J. O'Rourke called him "the best modern writer on the subject of intrigue."AdaptationsThe film Wrong is Right (1982), starring Sean Connery, was loosely based on McCarry's novel, The Better Angels (1979).Other books and publicationsNon-Paul Christopher novels*Lucky Bastard (1999). A comic novel in which a likeable but amoral, devious, and oversexed politician (thought by many to evoke Bill Clinton, when in fact McCarry himself said he was thinking about John F Kennedy.) is controlled by a female eastern-bloc subversive. *Ark (2011). Earth's wealthiest man attempts to save humanity from a coming apocalypse. *The Shanghai Factor (2013). A rookie spy in China is drawn into the lonely, compartmentalized world of counterintelligence, and misunderstands everything that he and those around him are doing. *The Mulberry Bush (2015). Explores the world of South America's elites and militant revolutionaries, and the role of lifelong personal passions and agendas in their work and that of intelligence operatives. Non-fiction *Citizen Nader (1972) *Double Eagle: Ben Abruzzo, Maxie Anderson, Larry Newman (1979) *The Great Southwest (1980) *Isles of the Caribbean (National Geographic Society, Washington, DC, 1980, co-author) *For the Record: From Wall Street to Washington (1988, by Donald Regan with Charles McCarry) *Paths of Resistance: The Art and Craft of the Political Novel (1989, with Isabel Allende, Marge Piercy, Robert Stone and Gore Vidal) *Inner Circles: How America Changed the World: a Memoir (1992, by Alexander Haig with Charles McCarry) *Caveat: Realism, Reagan, and Foreign Policy (1984, by Alexander Haig with Charles McCarry). Stories include: In March 1981, shortly after taking office, Ronald Reagan was shot; Secretary of State Haig appeared in the White House press room and announced, "I am in charge here!" *From the Field: A Collection of Writings from National Geographic (1997, editor) Collections including McCarry's work *Harlan Coben, ed. The Best American Mystery Stories: 2011 − includes "The End of the String." *Alan Furst, editor The Book of Spies − includes excerpt from The Tears of Autumn. Otto Penzler, editor: * Agents of Treachery − includes "The End of the Sting." *The 50 Greatest Mysteries of All Time − includes "The Hand of Carlos" *The Big Book of Espionage − includes "The Hand of Carlos" Short stories (fiction) *"The Saint Who Said No", Saturday Evening Post, December 9, 1961 *"The Hand of Carlos", Armchair Detective (1992) *"The End of the String" Magazine articles (non-fiction) *"A ... Week on the Road With Ralph Nader", Life magazine, January 21, 1972 *"John Rennon’s Excrusive Gloupie: On the load to briss with the Yoko nobody Onos", Esquire magazine, December 1, 1970ReferencesFurther reading* * * *Snyder, Robert Lance. "Charles McCarry's Recursive Late Fiction." Clues: A Journal of Detection 36.2 (Fall 2018): 71–81. *Snyder, Robert Lance. (Fall 2020). "Suspicion's Abysmal Logic: Charles McCarry's The Miernik Dossier." South Atlantic Review 85(3), 171–84. External links * * Category:American columnists Category:American male non-fiction writers Category:American male novelists Category:American spy fiction writers Category:Military personnel from Massachusetts Category:Novelists from Massachusetts Category:United States Army non-commissioned officers Category:Writers from Pittsfield, Massachusetts Category:1930 births Category:2019 deaths Category:20th-century American male writers Category:20th-century American non-fiction writers Category:20th-century American novelists Category:21st-century American male writers Category:21st-century American non-fiction writers Category:21st-century American novelists
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_McCarry
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Cimbri
thumb|Germania in the late 1st century AD; the Cimbri in northern Jutland. The Cimbri (, ; ) were an ancient tribe in Europe. Ancient authors described them variously as a Celtic, Gaulish, Germanic, or even Cimmerian people. Several ancient sources indicate that they lived in Jutland, which in some classical texts was called the Cimbrian peninsula. There is no direct evidence for the language they spoke, though some scholars argue that it was a Germanic language, while others argue that it was Celtic. Together with the Teutones and the Ambrones, they fought the Roman Republic between 113 and 101 BC during the Cimbrian War. The Cimbri were initially successful, particularly at the Battle of Arausio, in which a large Roman army was routed. They then raided large areas in Gaul and Hispania. In 101 BC, during an attempted invasion of the Italian peninsula, the Cimbri were decisively defeated at the Battle of Vercellae by Gaius Marius, and their king, Boiorix, was killed. Some of the surviving captives are reported to have been among the rebellious gladiators in the Third Servile War. Name The origin of the name Cimbri is unknown. One etymology is , from "home" (English home), itself a derivation from "live" (, ); then, the Germanic finds an exact cognate in Slavic sębrъ "farmer" (Croatian, Serbian sebar, Belarusian сябар sjábar). The name has also been related to the word kimme meaning "rim", i.e., "the people of the coast". Finally, since Antiquity, the name has been related to that of the Cimmerians. The name of the Danish region Himmerland (Old Danish Himbersysel) has been proposed to be a derivative of their name. According to such proposals, the word Cimbri with a c would be an older form before Grimm's law (PIE k > Germanic h). Alternatively, Latin c- represents an attempt to render the unfamiliar Proto-Germanic h = (Latin h was but was becoming silent in common speech at the time), perhaps due to Celtic-speaking interpreters (a Celtic intermediary could also explain why one proposed etymology for the Teutons, Germanic *Þeuðanōz, became Latin Teutones). Because of the similarity of the names, the Cimbri have been at times associated with Cymry, the Welsh name for themselves. However, Cymry is derived from Brittonic *Kombrogi (cf. Allobroges), meaning "compatriots", and is linguistically unrelated to Cimbri. History Origins Scholars generally see the Cimbri as originating in Jutland, but archaeologists have found no clear indications of any mass migration from Jutland in the early Iron Age. The Gundestrup Cauldron, which was deposited in a bog in Himmerland in the 2nd or 1st century BC, shows that there was some sort of contact with southeastern Europe, but it is uncertain if this contact can be associated with the Cimbrian militia expeditions against Rome of the 1st Century BC. It is known that the peoples of Northern Europe and the British Isles participated in annual partial population seasonal Winter migrations southward to what is now central Iberia and southern France where goods and resources were traded and cross-culture marriages were arranged. Advocates for a northern homeland point to Greek and Roman sources that associate the Cimbri with the Jutland peninsula. According to the Res gestae (ch. 26) of Augustus, the Cimbri were still found in the area around the turn of the 1st century AD: The contemporary Greek geographer Strabo testified that the Cimbri still existed as a Germanic tribe, presumably in the "Cimbric peninsula" (since they are said to live by the North Sea and to have paid tribute to Augustus): On the map of Ptolemy, the "Kimbroi" are placed on the northernmost part of the peninsula of Jutland, i.e., in the modern landscape of Himmerland south of Limfjorden (since Vendsyssel-Thy north of the fjord was at that time a group of islands). Migration Some time before 100 BC many of the Cimbri, as well as the Teutons and Ambrones, migrated south-east. After several unsuccessful battles with the Boii and other Celtic tribes, they appeared 113 BC in Noricum, where they invaded the lands of one of Rome's allies, the Taurisci. On the request of the Roman consul Gnaeus Papirius Carbo, sent to defend the Taurisci, they retreated, only to find themselves deceived and attacked at the Battle of Noreia, where they defeated the Romans. Only a storm, which separated the combatants, saved the Roman forces from complete annihilation. Invading Gaul Now the road to Italy was open, but they turned west towards Gaul. They came into frequent conflict with the Romans, who usually came out the losers. In 109 BC, they defeated a Roman army under the consul Marcus Junius Silanus, who was the commander of Gallia Narbonensis. In 107 BC they defeated another Roman army under the consul Gaius Cassius Longinus, who was killed at the Battle of Burdigala (modern day Bordeaux) against the Tigurini, who were allies of the Cimbri. Attacking the Roman Republic It was not until 105 BC that they planned an attack on the Roman Republic itself. At the Rhône, the Cimbri clashed with the Roman armies. Discord between the Roman commanders, the proconsul Quintus Servilius Caepio and the consul Gnaeus Mallius Maximus, hindered Roman coordination and so the Cimbri succeeded in first defeating the legate Marcus Aurelius Scaurus and later inflicted a devastating defeat on Caepio and Maximus at the Battle of Arausio. The Romans lost as many as 80,000 men, according to Livy; Mommsen (in his History of Rome) thought that excluded auxiliary cavalry and non-combatants who brought the total loss closer to 112,000. Other estimates are much smaller, but by any account a large Roman army was routed. Rome was in panic, and the terror cimbricus became proverbial. Everyone expected to soon see the new Gauls outside of the gates of Rome. Desperate measures were taken: contrary to the Roman constitution, Gaius Marius, who had defeated Jugurtha, was elected consul and supreme commander for five years in a row (104–100 BC). Defeat right|thumb|The Defeat of the Cimbri by Alexandre-Gabriel Décamps thumb|Marius (seated) and the ambassadors of the Cimbri (William Rainey, 1900) In 104–103 BC, the Cimbri had turned to the Iberian Peninsula where they pillaged far and wide, until they were confronted by a coalition of Celtiberians. Defeated, the Cimbri returned to Gaul, where they joined their allies, the Teutons. During this time, C. Marius had the time to prepare and, in 102 BC, he was ready to meet the Teutons and the Ambrones at the Rhône. These two tribes intended to pass into Italy through the western passes, while the Cimbri and the Tigurines were to take the northern route across the Rhine and later across the Central Eastern Alps. At the estuary of the Isère, the Teutons and the Ambrones met Marius, whose well-defended camp they did not manage to overrun. Instead, they pursued their route, and Marius followed them. At Aquae Sextiae, the Romans won two battles and took the Teuton king Teutobod prisoner. The Cimbri had penetrated through the Alps into northern Italy. The consul Quintus Lutatius Catulus had not dared to fortify the passes, but instead he had retreated behind the river Po, and so the land was open to the invaders. The Cimbri did not hurry, and the victors of Aquae Sextiae had the time to arrive with reinforcements. At the Battle of Vercellae, at the confluence of the river Sesia with the Po, in 101 BC, the long voyage of the Cimbri also came to an end. It was a devastating defeat. Two chieftains, Lugius and Boiorix, died on the field, while the other chieftains Caesorix and Claodicus were captured. The women killed both themselves and their children in order to avoid slavery. The Cimbri were annihilated, although some may have survived to return to the homeland where a population with this name was residing in northern Jutland in the 1st century AD, according to the sources quoted above. Some of the surviving captives are reported to have been among the rebelling gladiators in the Third Servile War. Justin's epitome of Trogus has Mithridates the Great send emissaries to the Cimbri to request military aid during the Social War (91-88 BCE). Justin also states that the Cimbri were again in Italy at this time, i.e. over ten years later. Supposed descendants According to Julius Caesar, the Belgian tribe of the Atuatuci "was descended from the Cimbri and Teutoni, who, upon their march into our province and Italy, set down such of their stock and stuff as they could not drive or carry with them on the near (i.e. west) side of the Rhine, and left six thousand men of their company there as guard and garrison" (Gall. 2.29, trans. Edwards). They founded the city of Atuatuca in the land of the Belgic Eburones, whom they dominated. Thus Ambiorix king of the Eburones paid tribute and gave his son and nephew as hostages to the Atuatuci (Gall. 6.27). In the first century AD, the Eburones were replaced or absorbed by the Germanic Tungri, and the city was known as Atuatuca Tungrorum, i.e. the modern city of Tongeren. The population of modern-day Himmerland claims to be the heirs of the ancient Cimbri. The adventures of the Cimbri are described by the Danish Nobel Prize–winning author Johannes V. Jensen, himself born in Himmerland, in the novel Cimbrernes Tog (1922), included in the epic cycle Den lange Rejse (English The Long Journey, 1923). The so-called Cimbrian bull ("Cimbrertyren"), a sculpture by Anders Bundgaard, was erected on 14 April 1937 in a central town square in Aalborg, the capital of the region of North Jutland. A German ethnic minority speaking the Cimbrian language, having settled in the mountains between Vicenza, Verona, and Trento in Italy (also known as Seven Communities), is also called the Cimbri. For hundreds of years this isolated population and its present 4,400 inhabitants have claimed to be the direct descendants of the Cimbri retreating to this area after the Roman victory over their tribe. However, it is more likely that Bavarians settled here in the Middle Ages. Most linguists remain committed to the hypothesis of a medieval (11th to 12th century AD) immigration to explain the presence of small German-speaking communities in the north of Italy. Some genetic studies seem to prove a Celtic, not Germanic, descent for most inhabitants in the region that is reinforced by Gaulish toponyms such as those ending with the suffix -ago "All these names are Celtic, and they cannot be anything else". Some authors take a different perspective. Countering the argument of a Celtic origin is the literary evidence that the Cimbri originally came from northern Jutland, This does not rule out Cimbric Gallicization during the period when they lived in Gaul. Boiorix, who may have had a Celtic if not a Celticized Germanic name, was king of the Cimbri after they moved away from their ancestral home of northern Jutland. Boiorix and his tribe lived around Celtic peoples during his era as J. B. Rives points out in his introduction to Tacitus' Germania; furthermore, the name "Boiorix" can be seen as having either Proto-Germanic or Celtic roots. In fiction The science fiction story "Delenda Est" by Poul Anderson depicts an alternate history in which Hannibal won the Second Punic War and destroyed Rome, but Carthage proved unable to rule Italy – which fell into utter chaos. Thus, there was no one to stop the Cimbri two hundred years later. They filled the vacuum, conquered Italy, assimilated the local population to their own culture and by the equivalent of the 20th century had made of Italy a flourishing, technologically advanced kingdom speaking a Germanic language. He also wrote an unrelated historical novel "The Golden Slave", about a Cimbrian chieftain who is enslaved by the Romans after the Battle of Vercellae. Cimbri is referenced in Italo Calvino's novel If on a Winter's Night a Traveller as a fictional country that warred with a similarly fictionalised version of Cimmeria, thus imposing its own written language onto the Cimmerians. Jeff Hein's historical fiction series The Cimbrian War tells the story of the Cimbri and their migration across Iron-Age Europe. See also Cimbrian language Cimmerians Sugambri Zimmern Chronicle References External links Category:Early Germanic peoples Category:Ingaevones Category:Istvaeones Category:North Sea Germanic Category:Pre-Roman Iron Age
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cimbri
2025-04-05T18:27:50.950813
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Cleveland Browns
| first_season = 1946 | city = Huntington Bank Field<br />Cleveland, Ohio | misc Headquartered in the CrossCountry Mortgage Campus<br />Berea, Ohio | uniform = File:Cleveland Browns Uniforms 2024.png | colors Brown, orange, white<br /> | mascot = Chomps, SJ, Brownie the Elf | website = | owner Jimmy Haslam<br>Dee Haslam | general manager Andrew Berry | president = David Jenkins | coach = Kevin Stefanski | nicknames = * The Brownies | hist_yr = 1946–1995, 1999 | hist_misc2 = * Suspended operations (1996–1998) | affiliate_old = All-America Football Conference (1946–1949) * Western Division (1946–1948) | NFL_start_yr = 1950 | division_hist = * American Conference (1950–1952) * Eastern Conference (1953–1969) ** Century Division (1967–1969) * American Football Conference (1970–1995; 1999–present) ** AFC Central (1970–1995; 1999–2001) ** AFC North (2002–present) | no_league_champs = 8 | no_conf_champs = 11 | no_div_champs = 12 | league_champs = * AAFC championships (4)<br />1946, 1947, 1948, 1949 * NFL championships (pre-1970 AFL–NFL merger) (4)<br />1950, 1954, 1955, 1964 | conf_champs = * NFL American: 1950, 1951, 1952 * NFL Eastern: 1953, 1954, 1955, 1957, 1964, 1965, 1968, 1969 | div_champs = * AAFC Western: 1946, 1947, 1948 * NFL Century: 1967, 1968, 1969 * AFC Central: 1971, 1980, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1989 | stadium_years = * Cleveland Stadium (1946–) * Huntington Bank Field (–present) | playoff_appearances = * AAFC: 1946, 1947, 1948, 1949 * NFL: 1950, 1951, 1952, 1953, 1954, 1955, 1957, 1958, 1964, 1965, 1967, 1968, 1969, 1971, 1972, 1980, 1982, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1994, 2002, 2020, 2023<!-- Please do not vandalize this field to make a comment about the Cleveland Browns' on-field performance. Thank you. --> | no_playoff_appearances = 30 | team_owners = * Arthur B. McBride (1944–1953) * Dave Jones (1953–1961) * Art Modell (1961–1995) * Al Lerner (1998–2002) * Randy Lerner (2002–2012) * Jimmy & Dee Haslam (2012–present) }} The Cleveland Browns are a professional American football team based in Cleveland. The Browns compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member of the American Football Conference (AFC) North division. The team is named after original coach and co-founder Paul Brown. They play their home games at Huntington Bank Field, which opened in 1999, with administrative offices and training facilities in Berea, Ohio. The franchise's official club colors are brown, orange, and white. They are unique among the 32 member clubs of the NFL in that they do not have a logo on their helmets. The franchise was founded in 1944 by Brown and businessman Arthur B. McBride as a charter member of the All-America Football Conference (AAFC), and began play in 1946. The Browns dominated the AAFC, compiling a 47–4–3 record in the league's four seasons and winning its championship in each. When the AAFC folded after the 1949 season, the Browns joined the NFL along with the San Francisco 49ers and the original Baltimore Colts. The Browns won a championship in their inaugural NFL season, as well as in the 1954, 1955, and 1964 seasons, and in a feat unequaled in any of the North American major professional sports, played in their league championship game in each of their first 10 years of existence, winning seven of those games. From 1965 to 1995, they qualified to play in the NFL playoffs 14 times, but did not win another championship or play in the Super Bowl during that period. In 1995, owner Art Modell, who had purchased the Browns in 1961, announced plans to move the team to Baltimore. After threats of legal action from the city of Cleveland and fans, a compromise was reached in early 1996 that allowed Modell to establish the Baltimore Ravens as a new franchise while retaining the contracts of all Browns personnel. The Browns' intellectual property, including team name, logos, training facility, and history, were kept in trust and the franchise was regarded by the NFL as suspended, guaranteed to return no later than the 1999 season, either by relocation of an existing franchise or an expansion draft. While several of the existing franchises at the time considered relocating to Cleveland, in 1998 it was confirmed that the NFL would hold an expansion draft and field 31 teams when the Browns resumed play in 1999. Although the 1999 Browns were restocked via an expansion draft, the Browns are not considered to be an expansion franchise. Since resuming operations in 1999, the Browns have struggled to find success, especially during the 2010s when they did not post one winning season throughout that decade. They have had only four winning seasons (2002, 2007, 2020, and 2023), three playoff appearances (2002, 2020, and 2023), and one playoff win (2020), winning less than one third of their games in total, and in 2017 were only the second team in NFL history to have a 0–16 season after the 2008 Detroit Lions. The franchise has also been noted for a lack of stability with head coaches (10 full time - including two who were fired after only one season - and two interim since 1999) and quarterbacks (40 different starters since 1999). From 2003 to 2019, the Browns had a 17-season playoff drought, which ended during the 2020 season. They are one of four teams to have never appeared in a Super Bowl. Their lack of recent success has been as such that their decades-long rivalry with the Pittsburgh Steelers—a rivalry that at one point the Browns had a 22-game lead in the all-time series—saw the Steelers overtake the Browns in the rivalry in 2007 and currently hold a 17-game edge over the Browns. History ]] The Cleveland Browns were founded in 1944 when taxicab magnate Arthur B. "Mickey" McBride secured a Cleveland franchise in the newly formed All-America Football Conference (AAFC). Paul Brown was the team's namesake and first coach. The Browns began play in 1946 in the AAFC. The Browns won each of the league's four championship games before the league dissolved in 1949. The team then moved to the more established National Football League (NFL), where it continued to dominate. Between 1950 and 1955, Cleveland reached the NFL championship game every year, winning three times. McBride and his partners sold the team to a group of Cleveland businessmen in 1953 for a then-unheard-of $600,000. Eight years later, the team was sold again, this time to a group led by New York advertising executive Art Modell. Modell fired Brown before the 1963 season, but the team continued to win behind fullback Jim Brown. The Browns won the championship in 1964 and reached the title game the following season, losing to the Green Bay Packers. When the AFL and NFL merged before the 1970 season, Cleveland became part of the new American Football Conference (AFC). While the Browns made it back to the playoffs in 1971 and 1972, they fell into mediocrity through the mid-1970s. A revival of sorts took place in 1979 and 1980, when quarterback Brian Sipe engineered a series of last-minute wins and the Browns came to be called the "Kardiac Kids". Under Sipe, however, the Browns did not make it past the first round of the playoffs. Quarterback Bernie Kosar, whom the Browns drafted in 1985, led the team to three AFC Championship games in the late 1980s, but lost each time to the Denver Broncos. In 1995, Modell announced he was relocating the Browns to Baltimore, sowing a mix of outrage and bitterness among Cleveland's dedicated fan base. Negotiations and legal battles led to an agreement where Modell would be allowed to take his personnel to Baltimore as an expansion franchise, called the Baltimore Ravens, but would leave Cleveland the Browns' colors, logos and heritage for a reactivated Browns franchise that would take the field no later than 1999. Prior to the 1991 season, the Browns hired Bill Belichick to be the head coach. He led the team one winning season in his five years with the team, which occurred in 1994. The 1994 team defeated the New England Patriots 20–13 in the Wild Card Round before falling to the Pittsburgh Steelers 29–9 in the Divisional Round. Following a 5–11 season in 1995, the Browns fired Belichick. After three years of inactivity while Cleveland Stadium was demolished and Huntington Bank Field, then known as Cleveland Browns Stadium was built on its site, the Browns were reactivated and started play again in 1999 under new owner Al Lerner. Under head coach Chris Palmer, the Browns went 2–14 in 1999 and 3–13 in 2000. The Browns struggled throughout the 2000s and 2010s, posting a record of 101–234–1 () since their 1999 return. The Browns have only posted four winning seasons and three playoff appearances (2002, 2020, 2023) since returning to the NFL. The team's struggles have been magnified since 2012, when the Lerner family sold the team to businessman Jimmy Haslam. In six seasons under Haslam's ownership, the Browns went through four head coaches and four general managers, none of whom had found success. Butch Davis was named head coach prior to the 2001 season. In his first season, he led the team to a 7–9 record in 2001. He led the team to a playoff berth with a 9–7 record in 2002. The Browns lost 36–33 to the Steelers in the Wild Card Round. The team regressed to a 5–11 record in the 2003 season. Following a 3–8 start to the 2004 season, Davis resigned. Terry Robiskie finished out the season with a 1–4 mark. Prior to the 2005 season, the team hired Romeo Crennel to the be their next head coach. He went 6–10 in 2005 and 4–12 in 2006. He posted a winning 10–6 record that did not qualify for the playoffs in the 2007 season. He went 4–12 in the 2008 season and was fired following the season. Eric Mangini posted consecutive 5–11 seasons as head coach in 2009 and 2010 before getting fired. Pat Shurmur coached the team to a 4–12 record in 2011 and a 5–11 record in 2012 before getting fired. Rob Chudzinski coached the Browns in the 2013 season. He was fired after a 4–12 campaign. Mike Pettine coached the team in 2014 and 2015, going 7–9 and 3–13 before getting fired. In 2016 and 2017 under head coach Hue Jackson, the Browns went 1–31 (, including a winless 0–16 season in 2017), the worst two-year stretch in NFL history, and received the number one overall draft pick in both of those years. Those top overall draft picks were used on Myles Garrett and Baker Mayfield. Prior to the 2019 season, Freddie Kitchens was hired as head coach. Kitchens led the team to a 6–10 record and was fired following the season. Prior to the 2020 season, the Browns hired Kevin Stefanski as their head coach. In 2020, the Browns secured their first playoff berth since 2002 by defeating the Pittsburgh Steelers in week 17 and finishing the season 11–5. The Browns saw their season end in a 22–17 loss to the Kansas City Chiefs in the Divisional Round. The 2021 season saw the Browns go 8–9 and miss the postseason. In the following season, the Browns went 7–10 and missed the postseason for the 2022 season. In the 2023 season, the Browns returned to the postseason with a 11–6 mark. The Browns ended their season with a 45–14 loss to the Texans in the Wild Card Round.Logos and uniformsLogosThe Browns are the only National Football League team without a helmet logo. The logoless helmet serves as the Browns' official logo. The organization has used several promotional logos throughout the years; players' numbers were painted on the helmets from 1957 to 1960; and an unused "CB" logo was created in 1965. But for much of their history, the Browns' helmets have been an unadorned burnt orange color with a top stripe of dark brown (officially called "seal brown") divided by a white stripe. The team has had various promotional logos throughout the years, such as the "Brownie Elf" mascot or a Brown "B" in a white football. While Art Modell did away with the elf in the mid-1960s (believing it to be too childish), its use has been revived since the team's return in 1999. The popularity of the Dawg Pound section at Huntington Bank Field has led to a brown and orange dog being used for various Browns functions. But overall, the orange, logo-less helmet continues as the primary trademark of the Cleveland Browns. The Browns have used special commemorative logos during individual seasons, such as the 1999 logo to celebrate the team's return to the NFL, a 60th-anniversary logo for the 2006 season, and a 75th-anniversary logo in 2021. The current logos and wordmarks were introduced on February 24, 2015, with the helmet design remaining largely as is, the only differences being minor color changes to the shade of orange used on the helmet and the facemask being changed from gray to brown. A new secondary "dawg" logo was introduced in 2023. The logo, featuring a bull mastiff dog, was created by graphic designer Houston Mark and was the winning entry of a fan vote. It features numerous small homages to the city of Cleveland, state of Ohio, and the team's history. Since the 2022 season, by virtue of a fan poll, a version of the Brownie elf logo is featured at midfield at Huntington Bank Field. Uniforms The original designs of the jerseys, pants, and socks remained mostly the same, but the helmets went through many significant revisions throughout the years. The Browns uniforms saw their first massive change prior to the 2015 season. Jerseys: # Brown – brown (officially "seal brown") with orange-colored numbers and writing, and an orange-white-orange stripe sequence on the sleeves. # White (away) – white with orange numbers and writing, with a brown-orange-brown stripe sequence. # Orange – orange with white numerals and writing, and a brown-white-brown stripe sequence. Pants: # Brown – brown pants with an orange-white-orange stripe sequence down two-thirds the length of the pants. The other third is the word "BROWNS," written in orange. # White – white pants with a brown-orange-brown stripes. "BROWNS" is written in brown. # Orange – orange pants with a brown-white-brown stripe sequence. "BROWNS" is written in brown. Socks: # Solid brown. # Solid white. # Solid orange. Helmet: Solid white (1946–1949); solid white for day games and solid orange for night games (1950–1951); orange with a single white stripe (1952–1956); orange with a single white stripe and brown numerals on the sides (1957–1959); orange with a brown-white-brown stripe sequence and brown numerals on the sides (1960); orange with a brown-white-brown stripe sequence (1961–1995 and 1999–present). Over the years, the Browns have had on-and-off periods of wearing white for their home games, particularly in the 1970s and 80s, as well as in the early 2000s after the team returned to the league. Until recently, when more NFL teams have started to wear white at home at least once a season, the Browns were the only non-subtropical team north of the Mason-Dixon line to wear white at home on a regular basis. Secondary numerals (called "TV numbers") first appeared on the jersey sleeves in 1961. Over the years, there have been minor revisions to the sleeve stripes, the first occurring in 1968 (brown jerseys worn in early season) and 1969 (white and brown jerseys) when stripes began to be silkscreened onto the sleeves and separated from each other to prevent color bleeding. However, the basic five-stripe sequence has remained intact (with the exception of the 1984 season). A recent revision was the addition of the initials "AL" to honor team owner Al Lerner who died in 2002; this was removed in 2013 upon Jimmy Haslam assuming ownership of the team. Orange pants with a brown-white-brown stripe sequence were worn from 1975 to 1983 and become symbolic of the "Kardiac Kids" era. The orange pants were worn again occasionally in 2003 and 2004. Other than the helmet, the uniform was completely redesigned for the 1984 season. New striping patterns appeared on the white jerseys, brown jerseys and pants. Solid brown socks were worn with brown jerseys and solid orange socks were worn with white jerseys. Brown numerals on the white jerseys were outlined in orange. White numerals on the brown jerseys were double outlined in brown and orange. (Orange numerals double outlined in brown and white appeared briefly on the brown jerseys in one pre-season game.) However, this particular uniform set was not popular with the fans, and in 1985 the uniform was returned to a look similar to the original design. It remained that way until 1995. In 1999, the expansion Browns adopted the traditional design with two exceptions: first, the TV numbers, previously on the sleeves, were moved to the shoulders; and second, the orange-brown-orange pants stripes were significantly widened. Experimentation with the uniform design began in 2002. An alternate orange jersey was introduced that season as the NFL encouraged teams to adopt a third jersey, and a major design change was made when solid brown socks appeared for the first time since 1984 and were used with white, brown and orange jerseys. Other than 1984, striped socks (matching the jersey stripes) had been a signature design element in the team's traditional uniform. The white striped socks appeared occasionally with the white jerseys in 2003–2005 and 2007. Experimentation continued in 2003 and 2004 when the traditional orange-brown-orange stripes on the white pants were replaced by two variations of a brown-orange-brown sequence, one in which the stripes were joined (worn with white jerseys) and the other in which they were separated by white (worn with brown jerseys). The joined sequence was used exclusively with both jerseys in 2005. In 2006, the traditional orange-brown-orange sequence returned. Additionally in 2006, the team reverted to an older uniform style, featuring gray face masks; the original stripe pattern on the brown jersey sleeves (The white jersey has had that sleeve stripe pattern on a consistent basis since the 1985 season.) and the older, darker shade of brown. The Browns wore brown pants for the first time in team history on August 18, 2008, preseason game against the New York Giants. The pants contain no stripes or markings. The team had the brown pants created as an option for their away uniform when they integrated the gray facemask in 2006. They were not worn again until the Browns "family" scrimmage on August 9, 2009, with white-striped socks. The Browns have continued to wear the brown pants throughout the 2009 season. Browns quarterback Brady Quinn supported the team's move to wearing the brown pants full-time, claiming that the striped pattern on the white pants "prohibit[ed] mobility". However, the fans generally did not like the brown pants, and after being used for only one season, the team returned to their white shirt-on-white pants in 2010. Coach Eric Mangini told The Plain Dealer the Browns won't use the brown pants anymore. "It wasn't very well-received," Mangini said. "I hope we can get to the point where we can wear fruit on our heads and people wouldn't notice." At the time, the brown pants weren't officially dropped by the team, but simply not used. ]] right|thumb|175px|EVP of Football Operations/GM Andrew Berry (American football)|Andrew Berry 175px|thumb|right|Head Coach Kevin Stefanski ]] and three-time First Team All-Pro defensive end Myles Garrett]] The Browns chose to wear white at home for the 2011 season, and wound up wearing white for all 16 games as when they were on the road, the home team would wear their darker colored uniform. The Browns brought back the brown pants in their home game against the Buffalo Bills on October 3, 2013, on Thursday Night Football, pairing them with the brown jerseys. It marked the first time the team wore an all-brown combination in team history. On April 14, 2015, the Cleveland Browns unveiled their new uniform combinations, consisting of the team's colors of orange, brown and white, but with the slight altering of the orange color to a slightly darker, but more vibrant matte orange (noticeable on the helmet, which featured a seal brown facemask), and seal brown and white, with orange numerals which featured a dropshaw (brown on the white road and orange alternate and white on the home brown jerseys). Above the jersey numerals, the word "CLEVELAND" appeared emblazoned in brown (orange on the home brown and white on the orange alternate jerseys) in a custom sans-serif font type. The Browns brought back the all-brown look for the NFL Color Rush program in 2016, minus the white elements. In 2018, despite the Color Rush program being discontinued, the uniform was worn at home three times. For the 2019 season, the Browns promoted this uniform to their primary home uniform and donned it for six home games as well as any away game in which the home team wore white. The club unveiled a new uniform design for the 2020 season. The new uniform design pays homage to the Browns' classic uniform design from years past. In 2023, the Browns introduced new "White Out" uniforms, an all-white uniform, featuring a white helmet, that will be worn during select home games. This will mark the first time since 1950 the Browns will have non-orange helmets. The white helmets, which will feature an orange stripe down the middle flanked by two brown stripes (basically inverting the regular helmet's colors), are an homage to the early years of the franchise. Rivalries The Browns have rivalries with all three of their AFC North opponents. In addition, the team has had historical rivalries with the Denver Broncos, Detroit Lions, San Francisco 49ers, and Houston Oilers/Tennessee Titans. Divisional rivalries Pittsburgh Steelers Often called the "Turnpike Rivalry", the Browns' biggest rival has long been the Pittsburgh Steelers. Former Browns owner Art Modell scheduled home games against the Steelers on Saturday nights from 1964 to 1970 to help fuel the rivalry. The rivalry has also been fueled by the proximity of the two teams, number of championships both teams have won, players and personnel having played and/or coached for both sides, and personal bitterness. The teams have played twice annually since 1950, making it the oldest rivalry in the AFC and the fifth-oldest rivalry in the NFL. Though the Browns dominated this rivalry early in the series (winning the first eight meetings and posting a 31–9 record in the 1950s and 1960s), the Steelers went 15–5 in the 1970s and 36–9–1 since the Browns returned to the league in 1999. The Steelers have been particularly dominant in Pittsburgh, posting a 44–7 record when hosting the Browns since 1970, including to winning streaks of 16 games (1970–85) and 17 games (2004–20). The Steelers currently hold a 79–61–1 lead. The Browns and Steelers met in the playoffs in , , and 2020, with the Steelers holding a 2–1 lead in the postseason series. Though the rivalry has cooled in Pittsburgh due to the Modell move as well as the Browns' poor play since 1999, the Steelers still remain the top rival for Cleveland. Cincinnati Bengals Originally conceived due to the personal animosity between Paul Brown and Art Modell, the "Battle of Ohio" between the Browns and the Cincinnati Bengals has been fueled by the sociocultural differences between Cincinnati and Cleveland, a shared history between the two teams, and similar team colors, as Brown used the exact shade of orange for the Bengals that he used for the Browns. (Though this has changed since then, as the Bengals now use a brighter shade of orange.) Modell, in fact, moved the Browns to the AFC after the AFL–NFL merger in order to have a rivalry with the Bengals. The rivalry has also produced two of the eleven highest-scoring games in NFL history. Cincinnati has the all-time edge 52–48. While the Bengals have a 28–21 edge since the Browns returned to the NFL in 1999, this series has been more competitive than the Browns' series with their other division rivals, and the Browns have won 9 of the last 11 meetings. Baltimore Ravens Created as a result of the Browns' relocation controversy, the rivalry between the Browns and Baltimore Ravens was more directed at Art Modell than the team itself, and is simply considered a divisional game in Baltimore. This matchup is more bitter for Cleveland than the others due to the fact that the draft picks for 1995 to 1998 resulted in the rosters that won the Super Bowl for the Ravens in 2000. Had Modell not moved the team, these teams, drafted by general manager and former Browns tight end Ozzie Newsome, might have given the Browns a title after a 35-year drought. As of the 2023 season, the Ravens lead the overall series 36–14. The two teams have not met in the playoffs.Other rivalriesDetroit LionsThe Browns' rivalry with the Detroit Lions began in the 1950s, when the Browns and Lions played each other in four NFL Championship Games. The Lions won three of those championships, while the Browns won one. This was arguably one of the NFL's best rivalries in the 1950s. Since the NFL-AFL merger of 1970, the teams have met much less frequently with the Browns' move to the AFC. From 2002 to 2014, the two teams played an annual preseason game known as the "Great Lakes Classic". As of the 2023 season, the Lions lead the all-time series 19–6. Denver Broncos The Browns had a brief rivalry with the Denver Broncos that arose from three AFC Championship Games from 1986 to 1989. In the 1986 AFC Championship, quarterback John Elway led The Drive to secure a tie in the waning moments at Cleveland Municipal Stadium; the Broncos went on to win in 23–20 in overtime. One year later, the two teams met again in the 1987 AFC Championship game at Mile High Stadium. Denver took a 21–3 lead, but Browns' quarterback Bernie Kosar threw four touchdown passes to tie the game at 31–31 halfway through the 4th quarter. After a long drive, John Elway threw a 20-yard touchdown pass to running back Sammy Winder to give Denver a 38–31 lead. Cleveland advanced to Denver's 8-yard line with 1:12 left, but Broncos' safety Jeremiah Castille stripped Browns' running back Earnest Byner of the football at the 2-yard line—a play that has been called The Fumble by Browns' fans. The Broncos recovered it, gave Cleveland an intentional safety, and went on to win 38–33. The two teams met yet again in the 1989 AFC Championship at Mile High Stadium, which the Broncos easily won by a score of 37–21. This short-lived rivalry also featured a controversial 16–13 Browns' win at Cleveland Municipal Stadium in the 1989 regular season. The game was decided by a Matt Bahr 48-yard field goal as time expired - a kick that barely cleared the crossbar. Bahr's field goal came after referee Tom Dooley ordered the teams to switch ends of the field midway through the 4th quarter, thanks to rowdy Dawg Pound fans who pelted the Broncos with dog biscuits, eggs and other debris. The switch gave the Browns a small, timely wind advantage to finish the game. More recently, the rivalry has cooled off as the Broncos won 11 straight meetings from 1991 to 2015 before Cleveland broke that streak with a narrow 17–16 win in . As of the 2023 season, Denver leads the overall series, 25–7. San Francisco 49ers The most competitive team in the AAFC era for the Browns was the San Francisco 49ers. San Francisco finished second to the Browns in each of the four seasons that the league played. Two of the Browns' four losses in that era were to the 49ers (including a loss that ended the Browns' 29-game unbeaten streak); the rivalry did not last into the NFL years, particularly after the teams were placed in opposite conferences in . The rivalry has turned into a friendly relationship as many 49ers personnel helped the Browns relaunch in 1999, specifically former 49ers president and CEO Carmen Policy and vice president/director of football operations Dwight Clark, who were hired by the expansion Browns in the same roles. In addition, 49ers owners John York and Denise DeBartolo York reside in Youngstown, southeast of Cleveland. Long-time Browns placekicker and fan favorite Phil Dawson and backup quarterback Colt McCoy signed with the 49ers in 2014. As of the 2023 season, the Browns lead the all-time series 20–10. Houston Oilers/Tennessee Titans The Browns' rivalry with the Houston Oilers/Tennessee Titans dates back to the Browns and then-Oilers being placed in the AFC Central after the AFL-NFL merger in 1970. As such, the teams played each other twice annually from 1970 until 2002 when divisional realignment placed the Browns in the AFC North and the now-Titans in the AFC South (excluding 1996-98 when the Browns were inactive). The teams have met much less frequently since 2002. The Browns lead the overall series 37–32, and the 69 meetings with the Oilers/Titans are the third-most of any Cleveland opponent, trailing only the Steelers and Bengals. The height of this rivalry was during the 1980s. Oilers head coach Jerry Glanville and Marty Schottenheimer shared several bitter exchanges during the decade and the Browns and Oilers had their only playoff meeting in the 1988 Wild Card Round, in which the Oilers came away with a narrow 24–23 victory. There have been a few memorable games in recent years. In , the Browns erased a 28–3 deficit to come away with a 29–28 win. In a December contest with playoff implications for both teams, the Browns jumped to a 38–7 halftime lead, setting a franchise record for points in the first half. However, Tennessee rallied in the second half but came up just short as the Browns hung on for a 41–35 win. Fan base A 2006 study conducted by Bizjournal determined that Browns fans are the most loyal fans in the NFL. The study, while not scientific, was largely based on fan loyalty during winning and losing seasons, attendance at games, and challenges confronting fans (such as inclement weather or long-term poor performance of their team). The study noted that Browns fans filled 99.8% of the seats at Huntington Bank Field during the last seven seasons, despite a combined record of 36–76 over that span.Dawg Pound Perhaps the most visible Browns fans are those that can be found in the Dawg Pound. Originally the name for the bleacher section located in the open (east) end of old Cleveland Municipal Stadium, the current incarnation is likewise located in the east end of Huntington Bank Field and still features hundreds of orange and brown clad fans sporting various canine-related paraphernalia. The fans adopted that name in 1984 after members of the Browns defense used it to describe the team's defense. Retired cornerback Hanford Dixon, who played his entire career for the Browns (1981–1989), is credited with naming the Cleveland Browns defense 'The Dawgs' in the mid-1980s. Dixon and teammates Frank Minnifield and Eddie Johnson would bark at each other and to the fans in the bleachers at the Cleveland Stadium to fire them up. It was from Dixon's naming that the Dawg Pound subsequently took its title. The fans adopted that name in the years after. members at a home game]] Browns Backers The most prominent organization of Browns fans is the Browns Backers Worldwide (BBW). The organization has approximately 305,000 members and Browns Backers clubs can be found in every major city in the United States, and in a number of military bases throughout the world, with the largest club being in Phoenix, Arizona. In addition, the organization has a sizable foreign presence in places as far away as Egypt, Australia, Japan, Sri Lanka, and McMurdo Station in Antarctica. According to The Official Fan Club of the Cleveland Browns, the two largest international fan clubs are in Alon Shvut, West Bank and Niagara, Canada, with Alon Shvut having 129 members and Niagara having 310. Following former Browns owner Randy Lerner's acquisition of English soccer club Aston Villa, official Villa outlets started selling Cleveland Browns goods such as jerseys and NFL footballs. This has raised interest in England and strengthened the link between the two sporting clubs. Aston Villa supporters have set up an organization known as the Aston (Villa) Browns Backers of Birmingham. Players of note Current roster Players enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame ]] ]] ]] ]] ]] ]] ]] ]] The Cleveland Browns have the fourth-largest number of players enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame with a total of 17 enshrined players elected based on their performance with the Browns, and nine more players or coaches elected who spent at least one year with the Browns franchise. No Browns players were inducted in the inaugural induction class of 1963. Otto Graham was the first Browns player to be enshrined as a member of the class of 1965, and the most recent Browns player to be included in the Pro Football Hall of Fame is Joe Thomas, who was a member of the class of 2023, who is the first member inducted that played in the 21st century. {| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" |- ! colspan"5" style";"|Cleveland Browns in the Pro Football Hall of Fame |- ! style=";"|Inducted ! style=";"|No. ! style=";"|Player name ! style=";"|Tenure ! style=";"|Position(s) |- ! style="text-align:center;"| 1965 | style="text-align:center;"| 60, 14 | style="text-align:center;"| Otto Graham | style="text-align:center;"| 1946–1955 | style="text-align:center;"| QB |- ! style="text-align:center;"| 1967 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| Paul Brown | style="text-align:center;"| 1946–1962 | style="text-align:center;"| Head coach |- ! style="text-align:center;"| 1968 | style="text-align:center;"| 76, 36 | style="text-align:center;"| Marion Motley | style="text-align:center;"| 1946–1953 | style="text-align:center;"| FB |- ! style="text-align:center;"| 1971 | style="text-align:center;"| 32 | style="text-align:center;"| Jim Brown | style="text-align:center;"| 1957–1965 | style="text-align:center;"| FB |- ! style="text-align:center;"| 1974 | style="text-align:center;"| 46, 76 | style="text-align:center;"| Lou Groza | style="text-align:center;"| 1946–1959<br />1961–1967 | style="text-align:center;"| OT<br />K |- ! style="text-align:center;"| 1975 | style="text-align:center;"| 56, 86 | style="text-align:center;"| Dante Lavelli | style="text-align:center;"| 1946–1956 | style="text-align:center;"| WR |- ! style="text-align:center;"| 1976 | style="text-align:center;"| 53, 80 | style="text-align:center;"| Len Ford | style="text-align:center;"| 1950–1957 | style="text-align:center;"| DE |- ! style="text-align:center;"| 1977 | style="text-align:center;"| 30, 45, 60 | style="text-align:center;"| Bill Willis | style="text-align:center;"| 1946–1953 | style="text-align:center;"| T, OG |- ! style="text-align:center;"| 1981 | style="text-align:center;"| 77 | style="text-align:center;"| Willie Davis <sup>*</sup> | style="text-align:center;"| 1958–1959 | style="text-align:center;"| DE |- ! style="text-align:center;"| 1982 | style="text-align:center;"| 83 | style="text-align:center;"| Doug Atkins | style="text-align:center;"| 1953–1954 | style="text-align:center;"| DE |- ! style"text-align:center;" rowspan2| 1983 | style="text-align:center;"| 49 | style="text-align:center;"| Bobby Mitchell | style="text-align:center;"| 1958–1961 | style="text-align:center;"| WR, RB, HB |- | style="text-align:center;"| 42 | style="text-align:center;"| Paul Warfield | style="text-align:center;"| 1964–1969<br />1976–1977 | style="text-align:center;"| WR |- ! style="text-align:center;"| 1984 | style="text-align:center;"| 74 | style="text-align:center;"| Mike McCormack | style="text-align:center;"| 1954–1962 | style="text-align:center;"| OT |- ! style="text-align:center;"| 1985 | style="text-align:center;"| 22, 52 | style="text-align:center;"| Frank Gatski | style="text-align:center;"| 1946–1956 | style="text-align:center;"| C |- ! style="text-align:center;"| 1987 | style="text-align:center;"| 18 | style="text-align:center;"| Len Dawson | style="text-align:center;"| 1960–1961 | style="text-align:center;"| QB |- ! style="text-align:center;"| 1994 | style="text-align:center;"| 44 | style="text-align:center;"| Leroy Kelly | style="text-align:center;"| 1964–1973 | style="text-align:center;"| RB |- ! style="text-align:center;"| 1995 | style="text-align:center;"| 72 | style="text-align:center;"| Henry Jordan | style="text-align:center;"| 1957–1958 | style="text-align:center;"| DT |- ! style="text-align:center;"| 1998 | style="text-align:center;"| 29 | style="text-align:center;"| Tommy McDonald | style="text-align:center;"| 1968 | style="text-align:center;"| WR |- ! style="text-align:center;"| 1999 | style="text-align:center;"| 82 | style="text-align:center;"| Ozzie Newsome | style="text-align:center;"| 1978–1990 | style="text-align:center;"| TE |- ! style="text-align:center;"| 2003 | style="text-align:center;"| 64 | style="text-align:center;"| Joe DeLamielleure | style="text-align:center;"| 1980–1984 | style="text-align:center;"| OG |- ! style="text-align:center;"| 2007 | style="text-align:center;"| 66 | style="text-align:center;"| Gene Hickerson | style="text-align:center;"| 1958–1960<br />1962–1973 | style="text-align:center;"| OG |- ! style="text-align:center;"| 2020 | style="text-align:center;"| 58, 88 | style="text-align:center;"| Mac Speedie | style="text-align:center;"| 1946–1952 | style="text-align:center;"| End |- ! style="text-align:center;"| 2023 | style="text-align:center;"| 73 | style="text-align:center;"| Joe Thomas | style="text-align:center;"| 2007–2017 | style="text-align:center;"| OT |- |} Cleveland Browns legends The Cleveland Browns legends program honors former Browns who made noteworthy contributions to the history of the franchise. In addition to all the Hall of Famers listed above, the Legends list includes: {| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" |- ! colspan"5" style";"|Cleveland Browns legends |- ! style=";"|Inducted ! style=";"|No. ! style=";"|Player name ! style=";"|Position(s) ! style=";"|Tenure |- ! style"text-align:center;" rowspan4| 2001 | style="text-align:center;"| 19 | style="text-align:center;"| Bernie Kosar | style="text-align:center;"| QB | style="text-align:center;"| 1985–1993 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 92 | style="text-align:center;"| Michael Dean Perry | style="text-align:center;"| DE | style="text-align:center;"| 1989–1994 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 34 | style="text-align:center;"| Greg Pruitt | style="text-align:center;"| RB | style="text-align:center;"| 1973–1981 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 26 | style="text-align:center;"| Ray Renfro | style="text-align:center;"| WR | style="text-align:center;"| 1952–1963 |- ! style"text-align:center;" rowspan2| 2002 | style="text-align:center;"| 57 | style="text-align:center;"| Clay Matthews | style="text-align:center;"| LB | style="text-align:center;"| 1978–1993 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 17 | style="text-align:center;"| Brian Sipe | style="text-align:center;"| QB | style="text-align:center;"| 1974–1983 |- ! style"text-align:center;" rowspan3| 2003 | style="text-align:center;"| 29 | style="text-align:center;"| Hanford Dixon | style="text-align:center;"| CB | style="text-align:center;"| 1981–1989 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 74/79 | style="text-align:center;"| Bob Gain | style="text-align:center;"| DT | style="text-align:center;"| 1952–1964 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 77/80 | style="text-align:center;"| Dick Schafrath | style="text-align:center;"| OT | style="text-align:center;"| 1959–1971 |- ! style"text-align:center;" rowspan4| 2004 | style="text-align:center;"| 86 | style="text-align:center;"| Gary Collins | style="text-align:center;"| WR | style="text-align:center;"| 1962–1971 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 42/82 | style="text-align:center;"| Tommy James | style="text-align:center;"| P | style="text-align:center;"| 1948–1955 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 40/86 | style="text-align:center;"| Dub Jones | style="text-align:center;"| WR | style="text-align:center;"| 1948–1955 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 43 | style="text-align:center;"| Mike Pruitt | style="text-align:center;"| RB | style="text-align:center;"| 1976–1984 |- ! style"text-align:center;" rowspan4| 2005 | style="text-align:center;"| 31 | style="text-align:center;"| Frank Minnifield | style="text-align:center;"| CB | style="text-align:center;"| 1984–1992 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 13 | style="text-align:center;"| Frank Ryan | style="text-align:center;"| QB | style="text-align:center;"| 1962–1968 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 72 | style="text-align:center;"| Jerry Sherk | style="text-align:center;"| DT | style="text-align:center;"| 1970–1981 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 64/84 | style="text-align:center;"| Jim Ray Smith | style="text-align:center;"| OT | style="text-align:center;"| 1956–1962 |- ! style"text-align:center;" rowspan4| 2006 | style="text-align:center;"| 20/21/44 | style="text-align:center;"| Earnest Byner | style="text-align:center;"| RB | style="text-align:center;"| 1984–1988<br />1994–1995 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 73 | style="text-align:center;"| Doug Dieken | style="text-align:center;"| OT | style="text-align:center;"| 1971–1984 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 82 | style="text-align:center;"| Jim Houston | style="text-align:center;"| LB | style="text-align:center;"| 1960–1972 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 34 | style="text-align:center;"| Walt Michaels | style="text-align:center;"| LB | style="text-align:center;"| 1952–1961 |- ! style"text-align:center;" rowspan4| 2007 | style="text-align:center;"| 12 | style="text-align:center;"| Don Cockroft | style="text-align:center;"| K | style="text-align:center;"| 1968–1980 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 59/84 | style="text-align:center;"| Horace Gillom | style="text-align:center;"| P | style="text-align:center;"| 1947–1956 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 80 | style="text-align:center;"| Bill Glass | style="text-align:center;"| DE | style="text-align:center;"| 1962–1968 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 34 | style="text-align:center;"| Kevin Mack | style="text-align:center;"| RB | style="text-align:center;"| 1985–1993 |- ! style"text-align:center;" rowspan4| 2008 | style="text-align:center;"| 71 | style="text-align:center;"| Walter Johnson | style="text-align:center;"| DT | style="text-align:center;"| 1965–1976 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 24/80 | style="text-align:center;"| Warren Lahr | style="text-align:center;"| DB | style="text-align:center;"| 1949–1959 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 21 | style="text-align:center;"| Eric Metcalf | style="text-align:center;"| RB/KR | style="text-align:center;"| 1989–1994 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 84/86 | style="text-align:center;"| Paul Wiggin | style="text-align:center;"| DE | style="text-align:center;"| 1957–1967 |- ! style"text-align:center;" rowspan2| 2010 | style="text-align:center;"| 63 | style="text-align:center;"| Cody Risien | style="text-align:center;"| OT | style="text-align:center;"| 1979–1989 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 60 | style="text-align:center;"| John Wooten | style="text-align:center;"| OG | style="text-align:center;"| 1959–1967 |- ! style"text-align:center;" rowspan2| 2011 | style="text-align:center;"| 50 | style="text-align:center;"| Vince Costello | style="text-align:center;"| LB | style="text-align:center;"| 1957–1966 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 54 | style="text-align:center;"| Tom DeLeone | style="text-align:center;"| C | style="text-align:center;"| 1974–1984 |- ! style"text-align:center;" rowspan2| 2012 | style="text-align:center;"| 22 | style="text-align:center;"| Clarence Scott | style="text-align:center;"| S | style="text-align:center;"| 1971–1983 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 48 | style="text-align:center;"| Ernie Green | style="text-align:center;"| RB | style="text-align:center;"| 1962–1968 |- ! style"text-align:center;" rowspan2| 2013 | style="text-align:center;"| 35 | style="text-align:center;"| Galen Fiss | style="text-align:center;"| LB | style="text-align:center;"| 1956–1966 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 34/64 | style="text-align:center;"| Abe Gibron | style="text-align:center;"| G | style="text-align:center;"| 1950–1956 |- ! style"text-align:center;" rowspan2| 2014 | style="text-align:center;"| 68 | style="text-align:center;"| Robert Jackson | style="text-align:center;"| G | style="text-align:center;"| 1975–1985 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 89 | style="text-align:center;"| Milt Morin | style="text-align:center;"| TE | style="text-align:center;"| 1966–1975 |- ! style"text-align:center;" rowspan2| 2015 | style="text-align:center;"| 70 | style="text-align:center;"| Don Colo | style="text-align:center;"| DT | style="text-align:center;"| 1953–1958 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 79 | style="text-align:center;"| Bob Golic | style="text-align:center;"| NT | style="text-align:center;"| 1982–1988 |- ! style"text-align:center;" rowspan2| 2016 | style="text-align:center;"| 52 | style="text-align:center;"| Dick Ambrose | style="text-align:center;"| LB | style="text-align:center;"| 1975–1983 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 27 | style="text-align:center;"| Thom Darden | style="text-align:center;"| FS | style="text-align:center;"| 1972–1981 |- ! style"text-align:center;" rowspan2| 2017 | style="text-align:center;"| 30 | style="text-align:center;"| Bernie Parrish | style="text-align:center;"| DB | style="text-align:center;"| 1959–1966 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 74 | style="text-align:center;"| Tony Adamle | style="text-align:center;"| LB/FB | style="text-align:center;"| 1947–1951, 1954 |- ! style"text-align:center;" rowspan2| 2018 | style="text-align:center;"| 40 | style="text-align:center;"| Erich Barnes | style="text-align:center;"| DB | style="text-align:center;"| 1965–1971 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 51 | style="text-align:center;"| Eddie Johnson | style="text-align:center;"| LB | style="text-align:center;"| 1981–1990 |- ! style"text-align:center;" rowspan2| 2020 | style="text-align:center;"| 16 | style="text-align:center;"| Josh Cribbs | style="text-align:center;"| WR/KR | style="text-align:center;"| 2005–2012 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 84 | style="text-align:center;"| Webster Slaughter | style="text-align:center;"| WR | style="text-align:center;"| 1986–1991 |- ! style"text-align:center;" rowspan2| 2021 | style="text-align:center;"| 52/58 | style="text-align:center;"| D'Qwell Jackson | style="text-align:center;"| LB | style="text-align:center;"| 2006–2013 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 16 | style="text-align:center;"| Bill Nelsen | style="text-align:center;"| QB | style="text-align:center;"| 1968–1972 |- ! style"text-align:center;" rowspan2| 2022 | style="text-align:center;"| 82/88 | style="text-align:center;"| Pete Brewster | style="text-align:center;"| TE | style="text-align:center;"| 1952–1958 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 73 | style="text-align:center;"| Joe Thomas | style="text-align:center;"| OT | style="text-align:center;"| 2007–2017 |} Pro Bowlers Retired uniform numbersRing of HonorBeginning in 2010, the Browns established a Ring of Honor, honoring the greats from the past by having their names displayed around the upper deck of Huntington Bank Field. The inaugural class in the Browns Ring of Honor was unveiled during the home opener on September 19, 2010, and featured the 16 Hall of Famers listed above who went into the Hall of Fame as Browns. In 2018, Joe Thomas was entered into the Ring of Honor with the number 10,363 – commemorating his NFL record of consecutive snaps played on offense. In 2019, four-time Pro Bowl linebacker Clay Matthews Jr. was entered into the Ring of Honor. {| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" |- ! colspan"5" style "" | Cleveland Browns Ring of Honor |- ! style=";" | Inducted ! style=";" | No. ! style=";" | Name ! style=";" | Position(s) ! style=";" | Tenure |- ! style"text-align:center;" rowspan16| 2010 | style="text-align:center;"| 32 | style"text-align:center;" style"background:#ffb"| Jim Brown | style="text-align:center;"| FB | style="text-align:center;"| 1957–1965 |- | style="text-align:center;"| — | style"text-align:center;" style"background:#ffb"| Paul Brown | style="text-align:center;"| Head coach | style="text-align:center;"| 1946–1962 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 64 | style"text-align:center;" style"background:#ffb"| Joe DeLamielleure | style="text-align:center;"| OG | style="text-align:center;"| 1980–1984 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 53, 80 | style"text-align:center;" style"background:#ffb"| Len Ford | style="text-align:center;"| DE | style="text-align:center;"| 1950–1957 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 22, 52 | style"text-align:center;" style"background:#ffb"| Frank Gatski | style="text-align:center;"| C | style="text-align:center;"| 1946–1956 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 60, 14 | style"text-align:center;" style"background:#ffb"| Otto Graham | style="text-align:center;"| QB | style="text-align:center;"| 1946–1955 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 46, 76 | style"text-align:center;" style"background:#ffb"| Lou Groza | style="text-align:center;"| OT<br />K | style="text-align:center;"| 1946–1959<br />1961–1967 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 66 | style"text-align:center;" style"background:#ffb"| Gene Hickerson | style="text-align:center;"| OG | style="text-align:center;"| 1958–1960<br />1962–1973 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 44 | style"text-align:center;" style"background:#ffb"| Leroy Kelly | style="text-align:center;"| RB | style="text-align:center;"| 1964–1973 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 56, 86 | style"text-align:center;" style"background:#ffb"| Dante Lavelli | style="text-align:center;"| WR | style="text-align:center;"| 1946–1956 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 74 | style"text-align:center;" style"background:#ffb"| Mike McCormack | style="text-align:center;"| OT | style="text-align:center;"| 1954–1962 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 49 | style"text-align:center;" style"background:#ffb"| Bobby Mitchell | style="text-align:center;"| WR, RB, HB | style="text-align:center;"| 1958–1961 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 76, 36 | style"text-align:center;" style"background:#ffb"| Marion Motley | style="text-align:center;"| FB | style="text-align:center;"| 1946–1953 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 82 | style"text-align:center;" style"background:#ffb"| Ozzie Newsome | style="text-align:center;"| TE | style="text-align:center;"| 1978–1990 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 42 | style"text-align:center;" style"background:#ffb"| Paul Warfield | style="text-align:center;"| WR | style="text-align:center;"| 1964–1969<br />1976–1977 |- | style="text-align:center;"| 30, 45, 60 | style"text-align:center;" style"background:#ffb"| Bill Willis | style="text-align:center;"| T, OG | style="text-align:center;"| 1946–1953 |- ! style="text-align:center;"| 2018 | style="text-align:center;"| 73 | style"text-align:center;" style"background:#ffb"| Joe Thomas | style="text-align:center;"| OT | style="text-align:center;"| 2007–2017 |- ! style="text-align:center;"| 2019 | style="text-align:center;"| 57 | style="text-align:center;"| Clay Matthews | style="text-align:center;"| LB | style="text-align:center;"| 1978–1993 |- ! style="text-align:center;"| 2021 | style="text-align:center;"| 58, 88 | style"text-align:center;" style"background:#ffb"| Mac Speedie | style="text-align:center;"| WR | style="text-align:center;"| 1946–1952 |- | colspan5|Source: |} Statues Numerous Browns players and staff have had statues made in their honor: In and around Huntington Bank Field * 1964 NFL Champion and Hall of Fame running back Jim Brown – since 2016 * Three-time NFL Champion and Hall of Fame quarterback Otto Graham – since 2019 In and around Cleveland * Late owner Alfred Lerner in front of the team's headquarters/practice facility in Berea, Ohio – since 2003 * Browns Hall of Fame offensive tackle/kicker Lou Groza in front of a youth football field that bears his name, also in Berea – since 2016 Murals Browns players featured on murals in downtown Cleveland include: *Jim Brown (along with other Cleveland dignitaries as under the banner "Cleveland is The Reason") *Myles Garrett (depicted as a child with his grandmother in Playhouse Square) Streets *The street near Huntington Bank Field in Cleveland was renamed "Alfred Lerner Way" in 2002 after the late owner. *The street in Berea, Ohio where the Browns headquarters and practice facility are located is named "Lou Groza Boulevard".Starting quarterbacksFirst-round draft picks As of the 2023 season, the Browns have had the first overall pick in the NFL Draft on five occasions: 1954, 1999, 2000, 2017, and 2018.Coaches of noteHead coaches The Browns have had 22 head coaches serve in the capacity.Current staffMedia Radio WKNR (850 AM), WKRK-FM (92.3 FM), and WNCX (98.5 FM) serve as co-flagship stations for the Cleveland Browns Radio Network. The Browns broadcast team includes play-by-play announcer Andrew Siciliano, commentator Nathan Zegura – who made news when he had to serve an eight-game suspension due to arguing with officials during a game in 2018 when he was sideline reporter, and former NFL player and current WKNR host Je'Rod Cherry, who serves as sideline analyst/reporter. Cherry, WKRK's Ken Carman and Andy Baskin, and Cleveland area native/former NFL player Tyvis Powell host the network pregame show, while WKRK's Jeff Phelps and Powell host the network postgame show. During the preseason, Zegura moves over to TV, Cherry goes to the booth, and Carman serves as sideline reporter. Spanish language broadcasts are heard on their own separate network of stations, with WJMO 1300 AM serving as the flagship, with announcers Rafa Hernández-Brito and Octavio Sequera. TV Cleveland ABC affiliate WEWS-TV 5 serves as the broadcast TV home of the Browns, airing year-round team programming as well as all non-network preseason games, with the broadcast team of Chris Rose (play-by-play), Nathan Zegura (analyst), and Aditi Kinkhabwala (sidelines). Honors The Browns in-house production team won a pair of Lower Great Lakes Emmy Awards in 2005. One was for a primetime special honoring the 1964 NFL Championship team (The 1964 Championship Show) and one was for a commercial spot (The Paperboy). References in popular culture The Browns have (either directly or indirectly) been featured in various movies and TV shows over the years. Notable examples include: * Cleveland native Arsenio Hall's television program, The Arsenio Hall Show, is known for the audience's shouting "Woof, woof, woof!" while pumping their fists—a chant that was used by fans of the Browns. He would refer to a section of the live audience as his "Dawg Pound". * On Living Single, Overton Wakefield Jones (John Henton) is a die-hard Cleveland Browns fan. On the episode "Living Single Undercover" season 4, episode 20, (aired April 10, 1997), Overton is sore over the Browns moving to Baltimore becoming the Ravens. Henton was born and raised in Cleveland, like his character on the show. Jim Brown guest starred in that episode. * On The Drew Carey Show, Browns quarterback Bernie Kosar appears (uncredited) in the episode "Drewstock" (aired January 29, 1997). In the episode "Drew Goes To The Browns Game", (aired September 29, 1999), Drew attends the Browns' first regular-season game since re-joining the NFL. (In real life, Drew Carey actually did appear on-field at the first regular-season game when the team returned in 1999.) * Cleveland Brown is the name of a character originally featured on the Fox TV show Family Guy, and the central character of the spin-off series The Cleveland Show. * On the TV show How I Met Your Mother, in the seventh-season premiere, the main characters go to a Cleveland Browns-themed wedding. * The Browns have been featured on some level in episodes of Hot In Cleveland and even in promotional videos using at least one of the main characters. In the episode "How Did You Guys Meet, Anyway?" (January 4, 2012), the characters reminisce about how they met in the 1980s while waiting in the restroom line at a Cleveland Browns game. In the episode "God and Football" (January 18, 2012), Melanie (Valerie Bertinelli) develops a relationship with the Browns placekicker (played by Dan Cortese). In the episode "The Gateway Friend" (May 2, 2012) Browns wide receiver/return specialist Josh Cribbs appears as himself portraying a karaoke contestant. After Super Bowl XLVI, Betty White appears in a video as Elka wearing a Browns jacket congratulating the New York Giants and hoping that the Browns win it one season. After the first round of the 2014 NFL draft, the four main characters appear in a video welcoming Justin Gilbert and Johnny Manziel to the Browns. * The 1966 film The Fortune Cookie with Jack Lemmon and Walter Matthau features the Browns and the city of Cleveland throughout the movie and was made with the cooperation of the Browns. * The 2008 film The Express: The Ernie Davis Story explains how Ernie Davis is traded to the Browns by the Washington Redskins. Early in the film, Jim Brown is taking photos in his Browns uniform after being drafted by them. Later in the film, it shows Davis struggling with leukemia after being drafted and the Browns hold a special pre-game ceremony for him. * In the 2010 film Hot Tub Time Machine, the Browns defeat the Broncos and win the 1986 AFC Championship Game (the game famous for former Denver Broncos quarterback John Elway's 98-yard drive). It is explained that the reason why the Browns win this game is due to the butterfly effect. * In the 2014 film Draft Day, fictional Browns general manager Sonny Weaver, Jr. (Kevin Costner) attempts to land the number one pick in the NFL draft. References Further reading * * * External links * * [https://www.nfl.com/teams/cleveland-browns/ Cleveland Browns] at the National Football League official website *[https://www.pro-football-reference.com/teams/cle/ Franchise Encyclopedia] at Pro Football Reference |list = }} Category:NFL teams Category:American football teams established in 1946 Category:1946 establishments in Ohio Category:Jimmy Haslam Category:American football teams in Cleveland
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleveland_Browns
2025-04-05T18:27:51.039489
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Carbine
}} , a common AR-15–style carbine. The M4 is the shorter, lighter carbine variant of the M16 rifle.]] A carbine ( or ) is a long gun that has a barrel shortened from its original length. Most modern carbines are rifles that are compact versions of a longer rifle or are rifles chambered for less powerful cartridges.<!-- No citation is needed. This shouldn't be disputed. Lots of examples https://www.google.ca/search?q9mm+carbine 842,000 results (March 2017) including articles on wikipedia e.g. Beretta_Cx4_Storm--> The smaller size and lighter weight of carbines make them easier to handle. They are typically issued to high-mobility troops such as special operations soldiers and paratroopers, as well as to mounted, artillery, logistics, or other non-infantry personnel whose roles do not require full-sized rifles, although there is a growing tendency for carbines to be issued to front-line soldiers to offset the increasing weight of other issued equipment. An example of this is the M4 carbine, the standard issue carbine of the United States Armed Forces. Etymology The name comes from its first users — cavalry troopers called "carabiniers", from the French carabine, from Old French carabin (soldier armed with a musket), whose origin is unclear. One theory connects it to an "ancient engine of war" called a calabre; another connects it to Medieval Latin Calabrinus 'Calabrian'; yet another, less likely, to escarrabin, gravedigger, from the scarab beetle. History Carbine arquebus and musket ]] The carbine was originally developed for cavalry. The start of early modern warfare about the 16th century had infantry armed with firearms, prompting cavalry to do the same, even though reloading muzzle loading firearms while moving mounted was highly impractical. Some cavalry, such as the German Reiters, added one or more pistols, while other cavalry, such as harquebusiers, tried various shorter, lightened versions of the infantry arquebus weapons – the first carbines. But these weapons were still difficult to reload while mounted, and the saber often remained main weapon of such cavalry. Dragoons and other mounted infantry that dismounted for battles usually adopted standard infantry firearms, though some favored versions that were less encumbering when riding – something that could be arranged to hang clear of the rider's elbows and horse's legs. While more portable, carbines had the general disadvantages of less accuracy and power than the longer guns of the infantry. During Napoleonic warfare, pistol and carbine-armed cavalry generally transitioned into traditional melee cavalry or dragoons. Carbines found increased use outside of standard cavalry and infantry, such as support and artillery troops, who might need to defend themselves from attack but would be hindered by keeping full-sized weapons with them continuously; a common title for many short rifles in the late 19th century was artillery carbine. Carbine rifle As the rifled musket replaced the smoothbore firearms for infantry in the mid 19th century, carbine versions were also developed; this was often developed separately from the infantry rifles and, in many cases, did not even use the same ammunition, which made for supply difficulties. A notable weapon developed towards the end of the American Civil War by the Union was the Spencer carbine, one of the first breechloading, repeating weapons. It had a spring-powered, removable tube magazine in the buttstock which held seven rounds and could be reloaded by inserting spare tubes. It was intended to give the cavalry a replacement weapon which could be fired from horseback without the need for awkward reloading after each shot – although it saw service mostly with dismounted troopers, as was typical of cavalry weapons during that war. In the late 19th century, it became common for a number of nations to make bolt-action rifles in both full-length and carbine versions. One of the most popular and recognizable carbines were the lever-action Winchester carbines, with several versions available firing revolver cartridges. This made it an ideal choice for cowboys and explorers, as well as other inhabitants of the American West, who could carry a revolver and a carbine, both using the same ammunition. The Lee–Enfield cavalry carbine, a shortened version of the standard British Army infantry rifle was introduced in 1896, although it did not become the standard British cavalry weapon until 1903. World Wars ]] In late 1918, France developed the Chauchat-Ribeyrolles for tank crews to defend themselves. Developed from the Fusil Automatique Modèle 1917, the stock was replaced with a pistol grip, and the barrel is significantly shorter at resulting in an overall length of . In the decades following World War I, the standard battle rifle used by armies around the world had been growing shorter, either by redesign or by the general issue of carbine versions instead of full-length rifles. This move was initiated by the U.S. Model 1903 Springfield, which was originally produced in 1907 with a short barrel, providing a short rifle that was longer than a carbine but shorter than a typical rifle, so it could be issued to all troops without need for separate versions. Other nations followed suit after World War I, when they learned that their traditional long-barreled rifles provided little benefit in the trenches and merely proved a hindrance to the soldiers. Examples include the Russian Model 1891 rifle, originally with an barrel, later shortened to in 1930, and to in 1938, the German Mauser Gewehr 98 rifles went from in 1898 to in 1935 as the Karabiner 98k (K98k or Kar98k), or "short carbine". The barrel lengths in rifles used by the United States did not change between the bolt-action M1903 rifle of World War I and the World War II M1 Garand rifle, because the barrel on the M1903 was still shorter than even the shortened versions of the Model 1891 and Gewehr 98. The U.S. M1 carbine was more of a traditional carbine in that it was significantly shorter and lighter, with a barrel, than the M1 Garand rifle, and that it was intended for rear-area troops who could not be hindered with full-sized rifles but needed something more powerful and accurate than a Model 1911 pistol (although this did not stop soldiers from using them on the front line). Contrary to popular belief, and even what some books claim, in spite of both being designated "M1", the M1 carbine was not a shorter version of the .30-06 M1 Garand, as is typical for most rifles and carbines, but it was a wholly different design, firing a smaller, less-powerful cartridge. The "M1" designates each as the first model in the new U.S. designation system, which no longer used the year of introduction but a sequential series of numbers starting at "1": the M1 carbine and M1 rifle. The United Kingdom developed a "jungle carbine" version of their Lee–Enfield service rifle, featuring a shorter barrel, flash suppressor, and manufacturing modifications designed to decrease the rifle's weight Officially titled Rifle, No. 5 Mk I, it was introduced in the closing months of World War II, but it did not see widespread service until the Korean War, the Mau Mau Uprising, and the Malayan Emergency as well as the Vietnam War. Post World War II rifle – (left) full size, (right) carbine/paratrooper variant with a folding stock and shortened barrel]] A shorter weapon was more convenient when riding in a truck, armored personnel carrier, helicopter, or aircraft, and also when engaged in close-range combat. Based on the combat experience of World War II, the criteria used for selecting infantry weapons began to change. Unlike previous wars, which were often fought mainly from fixed lines and trenches, World War II was a highly mobile war, often fought in cities, forests, or other areas where mobility and visibility were restricted. In addition, improvements in artillery made moving infantry in open areas even less practical than it had been. The majority of enemy contacts were at ranges of less than , and the enemy was exposed to fire for only short periods of time as they moved from cover to cover. Most rounds fired were not aimed at an enemy combatant but instead fired in the enemy's direction to keep them from moving and from firing back. These situations did not require a heavy rifle, firing full-power rifle bullets with long-range accuracy. A less-powerful weapon would still produce casualties at the shorter ranges encountered in actual combat, and the reduced recoil would allow more shots to be fired in the short amount of time an enemy was visible. The lower-powered round would also weigh less, allowing a soldier to carry more ammunition. With no need of a long barrel to fire full-power ammunition, a shorter barrel could be used. A shorter barrel made the weapon weigh less, was easier to handle in tight spaces, and was easier to shoulder quickly to fire a shot at an unexpected target. Full-automatic fire was also considered a desirable feature, allowing the soldier to fire short bursts of three to five rounds, increasing the probability of a hit on a moving target. The Germans had experimented with selective-fire carbines firing rifle cartridges during the early years of World War II. These were determined to be less than ideal, as the recoil of full-power rifle cartridges caused the weapon to be uncontrollable in full-automatic fire. They then developed an intermediate-power cartridge round, which was accomplished by reducing the power and the length of the standard 7.92×57mm Mauser rifle cartridge to create the 7.92×33mm (short) cartridge. A selective-fire weapon was developed to fire this shorter cartridge, eventually resulting in the Sturmgewehr 44, later translated as "assault rifle" (also frequently called "machine carbines" by Allied intelligence, a quite accurate assessment, in fact). Very shortly after World War II, the USSR adopted a similar weapon, the ubiquitous AK-47, the first model in the famed Kalashnikov series, which became the standard Soviet infantry weapon and which has been produced and exported in extremely large numbers up through the present day. Although the United States had developed the M2 carbine, a selective-fire version of the M1 carbine during WW2, the .30 carbine cartridge was closer to a pistol round in power, making it more of a submachine gun than an assault rifle. It was also adopted only in very small numbers and issued to few troops (the semi-automatic M1 carbine was produced in a 10-to-1 ratio to the M2), while the AK47 was produced by the millions and was standard-issue to all Soviet troops, as well as those of many other nations. The U.S. was slow to follow suit, insisting on retaining a full-power, 7.62×51mm NATO rifle, the M14 (although this was selective fire). In the 1950s, the British developed the .280 British, an intermediate cartridge, and a select-fire bullpup assault rifle to fire it, the EM-2. They pressed for the U.S. to adopt it so it could become a NATO-standard round, but the U.S. insisted on retaining a full-power, .30 caliber round. This forced NATO to adopt the 7.62×51mm NATO round (which in reality is only slightly different ballistically from the .308 Winchester), to maintain commonality. The British eventually adopted the 7.62mm FN FAL, and the U.S. adopted the 7.62mm M14 rifle. These rifles are both what is known as battle rifles and were a few inches shorter than the standard-issue rifles they replaced ( barrel as opposed to for the M1 Garand), although they were still full-powered rifles, with selective fire capability. These can be compared to the even shorter, less-powerful assault rifle, which might be considered the "carbine branch of weapons development", although indeed, there are now carbine variants of many of the assault rifles which had themselves seemed quite small and light when adopted. By the 1960s, after becoming involved in war in Vietnam, the U.S. did an abrupt about-face and decided to standardize on the intermediate 5.56×45mm round (based on the .223 Remington varmint cartridge) fired from the new, lightweight M16 rifle, leaving NATO to hurry and catch up. Many of the NATO countries could not afford to re-equip so soon after the recent 7.62mm standardization, leaving them armed with full-power 7.62mm battle rifles for some decades afterwards, although by this point, the 5.56mm has been adopted by almost all NATO countries and many non-NATO nations as well. This 5.56mm NATO round was even lighter and smaller than the Soviet 7.62×39mm AK-47 cartridge but possessed higher velocity. In U.S. service, the M16 assault rifle replaced the M14 as the standard infantry weapon, although the M14 continued to be used by designated marksmen. Although at , the barrel of the M16 was shorter than that of the M14, it was still designated a "rifle" rather than a "carbine", and it was still longer than the AK-47, which used a barrel. (The SKS – an interim, semi-automatic, weapon adopted a few years before the AK-47 was put into service – was designated a carbine, even though its barrel was significantly longer than the AK series' . This is because of the Kalashnikov's revolutionary nature, which altered the old paradigm. Compared to previous rifles, particularly the Soviets' initial attempts at semi-automatic rifles, such as the SVT-40, the SKS was significantly shorter. The Kalashnikov altered traditional notions and ushered in a change in what was considered a "rifle" in military circles.) In 1974, shortly after the introduction of the 5.56mm NATO, the USSR began to issue a new Kalashnikov variant, the AK-74, chambered in the small-bore 5.45×39mm cartridge, which was a standard 7.62×39mm necked down to take a smaller, lighter, faster bullet. It soon became standard issue in Soviet nations, although many of the nations with export Kalashnikovs retained the larger 7.62×39mm round. In 1995, the People's Republic of China adopted a new 5.8×42mm cartridge to match the modern trend in military ammunition, replacing the previous 7.62×39mm and 5.45×39mm round as standard. Later, even lighter carbine variants of many of these short-barreled assault rifles came to be adopted as the standard infantry weapon. In much modern tactical thinking, only a certain number of soldiers need to retain longer-range weapons, serving as designated marksmen. The rest can carry lighter, shorter-ranged weapons for close quarters combat and suppressive fire. This is basically a more extreme extension of the idea that brought the original assault rifle. Another factor is that with the increasing weight of technology, sighting systems, ballistic armor, etc., the only way to reduce the burden on the modern soldier was to equip them with a smaller, lighter weapon. Also, modern soldiers rely a great deal on vehicles and helicopters to transport them around the battle area, and a longer weapon can be a serious hindrance to entering and exiting these vehicles. Development of lighter assault rifles continued, matched by developments in even lighter carbines. In spite of the short barrels of the new assault rifles, carbine variants like the 5.45×39mm AKS-74U and Colt Commando were being developed for use when mobility was essential and a submachine gun was not sufficiently powerful. The AKS-74U featured an extremely short barrel which necessitated redesigning and shortening the gas-piston and integrating front sights onto the gas tube; the Colt Commando was a bit longer, at . Neither was adopted as standard issue, although the U.S. did later adopt the somewhat longer M4 carbine, with a barrel. Modern history Contemporary military forces barrel) | image2 = AUG A1 407mm 03.jpg | width2 = 176 | alt2 | caption2 Steyr AUG carbine ( barrel). Carbine conversion is achieved by changing to a shorter barrel. | footer = }} panel of a US Army OH-58D reconnaissance helicopter, over Iraq in 2004]] In 1994, the U.S. had adopted the M4 carbine, a derivative of the M16 family which fired the same 5.56mm cartridge but was lighter and shorter (in overall length and barrel length), resulting in marginally reduced range and power, although offering better mobility and lighter weight to offset the weight of equipment and armor that a modern soldier has to carry. In spite of the benefits of the modern carbine, many armies are experiencing a certain backlash against the universal equipping of soldiers with carbines and lighter rifles in general, and are equipping selected soldiers, usually designated marksmen, with higher-powered rifles. Another problem comes from the loss of muzzle velocity caused by the shorter barrel, which when coupled with the typical small, lightweight bullets, causes effectiveness to be diminished; a 5.56mm gets its lethality from its high velocity, and when fired from the M4 carbine, its power, penetration, and range are diminished. Thus, there has been a move towards adopting a slightly more powerful cartridge tailored for high performance from both long and short barrels. The U.S. has experimented with a new, slightly larger and heavier caliber such as the 6.5mm Grendel or 6.8mm Remington SPC, which are heavier and thus retain more effectiveness at lower muzzle velocities. While the U.S. Army adopted the M4 carbine in 1994, the U.S. Marine Corps retained their barrel M16A4 rifles long afterwards, citing the increased range and effectiveness over the carbine version; officers were required to carry an M4 carbine rather than an M9 pistol, as Army officers do. Because the Marine Corps emphasizes "every Marine a rifleman", the lighter carbine was considered a suitable compromise between a rifle and a pistol. Marines with restricted mobility such as vehicle operators, or a greater need for mobility such as squad leaders, were issued M4 carbines. In 2015, the Marine Corps approved the M4 carbine for standard issue to front-line Marines, replacing the M16A4 rifle. The rifles are issued to support troops while the carbines go to the front-line Marines, in a reversal of the traditional roles of "rifles for the front line, carbines for the rear".Special forcesSpecial forces need to perform fast, decisive operations, frequently airborne or boat-mounted. A pistol, though light and quick to operate, is viewed as not having enough power, firepower, or range. A submachine gun has selective fire, but firing a pistol cartridge and having a short barrel and sight radius, it is not accurate or powerful enough at longer ranges. Submachine guns also tend to have poorer armor and cover penetration than rifles and carbines firing rifle ammunition. Consequently, carbines have gained wide acceptance among United States Special Operations Command, United Kingdom Special Forces, and other communities, having relatively light weight, large magazine capacity, selective fire, and much better range and penetration than a submachine gun.Usage The smaller size and relative lighter weight of carbines makes them easier to handle in close-quarter situations such as urban engagements, when deploying from military vehicles, or in any situation where space is confined. The disadvantages of carbines relative to rifles include inferior long-range accuracy and a shorter effective range. These comparisons refer to carbines (short-barreled rifles) of the same power and class as the regular full-sized rifles. Compared to submachine guns, carbines have a greater effective range and are capable of penetrating helmets and body armor when used with armor-piercing ammunition. However, submachine guns are still used by military special forces and police SWAT teams for close quarters battle because they are "a pistol caliber weapon that's easy to control, and less likely to over-penetrate the target." Known examples were the Bell & White 84, BHS Rhogun, Cobra Mk1, GM-16, Kommando LDP, Northwood R-76, Paramax, Sanna 77 and TS III.Shoulder-stocked handgun "Red 9" variant with attached shoulder-stock]] Some handguns used to come from the factory with mounting lugs for a shoulder stock, notably including the "Broomhandle" Mauser C96, Luger P.08, and Browning Hi-Power. In the case of the first two, the pistol could come with a hollow wooden stock that doubled as a holster. Carbine conversion kits are commercially available for many other pistols, including M1911, and most Glocks. These can either be simple shoulder stocks fitted to a pistol or full carbine conversion kits, which are at least long and replace the pistol's barrel with one at least long for compliance with the United States law. In the United States, fitting a shoulder stock to a handgun with a barrel less than long possibly turns said firearm into a short-barreled rifle, which may be in violation of the National Firearms Act; this is currently being adjudicated by the courts. Legal issues United States Under the National Firearms Act, firearms with shoulder stocks or originally manufactured as a rifle and barrels less than in length are classified as short-barreled rifles. Short-barreled rifles are restricted similarly to short-barreled shotguns, requiring a $200 tax paid prior to manufacture or transfer – a process which can take several months. Because of this, firearms with barrels of less than and a shoulder stock are uncommon. A list of firearms not covered by the NFA due to their antique status may be found here or due to their Curio and Relic status may be found here; these lists includes a number of carbines with barrels less than the minimum legal length and firearms that are "primarily collector's items and are not likely to be used as weapons and, therefore, are excluded from the provisions of the National Firearms Act." Machine guns, as their own class of firearm, are not subject to requirements of other class firearms. Distinct from simple shoulder stock kits, full carbine conversion kits are not classified as short-barreled rifles. By replacing the pistol barrel with one at least in length and having an overall length of at least , a carbine converted pistol may be treated as a standard rifle under Title I of the Gun Control Act of 1968 (GCA). However, certain "Broomhandle" Mauser C96, Luger, and Browning Hi-Power Curio & Relic pistols with their originally issued stock attached only may retain their pistol classification. Carbines without a stock and not originally manufactured as a rifle are not classified as rifles or short barreled rifles. A carbine manufactured under in length without a forward vertical grip will be a pistol and, state law notwithstanding, can be carried concealed without creating an unregistered Any Other Weapon. A nearly identical carbine with an overall length of or greater is simply an unclassified firearm under Title I of the Gun Control Act of 1968, as the Any Other Weapon catch-all only applies to firearms under or that have been concealed. However, a modification intending to fire from the shoulder and bypass the regulation of short-barreled rifles is considered the unlawful possession and manufacture of an unregistered short-barreled rifle. In some historical cases, the term machine carbine was the official title for submachine guns, such as the British Sten and Australian Owen guns. The semiautomatic-only version of the Sterling submachine gun was also officially called a carbine. The original Sterling semi-auto would be classed a short-barrel rifle under the U.S. National Firearms Act, but fully legal long-barrel versions of the Sterling have been made for the U.S. collector market.See also * List of carbines * Dual-purpose handgun/rifle cartridges References Further reading * Beard, Ross E. Carbine : the story of David Marshall Williams. Williamstown, New Jersey: Phillips, 1997. * Carbines : cal. .30 carbines M1, M1A1, M2 and M3. Washington, D.C.: Headquarters, Departments of the Army and the Air Force, 1953. * McAulay, John D. Carbines of the Civil War, 1861–1865. Union City, Tennessee: Pioneer Press, 1981. * McAulay, John D. Carbines of the U.S. Cavalry, 1861–1905. Lincoln, Rhode Island: Andrew Mowbray Publishers, 1996. Category:18th-century weapons
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbine
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Chinese cuisine
, misua, Kung Pao chicken, mooncakes, baijiu, wonton soup, spring rolls]] Chinese cuisine comprises cuisines originating from China, as well as from Chinese people from other parts of the world. Because of the Chinese diaspora and the historical power of the country, Chinese cuisine has profoundly influenced many other cuisines in Asia and beyond, with modifications made to cater to local palates. Chinese food staples such as rice, soy sauce, noodles, tea, chili oil, and tofu, and utensils such as chopsticks and the wok, can now be found worldwide. Ancient/Early Chinese cuisine was quite different from today. Stews, grilled dishes, and hot dishes were common, and the old-fashioned sashimi ( a dish of raw meat or fish like sashimi ) was also widely eaten. This can be seen in proverbs and idioms of ancient Chinese origin, such as "Once you've had enough of sashimi, you'll try sashimi" and "To make something sashimi popular ('sashimi' means grilled meat over an open flame)." For more information on ancient Chinese cuisine, see the Qi Min Yaoshu . The stir-frying technique, which requires high heat and is often used in modern Chinese cuisine, developed rapidly only during the later Chinese dynasties, Northern Song Dynasty. Street food became an integral aspect of Chinese food culture during the Tang dynasty, and the street food culture of much of Southeast Asia was established by workers imported from China during the late 19th century. The preferences for seasoning and cooking techniques in Chinese provinces depend on differences in social class, religion, historical background, and ethnic groups. Geographic features including mountains, rivers, forests, and deserts also have a strong effect on the locally available ingredients, considering that the climate of China varies from tropical in the south to subarctic in the northeast. Imperial royal and noble preferences also play a role in the change of Chinese cuisine. Because of imperial expansion, immigration, and trading, ingredients and cooking techniques from other cultures have been integrated into Chinese cuisines over time and Chinese culinary influences have spread worldwide. Chinese culture has also spread to neighboring regions, and Japanese , Korean , Vietnamese, etc. cuisine has been strongly influenced by Chinese cuisine. In addition, overseas Chinese brought Chinese cuisine to the countries where they immigrated, so it has become widespread in Southeast Asia , North and South America , Europe, etc., and is also becoming more and more localized ( Japanese-style Chinese cuisine , American-style Chinese cuisine , etc.). While Chinese cuisine has had a great influence on foreign countries, the techniques of Chinese cuisine have also been greatly influenced by foreign cuisines, including Japanese cuisine, and it is not uncommon for Chinese cuisine to have developed in its own way. One example is the "new chinese style fine dining", which has evolved from the style of sharing food served on a large platter to individual portions served in course order, like French cuisine , with modern and sophisticated ingredients and cooking methods . There are numerous regional, religious, and ethnic styles of Chinese cuisine found within China and abroad. Chinese cuisine is highly diverse and most frequently categorised into provincial divisions, although these province-level classifications consist of many more styles within themselves. During the Qing dynasty, the most praised Four Great Traditions in Chinese cuisine were Chuan, Lu, Yue, and Huaiyang, representing cuisines of West, North, South, and East China, respectively. In 1980, a modern grouping from Chinese journalist Wang Shaoquan's article published in the People's Daily newspaper identified the Eight Cuisines of China as Anhui (), Guangdong (), Fujian (), Hunan (), Jiangsu (), Shandong (), Sichuan (), and Zhejiang ().]] Chinese cuisine is deeply intertwined with traditional Chinese medicine, such as in the practise of Chinese food therapy. Color, scent and taste are the three traditional aspects used to describe Chinese food, as well as the meaning, appearance, and nutrition of the food. Cooking should be appraised with respect to the ingredients used, knife work, cooking time, and seasoning. History Pre-Tang dynasty is a typical soup dish of Huaiyang cuisine. It is made of finely sliced dried tofu, chicken, ham and bamboo shoot, and the ingredients need to be braised with shrimp in chicken soup. It was highly praised by the Qianlong emperor. ]] , stir-fried chicken with chili and Sichuan pepper in Sichuan style]] with roe inside. Sliced ginger and spring onion is usually spread on top.]] Chinese society greatly valued gastronomy, and developed an extensive study of the subject based on its traditional medical beliefs. Chinese culture initially centered around the North China Plain. The first domesticated crops seem to have been the foxtail and broomcorn varieties of millet, while rice was cultivated in the south. By 2000 BC, wheat had arrived from western Asia. These grains were typically served as warm noodle soups instead of baked into bread as in Europe. Nobles hunted various wild game and consumed mutton, pork and dog as these animals were domesticated. Grain was stored against famine and flood and meat was preserved with salt, vinegar, curing, and fermenting. The flavor of the meat was enhanced by cooking it in animal fats though this practice was mostly restricted to the wealthy. By the time of Confucius in the late Zhou, gastronomy had become a high art. Confucius discussed the principles of dining: The Lüshi chunqiu notes: "Only if one is chosen as the Son of Heaven will the tastiest delicacies be prepared [for him]." The Zhaohun (4-3rd c. BC) gives some examples: turtle ragout, honey cakes and beer (chilled with ice). During Shi Huangdi's Qin dynasty, the empire expanded into the south. By the time of the Han dynasty, the different regions and cuisines of China's people were linked by major canals and leading to greater complexity in the different regional cuisines. Not only is food seen as giving "qi", energy, but the food is also about maintaining yin and yang. The philosophy behind it was rooted in the I Ching and Chinese traditional medicine: food was judged for color, aroma, taste, and texture and a good meal was expected to balance the Four Natures ('hot', warm, cool, and 'cold') and the Five Tastes (pungent, sweet, sour, bitter, and salty). Salt was used as a preservative from early times, but in cooking was added in the form of soy sauce, and not at the table. By the Later Han period (2nd century), writers frequently complained of lazy aristocrats who did nothing but sit around all day eating smoked meats and roasts. During the Han dynasty, the Chinese developed methods of food preservation for military rations during campaigns such as drying meat into jerky and cooking, roasting, and drying grain. Chinese legends claim that the roasted, flat bread shaobing was brought back from the Xiyu (the Western Regions, a name for Central Asia) by the Han dynasty General Ban Chao, and that it was originally known as hubing (, lit. "barbarian bread"). The shaobing is believed to be descended from the hubing. Shaobing is believed to be related to the Persian nan and Central Asian nan, as well as the Middle Eastern pita. Foreign westerners made and sold sesame cakes in China during the Tang dynasty. During the Southern and Northern dynasties non-Han people like the Xianbei of Northern Wei introduced their cuisine to northern China, and these influences continued up to the Tang dynasty, popularizing meat like mutton and dairy products like goat milk, yogurts, and Kumis among even Han people. It was during the Song dynasty that Han Chinese developed an aversion to dairy products and abandoned the dairy foods introduced earlier. The Han Chinese rebel Wang Su who received asylum in the Xianbei Northern Wei after fleeing from Southern Qi, at first could not stand eating dairy products like goat's milk and meat like mutton and had to consume tea and fish instead, but after a few years he was able to eat yogurt and lamb, and the Xianbei Emperor asked him which of the foods of China (Zhongguo) he preferred, fish vs mutton and tea vs yogurt. Post-Tang dynasty The great migration of Chinese people south during the invasions preceding and during the Song dynasty increased the relative importance of southern Chinese staples such as rice and congee. Su Dongpo has improved the red braised pork as Dongpo pork. The dietary and culinary habits also changed greatly during this period, with many ingredients such as soy sauce and Central Asian influenced foods becoming widespread and the creation of important cookbooks such as the Shanjia Qinggong () and the Wushi Zhongkuilu () showing the respective esoteric foods and common household cuisine of the time. The Yuan and Qing dynasties introduced Mongolian and Manchu cuisine, warm northern dishes that popularized hot pot cooking. During the Yuan dynasty many Muslim communities emerged in China, who practiced a porkless cuisine now preserved by Hui restaurants throughout the country. Mongolian cuisine specially Mongolian beef, though popular globally, originated outside Mongolia. Mongolian beef was created in Taiwan in the 1950s, inspired by the rise of Mongolian barbecue-style cooking. Mongolian beef is a perfect example of fusion cuisine. Yunnan cuisine is unique in China for its cheeses like Rubing and Rushan cheese made by the Bai people, and its yogurt, the yogurt may have been due to a combination of Mongolian influence during the Yuan dynasty, the Central Asian settlement in Yunnan, and the proximity and influence of India and Tibet on Yunnan. As part of the last leg of the Columbian Exchange, Spanish and Portuguese traders began introducing foods from the New World to China through the port cities of Canton and Macau. Mexican chili peppers became essential ingredients in Sichuan cuisine and calorically dense potatoes and corn became staple foods across the northern plains. During the Qing dynasty, Chinese gastronomes such as Yuan Mei focused upon the primary goal of extracting the maximum flavour of each ingredient. As noted in his culinary work the Suiyuan shidan, however, the fashions of cuisine at the time were quite varied and in some cases were flamboyantly ostentatious, especially when the display served also a formal ceremonial purpose, as in the case of the Manchu Han Imperial Feast. As the pace of life increases in modern China, fast food like fried noodles, fried rice and gaifan (dish over rice) become more and more popular. Regional cuisines with crab meat" () is a traditional eastern Chinese meatball soup.]] Chinese cuisine exhibits an immense amount of regional diversity. A number of different styles contribute to Chinese cuisine but perhaps the best known and most influential are Cantonese cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Jiangsu cuisine (specifically Huaiyang cuisine) and Sichuan cuisine. These styles are distinctive from one another due to factors such as availability of resources, climate, geography, history, cooking techniques and lifestyle. One style may favour the use of garlic and shallots over chili and spices, while another may favour preparing seafood over other meats and fowl. Jiangsu cuisine favours cooking techniques such as braising and stewing, while Sichuan cuisine employs baking. Zhejiang cuisine focuses more on serving fresh food, Fujian cuisine is famous for its seafood and soups and the use of spices, Hunan cuisine is famous for its hot and sour taste, Anhui cuisine incorporates wild ingredients for an unusual taste. Based on the raw materials and ingredients used, the method of preparation and cultural differences, a variety of foods with different flavors and textures are prepared in different regions of the country. Many traditional regional cuisines rely on basic methods of preservation such as drying, salting, pickling and fermentation. Staple foods Chinese ancestors successfully planted millet, rice, and other grains about 8,000 to 9,000 years ago. Wheat, another staple, took another three or four thousand years. For the first time, grains provided people with a steady supply of food. Because of the lack of various foods, Chinese people had to adapt to new eating habits. Meat was scarce, and so people cooked with small amounts of meat and rice or noodles. Rice Rice was domesticated in the Yangtze River basin in southern China approximately 9,000 years ago and is a primary staple food for people from rice farming areas in southern China. Steamed rice, usually white rice, is the most commonly eaten form. People in South China also like to use rice to make congee as breakfast. Rice is also used to produce beer and vinegar. Glutinous rice ("sticky rice") is a variety of rice used in special dishes such as lotus leaf rice and glutinous rice balls.WheatIn wheat-farming areas in Northern China, people largely rely on flour-based food, such as noodles, bing (bread), jiaozi (a kind of Chinese dumplings), and mantou (a type of steamed buns). Wheat likely "appeared in the lower Yellow River around 2600 Before Common Era (BCE), followed by Gansu and Xinjiang around 1900 BCE and finally occurred in the middle Yellow River and Tibet regions by 1600 BCE". Noodles Noodles were invented in China over 4,000 years ago and have since spread across the world. Chinese noodles come dry or fresh in a variety of sizes, shapes and textures and are often served in soups or fried as toppings. Some varieties, such as Shou Mian (寿面, literally noodles of longevity), is an avatar of long life and good health according to Chinese traditions. Soybean products , China.]] with douchi (fermented black soybeans) in Jiaodong style]] Tofu is made of soybeans and is another popular food product that supplies protein. The production process of tofu varies from region to region, resulting in different kinds of tofu with a wide range of texture and taste. Other products such as soy milk, soy paste, soy oil, and fermented soy sauce are also important in Chinese cooking. There are many kinds of soybean products, including tofu skin, smoked tofu, dried tofu, and fried tofu. Stinky tofu is fermented tofu. Like blue cheese or durian, it has a very distinct, potent and strong smell, and is an acquired taste. Hard stinky tofu is often deep-fried and paired with soy sauce or salty spice. Soft stinky tofu is usually used as a spread on steamed buns. Doufuru is another type of fermented tofu that has a salty taste. Doufuru can be pickled together with soy beans, red yeast rice or chili to create different color and flavor. This is more of a pickled type of tofu and is not as strongly scented as stinky tofu. Doufuru has the consistency of slightly soft blue cheese, and a taste similar to Japanese miso paste, but less salty. Doufuru can be used as a spread on steamed buns, or paired with rice congee. Sufu is one other type of fermented tofu that goes through ageing process. The color (red, white, green) and flavor profile can determine the type of sufu it is. This kind of tofu is usually eaten alongside breakfast rice. Soybean milk is soybean-based milk. It is a morning beverage, and it has many benefits to human health.Vegetables Apart from vegetables that can be commonly seen, some unique vegetables used in Chinese cuisine include baby corn, bok choy, snow peas, Chinese eggplant, Chinese broccoli, and straw mushrooms. Other vegetables, including bean sprouts, pea vine tips, watercress, lotus roots, chestnuts, water chestnuts, and bamboo shoots, are also used in different cuisines of China. Because of different climate and soil conditions, cultivars of green beans, peas, and mushrooms can be found in rich variety. A variety of dried or pickled vegetables are also processed, especially in drier or colder regions where fresh vegetables were hard to get out of season. Herbs and seasonings Seasonings such as fresh ginger root, garlic, scallion, cilantro and sesame are widely used in many regional cuisines. Sichuan peppercorns, star anise, cinnamon, fennel, cloves and white peppers and smart weed are also used in different regions. To add extra flavor to the dishes, many Chinese cuisines also contain dried Chinese mushrooms, dried baby shrimp, dried tangerine peel, and dried Sichuan chillies. When it comes to sauces, China is home to soy sauce, which is made from fermented soybeans and wheat. A number of sauces are also based on fermented soybeans, including hoisin sauce, ground bean sauce and yellow bean sauce. There are also different sauces preferred by regional cuisines, oyster sauce, fish sauce and furu (fermented tofu) are also widely used. Vinegar also has a variety with different flavors: clear rice vinegar, Chinkiang black rice vinegar, Shanxi vinegar, Henghe vinegar etc. Meat The most commonly consumed meat in China is pork. As of at least 2024, China is the second largest beef consuming market in the world. Steakhouses and hot pot restaurants serving beef are becoming increasingly popular in urban China. Dim sum (点心), originally means a small portion of food, can refer to dessert, or pastries. Later to avoid disambiguation, tian dian (甜点) and gao dian (糕点) are used to describe desserts and pastries. Traditionally, Chinese desserts are sweet foods and dishes that are served with tea, usually during the meal, or at the end of meals in Chinese cuisine. Besides being served as dim sum along with tea, pastries are used for celebration of traditional festivals. The most famous one is moon cake, used to celebrate the Mid-Autumn Festival. A wide variety of Chinese desserts are available, mainly including steamed and boiled sweet snacks. Bing is an umbrella term for all breads in Chinese, also including pastries and sweets. These are baked wheat-flour-based confections, with different stuffings including red bean paste, jujube, and a variety of others. Su (酥) is another kind of pastry made with more amount of oil, making the confection more friable. Chinese candies and sweets, called táng (糖) are usually made with cane sugar, malt sugar, honey, nuts, and fruit. Gao or Guo are rice-based snacks that are typically steamed though gelatine based jellies are also common in contemporary desserts. Chinese dessert soups are typically sweet and served hot. Soups In some part of South China, soups are served between the cold dishes and the main dishes. In other parts of China, soups are served between the main dish and staple foods, before desserts or fruit salad. There are many traditional Chinese soups, such as wonton soup, herbal chicken soup, hot and sour soup, winter melon soup, and so on. Drinks Tea plays an important role in Chinese dining culture. In China, there are two main types of tea, one is made from dried tea leaves, the other one is made by extracts from tea leaves. Baijiu and huangjiu as strong alcoholic beverages are preferred by many people as well. Wine is not so popular as other drinks in China that are consumed whilst dining, although they are usually available in the menu.Tea , also known as Dragon Well tea, is a variety of roasted green tea from Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China, where it is produced mostly by hand and has been renowned for its high quality, earning the China Famous Tea title.]] As well as with dim sum, many Chinese drink their tea with snacks such as nuts, plums, dried fruit (in particular jujube), small sweets, melon seeds, and waxberry. Tea processing began after the Qin and Han dynasties. China is the world's largest exporter of green tea. It dates back to the introduction of distilling during the Song dynasty;Herbal drinks Chinese herb tea, also known as medicinal herbal tea, is a kind of tea made from Chinese medicinal herbs.Other beveragesSoy milk, almond milk, walnut milk and coconut milk are also drunk during the meal in different regions. In some parts of China, hawthorn and jujube juice are preferred. A small shot of fruit vinegar is served as an appetizer in Shanxi.Outside China (noodles with bean paste) is a traditional northern Chinese dish. It has spread to South Korea where it is known as Jajangmyeon.]] Where there are historical immigrant Chinese populations, the style of food has evolved and been adapted to local tastes and ingredients, and modified by the local cuisine, to greater or lesser extents. This has resulted in a deep Chinese influence on other national cuisines such as Cambodian cuisine, Filipino cuisine, Singaporean cuisine, Thai cuisine and Vietnamese cuisine. Chinatowns across the world have been instrumental in shaping the national cuisines of their respective countries, such as the introduction of a street food culture to Thailand in Bangkok Chinatown. There are also a large number of forms of fusion cuisine, often popular in the country in question. Some, such as ramen (Japanese Chinese cuisine), which originated in Yokohama Chinatown, have become popular internationally. Deep-fried meat combined with sweet and sour sauce as a cooking style receives an enormous preference outside of China. Therefore, many similar international Chinese cuisines are invented based on sweet and sour sauce, including Sweet and sour chicken (Europe and North America), Manchurian chicken (India) or tangsuyuk (South Korea). Apart from the host country, the dishes developed in overseas Chinese cuisines are heavily dependent on the cuisines derived from the origin of the Chinese immigrants. In Korean Chinese cuisine, the dishes derive primarily from Shandong cuisine while Filipino Chinese cuisine is strongly influenced by Fujian cuisine. American Chinese cuisine has distinctive dishes (such as chop suey) originally based on Cantonese cuisine, which are more popular among non-Chinese Americans than with Chinese Americans themselves. Dining etiquette Youths should not begin eating before their elders do. When eating from a bowl, one should not hold it with its bottom part, because it resembles the act of begging. Chopsticks are the main eating utensils for Chinese food, which can be used to cut and pick up food. When someone is taking a break from eating at the table, they should not put the chopstick into the rice vertically, because it resembles the Chinese traditional funeral tribute, which involves putting chopsticks inside a bowl of rice vertically. It is considered inappropriate to use knives on the dining table. Chopsticks should not be waved around in the air or played with. Food should first be taken from the plate in front. It is considered impolite to stare at a plate. Watching TV, using mobile phones or doing other activities while eating is considered in poor taste. If an older person puts food in a younger person's bowl, the younger person should thank them. Chinese culture has guidelines in how and when food are eaten. Chinese people typically eat three meals a day, consisting of breakfast, lunch, and dinner. Breakfast is served around 6–9am, lunch is served around 12–2pm, and dinner is served around 6–9pm. Chinese dishes with purported Kaifeng Jewish roots include Kaifeng xiao long bao, Mayuxing bucket-shaped chicken, Chrysanthemum hot pot, and Four Treasures. Food also plays a role in daily life. The formality of the meal setting can signify what kind of relationship people have with one another, and the type of food can indicate ones' social status and their country of origin. In Chinese philosophy, food frequently conveys a message. A Chinese philosophy I Ching says, "Gentlemen use eating as a way to attain happiness. They should be aware of what they say, and refrain from eating too much."See also * A Bite of China by CCTV * The eight major traditions of Chinese cuisine ** Shandong cuisine ** Sichuan cuisine ** Cantonese cuisine ** Fujian cuisine ** Jiangsu cuisine ** Zhejiang cuisine ** Hunan cuisine ** Anhui cuisine * Other traditions in Chinese cuisine ** Beijing cuisine *** Chinese imperial cuisine ** Shanghai cuisine ** Huaiyang cuisine ** Hubei cuisine ** Jiangxi cuisine ** Henan cuisine ** Shanxi cuisine ** Shaanxi cuisine ** Uyghur cuisine ** Guizhou cuisine ** Yunnan cuisine ** Teochew cuisine * List of Chinese bakery products * List of Chinese desserts * List of Chinese dishes * List of Chinese sauces * List of Chinese soups * Chinese regional cuisine * Chinese food therapy * History of Chinese cuisine * Customs and etiquette in Chinese dining * Chinese cooking techniques * Chinese Cuisine Training Institute * List of restaurants in China * Pizza in China References Sources * * Further reading History * * * David R. Knechtges, "A Literary Feast: Food in Early Chinese Literature," Journal of the American Oriental Society 106.1 (1986): 49–63. * * * Sterckx, Roel. Food, Sacrifice, and Sagehood in Early China. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011 (2015). * Sterckx, Roel. Chinese Thought. From Confucius to Cook Ding. London: Penguin, 2019. * * * Endymion Wilkinson, "Chinese Culinary History (Feature Review)," China Review International 8.2 (Fall 2001): 285–302. * * Cookbooks * Buwei Yang Chao. How to Cook and Eat in Chinese. (New York: John Day, 1945; revisions and reprints). * Fuchsia Dunlop. Land of Plenty: A Treasury of Authentic Sichuan Cooking. (New York: Norton, 2003). . * Fuchsia Dunlop. Revolutionary Chinese Cookbook: Recipes from Hunan Province. (New York: Norton, 2007). . * Fuchsia Dunlop. ''Shark's Fin and Sichuan Pepper: A Sweet-Sour Memoir of Eating in China. (New York: Norton, 2008). . * [https://gutenberg.org/ebooks/74369 Chinese cook book by Vernon Galster] * Emily Hahn, Recipes, The Cooking of China. (Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, Foods of the World, 1981). * Hsiang-Ju Lin and Tsuifeng Lin. Chinese Gastronomy. (London: Nelson, 1969; rpr.). . * Yan-Kit So. Classic Food of China. (London: Macmillan, rpr 1994, 1992). . * Martin Yan. Martin Yan's Chinatown Cooking: 200 Traditional Recipes from 11 Chinatowns around the World. (New York: Morrow, 2002). . *Georgina Freedman. Cooking South of The Clouds: Recipes and Stories From China's Yunnan Province.'' (Octopus; Kyle, 2018). . External links * K.C. Chang [https://asiasociety.org/blog/asia/food-chinese-culture "Food in Chinese Culture"] Asia Society * "[https://www.bbc.co.uk/chinesefoodmadeeasy/ Chinese food made easy]" at the BBC * "[http://guides.library.stonybrook.edu/content.php?pid190666&sid1599362 Chinese Culinary History (Websites for Research)] Stony Brook University Libraries.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_cuisine
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Constantin Brâncuși
| birth_place = Hobița, Romanian United Principalities | death_date = | death_place = Paris, France | resting_place = Cimetière du Montparnasse, Paris | nationality = Romanian, French (naturalized in 1952) | field = Sculpture | training = École des Beaux-Arts | movement = Modernism, School of Paris | works | Bird in Space | Torso of a Young Man | The Newborn | Mademoiselle Pogany | Prometheus | Sleeping Muse | The Kiss }} | patrons = John Quinn | awards = Election to Romanian Academy }} Constantin Brâncuși (; February 19, 1876 – March 16, 1957) was a Romanian sculptor, painter, and photographer who made his career in France. Considered one of the most influential sculptors of the 20th century and a pioneer of modernism, Brâncuși is called the patriarch of modern sculpture. As a child, he displayed an aptitude for carving wooden farm tools. Formal studies took him first to Bucharest, then to Munich, then to the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris from 1905 to 1907. His art emphasizes clean geometrical lines that balance forms inherent in his materials with the symbolic allusions of representational art. Brâncuși sought inspiration in non-European cultures as a source of primitive exoticism, as did Paul Gauguin, Pablo Picasso, André Derain, and others. However, other influences emerge from Romanian folk art traceable through Byzantine and Dionysian traditions.Early years , Philadelphia. Exhibited at the 1913 Armory Show]] Brâncuși grew up in the village of Hobița, Gorj, near Târgu Jiu, close to Romania's Carpathian Mountains, an area known for its rich tradition of folk crafts, particularly woodcarving. Geometric patterns of the region are seen in his later works such as the Endless Column created in 1918. His parents Nicolae and Maria Brâncuși were poor peasants who earned a meagre living through back-breaking labor; from the age of seven, Constantin herded the family's flock of sheep. He showed talent for carving objects out of wood and often ran away from home to escape the bullying of his father and older brothers. At the age of nine, Brâncuși left the village to work in the nearest large town. At the age of eleven, he went into the service of a grocer in Slatina; and then he became a domestic in a public house in Craiova, where he remained for several years. When he was 18, Brâncuși created a violin by hand with materials he found around his workplace. Impressed by Brâncuși's talent for carving, an industrialist enrolled him in the Craiova School of Arts and Crafts (școala de arte și meserii), where he pursued his love for woodworking, graduating with honors in 1898. He then enrolled in the Bucharest School of Fine Arts, where he received academic training in sculpture. He worked hard and quickly distinguished himself as talented. One of his earliest surviving works, under the guidance of his anatomy teacher, Dimitrie Gerota, is a masterfully rendered écorché (statue of a man with skin removed to reveal the muscles underneath) which was exhibited at the Romanian Athenaeum in 1903. Though just an anatomical study, it foreshadowed the sculptor's later efforts to reveal essence rather than merely copy outward appearance.Working in Paris . Exhibited in 1913 at the Armory Show and published in the Chicago Tribune'', March 25, 1913.]] In 1903, Brâncuși traveled to Munich, and from there to Paris. In Paris, he was welcomed by the community of artists and intellectuals brimming with new ideas. He worked for two years in the workshop of Antonin Mercié of the École des Beaux-Arts and was invited to enter the workshop of Auguste Rodin. Even though he admired the eminent Rodin he left the Rodin studio after only two months, saying, "Nothing can grow under big trees." in the Salon. The phallic appearance of this large, gleaming bronze piece scandalized the Salon and, despite Brâncuși's explanation that it was simply meant to represent the essence of womanhood, it was removed from the exhibition. Princess X was revealed to be Princess Marie Bonaparte, direct descendant of the younger brother of Napoleon Bonaparte. The sculpture has been interpreted by some as symbolizing her obsession with the penis and her lifelong quest to achieve vaginal orgasm, with the help of Sigmund Freud. Around this time, Brâncuși began crafting the bases for his sculptures with much care and originality because he considered them important to the works themselves. One of his major groups of sculptures involved the Bird in Space — simple abstract shapes representing a bird in flight. The works are based on his earlier Măiastra series. In Romanian folklore the Măiastra is a beautiful golden bird who foretells the future and cures the blind. Over the following 20 years, Brâncuși made multiple versions of Bird in Space out of marble or bronze. Athena Tacha Spear's book, ''Brâncuși's Birds, (CAA monographs XXI, NYU Press, New York, 1969), first sorted out the 36 versions and their development, from the early Măiastra, to the Golden Bird of the late teens, to the Bird in Space, which emerged in the early 1920s and which Brâncuși developed throughout his life. One of these versions caused a major controversy in 1926 when photographer Edward Steichen purchased it and shipped it to the United States. Customs officers did not accept the Bird'' as a work of art and assessed customs duty on its import as an industrial item. After protracted court proceedings, this assessment was overturned, thus confirming the Bird's status as a duty-exempt work of art. The verdict was somewhat influenced by the Judge Justice Waite's personal appreciation of the art calling it 'beautiful', 'symmetrical', and 'ornamental'. The ruling also established the important principle that "art" does not have to involve a realistic representation of nature, and that it was legitimate for it to simply represent an abstract concept – in this case "flight". , 1913, North end of the exhibition, showing some of the modernist sculptures. In Arts Revolutionists of Today (1913), the caption for this photo reads: "At the left of the picture is a much-discussed portrait bust of Mlle. Pogany, a dancer, by Brâncuși. This freak sculpture resembles nothing so much as an egg and has excited much derision and laughter..."]] His work became increasingly popular in the U.S, where he visited several times during his life. Worldwide fame in 1933 brought him the commission of building a meditation temple, the Temple of Deliverance, in India for the Maharajah of Indore, Yeshwant Rao Holkar. Holkar had commissioned three "L'Oiseau dans l'Espace"—in bronze, black and white marble—previously, but when Brâncuși went to India in 1937 to complete the plans and begin construction, the Mahrajah was away and, supposedly, lost interest in the project which was to be an homage to his wife, the Maharani Margaret Holkar, who had died when he returned. Of the three birds, the bronze one is in the collection of the Norton Simon Museum in Pasadena, California, and the two marble birds are currently in the permanent collection of the National Gallery of Australia in Canberra, Australia. In 1938, he finished the World War I monument in Târgu-Jiu where he had spent much of his childhood. Table of Silence, The Gate of the Kiss, and Endless Column commemorate the courage and sacrifice of Romanians who in 1916 defended Târgu Jiu from the forces of the Central Powers. The restoration of this ensemble was spearheaded by the World Monuments Fund and was completed in 2004. The Târgu Jiu ensemble marks the apex of his artistic career. In his remaining 19 years he created fewer than 15 pieces, mostly reworking earlier themes, and while his fame grew, he withdrew. Brâncuși received his first retrospective in 1955 at the Guggenheim Museum in New York. In 1955 Life magazine reported, "Wearing white pajamas and a yellow gnome-like cap, Brâncuși today hobbles about his studio tenderly caring for and communing with the silent host of fish, birds, heads, and endless columns which he created." Brâncuși was cared for in his later years by a Romanian refugee couple. He became a French citizen in 1952 in order to make the caregivers his heirs, and to bequeath his studio and its contents to the Musée National d'Art Moderne in Paris. In 2021, for IRCAM and Centre Pompidou's Festival Manifeste, the intermedial large-scale installation Infinite Light Columns / Constellations of The Future, tribute to Constantin Brancusi by artists duo Arotin & Serghei has been installed on Renzo Piano's IRCAM Tower on Centre Pompidou Square, on the opposite site to Brancusi's Studio. Personal life , Erik Satie and Jeanne Robert Foster playing golf in 1923]] Brâncuși dressed simply, reflective of his Romanian peasant background. His studio was reminiscent of the houses of the peasants from his native region: there was a big slab of rock as a table and a primitive fireplace, similar to those found in traditional houses in his native Oltenia, while the rest of the furniture was made by him out of wood. Brâncuși would cook his own food, traditional Romanian dishes, with which he would treat his guests. Brâncuși held a large spectrum of interests, from science to music, and was known to play the violin. He would sing old Romanian folk songs, often expressing his feelings of homesickness. After the installment of communism, the artist never permanently returned to his native Romania, but did visit eight times. His circle of friends included artists and intellectuals in Paris such as Amedeo Modigliani, Ezra Pound, Henri Pierre Roché, Guillaume Apollinaire, Louise Bourgeois, Pablo Picasso, Man Ray, Marcel Duchamp, Henri Rousseau, Peggy Guggenheim, Tristan Tzara, and Fernand Léger. He was an old friend of Romany Marie, who was also Romanian, and referred Isamu Noguchi to her café in Greenwich Village. Although surrounded by the Parisian avant-garde, Brâncuși never lost contact with Romania and had friends from the community of Romanian artists and intellectuals living in Paris, including Benjamin Fondane, George Enescu, Theodor Pallady, Camil Ressu, Nicolae Dărăscu, Panait Istrati, Traian Vuia, Eugène Ionesco, Emil Cioran, Natalia Dumitresco, and Paul Celan. Another Romanian scholar wrote on Brâncuși, Mircea Eliade. Brâncuși held a particular interest in mythology, especially Romanian mythology, folk tales, and traditional art (which also had a strong influence on his works), but he became interested in African and Mediterranean art as well. A talented handyman, he built his own phonograph and made most of his furniture, utensils, and doorways. His worldview valued "differentiating the essential from the ephemeral," with Plato, Lao-Tzu, and Milarepa as influences. Reportedly, he had a copy of the first ever translation from the Tibetan into French of Jacques Bacot's Le poete tibetain Milarepa: ses crimes, ses épreuves, son Nirvana that he kept by his bedside. He identified closely with Milarepa's mountain existence since Brancusi himself came from the Carpathian Mountains of Romania and he often thought he was a reincarnation of Milarepa. He was a saint-like idealist and near ascetic, turning his workshop into a place where visitors noted the deep spiritual atmosphere. However, particularly through the 1910s and 1920s, he was known as a pleasure seeker and merrymaker in his bohemian circle. He enjoyed cigarettes, good wine, and the company of women. He had one child, John Moore, with the New Zealand pianist Vera Moore. He never acknowledged his son as his own.Death and legacy ]] Romanian banknote (1991–1992 issue)]] Brâncuși died on March 16, 1957, aged 81. He was buried in the Cimetière du Montparnasse in Paris. Alexandre Istrati and Natalia Dumitresco were later buried in the same grave. This cemetery also displays statues that Brâncuși carved for deceased artists. At his death, Brâncuși left 1200 photographs and 215 sculptures. He bequeathed part of his collection to the French state on condition that his workshop be rebuilt as it was on the day he died. This reconstruction of his studio, adjacent to the Pompidou Centre, is open to the public. Brâncuși's studio inspired Swedish architect Klas Anshelm's design of the Malmö Konsthall, which opened in 1975. In September 1957, African American sculptor Richard Hunt traveled from Chicago to Paris to view Brancusi's studio. Hunt's visit left an enduring impression on the 22-year-old artist, not only because of the artistic influence of Brancusi and exploration of biomorphic abstraction in sculpture but also because of the way which Hunt chose to live the majority of his life. Like Brancusi, Hunt slept in his own studio surrounded by his art and the tools used in his practice for much of his life. Brancusi's Bird in Space sculptures inspired the Modernist poet, Ezra Pound, specifically his late Cantos which were written in the mid-twentieth century. The literary critic Lucy Jeffery highlights ways in which Brancusi's sculptural form influenced Ezra Pound, analysing Pound's Canto CXVII et seq., 815. Through close textual analysis and with direct reference to Brancusi's comments on his own creative process, Jeffery highlights how Pound's and Brancusi's sculptural process and resulting style is one of ambiguity and tension between: levity and weight, simplicity and complexity, ease and struggle. As Jeffery remarks: 'Despite their drive towards an holistic artwork, neither Brancusi nor Pound could, to borrow [Albert] Boime's phrasing, "emancipate" their art from the material or social context to which it belonged.' In the article, Jeffery contextualises Brancusi's work in relation to the sculptor Gaudier-Brzeska, photographer Man Ray, and writers such as Mina Loy, Samuel Beckett, and Peter Russell. In 1962, Georg Olden used Brâncuși's Bird in Space as the inspiration behind his design of the Clio Award statuette. In November 1971, was established in his birth village Hobița, as a branch of the . Brâncuși was elected posthumously to the Romanian Academy in 1990. Google commemorated his 135th birthday with a Doodle in 2011 consisting of seven of his works. Brâncuși's works are housed in museums around the world: in Romania at the National Museum of Art and Craiova Art Museum, in the US at the Museum of Modern Art (New York City) and the Philadelphia Museum of Art, the former holding the largest collection of Brâncuși sculptures in the United States. Constantin Brâncuși University in Târgu Jiu and a metro station in Bucharest are named after him. In 2015, the Romanian Parliament declared February 19 "The Brâncuși Day", a working holiday in Romania. Director Mick Davis plans to make a biographical film about Brâncuși called The Sculptor, and British director Peter Greenaway said in 2017 that he is working on a film called Walking to Paris, a film which shows Brâncuși's journey from Bucharest to Paris. Art market Brâncuși's piece Madame L.R. sold for €29.185 million ($37.2 million) in 2009, setting a record price for a sculpture sold at auction. In May 2018, La Jeune Fille Sophistiquée (Portrait de Nancy Cunard), a polished bronze on a carved marble base (1932), sold for US$71 million (with fees) at Christie's New York, setting a world record auction price for the artist.Brâncuși on his own work {| | style"vertical-align:top;padding-bottom:1.5em;" | "" | style="width:1.5em;"| | style="vertical-align:top;" | "There are idiots who define my work as abstract; yet what they call abstract is what is most realistic. What is real is not the appearance, but the idea, the essence of things." |- | style"vertical-align:top;;padding-bottom:1.5em;" | "" | style="width:1.5em;"| | style="vertical-align:top;" | "I ground matter to find the continuous line. And when I realized I could not find it, I stopped, as if an unseen someone had slapped my hands." |- | style"vertical-align:top;;padding-bottom:1.5em;" | "" | style="width:1.5em;"| | style="vertical-align:top;" | "For art to be free and universal, you must create like a god, command like a king and execute like a slave." |} Selected works Both Bird in Space and Sleeping Muse I are sculptures of animate objects; however, unlike ones from Ancient Greece or Rome, or those from the High Renaissance period, these works of art are more abstract in style. Bird in Space is a series from the 1920s. One of these, constructed in 1925 using wood, stone, and marble (Richler 178) stands around 72 inches tall and consists of a narrow feather standing erect on a wooden base. Similar models, but made from materials such as bronze, were also produced by Brâncuși and placed in exhibitions. Sleeping Muse I has different versions as well; one, from 1909 to 1910, is made of marble and measures 6 ¾ in. in height (Adams 549). This is a model of a head, without a body, with markings to show features such as hair, nose, lips, and closed eyes. In A History of Western Art, Adams says that the sculpture has "an abstract, curvilinear quality and a smooth contour that create an impression of elegance" (549). The qualities which produce the effect can particularly be seen in the shape of the eyes and in the set of the mouth. Other works * Bust of a boy (1906) * The Prayer (1907) * La Sagesse de la Terre (1908) * Sleeping Muse (1910), Metropolitan Museum of Art * Prometheus (1911) * Mademoiselle Pogany (1912), Philadelphia Museum of Art * Miss Pogany (1913,) drawing, the Botarro Collection * The Kiss (1916), Philadelphia Museum of Art * Princess X (1916), * Madame L.R. (1914–1918) * A Muse (1917) * Chimera (1918) * Eileen Lane (1922), the Botarro Collection * Bird in Space (1924), Philadelphia Museum of Art * Portrait of Nancy Cunard (also called Sophisticated Young Lady) (1925–1927) * Le Poisson (1926) * Portrait of James Joyce, for Tales Told of Shem and Shaun (Black Sun Press, Paris, 1929) * Le Coq (1935) * Sculptural Ensemble of Constantin Brâncuși at Târgu Jiu (Endless Column) (1935) * Blonde Negress I (1926), Toledo Museum of Art * White Negress II (1928), Art Institute of Chicago <gallery> File:'Fish' by Constantin Brâncusi, Tate Modern.JPG|Brancusi Fish Tate Modern Collection </gallery> In fiction * Robert McAlmon's 1925 collection of short stories Distinguished Air includes one that revolves around an exhibition of Princess X. In 1930 the watercolour painter Charles Demuth painted Distinguished Air, based on this story. *In Evelyn Waugh's 1945 novel Brideshead Revisited, Anthony Blanche remarks in relating a story to Charles Ryder that "I have two sculptures by Brancusi and several pretty things" [sic]. *In the 1988 movie Short Circuit 2, a man walking through an outdoor exhibition speculates that the stationary Johnny 5 robot, who is also admiring the exhibit, is "an early Brâncuși." *In the 1999 science fiction series Total Recall 2070, one episode ("Astral Projections") featured an artifact called the "Brancusi Stone" because it looks like one of Brâncuși's sculptures. *In the 2000 film Mission to Mars, the "Face on Mars" is modeled after Brâncuși's Sleeping Muse. Apeirogon by Colum McCann p212 References Bibliography *Tom Sandqvist, Dada East – The Romanians of Cabaret Voltaire, MIT Press, 2006, *Adams, Laura S. A History of Western Art. 4th ed. New York: McGraw–Hill, 2005. *Cristea, Simion Doru. "O escultor Constantin Brâncusi e a consistência paremiológica da sua arte / The Sculptor Constantin Brâncusi and the Paremiological Consistence of His Art." Proceedings of the Twelfth Interdisciplinary Colloquium on Proverbs, November 4 to 11, 2018, at Tavira, Portugal. Eds. Rui J.B. Soares and Outi Lauhakangas. Tavira: Tipografia Tavirense, 2019. 252–282. With 7 illustrations.*Richler, Martha. National Gallery of Art, Washington: A World of Art. London: Scala Books, 1998. *Neutres, Jerome. [http://www.paulkasmingallery.com/news/2013-10-26_brancusi-in-new-york-1913-2013-catalogue_1 Brâncuși New York, 1913–2013] . New York: Editions Assouline, 2014. *Varia, Radu. Brancusi. New York: Rizzoli, 1986. External links *[https://web.archive.org/web/20120313010334/http://centrulbrancusi.ro/2011/03/17/brancusi-on-the-world-heritage-site-list/ Support for the inclusion of "Heroes' Way", the most prominent monumental ensemble in the region as well as one of Brâncusi's major creations, in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites] *[http://www.zuihitsu.org/brancusi-versus-usa An excerpt from the transcript] of Brâncuși versus United States *[http://www.philamuseum.org/collections/results.html?searchTxtBrancusi&bSuggest1&searchNameID&searchClassID&searchOrigin&keySearch+Search+&page=1 Brâncuși] in the Philadelphia Museum of Art *[https://web.archive.org/web/20070323181441/http://www.guggenheimcollection.org/site/artist_works_22_0.html Brâncuși] in the Guggenheim Museum. * *[http://www.guggenheim-venice.it/inglese/collections/artisti/biografia.php?id_art=26 Peggy Guggenheim Collection] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20140415204211/http://publicphoto.org/?s=brancusi Public domain image resources] <!--Dead link on 3/26/07 * [http://engcom.ipsec.ro/Brancusi/index.html Constantin Brâncuși – pioneer of abstract sculpture]--> *[http://www.centrepompidou.fr/cpv/ressource.action?param.idFR_R-c6e611f988bdc6acbbc0787097b825be&param.idSourceFR_E-c6e611f988bdc6acbbc0787097b825be Brâncuși's atelier at Centre Pompidou, France] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20090302003626/http://www.filozofianuantelor.org/pagini/content/view/204/137/ Petre Țuțea – An encounter with Brâncuși] a rare meeting between two unusual personalities * Category:Modern sculptors 01 Category:1876 births Category:1957 deaths Category:20th-century French male artists Category:20th-century French sculptors Category:20th-century Romanian male artists Category:20th-century Romanian painters Category:20th-century Romanian photographers Category:20th-century Romanian sculptors Category:Burials at Montparnasse Cemetery Category:French male sculptors Category:French photographers Category:Members of the Romanian Academy elected posthumously Category:People from Gorj County Category:Romanian avant-garde Category:Romanian emigrants to France Category:Naturalized citizens of France Category:School of Paris Category:Serial art Category:Romanian woodworkers Category:20th-century woodworkers
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantin_Brâncuși
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Claus Sluter
thumb|upright=1.4|David and Jeremiah from the Well of Moses Claus Sluter (1340s in Haarlem – 1405 or 1406 in Dijon) was a Dutch sculptor, living in the Duchy of Burgundy from about 1380. He was the most important northern European sculptor of his age and is considered a pioneer of the "northern realism" of the Early Netherlandish painting that came into full flower with the work of Jan van Eyck and others in the next generation. Life The name "Claes de Slutere van Herlam" is inscribed in the Register of the Corporation of Stonemasons and Sculptors of Brussels around the years 1379/1380. He then moved to the Burgundian capital of Dijon, where from 1385 to 1389 he was the assistant of Jean de Marville, court sculptor to Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy. From 1389 to his death he was court sculptor himself, with the rank of valet de chambre. He was succeeded by his nephew Claus de Werve. Work Sluter's most significant work is the so-called Well of Moses (1395–1403), or the Great Cross. It was created for the Carthusian monastery of Champmol, which was founded by Philip the Bold right outside Dijon in 1383. For many years, the top portion was thought to have included (along with Christ on a cross), sculptures of the Virgin and John the Evangelist. However it was more likely just Christ, with Mary Magdalene kneeling at the foot of the cross. The cross, and whatever was on the terrace below, was destroyed at some point after 1736 and before 1789, probable because the roof of the building protecting the monument collapsed. Sluter was one of the sculptors of the pleurants, or mourners, which occupy niches below the tombs of Philip the Bold, his wife Margaret, and John the Fearless. References Sources Antoine, Elisabeth. Art from the Court of Burgundy: The Patronage of Philip the Bold and John the Fearless, 1364-1419. Seattle (WA): University of Washington, 2005. Jugie, Sophie. The Mourners: Tomb Sculpture from the Court of Burgundy . Paris: 1; First Edition, 2010. Nash, Susie. Northern Renaissance art. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. Kaldenbach, Kees. Web page on the Calvary sculpture, Rijksmuseum, 2021 https://johannesvermeer.info/sluter-calvary-rijksmuseum. External links Category:14th-century French sculptors Category:1340s births Category:1405 deaths Category:Artists from Haarlem Category:Arts in the court of Philip the Good Category:Dutch sculptors Category:Early Netherlandish sculptors Category:Gothic sculptors Category:Northern Renaissance Category:Early Netherlandish art
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claus_Sluter
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Cadillac, Michigan
Clam Lake}} ######### | zoom = SWITCH:11;9;5;3 | type = SWITCH:shape;shape;point;point | marker = city | stroke-width = 2 | stroke-color = #0096FF | fill = #0096FF | id2 = SWITCH:Q1025149;Q506975;Q1166;Q30 | type2 = shape-inverse | stroke-width2 = 2 | stroke-color2 = #5F5F5F | stroke-opacity2 = SWITCH:0;1;1;1 | fill2 = #000000 | fill-opacity2 = SWITCH:0;0.5;0.5;0.5 | switch = Cadillac;Wexford County;Michigan;the United States }} | mapsize = 250 | map_caption = Location within Wexford County | subdivision_type = Country | subdivision_type1 = State | subdivision_type2 = County | subdivision_name = | subdivision_name1 = | subdivision_name2 = Wexford | government_type = Council–manager | leader_title = Mayor | leader_name = Antoinette Schippers (acting) | leader_title1 = Manager | leader_name1 = Marcus Peccia | leader_title2 = Clerk | leader_name2 = Sandra Wasson | established_title = Settled | established_date = 1871 | established_title1 = Platted | established_date1 = 1872 | established_title2 = Incorporated | established_date2 = 1875 (Clam Lake village)<br>1877 (city of Cadillac) <!-- Area -->| unit_pref = Imperial | area_footnotes | area_magnitude | area_total_km2 23.16 | area_land_km2 = 18.34 | area_water_km2 = 4.82 | area_total_sq_mi = 8.94 | area_land_sq_mi = 7.08 | area_water_sq_mi = 1.86 | coordinates | population_footnotes | population_as_of 2020 | population_est | pop_est_as_of | population_note | population_total 10371 | population_density_sq_mi = 1464.83 | population_density_km2 = 565.56 | timezone = Eastern (EST) | utc_offset = &minus;5 | timezone_DST = EDT | utc_offset_DST = &minus;4 | elevation_m = 399 | elevation_ft = 1309 | website = | postal_code_type = ZIP code(s) | postal_code = 49601 | area_code = 231 | blank_name = FIPS code | blank_info 26-12320 | blank1_name = GNIS feature ID | blank1_info 1619393 | footnotes | pop_est_footnotes | image_flag = FlagOfCadillac.png | image_skyline = Cadillac, MI downtown (July 2022).jpg | image_caption = Downtown Cadillac along N. Mitchell Street }} Cadillac ( ) is a city in and county seat of Wexford County in the U.S. state of Michigan. The population was 10,371 at the 2020 census, making it the second most-populated city in the Northern Michigan region, after Traverse City. Cadillac was settled as early as 1871 and formerly known as the village of Clam Lake before incorporating as a city in 1877. The city is located upon the shores of Lake Cadillac, connected by the Clam Lake Canal to Lake Mitchell. The Clam River, which begins in Cadillac, is part of the Muskegon River watershed. Cadillac is the junction of three major highways: US Highway 131, M-55, and M-115. The geographic center of Michigan is approximately north-northwest of Cadillac. Cadillac is the primary city of the Cadillac micropolitan area, which includes all of Wexford County and Missaukee County to the east, and had population of 48,725 at the 2020 census.HistoryVillage of Clam LakeEuropean explorers and fur traders visited this area from the 18th century, most of them initially French and French-Canadians who traded with regional Native Americans. More permanent communities were not established until the late 19th century. Initial settlements developed from logging camps and the logging industry. In 1871, the first sawmill began operations at Clam Lake. Originally called the Pioneer Mill, it was built by John R. Yale. That same year, George A. Mitchell, a prominent local banker and railroad entrepreneur, and Adam Gallinger, a local carpenter, formed the Clam Lake Canal Improvement and Construction Company. Two years later, the Clam Lake Canal was constructed between Big and Little Clam lakes, known as present-day Lakes Mitchell and Lake Cadillac. Sawmill owners used the canal to transport timber from Big Clam Lake to the mills and railroad sites on Little Clam Lake. The Grand Rapids and Indiana Railroad (G.R. & I. Railroad) had reached the area in 1872. The settlement of Clam Lake was incorporated as a village in 1874. George Mitchell was elected as the first mayor.Battle of MantonThe Wexford County seat of government, originally located in Sherman, was moved to Manton in 1881, as the result of a compromise between the feuding residents of Cadillac and Sherman. Cadillac partisans, however, won the county seat by a county-wide vote in April 1882. When the sheriff returned to Cadillac, he encountered a force consisting of several hundred armed men; this group reportedly included a brass band. The Sheriff's force, some of whom may have been intoxicated, traveled back to Manton to seize the remaining records. Although Manton residents confronted the Cadillac men and barricaded the courthouse, the posse successfully seized the documents. They returned to Cadillac in dubious glory. The lumber industry continued to dominate the city, attracting a large immigrant labor force, most of whom were Swedish. (Later, Cadillac made sister city arrangements with Mölnlycke, Sweden, and Rovaniemi, Finland). In 1899, the Cadillac Club formed, the forerunner of the Cadillac Area Chamber of Commerce. By the early 20th century, with the lumber depleted, the timber industry was in decline. Today, manufacturers employ 30% of residents. Cadillac's range of industries includes the manufacture of pleasure boats, automotive parts, water-well components, vacuum cleaners, and rubber products. In 1936, the U.S. Forest Service and the Civilian Conservation Corps developed the Caberfae Ski Area during the Great Depression as an investment in future economic development. This resulted in promotion of this area as a tourist center. Caberfae remains in operation today, as the oldest ski resort in the midwest. Tourism and outdoor recreation have since become an important sector of Cadillac's economy. In the summer, tourists travel to the city and region for boating, fishing, hiking, mountain biking, and camping. During the fall, hunting and color tours are popular. The winter is possibly the busiest season; the area can be found packed with downhill skiers, cross-country skiers, ice-fishers, snow-shoers and–most of all–snowmobilers. The North American Snowmobile Festival (NASF) is held on frozen Lake Cadillac every winter. Thirsty's, a gas station on M-55 west of Cadillac, was the home of Samantha or "Sam The Bear" from the 1970s through the late 1990s, when Sam died of old age. Sam was the only brown bear in captivity in the US at the time to hibernate naturally. Geography Topography According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water. The Lake Cadillac is entirely within the city limits. The larger, Lake Mitchell is nearby on the west side of the city, with of shoreline within the city's municipal boundary. The lakes were connected by a stream which was replaced in 1873 by the Clam Lake Canal. The canal was featured on Ripley's Believe It or Not in the 1970s due to the phenomenon that in winter the canal freezes before the lakes and then after the lakes freeze, the canal thaws and remains unfrozen for the rest of the winter. Cadillac is located at the eastern edge of what is now managed as the Manistee National Forest. The surrounding area is heavily wooded, with mixed hardwood and conifer forests. Christmas tree farming has been important to the area agricultural industry. Cadillac was chosen in 1988 to donate the holiday tree installed at the lawn of the U.S. Capitol building in Washington, D.C. Cityscape The commercial center of the city is located on the eastern edge of Lake Cadillac. Most downtown buildings range from two to five stories in height. Many face Mitchell Street, the city's tree-lined main street and traditional corridor of travel through town. The downtown contains a movie theater, gift shops, restaurants, a bookstore, specialty food stores, jewelers, clothing retailers, and various other businesses. The Courthouse Hill Historic District, recognized in April 2005, lies adjacent to the city's commercial center. The District contains a number of large Victorian-style residences built by the lumber barons and businessmen who helped develop the city in the 1870s. Population and building density is highest in this area. On the western bank of Lake Cadillac, where M-55 intersects M-115, is what is locally referred to as Cadillac West. This is a small commercial district, bordering Mitchell State Park and the two lakes; it caters mostly to tourists. It contains a number of motels and restaurants. Along the northern and southern stretches of the lake are the main residential areas of the city. They are generally of low to moderate density, characterized primarily by single-family structures. Climate Cadillac experiences a typical northern Michigan climate, undergoing temperate seasonal changes, influenced by the presence of Lake Michigan and the inevitable lake effect. Winters are generally cold with large amounts of snowfall. Summers are warm. The average high temperature in July is and the average low in January is . Summer temperatures can exceed , and winter temperatures can drop below . Average annual rainfall is , and average annual snowfall is . Snowfall typically occurs between the months of November and March. According to the Köppen climate classification system, Cadillac has a humid continental climate, abbreviated "Dfb" on climate maps. Superfund sites Cadillac has two superfund sites, according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. One is located at 1100 Wright Street, the former site of Kysor Industrial Corp, which operations resulted in toxic wastes. The other is located at 1002 6th Street, the former site of Northernaire Plating. Its operations also produced hazardous wastes, which produced contamination. Demographics 2010 census As of the census of 2010, there were 10,355 people, 4,280 households, and 2,625 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 4,927 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 95.6% White, 0.5% African American, 0.6% Native American, 1.0% Asian, 0.4% from other races, and 1.8% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.8% of the population. There were 4,280 households, of which 32.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 39.2% were married couples living together, 16.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.7% had a male householder with no wife present, and 38.7% were non-families. 32.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.34 and the average family size was 2.90. The median age in the city was 36.5 years. 24.7% of residents were under the age of 18; 10% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24.4% were from 25 to 44; 23.8% were from 45 to 64; and 17.1% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47.4% male and 52.6% female. 2000 census As of the census More than 26% of the city's labor force is employed in manufacturing. Three industrial parks are located within the city limits, comprising 7% of the total land use in Cadillac. Their operations generate 47% of the city's tax base. Much of the city's economic performance is determined by the fortunes of local industry. The center of the city is generally perceived to have a "small-town-feel". In the summer, the downtown fills with tourists, many from southern Michigan. The city center is one block from Lake Cadillac. For visitors by boat who dock at the public docks, it is nearly as accessible by boat as it is by car. The city's immediate proximity to two lakes, as well as Manistee National Forest, Pere Marquette State Forest, Mitchell State Park and a number of major highways, has established tourism as a significant sector of the local economy. Cadillac is also known as Chestnut Town, USA. The local area has a relatively high number of American chestnut trees, planted by pioneers from New York and Pennsylvania who settled in western Michigan. A blight in the early 20th century killed nearly every American Chestnut tree, but those in western Michigan had developed a mysterious resistance and survived. Top employers According to the city's 2019 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the principal employers in the city were: {| class="wikitable" |- ! Employer ! # of employees<br>(2019) |- | Avon Automotive | 500&ndash;999 |- | Cadillac Area Public Schools | 500&ndash;999 |- | Four Winn's/Glastron/Wellcraft/Rec Boat | 500&ndash;999 |- | Avon Protection Systems | 250&ndash;499 |- | Cadillac Casting | 250&ndash;499 |- | Munson Healthcare Cadillac Hospital | 250&ndash;499 |- | Rexair | 250&ndash;499 |- | AAR Mobility Systems | 100&ndash;249 |- | Michigan Rubber Products | 100&ndash;249 |- | Fiamm Technologies | 100&ndash;249 |} Arts and culture Sites in Cadillac with Michigan historical markers include: Cadillac Carnegie Library, Charles T. Mitchell House, Clam Lake Canal, Cobbs and Mitchell Building, Cobbs and Mitchell No. 1, and the Shay Locomotive.GovernmentCadillac was incorporated as a city in 1877. It is a home rule city with a Council-Manager form of government-one. Current council members are Shari Spoelman, Antoinette Schippers, Arthur Stevens, and James Dean. Antoinette Schippers has been serving as acting mayor since February 12, 2025. The present City Manager is Marcus Peccia. Cadillac is located in Michigan's 2nd congressional district, represented by Republican John Moolenaar. Education Cadillac's public education system has a total of 10 schools, with approximately 3,100 students and 166 teachers with a student:teacher ratio of 19.1:1. Cadillac has 4 private primary and secondary schools with approximately 394 students, 20 teachers and a student:teacher ratio of 20:1. Cadillac Area Public Schools Public education is administered by Cadillac Area Public Schools. The city has two high schools: Cadillac High School and Innovation High School. The area also has a middle school, Mackinaw Trail Middle School, covering grades 6, 7 and 8. There are three elementary schools, Forest View Elementary, Franklin Elementary, and Lincoln Elementary. There is one early childhood center, Viking Learning Center. Cadillac also has an alternative high school. Private schools Cadillac Heritage Christian offers nondenominational Christian education from pre-K through 12th grade. Northview Adventist School has 16 students in grades 1–10 as of 2020. St. Ann School is a coed private Roman Catholic school with 236 students in grades pre-K through 7. Training schools Northwoods Aviation, located at Wexford County Airport, offers training programs for piloting and servicing aircraft. The Cadillac Institute of Cosmetology is a full service teaching salon in downtown Cadillac that offers training for general cosmetologists and specialized technicians to high school students through a partnership with Wexford-Missaukee Intermediate School District.CollegesThe Baker College-Cadillac campus occupies just outside the City of Cadillac. The school has an enrollment of more than 1,300 students and offers Associate's and bachelor's degrees, in addition to professional certifications.MediaNewspapers*The Cadillac NewsRadio *WATT (1240 am) – news and talk *WLJW (1370 am) – religious *WOLW (91.1 FM) – religious "Northern Christian Radio" *WGCP (91.9 FM) – religious Strong Tower Radio *WJZQ (92.9 FM) – Top 40 "Z-93" *WKAD (93.7 FM) – "The Ticket" (Fox Sports Radio) *WLXV (96.7 FM) – 96.7 The Bull *WAIR (104.9 FM) – contemporary Christian "Smile-FM" *WCKC (107.1 FM) – classic rock "The Drive" *WCDY (107.9 FM) – hot AC "107.9 CDY" Television *WWTV (Channel 9) – CBS, branded as "9 &10 News" *WMNN (Channel 26) – ShopHQ (was the flagship station of national news network NewsNet from 2019 to 2024) *WCMV (Channel 27) – PBS, satellite of WCMU in Mount Pleasant, Michigan *WFQX (Channel 32) – Fox, branded as "Local 32" *WFQX-DT2 (Channel 32.2) - The CW Plus, branded as "The CW Northern Michigan" *W23EB-D (Channel 23.1-23.7) - 3ABN, Amazing Facts TV, Strong Tower Radio Infrastructure Transportation Major highways Cadillac is situated as the confluence of three highways: US 131, M-55 and M-115. Prior to 2001, the northern end of the freeway portion of US 131 was located at the southern entrance to Cadillac. With the construction of a bypass, the US 131 freeway was extended around the east side of the city. The former route of the highway through downtown Cadillac was redesignated as BUS US 131. In the city, BUS US 131 is named Mitchell Street, after George Mitchell, but may be referred to as main street. * bypasses the city to the east. The freeway continues southerly toward Big Rapids and Grand Rapids and northerly toward Manton before transitioning to a two-lane highway for the remainder of the distance to Petoskey. *, a loop route through downtown, running largely along the former route of US 131 through the city. * is a major two-lane east–west route across the state, connecting with Manistee on the west and Lake City, Houghton Lake, West Branch, and Tawas City on the east. *, another major two-lane route, runs diagonally from Clare to the southeast to Frankfort to the northwest.RailThe city is serviced by rail via the Great Lakes Central Railroad. This is primarily a freight line, although passenger service is expected in the future.Public transit *Cadillac and Wexford County jointly operate a local public bus service. The Wexford Transit Authority is a demand-response, public transportation system, and has been in operation since 1974. *Indian Trails provides daily intercity bus service between Grand Rapids and St. Ignace and stops in Cadillac. Non-motorized transportation The White Pine Trail's northern terminus is in Cadillac. The trail, which stretches and originates from Comstock Park, follows an abandoned railroad bed into the center of the city. The trail is paved from the village of Leroy 16 miles north to Cadillac. Notable people <!-- Note: · Only people who already have a Wikipedia article may appear here. This establishes notability. · The article must mention how they are associated with Cadillac, whether born, raised, or residing. · The fact of their association should have a reliable source cited. · Alphabetical by last name please. · All others will be deleted. --> * Jim Bowman, NFL player * Jan Harold Brunvand, American folklorist, born in Cadillac * Larry Joe Campbell, actor (According to Jim); born in Cadillac * George A. Mitchell, father of the city of Cadillac (first developer). * Jackie Swanson, actress (Cheers), attended high school in Cadillac * Guy Vander Jagt, U.S. congressman from Michigan's 9th congressional district; born in Cadillac * Luke Winslow-King, musician; born in Cadillac * Ad Wolgast, professional boxer; born in Cadillac * Paul McMullen, middle-distance runner; grew up in Cadillac References Further reading * External links *[http://www.cadillac-mi.net/ City of Cadillac] *[http://cadillac.org/ Cadillac Area Chamber of Commerce] Category:Cities in Wexford County, Michigan Category:County seats in Michigan Category:Populated places established in 1872 Category:1872 establishments in Michigan
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadillac,_Michigan
2025-04-05T18:27:51.171619
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COINTELPRO
, a financial supporter of the Black Panther Party, hoping to "possibly cause her embarrassment or tarnish her image with the general public". Covert campaigns to publicly discredit activists and destroy their interpersonal relationships were a common tactic used by COINTELPRO agents.]] COINTELPRO (a syllabic abbreviation derived from Counter Intelligence Program) was a series of covert and illegal projects conducted between 1956 and 1971 by the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) aimed at surveilling, infiltrating, discrediting, and disrupting American political organizations that the FBI perceived as subversive. Groups and individuals targeted by the FBI included feminist organizations, the Communist Party USA, anti-Vietnam War organizers, activists in the civil rights and Black power movements (e.g., Martin Luther King Jr., the Nation of Islam, and the Black Panther Party), environmentalist and animal rights organizations, the American Indian Movement (AIM), Chicano and Mexican-American groups like the Brown Berets and the United Farm Workers, and independence movements (including Puerto Rican independence groups, such as the Young Lords and the Puerto Rican Socialist Party). Although the program primarily focused on organizations that were part of the broader New Left, they also targeted white supremacist groups, such as the Ku Klux Klan and the National States' Rights Party. The FBI has used covert operations against domestic political groups since its inception. Covert operations under the official COINTELPRO label took place between 1956 and 1971. However, the official chronology of the program is the subject of debate. According to a senate investigation, "If COINTELPRO had been a short-lived aberration, the thorny problems of motivation, techniques, and control presented might be safely relegated to history. However, COINTELPRO existed for years on an 'ad hoc basis before the formal programs were instituted, and more significantly, COINTELPRO-type activities may continue today under the rubric of 'investigation." According to a Senate report, the FBI's motivation was "protecting national security, preventing violence, and maintaining the existing social and political order". Beginning in 1969, leaders of the Black Panther Party were targeted by the COINTELPRO and "neutralized" by being assassinated, imprisoned, publicly humiliated or falsely charged with crimes. Some of the Black Panthers targeted include Fred Hampton, Mark Clark, Zayd Shakur, Geronimo Pratt, Mumia Abu-Jamal, and Marshall Conway. Common tactics used by COINTELPRO were perjury, witness harassment, witness intimidation, and withholding of exculpatory evidence. FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover issued directives governing COINTELPRO, ordering FBI agents to "expose, disrupt, misdirect, discredit, or otherwise neutralize" the activities of these movements and especially their leaders. Under Hoover, the official in charge of COINTELPRO was assistant director William C. Sullivan. Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy personally authorized some of the programs, giving written approval for limited wiretapping of Martin Luther King's phones "on a trial basis, for a month or so". Hoover extended the clearance so his men were "unshackled" to look for evidence in any areas of King's life they deemed worthy. History The FBI initiated COINTELPRO, an abbreviation for Counterintelligence Program, in 1956 with the aim of undermining the operations of the Communist Party of the United States. In the 1960s, the scope of the organization was broadened to encompass various additional domestic factions, including the Ku Klux Klan, the Socialist Workers Party, and the Black Panther Party. The cessation of all COINTELPRO operations occurred in 1971. Despite its relatively small scale (constituting approximately 0.2% of the FBI's overall workload during a 15-year timeframe), COINTELPRO was subsequently subject to criticism from both Congress and the American public for infringing upon first amendment rights and other grounds. Tactics included anonymous phone calls, Internal Revenue Service (IRS) audits, and the creation of documents that would divide the American communist organization internally. In 1956, Hoover sent an open letter denouncing Dr. T. R. M. Howard, a civil rights leader, surgeon, and wealthy entrepreneur in Mississippi who had criticized FBI inaction in solving recent murders of George W. Lee, Emmett Till, and other African Americans in the South. When the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), an African-American civil rights organization, was founded in 1957, the FBI began to monitor and target the group almost immediately, focusing particularly on Bayard Rustin, Stanley Levison, and eventually Martin Luther King Jr. " that the FBI mailed anonymously to Martin Luther King Jr.. King interpreted the letter as an effort to persuade him to commit suicide. Soon after, the FBI was systematically bugging King's home and his hotel rooms, as they were now aware that King was growing in stature daily as the most prominent leader of the civil rights movement. In the mid-1960s, King began to publicly criticize the Bureau for giving insufficient attention to the use of terrorism by white supremacists. Hoover responded by publicly calling King the most "notorious liar" in the United States. In his 1991 memoir, Washington Post journalist Carl Rowan asserted that the FBI had sent at least one anonymous letter to King encouraging him to commit suicide. Historian Taylor Branch documents an anonymous "suicide package" sent by the FBI on November 21, 1964, that contained audio recordings obtained through tapping King's phone and placing bugs throughout various hotel rooms over the previous two years, and that was created two days after the announcement of King's impending Nobel Peace Prize. King believed that he was subsequently informed that the audio would be released to the media if he did not acquiesce and commit suicide prior to accepting his Nobel Peace Prize. During the same period the program also targeted Malcolm X. While an FBI spokesman has denied that the FBI was "directly" involved in Malcolm's murder in 1965, it is documented that the Bureau worked to "widen the rift" between Malcolm and Elijah Muhammad through infiltration and the "sparking of acrimonious debates within the organization", rumor-mongering, and other tactics designed to foster internal disputes, which ultimately led to Malcolm's assassination. The FBI heavily infiltrated Malcolm's Organization of Afro-American Unity in the final months of his life. The Pulitzer Prize-winning biography of Malcolm X by Manning Marable asserts that most of the men who plotted Malcolm's assassination were never apprehended and that the full extent of the FBI's involvement in his death cannot be known. Amidst the urban unrest of July–August 1967, the FBI began "COINTELPRO–BLACK HATE", which focused on King and the SCLC, as well as the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), the Revolutionary Action Movement (RAM), the Deacons for Defense and Justice, Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), and the Nation of Islam. BLACK HATE established the Ghetto Informant Program and instructed 23 FBI offices to "disrupt, misdirect, discredit, or otherwise neutralize the activities of black nationalist hate type organizations". A March 1968 memo stated the program's goal was to "prevent the coalition of militant black nationalist groups"; to "Prevent the RISE OF A 'MESSIAH' who could unify ... the militant black nationalist movement"; "to pinpoint potential troublemakers and neutralize them before they exercise their potential for violence [against authorities]"; to "Prevent militant black nationalist groups and leaders from gaining RESPECTABILITY, by discrediting them to ... both the responsible community and to liberals who have vestiges of sympathy"; and to "prevent the long-range GROWTH of militant black organizations, especially among youth". Dr. King was said to have potential to be the "messiah" figure, should he abandon nonviolence and integrationism, and Stokely Carmichael was noted to have "the necessary charisma to be a real threat in this way" as he was portrayed as someone who espoused a much more militant vision of "black power". While the FBI was particularly concerned with leaders and organizers, they did not limit their scope of target to the heads of organizations. Individuals, e.g. writers, were also listed among the targets of operations. This program coincided with a broader federal effort to prepare military responses for urban riots and began increased collaboration between the FBI, Central Intelligence Agency, National Security Agency, and the Department of Defense. The CIA launched its own domestic espionage project in 1967 called Operation CHAOS. A particular target was the Poor People's Campaign, a national effort organized by King and the SCLC to occupy Washington, DC. The FBI monitored and disrupted the campaign on a national level, while using targeted smear tactics locally to undermine support for the march. The Black Panther Party was another targeted organization, wherein the FBI collaborated to destroy the party from the inside out. Official congressional committees and several court cases have concluded that COINTELPRO operations against communist and socialist groups exceeded statutory limits on FBI activity and violated constitutional guarantees of freedom of speech and association. The boxing match known as the Fight of the Century between Muhammad Ali and Joe Frazier in March 1971 provided cover for the activist group to successfully pull off the burglary. Muhammad Ali was a COINTELPRO target because he had joined the Nation of Islam and the anti-war movement. Many news organizations initially refused to immediately publish the information, with the notable exception of The Washington Post. After affirming the reliability of the documents, it published them on the front page (in defiance of the Attorney General's request), prompting other organizations to follow suit. Within the year, Director J. Edgar Hoover declared that the centralized COINTELPRO was over, and that all future counterintelligence operations would be handled case by case. Additional documents were revealed in the course of separate lawsuits filed against the FBI by NBC correspondent Carl Stern, the Socialist Workers Party, and a number of other groups. In 1976 the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities of the United States Senate, commonly referred to as the "Church Committee" after its chairman, Senator Frank Church (D-Idaho), launched a major investigation of the FBI and COINTELPRO. Many released documents have been partly or entirely redacted. The Final Report of the Select Committee castigated the conduct of the intelligence community in its domestic operations (including COINTELPRO) in no uncertain terms: According to the Church Committee: Examples of surveillance, spanning all presidents from FDR to Nixon, both legal and illegal, contained in the Church Committee report: * President Roosevelt (1933–1945) asked the FBI to put in its files the names of citizens sending telegrams to the White House opposing his "national defense" policy and supporting Col. Charles Lindbergh. * President Truman (1945–1953) received inside information on a former Roosevelt aide's efforts to influence his appointments, labor union negotiating plans, and the publishing plans of journalists. * President Eisenhower (1953–1961) received reports on purely political and social contacts with foreign officials by Bernard Baruch, Eleanor Roosevelt, and Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas. * The Kennedy administration (1961–1963) had the FBI wiretap a congressional staff member, three executive officials, a lobbyist, and a Washington law firm. US Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy received the fruits of an FBI wiretap on Martin Luther King Jr. and an electronic listening device targeting a congressman, both of which yielded information of a political nature. * President Johnson (1963–1969) asked the FBI to conduct "name checks" of his critics and members of the staff of his 1964 opponent, Senator Barry Goldwater. He also requested purely political intelligence on his critics in the Senate and received extensive intelligence reports on political activity at the 1964 Democratic Convention from FBI electronic surveillance. * President Nixon (1969–1974) authorized a program of wiretaps, which produced for the White House purely political or personal information unrelated to national security, including information about a Supreme Court Justice. Groups that were known to be targets of COINTELPRO operations include: * Communist and socialist organizations. * Organizations and individuals associated with the civil rights movement, including Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and others associated with the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, the Congress of Racial Equality, and other civil rights organizations. * Black nationalist groups. * The Young Lords. * The American Indian Movement. * White supremacist groups, including the Ku Klux Klan. * The National States' Rights Party. * A broad range of organizations labeled "New Left", Students for a Democratic Society the Weathermen, and environmental activists. * Almost all groups protesting the Vietnam War, as well as individual student demonstrators with no group affiliation. * The National Lawyers Guild. * Organizations and individuals associated with the women's rights movement. * Nationalist groups, such as those seeking independence for Puerto Rico, reunification of Ireland, and Cuban exile movements including Orlando Bosch's Cuban Power and the Cuban Nationalist Movement. * Additional notable American individuals. The COINTELPRO operators targeted multiple groups at once and encouraged splintering of these groups from within. In letter-writing campaigns (wherein false letters were sent on behalf of members of parties), the FBI ensured that groups would not unite in their causes. For instance, they launched a campaign specifically to alienate the Black Panther Party from the Mau Maus, Young Lords, Young Patriots and SDS. These racially diverse groups had been building alliances, in part due to charismatic leaders, such as Fred Hampton and his attempts to create a "Rainbow Coalition". The FBI was concerned with ensuring that groups could not gain traction through unity, specifically across racial lines. One of the main ways of targeting these groups was to arouse suspicion between the different parties and causes. In this way the bureau took on a divide-and-conquer offensive. The FBI has said that it no longer undertakes COINTELPRO or COINTELPRO-like operations. However, critics have claimed that agency programs in the spirit of COINTELPRO targeted groups such as the Committee in Solidarity with the People of El Salvador, the American Indian Movement, Earth First!, and the anti-globalization movement. Methods , national spokesman for the Black Panther Party, who was assassinated by members of the Chicago Police Department, with the raid itself being a COINTELPRO operation, although there is not proof the assassination itself was. # Harassment via the legal system: The FBI and police abused the legal system to harass dissidents and make them appear to be criminals. Officers of the law gave perjured testimony and presented fabricated evidence as a pretext for false arrests and wrongful imprisonment. They discriminatorily enforced tax laws and other government regulations and used conspicuous surveillance, "investigative" interviews, and grand jury subpoenas in an effort to intimidate activists and silence their supporters. # Illegal force: The FBI conspired with local police departments to threaten dissidents; to conduct illegal break-ins in order to search dissident homes; and to commit vandalism, assaults, beatings and assassinations. The FBI also conspired with the police departments of many U.S. cities (San Diego, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Oakland, Philadelphia, Chicago) to encourage repeated raids on Black Panther homes—often with little or no evidence of violations of federal, state, or local laws—which resulted in the police killing many members of the Black Panther Party, most notably Chicago Black Panther Party Chairman Fred Hampton on December 4, 1969. Whether or not the FBI sanctioned his killing remains unproven. Before the death of Hampton, long-term infiltrator, William O'Neal, shared floor plans of his apartment with the COINTELPRO team. He then gave Hampton a dose of secobarbital that rendered Hampton unconscious during the raid on his home. accuse them of crimes they did not commit, suppress exculpatory evidence and falsely incarcerate them. Elmer "Geronimo" Pratt, a Black Panther Party leader, was incarcerated for 27 years before a California Superior Court vacated his murder conviction, ultimately freeing him. Appearing before the court, an FBI agent testified that he believed Pratt had been framed, because both the FBI and the Los Angeles Police Department knew he had not been in the area at the time the murder occurred. Some sources claim that the FBI conducted more than 200 "black bag jobs", which were warrantless surreptitious entries, against the targeted groups and their members. In 1969 the FBI special agent in San Francisco wrote Hoover that his investigation of the Black Panther Party had concluded that in his city, at least, the Panthers were primarily engaged in feeding breakfast to children. Hoover fired back a memo implying the agent's career goals would be directly affected by his supplying evidence to support Hoover's view that the Black Panther Party was "a violence-prone organization seeking to overthrow the Government by revolutionary means". Hoover supported using false claims to attack his political enemies. In one memo he wrote: "Purpose of counterintelligence action is to disrupt the Black Panther Party and it is immaterial whether facts exist to substantiate the charge." In one particularly controversial 1965 incident, white civil rights worker Viola Liuzzo was murdered by Ku Klux Klansmen, who gave chase and fired shots into her car after noticing that her passenger was a young black man; one of the Klansmen was Gary Thomas Rowe, an acknowledged FBI informant. The FBI spread rumors that Liuzzo was a member of the Communist Party and had abandoned her children to have sexual relationships with African Americans involved in the civil rights movement. FBI records show that J. Edgar Hoover personally communicated these insinuations to President Johnson. Despite this, three Klansmen would be convicted in a federal trial for Liuzzo's murder in December 1965. FBI informant Rowe has also been implicated in some of the most violent crimes of the 1960s civil rights era, including attacks on the Freedom Riders and the 1963 Birmingham, Alabama 16th Street Baptist Church bombing. Hoover ordered preemptive action "to pinpoint potential troublemakers and neutralize them before they exercise their potential for violence."</blockquote> Later similar operations While COINTELPRO was officially terminated in April 1971, domestic espionage continued. Between 1972 and 1974, it is documented that the Bureau planted over 500 bugs without a warrant and opened over 2,000 pieces of personal mail. More recent targets of covert action include the American Indian Movement (AIM), Earth First!, and Committees in Solidarity with the People of El Salvador. Documents released under the FOIA show that the FBI tracked the late David Halberstam—a Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist and author—for more than two decades. "Counterterrorism" guidelines implemented during the Reagan administration have been described as allowing a return to COINTELPRO tactics. Some radical groups accuse factional opponents of being FBI informants or assume the FBI is infiltrating the movement. COINTELPRO survivor Filiberto Ojeda Rios was killed by the FBI's hostage rescue team in 2005, his death described by a United Nations special committee as an assassination. Environmentalist Eric McDavid, convicted on arson charges, was released after documents emerged demonstrating that the FBI informant in his Earth Liberation Front group provided crucial leadership, information, and material without which the crime could not have been committed, repeating the same pattern of behavior of COINTELPRO. It has been claimed these sorts of practices have become widespread in FBI "counter-terrorism" cases targeting Muslims in the 2009 Bronx terrorism plot and others. Authors, such as Ward Churchill, Rex Weyler, and Peter Matthiessen allege that the federal government intended to acquire uranium deposits on the Lakota tribe's reservation land, and that this motivated a larger government conspiracy against AIM activists on the Pine Ridge reservation. Others believe COINTELPRO continues and similar actions are being taken against activist groups. Caroline Woidat says that, with respect to Native Americans, COINTELPRO should be understood within a historical context in which "Native Americans have been viewed and have viewed the world themselves through the lens of conspiracy theory." FBI Agent Richard G. Held is known to have increased FBI support for the Guardians of the Oglala Nation (GOON) squads, who were a private paramilitary group established in 1972 by the elected tribal chairman, Dick Wilson, under authority of the Oglala Sioux. AIM accused GOONs of involvement in 300 assaults and 64 homicides of political opponents. Despite this, The Bureau rarely investigated them and instead used its resources overwhelmingly to prosecute AIM. In 2000, the FBI released a report regarding these alleged unsolved violent deaths on Pine Ridge reservation and accounted for most of the deaths and disputed the claims of unsolved murders. The report stated that only four deaths were unsolved and that some deaths were not murders. A lawsuit filed by Dhoruba bin-Wahad, a former member of the Black Panther Party, revealed the existence of multiple programs similar to COINTELPRO including "Newkill" (New York Police Killings), Chesrob (a program focused on Panther Assata Shakur), and PRISACTS (The Prison Activists Surveillance Program), a program that focused on "neutralizing" political activists who were already in prison, many of whom (like bin-Wahad) had been targeted by COINTELPRO. In April 2018, the Atlanta Black Star characterized the FBI as still engaging in COINTELPRO behavior by surveilling the Black Lives Matter movement. Internal documents dated as late as 2017 showed that the FBI had surveilled the movement. In 2014, the FBI tracked a Black Lives Matter activist using surveillance tactics which The Intercept found "reminiscent of a rich American history of targeting black Americans," including COINTELPRO. This practice, along with the imprisonment of black activists for their views, has been associated with the new FBI designation of "Black Identity Extremists". Defending Rights & Dissent, a civil liberties group, cataloged known instances of First Amendment abuses and political surveillance by the FBI since 2010. The organization found that the FBI devoted disproportionate resources to spy on peaceful left-leaning civil society groups, including Occupy Wall Street, economic justice advocates, racial justice movements, environmentalists, Abolish ICE, and various anti-war movements. In December 2012, the FBI released redacted documents in response to a Freedom of Information Act request from the Partnership for Civil Justice Fund (PCJF). Mara Verheyden-Hilliard, the executive director of PCJF, said the documents showed that FBI counterterrorism agents had monitored the Occupy movement from its inception in August 2011 and that the FBI acted improperly by collecting "information on people's free-speech actions" and entering it into "unregulated databases, a vast storehouse of information widely disseminated to a range of law-enforcement and, apparently, private entities" (see Domestic Security Alliance Council). The FBI also communicated with the New York Stock Exchange, banks, private businesses and state and local police forces about the movement. In 2014, the PCJF obtained an additional 4,000 pages of unclassified documents through a Freedom of Information Act request, showing "details of the scrutiny of the Occupy protests in 2011 and 2012 by law enforcement officers, federal officials, security contractors and others." In October 2020, Katie Reiter, chief of staff to Michigan state Senator Rosemary Bayer, had an FBI task force come to her house and aggressively question her about a draft bill she had recently discussed which would have limited the use of tear gas against protesters. Reiter had discussed the proposed ban on tear gas on a private 90-minute Zoom call with Bayer and a handful of other staffers. Reiter says the two officers refused to answer any questions about how they became aware of her private meeting. The Intercept reported about the incident: "Reiter said that the FBI's visit left her confused and fearful. 'It has impacted my sleep, it has caused me quite a bit of anxiety,' she said. 'And it has certainly impacted how we talk. I try not to let it, I'll just be like, 'No, we're going to talk about this.' But it's in my mind all the time.'" A spokesperson for the FBI declined to comment on the record, as did a spokesperson for Zoom. Notable people targeted * Ralph Abernathy * Mumia Abu-Jamal * Muhammad Ali * Judi Bari * Dhoruba bin-Wahad * H. Rap Brown * Bunchy Carter * Eldridge Cleaver * Marshall Conway * Jeff Fort * Howard Bruce Franklin * Fred Hampton * Tom Hayden * Ernest Hemingway * Abbie Hoffman * Ericka Huggins * Jose Cha Cha Jimenez * Muhammad Kenyatta * Clark Kerr * Martin Luther King Jr. * Stanley Levison * Viola Liuzzo * Malcolm X * Jessica Mitford * Huey P. Newton * Geronimo Pratt * Filiberto Ojeda Ríos * Mario Savio * Jean Seberg * Assata Shakur * Morris Starsky * John Trudell * Kwame Ture See also <!--alphabetize all additions--> * 1971, 2014 documentary film on the break-in that first exposed COINTELPRO * Active measures * Agent provocateur * All Power to the People, film documentary by Lee Lew-Lee 1996 * , Pyle revealed a similar program by the U.S. Army * Cold War * Denial and deception * Mark Felt, also known as Deep Throat served as chief inspector of COINTELPRO field operations * FBI National Security Branch * Joint Terrorism Task Force * Joint Threat Research Intelligence Group * Laird v. Tatum * Mass surveillance in the United States * MAINWAY, a database of telephone metadata used by the NSA * NSA warrantless surveillance (2001–2007) * Operation Gladio * Operation Mockingbird * Patriot Act * PROFUNC, a similar classified Canadian program which focused primarily on communists and crypto-communists * Red Squad, police intelligence/anti-dissident units which were later operated under COINTELPRO * Security * State terrorism * Surveillance abuse * Thermcon * Zersetzung References Sources * * * Further reading Books * * * * * * * * * * * * * Theoharis, Athan, Spying on Americans: Political Surveillance from Hoover to the Huston Plan (Temple University Press, 1978). Articles * * * * * * Lessons * Wolfe-Rocca, Ursula. "[https://www.zinnedproject.org/materials/cointelpro-teaching-fbis-war-black-freedom-movement/ COINTELPRO: Teaching the FBI's War on the Black Freedom Movement]", Zinn Education Project. FBI files * [http://vault.fbi.gov/cointel-pro Files on FBI's website] * FBI COINTELPRO files on Espionage Program * FBI COINTELPRO file on Hoodwink * FBI COINTELPRO files on Puerto Rican Groups * FBI COINTELPRO files on Cuban Matters * FBI COINTELPRO files on the New Left * FBI COINTELPRO files on the Socialist Workers Party * FBI COINTELPRO files on Black Extremist Groups * FBI COINTELPRO files on White Hate Groups * FBI COINTELPRO files Las Vegas * FBI COINTELPRO files Miami * FBI COINTELPRO files Baltimore * FBI COINTELPRO files Alexandria * FBI COINTELPRO files Charlotte * FBI COINTELPRO files Indianapolis U.S. government reports * U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Internal Security. Hearings on Domestic Intelligence Operations for Internal Security Purposes. 93rd Cong., 2d sess, 1974. * U.S. Congress. House. Select Committee on Intelligence. Hearings on Domestic Intelligence Programs. 94th Cong., 1st sess, 1975. * U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Government Operations. Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations. Hearings on Riots, Civil and Criminal Disorders. 90th Cong., 1st sess. – 91st Cong., 2d sess, 1967–1970. * U.S. Congress. Senate. Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities. Hearings – The National Security Agency and Fourth Amendment Rights. Vol. 6. 94th Cong., 1st sess, 1975. * U.S. Congress. Senate. Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities. Hearings – Federal Bureau of Investigation. Vol. 6. 94th Cong., 1st sess, 1975. * U.S. Congress. Senate. Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities. Final Report – Book II, Intelligence Activities and the Rights of Americans. 94th Cong., 2d sess, 1976. * U.S. Congress. Senate. Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities. Final Report – Book III, Supplementary Detailed Staff Reports on Intelligence Activities and the Rights of Americans. 94th Cong., 2d sess, 1976. * Final Report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities. United States Senate, 94th Congress, 2nd Session, April 26 (legislative day, April 14), 1976. [AKA "Church Committee Report"]. Archived at [https://archive.org/details/finalreportofsel06unit Archive.org] by the Boston Public Library * Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities: [http://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/94755_II.pdf Intelligence Reports and the Rights of Americans: Book II]. April 24, 1976. Category:History of civil rights in the United States Category:History of law enforcement in the United States Category:History of racism in the United States Category:Propaganda in the United States Category:Political repression in the United States Category:Psychological warfare Category:Surveillance scandals Category:Political controversies in the United States Category:Political imprisonment in the United States Category:Race-related controversies in the United States Category:African-American-related controversies Category:Covert operations Category:American secret government programs Category:Federal Bureau of Investigation operations * Category:Counterintelligence Category:Code names Category:Federal Bureau of Investigation controversies Category:Human rights abuses in the United States Category:Federal Bureau of Investigation misconduct Category:Anti-communism in the United States
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COINTELPRO
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Cruise missile
thumb|A BGM-109 Tomahawk flying in November 2002 A cruise missile is an unmanned self-propelled guided missile that sustains flight through aerodynamic lift for most of its flight path. Cruise missiles are designed to deliver a large payload over long distances with high precision. Modern cruise missiles are capable of traveling at high subsonic, supersonic, or hypersonic speeds, are self-navigating, and are able to fly on a non-ballistic, extremely low-altitude trajectory. History thumb|The V-1 flying bomb, the first operational cruise missile The idea of an "aerial torpedo" was shown in the British 1909 film The Airship Destroyer in which flying torpedoes controlled wirelessly are used to bring down airships bombing London. In 1916, the American aviator Lawrence Sperry built and patented an "aerial torpedo", the Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane, a small biplane carrying a TNT charge, a Sperry autopilot and barometric altitude control. Inspired by the experiments, the United States Army developed a similar flying bomb called the Kettering Bug. Germany had also flown trials with remote-controlled aerial gliders (Torpedogleiter) built by Siemens-Schuckert beginning in 1916. In the Interwar Period, Britain's Royal Aircraft Establishment developed the Larynx (Long Range Gun with Lynx Engine), which underwent a few flight tests in the 1920s. In the Soviet Union, Sergei Korolev headed the GIRD-06 cruise missile project from 1932 to 1939, which used a rocket-powered boost-glide bomb design. The 06/III (RP-216) and 06/IV (RP-212) contained gyroscopic guidance systems. The vehicle was designed to boost to altitude and glide a distance of , but test flights in 1934 and 1936 only reached an altitude of . In 1944, during World War II, Germany deployed the first operational cruise missiles. The V-1, often called a flying bomb, contained a gyroscope guidance system and was propelled by a simple pulsejet engine, the sound of which gave it the nickname of "buzz bomb" or "doodlebug". Accuracy was sufficient only for use against very large targets (the general area of a city), while the range of was significantly lower than that of a bomber carrying the same payload. The main advantages were speed (although not sufficient to outperform contemporary propeller-driven interceptors) and expendability. The production cost of a V-1 was only a small fraction of that of a V-2 supersonic ballistic missile with a similar-sized warhead. Unlike the V-2, the initial deployments of the V-1 required stationary launch ramps which were susceptible to bombardment. Nazi Germany, in 1943, also developed the Mistel composite aircraft program, which can be seen as a rudimentary air-launched cruise missile, where a piloted fighter-type aircraft was mounted atop an unpiloted bomber-sized aircraft that was packed with explosives to be released while approaching the target. Bomber-launched variants of the V-1 saw limited operational service near the end of the war, with the pioneering V-1's design reverse-engineered by the Americans as the Republic-Ford JB-2 cruise missile. Immediately after World War II, the United States Air Force had 21 different guided missile projects, including proposed cruise missiles. By 1948, all but four of these projects had been canceled: the Air Materiel Command Banshee, the SM-62 Snark, the SM-64 Navaho, and the MGM-1 Matador. The Banshee design was similar to Operation Aphrodite; like Aphrodite, it failed, and was canceled in April 1949. Concurrently, the US Navy's Operation Bumblebee, was conducted at Topsail Island, North Carolina, from c. 1 June 1946, to 28 July 1948. Bumblebee produced proof-of-concept technologies that influenced the US military's other missile projects. During the Cold War, both the United States and the Soviet Union experimented further with the concept, of deploying early cruise missiles from land, submarines, and aircraft. The main outcome of the United States Navy submarine missile project was the SSM-N-8 Regulus missile, based upon the V-1 but powered by an Allison J33 jet engine. The Regulus entered service but was phased out with the advent of submarine launched ballistic missiles that did not require the submarine to surface in order to launch the missile and guide it to its target. The United States Air Force's first operational surface-to-surface missile was the winged, mobile, nuclear-capable MGM-1 Matador, also similar in concept to the V-1. Deployment overseas began in 1954, first to West Germany and later to the Republic of China and South Korea. On 7 November 1956, the U.S. Air Force deployed Matador units in West Germany, whose missiles were capable of striking targets in the Warsaw Pact, from their fixed day-to-day sites to unannounced dispersed launch locations. This alert was in response to the crisis posed by the Soviet attack on Hungary which suppressed the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. Between 1957 and 1961 the United States followed an ambitious and well-funded program to develop a nuclear-powered cruise missile, Supersonic Low Altitude Missile (SLAM). It was designed to fly below the enemy's radar at speeds above Mach 3 and carry hydrogen bombs that it would drop along its path over enemy territory. Although the concept was proven sound and the engine finished a successful test run in 1961, no airworthy device was ever completed. The project was finally abandoned in favor of ICBM development. While ballistic missiles were the preferred weapons for land targets, heavy nuclear and conventional weapon tipped cruise missiles were seen by the USSR as a primary weapon to destroy United States naval carrier battle groups. Large submarines (for example, Echo and Oscar classes) were developed to carry these weapons and shadow United States battle groups at sea, and large bombers (for example, Backfire, Bear, and Blackjack models) were equipped with the weapons in their air-launched cruise missile (ALCM) configuration. Categories Cruise missiles can be categorized by payload/warhead size, speed, range, and launch platform. Often variants of the same missile are produced for different launch platforms (for instance, air- and submarine-launched versions). Guidance systems can vary across missiles. Some missiles can be fitted with any of a variety of navigation systems (Inertial navigation, TERCOM, or satellite navigation). Larger cruise missiles can carry either a conventional or a nuclear warhead, while smaller ones carry only conventional warheads. Hypersonic A hypersonic cruise missile travels at least five times the speed of sound (Mach 5). 3M22 Zircon (>1000–1500 km) – hypersonic anti-ship cruise missile ASN4G (Air-Sol Nucléaire de 4e Génération) – scramjet-powered hypersonic cruise missile being developed by France BrahMos-II (≈800–1500 km) / – hypersonic cruise missile Hycore (South Korea) HSTDV – hypersonic scramjet demonstrator. A carrier vehicle for hypersonic long-range cruise missiles is being developed by Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO). Hyfly-2 – hypersonic air-launched cruise missile first displayed at Sea Air Space 2021, developed by Boeing Hypersonic Air-breathing Weapon Concept (HAWC, pronounced Hawk) – scramjet-powered hypersonic air-launched cruise missile without a warhead that uses its own kinetic energy upon impact to destroy the target, developed by DARPA Hypersonic Air Launched Offensive Anti-Surface (HALO) – air-launched anti-ship missile under Offensive Anti-Surface Warfare Increment 2 (OASuW Inc 2) program for the US Navy (Navy) Hypersonic Attack Cruise Missile (HACM) – planned for use by the United States Air Force SCIFiRE / – Southern Cross Integrated Flight Research Experiment (SCIFiRE) is a joint program between the US Department of Defense and the Australian Department of Defence for a Mach 5 scramjet-powered missile. In September 2021, the US Department of Defense awarded Preliminary Design Review contracts to Boeing, Lockheed Martin and Raytheon Missiles & Defense. Supersonic thumb| BrahMos shown at IMDS 2007.|300x300px These missiles travel faster than the speed of sound, usually using ramjet engines. The range is typically 100–500 km, but can be greater. Guidance systems vary. Examples: ASALM US ALCM prototype, test-flown to hypersonic Mach 5.5 3M-54 Kalibr (4,500 km, Mach 3) (the "Sizzler" variant is capable of supersonic speed at the terminal stage only) 3M-51 Alfa (250 km, Mach 2.5) Air-Sol Moyenne Portée (300–500 km+, Mach 3)  – supersonic stand-off nuclear missile ASM-3 (400 km, Mach 3+) BrahMos (290–800 km, Mach 3) / Blyskavka (100–370 km)  – Artem Luch Pivdenmash C-101 (50 km, Mach 2) C-301 (100+ km, Mach) C-803 (230 km, Mach 1.4)  – supersonic terminal stage only C-805 CX-1 (280 km, Mach 3) CJ-100 / DF-100 (2000–3000 km, Mach 5) FC/ASW (under development) – transnational cruise missile programme / / Hsiung Feng III (100-150 km, Mach 3.5) Hyunmoo-3 (1500 km, Mach 1.2) KD-88 (200 km, Mach 0.85) Kh-20 (380–600 km, Mach 2) Kh-31 (25–110 km, Mach 3.5) Kh-32 (600–1,000 km, Mach 4.6) Kh-80 (3,000–5,000 km, Mach 3) / P-270 Moskit (120–250 km, Mach 2–3) / P-500 Bazalt (550 km, Mach 3+) / P-700 Granit (625 km, Mach 2.5+) / P-800 Oniks / Kh-61 (600–800 km, Mach 2.6) / P-1000 Vulkan (800 km, Mach 3+) / YJ-12 (250–400 km, Mach 4) YJ-18 (220–540 km, Mach 3) YJ-91 (15–120 km, Mach 3.5) Yun Feng (1200–2,000 km, Mach 3) SSM-N-9 Regulus II (1,852 km, Mach 2) Intercontinental-range supersonic Burya (8,500 km) MKR (8,000 km) RSS-40 Buran (8,500 km) SLAM (cancelled in 1964) SM-64 Navaho (canceled in 1958) Long-range subsonic alt=|thumb|India's Nirbhay missiles mounted on a truck-based launcher The United States, Russia, North Korea, India, Iran, South Korea, Israel, France, China and Pakistan have developed several long-range subsonic cruise missiles. These missiles have a range of over and fly at about . They typically have a launch weight of about and can carry either a conventional or a nuclear warhead. Earlier versions of these missiles used inertial navigation; later versions use much more accurate TERCOM and DSMAC systems. Most recent versions can use satellite navigation. Examples: 3M-54 Kalibr (up to 4,500 km) AGM-86 ALCM (from 1100 to >2400 km) AGM-129 ACM (from 3450 to 3700 km) AGM-181 LRSO (>2500 km) BGM-109 Tomahawk (up to 1,700 km) BGM-109G Ground Launched Cruise Missile (2,500 km) Kh-55 (3,000 km) and Kh-65 Kh-101 (4500–5500 km) Iskander-K (not less than 3 500 km) Hwasal-2 (> 2000 km) RK-55 (3,000 km) Nirbhay (up to 1500 km) MdCN (up to 1,400 km) Paveh (1,650 km) Hoveyzeh (1,350 km) Abu Mahdi (over 1,000 km) Quds 1 Houthi Hsiung Feng IIE (600–1,200 km) Hyunmoo III (Hyunmoo IIIA – 500 km, Hyunmoo IIIB – 1000 km, Hyunmoo IIIC – 1500 km) Type 12 SSM (1,500 km under development) MGM-13 Mace DF-10/CJ-10 (CJ-10K – 1500 km, CJ-20 – 2000 km) Popeye Turbo SLCM Intercontinental-range subsonic 9M730 Burevestnik (unlimited range) SM-62 Snark (10,200 km) Medium-range subsonic thumb|right|Storm Shadow (France / UK) thumb|right|A Pakistani Babur cruise missile launcher These missiles are about the same size and weight and fly at similar speeds to the above category. Guidance systems vary. Examples: AGM-158 JASSM (370–1900 km) AGM-158C LRASM (370 km) Babur (290–900 km) Harbah (250–450 km) Hatf-VIII / Ra'ad Mark-2 ALCM (400 km) Hsiung Feng IIE (600–2000 km) Hyunmoo-3 (within 1500 km) Iskander-K KD-63 Taurus KEPD 350 (500+ km) / / Kh-50 (Kh-SD) and Kh-101 Kh-65 variants MGM-1 Matador (700 km) Ra'ad ALCM (350 km) Raad (360 km) SOM (SOM B Block I) – 500 km, 1500 km and 2500 km versions (350 km range under serial production, 500 km+ range under development) SSM-N-8 Regulus (926 km) P-5 Pyatyorka (450–750 km) / / Storm Shadow / SCALP-EG (550 km, Mach 0.65) / Type 12 SSM (within 1000 km under development) Ya-Ali (700 km) Zarb (320 km) Short-range subsonic These are subsonic missiles that weigh around and have a range of up to . thumb|right|A Naval Strike Missile of the Norwegian Navy Examples: Apache (100–140 km) AVMT-300 (300 km) MICLA-BR (300 km) Hyunmoo-3 (over 300 km) shorter range SSM-700K Haeseong (180+ km) JFS-M (499 km) Kh-35 (130–300 km) , KN-19 Ks3/4 Kh-59 (115–550 km) P-15 (40–80 km) , KN-1 Nasr-1 Zafar (25 km) Noor Qader Naval Strike Missile (185–555 km) RBS-15 Korshun – local derivative of Kh-55 and RK-55 Neptune V-1 flying bomb (250 km) thumb|200px|Hsiung Feng II Anti-Ship Missile Display in Chengkungling thumb|300px|Hsiung Feng II Hsiung Feng II Wan Chien VCM-01 (100–300 km) Aist (100–300 km) Marte (100+ km) Sea Killer export variant Otomat (180 km) / Otomat Mk2 E / Teseo Mk2/E (360 km) C-801 (40 km) C-802 (120–230 km) C-803 C-805 C-602 CM-602G Delilah missile (250 km) Gabriel IV (200 km) Popeye turbo ALCM (78 km) Sea Breaker (300 km) RGM-84 Harpoon (124–310 km) AGM-84E Standoff Land Attack Missile (110 km) AGM-84H/K SLAM-ER (270 km) Silkworm (100–500 km) SOM Atmaca Çakır Deployment thumb|right|AGM-129 ACM being secured on a B-52H bomber The most common mission for cruise missiles is to attack relatively high-value targets such as ships, command bunkers, bridges and dams. Modern guidance systems permit accurate attacks. , the BGM-109 Tomahawk missile model has become a significant part of the United States naval arsenal. It gives ships and submarines a somewhat accurate, long-range, conventional land attack weapon. Each costs about US$1.99 million. Both the Tomahawk and the AGM-86 were used extensively during Operation Desert Storm. On 7 April 2017, during the Syrian Civil War, U.S. warships fired more than 50 cruise missiles into a Syrian airbase in retaliation for a Syrian chemical weapons attack against a rebel stronghold. The United States Air Force (USAF) deploys an air-launched cruise missile, the AGM-86 ALCM. The Boeing B-52 Stratofortress is the exclusive delivery vehicle for the AGM-86 and AGM-129 ACM. Both missile types are configurable for either conventional or nuclear warheads. The USAF adopted the AGM-86 for its bomber fleet while AGM-109 was adapted to launch from trucks and ships and adopted by the USAF and Navy. The truck-launched versions, and also the Pershing II and SS-20 Intermediate Range Ballistic Missiles, were later destroyed under the bilateral INF (Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces) treaty with the USSR. The British Royal Navy (RN) also operates cruise missiles, specifically the U.S.-made Tomahawk, used by the RN's nuclear submarine fleet. UK conventional warhead versions were first fired in combat by the RN in 1999, during the Kosovo War (the United States fired cruise missiles in 1991). The Royal Air Force uses the Storm Shadow cruise missile on its Typhoon and previously its Tornado GR4 aircraft. It is also used by France, where it is known as SCALP EG, and carried by the Armée de l'Air's Mirage 2000 and Rafale aircraft. thumb|right|The Indian Army's BrahMos supersonic cruise missiles mounted on Mobile Autonomous Launchers (MAL) India and Russia have jointly developed the supersonic cruise missile BrahMos. There are three versions of the Brahmos: ship/land-launched, air-launched, and sub-launched. The ship/land-launched version was operational as of late 2007. The Brahmos have the capability to attack targets on land. Russia also continues to operate other cruise missiles: the SS-N-12 Sandbox, SS-N-19 Shipwreck, SS-N-22 Sunburn and SS-N-25 Switchblade. Germany and Spain operate the Taurus missile while Pakistan has made the Babur missile Additionally, China appears to have tested a hypersonic cruise missile in August 2021, a claim it denies. France The French Force de Frappe nuclear forces include both land and sea-based bombers with Air-Sol Moyenne Portée (ASMP) high-speed medium-range nuclear cruise missiles. Two models are in use, ASMP and a newer ASMP-Amelioré (ASMP-A), which was developed in 1999. An estimated 40 to 50 were produced. India India in 2017 successfully flight-tested its indigenous Nirbhay ('Fearless') land-attack cruise missile, which can deliver nuclear warheads to a strike range of 1,000 km. Nirbhay had been flight-tested successfully. India currently operates 7 variants of Brahmos cruise missile operational range of 300-1000 km. India is currently developing hypersonic BrahMos-II which is going to be the fastest cruise missile. Israel The Israel Defense Forces reportedly deploy the medium-range air-launched Popeye Turbo ALCM and the Popeye Turbo SLCM medium-long range cruise missile with nuclear warheads on Dolphin class submarines. Pakistan Pakistan currently has four cruise missile systems: the air-launched Ra'ad-I and its enhanced version Ra'ad-II; the ground and submarine launched Babur; ship-launched Harbah missile and surface launched Zarb missile. Both, Ra'ad and Babur, can carry nuclear warheads between 10 and 25 kt, and deliver them to targets at a range of up to and respectively. Babur has been in service with the Pakistan Army since 2010, and Pakistan Navy since 2018. Russia thumb|Export variant of the Kalibr missile Russia has Kh-55SM cruise missiles, with a range similar to the United States' AGM-129 range of 3000 km, but are able to carry a more powerful warhead of 200 kt. They are equipped with a TERCOM system which allows them to cruise at an altitude lower than 110 meters at subsonic speeds while obtaining a CEP accuracy of 15 meters with an inertial navigation system. They are air-launched from either Tupolev Tu-95s, Tupolev Tu-22Ms, or Tupolev Tu-160s, each able to carry 16 for the Tu-95, 12 for the Tu-160, and 4 for the Tu-22M. A stealth version of the missile, the Kh-101 is in development. It has similar qualities as the Kh-55, except that its range has been extended to 5,000 km, is equipped with a 1,000 kg conventional warhead, and has stealth features which reduce its probability of intercept. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the most recent cruise missile developed was the Kalibr missile which entered production in the early 1990s and was officially inducted into the Russian arsenal in 1994. However, it only saw its combat debut on 7 October 2015, in Syria as a part of the Russian military campaign in Syria. The missile has been used 14 more times in combat operations in Syria since its debut. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the Soviet Union was attempting to develop cruise missiles. In this short time frame, the Soviet Union was working on nearly ten different types of cruise missiles. However, due to resources, most of the initial types of cruise missiles developed by the Soviet Union were Sea-Launched Cruise Missiles or Submarine-Launched Cruise Missiles (SLCMs). The SS-N-1 cruise missile was developed to have different configurations to be fired from a submarine or a ship. However, as time progressed, the Soviet Union began to work on air-launched cruise missiles as well (ALCM). These ACLM missiles were typically delivered via bombers designated as "Blinders" or "Backfire". The missiles in this configuration were called the AS-1, and AS-2 with eventual new variants with more development time. The main purpose of Soviet-based cruise missiles was to have defense and offensive mechanisms against enemy ships; in other words, most of the Soviet cruise missiles were anti-ship missiles. In the 1980s the Soviet Union had developed an arsenal of cruise missiles nearing 600 platforms which consisted of land, sea, and air delivery systems. United States thumb|right|An AGM-129 ACM of the United States Air Force The United States has deployed nine nuclear cruise missiles at one time or another. MGM-1 Matador ground-launched missile, out of service MGM-13 Mace ground-launched missile, out of service SSM-N-8 Regulus submarine-launched missile, out of service SM-62 Snark ground-launched missile, out of service AGM-28 Hound Dog air-launched missile, out of service BGM-109G Ground Launched Cruise Missile, out of service AGM-129 ACM air-launched missile, out of service AGM-86 ALCM air-launched cruise missile, 350 to 550 missiles and W80 warheads still in service BGM-109 Tomahawk cruise missile in nuclear submarine-, surface ship-, and ground-launched models, nuclear models out of service but warheads kept in reserve. Efficiency in modern warfare Currently, cruise missiles are among the most expensive of single-use weapons, up to several million dollars apiece. One consequence of this is that its users face difficult choices in target allocation, to avoid expending the missiles on targets of low value. For instance, during the 2001 strikes on Afghanistan the United States attacked targets of very low monetary value with cruise missiles, which led many to question the efficiency of the weapon. However, proponents of the cruise missile counter that the weapon can not be blamed for poor target selection, and the same argument applies to other types of UAVs: they are cheaper than human pilots when total training and infrastructure costs are taken into account, not to mention the risk of loss of personnel. As demonstrated in Libya in 2011 and prior conflicts, cruise missiles are much more difficult to detect and intercept than other aerial assets (reduced radar cross-section, infrared and visual signature due to smaller size), suiting them to attacks against static air defense systems. See also Affordable Weapon System Cruise missile submarine Eugene Vielle (pioneer of technology that led to the Cruise missile) Expendable launch system List of cruise missiles List of rocket aircraft Lists of weapons Low Cost Miniature Cruise Missile NATO reporting name (has lists of various Soviet missiles) Weapon of mass destruction References External links An introduction to cruise missiles  — From the website of the Federation of American Scientists (FAS) Missile Threat: A Project of the Center for Strategic and International Studies Category:Missile types Category:Low flying
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruise_missile
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Crete
| native_name_link = Greek language | native_name_lang = el | sobriquet <!-- or |nickname --> | image_name = Island of Crete, Greece.JPG | image_size | image_caption NASA photograph of Crete | image_alt = Island of Crete, Greece | map_image = Kriti in Greece.svg | map_alt | map_size | map_caption | coordinates | etymology | location Eastern Mediterranean | archipelago | waterbody | total_islands | major_islands | area_km2 = 8450 | area_footnotes | rank 88 | length_km <!-- or |length_m --> | length_footnotes | width_km <!-- or |width_m= --> | width_footnotes | coastline_km <!-- or |coastline_m= --> | coastline_footnotes | elevation_m 2456 | elevation_footnotes | highest_mount Mount Ida (Psiloritis) | country = | country_admin_divisions_title = Region | country_admin_divisions = Crete | country_capital = Heraklion | country_largest_city = Heraklion | country_largest_city_population 144,442 | demonym = Cretan, archaic Cretian | population = 624,408 | population_as_of = 2021 | population_footnotes | population_rank = 73 | population_rank_max | density_km2 74.9 | density_rank | density_footnotes | ethnic_groups = Greeks;<br/>historically, Minoans,<br/>Eteocretans,<br/> Cydonians and Pelasgians | timezone1 = GMT +2 | utc_offset1 | timezone1_DST | utc_offset1_DST | additional_info HDI (2022) 0.911<br/> · 3rd of 13 | website | iso_code GR-M }} Crete ( ; , <small>Modern:</small> , <small>Ancient:</small> ) is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the 88th largest island in the world and the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after Sicily, Sardinia, Cyprus, and Corsica. Crete is located about south of the Peloponnese, and about southwest of Anatolia. Crete has an area of and a coastline of 1,046 km (650 mi). It bounds the southern border of the Aegean Sea, with the Sea of Crete (or North Cretan Sea) to the north and the Libyan Sea (or South Cretan Sea) to the south. Crete covers 260 km from west to east but is narrow from north to south, spanning three longitudes but only half a latitude. Crete and a number of islands and islets that surround it constitute the Region of Crete (), which is the southernmost of the 13 top-level administrative units of Greece, and the fifth most populous of Greece's regions. Its capital and largest city is Heraklion, on the north shore of the island. , the region had a population of 624,408. The Dodecanese are located to the northeast of Crete, while the Cyclades are situated to the north, separated by the Sea of Crete. The Peloponnese is to the region's northwest. Crete was the center of Europe's first advanced civilization, the Minoans, from 2700 to 1420 BC. The Minoan civilization was overrun by the Mycenaean civilization from mainland Greece. Crete was later ruled by Rome, then successively by the Byzantine Empire, Andalusian Arabs, the Byzantine Empire again, the Venetian Republic, and the Ottoman Empire. In 1898 Crete, whose people had for some time wanted to join the Greek state, achieved independence from the Ottomans, formally becoming the Cretan State. Crete became part of Greece in December 1913. The island is mostly mountainous, and its character is defined by a high mountain range crossing from west to east. It includes Crete's highest point, Mount Ida, and the range of the White Mountains (Lefka Ori) with 30 summits above in altitude and the Samaria Gorge, a World Biosphere Reserve. Crete forms a significant part of the economy and cultural heritage of Greece, while retaining its own local cultural traits (such as its own poetry and music). The Nikos Kazantzakis airport at Heraklion and the Daskalogiannis airport at Chania serve international travelers. The Minoan palace at Knossos is also located in Heraklion.Name The earliest references to the island of Crete come from texts from the Syrian city of Mari dating from the 18th century BC, where the island is referred to as Kaptara. This is repeated later in Neo-Assyrian records and the Bible (Caphtor). It was known in ancient Egyptian as or , strongly suggesting a similar Minoan name for the island. The current name Crete is first attested in the 15th century BC in Mycenaean Greek texts, written in Linear B, through the words ke-re-te , *Krētes; later Greek: , plural of ) and ke-re-si-jo , *Krēsijos; later Greek: , 'Cretian'). In Ancient Greek, the name Crete () first appears in Homer's Odyssey. Its etymology is unknown. One proposal derives it from a hypothetical Luwian word (compare 'island', 'cutting, sliver'). Another proposal suggests that it derives from the ancient Greek word "κραταιή" (krataie̅), meaning strong or powerful, the reasoning being that Crete was the strongest thalassocracy during ancient times. In Latin, the name of the island became . The original Arabic name of Crete was ( < , but after the Emirate of Crete's establishment of its new capital at (modern Heraklion; , ), both the city and the island became known as () or (), which gave Latin, Italian, and Venetian , from which were derived French and English Candy or Candia. Under Ottoman rule, in Ottoman Turkish, Crete was called (). In the Hebrew Bible, Crete is referred to as () "kretim". Physical geography and climate ]] ]] ]] ]] Crete is the largest island in Greece and the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. It is located in the southern part of the Aegean Sea separating the Aegean from the Libyan Sea. Island morphology The island has an elongated shape: it spans from east to west, is at its widest point, and narrows to as little as (close to Ierapetra). Crete covers an area of , with a coastline of ; to the north, it broaches the Sea of Crete (); to the south, the Libyan Sea (); in the west, the Myrtoan Sea, and toward the east the Carpathian Sea. It lies approximately south of the Greek mainland. There are a number of peninsulas and gulfs on the north side of Crete, from west to east these include: Gramvousa peninsula, gulf of Kissamos, Rodopos peninsula, gulf of Chania, Akrotiri peninsula, Souda Bay, Apokoronas cape, gulf of Almiros, gulf of Heraklion, Aforesmenos cape, gulf of Mirabello, gulf of Sitia and the Sideros peninsula. On the south side of Crete is the gulf of Messaras and Cape Lithinon. Mountains and valleys <!--Linked from :Category:Mountains of Crete--> Crete is mountainous, and its character is defined by a high mountain range crossing from west to east, formed by six different groups of mountains: *The White Mountains or Lefka Ori *The Idi Range (Psiloritis) *Asterousia Mountains *Kedros *The Dikti Mountains *Thrypti These mountains lavish Crete with valleys, such as Amari valley, fertile plateaus, such as Lasithi plateau, Omalos and Nidha; caves, such as Gourgouthakas, Diktaion, and Idaion (the birthplace of the ancient Greek god Zeus); and a number of gorges. The mountains have been seen as a key feature of the island's distinctiveness, especially since the time of Romantic travellers' writing. Contemporary Cretans distinguish between highlanders and lowlanders; the former often claim to reside in places affording a higher/better climatic and moral environment. In keeping with the legacy of Romantic authors, the mountains are seen as having determined their residents' 'resistance' to past invaders which relates to the oft-encountered idea that highlanders are 'purer' in terms of less intermarriages with occupiers. For residents of mountainous areas, such as Sfakia in western Crete, the aridness and rockiness of the mountains is emphasised as an element of pride and is often compared to the alleged soft-soiled mountains of others parts of Greece or the world. Gorges, rivers and lakes The island has a number of gorges, such as the Samariá Gorge, Imbros Gorge, Kourtaliotiko Gorge, Ha Gorge, Platania Gorge, the Gorge of the Dead (at Kato Zakros, Sitia) and Richtis Gorge and (Richtis) waterfall at Exo Mouliana in Sitia. The rivers of Crete include the Geropotamos River, the Koiliaris, the Anapodiaris, the Almiros, the Giofyros, the Keritis, and Megas Potamos. There are only two freshwater lakes in Crete: Lake Kournas and Lake Agia, which are both in Chania regional unit. Lake Voulismeni at the coast, at Aghios Nikolaos, was formerly a freshwater lake but is now connected to the sea, in Lasithi. Three artificial lakes created by dams also exist in Crete: the lake of Aposelemis Dam, the lake of Potamos Dam, and the lake of Mpramiana Dam. <gallery mode"packed" heights"160"> File:HaGorgeExit.jpg|Ha Gorge File:Samaria Gorge 09.jpg|Samariá Gorge File:Crete Aradaina3 tango7174.jpg|Aradaina Gorge File:Venetian Bridge over Megalopótamos River, Préveli, Crete.jpg|Venetian Bridge over Megalopotamos River </gallery> Surrounding islands A large number of islands, islets, and rocks hug the coast of Crete. Many are visited by tourists, some are only visited by archaeologists and biologists. Some are environmentally protected. A small sample of the islands includes: *Gramvousa (Kissamos, Chania) the pirate island opposite the Balo lagoon *Elafonisi (Chania), which commemorates a shipwreck and an Ottoman massacre *Chrysi island (Ierapetra, Lasithi), which hosts the largest natural Juniperus macrocarpa forest in Europe *Paximadia island (Agia Galini, Rethymno) where the god Apollo and the goddess Artemis were traditionally believed to be born *The Venetian fort and leper colony at Spinalonga opposite the beach and shallow waters of Elounda (Agios Nikolaos, Lasithi) *Dionysades islands which are in an environmentally protected region together with the Palm Beach Forest of Vai in the municipality of Sitia, Lasithi Off the south coast, the island of Gavdos is located south of Hora Sfakion and is the southernmost point of Europe. Climate Crete straddles two climatic zones, the Mediterranean and the semi-arid climate, mainly falling within the former. As such, the climate in Crete is primarily a hot-summer Mediterranean (Csa) climate while some areas in the south and east have a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification: BSh). The higher elevations fall into the warm-summer Mediterranean climate category (Csb) while the mountain peaks (>2,000 meters) might feature a cold-summer Mediterranean climate (Csc) or a continental climate (Dfb or Dfc). The atmosphere can be quite humid, depending on the proximity to the sea, while winter is fairly mild. Snowfall is common on the mountains between November and May, but rare in the low-lying areas. The south coast, including the Mesara Plain and Asterousia Mountains, falls in the North African climatic zone, enjoying significantly more sunny days and high temperatures throughout the year. There, date palms bear fruit, and swallows remain year-round rather than migrate to Africa. The fertile region around Ierapetra, on the southeastern corner of the island, has year-round agricultural production, with summer vegetables and fruit produced in greenhouses throughout the winter. Western Crete (Chania province) receives more rain and the soils there suffer more erosion compared to the Eastern part of Crete. Average annual temperatures reach up to 21.6°C in Psari Forada which is located in South Crete. Crete holds the record for the highest temperatures ever recorded in Europe during October, November, January and February from World Meteorological Organization stations. According to the Hellenic National Meteorological Service, South Crete receives the most sunshine in Greece with more than 3,257 hours of sunshine per year. Human geography Crete is the most populous island in Greece with a population of more than 600,000 people. Approximately 42% live in Crete's main cities and towns whilst 45% live in rural areas. <gallery mode"packed" heights"160"> File:Chania harbour.jpg|Venetian harbour in Chania File:Ενετικό λιμάνι Ρεθύμνου 0301-HDR.jpg|Dusk airview of the Old Harbour of Rethymno File:Venetian Arsenals in Heraklion Crete.jpg|View of the harbour in Heraklion File:Agios Nikolaos R02.jpg|The old harbour in Agios Nikolaos </gallery> Administration <br />}} | image_skyline | image_caption | image_blank_emblem = Logo of the Crete Region.png | blank_emblem_type = Logo flag | image_map = Prefecture map of Crete (Greece).svg | established_title = Established | established_date = 1912 | coordinates | subdivision_type = Country | subdivision_name = | leader_title = Regional governor | leader_name = Stavros Arnaoutakis | leader_party = | parts_type = Regional units | parts_style = list | p1 = Chania | p2 = Heraklion | p3 = Rethymno | p4 = Lasithi | seat_type = Capital | seat = Heraklion | area_total_km2 = 8335.88 | elevation_max_m | population_total 624408 | population_as_of = 2021 | population_footnotes | population_demonym | population_density_km2 auto | demographics_type2 = GDP | demographics2_footnotes |demographics2_title1 = Total |demographics2_info1 = €8.913 billion (2021) | timezone1 = EET | utc_offset1 = +2 | timezone1_DST = EEST | utc_offset1_DST = +3 | iso_code = GR-M | website = }} Crete with its nearby islands form the Crete Region (, , ), one of the 13 regions of Greece which were established in the 1987 administrative reform. Under the 2010 Kallikratis plan, the powers and authority of the regions were redefined and extended. The region is based at Heraklion and is divided into four regional units (pre-Kallikratis prefectures). From west to east these are: Chania, Rethymno, Heraklion, and Lasithi. These are further subdivided into 24 municipalities. Since 1 January 2011, the regional governor is Stavros Arnaoutakis of the Panhellenic Socialist Movement. First elected in 2010, he was re-elected in 2014, 2019 and 2023. Cities Heraklion is the largest city and capital of Crete, holding more than a fourth of the island's population. Chania was the capital until 1971. The principal cities are: * Heraklion (Iraklion or Candia) (144,422 inhabitants) * Chania (Haniá) (88,525 inhabitants) The island is home to 308,608 men and 315,800 women, accounting for 49.4% and 50.6% of the population respectively. {| class="wikitable" |+Population of Crete according to ELSTAT !Crete !1981 !1991 !2001 !2011 !2021 |- |Population |502,165 |540,054 |601,131 |623,065 |624,408 |- |Change | --- --- --- | +7.27% | +10.7% | +3.58% | +0.22% |} <graph>{ "version": 2, "width": 350, "height": 150, "data": [ { "name": "table", "values": [ { "x": 1981, "y": 502 }, { "x": 1991, "y": 540 }, { "x": 2001, "y": 601 }, { "x": 2011, "y": 623 }, { "x": 2021, "y": 624 } ] } ], "scales": [ { "name": "x", "type": "linear", "range": "width", "zero": false, "domain": { "data": "table", "field": "x" } }, { "name": "y", "type": "linear", "range": "height", "nice": true, "domain": { "data": "table", "field": "y" } } ], "axes": [ { "type": "x", "scale": "x" }, { "type": "y", "scale": "y" } ], "marks": [ { "type": "line", "from": { "data": "table" }, "properties": { "enter": { "x": { "scale": "x", "field": "x" }, "y": { "scale": "y", "field": "y" }, "y2": { "scale": "y", "value": 0 }, "interpolate": { "value": "monotone" }, "stroke": { "value": "steelblue" }, "strokeWidth": { "value": 3 } } } } ] }</graph>The island is divided into four regional units, Heraklion, Rethymno, Chania, and Lasithi. {| class="wikitable" |+Cretan regional units by population according to ELSTAT !Regional Unit !Population (2021) !Change between 2011 and 2021 (%) |- |Heraklion |305,017 | -0.2% |- |Lasithi |77,819 | +3.2% |- |Rethymno |84,866 | -0.9% |- |Chania |156,706 | +0.1% |} Economy The economy of Crete is predominantly based on services and tourism. However, agriculture also plays an important role and Crete is one of the few Greek islands that can support itself without a tourism industry. The economy began to change visibly during the 1970s as tourism gained in importance. Although an emphasis remains on agriculture and stock breeding, because of the climate and terrain of the island, there has been a drop in manufacturing, and an observable expansion in its service industries (mainly tourism-related). All three sectors of the Cretan economy (agriculture/farming, processing-packaging, services), are directly connected and interdependent. The island has a per capita income much higher than the Greek average, whereas unemployment is at approximately 4%, one-sixth of that of the country overall. As in many regions of Greece, viticulture and olive groves are significant; oranges, citrons, avocadoes and bananas are also cultivated. Dairy products are important to the local economy and there are a number of specialty cheeses such as mizithra, anthotyros, and kefalotyri. 20% of Greek wine is produced in Crete, mostly in the region of Peza. The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the region was €9.4 billion in 2018, accounting for 5.1% of Greek economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was €17,800 or 59% of the EU27 average in the same year. The GDP per employee was 68% of the EU average. Crete is the region in Greece with the fifth highest GDP per capita.Transport infrastructureAirportsThe island has three significant airports, Nikos Kazantzakis at Heraklion, the Daskalogiannis airport at Chania and the smaller Sitia airport. The first two serve international routes, acting as the main gateways to the island for travellers. Work has begun plan to replace Heraklion airport with a new airport at Kasteli, where there is presently an air force base, and the new Kasteli Airport is due to open by 2027.Ferries The island is well served by ferries, mostly from Piraeus, by ferry companies such as Minoan Lines and ANEK Lines with links to the Cyclades and Dodecanese islands. Seajets also operates routes to Cyclades. The main ports from west to east are at Kissamos (ferry link to Peloponnese), Souda (Chania), Rethymno, Heraklion (links to Cyclades), Agios Nikolaos and Sitia (link to Dodecanese). Road network near Malia]] Most of Crete is served by the road network. A modern highway is currently being upgraded along the north coast connecting the four major cities (A90 motorway), the sections bypassing the main cities (Heraklion to Malia, Rethymno, Chania to Kolymvari) are at motorway standard, while the sections in between, and west to Kissamos and east to Sitia, should be completed by 2028. A link will also connect to the new Kasteli international airport . In addition, a European Union study has been devised to promote a modern highway to connect the northern and southern parts of the island via a tunnel. The study proposal includes a section of road between the villages of Agia Varvara and Agia Deka in central Crete. The new road section forms part of the route between Messara in the south and Crete's largest city Heraklion, which houses the island's biggest airport and ferry links with mainland Greece.RailwayAlso, during the 1930s there was a narrow-gauge industrial railway in Heraklion, from Giofyros in the west side of the city to the port. There are now no railway lines on Crete. The government is planning the construction of a line from Chania to Heraklion via Rethymno.DevelopmentThe construction sector in Crete responded well during the pandemic and has come out strong in the post-recession recovery period. Total construction spending recovered and is expected to peak a record high (approximately 8% higher than 2019 average levels) signalling consistent expansion in construction projects and real estate investments in Crete. The evolution of the private sector in Crete is tightly linked with the demand for tourism-related investments. Moreover, the recovery of the tourism sector is expected to lead to further growth in housing prices and rental demand. Newspapers have reported that the Ministry of Mercantile Marine is ready to support the agreement between Greece, South Korea, Dubai Ports World and China for the construction of a large international container port and free trade zone in southern Crete near Tympaki; the plan is to expropriate of land. The port would handle two million containers per year, but the project has not been universally welcomed because of its environmental, economic and cultural impact. As of January 2013, the project has still not been confirmed, although there is mounting pressure to approve it, arising from Greece's difficult economic situation. There are plans for underwater cables going from mainland Greece to Israel and Egypt passing by Crete and Cyprus: EuroAfrica Interconnector and EuroAsia Interconnector. They would connect Crete electrically with mainland Greece, ending energy isolation of Crete. At present Greece covers electricity cost differences for Crete of around €300 million per year. History in the form of a bull, Heraklion Archaeological Museum]] , Heraklion Archaeological Museum]] of Knossos]] In the later Neolithic and Bronze Age periods, under the Minoans, Crete had a highly developed, literate civilization. It has been ruled by various ancient Greek entities, the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire, the Emirate of Crete, the Republic of Venice and the Ottoman Empire. After a brief period of independence (1897–1913) under a provisional Cretan government, it joined the Kingdom of Greece. It was occupied by Nazi Germany during the Second World War. Prehistory Stone tools suggest that archaic humans may have visited Crete as early as 130,000 years ago, but there is no evidence of permanent settlement of the island until the Neolithic, around 7,000 BCE. Settlements dating to the aceramic Neolithic in the 7th millennium BC, used cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and dogs as well as domesticated cereals and legumes; ancient Knossos was the site of one of these major Neolithic (then later Minoan) sites. Other neolithic settlements include those at Kephala, Magasa, and Trapeza.Minoan civilization During the Bronze Age, Crete was the centre of the Minoan civilization, notable for its art, its writing systems such as Linear A, and for its massive building complexes including the palace at Knossos. Its economy benefited from a network of trade around much of the Mediterranean, and Minoan cultural influence extended to Cyprus, Canaan, and Egypt. Some scholars have speculated that legends such as that of the minotaur have a historical basis in Minoan times. Mycenaean civilization In 1420 BC, the Minoan civilization was subsumed by the Mycenaean civilization from mainland Greece. The oldest samples of writing in the Greek language, as identified by Michael Ventris, is the Linear B archive from Knossos, dated approximately to 1425–1375 BC. Archaic and Classical period After the Bronze Age collapse, Crete was settled by new waves of Greeks from the mainland. A number of city states developed in the Archaic period. There was limited contact with mainland Greece, and Greek historiography shows little interest in Crete, as a result, there are few literary sources. During the 6th to 4th centuries BC, Crete was comparatively free from warfare. The Gortyn code (5th century BC) is evidence for how codified civil law established a balance between aristocratic power and civil rights. In the late 4th century BC, the aristocratic order began to collapse due to endemic infighting among the elite, and Crete's economy was weakened by prolonged wars between city states. During the 3rd century BC, Gortyn, Kydonia (Chania), Lyttos and Polyrrhenia challenged the primacy of ancient Knossos. While the cities continued to prey upon one another, they invited into their feuds mainland powers like Macedon and its rivals Rhodes and Ptolemaic Egypt. In 220 BC the island was tormented by a war between two opposing coalitions of cities. As a result, the Macedonian king Philip V gained hegemony over Crete which lasted to the end of the Cretan War (205–200 BC), when the Rhodians opposed the rise of Macedon and the Romans started to interfere in Cretan affairs. In the 2nd century BC Ierapytna (Ierapetra) gained supremacy on eastern Crete. Roman rule Crete was involved in the Mithridatic Wars, initially repelling an attack by Roman general Marcus Antonius Creticus in 71 BC. Nevertheless, a ferocious three-year campaign soon followed under Quintus Caecilius Metellus, equipped with three legions. Crete was conquered by Rome in 69 BC, earning for Metellus the title "Creticus". Gortyn was made capital of the island, and Crete became a Roman province, along with Cyrenaica that was called Creta et Cyrenaica. Archaeological remains suggest that Crete under Roman rule witnessed prosperity and increased connectivity with other parts of the Empire. In the 2nd century AD, at least three cities in Crete (Lyttos, Gortyn, Hierapytna) joined the Panhellenion, a league of Greek cities founded by the emperor Hadrian. When Diocletian redivided the Empire, Crete was placed, along with Cyrene, under the diocese of Moesia, and later by Constantine I to the diocese of Macedonia. Byzantine Empire – first period ]] Crete was separated from Cyrenaica . It remained a province within the eastern half of the Roman Empire, usually referred to as the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire after the establishment of a second capital in Constantinople by Constantine in 330. Crete was subjected to an attack by Vandals in 467, the great earthquakes of 365 and 415, a raid by Slavs in 623, Arab raids in 654 and the 670s, and again in the 8th century. In , the Emperor Leo III the Isaurian transferred the island from the jurisdiction of the Pope to that of the Patriarchate of Constantinople.Arab rule (see Skylitzes Chronicle).]] In the 820s, after 900 years as a Roman island, Crete was captured by Andalusian Muwallads led by Abu Hafs, who established the Emirate of Crete. The Byzantines launched a campaign that took most of the island back in 842 and 843 under Theoktistos. Further Byzantine campaigns in 911 and 949 failed. In 960–61, Nikephoros Phokas' campaign restored Crete to the Byzantine Empire, after a century and a half of Arab control.Byzantine Empire – second period In 961, Nikephoros Phokas returned the island to Byzantine rule after expelling the Arabs. Extensive efforts at conversion of the populace were undertaken, led by John Xenos and Nikon "the Metanoeite". The reconquest of Crete was a major achievement for the Byzantines, as it restored Byzantine control over the Aegean littoral and diminished the threat of Saracen pirates, for which Crete had provided a base of operations. In 1204, the Fourth Crusade seized and sacked the imperial capital of Constantinople. Crete was initially granted to leading Crusader Boniface of Montferrat in the partition of spoils that followed. However, Boniface sold his claim to the Republic of Venice, whose forces made up the majority of the Crusade. Venice's rival the Republic of Genoa immediately seized the island and it was not until 1212 that Venice secured Crete as a colony. Venetian rule .]] From 1212, during Venice's rule, which lasted more than four centuries, a Renaissance swept through the island as is evident from the artistic works dating to that period. Known as The Cretan School or Post-Byzantine Art, it is among the last flowerings of the artistic traditions of the fallen empire. This included the painter El Greco and the writers Nicholas Kalliakis (1645–1707), Georgios Kalafatis (professor) (–1720), Andreas Musalus (–1721) and Vitsentzos Kornaros. was built by the Venetians in 1371–74.]] Under the rule of the Catholic Venetians, the city of Candia was reputed to be the best fortified city of the Eastern Mediterranean. The three main forts were located at Gramvousa, Spinalonga, and Fortezza at Rethymnon. Other fortifications include the Kazarma fortress at Sitia and Frangokastello in Sfakia. In 1492, Jews expelled from Spain settled on the island. In 1574–77, Crete was under the rule of Giacomo Foscarini as Proveditor General, Sindace and Inquisitor. According to Starr's 1942 article, the rule of Giacomo Foscarini was a Dark Age for Jews and Greeks. Under his rule, non-Catholics had to pay high taxes with no allowances. In 1627, there were 800 Jews in the city of Candia, about seven percent of the city's population. Marco Foscarini was the Doge of Venice during this time. Ottoman rule , regarded as one of the longest sieges in history, lasted from 1648 to 1669.]] . Crete in 1651]] }} ]] mosque, Rethymno]] The Ottomans conquered Crete (Girit Eyâleti) in 1669, after the siege of Candia with the last Venetian strongholds off Crete falling in the last Ottoman–Venetian War in 1715. Many Greek Cretans fled to other regions of the Republic of Venice after the Ottoman–Venetian Wars, some even prospering such as the family of Simone Stratigo (c. 1733 – c. 1824) who migrated to Dalmatia from Crete in 1669. Islamic presence on the island, aside from the interlude of the Arab occupation, was cemented by the Ottoman conquest. Most Cretan Muslims were local Greek converts who spoke Cretan Greek, but in the island's 19th-century political context they came to be viewed by the Christian population as Turks. Contemporary estimates vary, but in 1830, as much as 45% of the population of the island may have been Muslim. A number of Sufi orders were widespread throughout the island, the Bektashi order being the most prevalent, possessing at least five tekkes. Many Cretan Muslims fled Crete because of sectarian violence, settling in Turkey, Rhodes, Syria, Libya and elsewhere. By 1900, 11% of the population was Muslim. Those remaining were relocated in the 1924 population exchange between Greece and Turkey. Today, Chania International Airport is named after him. During the Greek War of Independence, Sultan Mahmud II granted rule over Crete to Egypt's de facto ruler Muhammad Ali Pasha in exchange for his military support. Crete was subsequently left out of the new Greek state established under the London Protocol of 1830. Its administration by Muhammad Ali was confirmed in the Convention of Kütahya of 1833, but direct Ottoman rule was re-established by the Convention of London of 3 July 1840. In September 1898 the Candia massacre in Candia, modern Heraklion, left over 500 Cretan Christians and 14 British servicemen dead at the hands of Muslim irregulars. As a result, the Admirals ordered the expulsion of all Ottoman troops and administrators from the island, a move that was ultimately completed by early November. The decision to grant autonomy to the island was enforced and a High Commissioner, Prince George of Greece, appointed, arriving to take up his post in December 1898. The flag of the Cretan State was chosen by the Powers, with the white star representing the Ottoman suzerainty over the island. In 1905, disagreements between Prince George and minister Eleftherios Venizelos over the question of the enosis (union with Greece), such as the Prince's autocratic style of government, resulted in the Theriso revolt, one of the leaders being Eleftherios Venizelos. Prince George resigned as High Commissioner and was replaced by Alexandros Zaimis, a former Greek prime minister, in 1906. In 1908, taking advantage of domestic turmoil in Turkey as well as the timing of Zaimis's vacation away from the island, the Cretan deputies unilaterally declared union with Greece. With the outbreak of the First Balkan War, the Greek government declared that Crete was now Greek territory. This was not recognised internationally until 1 December 1913. Following the collapse of fronts elsewhere in Europe, German forces evacuated most of Crete in October 1944 leaving an area including Chania under occupation. The following year the day after VE Day the remaining Germans under Generalmajor Hans-Georg Benthack surrendered at Knossos to British Major-General Colin Callander. Civil War In the aftermath of the Dekemvriana in Athens, Cretan leftists were targeted by the right-wing paramilitary organization National Organization of Rethymno (EOR), which engaged in attacks in the villages of Koxare and Melampes, as well as Rethymno in January 1945. Those attacks did not escalate into a full-scale insurgency as they did in the Greek mainland and the Cretan ELAS did not surrender its weapons after the Treaty of Varkiza. An uneasy truce was maintained until 1947, with a series of arrests of notable communists in Chania and Heraklion. Encouraged by orders from the central organization in Athens, KKE launched an insurgency in Crete; marking the beginning of the Greek Civil War on the island. In eastern Crete the Democratic Army of Greece (DSE) struggled to establish its presence in Dikti and Psilorites. On 1 July 1947, the surviving 55 fighters of DSE were ambushed south of Psilorites, the few surviving members of the unit managed to join the rest of DSE in Lefka Ori. The Lefka Ori region in the west offered more favourable conditions for DSE's insurgency. In the summer of 1947 DSE raided and looted the Maleme Airport and motor depot at Chrysopigi. Its numbers swelled to approximately 300 fighters. The rise of DSE numbers compounded with crop failure on the island created serious logistical issues for the insurgents. The communists resorted to cattle rustling and crop confiscations which solved the problem only temporarily. In the autumn of 1947, the Greek government offered generous amnesty terms to Cretan DSE fighters and mountain bandits, many of whom opted to abandon armed struggle or defect to the nationalists. On 4 July 1948, government troops launched a large scale offensive on Samariá Gorge. Many DSE soldiers were killed in the fighting while the survivors broke into small armed bands. In October 1948, the secretary of the Cretan KKE Giorgos Tsitilos was killed in an ambush. By the following month only 34 DSE fighters remained active in Lefka Ori. The insurgency in Crete gradually withered away, with the last two hold outs surrendering in 1974, 25 years after the conclusion of the war in mainland Greece.Tourism beach]] ]] Crete is one of the most popular holiday destinations in Greece. 15% of all arrivals in Greece come through the city of Heraklion (port and airport), while charter journeys to Heraklion make up about [https://greece4u.com.gr/destination/crete/ 20% of all charter flights in Greece] . The number of hotel beds on the island increased by 53% in the period between 1986 and 1991. Today, the island's tourism infrastructure includes a wide range of accommodation; including large luxury hotels with their complete facilities, swimming pools, sports and recreation, smaller family-owned apartments, camping facilities and others. Visitors reach the island via two international airports in Heraklion and Chania and a smaller airport in Sitia (international charter and domestic flights started in May 2012) or by boat to the main ports of Heraklion, Chania, Rethimno, Agios Nikolaos and Sitia. Popular tourist attractions include the archaeological sites of the Minoan civilisation, the Venetian old city and port of Chania, the Venetian castle at Rethymno, the gorge of Samaria, the islands of Chrysi, Elafonisi, Gramvousa, Spinalonga and the Palm Beach of Vai, which is the largest natural palm forest in Europe. Transportation Crete has an extensive bus system with regular services across the north of the island and from north to south. There are two regional bus stations in Heraklion. Bus routes and timetables can be found on KTEL website. Holiday homes and immigration Crete's mild climate attracts northern Europeans who want a holiday home or residence on the island. EU citizens have the right to freely buy property and reside with little formality. In the cities of Heraklion and Chania, the average price per square metre of apartments ranges from €1,670 to €1,700. A growing number of real estate companies cater mainly to British immigrants, followed by Dutch, German, Scandinavian and other European nationalities wishing to own a home in Crete. The British immigrants are concentrated in the western regional units of Chania and Rethymno and to a lesser extent in Heraklion and Lasithi. Other notable museums include the Maritime Museum of Crete, the Archaeological Museum of Chania, and the WW2 museum in Platinias. Harmful effects Helen Briassoulis, in a qualitative analysis, proposed in the Journal of Sustainable Tourism that Crete is affected by tourism applying pressure to it to develop at an unhealthy rate, and that informal, internal systems within the country are forced to adapt. According to her, these forces have strengthened in three stages: from the period from 1960 to 1970, 1970–1990, and 1990 to the present. During this first period, tourism was a largely positive force, pushing modern developments like running water and electricity onto the largely rural countryside. However, beginning in the second period and especially in the third period leading up to the present day, tourist companies became more pushy with deforestation and pollution of Crete's natural resources. The country is then pulled into an interesting parity, where these companies only upkeep those natural resources that are directly essential to their industry. <gallery mode=packed> File:Gortys R02.jpg|View of Gortyn File:Festos1(js).jpg|Archaeological site of Phaistos File:Knossos south propylaeum.jpg|Ruins of the Palace of Knossos File:Archaeological Museum of Chania.jpg|Archaeological Museum of Chania File:AMC Intern of Museum of Chania (Crete) 2.jpg|Archaeological Museum of Chania File:Chania naval museum.jpg|Maritime Museum of Crete File:Pluto Serapis and Persephone Isis Heraklion museum.jpg|Pluto and Persephone in Heraklion Museum File:Jars in Malia Crete the two.jpg|Jars in Malia, Crete </gallery> Fauna and flora Fauna Crete is isolated from mainland Europe, Asia, and Africa, and this is reflected in the diversity of the fauna and flora. As a result, the fauna and flora of Crete have many clues to the evolution of species. There are no animals that are dangerous to humans on the island of Crete in contrast to other parts of Greece. Indeed, the ancient Greeks attributed the lack of large mammals such as bears, wolves, jackals, and venomous snakes, to the labour of Hercules (who took a live Cretan bull to the Peloponnese). Hercules wanted to honor the birthplace of Zeus by removing all "harmful" and "venomous" animals from Crete. Later, Cretans believed that the island was cleared of dangerous creatures by the Apostle Paul, who lived on the island of Crete for two years, with his exorcisms and blessings. The Natural History Museum of Crete, operates under the direction of the University of Crete and two aquariums – Aquaworld in Hersonissos and Cretaquarium in Gournes, display sea creatures common in Cretan waters. Prehistoric fauna Dwarf elephants, dwarf hippopotamus, dwarf mammoths, dwarf deer, and giant flightless owls were native to Pleistocene Crete. Their ancestors could have reached the island in the time of the Messinian salinity crisis.Mammals Mammals of Crete include the vulnerable kri-kri, Capra aegagrus cretica that can be seen in the national park of the Samaria Gorge and on Thodorou, Dia and Agioi Pantes (islets off the north coast), the Cretan wildcat and the Cretan spiny mouse. Other terrestrial mammals include subspecies of the Cretan marten, the Cretan weasel, the Cretan badger, the Cretan wildcat, the long-eared hedgehog, and the edible dormouse. The Cretan shrew, a type of white-toothed shrew is considered endemic to the island of Crete because this species of shrew is unknown elsewhere. It is a relic species of the Crocidura shrews of which fossils have been found that can be dated to the Pleistocene era. Today it can only be found in the highlands of Crete. It is considered to be the only surviving remnant of the endemic species of the Pleistocene Mediterranean islands. Bat species include: Blasius's horseshoe bat, the lesser horseshoe bat, the greater horseshoe bat, the lesser mouse-eared bat, Geoffroy's bat, the whiskered bat, Kuhl's pipistrelle, the common pipistrelle, Savi's pipistrelle, the serotine bat, the long-eared bat, Schreibers' bat and the European free-tailed bat. <gallery mode=packed> File:Kri-kri 1.jpg|The kri-kri (the Cretan ibex) lives in protected natural parks at the gorge of Samaria and the island of Agios Theodoros. File:Male Cretan ibex.jpg|Male Cretan ibex File:Kritikos Lagonikos 02.jpg|Cretan Hound or Kritikos Lagonikos, one of Europe's oldest hunting dog breeds </gallery> Birds Varieties of birds include eagles (can be seen in Lasithi), swallows (throughout Crete in the summer and year-round in the south of the island), pelicans (along the coast), and common cranes (including Gavdos and Gavdopoula). The Cretan mountains and gorges are refuges for the endangered lammergeier vulture. Bird species include: the golden eagle, Bonelli's eagle, the bearded vulture or lammergeier, the griffon vulture, Eleonora's falcon, peregrine falcon, lanner falcon, European kestrel, tawny owl, little owl, hooded crow, alpine chough, red-billed chough, and the Eurasian hoopoe. The population of griffon vultures in Crete is the largest insular one of the species in the world and consists of the majority of the griffon vulture population in Greece.Reptiles and amphibians Tortoises can be seen throughout the island. Snakes can be found hiding under rocks. Toads and frogs reveal themselves when it rains. Reptiles include the Aegean wall lizard, Balkan green lizard, common chameleon, ocellated skink, snake-eyed skink, Moorish gecko, Turkish gecko, Kotschy's gecko, spur-thighed tortoise, and the Caspian turtle. There are four species of snake on the island and these are not dangerous to humans. The four species include the leopard snake (locally known as ochendra), the Balkan whip snake (locally called dendrogallia), the dice snake (called nerofido in Greek), and the only venomous snake is the nocturnal cat snake which has evolved to deliver a weak venom at the back of its mouth to paralyse geckos and small lizards, and is not dangerous to humans. Sea turtles include the green turtle and the loggerhead turtle which are both threatened species. Amphibians include the European green toad, American bullfrog (introduced)<!-- not American toad (not introduced anywhere in Europe) -->, European tree frog, and the Cretan marsh frog (endemic).ArthropodsCicadas, known locally as tzitzikia, make a distinctive repetitive tzi tzi [http://www.cicadasong.eu sound] that becomes louder and more frequent on hot summer days. Butterfly species include the swallowtail butterfly. There are several species of scorpion such as Euscorpius carpathicus whose venom is generally no more potent than a mosquito bite. Crustaceans and molluscs River crabs include the semi-terrestrial Potamon potamios crab. The Minoan frescoes depicting dolphins in Queen's Megaron at Knossos indicate that Minoans were well aware of and celebrated these creatures. Squid, octopus, sea turtles and hammerhead sharks live or traverse along the coast. Some of the fish of the waters around Crete include: scorpion fish, dusky grouper, east Atlantic peacock wrasse, five-spotted wrasse, weever fish, common stingray, brown ray, Mediterranean black goby, pearly razorfish, star-gazer, painted comber, damselfish, and the flying gurnard. The Cretaquarium and the Aquaworld Aquarium, are two of the three aquariums in Greece. They are located in Gournes and Hersonissos respectively.FloraThe Minoans contributed to the deforestation of Crete. Further deforestation occurred in the 1600s "so that no more local supplies of firewood were available". Common wildflowers include: camomile, daisy, gladiolus, hyacinth, iris, poppy, cyclamen and tulip, among others. There are more than 200 species of wild orchid on the island and this includes 14 varieties of Ophrys cretica. Crete has a rich variety of indigenous herbs including common sage, rosemary, thyme, and oregano. Rare herbs include the endemic Cretan dittany Heracles, in one of his labors, took the Cretan bull to the Peloponnese. Europa and Zeus made love at Gortys and conceived the kings of Crete: Rhadamanthys, Sarpedon, and Minos. The labyrinth of the Palace of Knossos was the setting for the myth of Theseus and the Minotaur in which the Minotaur was slain by Theseus. Icarus and Daedalus were captives of King Minos and crafted wings to escape. After his death, King Minos became a judge of the dead in Hades, while Rhadamanthys became the ruler of the Elysian fields. Culture Crete has its own distinctive Mantinades poetry. The island is known for its Mantinades-based music (typically performed with the Cretan lyra and the laouto) and has many indigenous dances, the most noted of which is the Pentozali. Since the 1980s and certainly in the 1990s onwards there has been a proliferation of cultural associations that teach dancing (in Western Crete where many focus on rizitiko singing). These associations often perform in official events but also become stages for people to meet and engage in traditional practices. The topic of tradition and the role of cultural associations in reviving it is often debated throughout Crete. Cretan authors have made important contributions to Greek literature throughout the modern period; major names include Vikentios Kornaros, creator of the 17th-century epic romance Erotokritos (Greek Ερωτόκριτος), and, in the 20th century, Nikos Kazantzakis. In the Renaissance, Crete was the home of the Cretan School of icon painting, which influenced El Greco and through him subsequent European painting. Cretans are proud of their island and customs, and men often don elements of traditional dress in everyday life: knee-high black riding boots (stivania), vráka breeches tucked into the boots at the knee, black shirt and black headdress consisting of a fishnet-weave kerchief worn wrapped around the head or draped on the shoulders (mantili / kefalomantilo). Men often grow large mustaches as a mark of pride, manhood and valiance. Cretan society is known in Greece and internationally for family and clan vendettas which persist on the island to date. Cretans also have a tradition of keeping firearms at home, stemming from the era of resistance against the Ottoman Empire. Nearly every rural household on Crete has at least one unregistered gun. *Eleftherios Venizelos, former Greek Prime Minister, born in Chania Prefecture *Konstantinos Mitsotakis, nephew of Eleftherios Venizelos and father to Kyriakos Mitsotakis, the Prime Minister of Greece. *Daskalogiannis, leader of the Orlov Revolt in Crete in 1770 *John Aniston (Giannis Anastasakis), Greek-American actor, father of Jennifer Aniston *Zach Galifianakis paternal grandparents, Mike Galifianakis and Sophia Kastrinakis, were from Crete *Georgios Chortatzis, Renaissance author *Nana Mouskouri, singer, born in Chania *Michalis Kourmoulis, leader of the Greek War of Independence from Messara. *Eleni Daniilidou, tennis player, born in Chania *Louis Tikas, Greek-American labor union leader *Tess Fragoulis, Greek-Canadian writer, born in Heraklion *Nick Dandolos, a.k.a. Nick the Greek, professional gambler and high roller *Joseph Sifakis, a computer scientist, laureate of the 2007 Turing Award, born in Heraklion in 1946 *Constantinos Daskalakis, Associate Professor at MIT's Electrical Engineering and Computer Science department *George Karniadakis, Professor of Applied Mathematics at Brown University; and Research Scientist at MIT *George Psychoundakis, a shepherd, a war hero and an author *Georgos Kalaitzakis, Greek professional basketball player for the Tigers Tübingen of the German Basketball Bundesliga is from Heraklion, Crete See also * Cretan Greek * Cretan lyra * Cretan wine * List of novels set in Crete * List of rulers of Crete * Mantinades References General and cited sources * * Francis, Jane and Anna Kouremenos (eds.) 2016. Roman Crete: New Perspectives. Oxford: Oxbow. * * * * External links * * [https://cretelocals.com Crete Locals] comprehensive guide of Crete Island (in English) * [http://www.nhmc.uoc.gr/en Natural History Museum of Crete] at the University of Crete. * [http://www.cretaquarium.gr/ Cretaquarium Thalassocosmos] in Heraklion. * [http://www.aquaworld-crete.com Aquaworld Aquarium] in Hersonissos. * [http://oxfordbibliographiesonline.com/display/id/obo-9780195389661-0071 Ancient Crete] at Oxford Bibliographies Online: Classics. * [http://www.visitgreece.gr/en/greek_islands/crete Official Greek National Tourism Organisation website] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20121123155346/http://www.360travelguide.com/travelpack/resort.asp?ResortCrete&Code780spl04 Interactive Virtual Tour of Crete] Category:Aegean islands Category:Crete and Cyrenaica Category:Islands of Greece Category:Mediterranean islands Category:Minoan geography Category:Territories of the Republic of Venice
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crete
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Cyclades
The Cyclades (; , ) are an island group in the Aegean Sea, southeast of mainland Greece and a former administrative prefecture of Greece. They are one of the island groups which constitute the Aegean archipelago. The name () refers to the archipelago forming a circle around the sacred island of Delos. The largest island of the Cyclades is Naxos, however the most populated is Syros. History thumb|left|upright|Harp player, example of Cycladic art, at the National Archeological Museum, Athens The significant Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age Cycladic culture is best known for its schematic, flat sculptures carved out of the islands' pure white marble centuries before the great Middle Bronze Age Minoan civilization arose in Crete to the south. (These figures have been looted from burials to satisfy a thriving Cycladic antiquities market since the early 20th century.) A distinctive Neolithic culture amalgamating Anatolian and mainland Greek elements arose in the western Aegean before 4000 BCE, based on emmer and wild-type barley, sheep and goats, pigs, and tuna that were apparently speared from small boats (Rutter). Excavated sites include Chalandriani, Phylakopi, Skarkos, Saliagos and Kephala (on Kea) with signs of copperworking, Each of the small Cycladic islands could support no more than a few thousand people, though Late Cycladic boat models show that fifty oarsmen could be assembled from the scattered communities (Rutter), and when the highly organized palace-culture of Crete arose, the islands faded into insignificance, with the exception of Delos, which retained its archaic reputation as a sanctuary throughout antiquity and until the emergence of Christianity. Archaeology thumb|left|Ancient theatre, Delos The first archaeological excavations of the 1880s, undertaken by antiquaries such as Theodore Bent at Antiparos in early 1884, were followed by systematic work by the British School at Athens and by Christos Tsountas, who investigated burial sites on several islands in 1898–1899 and coined the term "Cycladic civilization". Interest lagged, and then picked up in the mid-20th century, as collectors competed for the modern-looking figures that seemed so similar to sculpture by Jean Arp or Constantin Brâncuși. Sites were looted and a brisk trade in forgeries arose. The context for many of these Cycladic figurines has been mostly destroyed and their meaning may never be completely understood. Another intriguing and mysterious object is that of the Cycladic frying pans. More accurate archaeology has revealed the broad outlines of a farming and seafaring culture that had emigrated from Anatolia . Early Cycladic culture evolved in three phases, between c. 3300 – 2000 BCE, when it was increasingly swamped in the rising influence of Minoan Crete. The culture of mainland Greece contemporary with Cycladic culture is known as the Helladic period. In recent decades the Cyclades have become popular with European and other tourists, and as a result there have been problems with erosion, pollution, and water shortages. Geography thumb|upright=1.2|The Cyclades encircle the sacred island of Delos File:Syros ermoupolis 140707.jpg|Ermoupoli, capital of the Cyclades. Syros File:Ia Santorini-2009-1.JPG|Santorini File:Mykonos City.jpg|Mykonos File:City of Naxos.jpg|Naxos File:Fole abhang.jpg|Folegandros File:Chora Milos.jpg|Milos File:Iraklia 2023 19.jpg|Irakleia File:Rineia.jpg|Rineia File:Koufonisi 2023 57.jpg|Koufonisi File:Vraka Aegean Islands Greek Costume.JPG|Traditional vraka (breeches) in the dress of the Aegean islands The Cyclades includes about 220 islands, the major ones being Amorgos, Anafi, Andros, Antiparos, Delos, Ios, Kea, Kimolos, Kythnos, Milos, Mykonos, Naxos, Paros, Folegandros, Serifos, Sifnos, Sikinos, Syros, Tinos, and Thira or Santoríni. There are also many minor islands (the Lesser Cyclades) including Donousa, Eschati, Gyaros, Irakleia, Koufonisia, Makronisos, Rineia, and Schoinousa. The name "Cyclades" refers to the islands forming a circle ("circular islands") around the sacred island of Delos. Most of the smaller islands are uninhabited. Ermoupoli on Syros is the chief town and administrative center of the former prefecture. The islands are peaks of a submerged mountainous terrain, with the exception of two volcanic islands, Milos and Santorini. The climate is generally dry and mild, but with the exception of Naxos, the soil is not very fertile; agricultural produce includes wine, fruit, wheat, olive oil, and tobacco. Lower temperatures are registered in higher elevations and these areas do not usually see wintry weather. The Cyclades are bounded to the south by the Sea of Crete. Administration The Cyclades Prefecture () was one of the prefectures of Greece. As a part of the 2011 Kallikratis government reform, the prefecture was abolished, and its territory was divided into nine regional units of the South Aegean region: Andros Kea-Kythnos Milos Mykonos Naxos Paros Thira Syros Tinos Municipalities and communities The prefecture was subdivided into the following municipalities and communities. These have been reorganised at the 2011 Kallikratis reform as well. Municipality YPES code Seat (if different) Postal code Area code Amorgos 3101 840 08 22850-2 Andros (town) 3103 845 00 22820-2 Ano Syros 3105 841 00 22810-8 Drymalia 3107 Chalkeio Naxou 843 02 22850 Ermoupoli 3109 841 00 22810-2 Exomvourgo 3108 Kampos 842 00 22850-5 Ios 3112 840 01 22860-9 Kea 3113 Ioulis 840 02 22880-2 Korthio 3115 Ormos Korthiou 845 02 22820-6 Kythnos 3117 840 06 22810-3 Milos 3118 848 00 22870-2 Mykonos 3119 846 00 22890-2 Naxos 3120 843 00 22850-2 Paros 3123 844 00 22840-2 Poseidonia 3124 841 00 22810-4 Santorini 3111 847 00 22860-2 Serifos 3125 840 02 22810-5 Sifnos 3127 840 03 22840-3 Tinos 3129 842 00 22830-2 Ydrousa 3130 Gavrio 845 01 22820-7 Community YPES code Seat (if different) Postal code Area code Anafi 3102 840 09 22860-6 Antiparos 3104 840 07 22840-6 Donousa 3106 843 00 22850-5 Folegandros 3131 840 11 22860 Irakleia 3110 843 00 22870-7 Kimolos 3114 840 04 22870-5 Koufonisia 3116 843 00 22870-7 Oia 3121 847 02 22860-7 Panormos 3122 842 01 22830-3 Schoinousa 3128 843 00 22870-7 Sikinos 3126 840 10 22860-5 Provinces Province of Amorgos: Amorgos Province of Andros: Andros Province of Kea: Ioulis Province of Milos: Milos Province of Naxos: Naxos Province of Paros: Paroikia Province of Syros: Ermoupoli Province of Tinos: Tinos Province of Thira: Thira Note: Provinces no longer hold any legal status in Greece. Cuisine Local specialities of the Cyclades include: Brantáda, cod fillet fish dish Fava Santorinis (made from Lathyrus clymenum) Fourtalia (Andros), omelette Kakavia (soup) Matsata, pasta Kalasouna (Naxos) Kalogeros (Naxos) Tomatokeftedes Various cheeses, such as Kopanisti Mykonou, Manoura Sifnou, Armexia, Malaxia, Chloro, San Michali etc Loutza, similar to the Cypriot lountza Strapatsada (Koskosela) Sfougato (omelette) Lazarakia (dessert) Melitinia (dessert) Melopita (dessert) Santorini (wine) See also Aegean cat List of islands of Greece Minoan eruption Mosaics of Delos Nisiotika music Santorini wine Notes References External links Jeremy B. Rutter, "The Prehistoric Archaeology of the Aegean": especially Lessons 2 and 4: chronology, history, bibliography Cyclades The Official website of the Greek National Tourism Organisation Category:Aegean islands Category:Archipelagoes of Greece Category:Prefectures of Greece Category:Landforms of the South Aegean Cyclades
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclades
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Computer vision
Computer vision tasks include methods for acquiring, processing, analyzing, and understanding digital images, and extraction of high-dimensional data from the real world in order to produce numerical or symbolic information, e.g. in the form of decisions. As a scientific discipline, computer vision is concerned with the theory behind artificial systems that extract information from images. The image data can take many forms, such as video sequences, views from multiple cameras, or multi-dimensional data from a medical scanner. As a technological discipline, computer vision seeks to apply its theories and models for the construction of computer vision systems. Machine vision refers to a systems engineering discipline, especially in the context of factory automation. In more recent times, the terms computer vision and machine vision have converged to a greater degree. History In the late 1960s, computer vision began at universities that were pioneering artificial intelligence. It was meant to mimic the human visual system as a stepping stone to endowing robots with intelligent behavior. by attaching a camera to a computer and having it "describe what it saw". By the 1990s, some of the previous research topics became more active than others. Research in projective 3-D reconstructions led to better understanding of camera calibration. With the advent of optimization methods for camera calibration, it was realized that a lot of the ideas were already explored in bundle adjustment theory from the field of photogrammetry. This led to methods for sparse 3-D reconstructions of scenes from multiple images. Progress was made on the dense stereo correspondence problem and further multi-view stereo techniques. At the same time, variations of graph cut were used to solve image segmentation. This decade also marked the first time statistical learning techniques were used in practice to recognize faces in images (see Eigenface). Toward the end of the 1990s, a significant change came about with the increased interaction between the fields of computer graphics and computer vision. This included image-based rendering, image morphing, view interpolation, panoramic image stitching and early light-field rendering. The advancement of Deep Learning techniques has brought further life to the field of computer vision. The accuracy of deep learning algorithms on several benchmark computer vision data sets for tasks ranging from classification, segmentation and optical flow has surpassed prior methods. Related fields in a photograph]] Solid-state physics Solid-state physics is another field that is closely related to computer vision. Most computer vision systems rely on image sensors, which detect electromagnetic radiation, which is typically in the form of either visible, infrared or ultraviolet light. The sensors are designed using quantum physics. The process by which light interacts with surfaces is explained using physics. Physics explains the behavior of optics which are a core part of most imaging systems. Sophisticated image sensors even require quantum mechanics to provide a complete understanding of the image formation process. The network correctly detects the starfish. However, the weakly weighted association between ringed texture and sea urchin also confers a weak signal to the latter from one of two intermediate nodes. In addition, a shell that was not included in the training gives a weak signal for the oval shape, also resulting in a weak signal for the sea urchin output. These weak signals may result in a false positive result for sea urchin.<br>In reality, textures and outlines would not be represented by single nodes, but rather by associated weight patterns of multiple nodes.}} Neurobiology has greatly influenced the development of computer vision algorithms. Over the last century, there has been an extensive study of eyes, neurons, and brain structures devoted to the processing of visual stimuli in both humans and various animals. This has led to a coarse yet convoluted description of how natural vision systems operate in order to solve certain vision-related tasks. These results have led to a sub-field within computer vision where artificial systems are designed to mimic the processing and behavior of biological systems at different levels of complexity. Also, some of the learning-based methods developed within computer vision (e.g. neural net and deep learning based image and feature analysis and classification) have their background in neurobiology. The Neocognitron, a neural network developed in the 1970s by Kunihiko Fukushima, is an early example of computer vision taking direct inspiration from neurobiology, specifically the primary visual cortex. Some strands of computer vision research are closely related to the study of biological vision—indeed, just as many strands of AI research are closely tied with research into human intelligence and the use of stored knowledge to interpret, integrate, and utilize visual information. The field of biological vision studies and models the physiological processes behind visual perception in humans and other animals. Computer vision, on the other hand, develops and describes the algorithms implemented in software and hardware behind artificial vision systems. An interdisciplinary exchange between biological and computer vision has proven fruitful for both fields. A detailed understanding of these environments is required to navigate through them. Information about the environment could be provided by a computer vision system, acting as a vision sensor and providing high-level information about the environment and the robotVisual computingOther fieldsBesides the above-mentioned views on computer vision, many of the related research topics can also be studied from a purely mathematical point of view. For example, many methods in computer vision are based on statistics, optimization or geometry. Finally, a significant part of the field is devoted to the implementation aspect of computer vision; how existing methods can be realized in various combinations of software and hardware, or how these methods can be modified in order to gain processing speed without losing too much performance. Computer vision is also used in fashion eCommerce, inventory management, patent search, furniture, and the beauty industry. Distinctions The fields most closely related to computer vision are image processing, image analysis and machine vision. There is a significant overlap in the range of techniques and applications that these cover. This implies that the basic techniques that are used and developed in these fields are similar, something which can be interpreted as there is only one field with different names. On the other hand, it appears to be necessary for research groups, scientific journals, conferences, and companies to present or market themselves as belonging specifically to one of these fields and, hence, various characterizations which distinguish each of the fields from the others have been presented. In image processing, the input is an image and the output is an image as well, whereas in computer vision, an image or a video is taken as an input and the output could be an enhanced image, an understanding of the content of an image or even behavior of a computer system based on such understanding. Computer graphics produces image data from 3D models, and computer vision often produces 3D models from image data. There is also a trend towards a combination of the two disciplines, e.g., as explored in augmented reality. The following characterizations appear relevant but should not be taken as universally accepted: * Image processing and image analysis tend to focus on 2D images, how to transform one image to another, e.g., by pixel-wise operations such as contrast enhancement, local operations such as edge extraction or noise removal, or geometrical transformations such as rotating the image. This characterization implies that image processing/analysis neither requires assumptions nor produces interpretations about the image content. * Computer vision includes 3D analysis from 2D images. This analyzes the 3D scene projected onto one or several images, e.g., how to reconstruct structure or other information about the 3D scene from one or several images. Computer vision often relies on more or less complex assumptions about the scene depicted in an image. * Machine vision is the process of applying a range of technologies and methods to provide imaging-based automatic inspection, process control, and robot guidance). This implies that image sensor technologies and control theory often are integrated with the processing of image data to control a robot and that real-time processing is emphasized by means of efficient implementations in hardware and software. It also implies that external conditions such as lighting can be and are often more controlled in machine vision than they are in general computer vision, which can enable the use of different algorithms. * There is also a field called imaging which primarily focuses on the process of producing images, but sometimes also deals with the processing and analysis of images. For example, medical imaging includes substantial work on the analysis of image data in medical applications. Progress in convolutional neural networks (CNNs) has improved the accurate detection of disease in medical images, particularly in cardiology, pathology, dermatology, and radiology. * Finally, pattern recognition is a field that uses various methods to extract information from signals in general, mainly based on statistical approaches and artificial neural networks. A significant part of this field is devoted to applying these methods to image data. Photogrammetry also overlaps with computer vision, e.g., stereophotogrammetry vs. computer stereo vision. Applications Applications range from tasks such as industrial machine vision systems which, say, inspect bottles speeding by on a production line, to research into artificial intelligence and computers or robots that can comprehend the world around them. The computer vision and machine vision fields have significant overlap. Computer vision covers the core technology of automated image analysis which is used in many fields. Machine vision usually refers to a process of combining automated image analysis with other methods and technologies to provide automated inspection and robot guidance in industrial applications. In many computer-vision applications, computers are pre-programmed to solve a particular task, but methods based on learning are now becoming increasingly common. Examples of applications of computer vision include systems for: have enabled researchers to build models that are able to generate and reconstruct 3D shapes from single or multi-view depth maps or silhouettes seamlessly and efficiently. * Controlling processes, e.g., an industrial robot; * Detecting events, e.g., for visual surveillance or people counting, e.g., in the restaurant industry; * Interaction, e.g., as the input to a device for computer-human interaction; * monitoring agricultural crops, e.g. an open-source vision transformers model has been developed to help farmers automatically detect strawberry diseases with 98.4% accuracy. * Modeling objects or environments, e.g., medical image analysis or topographical modeling; * Navigation, e.g., by an autonomous vehicle or mobile robot; * Organizing information, e.g., for indexing databases of images and image sequences. *Tracking surfaces or planes in 3D coordinates for allowing Augmented Reality experiences. Medicine 's Visual Media Reasoning concept video]] One of the most prominent application fields is medical computer vision, or medical image processing, characterized by the extraction of information from image data to diagnose a patient. An example of this is the detection of tumours, arteriosclerosis or other malign changes, and a variety of dental pathologies; measurements of organ dimensions, blood flow, etc. are another example. It also supports medical research by providing new information: e.g., about the structure of the brain or the quality of medical treatments. Applications of computer vision in the medical area also include enhancement of images interpreted by humans—ultrasonic images or X-ray images, for example—to reduce the influence of noise. Machine vision A second application area in computer vision is in industry, sometimes called machine vision, where information is extracted for the purpose of supporting a production process. One example is quality control where details or final products are being automatically inspected in order to find defects. One of the most prevalent fields for such inspection is the Wafer industry in which every single Wafer is being measured and inspected for inaccuracies or defects to prevent a computer chip from coming to market in an unusable manner. Another example is a measurement of the position and orientation of details to be picked up by a robot arm. Machine vision is also heavily used in the agricultural processes to remove undesirable foodstuff from bulk material, a process called optical sorting. Another variation of this finger mold sensor are sensors that contain a camera suspended in silicon. The silicon forms a dome around the outside of the camera and embedded in the silicon are point markers that are equally spaced. These cameras can then be placed on devices such as robotic hands in order to allow the computer to receive highly accurate tactile data. Other application areas include: * Support of visual effects creation for cinema and broadcast, e.g., camera tracking (match moving). * Surveillance. * Driver drowsiness detection * Tracking and counting organisms in the biological sciencesTypical tasks Each of the application areas described above employ a range of computer vision tasks; more or less well-defined measurement problems or processing problems, which can be solved using a variety of methods. Some examples of typical computer vision tasks are presented below. Computer vision tasks include methods for acquiring, processing, analyzing and understanding digital images, and extraction of high-dimensional data from the real world in order to produce numerical or symbolic information, e.g., in the forms of decisions. * Object recognition (also called object classification)one or several pre-specified or learned objects or object classes can be recognized, usually together with their 2D positions in the image or 3D poses in the scene. Blippar, Google Goggles, and LikeThat provide stand-alone programs that illustrate this functionality. * Identificationan individual instance of an object is recognized. Examples include identification of a specific person's face or fingerprint, identification of handwritten digits, or the identification of a specific vehicle. * Detectionthe image data are scanned for specific objects along with their locations. Examples include the detection of an obstacle in the car's field of view and possible abnormal cells or tissues in medical images or the detection of a vehicle in an automatic road toll system. Detection based on relatively simple and fast computations is sometimes used for finding smaller regions of interesting image data which can be further analyzed by more computationally demanding techniques to produce a correct interpretation. Currently, the best algorithms for such tasks are based on convolutional neural networks. An illustration of their capabilities is given by the ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge; this is a benchmark in object classification and detection, with millions of images and 1000 object classes used in the competition. Performance of convolutional neural networks on the ImageNet tests is now close to that of humans. * Emotion recognitiona subset of facial recognition, emotion recognition refers to the process of classifying human emotions. Psychologists caution, however, that internal emotions cannot be reliably detected from faces. * Shape Recognition Technology (SRT) in people counter systems differentiating human beings (head and shoulder patterns) from objects. * Human activity recognition - deals with recognizing the activity from a series of video frames, such as, if the person is picking up an object or walking. Motion analysis Several tasks relate to motion estimation, where an image sequence is processed to produce an estimate of the velocity either at each points in the image or in the 3D scene or even of the camera that produces the images. Examples of such tasks are: * Egomotiondetermining the 3D rigid motion (rotation and translation) of the camera from an image sequence produced by the camera. * Trackingfollowing the movements of a (usually) smaller set of interest points or objects (e.g., vehicles, objects, humans or other organisms parts (also referred to as spatial-taxon scene hierarchy), while the visual salience is often implemented as spatial and temporal attention. ** Segmentation or co-segmentation of one or multiple videos into a series of per-frame foreground masks while maintaining its temporal semantic continuity. * High-level processing – At this step, the input is typically a small set of data, for example, a set of points or an image region, which is assumed to contain a specific object. Hardware with a LiDAR sensor]] There are many kinds of computer vision systems; however, all of them contain these basic elements: a power source, at least one image acquisition device (camera, ccd, etc.), a processor, and control and communication cables or some kind of wireless interconnection mechanism. In addition, a practical vision system contains software, as well as a display in order to monitor the system. Vision systems for inner spaces, as most industrial ones, contain an illumination system and may be placed in a controlled environment. Furthermore, a completed system includes many accessories, such as camera supports, cables, and connectors. Most computer vision systems use visible-light cameras passively viewing a scene at frame rates of at most 60 frames per second (usually far slower). A few computer vision systems use image-acquisition hardware with active illumination or something other than visible light or both, such as structured-light 3D scanners, thermographic cameras, hyperspectral imagers, radar imaging, lidar scanners, magnetic resonance images, side-scan sonar, synthetic aperture sonar, etc. Such hardware captures "images" that are then processed often using the same computer vision algorithms used to process visible-light images. While traditional broadcast and consumer video systems operate at a rate of 30 frames per second, advances in digital signal processing and consumer graphics hardware has made high-speed image acquisition, processing, and display possible for real-time systems on the order of hundreds to thousands of frames per second. For applications in robotics, fast, real-time video systems are critically important and often can simplify the processing needed for certain algorithms. When combined with a high-speed projector, fast image acquisition allows 3D measurement and feature tracking to be realized. Egocentric vision systems are composed of a wearable camera that automatically take pictures from a first-person perspective. As of 2016, vision processing units are emerging as a new class of processors to complement CPUs and graphics processing units (GPUs) in this role. See also * Chessboard detection * Computational imaging * Computational photography * Computer audition * Egocentric vision * Machine vision glossary * Space mapping * Teknomo–Fernandez algorithm * Vision science * Visual agnosia * Visual perception * Visual system Lists * Outline of computer vision * List of emerging technologies * Outline of artificial intelligence References Further reading * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * External links * [https://sites.usc.edu/iris-cvlab/ USC Iris computer vision conference list] * [http://www.cvpapers.com/index.html Computer vision papers on the web] – a complete list of papers of the most relevant computer vision conferences. * [http://www.computervisiononline.com/ Computer Vision Online] – news, source code, datasets and job offers related to computer vision * [http://homepages.inf.ed.ac.uk/rbf/CVonline/ CVonline] – Bob Fisher's Compendium of Computer Vision. * [https://britishmachinevisionassociation.github.io/ British Machine Vision Association] – supporting computer vision research within the UK via the BMVC and MIUA conferences, Annals of the BMVA (open-source journal), BMVA Summer School and one-day meetings * [https://github.com/joehoeller/NVIDIA-GPU-Tensor-Core-Accelerator-PyTorch-OpenCV Computer Vision Container, Joe Hoeller GitHub:] Widely adopted open-source container for GPU accelerated computer vision applications. Used by researchers, universities, private companies, as well as the U.S. Gov't. Category:Image processing Category:Packaging machinery Category:Articles containing video clips
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_vision
2025-04-05T18:27:51.523010
6597
Curry
]] Curry is a dish with a sauce or gravy seasoned with spices, mainly derived from the interchange of Indian cuisine with European taste in food, starting with the Portuguese, followed by the Dutch and British, and then thoroughly internationalised. Many dishes that would be described as curries in English are found in the native cuisines of countries in Southeast Asia and East Asia.<!-- The Oxford Dictionaries suggest an origin specifically from Tamil. Other Dravidian languages, namely Malayalam (കറി kari, "hot condiments; meats, vegetables"), Middle Kannada and Kodava, have similar words. Kaṟi is described in a 17th century Portuguese cookbook The first appearance in its anglicised form (spelt currey) was in Hannah Glasse's 1747 book The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy. The term "curry" is not derived from the name of the curry tree, although some curries do include curry leaves among many other spices. The cookery writer Pat Chapman noted the similarity of the words Karahi or Kadai, an Indian cooking dish shaped like a wok, without adducing evidence. "Curry" is not related to the word cury in The Forme of Cury, that term comes from the Middle French word cuire, meaning 'to cook'. Archaeological evidence dating to 2600 BCE from Mohenjo-daro suggests the use of mortar and pestle to pound spices including mustard, fennel, cumin, and tamarind pods with which they flavoured food. Black pepper is native to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia and has been known to Indian cooking since at least 2000 BCE. The three basic ingredients of the spicy stew were ginger, garlic, and turmeric. Using starch grain analysis, archaeologists identified the residue of these spices in both skeletons and pottery shards from excavations in India, finding that turmeric and ginger were present. Sauces in India before Columbus could contain black pepper or long pepper to provide a little heat, but not chili, so they were not spicy hot by modern standards. Early modern trade brought chili peppers to India. The scholar of food culture Lizzie Collingham suggests that the Portuguese in Goa (in West India) heard and adopted words adopted into a local <!--Indo-Aryan--> language<!--presumably Konkani, would need a source for that--> from the Dravidian words from South India, becoming caril or carree as transcribed by British travellers of the time. This adoption resulting eventually in curry's modern meaning of a dish, often spiced, in a sauce or gravy. In 1598, an English translation of a Dutch book about travel in the East Indies mentioned a "somewhat sour" broth called Carriel, eaten with rice. Further, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, when there were few British women in India, British men often lived with Indian mistresses, acquiring the local customs, language, and food. Curry was first served in coffee houses in Britain from 1809. Indian cooks in the 19th century prepared curries for their British masters simplified and adjusted to Anglo-Indian taste. For instance, a quarama from Lucknow contained (among other ingredients) ghee, yoghurt, cream, crushed almonds, cloves, cardamom, and saffron; whereas an 1869 Anglo-Indian quorema or korma, "different in substance as well as name", had no cream, almonds, or saffron, but it added the then-standard British curry spices, namely coriander, ginger, and black peppercorns. Curry, initially understood as "an unfamiliar set of Indian stews and ragouts", had become "a dish in its own right, created for the British in India". Collingham describes the resulting Anglo-Indian cuisine as "eclectic", "pan-Indian", "lacking sophistication", embodying a "passion for garnishes", and forming a "coherent repertoire"; but it was eaten only by the British. Collingham writes that "The idea of a curry is, in fact, a concept that the Europeans imposed on India's food culture. Indians referred to their different dishes by specific names... But the British lumped all these together under the heading of curry. Elsewhere in the 19th century, curry was carried to the Caribbean by Indian indentured workers in the British sugar industry. Alan Davidson writes that curry's worldwide extension is a result of the Indian diaspora and globalisation, starting within the British Empire, and followed by economic migrants who brought Indian cuisine to many countries. In 1886, 咖喱 (Gālí) (Chinese pronunciation of "curry") appeared among the Chinese in Singapore. Malay Chinese people then most likely brought curry to China. Derived from such mixtures (but not containing curry leaves), curry powder is a ready-prepared spice blend first sold by Indian merchants to European colonial traders. This was commercially available from the late 18th century, with brands such as Crosse & Blackwell and Sharwood's persisting to the present. British traders introduced the powder to Meiji era Japan, in the mid-19th century, where it became known as Japanese curry. Types There are many varieties of curry. The choice of spices for each dish in traditional cuisine depends on regional cultural traditions and personal preferences. Such dishes have names such as dopiaza and rogan josh that refer to their ingredients, spicing, and cooking methods. Outside the Indian subcontinent, a curry is a dish from Southeast Asia which uses coconut milk and spice pastes, and is commonly eaten over rice. Curries may contain fish, meat, poultry, or shellfish, either alone or in combination with vegetables. Others are vegetarian. A masala mixture is a combination of dried or dry-roasted spices commonly homemade for some curries. Such is its popularity that it has frequently been called its "adopted national dish". It was estimated that in 2016 there were 12,000 curry houses, employing 100,000 people and with annual combined sales of approximately £4.2 billion. The food offered is cooked to British taste, but with increasing demand for authentic Indian styles. In 2001, chicken tikka masala was described by the British foreign secretary Robin Cook as "a true British national dish, not only because it is the most popular, but because it is a perfect illustration of the way Britain absorbs and adapts external influences." Its origin is not certain, but many sources attribute it to British Asians; some cite Glasgow as the city of origin. It may derive from butter chicken, popular in the north of India. Curries in Britain are derived partly from India and partly from invention in local Indian restaurants. They vary from mildly-spiced to extremely hot, with names that are to an extent standardised across the country, but are often unknown in India. {| class"wikitable" style"margin: 1em auto;" |+ Range of strengths of British curries The content of the dish and style of preparation vary by region. and breads such as chapatis, roti, and naan in the north. The popular rogan josh, for example, from Kashmiri cuisine, is a wet dish of lamb with a red gravy coloured by Kashmiri chillies and an extract of the red flowers of the cockscomb plant (mawal). Rice and curry is the staple dish of Sri Lanka. East Asia Japanese curry is usually eaten as – curry, rice, and often pickled vegetables, served on the same plate and eaten with a spoon, a common lunchtime canteen dish. It is less spicy and seasoned than Indian and Southeast Asian curries, being more of a thick stew than a curry. British people brought curry from the Indian colony back to Britain and introduced it to Japan during the Meiji period (1868 to 1912), after Japan ended its policy of national self-isolation (), and curry in Japan was categorised as a Western dish. Its spread across the country is attributed to its use in the Japanese Army and Navy which adopted it extensively as convenient field and naval canteen cooking, allowing even conscripts from the remotest countryside to experience the dish. The Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force traditionally have curry every Friday for lunch and many ships have their own recipes. The standard Japanese curry contains onions, carrots, potatoes, and sometimes celery, and a meat that is cooked in a large pot. Sometimes grated apples or honey are added for additional sweetness and other vegetables are sometimes used instead. Curry spread to other regions of Asia. Curry powder is added to some dishes in the southern part of China. The curry powder sold in Chinese grocery stores is similar to Madras curry powder, but with the addition of star anise and cinnamon. The former Portuguese colony of Macau has its own culinary traditions and curry dishes, including Galinha à portuguesa ("Portuguese-style chicken") and curry crab. Portuguese sauce is a sauce flavoured with curry and thickened with coconut milk. Curry was popularized in Korean cuisine when Ottogi entered the Korean food industry with an imported curry powder in 1969. Korean curry powder contains spices including cardamom, chili, cinnamon, and turmeric. Curry tteokbokki is made of tteok (rice cakes), eomuk (fish cakes), eggs, vegetables, and gochujang, fermented red chili paste. As in India, chilis were brought to Korea by European traders. Spicy chili sauce then replaced the soy sauce formerly used in tteokbokki. <gallery classcenter modenolines widths180 heights180> File:Kare-Raisu.jpg|Japanese style (curry rice) File:Stir-fried rice cakes with ground pork, gochujang, and gailan.jpg|Korean tteokbokki<br/>(rice cake curry) </gallery> Southeast Asia <!--West to East--> In Burmese cuisine, curries are broadly called hin. Burmese curries contains meat simmered in a curry paste containing onion, garlic, shrimp paste, tomato, and turmeric. Burmese curries are often mild, without chili, and somewhat oily. Thai curries are called , and usually consist of meat, fish or vegetables in a sauce based on a paste made from chilies, onions or shallots, garlic, and shrimp paste. A few stir-fried Thai dishes use , an Indian style curry powder. In the West, Thai curries are often colour-coded green, yellow, and red, with green usually the mildest, red the hottest. Green curry is flavoured with green chili, coriander, kaffir lime, and basil; yellow, with yellow chili and turmeric; and red, with red chili. Malaysian Indian cuisine adapted curries (such as , with coconut milk) via the region's Indian population, but it has become a staple among the Malay and Chinese populations there. Malaysian curries have many varieties, but are often flavoured with cumin, cinnamon, turmeric, coconut milk, shallots, chili peppers, and garlic. Indian Indonesian cuisine consists of adaptations of authentic dishes from India, as well as original creations inspired by the diverse food culture of Indonesia. Curry in Indonesian is kari and in Javanese, kare. In Indonesian cuisine especially in Bandung, there is a dish called lontong kari, a combined of lontong and beef yellow curry soup. In Javanese cuisine, kare rajungan, blue swimmer crab curry has become a delicacy of Tuban Regency, East Java. In Vietnamese cuisine, influenced by both Thai and Indian cooking, curry is known as cà ri. It is made with coconut milk, Madras curry powder with plenty of turmeric, and a variety of fresh ingredients such as coriander, lemongrass, and ginger. In the Philippines, a dish that may have been directly inspired by Indian curries is the oxtail stew , possibly influenced by Sepoy expatriates during the brief British occupation of Manila (1762–1764), or indirectly via Southeast Asian spicy dishes. are native dishes using coconut milk, which as in the case of Filipino chicken curry can be called 'curries' when curry powder is added. <gallery classcenter modenolines widths180 heights180> File:Gulai kambing masakan Padang.JPG|Mutton gulai (Indonesian curry), part of nasi padang File:Myanma cuisine (cropped).jpg|A traditional meal featuring several Burmese curries File:Philippine Chicken curry (cropped).jpg|Filipino chicken curry File:Phanaeng mu (cropped).jpg|Thai phanaeng with pork File:Cà Ri Gà Vietnamese Chicken Curry 2019-1600.jpg|Vietnamese cà ri with chicken </gallery> South Africa , South Africa]] Curry spread to South Africa with the migration of people from the Indian subcontinent to the region in the colonial era. African curries, Cape Malay curries and Natal curries include the traditional Natal curry, the Durban curry, Bunny chow, and roti rolls. South African curries appear to have been created in both KwaZulu-Natal and the Western Cape, while others developed across the country over the late 20th and early 21st centuries to include ekasi, coloured, and Afrikaner varieties. Durban has the largest population of Indians outside of India in the world. Bunny chow or a "set", a South African standard, consists of either lamb, chicken or bean curry poured into a tunnelled-out loaf of bread to be eaten with one's fingers by dipping pieces of the bread into it.<ref nameseid/><ref nameishay/> 'Bunny chow' means 'Indian food', from Banian, an Indian. The method of serving the curry was created because apartheid forbade black people from eating in Indian restaurants; the loaves could speedily be taken away and eaten in the street. See also * The Curry Club Notes References Sources * * Further reading * Achaya, K.T. Indian Food: A Historical Companion. Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1994. * Burton, David. The Raj at Table. London: Faber and Faber, 1993. * Chapman, Pat. ''Pat Chapman's Curry Bible. Hodder & Stoughton, 1997. * Grove, Peter & Colleen. The Flavours of History''. London: Godiva Books, 2011. <!--per WP:BIDIRECTIONAL; other navbars may also be relevant here--> Category:Afghan cuisine Category:Belizean cuisine Category:Bengali cuisine Category:Bangladeshi cuisine Category:Bhutanese cuisine Category:British cuisine Category:Burmese cuisine Category:Chili pepper dishes Category:Chinese cuisine Category:Fijian cuisine Category:Guyanese cuisine Category:Indian cuisine Category:Indo-Caribbean cuisine Category:Indonesian cuisine Category:Jamaican cuisine Category:Japanese cuisine Category:Kashmiri cuisine Category:Korean cuisine Category:Malaysian cuisine Category:Maldivian cuisine Category:Mauritian cuisine Category:Nepalese cuisine Category:Omani cuisine Category:Pakistani cuisine Category:Filipino cuisine Category:Saint Helenian cuisine Category:Seychellois cuisine Category:Somali cuisine Category:South African cuisine Category:South Asian cuisine Category:Sri Lankan cuisine Category:Thai cuisine Category:Vietnamese cuisine
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curry
2025-04-05T18:27:51.569757
6598
Camel
| name = Camel | image = 07. Camel Profile, near Silverton, NSW, 07.07.2007.jpg | image_upright | image_alt A one-humped camel | image_caption = Dromedary<br/> (Camelus dromedarius) | image2 = Bactrian Camel.jpg | image2_upright | image2_alt A shaggy two-humped camel | image2_caption = Bactrian camel<br/> (Camelus bactrianus) | taxon = Camelus | authority = Linnaeus, 1758 | type_species Camelus dromedarius | type_species_authority = Linnaeus, 1758 <!--| range_map = need combined range map of all three camel species--> <!--| range_map_caption Global range of camels-->| subdivision_ranks Species | subdivision = | range_map = Camels by country per capita.png | range_map_caption = Distribution of camels worldwide | synonyms }} A camel (from and () from Ancient Semitic: gāmāl) is an even-toed ungulate in the genus Camelus that bears distinctive fatty deposits known as "humps" on its back. Camels have long been domesticated and, as livestock, they provide food (camel milk and meat) and textiles (fiber and felt from camel hair). Camels are working animals especially suited to their desert habitat and are a vital means of transport for passengers and cargo. There are three surviving species of camel. The one-humped dromedary makes up 94% of the world's camel population, and the two-humped Bactrian camel makes up 6%. The wild Bactrian camel is a distinct species that is not ancestral to the domestic Bactrian camel, and is now critically endangered, with fewer than 1,000 individuals. The word camel is also used informally in a wider sense, where the more correct term is "camelid", to include all seven species of the family Camelidae: the true camels (the above three species), along with the "New World" camelids: the llama, the alpaca, the guanaco, and the vicuña, which belong to the separate tribe Lamini. Camelids originated in North America during the Eocene, with the ancestor of modern camels, Paracamelus, migrating across the Bering land bridge into Asia during the late Miocene, around 6 million years ago.TaxonomyExtant speciesThree species are extant: Biology The average life expectancy of a camel is 40 to 50 years. A full-grown adult dromedary camel stands at the shoulder and at the hump. Bactrian camels can be a foot taller. Camels can run at up to in short bursts and sustain speeds of up to . Bactrian camels weigh and dromedaries . The widening toes on a camel's hoof provide supplemental grip for varying soil sediments. The male dromedary camel has an organ called a dulla in his throat, a large, inflatable sac that he extrudes from his mouth when in rut to assert dominance and attract females. It resembles a long, swollen, pink tongue hanging out of the side of the camel's mouth. Camels mate by having both male and female sitting on the ground, with the male mounting from behind. The male usually ejaculates three or four times within a single mating session. Ecological and behavioral adaptations Camels do not directly store water in their humps; they are reservoirs of fatty tissue. When this tissue is metabolized, it yields a greater mass of water than that of the fat processed. This fat metabolization, while releasing energy, causes water to evaporate from the lungs during respiration (as oxygen is required for the metabolic process): overall, there is a net decrease in water. , which has the world's largest camel population The dromedary camel can drink as seldom as once every 10 days even under very hot conditions, and can lose up to 30% of its body mass due to dehydration. Unlike other mammals, camels' red blood cells are oval rather than circular in shape. This facilitates the flow of red blood cells during dehydration and makes them better at withstanding high osmotic variation without rupturing when drinking large amounts of water. Camels are able to withstand changes in body temperature and water consumption that would kill most other mammals. Their temperature ranges from at dawn and steadily increases to by sunset, before they cool off at night again. Maintaining the brain temperature within certain limits is critical for animals; to assist this, camels have a rete mirabile, a complex of arteries and veins lying very close to each other which utilizes countercurrent blood flow to cool blood flowing to the brain. Camels rarely sweat, even when ambient temperatures reach . Any sweat that does occur evaporates at the skin level rather than at the surface of their coat; the heat of vaporization therefore comes from body heat rather than ambient heat. Camels can withstand losing 25% of their body weight in water, whereas most other mammals can withstand only about 12–14% dehydration before cardiac failure results from circulatory disturbance. Camels eating green herbage can ingest sufficient moisture in milder conditions to maintain their bodies' hydrated state without the need for drinking. The camel's thick coat insulates it from the intense heat radiated from desert sand; a shorn camel must sweat 50% more to avoid overheating. During the summer the coat becomes lighter in color, reflecting light as well as helping avoid sunburn. Dromedaries have a pad of thick tissue over the sternum called the pedestal. When the animal lies down in a sternal recumbent position, the pedestal raises the body from the hot surface and allows cooling air to pass under the body. The kidneys and intestines of a camel are very efficient at reabsorbing water. Camels' kidneys have a 1:4 cortex to medulla ratio. Thus, the medullary part of a camel's kidney occupies twice as much area as a cow's kidney. Secondly, renal corpuscles have a smaller diameter, which reduces surface area for filtration. These two major anatomical characteristics enable camels to conserve water and limit the volume of urine in extreme desert conditions. Camel urine comes out as a thick syrup, and camel faeces are so dry that they do not require drying when used to fuel fires. The parasite Trypanosoma evansi causes the disease surra in camels. Genetics The karyotypes of different camelid species have been studied earlier by many groups, but no agreement on chromosome nomenclature of camelids has been reached. A 2007 study flow sorted camel chromosomes, building on the fact that camels have 37 pairs of chromosomes (2n74), and found that the karyotype consisted of one metacentric, three submetacentric, and 32 acrocentric autosomes. The Y is a small metacentric chromosome, while the X is a large metacentric chromosome. , Oklahoma]] The hybrid camel, a hybrid between Bactrian and dromedary camels, has one hump, though it has an indentation deep that divides the front from the back. The hybrid is at the shoulder and tall at the hump. It weighs an average of and can carry around , which is more than either the dromedary or Bactrian can. According to molecular data, the wild Bactrian camel (C. ferus) separated from the domestic Bactrian camel (C. bactrianus) about 1 million years ago. New World and Old World camelids diverged about 11 million years ago. In spite of this, these species can hybridize and produce viable offspring. The cama is a camel-llama hybrid bred by scientists to see how closely related the parent species are. Scientists collected semen from a camel via an artificial vagina and inseminated a llama after stimulating ovulation with gonadotrophin injections. The cama is halfway in size between a camel and a llama and lacks a hump. It has ears intermediate between those of camels and llamas, longer legs than the llama, and partially cloven hooves. Like the mule, camas are sterile, despite both parents having the same number of chromosomes. By 35 million years ago, the Poebrotherium was the size of a goat and had many more traits similar to camels and llamas. The hoofed Stenomylus, which walked on the tips of its toes, also existed around this time, and the long-necked Aepycamelus evolved in the Miocene. The split between the tribes Camelini, which contains modern camels and Lamini, modern llamas, alpacas, vicuñas, and guanacos, is estimated to have occurred over 16 million years ago. The ancestor of modern camels, Paracamelus, migrated into Eurasia from North America via Beringia during the late Miocene, between 7.5 and 6.5 million years ago. During the Pleistocene, around 3 to 1 million years ago, the North American Camelidae spread to South America as part of the Great American Interchange via the newly formed Isthmus of Panama, where they gave rise to guanacos and related animals. This creature is estimated to have stood around tall. The Bactrian camel diverged from the dromedary about 1 million years ago, according to the fossil record. The last camel native to North America was Camelops hesternus, which vanished along with horses, short-faced bears, mammoths and mastodons, ground sloths, sabertooth cats, and many other megafauna as part of the Quaternary extinction event, coinciding with the migration of humans from Asia at the end of the Pleistocene, around 13–11,000 years ago. An extinct giant camel species, Camelus knoblochi roamed Asia during the Late Pleistocene, before becoming extinct around 20,000 years ago. <gallery mode"packed" heights"150"> File:Stenomylus.jpg|alt=A drawing of two early camels|Stenomylus illustration File:NMNH-USNMV16601Stenomylus.tif|Stenomylus skeleton File:NMNH-USNMV15917Poebrotherium.jpg|Poebrotherium skeleton File:NMNH-USNM244271 2.jpg|Procamelus skull File:Camelops hesternus.jpg|alt=|Camelops hesternus, the last true camel native to North America </gallery> Domestication ]] ]] ]] Like horses, camels originated in North America and eventually spread across Beringia to Asia. They survived in the Old World, and eventually humans domesticated them and spread them globally. Along with many other megafauna in North America, the original wild camels were wiped out during the spread of the first indigenous peoples of the Americas from Asia into North America, 10 to 12,000 years ago; although fossils have never been associated with definitive evidence of hunting. Although feral populations exist in Australia, India and Kazakhstan, wild camels survive only in the wild Bactrian camel population of the Gobi Desert. as at Shar-i Sokhta (also known as the Burnt City), Iran. A study from 2016, which genotyped and used world-wide sequencing of modern and ancient mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), suggested that they were initially domesticated in the southeast Arabian Peninsula, with the Bactrian type later being domesticated around Central Asia. Martin Heide's 2010 work on the domestication of the camel tentatively concludes that humans had domesticated the Bactrian camel by at least the middle of the third millennium somewhere east of the Zagros Mountains, with the practice then moving into Mesopotamia. Heide suggests that mentions of camels "in the patriarchal narratives may refer, at least in some places, to the Bactrian camel", while noting that the camel is not mentioned in relationship to Canaan. Heide and Joris Peters reasserted that conclusion in their 2021 study on the subject. In 2009–2013, excavations in the Timna Valley by Lidar Sapir-Hen and Erez Ben-Yosef discovered what may be the earliest domestic camel bones yet found in Israel or even outside the Arabian Peninsula, dating to around 930 BC. This garnered considerable media coverage, as it is strong evidence that the stories of Abraham, Jacob, Esau, and Joseph were written after this time. The existence of camels in Mesopotamia—but not in the eastern Mediterranean lands—is not a new idea. The historian Richard Bulliet did not think that the occasional mention of camels in the Bible meant that the domestic camels were common in the Holy Land at that time. The archaeologist William F. Albright, writing even earlier, saw camels in the Bible as an anachronism. The official report by Sapir-Hen and Ben-Joseph says: <blockquote>The introduction of the dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) as a pack animal to the southern Levant ... substantially facilitated trade across the vast deserts of Arabia, promoting both economic and social change (e.g., Kohler 1984; Borowski 1998: 112–116; Jasmin 2005). This ... has generated extensive discussion regarding the date of the earliest domestic camel in the southern Levant (and beyond) (e.g., Albright 1949: 207; Epstein 1971: 558–584; Bulliet 1975; Zarins 1989; Köhler-Rollefson 1993; Uerpmann and Uerpmann 2002; Jasmin 2005; 2006; Heide 2010; Rosen and Saidel 2010; Grigson 2012). Most scholars today agree that the dromedary was exploited as a pack animal sometime in the early Iron Age (not before the 12th century [BC])</blockquote> and concludes: <blockquote>Current data from copper smelting sites of the Aravah Valley enable us to pinpoint the introduction of domestic camels to the southern Levant more precisely based on stratigraphic contexts associated with an extensive suite of radiocarbon dates. The data indicate that this event occurred not earlier than the last third of the 10th century [BC] and most probably during this time. The coincidence of this event with a major reorganization of the copper industry of the region—attributed to the results of the campaign of Pharaoh Shoshenq I—raises the possibility that the two were connected, and that camels were introduced as part of the efforts to improve efficiency by facilitating trade. The fiber can be spun for use in weaving or made into yarns for hand knitting or crochet. Pure camel hair is recorded as being used for western garments from the 17th century onwards, and from the 19th century a mixture of wool and camel hair was used.Military uses camel contingent, Republic Day Parade, New Delhi (2004)]] at Magdhaba'', Egypt, 23 December 1916, by Harold Septimus Power (1925)]] By at least 1200 BC the first camel saddles had appeared, and Bactrian camels could be ridden. The first saddle was positioned to the back of the camel, and control of the Bactrian camel was exercised by means of a stick. However, between 500 and 100 BC, Bactrian camels came into military use. New saddles, which were inflexible and bent, were put over the humps and divided the rider's weight over the animal. In the seventh century BC the military Arabian saddle evolved, which again improved the saddle design slightly.<!--pagenum inserted based not on access, but on toc pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/exlibris/aleph/a20_1/apache_media/ANYEH2GP3D4Q8URFJ1NSG164SB2NAU.pdf--> Military forces have used camel cavalries in wars throughout Africa, the Middle East, and their use continues into the modern-day within the Border Security Force (BSF) of India. The first documented use of camel cavalries occurred in the Battle of Qarqar in 853 BC. Armies have also used camels as freight animals instead of horses and mules. The East Roman Empire used auxiliary forces known as dromedarii, whom the Romans recruited in desert provinces. The camels were used mostly in combat because of their ability to scare off horses at close range (horses are afraid of the camels' scent), 19th and 20th centuries of the Bulgarian military during the First Balkan War, 1912]] The United States Army established the U.S. Camel Corps, stationed in California, in the 19th century. Though the experimental use of camels was seen as a success (John B. Floyd, Secretary of War in 1858, recommended that funds be allocated towards obtaining a thousand more camels), the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861 saw the end of the Camel Corps: Texas became part of the Confederacy, and most of the camels were left to wander away into the desert. in order to exercise greater control over the camel-riding Tuareg and Arab insurgents, as previous efforts to defeat them on foot had failed. The Free French Camel Corps fought during World War II, and camel-mounted units remained in service until the end of French rule over Algeria in 1962. In 1916, the British created the Imperial Camel Corps. It was originally used to fight the Senussi, but was later used in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign in World War I. The Imperial Camel Corps comprised infantrymen mounted on camels for movement across desert, though they dismounted at battle sites and fought on foot. After July 1918, the Corps began to become run down, receiving no new reinforcements, and was formally disbanded in 1919. In World War I, the British Army also created the Egyptian Camel Transport Corps, which consisted of a group of Egyptian camel drivers and their camels. The Corps supported British war operations in Sinai, Palestine, and Syria by transporting supplies to the troops. The Somaliland Camel Corps was created by colonial authorities in British Somaliland in 1912; it was disbanded in 1944. Bactrian camels were used by Romanian forces during World War II in the Caucasian region. At the same period the Soviet units operating around Astrakhan in 1942 adopted local camels as draft animals due to shortage of trucks and horses, and kept them even after moving out of the area. Despite severe losses, some of these camels ended up as far west as to Berlin itself. The Bikaner Camel Corps of British India fought alongside the British Indian Army in World Wars I and II. The Tropas Nómadas (Nomad Troops) were an auxiliary regiment of Sahrawi tribesmen serving in the colonial army in Spanish Sahara (today Western Sahara). Operational from the 1930s until the end of the Spanish presence in the territory in 1975, the Tropas Nómadas were equipped with small arms and led by Spanish officers. The unit guarded outposts and sometimes conducted patrols on camelback.<!--Mainly info from "Tropas Nómadas" Wikipedia page, some info confirmed by the following references--> 21st century competition The annual King Abdulaziz Camel Festival is held in Saudi Arabia. In addition to camel racing and camel milk tasting, the festival holds a camel "beauty pageant" with prize money of $57m (£40m). In 2018, 12 camels were disqualified from the beauty contest after their owners were found to have injected them with botox. In a similar incident in 2021, over 40 camels were disqualified. Food uses Camel meat and milk are foods that are found in many cuisines, typically in Middle Eastern, North African and some Australian cuisines. Camels provide food in the form of meat and milk. Dairy , Ottoman Syria (now in Israel) - 1870s drawing]] ]] Camel milk is a staple food of desert nomad tribes and is sometimes considered a meal itself; a nomad can live on only camel milk for almost a month. Camel milk can readily be made into yogurt, but can only be made into butter if it is soured first, churned, and a clarifying agent is then added. Developing less wasteful uses of the milk, the FAO commissioned Professor J.P. Ramet of the École Nationale Supérieure d'Agronomie et des Industries Alimentaires, who was able to produce curdling by the addition of calcium phosphate and vegetable rennet in the 1990s. The cheese produced from this process has low levels of cholesterol and is easy to digest, even for the lactose intolerant. Camel milk can also be made into ice cream. Meat camel meat and rice dish]] , from Pakistan]] Approximately 3.3 million camels and camelids are slaughtered each year for meat worldwide. A camel carcass can provide a substantial amount of meat. The male dromedary carcass can weigh , while the carcass of a male Bactrian can weigh up to . The carcass of a female dromedary weighs less than the male, ranging between . The hump contains "white and sickly fat", which can be used to make the khli (preserved meat) of mutton, beef, or camel. On the other hand, camel milk and meat are rich in protein, vitamins, glycogen, and other nutrients making them essential in the diet of many people. From chemical composition to meat quality, the dromedary camel is the preferred breed for meat production. It does well even in arid areas due to its unusual physiological behaviors and characteristics, which include tolerance to extreme temperatures, radiation from the sun, water paucity, rugged landscape and low vegetation. Camel meat is reported to taste like coarse beef, but older camels can prove to be very tough, Camel is one of the animals that can be ritually slaughtered and divided into three portions (one for the home, one for extended family/social networks, and one for those who cannot afford to slaughter an animal themselves) for the qurban of Eid al-Adha. The Abu Dhabi Officers' Club serves a camel burger mixed with beef or lamb fat in order to improve the texture and taste. In Karachi, Pakistan, some restaurants prepare nihari from camel meat. Specialist camel butchers provide expert cuts, with the hump considered the most popular. Camel meat has been eaten for centuries. It has been recorded by ancient Greek writers as an available dish at banquets in ancient Persia, usually roasted whole. Camel meat is mainly eaten in certain regions, including Eritrea, Somalia, Djibouti, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Syria, Libya, Sudan, Ethiopia, Kazakhstan, and other arid regions where alternative forms of protein may be limited or where camel meat has had a long cultural history. A 2005 report issued jointly by the Saudi Ministry of Health and the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention details four cases of human bubonic plague resulting from the ingestion of raw camel liver. Camel meat is also occasionally found in Australian cuisine: for example, a camel lasagna is available in Alice Springs. The meat is very popular among East African Australians, such as Somalis, and other Australians have also been buying it. The feral nature of the animals means they produce a different type of meat to farmed camels in other parts of the world, and it is sought after because it is disease-free, and a unique genetic group. Demand is outstripping supply, and governments are being urged not to cull the camels, but redirect the cost of the cull into developing the market. Australia has seven camel dairies, which produce milk, cheese and skincare products in addition to meat. Religion Islam Muslims consider camel meat halal (, 'allowed'). However, according to some Islamic schools of thought, a state of impurity is brought on by the consumption of it. Consequently, these schools hold that Muslims must perform wudhu (ablution) before the next time they pray after eating camel meat. Also, some Islamic schools of thought consider it haram (, 'forbidden') for a Muslim to perform Salat in places where camels lie, as it is said to be a dwelling place of the Shaytan (, 'Devil'). Islamic texts contain several stories featuring camels. In the story of the people of Thamud, the prophet Salih miraculously brings forth a naqat (, 'milch-camel') out of a rock. After Muhammad migrated from Mecca to Medina (the Hijrah), he allowed his she-camel to roam there; the location where the camel stopped to rest determined the location where he would build his house in Medina. Judaism According to Jewish tradition, camel meat and milk are not kosher. Camels possess only one of the two kosher criteria; although they chew their cud, they do not have cloven hooves: "But these you shall not eat among those that bring up the cud and those that have a cloven hoof: the camel, because it brings up its cud, but does not have a [completely] cloven hoof; it is unclean for you." The Palestinian Muslim Makhamara clan in Yatta, who claim descent from Jews, reportedly avoid eating camel meat, a practice cited as evidence of their Jewish origins.Cultural depictionsWhat may be the oldest carvings of camels were discovered in 2018 in Saudi Arabia. They were analysed by researchers from several scientific disciplines and, in 2021, were estimated to be 7,000 to 8,000 years old. The dating of rock art is made difficult by the lack of organic material in the carvings that may be tested, so the researchers attempting to date them tested animal bones found associated with the carvings, assessed erosion patterns, and analysed tool marks in order to determine a correct date for the creation of the sculptures. This Neolithic dating would make the carvings significantly older than Stonehenge (5,000 years old) and the Egyptian pyramids at Giza (4,500 years old) and it predates estimates for the domestication of camels. <gallery widths"180" heights"220"> File:Shadda (detail), Karabagh region, southwest Caucasus.jpeg|Shadda (cover,detail), Karabagh region, southwest Caucasus, early 19th century File:Vessel in the Form of a Recumbent Camel with Jugs, 2015.65.15.jpg|Vessel in the form of a recumbent camel with jugs, 250 BC – 224 AD, Brooklyn Museum File:Brooklyn Museum - Maru Ragini (Dhola and Maru riding on a Camel).jpg|Maru Ragini (Dhola and Maru Riding on a Camel), c. 1750, Brooklyn Museum File:Brooklyn Museum - The Magi Journeying (Les rois mages en voyage) - James Tissot - overall.jpg|The Magi Journeying (Les rois mages en voyage)—James Tissot, c. 1886, Brooklyn Museum File:KiplingCamel3.gif|How the Camel Got His Hump (From Rudyard Kipling's Just So Stories) </gallery> Distribution and numbers , in northeastern Chad]] There are approximately 14 million camels alive , with 90% being dromedaries. where the dromedaries constitute an important part of local nomadic life. They provide nomadic people in Somalia Over one million dromedary camels are estimated to be feral in Australia, descended from those introduced as a method of transport in the 19th and early 20th centuries. This population is growing about 8% per year; it was estimated at 700,000 in 2008. Representatives of the Australian government have culled more than 100,000 of the animals in part because the camels use too much of the limited resources needed by sheep farmers. A small population of introduced camels, dromedaries and Bactrians, wandered through Southwestern United States after having been imported in the 19th century as part of the U.S. Camel Corps experiment. When the project ended, they were used as draft animals in mines and escaped or were released. Twenty-five U.S. camels were bought and exported to Canada during the Cariboo Gold Rush. The Wild Bactrian camel is the only truly wild (as opposed to feral) camel in the world. It is a distinct species that is not ancestral to the domestic Bactrian camel. The wild camels are critically endangered and number approximately 950, inhabiting the Gobi and Taklamakan Deserts in China and Mongolia. See also * Afghan cameleers in Australia * Australian feral camel * Camel howdah * Camel milk * Camel racing * Camel train (caravan) * Camel urine * Camel wrestling * Camelops * Camelus moreli * Dromedary * List of animals with humps * Xerocole References Notes Bibliography * [http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/003/X6528E/X6528E00.htm#TOC Camels and Camel Milk. Report Issued by Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (1982)] * * * * Further reading * External links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170527094435/http://www.isocard.org/index.htm International Society of Camelid Research and Development] * [http://www.greenprophet.com/2010/08/6-reasons-camel-milk/ Six Green Reasons to Drink Camel's Milk] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20101119115428/http://abbott-infotech.co.za/kalahari-use-of-camels-by-south-african-police.html Use of camels by South African police] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20190413090005/http://www.camelsandfriends.com/ The Camel as a pet] * [https://www.thenational.ae/uae/science/could-emirati-camels-hold-the-key-to-treating-venomous-snake-bites-1.843889 "Could Emirati camels hold the key to treating venomous snake bites?"] Category:African cuisine Category:Arab cuisine Category:Camelids Category:Domesticated animals Category:Halal meat Category:Livestock Category:Middle Eastern cuisine Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camel
2025-04-05T18:27:51.630773
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Chaldea
thumb|350px|The Chaldean tribes in Babylonia during the 1st millennium BC. Chaldea () refers to a region probably located in the marshy land of southern Mesopotamia. It is mentioned, with varying meaning, in Neo-Assyrian cuneiform, the Hebrew Bible, and in classical Greek texts. The Hebrew Bible uses the term (Kaśdim) and this is translated as Chaldaeans in the Greek Old Testament. During a period of weakness in the East Semitic-speaking kingdom of Babylonia, new tribes of West Semitic-speaking migrants arrived in the region from the Levant between the 11th and 9th centuries BC. The earliest waves consisted of Suteans and Arameans, followed a century or so later by the Kaldu, a group who became known later as the Chaldeans or the Chaldees. These migrations did not affect the powerful kingdom and empire of Assyria in Upper Mesopotamia, which repelled these incursions. These nomadic Chaldeans settled in the far southeastern portion of Babylonia, chiefly on the left bank of the Euphrates. Though for a short time the name commonly referred to the whole of southern Mesopotamia in Hebraic literature, this was a geographical and historical misnomer as Chaldea proper was in fact only the plain in the far southeast formed by the deposits of the Euphrates and the Tigris, extending about along the course of these rivers and averaging about in width. There were several kings of Chaldean origins who ruled Babylonia. From 626 BC to 539 BC, a ruling dynasty in later times referred to as the "Chaldean dynasty", named after their possible Chaldean origin, ruled the kingdom at its height under the Neo-Babylonian Empire, although the final ruler of this empire, Nabonidus (556–539 BC) (and his son and regent Belshazzar) was a usurper of Assyrian ancestry. Despite the similarity in name, Chaldea is not to be confused with the modern Chaldean Catholic Church or its adherents, who are predominantly ethnic Assyrians. Members of the Assyrian community have noted that Mandaeans hold a stronger connection to the region, while the theory of Chaldean origin arose around the time of a rise of Chaldean nationalism within the Assyrian community. Name The name Chaldaea is a latinization of the Greek (), a hellenization of Akkadian or , suggesting an underlying /kaɬdu/. The term Chaldea appears in Hebrew in the Bible as (), while Chaldeans are Hebrew () and Aramaic (). Genesis 22:22 lists Kesed (כֶּשֶׂד, reconstructed /kaɬd/), perhaps a singular form of Kasdim, as son of Abraham's brother Nahor (and brother of Kemuel the father of Aram), residing in Aram Naharaim. Jubilees 11:7 claims that "Ur son of Kesed built the city of Ur-Kasdim, and he named it after himself and his father". Jewish historian Flavius Josephus (37–) links Arpachshad and Chaldaea in his Antiquities of the Jews: "Arphaxad named the Arphaxadites, who are now called Chaldeans." Umberto Cassuto suggests that the name "Arpachshad" (ארפכשד) may be compounded from Arapcha-Kesed. Land thumb|Chaldea and neighboring countriesIn the early period, between the early 9th century and late 7th century BC, mat Kaldi was the name of a small sporadically independent migrant-founded territory under the domination of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC) in southeastern Babylonia, extending to the western shores of the Persian Gulf. The expression mat Bit Yâkin is also used, apparently synonymously. Bit Yâkin was the name of the largest and most powerful of the five tribes of the Chaldeans, or equivalently, their territory. The original extension of Bit Yâkin is not known precisely, but it extended from the lower Tigris into the Arabian Peninsula. Sargon II mentions it as extending as far as Dilmun or "sea-land" (littoral Eastern Arabia). "Chaldea" or mat Kaldi generally referred to the low, marshy, alluvial land around the estuaries of the Tigris and Euphrates, which at the time discharged their waters through separate mouths into the sea. The tribal capital Dur Yâkin was the original seat of Marduk-Baladan. The king of Chaldea was also called the king of Bit Yakin, just as the kings of Babylonia and Assyria were regularly styled simply king of Babylon or Assur, the capital city in each case. In the same way, what is now known as the Persian Gulf was sometimes called "the Sea of Bit Yakin", and sometimes "the Sea of the Land of Chaldea". "Chaldea" came to be used in a wider sense, of Southern Mesopotamia in general, following the brief ascendancy of the Chaldeans during 608–557 BC. This is especially the case in the Hebrew Bible, which was substantially composed during this period (roughly corresponding to the period of Babylonian captivity). The Book of Jeremiah makes frequent reference to the Chaldeans (King James Version Chaldees following LXX ; in Biblical Hebrew as Kasdîm ). Book of Habakkuk 1:6 calls them "that bitter and hasty nation" (). Book of Isaiah 23:13 DRB states, “Behold the land of the Chaldeans, there was not such a people, the Assyrians founded it: they have led away the strong ones thereof into captivity, they have destroyed the houses thereof, they have brought it to ruin.” Ancient Chaldeans Unlike the East Semitic Akkadian-speaking Akkadians, Assyrians and Babylonians, whose ancestors had been established in Mesopotamia since at least the 30th century BC, the Chaldeans were not a native Mesopotamian people, but were late 10th- or early 9th-century BC West Semitic Levantine migrants to the southeastern corner of the region, who had played no part in the previous three millennia of Sumero-Akkadian and Assyro-Babylonian Mesopotamian civilization and history. The ancient Chaldeans seem to have migrated into Mesopotamia sometime between c. 940 and 860 BC, a century or so after other new Semitic arrivals, the Arameans and the Suteans, appeared in Babylonia, c. 1100 BC. According to Ran Zadok, they first appear in written record in cylinder inscriptions of the King of Mari Aššur-ketta-lēšir II (late 12th-early 11th century BC), which record them reaching Mesopotamia as early as the 11th century BC. They later appear in the annals of the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III during the 850s BC. This was a period of weakness in Babylonia, and its ineffectual native kings were unable to prevent new waves of semi-nomadic foreign peoples from invading and settling in the land. Though belonging to the same West Semitic speaking ethnic group and migrating from the same Levantine regions as the earlier arriving Aramaeans, they are to be differentiated; the Assyrian king Sennacherib, for example, carefully distinguishes them in his inscriptions. The Chaldeans were for a time able to keep their identity despite the dominant native Assyro-Babylonian (Sumero-Akkadian-derived) culture although, as was the case for the earlier Amorites, Kassites and Suteans before them, by the time Babylon fell in 539 BC, perhaps before, the Chaldeans ceased to exist as a specific ethnic group. In the Hebrew Bible, "Ur of the Chaldees" (Ur Kaśdim) is cited as the starting point of the patriarch Abraham's journey to Canaan. Language Ancient Chaldeans probably spoke a West Semitic language similar to Old Aramaic. During the Neo-Assyrian Empire, Imperial Aramaic became the lingua franca of the empire under the rule of the Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser III in the mid-8th century BC. As a result, in late periods both the Babylonian and Assyrian dialects of Akkadian became marginalized, and Aramaic took its place across Mesopotamia, including among the Chaldeans, and later, also the southern Levant. One form of this once widespread Aramaic language was used in some books of the Hebrew Bible (the Book of Daniel and the Book of Ezra). The use of the name "Chaldean" (Chaldaic, Chaldee) to describe it, first introduced by Jerome of Stridon (d. 420), became common in early Aramaic studies, but that misnomer was later corrected, when modern scholars concluded that the Aramaic dialect used in the Hebrew Bible was not closely related to the ancient Chaldean language. Religion Ancient Chaldeans believed in "three heavens". History thumb|260px|Eurasia around 1000 BC, showing Babylon, Assyria, Aramean states and their neighbors The region that the Chaldeans eventually made their homeland was in relatively poor southeastern Mesopotamia, at the head of the Persian Gulf. They appear to have migrated into southern Babylonia from the Levant at some unknown point between the end of the reign of Ninurta-kudurri-usur II (a contemporary of Tiglath-Pileser II) circa 940 BC, and the start of the reign of Marduk-zakir-shumi I in 855 BC, although there is no historical proof of their existence prior to the late 850s BC. For perhaps a century or so after settling in the area, these semi-nomadic migrant Chaldean tribes had no impact on the pages of history, seemingly remaining subjugated by the native Akkadian speaking kings of Babylon or by perhaps regionally influential Aramean tribes. The main players in southern Mesopotamia during this period were Babylonia and Assyria, together with Elam to the east and the Aramaeans, who had already settled in the region a century or so prior to the arrival of the Chaldeans. The very first written historical attestation of the existence of Chaldeans occurs in 852 BC, in the annals of the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III, who mentions invading the southeastern extremes of Babylonia and subjugating one Mushallim-Marduk, the chief of the Amukani tribe and overall leader of the Kaldu tribes, together with capturing the town of Baqani, extracting tribute from Adini, chief of the Bet-Dakkuri, another Chaldean tribe. Shalmaneser III had invaded Babylonia at the request of its own king, Marduk-zakir-shumi I, who, being threatened by his own rebellious relations, together with powerful Aramean tribes pleaded with the more powerful Assyrian king for help. The subjugation of the Chaldean tribes by the Assyrian king appears to have been an aside, as they were not at that time a powerful force or a threat to the native Babylonian king. Important Kaldu tribes and their regions in southeastern Babylonia were Bit-Yâkin (the original area the Chaldeans settled in on the Persian Gulf), Bet-Dakuri, Bet-Adini, Bet-Amukkani, and Bet-Shilani. and the former Assyrian possessions of Aram (Syria), Phoenicia, Israel, Cyprus, Edom, Philistia, and parts of Arabia, while the Medes took control of the former Assyrian colonies in Ancient Iran, Asia Minor and the Caucasus. Nabopolassar was not able to enjoy his success for long, dying in 604 BC, only one year after the victory at Karchemish. He was succeeded by his son, who took the name Nebuchadnezzar II, after the unrelated 12th century BC native Akkadian-Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar I, indicating the extent to which the migrant Chaldeans had become infused with native Mesopotamian culture. Nebuchadnezzar II and his allies may well have been forced to deal with remnants of Assyrian resistance based in and around Dur-Katlimmu, as Assyrian imperial records continue to be dated in this region between 604 and 599 BC. In addition, the Egyptians remained in the region an attempt to revive the Asian colonies of the ancient Egyptian Empire. Nebuchadnezzar II was to prove himself to be the greatest of the Chaldean rulers, rivaling another non-native ruler, the 18th century BC Amorite king Hammurabi, as the greatest king of Babylon. He was a patron of the cities and a spectacular builder, rebuilding all of Babylonia's major cities on a lavish scale. His building activity at Babylon, expanding on the earlier major and impressive rebuilding of the Assyrian king Esarhaddon, helped to turn it into the immense and beautiful city of legend. Babylon covered more than , surrounded by moats and ringed by a double circuit of walls. The Euphrates flowed through the center of the city, spanned by a beautiful stone bridge. At the center of the city rose the giant ziggurat called Etemenanki, "House of the Frontier Between Heaven and Earth," which lay next to the Temple of Marduk. He is also believed by many historians to have built The Hanging Gardens of Babylon (although others believe these gardens were built much earlier by an Assyrian king in Nineveh) for his wife, a Median princess from the green mountains, so that she would feel at home. A capable leader, Nebuchadnezzar II conducted successful military campaigns; cities like Tyre, Sidon and Damascus were subjugated. He also conducted numerous campaigns in Asia Minor against the Scythians, Cimmerians, and Lydians. Like their Assyrian relations, the Babylonians had to campaign yearly in order to control their colonies. In 601 BC, Nebuchadnezzar II was involved in a major but inconclusive battle against the Egyptians. In 599 BC, he invaded Arabia and routed the Arabs at Qedar. In 597 BC, he invaded Judah, captured Jerusalem after the siege of Jerusalem (597 BC) and deposed its king Jehoiachin, carrying the Israelites into captivity in Babylon. Egyptian and Babylonian armies fought each other for control of the Near East throughout much of Nebuchadnezzar's reign, and this encouraged king Zedekiah of Judah to revolt. After an eighteen-month siege, Jerusalem was captured in 587 BC, thousands of Jews were deported to Babylon, and Solomon's Temple was razed to the ground. Nebuchadnezzar successfully fought the Pharaohs Psammetichus II and Apries throughout his reign, and during the reign of Pharaoh Amasis in 568 BC it is rumoured that he may have briefly invaded Egypt itself. By 572, Nebuchadnezzar was in full control of Babylonia, Chaldea, Aramea (Syria), Phonecia, Israel, Judah, Philistia, Samarra, Jordan, northern Arabia, and parts of Asia Minor. Nebuchadnezzar died of illness in 562 BC after a one-year co-reign with his son, Amel-Marduk, who was deposed in 560 BC after a reign of only two years. End of the Chaldean dynasty Neriglissar succeeded Amel-Marduk. It is unclear as to whether he was in fact an ethnic Chaldean or a native Babylonian nobleman, as he was not related by blood to Nabopolassar's descendants, having married into the ruling family. He conducted successful military campaigns against the Hellenic inhabitants of Cilicia, which had threatened Babylonian interests. Neriglissar reigned for only four years and was succeeded by the youthful Labashi-Marduk in 556 BC. Again, it is unclear whether he was a Chaldean or a native Babylonian. Labashi-Marduk reigned only for a matter of months, being deposed by Nabonidus in late 556 BC. Nabonidus was certainly not a Chaldean, but an Assyrian from Harran, the last capital of Assyria, and proved to be the final native Mesopotamian king of Babylon. He and his son, the regent Belshazzar, were deposed by the Persians under Cyrus the Great in 539 BC. When the Babylonian Empire was absorbed into the Persian Achaemenid Empire, the name "Chaldean" lost its meaning in reference to a particular ethnicity or land, but lingered for a while as a term solely and explicitly used to describe a societal class of astrologers and astronomers in southern Mesopotamia. The original Chaldean tribe had long ago became Akkadianized, adopting Akkadian culture, religion, language and customs, blending into the majority native population, and eventually wholly disappearing as a distinct race of people, as had been the case with other preceding migrant peoples, such as the Amorites, Kassites, Suteans and Arameans of Babylonia. The Persians considered this Chaldean societal class to be masters of reading and writing, and especially versed in all forms of incantation, sorcery, witchcraft, and the magical arts. They spoke of astrologists and astronomers as Chaldeans, and it is used with this specific meaning in the Book of Daniel (Dan. i. 4, ii. 2 et seq.) and by classical writers, such as Strabo. The disappearance of the Chaldeans as an ethnicity and Chaldea as a land is evidenced by the fact that the Persian rulers of the Achaemenid Empire (539–330 BC) did not retain a province called "Chaldea", nor did they refer to "Chaldeans" as a race of people in their written annals. This is in contrast to Assyria, and for a time Babylonia also, where the Persians retained the names Assyria and Babylonia as designations for distinct geo-political entities within the Achaemenid Empire. In the case of the Assyrians in particular, Achaemenid records show Assyrians holding important positions within the empire, particularly with regards to military and civil administration. Legacy The term Chaldean was still in use at the time of Cicero (106–43 BC) long after the Chaldeans had disappeared. In one of his speeches he mentioned "Chaldean astrologers", and he spoke of them more than once in his De Divinatione. Other classical Latin writers who speak of them as distinguished for their knowledge of astronomy and astrology are Pliny the Elder, Valerius Maximus, Aulus Gellius, Cato the Elder, Lucretius, and Juvenal. Horace in his Carpe diem ode speaks of the "Babylonian calculations" (Babylonii numeri), the horoscopes of astrologers consulted regarding the future. In the late antiquity, a variant of Aramaic that was used in some books of the Bible was misnamed as Chaldean by Jerome of Stridon. That inaccurate usage continued down the centuries in Western Europe, and it was still customary during the nineteenth century, until the misnomer was corrected by scholars. In West Asian, Greek and Hebraic sources, however, the term for the language spoken in Mesopotamia was commonly "Assyrian" and later also "Syriac". Accordingly, in the earliest recorded "Western" mentions of the Christians of what is now Iraq and nearby countries, "Chaldean" is used with reference to their language. In 1220/1, Jacques de Vitry wrote that "they denied that Mary was the Mother of God and claimed that Christ existed in two persons. They consecrated leavened bread and used the 'Chaldean' (Syriac) language". In the fifteenth century the term "Chaldeans" was first applied specifically to Assyrians living in Cyprus who entered a union with Rome, and no longer merely with reference to their language but the name of a new church. Impact on Assyrian identity After an absence from history for many years, the name was revived during the formation of the Chaldean Catholic Church. The church was not founded and populated by the long extinct Chaldean tribes of southeastern Mesopotamia, but founded in northern Mesopotamia by a breakaway group of ethnic Assyrians who had been members of the Church of the East before entering communion with Rome. The naming by Rome is believed to be due to a misinterpretation of the term Ur Kasdim, the supposed north Mesopotamian birthplace of Abraham in Hebraic tradition as Ur of the Chaldees, and a reluctance to use the earlier terms, such as Assyrians, East Assyrians, East Syrians and Nestorians, due to their connotations with the Church of the East and Syriac Orthodox Church. In modern times, Chaldea has been associated with attempts to declare Chaldeans as a separate ethnicity from Assyrians, through the belief that their descent is based in southern Babylonia. While some religious leaders of the Chaldean Catholic Church and activists in the West have advocated for a separate identity based on this notion, historians and international organizations generally treat Chaldeans as ethnic Assyrians, owing to genetic, linguistic, geographic, and modern historical factors. However, across the rest of Mesopotamia (particularly the North) after Chaldea fell, the terms "Assyrian", and its derivative Syrian remained the common ethnic term for the Aramaic-speaking inhabitants. These were used by the people themselves and their Persian, Armenian, Arab, Greek, Georgian and Kurdish neighbours both before and after the advent of Christianity in Iraq, Northeast Syria, Southeast Turkey and Northwest Iran. The Assyrian continuity in these regions is well documented. References Sources External links Category:States and territories established in the 10th century BC Category:States and territories disestablished in the 6th century BC Category:Ancient peoples Category:Babylonia Category:Ancient Mesopotamia Category:Ur of the Chaldees Category:Former kingdoms
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaldea
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Currying
In mathematics and computer science, currying is the technique of translating a function that takes multiple arguments into a sequence of families of functions, each taking a single argument. In the prototypical example, one begins with a function f:(X\times Y)\to Z that takes two arguments, one from X and one from Y, and produces objects in Z. The curried form of this function treats the first argument as a parameter, so as to create a family of functions f_x :Y\to Z. The family is arranged so that for each object x in X, there is exactly one function f_x. In this example, \mbox{curry} itself becomes a function, that takes f as an argument, and returns a function that maps each x to f_x. The proper notation for expressing this is verbose. The function f belongs to the set of functions (X\times Y)\to Z. Meanwhile, f_x belongs to the set of functions Y\to Z. Thus, something that maps x to f_x will be of the type X\to [Y\to Z]. With this notation, \mbox{curry} is a function that takes objects from the first set, and returns objects in the second set, and so one writes \mbox{curry}:[(X\times Y)\to Z]\to (X\to [Y\to Z]). This is a somewhat informal example; more precise definitions of what is meant by "object" and "function" are given below. These definitions vary from context to context, and take different forms, depending on the theory that one is working in. Currying is related to, but not the same as, partial application. developed by Moses Schönfinkel, and further developed by Haskell Curry. Uncurrying is the dual transformation to currying, and can be seen as a form of defunctionalization. It takes a function f whose return value is another function g, and yields a new function f' that takes as parameters the arguments for both f and g, and returns, as a result, the application of f and subsequently, g, to those arguments. The process can be iterated. Motivation Currying provides a way for working with functions that take multiple arguments, and using them in frameworks where functions might take only one argument. For example, some analytical techniques can only be applied to functions with a single argument. Practical functions frequently take more arguments than this. Frege showed that it was sufficient to provide solutions for the single argument case, as it was possible to transform a function with multiple arguments into a chain of single-argument functions instead. This transformation is the process now known as currying. All "ordinary" functions that might typically be encountered in mathematical analysis or in computer programming can be curried. However, there are categories in which currying is not possible; the most general categories which allow currying are the closed monoidal categories. Some programming languages almost always use curried functions to achieve multiple arguments; notable examples are ML and Haskell, where in both cases all functions have exactly one argument. This property is inherited from lambda calculus, where multi-argument functions are usually represented in curried form. Currying is related to, but not the same as partial application. The alternative name "Schönfinkelisation" has been proposed. In the mathematical context, the principle can be traced back to work in 1893 by Frege. but that source introduces the concept as "a device originated by Schönfinkel", and the term "currying" is not used, while Curry is mentioned later in the context of higher-order functions. although there are more cases. One useful corollary is that a function is continuous if and only if its curried form is continuous. Another important result is that the application map, usually called "evaluation" in this context, is continuous (note that eval is a strictly different concept in computer science.) That is, \begin{align} &&\text{eval}:Y^X \times X \to Y \\ && (f,x) \mapsto f(x) \end{align} is continuous when Y^X is compact-open and Y locally compact Hausdorff. These two results are central for establishing the continuity of homotopy, i.e. when X is the unit interval I, so that Z^{I\times Y} \cong (Z^Y)^I can be thought of as either a homotopy of two functions from Y to Z, or, equivalently, a single (continuous) path in Z^Y. Algebraic topology In algebraic topology, currying serves as an example of Eckmann–Hilton duality, and, as such, plays an important role in a variety of different settings. For example, loop space is adjoint to reduced suspensions; this is commonly written as [\Sigma X,Z] \approxeq [X, \Omega Z] where [A,B] is the set of homotopy classes of maps A \rightarrow B, and \Sigma A is the suspension of A, and \Omega A is the loop space of A. In essence, the suspension \Sigma X can be seen as the cartesian product of X with the unit interval, modulo an equivalence relation to turn the interval into a loop. The curried form then maps the space X to the space of functions from loops into Z, that is, from X into \Omega Z. Scott-continuous functions were first investigated in the attempt to provide a semantics for lambda calculus (as ordinary set theory is inadequate to do this). More generally, Scott-continuous functions are now studied in domain theory, which encompasses the study of denotational semantics of computer algorithms. Note that the Scott topology is quite different than many common topologies one might encounter in the category of topological spaces; the Scott topology is typically finer, and is not sober. The notion of continuity makes its appearance in homotopy type theory, where, roughly speaking, two computer programs can be considered to be homotopic, i.e. compute the same results, if they can be "continuously" refactored from one to the other. Lambda calculi In theoretical computer science, currying provides a way to study functions with multiple arguments in very simple theoretical models, such as the lambda calculus, in which functions only take a single argument. Consider a function f(x,y) taking two arguments, and having the type (X \times Y)\to Z, which should be understood to mean that x must have the type X, y must have the type Y, and the function itself returns the type Z. The curried form of f is defined as \text{curry}(f) = \lambda x.(\lambda y.(f(x,y))) where \lambda is the abstractor of lambda calculus. Since curry takes, as input, functions with the type (X\times Y)\to Z, one concludes that the type of curry itself is \text{curry}:((X \times Y)\to Z) \to (X \to (Y \to Z)) The → operator is often considered right-associative, so the curried function type X \to (Y \to Z) is often written as X \to Y \to Z. Conversely, function application is considered to be left-associative, so that f(x, y) is equivalent to ((\text{curry}(f) \; x) \;y) = \text{curry}(f) \; x \;y. That is, the parenthesis are not required to disambiguate the order of the application. Curried functions may be used in any programming language that supports closures; however, uncurried functions are generally preferred for efficiency reasons, since the overhead of partial application and closure creation can then be avoided for most function calls. Type theory In type theory, the general idea of a type system in computer science is formalized into a specific algebra of types. For example, when writing f \colon X \to Y , the intent is that X and Y are types, while the arrow \to is a type constructor, specifically, the function type or arrow type. Similarly, the Cartesian product X \times Y of types is constructed by the product type constructor \times. The type-theoretical approach is expressed in programming languages such as ML and the languages derived from and inspired by it: Caml, Haskell, and F#. The type-theoretical approach provides a natural complement to the language of category theory, as discussed below. This is because categories, and specifically, monoidal categories, have an internal language, with simply typed lambda calculus being the most prominent example of such a language. It is important in this context, because it can be built from a single type constructor, the arrow type. Currying then endows the language with a natural product type. The correspondence between objects in categories and types then allows programming languages to be re-interpreted as logics (via Curry–Howard correspondence), and as other types of mathematical systems, as explored further, below. Logic Under the Curry–Howard correspondence, the existence of currying and uncurrying is equivalent to the logical theorem ((A \land B) \to C) \Leftrightarrow (A \to (B \to C)) (also known as exportation), as tuples (product type) corresponds to conjunction in logic, and function type corresponds to implication. The exponential object Q^P in the category of Heyting algebras is normally written as material implication P\to Q. Distributive Heyting algebras are Boolean algebras, and the exponential object has the explicit form \neg P \lor Q, thus making it clear that the exponential object really is material implication. Category theory The above notions of currying and uncurrying find their most general, abstract statement in category theory. Currying is a universal property of an exponential object, and gives rise to an adjunction in cartesian closed categories. That is, there is a natural isomorphism between the morphisms from a binary product f \colon (X \times Y) \to Z and the morphisms to an exponential object g \colon X \to Z^Y . This generalizes to a broader result in closed monoidal categories: Currying is the statement that the tensor product and the internal Hom are adjoint functors; that is, for every object B there is a natural isomorphism: \mathrm{Hom}(A\otimes B, C) \cong \mathrm{Hom}(A, B\Rightarrow C) . Here, Hom denotes the (external) Hom-functor of all morphisms in the category, while B\Rightarrow C denotes the internal hom functor in the closed monoidal category. For the category of sets, the two are the same. When the product is the cartesian product, then the internal hom B\Rightarrow C becomes the exponential object C^B. Currying can break down in one of two ways. One is if a category is not closed, and thus lacks an internal hom functor (possibly because there is more than one choice for such a functor). Another way is if it is not monoidal, and thus lacks a product (that is, lacks a way of writing down pairs of objects). Categories that do have both products and internal homs are exactly the closed monoidal categories. The setting of cartesian closed categories is sufficient for the discussion of classical logic; the more general setting of closed monoidal categories is suitable for quantum computation. The difference between these two is that the product for cartesian categories (such as the category of sets, complete partial orders or Heyting algebras) is just the Cartesian product; it is interpreted as an ordered pair of items (or a list). Simply typed lambda calculus is the internal language of cartesian closed categories; and it is for this reason that pairs and lists are the primary types in the type theory of LISP, Scheme and many functional programming languages. By contrast, the product for monoidal categories (such as Hilbert space and the vector spaces of functional analysis) is the tensor product. The internal language of such categories is linear logic, a form of quantum logic; the corresponding type system is the linear type system. Such categories are suitable for describing entangled quantum states, and, more generally, allow a vast generalization of the Curry–Howard correspondence to quantum mechanics, to cobordisms in algebraic topology, and to string theory. The linear type system, and linear logic are useful for describing synchronization primitives, such as mutual exclusion locks, and the operation of vending machines. Contrast with partial function application Currying and partial function application are often conflated. One of the significant differences between the two is that a call to a partially applied function returns the result right away, not another function down the currying chain; this distinction can be illustrated clearly for functions whose arity is greater than two. Given a function of type f \colon (X \times Y \times Z) \to N , currying produces \text{curry}(f) \colon X \to (Y \to (Z \to N)) . That is, while an evaluation of the first function might be represented as f(1, 2, 3), evaluation of the curried function would be represented as f_\text{curried}(1)(2)(3), applying each argument in turn to a single-argument function returned by the previous invocation. Note that after calling f_\text{curried}(1), we are left with a function that takes a single argument and returns another function, not a function that takes two arguments. In contrast, partial function application refers to the process of fixing a number of arguments to a function, producing another function of smaller arity. Given the definition of f above, we might fix (or 'bind') the first argument, producing a function of type \text{partial}(f) \colon (Y \times Z) \to N. Evaluation of this function might be represented as f_\text{partial}(2, 3). Note that the result of partial function application in this case is a function that takes two arguments. Intuitively, partial function application says "if you fix the first argument of the function, you get a function of the remaining arguments". For example, if function div stands for the division operation x/y, then div with the parameter x fixed at 1 (i.e., div 1) is another function: the same as the function inv that returns the multiplicative inverse of its argument, defined by inv(y) = 1/y. The practical motivation for partial application is that very often the functions obtained by supplying some but not all of the arguments to a function are useful; for example, many languages have a function or operator similar to plus_one. Partial application makes it easy to define these functions, for example by creating a function that represents the addition operator with 1 bound as its first argument. Partial application can be seen as evaluating a curried function at a fixed point, e.g. given f \colon (X \times Y \times Z) \to N and a \in X then \text{curry}(\text{partial}(f)_a)(y)(z) \text{curry}(f)(a)(y)(z) or simply \text{partial}(f)_a \text{curry}_1(f)(a) where \text{curry}_1 curries f's first parameter. Thus, partial application is reduced to a curried function at a fixed point. Further, a curried function at a fixed point is (trivially), a partial application. For further evidence, note that, given any function f(x,y), a function g(y,x) may be defined such that g(y,x) = f(x,y). Thus, any partial application may be reduced to a single curry operation. As such, curry is more suitably defined as an operation which, in many theoretical cases, is often applied recursively, but which is theoretically indistinguishable (when considered as an operation) from a partial application. So, a partial application can be defined as the objective result of a single application of the curry operator on some ordering of the inputs of some function. See also Tensor-hom adjunction Lazy evaluation Closure (computer science) theorem Closed monoidal category References External links Category:Higher-order functions Category:Functional programming Category:Lambda calculus Category:Articles with example Java code
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Currying
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Cyrus
}} | gender = Male | meaning = "Sun", "One who bestows care" | origin = Persian | alternative spelling | related names Kourosh, Kurush, Koresh, Ciro | footnotes | wikt }} Cyrus (Persian: کوروش) is a male given name and the name of several Persian kings, particularly Cyrus the Great ( – 530 BC), but also Cyrus I of Anshan ( BC), King of Persia and the grandfather of Cyrus the Great, and Cyrus the Younger (died 401 BC), brother to the Persian king Artaxerxes II of Persia. Etymology Cyrus, as a word in English, is the Latinized form of the Greek Κῦρος, Kȳros, from Old Persian Kūruš. According to the inscriptions, the name is reflected in Elamite Kuraš, Babylonian Ku(r)-raš/-ra-áš and Imperial Aramaic kwrš. The modern Persian form of the name is Kūroš. The etymology of Cyrus has been and continues to be a topic of discussion amongst historians, linguists, and scholars of Iranology. The Old Persian name "kuruš" has been interpreted in various forms such as "the Sun", "like Sun", "young", "hero," and "humiliator of the enemy in verbal contest" and the Elamite "kuraš" has been translated as one "who bestows care". The name has appeared on many monuments and inscriptions in Old Persian. There is also the record of a small inscription in Morghab (southwestern Iran) on which there is the sentence (adam kūruš xšāyaθiya haxāmanišiya) in Old Persian meaning (I am Cyrus the Achaemenian King). After a questionable proposal by the German linguist F. H. Weissbach that Darius the Great was the first to inscribe in Persian, it had previously been concluded by some scholars that the inscription in Morghab refers to Cyrus the Younger. This proposal resulted from a false interpretation of a passage in paragraph 70 of the Behistun inscription by Darius the Great. Based on many arguments, the accepted theory among modern scholars is that the inscription does belong to Cyrus the Great. There are interpretations of the name of Cyrus by classical authors identifying with or referring to the Persian word for "Sun". The Historian Plutarch (46–120) states that "the sun, which, in the Persian language, is called Cyrus". Also, the Physician Ctesias who served in the court of the Persian king Artaxerxes II of Persia writes in his book Persica as summarized by Photios that the name Cyrus is from the Persian word "Khur" (the sun). These are, however, not accepted by modern scholars. According to Tavernier, the name kuraš, attested in Elamite texts, is likely "the original form" as there is no Elamite or Babylonian spelling ku-ru-uš in the transcriptions of Old Persian ku-u-r(u)-u-š. That is, according to Tavernier, kuraš is an Elamite name and means "to bestow care". Other Iranian etymologies have been proposed. The Indian proposal of Skalmowsky goes down to "to do, accomplish". Another theory is the suggestion of Karl Hoffmann that kuruš goes down to a -ru derivation from the IE root *(s)kau meaning "to humiliate"<ref nameTavernier/> and accordingly "kuruš" (hence "Cyrus") means "humiliator (of the enemy in verbal contest)".<ref name=cyrusthename/> People and fictional characters named Cyrus include: People Given name Ancient world *Cyrus I ( BC), King of Anshan *Cyrus the Great ( BC or 576 BC–530 BC) – also known as Cyrus II – the grandson of Cyrus I, an Achaemenid ruler and founder of the Great Persian Empire *Cyrus the Younger (died 401 BC), brother to the Persian King Artaxerxes *Cyrus (architect), 1st century Greek architect who worked in Rome *Saint Cyrus (see Cyrus and John), 4th century Coptic saint *Cyrus I of Edessa, bishop (died 396) *Cyrus II of Edessa, bishop (died 498) *Cyrus of Alexandria (died 642), Melkite Patriarch and co-founder of Monothelism *Cyrus of Panopolis, 5th-century Byzantine writer and official Modern era *Cyrus Leroy Baldridge (1889–1977), American artist, illustrator, author and adventurer *Cyrus Townsend Brady (1861–1920), American journalist, historian and adventure writer *Cyrus Broacha (born 1971), MTV India VJ *Cyrus Ramone Pattinson (born 1994), Team GB Boxer *Cyrus Christie (born 1992), professional footballer who plays as right back for Hull City A.F.C *Cyrus Chothia (1942–2019), British scientist *Cyrus Edwin Dallin (1861–1944), American sculptor *Cyrus S. Eaton (1883–1979), Canadian-American banker, investor and philanthropist *Cyrus Edwards (1793–1877), American politician and lawyer *Cyrus West Field (1819–1892), American businessman who successfully laid the first transatlantic telegraph cable *Cyrus Frisch (born 1969), Dutch film director *Cyrus Herzl Gordon (1908–2001) was an American scholar of Near Eastern cultures and ancient languages *Cyrus Hamlin (general) (1839–1867), Union general during American Civil War, son of Vice President Hannibal Hamlin *Cy Hungerford (1889–1983), American editorial cartoonist *Cyrus Kabiru (born 1984), Kenyan visual artist *Cy Kendall (1898–1953), American actor *Cyrus B. Lower (1843–1924), American Civil War Medal of Honor recipient *Cyrus McCormick (1809–1884), American inventor who developed the modern mechanical reaper *Cyrus Pallonji Mistry (born 1968), Irish-Indian businessman and Chairman of Indian conglomerate Tata Group *Cyrus Mistry (writer) (born 1956), Indian author and playwright *Cyrus Patell (born 1961), American literary and cultural critic *Cyrus Peirce (1790–1860), founder of first public normal school (teachers' college) in the United States *Cyrus Poncha (born 1976), national squash coach in India *Cyrus S. Poonawalla (), Indian businessman *Cyrus Rollocks (born 1998), Canadian soccer player *Cyrus Sahukar (born 1980), MTV India VJ *C. R. Smith (1899–1990), longtime CEO of American Airlines *Cyrus Vance Sr. (1917–2002), American politician and lawyer, U.S. Secretary of the Army under Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson, U.S. Secretary of Defense under Lyndon B. Johnson and U.S. Secretary of State under Jimmy Carter **Cyrus Vance Jr. (born 1954), American politician and lawyer, son of Cyrus Sr. and former Manhattan District Attorney (2010–2021) *Cyrus Villanueva, Australian singer who won The X Factor Australia in 2015 In literature * The Garden of Cyrus, a discourse by the English physician-philosopher Thomas Browne Fictional characters *Cyrus, from The Revenge of Magic book series by James Riely *Cyrus Beene, from the television series Scandal *Cyrus Trask, from John Steinbeck's novel East of Eden * Cyrus Spitama, the grandson of Zoroaster and main character of Gore Vidal's novel Creation. * Cyrus Borg, a character in Ninjago * Cyrus Bortel, from the animated TV series Kim Possible * Cyrus Goodman, from Andi Mack and Disney Channel's first gay main character * Cyrus Lupo, a detective from Law & Order * Cyrus Simpson, the brother of Abraham Simpson in The Simpsons * Cyrus, from the TV series Trailer Park Boys * Cyrus, from the animated series Sonic Underground * Cyrus "The Virus" Grissom, in the 1997 film Con Air, played by John Malkovich * Cyrus, a gang leader in the 1979 film The Warriors * Cyrus, the leader of Team Galactic and the main antagonist of Pokémon Diamond, Pearl, and Platinum * Cyrus Gold, the DC Comics character Solomon Grundy * Cyrus Smith, the leading character in Jules Verne's novel Mysterious Island * Cyrus, a vampaneze from the novel The Vampire Prince by Darren Shan * Cyrus, in the video game Chrono Trigger * Cyrus, a Redguard pirate and hero in the video game The Elder Scrolls Adventures: Redguard * Cyrus Albright, one of the eight main protagonists of the video game Octopath Traveler * Cyrus, an NPC in the video game Genshin Impact * Cyrus, an alpaca NPC introduced in Animal Crossing: New Leaf See also * Cambyses II#Etymology * Koresh (disambiguation) * Syrus Citations General and cited references * * * * * * * Category:English masculine given names Category:Masculine given names
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrus
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Case
Case or CASE may refer to: Instances Instantiation (disambiguation), a realization of a concept, theme, or design Special case, an instance that differs in a certain way from others of the type Containers Case (goods), a package of related merchandise Cartridge case or casing, a firearm cartridge component Bookcase, a piece of furniture used to store books Briefcase or attaché case, a narrow box to carry paperwork Computer case, the enclosure for a PC's main components Keep case, DVD or CD packaging Pencil case Phone case, protective or vanity accessory for mobile phones Battery case Road case or flight case, for fragile equipment in transit Shipping container or packing case Suitcase, a large luggage box Type case, a compartmentalized wooden box for letterpress typesetting Places Case, Laclede County, Missouri Case, Warren County, Missouri Case River, a Kabika tributary in Ontario, Canada Case Township, Michigan Case del Conte, Italy People Case (name), people with the surname (or given name) Case (singer), American R&B singer-songwriter and producer (Case Woodard) Arts, entertainment, and media The Case (1972), a TV movie starring Cliff Richards and Olivia Newton-John The Case (2007), a Chinese film Case (album), a 1996 album by American R&B singer and songwriter Case "Case" (song), a 2018 song by Nigerian singer Teni Réttur (), an Icelandic drama series CASE, a fictional robot in Interstellar (film) Business, finance, and law CASE 30, an index of the Cairo & Alexandria Stock Exchange in Egypt Case Corporation, defunct manufacturer of agricultural equipment, tractors and cars Case Construction Equipment (Case CE), a manufacturer of construction equipment Case IH, a manufacturer of agricultural equipment W. A. Case & Son Manufacturing Co., a defunct American manufacturer of plumbing fixtures W. R. Case & Sons Cutlery Co., an American manufacturer of knives Business case, capturing the reasoning for initiating a project Legal case, a dispute between opposing parties, being resolved by a court proceeding Education Case (policy debate), in debate competition Case study, a research method involving an up-close, in-depth, and detailed examination of a particular case, in the social and life sciences Case Middle School, part of Punahou School in Oahu, Hawaii Case Western Reserve University, an independent research university in Cleveland, Ohio, US Center for Advanced Studies in Engineering, now Sir Syed CASE Institute of Technology, a private engineering institute in Islamabad, Pakistan Center for Architecture, Science and Ecology, a research facility of the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, US Centre for Christian Apologetics, Scholarship and Education, a ministry of New College, University of New South Wales Council for Advancement and Support of Education, a nonprofit association of educational institutions, US Language and linguistics Conceptually Accurate Signed English, a sign-language variety of Manually Coded English Grammatical case, a common form of morphosyntactic inflection Letter case, a typographical distinction between capital and small letter forms Science, technology, and mathematics Computing CASE, a database used by the British Citizens Advice charity Best, worst and average case, in computer science, types of case analysis Computer-aided software engineering, for the software development life cycle Computer-assisted structure elucidation, for molecular geometry Support case (or ticket), in an issue tracking system Switch statement, a control statement, in programming Use case, a description of a system's behaviour in response to requests Other science, technology and mathematics Calcium selenide (chemical formula: CaSe) Case-hardening, a process of hardening the surface of a metal object Case-shot, a type of anti-personnel canister ammunition similar to a shrapnel shell Case study, a research method involving in-depth examination of an individual Proof by cases (or exhaustion), in mathematics Contribution to ARIEL Spectroscopy of Exoplanets (CASE), an instrument onboard European space telescope ARIEL Limiting case (mathematics), a special case with one or more extreme parameter values Limiting case (philosophy of science), a theory subsumed by another See also Box Carton Casa (disambiguation) Casement window, a window that is attached to its frame by one or more hinges Casing (disambiguation) Crate Justice Case (disambiguation)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case
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Rendering (computer graphics)
3.6]] ]] <!-- Deleted image removed: 2012]] --> Rendering is the process of generating a photorealistic or non-photorealistic image from input data such as 3D models. The word "rendering" (in one of its senses) originally meant the task performed by an artist when depicting a real or imaginary thing (the finished artwork is also called a "rendering"). Today, to "render" commonly means to generate an image or video from a precise description (often created by an artist) using a computer program. A software application or component that performs rendering is called a rendering engine, render engine, rendering system, graphics engine, or simply a renderer. A distinction is made between real-time rendering, in which images are generated and displayed immediately (ideally fast enough to give the impression of motion or animation), and offline rendering (sometimes called pre-rendering) in which images, or film or video frames, are generated for later viewing. Offline rendering can use a slower and higher-quality renderer. Interactive applications such as games must primarily use real-time rendering, although they may incorporate pre-rendered content. Rendering can produce images of scenes or objects defined using coordinates in 3D space, seen from a particular viewpoint. Such 3D rendering uses knowledge and ideas from optics, the study of visual perception, mathematics, and software engineering, and it has applications such as video games, simulators, visual effects for films and television, design visualization, and medical diagnosis. Realistic 3D rendering requires finding approximate solutions to the rendering equation, which describes how light propagates in an environment. Real-time rendering uses high-performance rasterization algorithms that process a list of shapes and determine which pixels are covered by each shape. When more realism is required (e.g. for architectural visualization or visual effects) slower pixel-by-pixel algorithms such as ray tracing are used instead. (Ray tracing can also be used selectively during rasterized rendering to improve the realism of lighting and reflections.) A type of ray tracing called path tracing is currently the most common technique for photorealistic rendering. Path tracing is also popular for generating high-quality non-photorealistic images, such as frames for 3D animated films. Both rasterization and ray tracing can be sped up ("accelerated") by specially designed microprocessors called GPUs. Rasterization algorithms are also used to render images containing only 2D shapes such as polygons and text. Applications of this type of rendering include digital illustration, graphic design, 2D animation, desktop publishing and the display of user interfaces. Historically, rendering was called image synthesis but today this term is likely to mean AI image generation. The term "neural rendering" is sometimes used when a neural network is the primary means of generating an image but some degree of control over the output image is provided. Neural networks can also assist rendering without replacing traditional algorithms, e.g. by removing noise from path traced images. Features Photorealistic rendering A large proportion of computer graphics research has worked towards producing images that resemble photographs. Fundamental techniques that make this possible were invented in the 1980s, but at the end of the decade, photorealism for complex scenes was still considered a distant goal. Today, photorealism is routinely achievable for offline rendering, but remains difficult for real-time rendering. In order to produce realistic images, rendering must simulate how light travels from light sources, is reflected, refracted, and scattered (often many times) by objects in the scene, passes through a camera lens, and finally reaches the film or sensor of the camera. The physics used in these simulations is primarily geometrical optics, in which particles of light follow (usually straight) lines called rays, but in some situations (such as when rendering thin films, like the surface of soap bubbles) the wave nature of light must be taken into account. Effects that may need to be simulated include: * Shadows, including both shadows with sharp edges and soft shadows with umbra and penumbra * Reflections in mirrors and smooth surfaces, as well as rough or rippled reflective surfaces * Refraction the bending of light when it crosses a boundary between two transparent materials such as air and glass. The amount of bending varies with the wavelength of the light, which may cause colored fringes or "rainbows" to appear. * Volumetric effects Absorption and scattering when light travels through partially transparent or translucent substances (called participating media because they modify the light rather than simply allow rays to pass through) * Caustics bright patches, sometimes with distinct filaments and a folded or twisted appearance, resulting when light is reflected or refracted before illuminating an object. In realistic scenes, objects are illuminated both by light that arrives directly from a light source (after passing mostly unimpeded through air), and light that has bounced off other objects in the scene. The simulation of this complex lighting is called global illumination. In the past, indirect lighting was often faked (especially when rendering animated films) by placing additional hidden lights in the scene, but today path tracing is used to render it accurately. For true photorealism, the camera used to take the photograph must be simulated. The thin lens approximation allows combining perspective projection with depth of field (and bokeh) emulation. Camera lens simulations can be made more realistic by modeling the way light is refracted by the components of the lens. Motion blur is often simulated if film or video frames are being rendered. Simulated lens flare and bloom are sometimes added to make the image appear subjectively brighter (although the design of real cameras tries to reduce these effects). Realistic rendering uses mathematical descriptions of how different surface materials reflect light, called reflectance models or (when physically plausible) bidirectional reflectance distribution functions (BRDFs). Rendering materials such as marble, plant leaves, and human skin requires simulating an effect called subsurface scattering, in which a portion of the light travels into the material, is scattered, and then travels back out again. The way color, and properties such as roughness, vary over a surface can be represented efficiently using texture mapping. Other styles of 3D rendering For some applications (including early stages of 3D modeling), simplified rendering styles such as wireframe rendering may be appropriate, particularly when the material and surface details have not been defined and only the shape of an object is known. Games and other real-time applications may use simpler and less realistic rendering techniques as an artistic or design choice, or to allow higher frame rates on lower-end hardware. Orthographic and isometric projections can be used for a stylized effect or to ensure that parallel lines are depicted as parallel in CAD rendering. Non-photorealistic rendering (NPR) uses techniques like edge detection and posterization to produce 3D images that resemble technical illustrations, cartoons, or other styles of drawing or painting. Inputs Before a 3D scene or 2D image can be rendered, it must be described in a way that the rendering software can understand. Historically, inputs for both 2D and 3D rendering were usually text files, which are easier than binary files for humans to edit and debug. For 3D graphics, text formats have largely been supplanted by more efficient binary formats, and by APIs which allow interactive applications to communicate directly with a rendering component without generating a file on disk (although a scene description is usually still created in memory prior to rendering). Traditional rendering algorithms use geometric descriptions of 3D scenes or 2D images. Applications and algorithms that render visualizations of data scanned from the real world, or scientific simulations, may require different types of input data. The PostScript format (which is often credited with the rise of desktop publishing) provides a standardized, interoperable way to describe 2D graphics and page layout. The Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) format is also text-based, and the PDF format uses the PostScript language internally. In contrast, although many 3D graphics file formats have been standardized (including text-based formats such as VRML and X3D), different rendering applications typically use formats tailored to their needs, and this has led to a proliferation of proprietary and open formats, with binary files being more common. 2D vector graphics A vector graphics image description may include: * Coordinates and curvature information for line segments, arcs, and Bézier curves (which may be used as boundaries of filled shapes) * Center coordinates, width, and height (or bounding rectangle coordinates) of basic shapes such as rectangles, circles and ellipses * Color, width and pattern (such as dashed or dotted) for rendering lines * Colors, patterns, and gradients for filling shapes * Bitmap image data (either embedded or in an external file) along with scale and position information * Text to be rendered (along with size, position, orientation, color, and font) * Clipping information, if only part of a shape or bitmap image should be rendered * Transparency and compositing information for rendering overlapping shapes * Color space information, allowing the image to be rendered consistently on different displays and printers 3D geometry A geometric scene description may include: * Size, position, and orientation of geometric primitives such as spheres and cones (which may be combined in various ways to create more complex objects) * Vertex coordinates and surface normal vectors for meshes of triangles or polygons (often rendered as smooth surfaces by subdividing the mesh) * Transformations for positioning, rotating, and scaling objects within a scene (allowing parts of the scene to use different local coordinate systems). * "Camera" information describing how the scene is being viewed (position, direction, focal length, and field of view) * Light information (location, type, brightness, and color) * Optical properties of surfaces, such as albedo, reflectance, and refractive index, * Optical properties of media through which light passes (transparent solids, liquids, clouds, smoke), e.g. absorption and scattering cross sections * Bitmap image data used as texture maps for surfaces * Small scripts or programs for generating complex 3D shapes or scenes procedurally * Description of how object and camera locations and other information change over time, for rendering an animation Many file formats exist for storing individual 3D objects or "models". These can be imported into a larger scene, or loaded on-demand by rendering software or games. A realistic scene may require hundreds of items like household objects, vehicles, and trees, and 3D artists often utilize large libraries of models. In game production, these models (along with other data such as textures, audio files, and animations) are referred to as "assets". Volumetric data Scientific and engineering visualization often requires rendering volumetric data generated by 3D scans or simulations. Perhaps the most common source of such data is medical CT and MRI scans, which need to be rendered for diagnosis. Volumetric data can be extremely large, and requires specialized data formats to store it efficiently, particularly if the volume is sparse (with empty regions that do not contain data). Before rendering, level sets for volumetric data can be extracted and converted into a mesh of triangles, e.g. by using the marching cubes algorithm. Algorithms have also been developed that work directly with volumetric data, for example to render realistic depictions of the way light is scattered and absorbed by clouds and smoke, and this type of volumetric rendering is used extensively in visual effects for movies. When rendering lower-resolution volumetric data without interpolation, the individual cubes or "voxels" may be visible, an effect sometimes used deliberately for game graphics. Photogrammetry and scanning Photographs of real world objects can be incorporated into a rendered scene by using them as textures for 3D objects. Photos of a scene can also be stitched together to create panoramic images or environment maps, which allow the scene to be rendered very efficiently but only from a single viewpoint. Scanning of real objects and scenes using structured light or lidar produces point clouds consisting of the coordinates of millions of individual points in space, sometimes along with color information. These point clouds may either be rendered directly or converted into meshes before rendering. (Note: "point cloud" sometimes also refers to a minimalist rendering style that can be used for any 3D geometry, similar to wireframe rendering.) Neural approximations and light fields A more recent, experimental approach is description of scenes using radiance fields which define the color, intensity, and direction of incoming light at each point in space. (This is conceptually similar to, but not identical to, the light field recorded by a hologram.) For any useful resolution, the amount of data in a radiance field is so large that it is impractical to represent it directly as volumetric data, and an approximation function must be found. Neural networks are typically used to generate and evaluate these approximations, sometimes using video frames, or a collection of photographs of a scene taken at different angles, as "training data". Algorithms related to neural networks have recently been used to find approximations of a scene as 3D Gaussians. The resulting representation is similar to a point cloud, except that it uses fuzzy, partially-transparent blobs of varying dimensions and orientations instead of points. As with neural radiance fields, these approximations are often generated from photographs or video frames. Outputs The output of rendering may be displayed immediately on the screen (many times a second, in the case of real-time rendering such as games) or saved in a raster graphics file format such as JPEG or PNG. High-end rendering applications commonly use the OpenEXR file format, which can represent finer gradations of colors and high dynamic range lighting, allowing tone mapping or other adjustments to be applied afterwards without loss of quality. Quickly rendered animations can be saved directly as video files, but for high-quality rendering, individual frames (which may be rendered by different computers in a cluster or render farm and may take hours or even days to render) are output as separate files and combined later into a video clip. The output of a renderer sometimes includes more than just RGB color values. For example, the spectrum can be sampled using multiple wavelengths of light, or additional information such as depth (distance from camera) or the material of each point in the image can be included (this data can be used during compositing or when generating texture maps for real-time rendering, or used to assist in removing noise from a path-traced image). Transparency information can be included, allowing rendered foreground objects to be composited with photographs or video. It is also sometimes useful to store the contributions of different lights, or of specular and diffuse lighting, as separate channels, so lighting can be adjusted after rendering. The OpenEXR format allows storing many channels of data in a single file. Renderers such as Blender and Pixar RenderMan support a large variety of configurable values called Arbitrary Output Variables (AOVs). Techniques Choosing how to render a 3D scene usually involves trade-offs between speed, memory usage, and realism (although realism is not always desired). The developed over the years follow a loose progression, with more advanced methods becoming practical as computing power and memory capacity increased. Multiple techniques may be used for a single final image. An important distinction is between image order algorithms, which iterate over pixels in the image, and object order algorithms, which iterate over objects in the scene. For simple scenes, object order is usually more efficient, as there are fewer objects than pixels. ; 2D vector graphics : The vector displays of the 1960s-1970s used deflection of an electron beam to draw line segments directly on the screen. Nowadays, vector graphics are rendered by rasterization algorithms that also support filled shapes. In principle, any 2D vector graphics renderer can be used to render 3D objects by first projecting them onto a 2D image plane. ; 3D rasterization : Adapts 2D rasterization algorithms so they can be used more efficiently for 3D rendering, handling hidden surface removal via scanline or z-buffer techniques. Different realistic or stylized effects can be obtained by coloring the pixels covered by the objects in different ways. Surfaces are typically divided into meshes of triangles before being rasterized. Rasterization is usually synonymous with "object order" rendering (as described above). ; Ray casting : Uses geometric formulas to compute the first object that a ray intersects. It can be used to implement "image order" rendering by casting a ray for each pixel, and finding a corresponding point in the scene. Ray casting is a fundamental operation used for both graphical and non-graphical purposes, e.g. determining whether a point is in shadow, or checking what an enemy can see in a game. ; Ray tracing : Simulates the bouncing paths of light caused by specular reflection and refraction, requiring a varying number of ray casting operations for each path. Advanced forms use Monte Carlo techniques to render effects such as area lights, depth of field, blurry reflections, and soft shadows, but computing global illumination is usually in the domain of path tracing. ; Radiosity : A finite element analysis approach that breaks surfaces in the scene into pieces, and estimates the amount of light that each piece receives from light sources, or indirectly from other surfaces. Once the irradiance of each surface is known, the scene can be rendered using rasterization or ray tracing. ; Path tracing : Uses Monte Carlo integration with a simplified form of ray tracing, computing the average brightness of a sample of the possible paths that a photon could take when traveling from a light source to the camera (for some images, thousands of paths need to be sampled per pixel). It was introduced as a statistically unbiased way to solve the rendering equation, giving ray tracing a rigorous mathematical foundation. Each of the above approaches has many variations, and there is some overlap. Path tracing may be considered either a distinct technique or a particular type of ray tracing. Note that the usage of terminology related to ray tracing and path tracing has changed significantly over time. ]] Ray marching is a family of algorithms, used by ray casting, for finding intersections between a ray and a complex object, such as a volumetric dataset or a surface defined by a signed distance function. It is not, by itself, a rendering method, but it can be incorporated into ray tracing and path tracing, and is used by rasterization to implement screen-space reflection and other effects. A technique called photon mapping traces paths of photons from a light source to an object, accumulating data about irradiance which is then used during conventional ray tracing or path tracing. Rendering a scene using only rays traced from the light source to the camera is impractical, even though it corresponds more closely to reality, because a huge number of photons would need to be simulated, only a tiny fraction of which actually hit the camera. Some authors call conventional ray tracing "backward" ray tracing because it traces the paths of photons backwards from the camera to the light source, and call following paths from the light source (as in photon mapping) "forward" ray tracing. However sometimes the meaning of these terms is reversed. Tracing rays starting at the light source can also be called particle tracing or light tracing, which avoids this ambiguity. Real-time rendering, including video game graphics, typically uses rasterization, but increasingly combines it with ray tracing and path tracing. To enable realistic global illumination, real-time rendering often relies on pre-rendered ("baked") lighting for stationary objects. For moving objects, it may use a technique called light probes, in which lighting is recorded by rendering omnidirectional views of the scene at chosen points in space (often points on a grid to allow easier interpolation). These are similar to environment maps, but typically use a very low resolution or an approximation such as spherical harmonics. (Note: Blender uses the term 'light probes' for a more general class of pre-recorded lighting data, including reflection maps.) Rasterization<span class"anchor" id"Rasterization"></span><span class"anchor" id"Scanline rendering and rasterization"></span> from 2009, likely rendered using a combination of techniques]] The term rasterization (in a broad sense) encompasses many techniques used for 2D rendering and real-time 3D rendering. 3D animated films were rendered by rasterization before ray tracing and path tracing became practical. A renderer combines rasterization with geometry processing (which is not specific to rasterization) and pixel processing which computes the RGB color values to be placed in the framebuffer for display. The main tasks of rasterization (including pixel processing) are: * Determining which pixels are covered by each geometric shape in the 3D scene or 2D image (this is the actual rasterization step, in the strictest sense) * Blending between colors and depths defined at the vertices of shapes, e.g. using barycentric coordinates (interpolation) * Determining if parts of shapes are hidden by other shapes, due to 2D layering or 3D depth (hidden surface removal) * Evaluating a function for each pixel covered by a shape (shading) * Smoothing edges of shapes so pixels are less visible (anti-aliasing) * Blending overlapping transparent shapes (compositing) 3D rasterization is typically part of a graphics pipeline in which an application provides lists of triangles to be rendered, and the rendering system transforms and projects their coordinates, determines which triangles are potentially visible in the viewport, and performs the above rasterization and pixel processing tasks before displaying the final result on the screen. Historically, 3D rasterization used algorithms like the Warnock algorithm and scanline rendering (also called "scan-conversion"), which can handle arbitrary polygons and can rasterize many shapes simultaneously. Although such algorithms are still important for 2D rendering, 3D rendering now usually divides shapes into triangles and rasterizes them individually using simpler methods. High-performance algorithms exist for rasterizing 2D lines, including anti-aliased lines, as well as ellipses and filled triangles. An important special case of 2D rasterization is text rendering, which requires careful anti-aliasing and rounding of coordinates to avoid distorting the letterforms and preserve spacing, density, and sharpness. After 3D coordinates have been projected onto the image plane, rasterization is primarily a 2D problem, but the 3rd dimension necessitates hidden surface removal. Early computer graphics used geometric algorithms or ray casting to remove the hidden portions of shapes, or used the ''painter's algorithm, which sorts shapes by depth (distance from camera) and renders them from back to front. Depth sorting was later avoided by incorporating depth comparison into the scanline rendering algorithm. The z-buffer '' algorithm performs the comparisons indirectly by including a depth or "z" value in the framebuffer. A pixel is only covered by a shape if that shape's z value is lower (indicating closer to the camera) than the z value currently in the buffer. The z-buffer requires additional memory (an expensive resource at the time it was invented) but simplifies the rasterization code and permits multiple passes. Memory is now faster and more plentiful, and a z-buffer is almost always used for real-time rendering. A drawback of the basic z-buffer algorithm is that each pixel ends up either entirely covered by a single object or filled with the background color, causing jagged edges in the final image. Early anti-aliasing approaches addressed this by detecting when a pixel is partially covered by a shape, and calculating the covered area. The A-buffer (and other sub-pixel and multi-sampling techniques) solve the problem less precisely but with higher performance. For real-time 3D graphics, it has become common to use complicated heuristics (and even neural-networks) to perform anti-aliasing. In 3D rasterization, color is usually determined by a pixel shader or fragment shader, a small program that is run for each pixel. The shader does not (or cannot) directly access 3D data for the entire scene (this would be very slow, and would result in an algorithm similar to ray tracing) and a variety of techniques have been developed to render effects like shadows and reflections using only texture mapping and multiple passes. Older and more basic 3D rasterization implementations did not support shaders, and used simple shading techniques such as flat shading (lighting is computed once for each triangle, which is then rendered entirely in one color), Gouraud shading (lighting is computed using normal vectors defined at vertices and then colors are interpolated across each triangle), or Phong shading (normal vectors are interpolated across each triangle and lighting is computed for each pixel). Until relatively recently, Pixar used rasterization for rendering its animated films. Unlike the renderers commonly used for real-time graphics, the Reyes rendering system in Pixar's RenderMan software was optimized for rendering very small (pixel-sized) polygons, and incorporated stochastic sampling techniques more typically associated with ray tracing. Ray casting One of the simplest ways to render a 3D scene is to test if a ray starting at the viewpoint (the "eye" or "camera") intersects any of the geometric shapes in the scene, repeating this test using a different ray direction for each pixel. This method, called ray casting, was important in early computer graphics, and is a fundamental building block for more advanced algorithms. Ray casting can be used to render shapes defined by constructive solid geometry (CSG) operations. Early ray casting experiments include the work of Arthur Appel in the 1960s. Appel rendered shadows by casting an additional ray from each visible surface point towards a light source. He also tried rendering the density of illumination by casting random rays from the light source towards the object and plotting the intersection points (similar to the later technique called photon mapping). can be used to find the first intersection of a ray with an intricate shape such as this Mandelbulb fractal.]] When rendering scenes containing many objects, testing the intersection of a ray with every object becomes very expensive. Special data structures are used to speed up this process by allowing large numbers of objects to be excluded quickly (such as objects behind the camera). These structures are analogous to database indexes for finding the relevant objects. The most common are the bounding volume hierarchy (BVH), which stores a pre-computed bounding box or sphere for each branch of a tree of objects, and the k-d tree which recursively divides space into two parts. Recent GPUs include hardware acceleration for BVH intersection tests. K-d trees are a special case of binary space partitioning, which was frequently used in early computer graphics (it can also generate a rasterization order for the painter's algorithm). Octrees, another historically popular technique, are still often used for volumetric data. Geometric formulas are sufficient for finding the intersection of a ray with shapes like spheres, polygons, and polyhedra, but for most curved surfaces there is no analytic solution, or the intersection is difficult to compute accurately using limited precision floating point numbers. Root-finding algorithms such as Newton's method can sometimes be used. To avoid these complications, curved surfaces are often approximated as meshes of triangles. Volume rendering (e.g. rendering clouds and smoke), and some surfaces such as fractals, may require ray marching instead of basic ray casting. Ray tracing 3.6 and its built-in scene description language]] Ray casting can be used to render an image by tracing light rays backwards from a simulated camera. After finding a point on a surface where a ray originated, another ray is traced towards the light source to determine if anything is casting a shadow on that point. If not, a reflectance model (such as Lambertian reflectance for matte surfaces, or the Phong reflection model for glossy surfaces) is used to compute the probability that a photon arriving from the light would be reflected towards the camera, and this is multiplied by the brightness of the light to determine the pixel brightness. If there are multiple light sources, brightness contributions of the lights are added together. For color images, calculations are repeated for multiple wavelengths of light (e.g. red, green, and blue). Classical ray tracing (also called Whitted-style or recursive ray tracing) extends this method so it can render mirrors and transparent objects. If a ray traced backwards from the camera originates at a point on a mirror, the reflection formula from geometric optics is used to calculate the direction the reflected ray came from, and another ray is cast backwards in that direction. If a ray originates at a transparent surface, rays are cast backwards for both reflected and refracted rays (using Snell's law to compute the refracted direction), and so ray tracing needs to support a branching "tree" of rays. In simple implementations, a recursive function is called to trace each ray. Ray tracing usually performs anti-aliasing by taking the average of multiple samples for each pixel. It may also use multiple samples for effects like depth of field and motion blur. If evenly-spaced ray directions or times are used for each of these features, many rays are required, and some aliasing will remain. Cook-style, stochastic, or Monte Carlo ray tracing avoids this problem by using random sampling instead of evenly-spaced samples. This type of ray tracing is commonly called distributed ray tracing, or distribution ray tracing because it samples rays from probability distributions. Distribution ray tracing can also render realistic "soft" shadows from large lights by using a random sample of points on the light when testing for shadowing, and it can simulate chromatic aberration by sampling multiple wavelengths from the spectrum of light. Real surface materials reflect small amounts of light in almost every direction because they have small (or microscopic) bumps and grooves. A distribution ray tracer can simulate this by sampling possible ray directions, which allows rendering blurry reflections from glossy and metallic surfaces. However if this procedure is repeated recursively to simulate realistic indirect lighting, and if more than one sample is taken at each surface point, the tree of rays quickly becomes huge. Another kind of ray tracing, called path tracing, handles indirect light more efficiently, avoiding branching, and ensures that the distribution of all possible paths from a light source to the camera is sampled in an unbiased way. Ray tracing was often used for rendering reflections in animated films, until path tracing became standard for film rendering. Films such as Shrek 2 and Monsters University also used distribution ray tracing or path tracing to precompute indirect illumination for a scene or frame prior to rendering it using rasterization. Advances in GPU technology have made real-time ray tracing possible in games, although it is currently almost always used in combination with rasterization. This enables visual effects that are difficult with only rasterization, including reflection from curved surfaces and interreflective objects, and shadows that are accurate over a wide range of distances and surface orientations. Ray tracing support is included in recent versions of the graphics APIs used by games, such as DirectX, Metal, and Vulkan. Ray tracing has been used to render simulated black holes, and the appearance of objects moving at close to the speed of light, by taking spacetime curvature and relativistic effects into account during light ray simulation. Radiosity 0.85).]] . Bottom: the scene rendered with path tracing (using the PBRT renderer).]] Radiosity (named after the radiometric quantity of the same name) is a method for rendering objects illuminated by light bouncing off rough or matte surfaces. This type of illumination is called indirect light, environment lighting, diffuse lighting, or diffuse interreflection, and the problem of rendering it realistically is called global illumination. Rasterization and basic forms of ray tracing (other than distribution ray tracing and path tracing) can only roughly approximate indirect light, e.g. by adding a uniform "ambient" lighting amount chosen by the artist. Radiosity techniques are also suited to rendering scenes with area lights such as rectangular fluorescent lighting panels, which are difficult for rasterization and traditional ray tracing. Radiosity is considered a physically-based method, meaning that it aims to simulate the flow of light in an environment using equations and experimental data from physics, however it often assumes that all surfaces are opaque and perfectly Lambertian, which reduces realism and limits its applicability. In the original radiosity method (first proposed in 1984) now called classical radiosity, surfaces and lights in the scene are split into pieces called patches, a process called meshing (this step makes it a finite element method). The rendering code must then determine what fraction of the light being emitted or diffusely reflected (scattered) by each patch is received by each other patch. These fractions are called form factors or view factors (first used in engineering to model radiative heat transfer). The form factors are multiplied by the albedo of the receiving surface and put in a matrix. The lighting in the scene can then be expressed as a matrix equation (or equivalently a system of linear equations) that can be solved by methods from linear algebra. Solving the radiosity equation gives the total amount of light emitted and reflected by each patch, which is divided by area to get a value called radiosity that can be used when rasterizing or ray tracing to determine the color of pixels corresponding to visible parts of the patch. For real-time rendering, this value (or more commonly the irradiance, which does not depend on local surface albedo) can be pre-computed and stored in a texture (called an irradiance map) or stored as vertex data for 3D models. This feature was used in architectural visualization software to allow real-time walk-throughs of a building interior after computing the lighting. The large size of the matrices used in classical radiosity (the square of the number of patches) causes problems for realistic scenes. Practical implementations may use Jacobi or Gauss-Seidel iterations, which is equivalent (at least in the Jacobi case) to simulating the propagation of light one bounce at a time until the amount of light remaining (not yet absorbed by surfaces) is insignificant. The number of iterations (bounces) required is dependent on the scene, not the number of patches, so the total work is proportional to the square of the number of patches (in contrast, solving the matrix equation using Gaussian elimination requires work proportional to the cube of the number of patches). Form factors may be recomputed when they are needed, to avoid storing a complete matrix in memory. The quality of rendering is often determined by the size of the patches, e.g. very fine meshes are needed to depict the edges of shadows accurately. An important improvement is hierarchical radiosity, which uses a coarser mesh (larger patches) for simulating the transfer of light between surfaces that are far away from one another, and adaptively sub-divides the patches as needed. This allows radiosity to be used for much larger and more complex scenes. Alternative and extended versions of the radiosity method support non-Lambertian surfaces, such as glossy surfaces and mirrors, and sometimes use volumes or "clusters" of objects as well as surface patches. Stochastic or Monte Carlo radiosity uses random sampling in various ways, e.g. taking samples of incident light instead of integrating over all patches, which can improve performance but adds noise (this noise can be reduced by using deterministic iterations as a final step, unlike path tracing noise). Simplified and partially precomputed versions of radiosity are widely used for real-time rendering, combined with techniques such as octree radiosity that store approximations of the light field. Path tracing As part of the approach known as physically based rendering, path tracing has become the dominant technique for rendering realistic scenes, including effects for movies. For example, the popular open source 3D software Blender uses path tracing in its Cycles renderer. Images produced using path tracing for global illumination are generally noisier than when using radiosity (the main competing algorithm for realistic lighting), but radiosity can be difficult to apply to complex scenes and is prone to artifacts that arise from using a tessellated representation of irradiance. Like distributed ray tracing, path tracing is a kind of stochastic or randomized ray tracing that uses Monte Carlo or Quasi-Monte Carlo integration. It was proposed and named in 1986 by Jim Kajiya in the same paper as the rendering equation. Kajiya observed that much of the complexity of distributed ray tracing could be avoided by only tracing a single path from the camera at a time (in Kajiya's implementation, this "no branching" rule was broken by tracing additional rays from each surface intersection point to randomly chosen points on each light source). Kajiya suggested reducing the noise present in the output images by using stratified sampling and importance sampling for making random decisions such as choosing which ray to follow at each step of a path. Even with these techniques, path tracing would not have been practical for film rendering, using computers available at the time, because the computational cost of generating enough samples to reduce variance to an acceptable level was too high. Monster House, the first feature film rendered entirely using path tracing, was not released until 20 years later. In its basic form, path tracing is inefficient (requiring too many samples) for rendering caustics and scenes where light enters indirectly through narrow spaces. Attempts were made to address these weaknesses in the 1990s. Bidirectional path tracing has similarities to photon mapping, tracing rays from the light source and the camera separately, and then finding ways to connect these paths (but unlike photon mapping it usually samples new light paths for each pixel rather than using the same cached data for all pixels). Metropolis light transport samples paths by modifying paths that were previously traced, spending more time exploring paths that are similar to other "bright" paths, which increases the chance of discovering even brighter paths. Multiple importance sampling provides a way to reduce variance when combining samples from more than one sampling method, particularly when some samples are much noisier than the others. This later work was summarized and expanded upon in Eric Veach's 1997 PhD thesis, which helped raise interest in path tracing in the computer graphics community. The Arnold renderer, first released in 1998, proved that path tracing was practical for rendering frames for films, and that there was a demand for unbiased and physically based rendering in the film industry; other commercial and open source path tracing renderers began appearing. Computational cost was addressed by rapid advances in CPU and cluster performance. Path tracing's relative simplicity and its nature as a Monte Carlo method (sampling hundreds or thousands of paths per pixel) have made it attractive to implement on a GPU, especially on recent GPUs that support ray tracing acceleration technology such as Nvidia's RTX and OptiX. However bidirectional path tracing and Metropolis light transport are more difficult to implement efficiently on a GPU. Research into improving path tracing continues. Many variations of bidirectional path tracing and Metropolis light transport have been explored, and ways of combining path tracing with photon mapping. Recent path guiding approaches construct approximations of the light field probability distribution in each volume of space, so paths can be sampled more effectively. Techniques have been developed to denoise the output of path tracing, reducing the number of paths required to achieve acceptable quality, at the risk of losing some detail or introducing small-scale artifacts that are more objectionable than noise; neural networks are now widely used for this purpose. Neural rendering Neural rendering is a rendering method using artificial neural networks. Neural rendering includes image-based rendering methods that are used to reconstruct 3D models from 2-dimensional images. * 1968 - Ray casting * 1968 - Warnock hidden surface removal * 1970 - Scanline rendering * 1971 - Gouraud shading * 1973 - Phong shading * 1973 - Phong reflectance model * 1977 - Blinn–Phong reflectance model * 1977 - Shadow volumes * 1978 - Shadow mapping * 1978 - Bump mapping * 1980 - BSP trees * 1980 - Ray tracing * 1981 - Cook-Torrance reflectance model * 1983 - MIP maps * 1984 - Octree ray tracing * 1984 - Alpha compositing * 1984 - Distributed ray tracing * 1984 - Radiosity (method for non-trivial scenes in 1985) * 1984 - A-buffer * 1985 - Hemicube radiosity * 1986 - Light source tracing * 1986 - Rendering equation * 1986 - Path tracing * 1987 - Reyes rendering * 1988 - Irradiance caching * 1991 - Xiaolin Wu line anti-aliasing * 1991 - Hierarchical radiosity * 1993 - Oren–Nayar reflectance model * 1993 - Tone mapping * 1993 - Subsurface scattering * 1993 - Bidirectional path tracing (Lafortune & Willems formulation) * 1994 - Ambient occlusion * 1995 - Photon mapping * 1995 - Multiple importance sampling * 1997 - Bidirectional path tracing (Veach & Guibas formulation) * 1997 - Metropolis light transport * 1997 - Instant Radiosity * 2002 - Precomputed Radiance Transfer * 2002 - Primary sample space Metropolis light transport * 2003 - MERL BRDF database * 2005 - Lightcuts * 2005 - Radiance caching * 2009 - Stochastic progressive photon mapping (SPPM) * 2012 - Vertex connection and merging (VCM) (also called unified path sampling) * 2012 - Manifold exploration * 2013 - Gradient-domain rendering * 2014 - Multiplexed Metropolis light transport * 2014 - Differentiable rendering * 2015 - Manifold next event estimation (MNEE) * 2017 - Path guiding (using adaptive SD-tree) * 2020 - Neural radiance fields * 2023 - 3D Gaussian splatting See also * 2D computer graphics * 3D computer graphics * 3D modeling * 3D rendering * Architectural rendering * Augmented reality * * Computer animation * Computer-generated imagery (CGI) General term for images rendered by a computer (e.g. when used for visual effects in a film) * Computer graphics * Computer graphics (computer science) * Digital compositing * Font rasterization Rendering text * Global illumination Rendering light that bounces between surfaces in a scene (in addition to direct light) * Glossary of computer graphics * Graphics library A software component that performs rendering and/or other graphics-related functions, usable by multiple applications, or an interface between a rendering component or graphics pipeline and the applications that use it (in the latter case called an API) * Graphics pipeline Sequence of steps for real-time 3D rendering, usually accelerated by special-purpose hardware (e.g. a GPU) * High-dynamic-range rendering Rendering that uses a larger range of light intensities than typically displayed on a computer screen * History of computer animation * List of 3D graphics libraries * List of 3D rendering software * List of computer graphics and descriptive geometry topics * List of rendering APIs * Non-photorealistic rendering * On-set virtual production Use of LED panels to display a rendered background on a film or TV set * Physically based rendering Rendering techniques that aim to realistically simulate the physics of light and the optical properties of materials * Pre-rendering Rendering for later viewing (in contrast to real-time rendering). Also called offline rendering. * Projection mapping Projection of moving or static images (including rendered images) onto objects in the real world other than conventional screens * Raster graphics Type of data that rendering usually outputs, consisting of a 2D grid of (pixel) values * Raster image processor Rendering component in a printer or printing system * Real-time rendering * Scientific visualization * Software rendering 3D rendering using a general-purpose CPU (instead of a hardware-accelerated graphics pipeline). Distinction is less clear in the era of GPUs that can run arbitrary code. * Technical drawing * Timeline of computer animation in film and television * Unbiased rendering Rendering techniques that avoid statistical bias (usually a refinement of physically based rendering) * * Virtual reality * Visual effects (VFX) Rendered images (or manipulated footage, shots of physical models, etc.) combined with live-action film footage * Volume rendering Visualization of a 3D data set (data set that assigns values to points or cells (voxels) in a 3D grid) References Further reading * * * * * * * * * * * * * External links * [https://web.archive.org/web/19961221040900/http://siggraph.org/ SIGGRAPH] the ACMs special interest group in graphics the largest academic and professional association and conference * [https://vintage3d.org/history.php vintage3d.org "The way to home 3d"] Extensive history of computer graphics hardware, including research, commercialization, and video games and consoles <!-- Do not place advertisements here. COMMERCIAL LINKS WILL BE REMOVED. See this article's Talk page, WP:EL, and WP:SPAM for more information. Wikipedia is not a link directory. Consider submitting your link to DMOZ instead. --> Category:3D rendering
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rendering_(computer_graphics)
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6606
Cartridge
Cartridge may refer to: Objects Cartridge (firearms), a type of modern ammunition ROM cartridge, a removable component in an electronic device Cartridge (respirator), a type of filter used in respirators Ink cartridge, a component for inkjet printers that contains the ink The liquid storage component of a vaporizer Magnetic cartridge, an electromechanical transducer, commonly called a 'pickup', used to play records on a turntable Other uses Donald Cartridge (1933–2015), English cricketer and educator Cartridge Creek, a creek near Fresno, California, United States See also
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartridge
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6607
Chaosium
| founder = Greg Stafford | successor | country United States | headquarters = Ann Arbor, Michigan | distribution | keypeople | publications = Games, Books | topics | genre Role-playing games, Board games, Fantasy fiction, Horror fiction, Weird fiction | imprints | revenue | owner | numemployees 16 | website = [http://www.chaosium.com/ chaosium.com] }} Chaosium Inc. ( ) is a publisher of tabletop role-playing games established by Greg Stafford in 1975. Chaosium's major titles include Call of Cthulhu, based on the horror fiction stories of H. P. Lovecraft; RuneQuest Glorantha; Pendragon, based on Thomas Mallory's ''Le Morte d'Arthur; and 7th Sea'', "swashbuckling and sorcery" set in a fantasy 17th-century Europe. Many of Chaosium's product lines are based upon literary sources. While Stafford himself has been described as "one of the most decorated game designers of all time" and "the grand shaman of gaming", multiple other notable game designers have written for Chaosium. These include David Conyers, Matthew Costello, Larry DiTillio, Paul Fricker, David A. Hargrave, Rob Heinsoo, Keith Herber, Jennell Jaquays, Katharine Kerr, Reiner Knizia, Charlie Krank, Robin Laws, Penelope Love, Mark Morrison, Steve Perrin, Sandy Petersen, Ken Rolston, Ken St. Andre, Jonathan Tweet, John Wick, and Lynn Willis; among others.History1975–1980 Greg Stafford founded "The Chaosium" in 1975, deriving the name partly from his home, which was near the Oakland Coliseum, combining "coliseum" with "chaos". His purpose was to publish his first board game White Bear and Red Moon (later renamed Dragon Pass), a board game set in his fantasy world of Glorantha. In 1978, Chaosium published Steve Perrin's roleplaying game RuneQuest, also set in Glorantha, following up with a second edition in 1980 and various supplements over the next six years. 1980s: Growth and licensing with Avalon Hill In 1980, the company officially incorporated as Chaosium Inc. That year, Stafford and Lynn Willis simplified the RuneQuest rules into the 16-page Basic Role-Playing (BRP). These simulationist, skill-based generic rules formed the basis of many of Chaosium's later "d100" RPGs, most notably Call of Cthulhu, first published in 1982. Chaosium entered into a licensing agreement with Avalon Hill in 1983 to produce a third edition of RuneQuest. Avalon Hill manufactured and marketed the game, while Chaosium was responsible for acquisitions, design, development, and layout. Ken Rolston managed the line as "Rune Czar". One of the first RPGs by a female lead designer was published by Chaosium: Kerie Campbell-Robson's 1986 release Hawkmoon. 1986 also saw the release of Ghostbusters with West End Games. Designed by Sandy Petersen, Lynn Willis, and Greg Stafford, it was the first RPG to use the dice pool mechanic. West End would also use the system as the basis of Star Wars: The Roleplaying Game and, eventually, the D6 System. Late 1990s–early 2010s: Financial struggle In 1996, it was prematurely reported that Chaosium had secured the rights to publish a collectible card game based on the video game Doom. In 1998, following the financial failure of the collectible card game Mythos, Greg Stafford resigned as Chaosium president and left the company, along with Sandy Petersen (although they both remained shareholders). Chaosium effectively split up into various successor companies, each maintaining its focus on a few of the company's products. Stafford took the rights to his game setting Glorantha, setting up the company Issaries, Inc. to continue publishing this line (later licensing it to Moon Design Publications, along with the game HeroQuest). Long-time employees and part-owners Charlie Krank and Lynn Willis remained at Chaosium as President and Editor-in-Chief respectively, continuing on with Call of Cthulhu as the main product line. Lynn Willis retired in 2008 due to poor health and died in 2013. Mid 2010s: The return of Stafford and Petersen Problems and delays fulfilling the Kickstarters for the 7th edition of Call of Cthulhu led Stafford and Petersen to return to active roles at Chaosium in June 2015. Charlie Krank subsequently left the company. Later that year at Gen Con 2015, Stafford and Petersen announced Moon Design Publications were now part of the Chaosium ownership, and the four principals of Moon Design (Rick Meints, Jeff Richard, Michael O'Brien, and Neil Robinson) had become the new Chaosium management team. Chaosium once again became the licensed publisher for RuneQuest, HeroQuest, and other products related to Glorantha and continued to publish the Call of Cthulhu line. Stafford served as chair of the company board and creative consultant until his death in October 2018. Since retiring from the board in 2019, Petersen has done occasional freelance work for the company, as did original RuneQuest creator Steve Perrin until his death in 2021. As part of its financial reorganization, the new management closed the company office and warehouse in Hayward, California, ending Chaosium's long association with the San Francisco Bay Area. The company is now based in Ann Arbor, Michigan and uses a fulfillment house model for distribution of product. Delivery of the core rewards of the Call of Cthulhu 7th Edition Kickstarter finally commenced in April 2016. The new edition went on to win nine of the ten awards it was nominated for at the Gen Con 2017 ENnie Awards. Late 2010s to Present: Expansion After the consolidation and reorganization of the mid-decade, the company was again poised to expand its offerings through a combination of acquisitions, new licenses, and distribution deals. Greg Stafford's King Arthur Pendragon and Prince Valiant roleplaying games returned to Chaosium ownership on December 11, 2018. On April 2, 2019, Chaosium acquired the rights to the 7th Sea product line (both Second Edition and Khitai Kickstarters) from John Wick, including back stock of books published so far. On November 30, 2019, Chaosium acquired the rights to produce a role-playing game based on Ben Aaronovitch's Rivers of London urban fantasy novels. In the spring of 2020, Chaosium took over distribution of the English translations of Spanish fantasy game Aquelarre and French Ice Age roleplaying game Würm, both of which had been successfully kickstarted by Nocturnal Media. In February 2021, they added Upwind, an original game kickstarted by Nocturnal Media and Biohazard Games, to that list. On August 20, 2021, Chaosium acquired the rights to Cthulhu Britannica and World War Cthulhu, formerly produced under license by Cubicle 7 until 2017. On October 26, 2021, Moon Design Publishing announced it was forming a partnership with Black Monk Games of Poland and a new company, The Chaosium Group, was being formed to manage both.Fiction Chaosium began publishing a line of non-game books (primarily fiction) in 1993. Many titles are themed around H. P. Lovecraft's Cthulhu Mythos and related topics, although the first work published was Greg Stafford's fantasy work King of Sartar, set in his mythic world Glorantha. ''Cassilda's Song'', a 2015 anthology based on Robert W. Chambers's King in Yellow and written entirely by women, was nominated for two 2016 World Fantasy Awards. In May 2017, Chaosium appointed award-winning author and editor James Lowder as executive editor of fiction. Lowder had previously served as a consultant for Chaosium, helping the company and freelancers resolve payment and contract problems with past fiction projects. Although not published by Chaosium, the ongoing Wild Cards series of superhero science fiction originated from a long-running Superworld campaign gamemastered by Game of Thrones author George R. R. Martin and his circle of fellow writers who played in his game. Magazines Three magazines have been published by Chaosium to promote its products: * ''Wyrm's Footnotes'' ran for fourteen issues from 1976 to 1982. For the first ten issues, it was a source of supporting material for White Bear and Red Moon. In 1981, starting with Issue #11, it became the official RuneQuest magazine. The last edition published during its initial run was Issue #14, dated April 1982. The magazine was revived in 2012 by Moon Design Publications, continuing the issue numbering at 15, despite the 30-year hiatus. Issues 1 to 14 were republished in PDF format in 2019. * Different Worlds. Forty-seven bimonthly issues from Different Worlds were published. Chaosium, from 1979 to 1985, published the first thirty-eight and Sleuth Publications, from 1985 to 1987, the final nine. Tadashi Ehara was the editor of the magazine during the periods concerned by both publishing houses. * Starry Wisdom, a Lovecraft-themed magazine, three issues of which Chaosium published in 1997.ReceptionChaosium won the 2017 Silver Ennie Award for "Fan’s Choice for Best Publisher". References External links * of Chaosium * [http://www.rpg.net/columns/briefhistory/briefhistory3.phtml A 3rd-party Chaosium history guide] Category:1975 establishments in California Category:American companies established in 1975 Category:Companies based in Ann Arbor, Michigan Category:Design companies established in 1975 Category:ENnies winners Category:History of Hayward, California Category:History of Oakland, California Category:Publishing companies established in 1975 Category:Publishing companies of the United States Category:Role-playing game publishing companies Category:Trading card companies
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaosium
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Carolina Panthers
| first_season = 1995 | city and headquartered at Bank of America Stadium<br />Charlotte, North Carolina | misc | NFL_start_yr 1995 | division_hist = * National Football Conference (1995–present) ** NFC West (1995–2001) ** NFC South (2002–present) | uniform | colors Black, process blue, silver<br /> | hist_yr = 1995 | hist_misc | mascot Sir Purr | website = | owner David Tepper | president Kristi Coleman | general manager = Dan Morgan | coach = Dave Canales | no_league_champs = 0 | no_sb_champs = 0 | no_conf_champs = 2 | no_div_champs = 6 | conf_champs = * NFC: 2003, 2015 | div_champs = * NFC West: 1996 * NFC South: 2003, 2008, 2013, 2014, 2015 | no_playoff_appearances = 8 | playoff_appearances = * NFL: 1996, 2003, 2005, 2008, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2017 | stadium_years = * Memorial Stadium (1995) * Bank of America Stadium (1996–present) | team_owners = * Jerry Richardson (1993–2018) * David Tepper (2018–present) }} The Carolina Panthers are a professional American football team based in Charlotte, North Carolina. The Panthers compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member of the National Football Conference (NFC) South division. The team is headquartered in Bank of America Stadium in Uptown Charlotte, which also serves as the team's home field. The Panthers are supported throughout the Carolinas; although the team has played its home games in Charlotte since 1996, it played its home games at Memorial Stadium in Clemson, South Carolina, during its first season in 1995. The Panthers were announced as the league's 29th franchise in 1993 and began play in 1995 under founding owner Jerry Richardson. The Panthers played well in their first two years, finishing in 1995 (an all-time best record for an NFL expansion team's first season) and 12–4 the following year, winning the NFC West before ultimately losing to the eventual Super Bowl champion Green Bay Packers in the NFC Championship Game. They did not have another winning season until 2003 when they won the NFC Championship Game and reached Super Bowl XXXVIII, losing 32–29 to the New England Patriots. After recording playoff appearances in 2005 and 2008, the team failed to make another playoff appearance until 2013, the first of three consecutive NFC South titles. After losing in the divisional round to the San Francisco 49ers in 2013 and the Seattle Seahawks in 2014, the Panthers returned to the Super Bowl in 2015 but lost to the Denver Broncos. Since then, the team has appeared in the playoffs only once, in 2017. The team's five NFC South titles since the division's establishment in 2002 rank second only to the New Orleans Saints. The franchise is legally registered as Panther Football, LLC and are controlled by David Tepper, whose purchase of the team from founder Jerry Richardson was unanimously approved by league owners on May 22, 2018. The club, which Forbes valued at approximately US$2.3 billion in 2018,HistoryBeginningsOn December 15, 1987, entrepreneur Jerry Richardson announced his bid for an NFL expansion franchise in the Carolinas. Richardson drew his inspiration to pursue an NFL franchise from George Shinn, who had made a successful bid for an expansion National Basketball Association (NBA) team in Charlotte, the Charlotte Hornets. Richardson founded Richardson Sports, a partnership consisting of himself, his family, and a number of businessmen from North and South Carolina who were also recruited to be limited partners. Richardson looked at four potential locations for a stadium, ultimately choosing uptown Charlotte. To highlight the demand for professional football in the Carolinas, Richardson Sports held preseason games around the area from 1989 to 1991. The first two games were held at Carter–Finley Stadium in Raleigh, North Carolina, and Kenan Memorial Stadium in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, while the third and final game was held at Williams-Brice Stadium in Columbia, South Carolina. The matchups were between existing NFL teams. In 1991, the group formally filed an application for the open expansion spot, and on October 26, 1993, the 28 NFL owners unanimously named the Carolina Panthers as the 29th member of the NFL. Jerry Richardson era (1995–2017) (North Carolina), Bob Dole (Kansas), Jesse Helms (North Carolina), and Strom Thurmond (South Carolina) show their enthusiasm for the newly created Carolina Panthers]] The Panthers first competed in the 1995 NFL season; they were one of two expansion teams to begin playing that year, the other being the Jacksonville Jaguars. Former Pittsburgh Steelers defensive coordinator Dom Capers was named the first head coach. The Panthers played their first regular season game in Week 1 of the 1995 season. The team fell to the Atlanta Falcons 23–20 in overtime. After a 0–5 start, with three close losses, the Panthers won their first game in franchise history, a 26–15 win over the New York Jets. The team finished its inaugural season , the best performance ever from a first-year expansion team. They performed even better in their second season, finishing with a record and winning the NFC West division, as well as securing a first-round bye. The Panthers beat the defending Super Bowl champions Dallas Cowboys in the divisional round 26–17 before losing the NFC Championship Game to the eventual Super Bowl champions, the Green Bay Packers 30–13. The team managed only a finish in 1997 and slipped to in 1998, leading to Capers' dismissal as head coach. The Panthers hired former San Francisco 49ers head coach George Seifert to replace Capers, and he led the team to an record in 1999. The team finished in 2000 and fell to in 2001, winning their first game but losing their last 15. This performance tied the NFL record for most losses in a single season, and it broke the record held by the winless 1976 Buccaneers for most consecutive losses in a single season (both records have since been broken by the 2008 Lions), leading the Panthers to fire Seifert. One highlight from the loss-ridden 2001 season was the drafting of future franchise wide receiver Steve Smith. He was a third-round selection in the 2001 NFL draft by the team. John Fox years (2002–2010) with the Panthers in 2006. Delhomme led the Panthers to three postseason appearances and an appearance in Super Bowl XXXVIII.]] played wide receiver for the Panthers from 2001 to 2013. In 2005, Smith led the NFL in receptions, receiving yards, and touchdowns.]] #90 jersey in the Pro Football Hall of Fame. Peppers played defensive end for the Panthers from 2002 to 2009 and later again from 2017 to 2018.]] After the NFL's expansion to 32 teams in 2002, the Panthers were relocated from the NFC West to the newly created NFC South division. The Panthers' rivalries with the Falcons and Saints were maintained, and they would be joined by the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. The Panthers had the second overall pick in the 2002 NFL Draft. The team selected future Hall of Fame defensive end Julius Peppers out of North Carolina. New York Giants defensive coordinator John Fox was hired to replace Seifert and led the team to a finish in 2002. Although the team's defense gave up very few yards, ranking the second-best in the NFL in yards conceded, they were hindered by an offense that ranked as the second-worst in the league in yards gained. Prior to the 2003 season, the team signed quarterback Jake Delhomme. The Panthers improved to in the 2003 regular season, winning the NFC South. The Panthers defeated the Dallas Cowboys 29–10 in the Wild Card Round, the St. Louis Rams 29–23 in the Divisional Round, and the Philadelphia Eagles 14–3 in the NFC Championship. They advanced to Super Bowl XXXVIII before losing to the New England Patriots, 32–29. The game was immediately hailed by sportswriter Peter King as the "Greatest Super Bowl of all time". King felt the game "was a wonderful championship battle, full of everything that makes football dramatic, draining, enervating, maddening, fantastic, exciting" and praised, among other things, the unpredictability, coaching, and conclusion. The game is still viewed as one of the best Super Bowls of all time, and in the opinion of Charlotte-based NPR reporter Scott Jagow, the Panthers' Super Bowl appearance represented the arrival of Charlotte onto the national scene. Following a start in 2004, the Panthers rebounded to win six of their last seven games despite losing 14 players for the season due to injury. They lost their last game to New Orleans, finishing the 2004 season at . Had they won the game, the Panthers would have made the playoffs. The team improved to in 2005, finishing second in the division behind Tampa Bay and clinching a playoff berth as a wild card. In the first round of the playoffs, the Panthers went on the road to face the New York Giants, beating them 23–0 for the NFL's first playoff shutout against a home team since 1980. The following week, they beat Chicago 29–21 on the road, but lost key players Julius Peppers, a defensive end, and DeShaun Foster, a running back, who were both injured during the game. The Panthers were then defeated 34–14 by the Seattle Seahawks in the NFC Championship Game, ending their season. Although the Panthers went into the 2006 season as favorites to win the NFC South and the free agent signing of Keyshawn Johnson, they finished with a disappointing record. The team finished the 2007 season with a record after losing quarterback Jake Delhomme early in the season due to an elbow injury. In 2008, the Panthers rebounded with a regular season record, winning the NFC South and securing a first round bye. They were eliminated in the divisional round of the playoffs, losing 33–13 to the eventual NFC Champion Arizona Cardinals after Delhomme turned the ball over six times. Delhomme's struggles carried over into the 2009 season, where he threw 18 interceptions in the first 11 games before breaking a finger in his throwing hand. The Panthers were at a record before Delhomme's season-ending injury, and his backup, Matt Moore, led the team to a finish to the season for an overall record. In 2010, after releasing Delhomme in the offseason, the Panthers finished with a league-worst () record; their offense was the worst in the league. John Fox's contract expired after the season ended, and the team did not retain him or his staff. Ron Rivera years (2011–2019) in 2011.|247x247px]] . Newton would lead the Panthers to a 15–1 record in 2015 and an appearance in Super Bowl 50.|268x268px]] The team hired Ron Rivera to replace Fox as head coach and drafted Auburn's Heisman Trophy-winning quarterback Cam Newton with the first overall pick in the 2011 NFL draft. The Panthers opened the 2011 season , but finished with a record, He also was the first rookie quarterback to rush for over 500 yards in a single season. After strengthening the defense with future all-pro Luke Kuechly in the first round of the 2012 draft, the Panthers again opened the 2012 season poorly, losing five out of their first six games, leading longtime general manager Marty Hurney to be fired in response. The team slid to a record before winning five of their last six games, resulting in a record. This strong finish helped save Rivera's job. but they were beaten by the 49ers in the Divisional Round. In 2014, the Panthers opened the season with two wins, but after 12 games, sat at due in part to a seven-game winless streak. A four-game winning streak to end the season secured the team their second consecutive NFC South championship and a playoff berth, despite a losing record of . The Panthers defeated the Arizona Cardinals, 27–16, in the wild card round to advance to the divisional playoffs, where they lost to eventual NFC champion Seattle, 31–17. The 2015 season saw the Panthers start the season and finish the season , which tied for the best regular-season record in NFC history. The team had the league's top-scoring offense. During the same season, Cam Newton was named NFL MVP. The Panthers also secured their third consecutive NFC South championship, as well as their first overall top-seeded playoff berth. In the 2015–16 playoffs, the Panthers defeated the Seattle Seahawks in the NFC Divisional playoffs, 31–24, after shutting them out in the first half, 31–0, and the Arizona Cardinals, 49–15, in the NFC Championship Game to advance to Super Bowl 50, their first Super Bowl appearance since the 2003 season. The Panthers lost a defensive struggle to the AFC champion Denver Broncos, 24–10. In the 2016 season, the Panthers regressed on their 15–1 record from 2015, posting a 6–10 record and a last-place finish in the NFC South, missing the playoffs for the first time since 2012, and losing the division title to the second-seeded Falcons, who went on to represent the NFC in Super Bowl LI. In 2017, the Panthers finished with an 11–5 record and a #5 seed. However, they lost to the New Orleans Saints 31–26 in the Wild Card Round, their first loss in that round in franchise history.David Tepper era (2018–present) purchased the Panthers in 2018.|191x191px]] On May 16, 2018, David Tepper, formerly a minority owner of the Pittsburgh Steelers, finalized an agreement to purchase the Panthers. The sale price was nearly $2.3 billion, a record. The agreement was approved by the league owners on May 22, 2018. The sale officially closed on July 9, 2018. After starting 6–2, the Panthers finished the 2018 season 7–9. They began the 2019 season 5–3 but lost the last eight games to finish 5–11; late in the season, Tepper fired Rivera as head coach. Perry Fewell finished the season as interim coach, going 0–4. The 2019 season was marred with a season-ending injury to Cam Newton, who only played in two games that year. The Panthers turned to Kyle Allen and Will Grier at quarterback after Newton was out.Matt Rhule years (2020–2022) Christian McCaffrey played for the team from 2017 to 2022. In 2019, McCaffrey became just the third running back in NFL history to have 1,000 rushing and receiving yards in the same season.]] On January 7, 2020, the Panthers hired Baylor head coach Matt Rhule as head coach. On January 15, 2020, Luke Kuechly announced his retirement from the league. On March 17, 2020, the Panthers signed Teddy Bridgewater to a three-year $63 million contract. On March 24, the Carolina Panthers released their 2011 first overall pick and 2015 MVP quarterback Cam Newton. The Panthers had a difficult 2020 season, losing several close games. They would finish 5–11 for the second straight year. Following the season, the Panthers traded for Sam Darnold from the New York Jets and shipped Bridgewater to the Denver Broncos. On November 11, 2021, the Panthers signed Cam Newton to a one-year deal after Darnold was put on injured reserve. However, the Panthers' struggles continued; despite winning their first three games of the 2021 season, they finished 5–12 and ended the season on a seven-game losing streak. After the Panthers began the season with a 1–4 record, Rhule was fired as head coach on October 10, 2022, finishing his tenure with an 11–27 record in two and a half seasons. Steve Wilks was named interim head coach as a result. The Panthers then initiated a rebuild, trading players such as Robbie Anderson and Christian McCaffrey. Steve Wilks would go 6–6 as the interim head coach, as the Panthers would finish the season with a 7–10 record. Frank Reich year (2023) On January 26, 2023, former Indianapolis Colts head coach Frank Reich was hired as head coach. Reich was the first starting QB in Panthers history in 1995. Prior to the draft, the Panthers traded with the Chicago Bears to move up to the first overall pick. The trade involved Carolina swapping spots with the Bears and giving up their 2023 second-round pick, 2024 first-round pick, 2025 second-round pick, and wide receiver D. J. Moore. In the 2023 NFL draft, Reich's first and only as the Panthers head coach, the Panthers selected their potential franchise quarterback in Heisman Trophy winner Bryce Young out of Alabama with the first overall pick. On November 27, 2023, Reich was fired after a 1–10 start. Special teams coordinator Chris Tabor coached the remainder of the 2023 season, going 1–5 in those games as the Panthers finished with a league-worst 2–15 record. Dave Canales (2024) On January 25, 2024, former Tampa Bay Buccaneers offensive coordinator Dave Canales was hired as head coach. In the first regular season game of the season, the Panthers lost to the New Orleans saints with a score of 10–47 with Bryce Young registering 13 completions from 30 attempts and being intercepted twice. The Panthers finished with a 5–12 record in the 2024 season.Logo and uniformsLogoThe shape of the Panthers logo was designed to mimic the outline of both North Carolina and South Carolina. The Panthers changed their logo and logotype in 2012, the first such change in team history. According to the team, the changes were designed to give their logo an "aggressive, contemporary look" as well as to give it a more three-dimensional feel. The primary tweaks were made in the eye and mouth, where the features, particularly the muscular brow and fangs, are more pronounced, creating a more menacing look. The revised logo has a darker shade of blue over the black logo, compared to the old design, which had a shade similar to teal on top of black. Uniforms By the time they had been announced as the 29th NFL team in October 1993, the Panthers' logo and helmet design had already been finalized, but the uniform design was still under creation. After discussion, the Panthers organization decided on jerseys colored white, black, and blue and pants colored white and silver. The exact tone of blue, which they decided would be "process blue" (a shade lighter than Duke's and darker than North Carolina's), was the most difficult color to choose. The team's uniform has remained largely the same since its creation, with only minor alterations, such as changing the sock color of the team's black uniforms from blue to black and changing the team's shoes from white to black. Richardson, a self-described traditionalist, said that no major uniform changes would be made in his lifetime. The Panthers have three main jersey colors: black, white, and blue. Their blue jerseys, designated their alternate uniforms, are the newest and were introduced in 2002. NFL regulations allow the team to use the blue jersey up to two times in any given season. Usually the Panthers opt for white or blue when the weather is expected to be hot and for black when the weather is expected to be cold. The Panthers typically pair their white jerseys with white pants and blue socks, while the black and blue jerseys are paired with silver pants and black socks; there have only been a few exceptions to these combinations. The first such instance was in 1998 when the team paired their white jerseys with silver pants in a game against the Indianapolis Colts. The second instance was in 2012 during a game against the Denver Broncos when they paired their black jerseys with new black pants; The all-black uniforms won the "Greatest Uniform in NFL History" contest, a fan-voted contest run by NFL.com in July 2013. In July 2013, the team's equipment manager, Jackie Miles, said the Panthers intended to use the all-black uniform more in the future. The Panthers wore the all-black uniform three times the following season, once each in the preseason and regular season, and the third time during the home divisional round playoff game vs the 49ers. During the Panthers' 2015 Thanksgiving Day game against the Dallas Cowboys, they debuted an all-blue uniform as part of Nike's "Color Rush" series. The team's uniform did not change significantly after Nike became the NFL's jersey supplier in 2012, but the collar was altered to honor former Panthers player and coach Sam Mills by featuring the phrase "Keep Pounding". Nike had conceived the idea, and the team supported the concept as a way to expose newer fans to the legacy of Mills, who died of cancer in 2005. Mills had introduced the phrase, which has since become a team slogan, in a speech that he gave to the players and coaches prior to their 2003 playoff game against Dallas; in the speech, Mills compared his fight against cancer with the team's on-field battle, saying "When I found out I had cancer, there were two things I could do – quit or keep pounding. I'm a fighter. I kept pounding. You're fighters, too. Keep pounding!" In 2019, the Panthers unveiled new uniforms. The new uniforms are Nike's "Vapor Untouchable" and have only minor differences: the tapered strips on the pants are replaced by stripes that extend down to the socks, the reflective shoulder cloth was replaced and the hip logos were also removed. The uniforms keep the same basic look, colors, and numbers as the originals. In 2022, after the NFL reinstated the use of alternate helmets, the Panthers unveiled secondary black helmets, which featured no white elements on the team logo. Stadium and practice facilities The Panthers played their first season at Memorial Stadium in Clemson, South Carolina, as their facility in uptown Charlotte was still under construction. Ericsson Stadium, called Bank of America Stadium since 2004, opened in the summer of 1996. The stadium was specially designed by HOK Sports Facilities Group for football and also serves as the headquarters and administrative offices of the Panthers. On some days, the stadium offers public tours for a fee. Private tours for groups are offered for a fee seven days a week, though there are some exceptions, and such tours must be arranged in advance. Two bronze panther statues flank each of the stadium's three main entrances; they are the largest sculptures ever commissioned in the United States. The names of the team's original PSL owners are engraved on the base of each statue. The first two people in the Panthers Hall of Honor, team executive Mike McCormack and linebacker Sam Mills, are honored with life-sized bronze statues outside the stadium. Mills, in addition to being the only player in the Hall of Honor for over 20 years, is the only player to have had his jersey number (#51) retired by the Panthers . The Panthers have three open-air fields next to Bank of America Stadium where they currently hold their practices; during the 1995 season, when the team played their home games in South Carolina, the team held their practices at Winthrop University in Rock Hill, South Carolina. Because the practice fields, along with the stadium, are located in uptown Charlotte, the fields are directly visible from skyscrapers as well as from a four-story condominium located across the street. According to Mike Cranston, a running joke said that the Panthers' division rivals had pooled their resources to purchase a room on the building's top floor and that a fire at the condominium was caused by the Panthers organization. In order to prevent people from seeing inside the field while the team is practicing, the team has added "strategically planted trees and a tarp over the ... fence surrounding the fields". Additionally, they employ a security team to watch for and chase away any people who stop alongside the fence surrounding the field. The Panthers have hosted their annual training camp at Wofford College in Spartanburg, South Carolina, since 1995.Team HeadquartersThe Panthers were planning on building a $1 billion team headquarters and training facility on a in Rock Hill, South Carolina, nicknamed "The Rock". After six months of discussions and state approval of $115 million in incentives, the formal announcement of the team's plan for a new practice facility came on June 5, 2019. Rock Hill mayor John Gettys described the project at that time as the biggest in the city's history. Groundbreaking took place in July 2019, and it was expected to be completed by summer 2023.CultureThe Panthers are supported in both North Carolina and South Carolina; South Carolina Governor Nikki Haley declared July 30, 2012, "Carolina Panthers Day" in her state, saying that "when it comes to professional teams, the Carolina Panthers are the team that South Carolina calls their own". Sports Illustrated graded the Panthers as having the 10th highest "NFL Fan Value Experience" in 2007, attributing much of the fan atmosphere to the team's newness when compared to the established basketball fanbase. They also observed that the stadium has scattered parking lots, each of which has a different tailgating style. Some have fried chicken, pork, or Carolina-style barbecue, while others have live bands and televisions. Pickup football games in the parking lots are common. The Carolina Panthers have a home stadium capacity of just under 75,000, with home attendance ranking in the NFL's top ten since 2006. Mascot, cheerleaders, and drumline , wearing a white jersey]] Sir Purr, an anthropomorphic black panther who wears a jersey numbered '00', has been the Panthers' mascot since their first season. During games, Sir Purr provides sideline entertainment through skits and "silly antics". The mascot participates in a number of community events year-round, including a monthly visit to the patients at Levine Children's Hospital. Sir Purr also hosts the annual Mascot Bowl, an event which pits pro and college mascots against each other during halftime at a selected Panthers home game. The team's cheerleaders are the Carolina Topcats who lead cheers and entertain fans at home games. The TopCats participate in both corporate and charity events. In March 2022, the Carolina Topcats became the first NFL cheerleading team to have a transgender member, Justine Lindsay. The team's drumline is PurrCussion, an ensemble of snare, tenor, and bass drummers as well as cymbal players. PurrCussion performs for fans outside the stadium and introduces players prior to home games; it consists of drummers from across the Carolinas. Keep Pounding Drum Starting with the 2012 season, the Panthers introduced the Keep Pounding Drum, inspired by the aforementioned motivational speech by Sam Mills before the team's 2004 playoff game against the Cowboys. Prior to each home game, an honorary drummer hits the six-foot-tall drum four times to signify the four quarters of an American football game. According to the team, the drummers "come from a variety of backgrounds and occupations, but all have overcome a great trial or adversity that has not only made them strong but also pushes them to make others around them stronger". Drummers have included current and former Panthers players, military veterans, Make-A-Wish children, and athletes from other sports, including NBA MVP and Charlotte native Stephen Curry, US women's national soccer team players Whitney Engen and Heather O'Reilly, and 7 time NASCAR Cup Series champion Jimmie Johnson.Songs and traditionsDuring the inaugural season of the Panthers, the team had an official fight song, which the team played before each home game. The song, "Stand and Cheer", remains the team's official fight song, but the team does not typically play it before home games. The team plays Neil Diamond's "Sweet Caroline" after home victories. A "keep pounding" chant was introduced during the 2012 season which starts before the opening kickoff of each home game. As prompted by the video boards, one side of the stadium shouts "keep" and the other side replies with "pounding". The chant is similar to ones that take place at college football games. Charity and community work The Carolina Panthers support a variety of non-profits in North and South Carolina through the Carolina Panthers Charities. Four annual scholarships are awarded to student athletes through the Carolina Panthers Graduate Scholarship and the Carolina Panthers Players Sam Mills Memorial Scholarship programs. Carolina Panthers Charities also offers grants to non-profits that support education, athletics, and human services in the community. The Panthers and Fisher Athletic have provided six equipment grants to high school football teams in the Carolinas each year since 2010. Carolina Panthers Charities raises funds at three annual benefits: the Countdown to Kickoff Luncheon, the team's first public event each season; Football 101, an educational workshop for fans; and the Weekend Warrior Flag Football Tournament, a two-day non-contact flag football tournament. Another annual benefit is Taste of the Panthers, a gourmet food tasting which raises funds for Second Harvest Food Bank of Metrolina. In 2003 the Panthers and Carolinas HealthCare Foundation established the Keep Pounding Fund, a fundraising initiative to support cancer research and patient support programs. The Panthers community has raised more than $1.4 million for the fund through direct donations, charity auctions, blood drives, and an annual 5k stadium run. The Panthers and Levine Children's Hospital coordinate monthly hospital visits and VIP game-day experiences for terminally ill or hospitalized children.Radio and television and Virginia.]] Radio coverage is provided by flagship station WRFX and through the Carolina Panthers Radio Network, with affiliates throughout the Carolinas and Virginia. The Panthers' radio broadcasting team is led by play-by-play voice Anish Shroff, with Jake Delhomme as color analyst, and WBT sports director Jim Szoke as studio host. The radio network broadcasts pre-game coverage, games with commentary, and post-game wrap-ups. It also live-broadcasts Panther Talk, a weekly event at Bank of America Stadium which offers fans a chance to meet a player and ask questions of the staff. <!--suggest moving to History of the Carolina Panthers. From 1995 to 2004, Bill Rosinski served as the team's play-by-play announcer. Rosinski was fired in 2005 and replaced by Mixon. In a public statement, the Carolina Panthers said they fired Rosinski to "go in a different direction", but Rosinski asserts that it had "obviously stuck in someone's craw" when he commented in an article that the most disappointing part of his career with the Panthers was not getting an NFC Championship ring.--> National broadcasting and cable television networks cover regular-season games, as well as some preseason games. Locally, Fox affiliate WJZY airs most regular-season games, while home games against an AFC team typically air on CBS affiliate WBTV. Any appearances on Monday Night Football are simulcast on ABC affiliate WSOC-TV, while any appearances on Thursday Night Football are simulcast on WSOC. Sunday night and some Thursday night games are aired on NBC affiliate WCNC-TV. All preseason games and team specials are televised by the Carolina Panthers Television Network on flagship station WSOC-TV in Charlotte and fourteen affiliate stations throughout the Carolinas, Georgia, Virginia, and Tennessee. WSOC took over as the Panthers' television partner for the 2019 season, replacing longtime television partner WCCB, which had retained this role after losing the Fox affiliation to WJZY in 2013. As of 2021, the preseason television broadcasting team consists of play-by-play commentator Taylor Zarzour, color analyst and former Panthers player Steve Smith, and sideline reporter Kristen Balboni. The network also hosts The Panthers Huddle, a weekly show focusing on the Panthers' upcoming opponent. The Panthers also offer game broadcasts in Spanish throughout both Carolinas and Mexico, with Jaime Moreno and Toño Ramos providing commentary. Rivalries The Panthers have developed heated rivalries with the three fellow members of the NFC South (the Atlanta Falcons, Tampa Bay Buccaneers, and New Orleans Saints). The team's fiercest rivals are the Falcons and Buccaneers. The Panthers' rivalry with Tampa Bay has been described as the most intense in the NFC South. As of 2023, the Panthers lead the all-time series 25–22. The two teams have never met in the postseason. As of the 2023 season, the Saints lead the all-time series against the Panthers 31–28. The teams faced off in their lone postseason meeting in the 2017–18 postseason in the Wild Card Round with the Saints being victorious 31–26. Current staff Players Current roster Hall of Honor The Carolina Panthers Hall of Honor was established in 1997 to honor individuals for their contributions to the Carolina Panthers organization. {| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" ! colspan5 style";"|Carolina Panthers Hall of Honor |- ! style=";"|No. ! style=";"|Inductee ! style=";"|Position(s) ! style=";"|Tenure ! style=";"|Inducted |- | — || Mike McCormack || President / GM || 1993–1997 || September 21, 1997 |- | 51 || Sam Mills || LB, coach || 1995–2004 || September 27, 1998 |- | — || colspan=2|PSL owners || since 1995 || September 13, 2004 |- | 89 || Steve Smith Sr. || WR || 2001–2013 || rowspan"4" | October 6, 2019<br /> |- | 17 || Jake Delhomme || QB || 2003–2009 |-C | 85 || Wesley Walls || TE || 1996–2002 |- | 69 || Jordan Gross || OT || 2003–2013 |- | 90 || Julius Peppers || DE || 2002–2009, <br>2017–2018|| rowspan"2"| October 29, 2023 |- | 87 || Muhsin Muhammad || WR || 1996–2005, <br>2008–2009 |- |} Retired numbers The Carolina Panthers have retired one number. {| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" ! colspan5 style";"| Carolina Panthers retired numbers |- ! colspan5 style";"|Players |- ! No. ! Name ! Position ! Tenure |- | 51 ||Sam Mills || LB || 1995–1997 |} Pro Football Hall of Fame enshrinees Nominees for the Pro Football Hall of Fame, which "honor[s] individuals who have made outstanding contributions to professional football", are determined by a 46-member selection committee. At least 80% of voters must approve the nominee for him to be inducted. {| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" ! colspan5 style";"| Carolina Panthers Pro Football Hall of Famers |- ! colspan5 style";"|Players |- ! No. ! Name ! Position ! Tenure ! Inducted |- | 92 || Reggie White || DE || 2000 || 2006 |- | 91 || Kevin Greene || LB / DE || 1996, 1998–1999 || 2016 |- | 51 ||Sam Mills || LB || 1995–1997 || 2022 |- | 90 || Julius Peppers || DE / LB || 2002–2009, 2017–2018 || 2024 |- | 69 || Jared Allen || DE || 2015 || 2025 |- ! colspan5 style";"|Coaches and Contributors |- | colspan=2|Bill Polian || GM || 1995–1997 || 2015 |} Ownership and Administration Jerry Richardson Jerry Richardson was the founder and first owner of the Carolina Panthers. Richardson and his family owned about 48% of the team, with the remaining 52% owned by a group of 14 limited partners.Team PresidentMike McCormack, a Hall of Fame lineman for the Cleveland Browns and former coach and executive for the Seattle Seahawks, was the Panthers' first team president, presiding in that role from 1994 until his retirement in 1997; McCormack was inducted as the first person in the Carolina Panthers Hall of Honor later that year. Mark Richardson was replaced by Danny Morrison, who had previously served as the athletic director of both Texas Christian University and Wofford College, Richardson's alma mater. Morrison resigned in early 2017. The role was vacant until August 2018, when Tom Glick was hired as team president. He had previously served as the COO of Manchester City. David Tepper On May 16, 2018, David Tepper, formerly a minority owner of the Pittsburgh Steelers, finalized an agreement to purchase the Carolina Panthers, for nearly $2.3 billion, a record at the time. The agreement was approved by the league owners on May 22, 2018. According to Forbes, the Panthers are worth approximately $2.3 billion . They ranked the Carolina Panthers as the 21st-most valuable NFL team and the 36th-most valuable sports team in the world.Coaches The Carolina Panthers have had ten head coaches. Eight have served in official capacity with two being interim coaches. Dom Capers was the head coach from 1995 to 1998 and led the team to one playoff appearance. Counting playoff games, he finished with a record of 31–35 (.470). George Seifert coached the team from 1999 to 2001, recording 16 wins and 32 losses (.333). John Fox, the team's longest-tenured head coach, led the team from 2002 to 2010 and coached the team to three playoff appearances including Super Bowl XXXVIII which the Panthers lost. Including playoff games, Fox ended his tenure with a 78–74 (.513) record, making him the first Panthers coach to finish his tenure with the team with a winning record. Ron Rivera held the position from 2011 to 2019 and led the team to four playoff appearances including Super Bowl 50. Counting playoff games, he has a career record of 79–67–1 (.541). Statistically, Rivera holds the highest winning percentage of any Panthers head coach. On December 3, 2019, following a home loss against the Washington Redskins that sent the team's record to 5–7, Rivera was fired by David Tepper. Perry Fewell, then the defensive backs coach for the team, was named interim head coach the same day. On January 7, 2020, Matt Rhule was hired to be the Panthers head coach. Rhule was fired during his third season, with Steve Wilks taking over on an interim basis. Frank Reich was hired head coach on January 26, 2023. Dave Canales was hired as head coach on January 25, 2024. |- | George Seifert || 1999–2001 || style"width:5%;"| 48 || style"width:5%;"| 16 || style"width:5%;"| 32 || style"width:5%;"| 0 || style"width:5%;"| || style"width:5%;"| 48 || style"width:5%;"| 16 || style"width:5%;"| 32 || style"width:5%;"| 0 || style"width:5%;"| || style"width:5%;"| 0 || style"width:5%;"| — || style"width:5%;"| — || style"width:5%;"| || aligncenter| |- | John Fox || 2002–2010 || style"width:5%;"| 152 || style"width:5%;"| 78 || style"width:5%;"| 74 || style"width:5%;"| 0 || style"width:5%;"| || style"width:5%;"| 144 || style"width:5%;"| 73 || style"width:5%;"| 71 || style"width:5%;"| 0 || style"width:5%;"| || style"width:5%;"| 8 || style"width:5%;"| 5 || style"width:5%;"| 3 || style"width:5%;"| || aligncenter| |- | Ron Rivera || style"width:5%;"| 4 || style"width:5%;"| 0 || style"width:5%;"| 4 || style"width:5%;"| 0 || style"width:5%;"| || style"width:5%;"| 0 || style"width:5%;"| — || style"width:5%;"| — || style"width:5%;"| || aligncenter| |- | Matt Rhule || 2020–2022 || style"width:5%;"| 38 || style"width:5%;"| 11 || style"width:5%;"| 27 || style"width:5%;"| 0 || style"width:5%;"| || style"width:5%;"| 38 || style"width:5%;"| 11 || style"width:5%;"| 27 || style"width:5%;"| 0 || style"width:5%;"| || style"width:5%;"| 0 || style"width:5%;"| — || style"width:5%;"| — || style"width:5%;"| || aligncenter| |- | Steve Wilks || 2022 <small>(interim)</small>|| style"width:5%;"| 12 || style"width:5%;"| 6|| style"width:5%;"| 6 || style"width:5%;"| 0 || style"width:5%;"| || style"width:5%;"| 12 || style"width:5%;"| 6 || style"width:5%;"| 6 || style"width:5%;"| 0 || style"width:5%;"| || style"width:5%;"| 0 || style"width:5%;"| — || style"width:5%;"| — || style"width:5%;"| || align=center| |- | Frank Reich || 2023 || style"width:5%;"| 11 || style"width:5%;"| 1 || style"width:5%;"| 10 || style"width:5%;"| 0 || style"width:5%;"| || style"width:5%;"| 11 || style"width:5%;"| 1 || style"width:5%;"| 10 || style"width:5%;"| 0 || style"width:5%;"| || style"width:5%;"| 0 || style"width:5%;"| — || style"width:5%;"| — || style"width:5%;"| || align=center| |- | Chris Tabor || 2023 <small>(interim)</small>|| style"width:5%;"| 6 || style"width:5%;"| 1 || style"width:5%;"| 5 || style"width:5%;"| 0 || style"width:5%;"| || style"width:5%;"| 6 || style"width:5%;" | 1 || style"width:5%;"| 5 || style"width:5%;"| 0 || style"width:5%;"| || style"width:5%;"| 0 || style"width:5%;"| — || style"width:5%;"| — || style"width:5%;"| || align=center| |- | Dave Canales || 2024 || style"width:5%;"| 17 || style"width:5%;"| 5 || style"width:5%;"| 12 || style"width:5%;"| 0 || style"width:5%;"| || style"width:5%;"| 17 || style"width:5%;"| 5 || style"width:5%;"| 12 || style"width:5%;"| 0 || style"width:5%;"| || style"width:5%;"| 0 || style"width:5%;"| — || style"width:5%;"| — || style"width:5%;"| || align=center| |} Current staff Team records , Panthers kicker from 1995 to 2010, holds the team's career points record.]] Since they began playing football in 1995, the Panthers have been to four NFC Championship Games; they lost two (1996 and 2005) and won two (2003 and 2015). The Panthers have won six division championships: the NFC West championship in 1996 and the NFC South championship in 2003, 2008, 2013, 2014, and 2015. They have finished as runners-up in their division six times, finishing second-place in the NFC West in 1997 and 1999 and finishing second-place in the NFC South in 2005, 2006, 2007, and 2012. They have qualified for the playoffs 8 times, most recently in 2017. Kicker John Kasay is the team's career points leader. Kasay scored 1,482 points during his 16 seasons (1995–2010) with the Panthers. Quarterback Cam Newton is the Panthers' career passing leader; he threw for 29,041 yards over his nine seasons with the team (2011–2020). {| class"wikitable" style"width:40%; height:100px; margin:0.5em 0.5em;" border="1" | colspan"4" style"text-align:center; "|Carolina Panthers all-time record |- ! style="text-align:center; ;"| ! style="text-align:center; ;"| Regular season ! style="text-align:center; ;"| Playoffs ! style="text-align:center; ;"| Total |- | Record || 200–215–1 || 9–8 || 209–223–1 |- | Percentage || || || |} See also *Carolina Panthers draft history *Sports in North Carolina References Notes Footnotes External links * * [https://www.nfl.com/teams/carolina-panthers/ Carolina Panthers] at the National Football League official website * [https://www.pro-football-reference.com/teams/car/index.htm Franchise Encyclopedia] at Pro Football Reference |list = }} Category:1995 establishments in North Carolina Category:American football teams in Charlotte, North Carolina Category:NFL teams Category:American football teams established in 1995 Category:Sports clubs and teams in Charlotte, North Carolina
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolina_Panthers
2025-04-05T18:27:52.196659
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Chicago Bears
| first_season = 1920 | city = Soldier Field<br />Chicago, Illinois | misc = Headquartered in Halas Hall<br />Lake Forest, Illinois | colors Navy blue, orange, white<br /> | uniform | coach Ben Johnson | owner Halas/McCaskey family | chairman = George McCaskey | president = Kevin Warren | general manager Ryan Poles | mascot Staley Da Bear | song = "Bear Down, Chicago Bears" | website = | nicknames = * Da Bears * The Monsters of the Midway | hist_yr = 1922 | hist_misc = * Decatur Staleys (1920) * Chicago Staleys (1921) | affiliate_old | NFL_start_yr 1920 | division_hist = * Western Division (1933–1949) * National Conference (1950–1952) * Western Conference (1953–1969) ** Central Division (1967–1969) * National Football Conference (1970–present) ** NFC Central (1970–2001) ** NFC North (2002–present) | no_league_champs = 9 | no_sb_champs = 1 | no_conf_champs = 4 | no_div_champs = 19 | league_champs = * NFL championships (pre-1970 AFL–NFL merger) (8)<br />1921, 1932, 1933, 1940, 1941, 1943, 1946, 1963 | sb_champs = 1985 (XX) | conf_champs = * NFL Western: 1956, 1963 * NFC: 1985, 2006 | div_champs = * NFL Western: 1933, 1934, 1937, 1940, 1941, 1942, 1943, 1946 * NFC Central: 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1990, 2001 * NFC North: 2005, 2006, 2010, 2018 | stadium_years = * Staley Field (1919–) * Wrigley Field () * Soldier Field (, –present) 1970 due to renovations to Wrigley Field: * Dyche Stadium (one game) 2002 due to renovations to Soldier Field: * Memorial Stadium | team_presidents = * George Halas (1921–1953) * George Halas Jr. (1963–1979) * Michael McCaskey (1983–1999) * Ted Phillips (1999–2022) * Kevin Warren (2023–present) | playoff_appearances = * NFL: 1932, 1933, 1934, 1937, 1940, 1941, 1942, 1943, 1946, 1950, 1956, 1963, 1977, 1979, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1994, 2001, 2005, 2006, 2010, 2018, 2020 | no_playoff_appearances = 28 | team_owners = * A. E. Staley (1920–1921) * George Halas and Edward Sternaman (1921–1931) * George Halas (1931–1983) * Virginia Halas McCaskey (1983–2025) }} The Chicago Bears are a professional American football team based in Chicago. The Bears compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member of the National Football Conference (NFC) North division. The Bears have won nine NFL Championships, eight prior to the AFL–NFL merger and one Super Bowl. They also hold the NFL records for the most enshrinees in the Pro Football Hall of Fame and the most retired jersey numbers. The Bears' NFL championships and overall victories are second behind the Green Bay Packers, with whom they have a long-standing rivalry. The franchise was founded in Decatur, Illinois, on September 20, 1919, became professional on September 17, 1920, and moved to Chicago in 1921. It is one of two remaining franchises from the NFL founding in 1920, along with the Arizona Cardinals, which began in Chicago. The team played home games at Wrigley Field on Chicago's North Side through the 1970 season; they have played since then at Soldier Field on the Near South Side, adjacent to Lake Michigan. The team headquarters, Halas Hall, is in the Chicago suburb of Lake Forest, Illinois. The Bears practice at adjoining facilities there during the season, and began hosting training camp at Halas Hall in 2020 after major renovations. History 1919–1939: Early Bears and remaining competitive throughout the decade. In 1924 the Bears claimed the Championship after defeating the Cleveland Bulldogs on December 7, even putting the title "World's Champions" on their 1924 team photo. But the NFL had ruled that games after November 30 did not count towards league standings, and the Bears had to settle for second place behind Cleveland. Their only losing season came in . During the 1920s the club was responsible for triggering the NFL's long-standing rule that a player could not be signed until his college's senior class had graduated. The NFL took that action as a consequence of the Bears' aggressive signing of famous University of Illinois player Red Grange within a day of his final game as a collegian. Despite much of the on-field success, the Bears were a team in trouble. They faced the problem of increased operating costs and flatlined attendance. The Bears would only draw roughly 5,000–6,000 fans a game, while a University of Chicago game would draw 40,000–50,000 fans a game. By adding top college football draw Red Grange to the roster, the Bears knew that they found something to draw more fans to their games. C.C. Pyle was able to secure a $2,000 per game contract for Grange, and in one of the first games, the Bears defeated the Green Bay Packers, 21–0. However, Grange remained on the sidelines while learning the team's plays from Bears quarterback Joey Sternaman. Later in 1925, The Bears would go on a barnstorming tour, showing off the best football player of the day. 75,000 people paid to see Grange lead the Bears to a 17–7 victory over the Los Angeles Tigers, who were a quickly put together team of West Coast college all-stars. After a loss to San Francisco, the Bears cruised to a 60–3 over a semi-pro team called the Portland All Stars. Any hopes that Grange would lead the Bears to glory in 1926 were quickly dashed. A failed contract talk led to Grange bolting to the AFL's New York Yankees, owned by Pyle. The Bears also lost star quarterback Joey Sternaman, who joined the Chicago Bulls of the AFL. The Bears replaced Grange with Paddy Driscoll, a star football player in his own right. The Bears used the money made from the Grange barn-storming tour to sign the man that replaced him. Grange split his time between making movies and playing football. However, the time was not right to have two competing pro football leagues, and the AFL folded after only one season. Grange would return to the Bears. Due to blizzard conditions in Chicago, the game was played at Chicago Stadium, marking it as the first indoor American football game. The success of the playoff game led the NFL to institute a championship game. In the first NFL Championship, the Bears played against the New York Giants, defeating them 23–21. The teams met again in the 1934 NFL Championship where the Giants, wearing sneakers defeated the Bears 30–13 on a cold, icy day at the Polo Grounds. 1940s: The Monsters of the Midway From 1940 to 1947, quarterback Sid Luckman led the Bears to victories in four out of the five NFL Championship Games in which they appeared. The team acquired the University of Chicago's discarded nickname "Monsters of the Midway" and their famous helmet wishbone-C, as well as a newly penned theme song that declared them "The Pride and Joy of Illinois". One famous victory during that period was their 73–0 victory over the favored Washington Redskins at Griffith Stadium in the 1940 NFL Championship Game; The secret behind the one-sided outcome was the introduction of a new offensive formation by Halas. The T-formation, as Halas named it, involved two running backs instead of the traditional one in the backfield. Luckman established himself as one of the franchise's most elite quarterbacks. Between 1939 and 1950, he set the Bears' passing records for most career touchdowns, yards, and completions. Many of Luckman's records stood for decades before they were eclipsed by Jay Cutler in . Cutler then went on to break Luckman's franchise record for most career passing touchdowns a year later in .1950s–1968: Late-Halas era ]] After declining throughout the 1950s, the team rebounded in to capture its eighth NFL Championship, which would be its last until 1985. The late 1960s and early-1970s produced notable players like Dick Butkus, Gale Sayers, and Brian Piccolo, who died of embryonal carcinoma in 1970. The American television network ABC aired a movie about Piccolo in 1971 entitled Brian's Song'', starring James Caan and Billy Dee Williams in the roles of Piccolo and Sayers respectively; Jack Warden won an Emmy Award for his performance as Halas. The movie was later released for theater screenings after first being shown on television. Despite Hall of Fame careers, Butkus and Sayers would also have their careers cut short due to injuries, hamstringing the Bears of this era. Halas retired as coach in 1967 and spent the rest of his days in the front office. He became the only person to be involved with the NFL throughout the first 60 years of its existence. He was also a member of the Pro Football Hall of Fame's first induction class in 1963. As the only living founder of the NFL at the February 1970 merger between the NFL and the American Football League, the owners honored Halas by electing him the first President of the National Football Conference, a position that he held until his death in 1983. In his honor, the NFL named the NFC Championship trophy as the George Halas Memorial Trophy.1969–1982: StrugglesAfter the merger, the Bears finished the 1970 season last place in their division, a repeat of their placing in the 1969 season. In 1975, the Bears drafted Walter Payton from Jackson State University with their first pick. He won the NFL Most Valuable Player award in the 1977–78 season. Payton would go on to eclipse Jim Brown's NFL career rushing record in 1984 before retiring in 1987, and would hold the mark until , when Emmitt Smith of the Dallas Cowboys surpassed it. Payton's career and personality would capture the hearts of Bear fans, who called him "Sweetness". He died from a rare form of liver cancer in 1999 at the age of 45. On November 1, 1983, a day after the death of George Halas, his oldest daughter, Virginia McCaskey, took over as the majority owner of the team. Her husband, Ed McCaskey, succeeded her father as the chairman of the board. Their son Michael became the third president in team history. Virginia holds the honorary title of "secretary of the board of directors", but has been called the glue that holds the franchise together. Virginia's reign as the owner of the Bears was not planned, as her father originally earmarked her brother, George "Mugs" Halas Jr. as the heir apparent to the franchise. However, he died of a heart attack in 1979. Her impact on the team is well-noted as her own family has dubbed her "The First Lady of Sports", and the Chicago Sun-Times has listed her as one of Chicago's most powerful women. 1983–1985: Contenders, then Super Bowl champions is the only person in the modern era to win an NFL championship as a player and coach for the Chicago Bears.]] Mike Ditka, a tight end for the Bears from 1961 to 1966, was hired to coach the team by George Halas in 1982. His gritty personality earned him the nickname "Iron Mike". The team reached the NFC Championship game, losing to the San Francisco 49ers 23–0, in 1984. In the 1985 season the fire in the Bears–Packers rivalry was re-lit when Ditka used 315-pound defensive tackle "Refrigerator" Perry as a running back in a touchdown play at Lambeau Field, against the Packers. The Bears won their ninth NFL Championship, first since the AFL-NFL merger, in Super Bowl XX after the 1985 season in which they dominated the NFL with their then-revolutionary 46 defense and a cast of characters that recorded the novelty rap song "The Super Bowl Shuffle". The season was notable in that the Bears had only one loss, the "unlucky 13th" game of the season, a Monday night affair in which they were defeated by the Miami Dolphins. At the time, much was made of the fact that the Dolphins were the only franchise in history to have had an undefeated season and post-season. The Dolphins came close to setting up a rematch in the Super Bowl, but lost to the New England Patriots in the AFC title game. "The Super Bowl Shuffle" was videotaped the day after that Monday night loss in Miami.1986–2003: Post-Super Bowl eraAfter the 1985 championship season, the Bears remained competitive throughout the 1980s but failed to return to the Super Bowl under Ditka. Throughout the remainder of his tenure, Ditka led the Bears to five more postseason berths, getting as far as the NFC Championship in the 1988 season. Between the firing of Ditka and the hiring of Lovie Smith, the Bears had two head coaches, Dave Wannstedt and Dick Jauron. While both head coaches led the team to the playoffs once (Wannstedt in 1994 and Jauron in 2001), neither was able to accumulate a winning record or bring the Bears back to the Super Bowl. Therefore, the 1990s was largely considered to be a disappointment. Before the Bears hired Jauron in January 1999, Dave McGinnis (Arizona's defensive coordinator, and a former Bears assistant under Ditka and Wannstedt) backed out of taking the head coaching position. The Bears scheduled a press conference to announce the hiring before McGinnis agreed to contract terms. Soon after Jauron's hiring, Mrs. McCaskey fired her son Michael as president, replacing him with Ted Phillips and promoting Michael to chairman of the board. From 1997 to 2000, the Bears suffered four consecutive last place finishes within the division. In the 2001 season, Jim Miller took over as the primary starting quarterback and helped lead the Bears to a resurgent 13–3 record and division title. The 2001 team did not see any postseason success as they fell 33–19 to the Philadelphia Eagles in the Divisional Round. The 2002 season saw a setback as the team went 4–12. The team improved to a 7–9 record in 2003 but still missed the postseason. Jauron was fired following the end of the 2003 season. 2004–2012: Lovie Smith era Lovie Smith, hired on January 15, 2004, is the third post-Ditka head coach. Joining the Bears as a rookie head coach, Smith brought the highly successful Tampa 2 defensive scheme with him to Chicago. Before his second season with the Bears, the team rehired their former offensive coordinator and then Illinois head coach Ron Turner to improve the Bears' struggling offense. In , the Bears won their division and reached the playoffs for the first time in four years. Their previous playoff berth was earned by winning the NFC Central in . The Bears improved upon their success the following season, by clinching their second consecutive NFC North title during Week 13 of the season, winning their first playoff game since 1995, and earning a trip to Super Bowl XLI. However, they fell short of the championship, losing 29–17 to the Indianapolis Colts. Following the 2006 season, the club decided to give Smith a contract extension through 2011, at roughly $5 million per year. This comes a season after being the lowest-paid head coach in the National Football League. The club has played in over a thousand games since becoming a charter member of the NFL in . Through the 2010 season, they led the NFL in overall franchise wins with 704 and had an overall record of 704–512–42 (going 687–494–42 during the regular season and 17–18 in the playoffs). On November 18, 2010, the Bears recorded franchise win number 700 in a win against the Miami Dolphins. The Bears made one of the biggest trades in franchise history, acquiring Pro Bowl quarterback Jay Cutler from the Denver Broncos in exchange for Kyle Orton and draft picks on April 2, 2009. After a disappointing 2009 campaign with the team going 7–9, Mike Martz was hired as the team's offensive coordinator on February 1, 2010. On March 5, 2010, the Bears signed defensive end Julius Peppers, running back Chester Taylor, and tight end Brandon Manumaleuna, spending over $100 million on the first day of free agency. Also during the 2010 offseason, Michael McCaskey was replaced by brother George McCaskey as chairman of the Bears. With a 38–34 win against the New York Jets, the Bears clinched the No. 2 seed and a first-round bye for the 2010–11 NFL playoffs. In their first Playoff game since Super Bowl XLI, The Bears defeated the No. 4 seed Seattle Seahawks 35–24 in the Divisional Round. The Bears reached the NFC Championship Game, where they played Green Bay Packers at Soldier Field – only the second playoff meeting between the two storied rivals, the only other game played in 1941. The Bears lost the game, 21–14. The team started the 2011 season strong with a 7–3 record, and running back Matt Forté led the NFL in total yards from scrimmage. Eventually, quarterback Jay Cutler fractured his thumb, and Forté also was lost for the season against the Kansas City Chiefs after spraining his MCL, and the Bears, with Caleb Hanie playing, lost five straight before winning against the Minnesota Vikings with Josh McCown starting over Hanie. At season's end, general manager Jerry Angelo was fired, and former Chiefs director of scouting and former Bears scout Phil Emery was brought in. Offensive coordinator Mike Martz resigned, and eventually retired, and was replaced by offensive line coach Mike Tice. The Bears made another notable move by trading for Miami Dolphins receiver and Pro Bowl MVP Brandon Marshall. The Bears became the first team in NFL history to return six interceptions for touchdowns in the first seven games of the season, with another pick-six by Brian Urlacher in Week 9 bringing Chicago two behind the record set by the 1961 San Diego Chargers. However, the Bears missed the playoffs with a record of 10–6 (after starting the season 7–1, the first team to start with the record and miss the playoffs since the 1996 Washington Redskins), and Smith was fired on December 31.2013–2014: Marc Trestman yearsThen-CFL head coach and former NFL journeyman Marc Trestman was hired to succeed Smith after an exhaustive search that included at least 13 known candidates. On March 20, 2013, Brian Urlacher's 13-year tenure with the Bears ended when both sides failed to agree on a contract. The Trestman era began on September 8 with a 24–21 win over the Cincinnati Bengals, making Trestman the fourth head coach in Bears history to win in his coaching debut, after George Halas (1920), Neill Armstrong (1978) and Dick Jauron (1999). The Bears ended the 2013 season 8–8, barely missing the playoffs after losing in the final week of the season to the Packers. Despite having a second-ranked offense that set numerous franchise records, the defense greatly worsened as it set franchise worsts in categories like yards allowed (6,313). The following season was a disaster for the Bears, with the offense regressing to finish outside the top 20 in scoring. The team also allowed 50-point games in two straight weeks against the Patriots and Packers, including a franchise-high 42 points and NFL-record six touchdowns allowed in the first half against the latter, to become the first team since the 1923 Rochester Jeffersons to allow at least 50 points in consecutive games. The Bears ended the year 5–11 and last in the NFC North. Trestman and Emery were fired after the season ended.2015–2017: John Fox yearsThe Bears hired Ryan Pace of the New Orleans Saints to be their new general manager on January 8, 2015. On January 16, 2015, John Fox accepted a four-year deal to become head coach. In Fox's first season as head coach, the Bears saw improvements from 2014; after USA Today projected the Bears to win three games, they doubled that total and finished the season with a 6–10 record, including a Thanksgiving win over the Packers at Lambeau Field. However, during the 2016 season, the Bears regressed heavily, compiling a 3–13 record (their worst since the NFL's change to 16-game seasons in 1978). The season included several injuries to starters and secondary players, including Jay Cutler, who only played five games as a result of two separate injuries. Backup quarterback Brian Hoyer started the next three games before a broken arm put him out for the season. He was replaced by Matt Barkley, who made his first career start with the Bears. None of the three quarterbacks returned for the 2017 season. In the 2017 NFL draft, the team selected quarterback Mitchell Trubisky with the second-overall pick, who sat behind newly signed quarterback Mike Glennon for the first four games before taking over. The Bears ended the season 5–11 and again finished last in the NFC North. On January 1, 2018, Fox was fired, ending his tenure in Chicago with a 14–34 record. 2018–2021: Matt Nagy years , Khalil Mack, DeAndre Houston-Carson, and Akiem Hicks of the Bears in 2018]] The Bears hired Matt Nagy from the Kansas City Chiefs as their new head coach in January 2018. General manager Ryan Pace signed receivers Taylor Gabriel, Allen Robinson, and Trey Burton in the offseason to complement second-year quarterback Mitchell Trubisky. The Bears also acquired linebacker Khalil Mack in a block-blockbuster trade from the Oakland Raiders to further bolster their defense, sending a package of draft picks that includes 2019 and 2020 1st round draft picks in exchange. Nagy's Bears clinched the NFC North on December 16, 2018, for the first time since 2010 with a 24–17 victory over the Green Bay Packers. The Bears finished the 2018 season with a 12–4 record. They lost to the defending Super Bowl Champions Philadelphia Eagles in the wild-card round of the playoffs after Cody Parkey's game-winning field goal attempt was partially tipped and hit the uprights in the final seconds of the game, a play coined the "Double Doink". Despite the first-round exit, Nagy was named Coach of the Year by the Pro Football Writers Association (PFWA) and Associated Press (AP). He was the first Bears coach to be given the AP award since Lovie Smith in 2005 and the fifth in team history. In 2019, the team regressed to an 8–8 record, though Nagy's combined 20 wins in 2018 and 2019 were the most by a Bears head coach in his first two seasons. During the year, renovations to Halas Hall were completed, allowing the team to move Training Camp from Ward Field on the campus of Olivet Nazarene University in Bourbonnais, Illinois to Lake Forest for 2020. The Bears opened the 2020 season with a 5–1 record. However, they lost their next six games. The Bears won three of their last four games to finish the season with an 8–8 record. Despite their finish, the Bears qualified for the 2020–21 NFL playoffs, which was expanded to include one additional wildcard team from each conference. The New Orleans Saints defeated the Bears in the opening round of the playoffs, 21–9. The team did not re-sign Trubisky after the 2020 season and instead allowed him to become a free agent. Prior to the 2021 season, the Bears traded up in the 2021 NFL draft to select quarterback Justin Fields 11th overall. The team also signed veteran quarterback Andy Dalton in free agency. Dalton was initially declared the Bears starting quarterback, but Fields won the position after Dalton was injured. The Bears finished the season with a 6–11 record and missed the playoffs. Nagy and general manager Ryan Pace were fired after the season's conclusion. The Bears struggled throughout the 2022 season, which included a franchise-record 10-game losing streak. They finished with an NFL worst 3–14 record, which secured the team the first overall pick in the 2023 NFL draft. The Bears opened the 2023 season with a 0–4 record, extending the team losing streak to 14 (longest in team history; dating back to the 2022 season). The team bounced back by winning five of their last eight games, but finished with a 7–10 record, placing last in the NFC North for the second consecutive season. However, the team acquired the first overall pick in the 2024 NFL draft, which was part of their previous trade with the Panthers, who finished the 2023 season with worst record in the NFL. The first overall pick was used on USC quarterback Caleb Williams. The Bears fired Eberflus on November 29, with five games remaining in the 2024 NFL season. Eberflus, who a posted a 14–32 overall record with the Bears, was the first head coach in team history to be fired before the end of the season.2025–present: Ben Johnson yearsOn January 21, 2025, the Bears hired Ben Johnson as the franchise's 18th head coach. <!-- Note: This is just a summary, please do not add too much detail. the article "History of the Chicago Bears" or the season articles are probably best for detailed additions --> Ownership The team is primarily owned by the heirs of George Halas. His daughter, Virginia Halas McCaskey (holds 22.6% of the team shares), is the principal owner and votes on behalf of her 11 children and two nephews (who each own 3.8%) as well as the Brizzolara family (who own 8.33%), which amounts to an 80.33% ownership stake, allowing her to control the team. Former chairman and CEO of Aon Corp. Pat Ryan (17.67%) and former Aon director Andrew J. McKenna's estate (2%) own the remainder 19.67% of the club. Chicago is the third largest media market in the United States. In a ''Crain's Chicago Business article, one businessman described his wishes for the team to maximize its potential. In 2009, Yahoo! Sports'' listed the McCaskeys as the third worst owner in the NFL, stating "[T]hey get less for what they've got than any team in our league." Ownership history and Halas with Grange and Pyle]] The club was founded by A. E. Staley Manufacturing Company owner Augustus Eugene Staley in 1919 and was owned by the company until 1921. In 1921, Staley felt he could no longer afford the expensive burden of pro-football and transferred team ownership to Halas and paid him $5,000 for a sponsorship deal that kept the Staleys name for one more year. Halas than added Edward "Dutch" Sternaman as a second owner. On January 28, 1922, the Bears were incorporated at an NFL meeting, as "a new league team" after its name change. In addition, Halas and Sternaman offered a share of the team to Paddy Driscoll, but the move was blocked by the owners in the NFL's June meeting, after the Chicago Cardinals (Driscoll's team) activated the league's reserve clause. as well as $5,000 of shares to Jim McMillen, and George Trafton's mother, who paid $20,000 (Halas later bought her out for $40,000). Charles Bidwill purchased $5,000 in stock in 1933 (which was later bought off of his widow Violet for $50,000 in 1949) and he also arranged a bank loan for the remaining $5,000 needed to pay off Sternaman: Halas remained the club's president and principal owner until his death on October 31, 1983. Halas' children, George "Mugs" Halas Jr. and Virginia McCaskey acquired stock in the team through prior gifts and sales. After Mugs' death in 1979, Halas Sr. owned a 49.35% interest in the Bears, Mugs' estate owned a 19.67% interest, while Virginia McCaskey, Jim Finks (3.5%, which he later relinquished when he resigned as the team GM), Charles Brizzolara, Robert and Carol Brizzolara in joint tenancy, and Nancy Lorenz owned the remaining outstanding shares. In 1981, the shareholders merged the Bears with a newly formed Delaware-incorporated organization, the Chicago Bears Football Club, Inc.. In 1987, Mugs' estate executor wanted to sell his ownership stake and challenged the legality of a 1981 corporate reorganization and the other owners' right of first refusal, while his heirs, Christine and Stephen Halas, wanted to keep their father's stake, asking a Cook County Probate Court judge not to allow the sale. Ultimately they failed to block the Chicago Bears from buying their father's 19.67% ownership stake of the team, which sold for $17.5 million in 1988. Bears then-president Michael McCaskey called the purchase a "terrific financial burden", and the team would later sell the stake to Chicago-area businessmen Andrew McKenna and Patrick Ryan for a then-undisclosed sum in 1990. At the time it was also speculated that they invested to help the Bears lobby lawmakers for a domed stadium. In 2017, the NFL approved a sale of shares from Mugs' children (unreported whom or how much) to the McCaskey family for an undisclosed sum. On February 6, 2025, Virginia McCaskey died at the age of 102.SponsorshipsThe team has major sponsorship deals with Dr Pepper Snapple Group, Miller Brewing Company, PNC Financial Services, United Airlines, Verizon, Xfinity, and Proven IT. The team was the first in the NFL to have a presenting sponsor, with the 2004 season advertised as "Bears Football presented by BankOne". Additionally, the Bears have an agreement with WFLD (the Fox owned-and-operated station in Chicago) to broadcast pre-season football games.Logos and uniforms The club has had few official logos throughout their history. When the team was known as the Decatur Staleys in 1920, they used A. E. Staley's logo as football was intended to help promote the company. The first Chicago Bears logo was introduced in 1940, depicting a black bear running with a football. The next logo, introduced in 1946, featured a navy blue bear on top of a football. In 1962, the Bears introduced their trademark "wishbone-C" logo for the first time. Initially white with a black outline, the logo is similar to the "C" long worn on the Cincinnati Reds' baseball caps, and very closely resembles the University of Chicago Maroons' "C" logo introduced in 1898. The change in the Bears' logo was due to the addition of logos on helmets, which professional football teams began adding in the late 1950s and early 1960s. In 2023, the Bears made their primary logo the orange bear head, which was previously their secondary logo since 1999. <gallery> Chicago Bears white logo.png|Primary logo (1962–1973) Chicago Bears logo.svg|Primary logo (1974–2022)<br/>Secondary logo (2023–present) Chicago Bears wordmark.svg|Wordmark logo (1974–present) Chicago Bears logo primary.svg|Secondary logo (1999–2022)<br/>Primary logo (2023–present) </gallery> Team culture Mascots and cheerleaders Before the 2003 season, the team had two unofficial mascots named "Rocky" and "Bearman". "Rocky" was a man who donned a #1 Bears jersey, carried a megaphone, and started chants all over Soldier Field during the 1970s, 1980s, and early 1990s, in a fashion similar to Fireman Ed. The identity of "Rocky" is unknown, but he presumably lives in northwestern Indiana. Don Wachter, also known as "Bearman", is a season ticket holder who decided in 1995 that he could also assist the team by cheerleading, similar to Rocky. The club allowed him to run across the field with a large Bears flag during player introductions and each team score (a role more recently done by the Bears 4th Phase and Bears captains). In 1996, he donned his "costume" of face paint, bear head and arms, and a number 46 jersey. "Bearman" was forced to stop wearing his costume with the introduction of Staley Da Bear in 2003, but in 2005 Wachter was allowed in costume again. His name is eponymous to starch processing company A. E. Staley, who founded the Bears' franchise. Like Rocky and Bearman, he entertains Bears fans, but like other NFL mascots, and mascots in general, Staley also visits charity events, parties, Chicago Rush AFL games, and other Bears-related events, as well as taking part in games with his "furballs" against youth football teams at halftime. The team had a cheerleading squad called the Chicago Honey Bears beginning in 1976. However, Bears owner Virginia Halas McCaskey terminated them after the 1985 season. Philanthropy Since 1998, the Bears have partnered with 'A Safe Place,' a domestic violence shelter in Waukegan, Illinois. In June 2017, existing and former Bears employees helped renovate the shelter by ripping up carpet, painting walls, demolishing a kitchen and building a fence. and the teams have met twice in the postseason. The Bears won the 1941 meeting, 33–14, and eventually defeated the New York Giants in the 1941 NFL Championship Game, and the Packers won the 2011 meeting, 21–14, en route to a Super Bowl XLV win over the Pittsburgh Steelers. The teams' first meeting was a victory for the Bears (known as the Staleys at the time) in 1921 in a shutout, 20–0. The Packers claimed their first win over the Bears in 1925, 14–10. The 1924 matchup (which ended in a 3–0 win for Chicago) was notable for featuring the first-ever ejection of players in a game in NFL history, as Frank Hanny of the Bears and Walter Voss of the Packers were ejected for punching each other. The rivalry also featured one of the last successful fair catch kicks in 1968, when Bears kicker Mac Percival kicked the game-winning field goal.Detroit Lions The Detroit Lions and Bears have faced off since the Lions' inception in 1930, when they were known as the Portsmouth Spartans, with the Spartans winning, 7–6, and Chicago winning the second meeting, 14–6. Since then, the Bears have led the series, 99–74–5. The rivalry grew in 1932, when the Bears and Spartans met in the first-ever postseason game in NFL history, with the Bears winning the game 9–0. The game also was known as the first pro "indoor football" game, as the game took place in indoor Chicago Stadium due to a blizzard at the time. The game also started the forward pass.Minnesota Vikings Chicago and Minnesota took each other on in the Vikings' inaugural game, with the Vikings defeating the Bears in a 37–13 rout, and Minnesota currently holds the series lead 60–54–2.HistoricChicago/St. Louis/Arizona Cardinals The oldest continuing matchup in the NFL belongs to the Bears and the Arizona Cardinals, the only remaining NFL teams from the 1920 APFA season. It began as intense intra-city rivalry between the Bears and the Chicago Cardinals, which the Bears were leading 47–19–6 through 1959, when the Cardinals moved to St. Louis. The rivalry's importance waned further after the Cardinals moved to the Phoenix metropolitan area in 1988. The Bears lead the all-time series 59–28–6. The teams have yet to meet in the playoffs. New York Giants The Bears and the New York Giants squared off in six NFL championship games, more than any common match-up in either the NFL championship game or Super Bowl. The Bears won four of the six championship games, which included the Sneakers Game that the Giants won in the 1934 NFL Championship Game. The two teams also met in the 1985 and 1990 playoffs, splitting each meeting en route to a Super Bowl championship (Bears in Super Bowl XX, Giants in Super Bowl XXV). As of the 2023 season, the Bears lead the all-time series 36–25–2.San Francisco 49ersThe Bears and San Francisco 49ers were regular foes while both played in the Western Conference. The rivalry grew during the 1980s, as both teams were constant playoff contenders in the NFC. The 49ers currently hold the series lead 35–33–1 and 3–0 in the playoffs. Under the current NFL scheduling formula, the Bears and 49ers play at least once every four years.Tampa Bay BuccaneersThe Bears holds historic rivalry with its former NFC Central foe Tampa Bay Buccaneers. as of the 2023 season, Chicago currently holds the series lead 40–22. Under the current NFL scheduling formula, the Bears and Bucs play at least once every four years. The most memorable game from that era was in 1940, when the Bears set a record by defeating the Commanders 73-0 in the NFL Championship game, to this day, the largest margin of victory in league history. The series regained steam in the 1980s, when both teams were fighting for the NFC supremacy. Washington holds a slight edge in the all-time series 27-25-1 (2–1 in the playoffs and 2–2 in championship games). Under the current NFL scheduling formula, the Bears and Commanders play at least once every four years.), while the two franchises continue to play annually until the 1980 NFL season. From 1995 to 2015 the two teams were part of the Chicago-St. Louis rivalries in the major professional leagues. As of the 2023 season, Chicago currently holds the series lead 54–39–3 (1–1 in the playoffs). It is the Rams' longest-running, non-division series. Under the current NFL scheduling formula, the Bears and Rams play at least once every four years. The most notable was the 1985 shootout at Monday Night, as Miami handing Chicago their first, and only, regular-season loss for the year, while keeping the 1972 Dolphins as the only perfect team in NFL history. As of the 2023 season, Miami currently holds the series lead 10–4. Under the current NFL scheduling formula, the teams play at least once every four years. Canton/Cleveland Bulldogs The Canton/Cleveland Bulldogs and the Staleys/Bears rivalry was between the two NFL's powerhouses in the 1920s, with games usually attracting the most fans, and the outcome often decided the fate of NFL Championship (1921–1924). The rivalry grow after the 1921 season, when the Staleys star Guy Chamberlin joined the Bulldogs and led them to three consecutive championships, including a tiebreaker win over the Bears in 1924. Chicago won the series 4–3. Facilities Stadium Soldier Field, located on Lake Shore Drive in Chicago, is the home of the Bears. The Bears moved to Soldier Field in 1971 after outgrowing Wrigley Field, the team's home for 50 years. After the AFL-NFL Merger, the league preferred their teams to play in stadiums that could hold at least 50,000 fans. Even with portable bleachers that the team set up at Wrigley, the stadium could still only hold 46,000. At first, the Bears were supposed to play at Dyche Stadium (later called Ryan Field), but Northwestern University's residential neighbors objected, and the agreement was cancelled. The original home of the Bears was Staley Field at Decatur, Illinois, when the team was known as the Decatur Staleys, before they moved to Chicago in 1921. Soldier Field's playing surface was changed from natural grass to astroturf before the 1971 season, and then back to natural grass in time for the start of the 1988 season. Throughout its history, Soldier Field's field maintenance has been done by the Chicago Park District (the municipal entity from which the Bears lease the field) by disparate district employees, rather than a permanent team-employed grounds crew, generating some controversy among players for its rough surface. This arrangement caused disagreements with the city throughout the years, with the Bears attempting to agree on a new stadium since 1986. The stadium was the site of the infamous Fog Bowl playoff game between the Bears and Philadelphia Eagles. In 2002, the stadium was closed and rebuilt with only the exterior wall being preserved. It was closed on Sunday, January 20, 2002, the day after the Bears lost in the playoffs. It reopened on September 27, 2003, after a complete rebuild (the second in the stadium's history). During the season, the Bears played their home games at the University of Illinois' Memorial Stadium in Champaign, where they went 3–5. Multiple critics have negative views of the new stadium, believing that its structure has made it more of an eyesore than a landmark; some have dubbed it the "Mistake on the Lake". Soldier Field was stripped of its National Historic Landmark designation on February 17, 2006. In the 2005 season, the Bears won the NFC North Division and the No. 2 Seed in the NFC Playoffs, entitling them to play at least one home game in the postseason. The team hosted (and lost) their divisional round match on January 15, 2006, against the Carolina Panthers. This was the first playoff game at Soldier Field since the stadium reopened. The stadium's end zones and midfield were unpainted until the 1982 season. The design sported on the field included the bolded word "Chicago" rendered in Highway Gothic in both end zones. In 1983, the end zone design returned, with the addition of a large wishbone "C" Bears logo painted at midfield. These field markings remained unchanged until the 1996 season. In 1996 the midfield wishbone "C" was changed to a large blue Bears head, and the end zone design were painted with "Bears" in cursive. This design remained until the 1999 season, when the artwork was returned to the classic "Chicago" and "C". In the new Soldier Field, the artwork was tweaked with the word "Chicago" bolded in one end zone and the other having "Bears". In June 2021, the Bears submitted a bid to purchase the Arlington International Racecourse in Arlington Heights, Illinois from Churchill Downs. Despite negotiations between the city of Chicago to upgrade Soldier Field again, the Bears entered into an agreement with Churchill Downs to purchase the Arlington International Racecourse in September 2021 for $197.2 million. The sale of the property which includes 326 acres of space for potential development closed on February 15, 2023. As of 2024, the Bears have shifted their focus to the parking area south of Soldier Field on Museum Campus. On April 24, 2024, the Bears revealed plans for a $4.7 billion domed lakefront stadium development.Training camp locationsFrom its inception until 1930 the Staleys/Bears conducted their summer training camp in their home stadiums: Staley Field (Decatur, Illinois) and later Cubs' Park (Chicago). In 1930 they first moved to Mills Stadium in Chicago and from 1931 to 1934 to Loyola University Chicago, Logan Square Baseball Park, Notre Dame University and Lane Tech College Prep High School, respectively. In 1935 they began to conduct training camps at a prominent location, when they started practicing at St. John's Northwestern Military Academy (Delafield, Wisconsin) for a decade. From 1975 to 1984 they conducted their summer training camp in Lake Forest College, at the original Halas Hall (the practice and front office facility for the Bears from 1977 until 1997). The practice field was later renamed Farwell Field and serves as the main field for Foresters football and soccer. From 1984 to 2001, the Bears held pre-season training camp in Ralph E. Davis Pioneer Stadium at University of Wisconsin–Platteville. They were considered a member of the "Cheese League" that in 1999 consisted of the Green Bay Packers, New Orleans Saints and Kansas City Chiefs, with each team practicing at a different university in Wisconsin. In 2001, the Illinois General Assembly asked the Bears to move to an Illinois practice facility in order to raise funds for remodeling Soldier Field. Before the Bears left, they donated $250,000 to UW–Platteville for a new computer lab, which was named "The Bears Den". On June 16, 2014, the stadium was damaged by a tornado and the Bears donated $50,000 to the school relief fund. From 2002 to 2019, the Bears held their summer training camp at Olivet Nazarene University in Bourbonnais. Although the Bears had an agreement to continue practicing there through 2022, they moved the camp permanently into the recently renovated Halas Hall in 2020. which is used by the Foresters Athletics Department. The 38-acre complex opened on March 3, 1997, and was expanded in 2013 and 2018. The team also has a corporate office in downtown Chicago, located at 123 N. Wacker Dr, for sales, corporate partnerships and events departments employees. In popular culture in Chicago flashes a "GO BEARS" window display before a Bears Sunday Night Football game in 2006.]] While the Super Bowl XX champion Bears were a fixture of mainstream American pop culture in the 1980s, the Bears made a prior mark with the 1971 American TV movie ''Brian's Song'' starring Billy Dee Williams as Gale Sayers and James Caan as Brian Piccolo. The film told of how Piccolo helped Sayers recover from a devastating knee injury to return to his status as one of the league's best players, and how Sayers in turn helped the Piccolo family through Brian's fatal illness. A 2001 remake of the movie for ABC starred Sean Maher as Piccolo and Mekhi Phifer as Sayers. The 1985 team is also remembered for recording the song "The Super Bowl Shuffle", which reached number forty-one on the Billboard Hot 100 and was nominated for a Grammy Award. The music video for the song depicts the team rapping that they are "not here to start no trouble" but instead "just here to do the Super Bowl Shuffle". The team took a risk by recording and releasing the song before the playoffs had even begun, but were able to avoid embarrassment by going on to win Super Bowl XX by a then-record margin of 46–10. That game was one of the most-watched television events in history according to the Nielsen ratings system; the game had a rating of 48.3, ranking it seventh in all-time television history. In addition to the "Super Bowl Shuffle" rap song, the Bears' success in the 1980s – and especially the personality of head coach Mike Ditka – inspired a recurring sketch on the American sketch comedy program Saturday Night Live, called "Bill Swerski's Superfans". The sketch featured Cheers co-star George Wendt, a Chicago native, as host of a radio talk-show (similar in tone to WGN radio's "The Sportswriters"), with co-panelists Carl Wollarski (Robert Smigel), Pat Arnold (Mike Myers) and Todd O'Connor (Chris Farley). To hear them tell it, "Da Bears" and Coach Ditka could do no wrong. The sketch stopped after Ditka was fired in 1993. The sketch usually showed the panelists chugging beer and eating lots of Polish sausage, and often featured Todd getting so agitated about what was happening with the Bears that he suffered a heart attack, but quickly recovered (through self-administered CPR). The sketch also features the cast predicting unrealistic blowout victories for Bears games. Da Super Fan sketch has not been brought back by SNL, with the exception of a single appearance by Horatio Sanz as a Super Fan for the Cubs on "Weekend Update" in 2003. Outside of SNL, George Wendt reprised his role of Swerski in the opening promo of Super Bowl XL on ABC. On TV shows based in Chicago such as The Bob Newhart Show, Married... with Children, Family Matters, Still Standing, According to Jim, Early Edition and The Bernie Mac Show, the main characters are all Bears fans, and have worn Bears' jerseys and T-shirts on some occasions. Some episodes even show them watching Bears games. Roseanne is another TV show based in Illinois (albeit not in Chicago itself) to feature the Bears as the consensus household favorite, as 'Dan Connor' John Goodman is seen wearing Bears hats in several episodes. ''That '70s Show featured several Bears references, as it was based in Wisconsin, home of the Packers. On one episode while the gang is at a Bears vs. Packers game, Eric comes to the seat in a Walter Payton jersey and is booed by the surrounding Packers fans. In an episode of the Disney Channel show Shake It Up, based in Chicago, recurring character Dina Garcia (Ainsley Bailey) sold scalped Chicago Bears tickets. More recently, Modern Family'' character Cameron Tucker has been shown as a Bears fan. In an episode of the Disney Channel show "I Didn't Do It", based in Chicago, Lindy Watson (Olivia Holt) and Logan Watson (Austin North) try to get a football signed by NFL Hall of Famer Dick Butkus after destroying their fathers Butkus signed ball, Alshon Jeffery also makes a cameo appearance as well. Ditka's success and popularity in Chicago has led him to land analyst roles on various American football pregame shows. Ditka worked for both the NFL on NBC and CBS's The NFL Today, and he currently works on ESPN's Sunday NFL Countdown and provided Friday night analysis on the Bears on WBBM-TV's 2 on Football with former WBBM-TV sports director Mark Malone. He is also the color analyst for all local broadcasts of Bears preseason games. Ditka also co-starred himself alongside actor Will Ferrell in the 2005 comedy film Kicking & Screaming. Also, Ditka, Dick Butkus, Walter Payton, Jim McMahon, William "Refrigerator" Perry and Brian Urlacher are among Bears figures known for their appearances in TV commercials. Urlacher, whose jersey was among the league's best-selling in 2002, was featured on Nike commercials with former Atlanta Falcons quarterback Michael Vick. In the 1961 Hanna-Barbera animated short "Rah Rah Bear", Yogi Bear helps the Bears beat the New York Giants. The Bears were later depicted in an episode of the 1985 cartoon version of the NBC sitcom Punky Brewster, where the Bears are playing the Green Bay Packers. Clark Griswold (Chevy Chase) from the ''National Lampoon's Vacation series appears in some scenes wearing a navy blue with burnt orange scripting Chicago Bears ball cap. He wears the same Chicago Bears cap throughout all four Vacation'' movies. Broadcast media Radio Currently, WMVP (1000 AM) broadcast Bears games with Jeff Joniak doing the play-by-play, along with color commentator Tom Thayer, who played for the Bears from 1985 to 1992. Over the years, many Bears play-by-play broadcasters have included play-by-play announcers Jack Brickhouse, Joe McConnell and Wayne Larrivee, and color commentators Hub Arkush, Dick Butkus, Jim Hart and Irv Kupcinet. Spanish radio station WLEY-FM aired the Bears games from 2012 to 2014. Since 2015, WRTO and WVIV-FM air Bears games in Spanish. {|class="wikitable" ! colspan"3" style";"|Chicago Bears Network Radio affiliates |- ! style=";"|Market ! style=";"|Station ! style=";"|Notes |- | rowspan="3" | Chicago | WMVP (1000 AM) | All games<br />Bears Insider<br />Bears All-Access |- | WRTO (1200 AM) / WVIV-FM (93.5 FM) | All games (in Spanish) |- |} Television Preseason games air on WFLD (channel 32). The announcers are Adam Amin (play-by-play), Jim Miller (color commentary) and Lou Canellis (sideline reporter). WFLD also carries the majority of the team's regular season games through the NFL on Fox. Any Bears home games against AFC teams are aired on the CBS O&O station, WBBM-TV, which was the Bears' unofficial "home" station from 1956 until Fox won the NFC rights in 1995. Sunday Night games are broadcast on WMAQ-TV, the NBC O&O station, with ESPN Monday Night Football games airing either on ESPN or WLS-TV, the ABC affiliate. {|class="wikitable" ! colspan"3" style";"|Chicago Bears Network Television affiliates |- ! style=";"|Market ! style=";"|Station ! style=";"|Notes |- | Regional cable | Marquee Sports Network | Bear Essentials<br />Bears Den<br />The Official Bears Postgame Live |- | Chicago | WFLD | Preseason and Fox regional/national games<br />Bears Gameday Live<br />Bears Gamenight Live |- | Cedar Rapids, Iowa | KFXA | Preseason and Fox regional/national games |- | Champaign–Urbana | WCCU | Preseason and Fox regional/national games |- | Peoria | WMBD-TV | Preseason and CBS regional/national games |- | Quad Cities | KLJB | Preseason and Fox regional/national games |- | rowspan=2|Rockford | WIFR | Preseason and CBS regional/national games |- | WQRF | Preseason and Fox regional/national games |- | Springfield | WRSP-TV | Preseason and Fox regional/national games |- | South Bend | WSBT-TV | Preseason and CBS regional/national games |} Statistics and records Patrick Mannelly holds the record for the most seasons in a Bears uniform with 16. On the other hand, Steve McMichael holds the record for most consecutive games played by a Bear with 191; overtaking placekicker Kevin Butler who previously held the club record The largest home victory for the Bears came in a 61–7 result against the Green Bay Packers in 1980. The largest defeat in club history was a 52–0 loss against the Baltimore Colts in 1964. The club recorded undefeated regular seasons in 1934 and 1942; unlike the 1972 Miami Dolphins, however, they did not win the championship game in either season. In 1934, the club completed a 13–0 record but were defeated by the New York Giants, and in 1942 the club completed an 11–0 record but were defeated by the Redskins. Had the Bears won either championship, the club would have completed a championship three-peat – a feat completed only by the Packers (twice), although no team has done it since the AFL-NFL merger. Halas holds the team record for coaching the most seasons with 40 and for having the most career victories of 324. Halas' victories record stood until Don Shula surpassed Halas in . Ditka is the closest Bears coach to Halas, with 112 career victories. No other Bears coach has recorded over 100 victories with the team. He had six touchdown returns, setting a record for most returns in a single season. In 2007, he recorded another six touchdown season from returns. One of the most notable of these returns came on November 12, 2006, when he returned a missed field goal for a 108-yard touchdown. The record tied former teammate Nathan Vasher's previous record, which was set almost a year earlier. Hester set a Super Bowl record as the first player to return an opening kick of a Super Bowl for a touchdown. On December 20, 2010, Hester set an NFL record for most touchdowns on a punt or kickoff return with his 14th career return coming against the Minnesota Vikings. In 2011, Hester broke the record for the most punt returns against the Carolina Panthers. In 2012, Charles Tillman set the record for most forced fumbles in a single game with four against the Tennessee Titans. Against the Titans, Chicago became the first team in league history to score a touchdown pass, a touchdown run, an interception return for a touchdown, and a blocked kick/punt for a score in the same quarter. Tillman and teammate Lance Briggs became the first pair in NFL history to return an interception for a touchdown in consecutive games against the Jacksonville Jaguars and Dallas Cowboys. Season-by-season results This is a partial list of the Bears' last five completed seasons. For the full season-by-season franchise results, see List of Chicago Bears seasons. Note: The Finish, Wins, Losses, and Ties columns list regular season results and exclude any postseason play. {| class="wikitable" |- | style="background:#fcc;"|<small>Super Bowl champions (1970–present)</small> | style="background:#dfd;"|<small>Conference champions</small> | style="background:#d0e7ff;"|<small>Division champions</small> | style="background:#96cdcd;"|<small>Wild Card berth</small> |} <small>As of January 28, 2025</small> {| class"wikitable" style"font-size:95%; text-align:center;" |- ! rowspan"2" style";"|Season ! rowspan"2" style";"|Team ! rowspan"2" style";"|League ! rowspan"2" style";"|Conference ! rowspan"2" style";"|Division ! colspan"4" style";"|Regular season ! rowspan"2" style";"|Postseason results ! rowspan"2" style";"|Awards |- ! style=";"|Finish ! style=";"|Wins ! style=";"|Losses ! style=";"|Ties |- style="background:#96cdcd;" ! || 2020 | NFL || NFC || North || 2nd || 8 || 8 || 0 || <small>Lost to New Orleans Saints in NFC Wild Card Game.</small> || — |- ! || 2021 | NFL || NFC || North || 3rd || 6 || 11 || 0 || — || — |- ! || 2022 | NFL || NFC || North || 4th || 3 || 14 || 0 || — || — |- ! || 2023 | NFL || NFC || North || 4th || 7 || 10 || 0 || — || — |- ! || 2024 | NFL || NFC || North || 4th || 5 || 12 || 0 || — || — |} Records {| class"wikitable" style"margin:left" ! colspan"4" style";"|All-time Bears leaders |- ! style";"|Leader || style";"|Player || style";"|Record || style";"|Years with Bears |- | Passing || Jay Cutler || 23,443 passing yards || 2009–2016 |- | Rushing || Walter Payton || 16,726 rushing yards || 1975–1987 |- | Receiving || Johnny Morris || 5,059 receiving yards || 1958–1967 |- | Points || Robbie Gould || 1,142 points || 2005–2015 |- | Coaching Wins || George Halas || 318 wins || 1920–1929, 1933–1942<br />1946–1955, 1958–1967 |} Players of note Current roster Pro Football Hall of Famers In the Pro Football Hall of Fame, the Bears have the most enshrined primary members with 32; the club also has had nine Hall of Famers spend a minor portion of their career with the franchise. Founder, owner, head coach, and player George Halas, halfback Bronko Nagurski, and Red Grange were a part of the original class of inductees in 1963. The franchise saw 14 individuals inducted into the Hall of Fame from 1963 to 1967. The most recent Bears to be inducted were Devin Hester and Steve McMichael in 2024 (primary contributors) and Jared Allen (minor contributor) in 2025. In addition, Ray Bray was enshrined in Helms Athletic Foundation Pro Football Hall of Fame, which was established in 1950 and preceded the Pro Football Hall of Fame. He's the only Bears member from the Helms Athletic Foundation hall to not be enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame. Chicagoland Sports Hall of Fame The Chicagoland Sports Hall of Fame was founded in 1979 and honors sports greats associated with the Chicago metropolitan area. As of 2023, there are 59 honorees enshrined in the hall with connection to the Bears. Retired numbers The Bears have retired 14 uniform numbers, which is the most in the NFL, and ranks fourth behind the basketball Boston Celtics (23), baseball New York Yankees (21), and hockey Montreal Canadiens (15) for the most in major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada. The Bears retired Mike Ditka's number 89 jersey on December 9, 2013. It is the last number that the Bears retired. Top 100 greatest Bears of all-time In honor of the team's centennial anniversary, on May 20, 2019, the Chicago Bears unveiled the Top 100 players in franchise history, as voted on by Hall of Fame writers Don Pierson and Dan Pompei, two of the most famous journalists that have ever covered the club in their long history. At the time of the publish, the list included 27 Pro Football Hall of Famers, while two more inductees would join in the 2020 Centennial class (Jim Covert and Ed Sprinkle). Among the 100 Greatest, four active players made the list, including safety Eddie Jackson (96), defensive lineman Akiem Hicks (75), offensive lineman Kyle Long (74) and Khalil Mack (60), who had only played only one season with the team at the time of the unveiling of the list. Long would retire the following year. On a later date, Chicagobears.com released a list titled "Top 10: Best of the rest" that featured the "top 10 snubs" from the centennial list. The players include (in a following order): Alex Brown, Thomas Jones, Dave Whitsell, Curtis Conway, Tim Jennings, Leslie Frazier, Roberto Garza, Marty Booker, Nathan Vasher and William Perry. Pompei would later say that the last two players who didn't make the list were Brown and Frazier. {| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center;" |- ! style";"|# ! style";"|Name ! style";"|Position ! style";"|Years |- |1 |style="background-color:#FFE6BD"|Walter Payton<sup>𝙝𝙤𝙛</sup> |RB |1975–1987 |- |2 |style="background-color:#FFE6BD"|Dick Butkus<sup>𝙝𝙤𝙛</sup> |LB |1965–1973 |- |3 |style="background-color:#FFE6BD"|Bronko Nagurski<sup>𝙝𝙤𝙛</sup> |FB/LB/T |1930–1937, 1943 |- |4 |style="background-color:#FFE6BD"|Sid Luckman<sup>𝙝𝙤𝙛</sup> |QB/P/DB |1939–1950 |- |5 |style="background-color:#FFE6BD"|Gale Sayers<sup>𝙝𝙤𝙛</sup> |RB |1965–1971 |- |6 |style="background-color:#FFE6BD"|Mike Ditka<sup>𝙝𝙤𝙛</sup> |TE |1961–1966 |- |7 |style="background-color:#FFE6BD"|Bill George<sup>𝙝𝙤𝙛</sup> |LB |1952–1965 |- |8 |style="background-color:#FFE6BD"|Clyde "Bulldog" Turner<sup>𝙝𝙤𝙛</sup> |C/LB |1940–1952 |- |9 |style="background-color:#FFE6BD"|Doug Atkins<sup>𝙝𝙤𝙛</sup> |DE |1955–1966 |- |10 |style="background-color:#FFE6BD"|Danny Fortmann<sup>𝙝𝙤𝙛</sup> |OG |1936–1943 |- |11 |style="background-color:#FFE6BD"|Dan Hampton<sup>𝙝𝙤𝙛</sup> |DE/DT |1979–1990 |- |12 |style="background-color:#FFE6BD"|Richard Dent<sup>𝙝𝙤𝙛</sup> |DE |1983–1993, 1995 |- |13 |style="background-color:#FFE6BD"|Jim Covert<sup>𝙝𝙤𝙛</sup> |OT |1983–1990 |- |14 |style="background-color:#FFE6BD"|Brian Urlacher<sup>𝙝𝙤𝙛</sup> |LB |2000–2012 |- |15 |style="background-color:#FFE6BD"|Mike Singletary<sup>𝙝𝙤𝙛</sup> |LB |1981–1992 |- |16 |style="background-color:#FFE6BD"|Bill Hewitt<sup>𝙝𝙤𝙛</sup> |E |1932–1936 |- |17 |style="background-color:#FFE6BD"|Stan Jones<sup>𝙝𝙤𝙛</sup> |OG/DT |1954–1965 |- |18 |style="background-color:#e3e3e3"|Jay Hilgenberg<sup>vg</sup> |C/LS |1981–1991 |- |19 |style="background-color:#FFE6BD"|Steve McMichael<sup>𝙝𝙤𝙛</sup> |DT |1981–1993 |- |20 |style="background-color:#FFE6BD"|Devin Hester<sup>𝙝𝙤𝙛</sup> |KR/PR/WR |2006–2013 |- |21 |style="background-color:#FFE6BD"|Joe Stydahar<sup>𝙝𝙤𝙛</sup> |OT |1936–1942<br />1945–1946 |- |22 |style="background-color:#FFE6BD"|George Connor<sup>𝙝𝙤𝙛</sup> |T/LB |1948–1955 |- |23 |style="background-color:#FFE6BD"|George McAfee<sup>𝙝𝙤𝙛</sup> |HB/DB |1940–1941<br />1945–1950 |- |24 |style="background-color:#e3e3e3"|Joe Fortunato<sup>vg</sup> |LB |1955–1966 |- |25 |style="background-color:#FFE6BD"|Ed Sprinkle<sup>𝙝𝙤𝙛</sup> |DE |1944–1955 |- |26 |style="background-color:#FFE6BD"|Ed Healey<sup>𝙝𝙤𝙛</sup> |OT/DT |1922–1927 |- |27 |Olin Kreutz |C |1998–2010 |- |28 |Lance Briggs |LB |2003–2014 |- |29 |style="background-color:#e3e3e3"|Rick Casares<sup>vg</sup> |FB |1955–1964 |- |30 |Gary Fencik |S |1976–1987 |- |31 |Charles Tillman |CB |2003–2014 |- |32 |style="background-color:#FFE6BD"|Paddy Driscoll<sup>𝙝𝙤𝙛</sup> |HB/QB/P |1920, 1926–1929 |- |33 |style="background-color:#FFE6BD"|George Trafton<sup>𝙝𝙤𝙛</sup> |C |1920–1932 |- |34 |Matt Forte |RB |2008–2015 |- |35 |style="background-color:#FFE6BD"|George Musso<sup>𝙝𝙤𝙛</sup> |OG |1933–1944 |- |36 |style="background-color:#FFE6BD"|Red Grange<sup>𝙝𝙤𝙛</sup> |HB/DB |1925, 1929–1934 |- |37 |style="background-color:#FFE6BD"|George Halas<sup>𝙝𝙤𝙛</sup> |E |1920–1929 |- |38 |style="background-color:#FFE6BD"|Link Lyman<sup>𝙝𝙤𝙛</sup> |T |1926–1928<br />1930–1931<br />1933–1934 |- |39 |style="background-color:#e3e3e3"|Harlon Hill<sup>vg</sup> |FL |1954–1961 |- |40 |style="background-color:#e3e3e3"|Ken Kavanaugh<sup>vg</sup> |E |1940–1941<br />1945–1950 |- |41 |Neal Anderson |RB |1986–1993 |- |42 |style="background-color:#e3e3e3"|Richie Petitbon<sup>vg</sup> |S |1959–1968 |- |43 |Wilber Marshall |LB |1984–1987 |- |44 |Johnny Morris |FL |1958–1967 |- |45 |Otis Wilson |LB |1980–1987 |- |46 |Doug Buffone |LB |1966–1979 |- |47 |Dave Duerson |S |1983–1989 |- |48 |Fred Williams |DT |1952–1963 |- |49 |style="background-color:#FFE34D"|Ray Bray<sup>HAF</sup> |OG |1939–1942<br />1946–1951 |- |50 |Mark Bortz |OG |1983–1994 |} {| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center;" |- ! style";"|# ! style";"|Name ! style";"|Position ! style";"|Years |- |51 |Keith Van Horne |OT |1981–1993 |- |52 |Joe Kopcha |OG |1929, 1932–1935 |- |53 |Jim McMahon |QB |1982–1988 |- |54 |Ed Brown |QB/P |1954–1961 |- |55 |Johnny Lujack |QB/DB |1948–1951 |- |56 |Roosevelt Taylor |CB |1961–1969 |- |57 |Jim Osborne |DT |1972–1984 |- |58 |Wally Chambers |DT |1973–1977 |- |59 |style="background-color:#FFE6BD"|Julius Peppers<sup>𝙝𝙤𝙛</sup> |DE |2010–2013 |- |60 |Khalil Mack |LB |2018–2021 |- |61 |style="background-color:#FBCEB1"|Willie Galimore<sup>𝐟</sup> |HB |1957–1963 |- |62 |Robbie Gould |K |2005–2015 |- |63 |Mike Brown |S |2000–2008 |- |64 |James "Big Cat" Williams |OT |1991–2002 |- |65 |Dick Gordon |WR |1965–1971 |- |66 |Mike Hartenstine |DE |1975–1986 |- |67 |Ed O'Bradovich |DE |1962–1971 |- |68 |Dick Barwegen |OG |1950–1952 |- |69 |Bill Wade |QB |1961–1966 |- |70 |Matt Suhey |FB |1980–1989 |- |71 |Kevin Butler |K |1985–1995 |- |72 |Mark Carrier |S |1990–1996 |- |73 |Tommie Harris |DT |2004–2010 |- |74 |Kyle Long |OG |2013–2019 |- |75 |Akiem Hicks |DT |2016–2021 |- |76 |J.C. Caroline |DB |1956–1965 |- |77 |Bennie McRae |DB |1962–1970 |- |78 |Donnell Woolford |CB |1989–1996 |- |79 |Dennis McKinnon |WR/KR |1983–1985<br />1987–1989 |- |80 |Alshon Jeffery |WR |2012–2016 |- |81 |Brandon Marshall |WR |2012–2014 |- |82 |style="background-color:#FFE6BD"|George Blanda<sup>𝙝𝙤𝙛</sup> |QB/K |1949–1958 |- |83 |Willie Gault |WR |1983–1987 |- |84 |Tom Thayer |OG |1985–1992 |- |85 |Jay Cutler |QB |2009–2016 |- |86 |Allan Ellis |CB |1973–1977<br />1979–1980 |- |87 |Luke Johnsos |E |1929–1936 |- |88 |Joey Sternaman |QB/HB/K |1922–1925<br />1927–1930 |- |89 |Mike Pyle |C |1961–1969 |- |90 |style="background-color:#FBCEB1"|Beattie Feathers<sup>𝐟</sup> |HB |1934–1937 |- |91 |Bob Wetoska |OT |1960–1969 |- |92 |Bill Osmanski |FB |1939–1943<br />1946–1947 |- |93 |Herm Lee |OT |1958–1966 |- |94 |Jim Dooley |FL/DB |1952–1954<br />1956–1957<br />1959–1962 |- |95 |Larry Morris |LB |1959–1965 |- |96 |Eddie Jackson |S |2017–2023 |- |97 |Bobby Joe Green |P |1962–1973 |- |98 |Trace Armstrong |DE |1989–1994 |- |99 |Doug Plank |S |1975–1982 |- |100 |Patrick Mannelly |LS |1998–2013 |} }} Pro Football Hall of Fame inductee.<br /> }} Pro Football Hall of Fame finalist.<br /> }} Helms Athletic Foundation Pro Football Hall of Fame inductee.<br /> }} PFRA Hall of Very Good inductee.All-Time TeamDuring the week of June 3, 2019, the All-Time Team was announced in parts each day starting with the All-Time defensive players, followed by the All-Time specialists and then the All-Time offensive players. Bold indicates those elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame. Larry Mayer of the Chicagobears.com would later state, that according to the voters "if they had included a long-snapper on the team it would have been Patrick Mannelly". Offense {| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" !style";"|Position !style";"|Player !style";"|Tenure !style";"|Honors* |- |rowspan1|QB ||style"background-color:#FFE6BD"| Sid Luckman || 1939–1950 || * 4× NFL champion (1940, 1941, 1943, 1946) * NFL Most Valuable Player (1943) * NFL 1940s All-Decade Team * Chicago Bears No. 42 retired |- |rowspan1|FB ||style"background-color:#FFE6BD"| Bronko Nagurski || 1930–1937, 1943 || * 3× NFL champion (1932, 1933, 1943) * NFL 1930s All-Decade Team * NFL 75th Anniversary All-Time Team * Chicago Bears No. 3 retired |- |rowspan1|RB ||style"background-color:#FFE6BD"| Walter Payton || 1975–1987 || * Super Bowl champion (XX) * 2× NFL Most Valuable Player (1977, 1985) * NFL 1970s All-Decade Team * NFL 1980s All-Decade Team * NFL 75th Anniversary All-Time Team * NFL 100th Anniversary All-Time Team * Chicago Bears No. 34 retired |- |rowspan=2|WR || Harlon Hill || 1954–1961 || * NFL MVP () |- |Ken Kavanaugh || 1940–1941, 1945–1950 || * 3× NFL champion (1940, 1941, 1946) * NFL 1940s All-Decade Team |- |rowspan1|TE || style"background-color:#FFE6BD"|Mike Ditka || 1961–1966 || * NFL champion (1963) * NFL 75th Anniversary All-Time Team * NFL 100th Anniversary All-Time Team * Chicago Bears No. 89 retired |- |rowspan2|OT || style"background-color:#FFE6BD"|Joe Stydahar || 1936–1942, 1945–1946 || *3x NFL champion (1940, 1942, 1946) * NFL 1930s All-Decade Team |- |style="background-color:#FFE6BD"|Jim Covert || 1983–1990 || * Super Bowl champion (XX) * NFL 1980s All-Decade Team |- |rowspan2|G || style"background-color:#FFE6BD"|Stan Jones || 1954–1965 || * NFL champion (1963) * Sporting News 1950s All-Decade Team |- |style="background-color:#FFE6BD"|Danny Fortmann || 1936–1943 || * 3× NFL champion (1940, 1941, 1943) * NFL 1930s All-Decade Team * Sports Illustrated 1940s All-Decade Team * NFL 100th Anniversary All-Time Team |- |rowspan1|C || style"background-color:#FFE6BD"|Clyde "Bulldog" Turner || 1940–1952 || * 4× NFL champion (1940, 1941, 1943, 1946) * NFL 1940s All-Decade Team * Chicago Bears No. 66 retired |- |} Defense {| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" !style";"|Position !style";"|Player !style";"|Tenure !style";"|Honors* |- |rowspan2|DE || style"background-color:#FFE6BD"|Doug Atkins || 1955–1966 || * NFL champion (1963) * NFL 1960s All-Decade Team * NFL 100th Anniversary All-Time Team |- |style="background-color:#FFE6BD"|Richard Dent || 1983–1993, 1995 || * Super Bowl champion (XX) * Super Bowl MVP (XX) |- |rowspan2|DT || style"background-color:#FFE6BD"|Dan Hampton || 1979–1990 || * Super Bowl champion (XX) * NFL 1980s All-Decade Team |- |style="background-color:#FFE6BD"| Steve McMichael || 1981–1993 || * Super Bowl champion (XX) * PFR 1980s All-Decade Team |- |rowspan1|MLB || style"background-color:#FFE6BD"|Dick Butkus || 1965–1973 || * 2× NFL Defensive Player of the Year (1969, 1970) * NFL 1960s All-Decade Team * NFL 1970s All-Decade Team * NFL 75th Anniversary All-Time Team * NFL 100th Anniversary All-Time Team * Chicago Bears No. 51 retired |- |rowspan2|OLB || style"background-color:#FFE6BD"|George Connor || 1948–1955 || * NFL 1940s All-Decade Team |- |Joe Fortunato || 1955–1966 || * NFL champion (1963) * NFL 1950s All-Decade Team |- |rowspan2|CB || style"background-color:#FFE6BD"|George McAfee || 1940–1941, 1945–1950 || * 3× NFL champion (1940, 1941, 1946) * NFL 1940s All-Decade Team * Chicago Bears No. 5 retired |- |Charles Tillman || 2003–2014 || |- |rowspan=2|S || |Gary Fencik || 1976–1987 || * Super Bowl champion (XX) * PFR 1980s All-Decade Team |- |Richie Petitbon || 1959–1968 || * NFL champion (1963) |- |} Special teams {| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" !style";"|Position !style";"|Player !style";"|Tenure !style";"|Honors* |- |P || Bobby Joe Green || 1962–1973 || |- |PK || Robbie Gould || 2005–2015 || |- |PR ||style="background-color:#FFE6BD"| Devin Hester || 2006–2013 || * 3× Special Teams Player of the Year (2006, 2007, 2010) * NFL 2000s All-Decade Team (PR) * NFL 2010s All-Decade Team (KR) * NFL 100th Anniversary All-Time Team |- |KR || style="background-color:#FFE6BD"|Gale Sayers || 1965–1971 || * NFL 1960s All-Decade Team * NFL 50th Anniversary All-Time Team * NFL 75th Anniversary All-Time Team * NFL 100th Anniversary All-Time Team * Chicago Bears No. 40 retired |} <sup>*</sup> As a Chicago Bear Coaching staff Minor league affiliates The NFL, contrary to the four other major sports leagues in North America, don't have a formal farm system (beside the short lived Association of Professional Football Leagues), and over the years some teams had "independent" minor affiliates throughout their existence. The Bears, along with the New York Giants, were at the forefront of those endeavors when in 1939 Halas purchased the American Association's Newark Tornadoes and renamed them the "Bears". Halas stocked the team with talent that did not make the Chicago roster, and used the club to incubate talent and for easy return for injured players, thus making it pro football's first true farm team. Newark's most notable names included Joe Zeller as coach and Gene Ronzani (that year Chicago also assigned Sid Luckman to Newark playoff game, which the Bears won 13–6, to win the Southern Division title). This practice continued sporadically until 1972, and ended with the collapse of several minor leagues along with the NFL labor disputes in the 1970s. Other notable players assigned includes: George Gulyanics, Ed Ecker, Lloyd Reese, Raymond Schumacher, Jack Karwales and Doug McEnulty. {| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" |- !style";"|Team !style";"|League !style";"|Location !style";"|Stadium !style";"|Affiliated |- !scope="row"| Newark Bears | American Association | Newark, New Jersey | Newark Schools Stadium | 1939–1941 |- !scope="row"| Wichita Aero Commandos | Independent | Wichita, Kansas | Lawrence Stadium | 1942 |- !scope="row"| Akron Bears | American Football League | Akron, Ohio | Rubber Bowl | 1946 |- !scope="row"| Bloomfield Cardinals | American Football League | Bloomfield, New Jersey | Foley Field | 1947 |- !scope="row"| Richmond Rebels | American Football League | Richmond, Virginia | City Stadium | 1948–1950 |- !scope="row"| Quad City Mohawks | Midwest Professional Football League | Davenport, Iowa | Brady Street Stadium | 1970-1972 |- |} Notes References Sources * External links * * [https://www.nfl.com/teams/chicago-bears/ Chicago Bears] at the National Football League official website * [https://www.espn.com/nfl/team/_/name/chi/chicago-bears/ Chicago Bears] at ESPN.com * [http://www.chicagotribune.com/sports/football/bears/ Chicago Bears] at the Chicago Tribune * [https://www.pro-football-reference.com/teams/chi/ Franchise Encyclopedia] at Pro Football Reference |list= }} Category:1920 establishments in Illinois Category:American football teams established in 1920 Bears Category:NFL teams
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Bears
2025-04-05T18:27:52.360283
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Cincinnati Bengals
| first_season = 1968 | city and headquartered in Paycor Stadium<br />Cincinnati, Ohio | uniform | colors Black, Orange, White<br /> | song = The Bengals Growl | mascot = Bengal Tiger | owner = Mike Brown<!-- Please do not vandalize this field. Mike Brown is the owner of the club in the business sense. Thank you. --> | president = Mike Brown | general manager = Duke Tobin | coach = Zac Taylor | website = | hist_yr = 1968 | affiliate_old = American Football League (1968–1969) * AFL West (1968–1969) | NFL_start_yr = 1970 | division_hist = * American Football Conference (1970–present) ** AFC Central (1970–2001) ** AFC North (2002–present) | no_conf_champs = 3 | no_div_champs = 11 | conf_champs = * AFC: 1981, 1988, 2021 | div_champs = * AFC Central: 1970, 1973, 1981, 1988, 1990 * AFC North: 2005, 2009, 2013, 2015, 2021, 2022 | playoff_appearances = * NFL: 1970, 1973, 1975, 1981, 1982, 1988, 1990, 2005, 2009, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2021, 2022 | no_playoff_appearances = 16 | stadium_years = * Nippert Stadium (1968–1969) * Riverfront Stadium (–) * Paycor Stadium (–present) | team_owners = * Paul Brown (1967–1991) * Mike Brown (1991–present) }} The Cincinnati Bengals are a professional American football team based in Cincinnati. The Bengals compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member of the American Football Conference (AFC) North division. The team plays its home games at Paycor Stadium in downtown Cincinnati. Brown was the Bengals' head coach from their inception to . After being dismissed as the Browns' head coach by Art Modell (who had purchased a majority interest in the team in ) in January , Brown had shown interest in establishing another NFL franchise in Ohio and looked at both Cincinnati and Columbus. He ultimately chose the former when a deal between the city, Hamilton County, and Major League Baseball's Cincinnati Reds (who were seeking a replacement for the obsolete Crosley Field) was struck that resulted in an agreement to build a multipurpose stadium which could host both baseball and football games. Due to the impending merger of the AFL and the NFL, which was scheduled to take full effect in the season, Brown agreed to join the AFL as its 10th and final franchise. The Bengals, like the other former AFL teams, were assigned to the AFC following the merger. Cincinnati was also selected because, like their neighbors the Reds, they could draw from several large neighboring cities (Louisville and Lexington, Kentucky; Columbus, Dayton, and Springfield, Ohio) that are all no more than away from downtown Cincinnati, along with Indianapolis, until the Baltimore Colts relocated there prior to the 1984 NFL season. After Paul Brown's death in 1991, controlling interest in the team was inherited by his son, Mike Brown. In 2011, Brown purchased shares of the team owned by the estate of co-founder Austin Knowlton and is now the majority owner of the Bengals franchise. The Bengals won the AFC championship in , , and in . After each of the 1981 and 1988 conference championships, they went on to lose to the San Francisco 49ers, in Super Bowls XVI and XXIII. The team struggled greatly in the 1990s and the early 2000s, during which time they were sometimes referred to disparagingly as "The Bungles," a term coined by Steelers broadcaster Myron Cope. Following the 1990 season, the team went 14 years without making the NFL playoffs or posting a winning record. The Bengals went through several head coaches in that period, and many of their top draft picks did not pan out. The team's fortunes improved in the mid-2000s and into the mid-2010s, which saw them become more consistent postseason contenders, but they continued to struggle in the playoffs. The turning point for the Bengals was during the 2021 season, when they won their first playoff game in 31 years and advanced to the first of two consecutive AFC Championship games. In 2021, they defeated the Kansas City Chiefs 27–24 in overtime and advanced to Super Bowl LVI, their first appearance in the Super Bowl in 33 years, where they lost to the Los Angeles Rams 23–20. They advanced to the AFC Championship game again in 2022 but lost to the eventual Super Bowl champion Chiefs by a score of 23–20. The team does not have an official general manager. However, Duke Tobin is the Bengals’ “de facto general manager” because he handles most personnel decisions. In a 2011 survey, Brown was rated as among the worst team owners in American professional sports. In a Forbes article on the value of NFL teams as of August 2022, the Cincinnati Bengals were ranked last with a value of $3 billion.History Brown family era (1968–present) , Bengals tight end from 1968 to 1977|274x274px]] , Bengals center from 1968 to 1979]] In 1967, an ownership group led by Paul Brown was granted a franchise in the American Football League. Brown named the team the Bengals in order "to give it a link with past professional football in Cincinnati". Another Cincinnati Bengals team had existed in the city and played in three previous American Football Leagues from 1937 to 1942. The city's world-renowned zoo was also home to a rare white Bengal tiger. In a possible insult to Art Modell – or possibly as a homage to the Massillon Tigers – Brown chose the exact shade of orange used by his former team. He added black as the secondary color. Brown chose a very simple logo: the word "BENGALS" in black lettering. One of the potential helmet designs Brown rejected was a striped motif that was similar to the helmets adopted by the team in 1981 still in use today; however, that design featured stripes which were more uniform in width. The Bengals began play in the 1968 season. In 1966, the American Football League agreed to a merger with its older and more established rival, the National Football League. Among the terms of the merger was that the AFL was permitted to add one additional franchise; the NFL wanted an even number of clubs in the merged league, so a team needed to be added to bring the number of clubs in the merged league to 26 teams. For the AFL, a key motive behind their agreement to accept a new team was that the guarantee of an eventual place in the NFL meant the league could charge a steep expansion fee of $10 million – 400 times the $25,000 the original eight owners paid when they founded the league in 1960. The cash from the new team provided the American Football League with the funds needed to pay the indemnities required to be paid by the AFL to the NFL, as stipulated by the merger agreement. Prior to the merger's announcement, Brown had not seriously considered joining the American Football League and was not a supporter of what he openly regarded to be an inferior competition, once famously stating that "I didn't pay ten million dollars to be in the AFL." However, with the announcement of the merger, Brown realized that the AFL expansion franchise would likely be his only realistic path back into the NFL in the short to medium term, and ultimately acquiesced to joining the AFL after learning that the team was guaranteed to become an NFL franchise after the merger was completed in 1970. There was also a major problem: Major League Baseball's Cincinnati Reds were in need of a facility to replace Crosley Field, which they had used since 1912. By this time, the small park was antiquated and rundown, and parking issues had plagued the city since the early 1950s, while the park also lacked modern amenities – issues that were exacerbated by the Mill Creek Expressway (I-75) project that ran alongside the park. While New York City – which had lost both its National League teams in 1957 after the Dodgers relocated to Los Angeles, and the Giants relocated to San Francisco – had actively courted Reds owner Powel Crosley to relocate his team there, Crosley was adamant that the Reds remain in Cincinnati and tolerated the worsening problems with the Crosley Field location. With assistance from Ohio governor Jim Rhodes, Hamilton County and the Cincinnati city council agreed to build a single multi-purpose facility on the dilapidated riverfront section of the city: the new facility had to be ready by the opening of the 1970 NFL season, and was officially named Riverfront Stadium., home of the Bengals from 1970 to 1999|192x192px]] With the completion of the merger in 1970, the Cleveland Browns were one of three NFL teams that agreed to move to the AFL-based American Football Conference to give both conferences an equal number of teams and were placed in the AFC Central, the same division as the Bengals. An instant rivalry was born, fueled initially by Paul Brown's rivalry with Art Modell. Paul Brown and Bill Johnson years (1968–1978) For their first two seasons, the Bengals played at Nippert Stadium, the current home of the University of Cincinnati Bearcats. The team held training camp at Wilmington College in Wilmington, through the 1968 preseason. The team finished its first season with a 3–11 record and running back Paul Robinson, who rushed for 1,023 yards, and was named the AFL Rookie of the Year. Founder Paul Brown coached the team for its first eight seasons. One of Brown's college draft strategies was to draft players from non-traditional football schools. Punter/wide receiver Pat McInally attended Harvard University, and linebacker Reggie Williams attended Dartmouth College and served on Cincinnati city council while on the Bengals' roster. Because of this policy, many former players went on to have successful careers in commentary and broadcasting as well as the arts. In addition, Brown had a knack for locating and recognizing pro football talent in unusual places. In 1970, the Bengals moved to play at Riverfront Stadium, a home they shared with the Cincinnati Reds until the team moved to Paul Brown Stadium in 2000. Notable players of the 1970 team included Virgil Carter, Chip Meyers, Jack Meckstroth, Bob Trumpy, and Lemar Parrish. Virgil Carter threw for 1,647 yards. Chip Myers paced all receivers, catching 32 passes for 542 yards. Bob Trumpy contributed to the receiving game, too. The team reached the playoffs three times during that decade, but could not win any of those postseason games. In 1975, the team posted an 11–3 record, giving them what remains the highest winning percentage (.786) in franchise history. But it only earned them a wild card spot in the playoffs, behind the 12–2 Pittsburgh Steelers, who went on to win the Super Bowl; the Bengals lost to the Oakland Raiders 31–28 in the divisional playoffs. Forrest Gregg/Sam Wyche years (1980–1991) The Bengals reached the Super Bowl twice during the 1980s – in Super Bowl XVI and Super Bowl XXIII – and lost against the San Francisco 49ers both times. The team appeared in the playoffs in 1990, making it to the second round before losing to the Los Angeles Raiders. Before the following season got underway, Paul Brown died at age 82. Due to declining health, he had already transferred control to his son, Mike Brown, but was reported to still influence the daily operations of the team. The Bengals' fortunes changed for the worse as the team posted 14 consecutive non-winning seasons and were saddled with numerous draft busts. Marvin Lewis years (2003–2018) The Bengals began to emerge from that dismal period into a new era of increased consistency, however, after the team finished with its worst record in team history, 2–14, which led to the hiring of Marvin Lewis as head coach in 2003. Carson Palmer, the future star quarterback, was drafted in 2003, but did not play a snap that whole season, as Jon Kitna had a comeback year (voted NFL Comeback Player of the Year). Despite Kitna's success, Palmer was promoted to starting quarterback the following season. The team finished with an 8–8 record and missed the postseason in 2004. Under Palmer, the team advanced to the playoffs for the first time since 1990 losing in the Wild Card Round to the Pittsburgh Steelers 31–17 in the 2005 season, which also was the first time the team had a winning percentage above .500 since 1990. , Bengals wide receiver from 2001 to 2010]] The Bengals returned to the playoffs again in 2009 in a season that included the franchise's first-ever division sweep. This was especially impressive since two of the teams swept by the Bengals – the Pittsburgh Steelers and the Baltimore Ravens – had made it to the AFC Championship Game the previous season. Marvin Lewis was rewarded for the accomplishment with the NFL Coach of the Year Award. In the 2010 season, the Bengals posted a 4–12 record. Following the disappointing 2010 season, quarterback Carson Palmer demanded to be traded. When the Bengals refused to do so, Palmer announced his retirement from the NFL. He later was moved at the NFL trade deadline to the Oakland Raiders. In the 2011 NFL draft, the Bengals selected wide receiver A. J. Green in the first round and quarterback Andy Dalton in the second round. The Bengals improved to 9–7 in the 2011 season, and clinched a playoff spot. Dalton and Green became the most prolific rookie WR-QB duo in history, connecting 65 times for 1,057 yards. However, they lost to the Houston Texans, 31–10, in the Wild Card round. In the 2012 season, the Bengals clinched a playoff spot once more with a win over the Pittsburgh Steelers, going to the playoffs in back-to-back years for the first time since 1982. However, the Bengals faced the Texans in the first round yet again and took another early exit, losing 19–13. In the 2013 season, for the third straight year, the Bengals clinched a playoff berth and also won the AFC North, finishing with an 11–5 record. But once again, the Bengals were defeated in the wild card round, this time by the San Diego Chargers, 27–10. Most of the blame was put on Andy Dalton, who threw two interceptions and fumbled on a forward dive. This made the Bengals 0–5 in playoff games since Mike Brown took over as owner. The 2014 season started well, with the Bengals winning their first three contests against the Baltimore Ravens, Atlanta Falcons, and Tennessee Titans. However, they lost their Week 5 road matchup with the New England Patriots, 43–17. An overtime tie with the Carolina Panthers and a shutout loss to the Indianapolis Colts followed the primetime loss to the Patriots. Finishing the season 10–5–1 as the fifth seed, they lost to the Colts, 26–10, in the first round of the playoffs. This was the first time the franchise made the playoffs four straight seasons. In 2015, the Bengals got out to a franchise-best 8–0 start with a 31–10 win over the Cleveland Browns. Unfortunately, in Week 14 they would lose starting quarterback Andy Dalton to injury. He would not return that season, leaving A. J. McCarron to start under center. The Bengals finished with a franchise record-tying 12–4 mark. Additionally, they lost to the division rival Pittsburgh Steelers, 18–16, in the Wild Card round in the final minute, making them the first franchise in NFL history to lose five straight opening-round playoff games. This frustration continued in 2016 for the Bengals: they finished the 2016 campaign with a 6–9–1 record, losing several key players to injury, including A. J. Green, Giovani Bernard, and Jeremy Hill. They missed the playoffs for the first time since 2010, marking the first time Andy Dalton missed the playoffs as the Bengals' starting quarterback. One notable game was a 27–27 tie against the Washington Redskins which was played in London in 2016. Following a rough 2016 season, the Bengals looked forward into 2017. However, after starting 0–3, the Bengals never found their footing. At one point in the season, the Bengals were 5–9. There were rumors that Marvin Lewis would not return for the next season as the Bengals' head coach. However, after two come-from-behind victories over the Lions and Ravens that eliminated both teams from the playoffs, the Bengals finished 7–9. The final two games were convincing enough for owner Mike Brown to give Lewis a new two-year contract. The 2018 campaign began with promise for the Bengals under Lewis. Cincinnati began the season with a 4–1 record with impressive wins over the Colts, Ravens, Falcons, and Dolphins. However, the Bengals suffered many setbacks after the hot start: defensive coordinator Teryl Austin was fired mid-season because of defensive woes, A. J. Green was injured and officially out for the last four games, and Andy Dalton injured his thumb in the Bengals' first game against the Browns and replaced by Jeff Driskel for the rest of the season. The Bengals ended 2018 with a final record of 6–10 and finished last place in the AFC North. On December 31, 2018, with one year to go on his contract, Lewis and the Bengals mutually parted ways after three straight losing seasons under his watch. Zac Taylor years (2019–present) , Bengals quarterback since 2020]] In 2019, they hired head coach Zac Taylor. The 2019 campaign started off with reasonable success, with the Bengals barely losing to Seattle 21–20 at CenturyLink Field; but what started with promise ended in disaster. The Bengals then lost 10 more games and were 0–11 heading into December 2019. To open the month of December, they got their first win of the season against the Jets, 22–6, in Cincinnati. They eventually lost to the Patriots and then to the Dolphins, 38–35, in overtime after Dalton led the team back from 23 points down in the fourth quarter. With the loss to the Dolphins, the Bengals officially clinched the No. 1 overall pick in the 2020 NFL draft. They capped off the season with a win against the Cleveland Browns, finishing 2–14, equaling the 2002 season as the team's worst record in history. In 2020, the Bengals improved under rookies Joe Burrow and Tee Higgins. Starting the season with a 2–5–1 record going into the bye week, including an overtime tie to the Philadelphia Eagles. Going into Week 11 facing the Washington Football Team, they lost Joe Burrow to a season-ending knee injury that all but ended their season, only winning two more contests against the Pittsburgh Steelers and Houston Texans. Finishing the season 4–11–1. In 2021, the Bengals won the AFC North with a 10–7 record, which included dominant sweeps of the rival Pittsburgh Steelers and Baltimore Ravens. Led by Joe Burrow, who was playing in his first full season after recovering from his devastating knee injury in Week 11 of his rookie season and rookie receiver, and Burrow's college teammate at LSU, Ja'Marr Chase, Cincinnati would win the AFC North for the first time since 2015. They beat the Kansas City Chiefs, 34–31, in a Week 17 thriller to clinch the division. They then won their first playoff game since the 1990 season, beating the Las Vegas Raiders, 26–19, in the Wild Card round. After that, they upset the top-seeded Tennessee Titans, 19–16, when Evan McPherson kicked a game-winning 52-yard field goal. A week later, they advanced to their first Super Bowl since 1989 when McPherson kicked a 33-yard field goal in overtime to cap off a comeback from being down 21–3 and shock the No. 2 seed Chiefs, 27–24. They lost a close Super Bowl to the Los Angeles Rams in Super Bowl LVI, 23–20. In Week 1 of the 2022 NFL season, the Bengals lost, 23–20, to the Pittsburgh Steelers in overtime, breaking a three-game winning streak the Bengals had against Pittsburgh. After falling to a 4–4 record in Week 8, the Bengals proceeded to win 8 straight games to tie a franchise-record for single-season wins and earn a 3 seed in the AFC playoffs. They defeated divisional rival Baltimore in the first round 24–17, behind a 98-yard fumble recovery returned for a touchdown by Sam Hubbard. Despite missing three starting offensive linemen, the Bengals followed that up with a decisive 27–10 road win over the favored Buffalo Bills to reach a second straight AFC Championship appearance for the first time in franchise history. Once again, they faced the Kansas City Chiefs in the Championship Game, but this time they lost 23–20, in another thrilling game. In the 2023 season, during their Week 11 matchup against the Baltimore Ravens, Joe Burrow would suffer a wrist injury that would rule him out the rest of the season. The consistent play of backup quarterback Jake Browning kept the Bengals alive in the postseason hunt after Burrow's injury. The Bengals finished the season 9–8 and missed the playoffs. The 2024 season, with Burrow returning, came with high expectations for the Bengals; however, Cincinnati limped to a 4–8 start to the season thanks primarily to a porous defense; the Bengals lost four games where they scored at least 33 points; an NFL record. The team finished strong, winning their final five games to finish with a 9–8 record for the second straight season, however, they missed the playoffs for the second consecutive season. Burrow led the NFL in passing yards; wide receiver Ja'Marr Chase won the triple crown leading the league in receptions, receiving yards and receiving touchdowns, and defensive end Trey Hendrickson led the league in sacks. Logos and uniforms When the team debuted in 1968, the Bengals' uniforms were modeled after the Cleveland Browns. When Paul Brown was fired by Art Modell, Brown still owned the equipment used by Cleveland, so after the firing, Paul Brown packed up all his equipment, which he then used for his new team in Cincinnati. The Cleveland Browns' team colors were brown, orange, and white, and their helmets were solid orange with a white dorsal stripe over the crest. The Bengals' team colors were orange, black, and white, and their helmets were a similar shade of orange, with the only variations being the word "Bengals" in black block letters (with a white outline) on either side of the helmet and no stripe on the helmet. The Cincinnati Bengals were unique in the NFL, as they did not have secondary uniform numbers on the jerseys (called "TV numbers") until they appeared on the sleeves in the 1980 season; they were the only NFL team that didn't have them prior to that point. That same year, the team changed their helmet face mask color from gray to black. The team did not discard their Cleveland-like uniforms until 1981. During that year, a then-unique uniform design was introduced: Although the team kept black jerseys, white jerseys, and white pants, they were now trimmed with orange and black tiger stripes. The team also introduced the orange helmets with black tiger stripes that are still in use today. Sports Illustrated likened the Bengals' new helmets to "varicose pumpkins." In 1997, the Bengals designed a logo consisting of a leaping tiger, and it was added to the uniform sleeves (with this, the TV numbers moved to the shoulder). Another alternate logo consisted of a Bengal's head facing to the left. However, the orange helmet with black tiger stripes continued to be the trademark. In 2004, a new tiger stripe pattern and more accents were added to the uniforms. The black jerseys now featured orange tiger-striped sleeves and white side panels, while the white jerseys began to use black tiger-striped sleeves and orange shoulders. A new logo consisting of an orange "B" covered with black tiger stripes was introduced. The team also started rotating black pants and debuted an alternate orange jersey, with white side panels and black tiger-striped sleeves. The Bengals have worn their black uniforms at home throughout their history, with some exceptions, such as the 1970 season, when the Bengals wore white at home for the entire season as well as most of the 1971 season (the Bengals were the first AFL team to wear white at home, as its rules required the home team to wear their dark jerseys, unlike the NFL, which allowed the home team choice of jersey color starting in 1964). Since 2005, the Bengals have worn white for September home games where the heat could become a factor. In 2016, the Bengals unveiled their all-white Color Rush alternate uniform, featuring black tiger stripes along the sleeves and pants. Orange was only used on the Nike mark, on the team logo, and as an outline color on the player's name. The club announced a new uniform design on January 21, 2021. The new uniform design would be worn beginning with the 2021 NFL season. The set retains the signature striped helmet, while simplifying the look by removing the side and shoulder panels, creating a new stripe pattern for the sleeves, getting rid of the number block shadow, and removing the stroke on the player's name. This set also puts the team's wordmark on the chest and lacks TV numbers on the sleeves. The shade of orange was changed, as well. The Bengals wore three different pants with this set: black pants with orange stripes, white pants with black stripes, and white pants with orange stripes. The white pants with black stripes were worn with the white jersey in 2021 playoff games at Tennessee and Kansas City. The white pants with orange stripes were worn with the black jersey in Super Bowl LVI against the Rams. In 2022, after the NFL rescinded the "one-helmet rule," the Bengals unveiled an alternate black-striped white helmet. In addition, the team brought back the all-white Color Rush uniform to be paired with the white helmets. This would last one season, however, as the team decided to pair the white helmet with the primary white uniform for two games in 2023, effectively retiring the Color Rush uniform for the time being. In 2024, the Bengals added orange pants to the uniform rotation after Madden NFL 25 leaked the option to the public. The Bengals then unveiled a new all-orange uniform combination to be worn September 8 against the Patriots.MascotsThe team's official mascot is a Bengal tiger named Who Dey. Its jersey number is 1. Aside from Who Dey, the team also has the Ben-Gals, the team's cheerleading squad, which included Laura Vikmanis, the oldest cheerleader in league history. Carol Motsinger in 2015 said, "In 2012, Cincinnati welcomed another tiger named Who Dey. This time, one that walks on four legs. More than 1,000 Bengals season ticket holders named a Malayan tiger Who Dey at Cincinnati Zoo & Botanical Garden. He was recently traded to a zoo in Kansas." The Ohio History Central notes: "In 1940, a third American Football League formed, and the Cincinnati Bengals joined it. Unfortunately, World War II began the following year, causing manpower shortages as men joined the armed forces. This prompted this newer AFL to cease playing after the 1941 season. Paul Brown, former coach of the Cleveland Browns, received authorization from a modern American Football League to create a team in Cincinnati. Brown chose the name Bengals to memorialize the teams of the same name that had represented Cincinnati in the past."RivalriesDivisional Cleveland Browns The Bengals' historic rivalry with the Cleveland Browns is often referred to as the "Battle of Ohio", started as the result of former Browns head coach and team founder Paul Brown starting the Bengals franchise after leaving the Browns. The colors of each team are similar since Paul Brown chose the exact shade of orange used by the Browns for the Bengals, and the Bengals' original uniforms were identical to the Browns' uniforms, excluding the word "Bengals" on the helmet. The rivalry reached its peak during the 1980s when both teams were vying viciously for a spot in the playoffs. During the 1990s the rivalry also butted heads when Brown's sons were in charge of the day-to-day operations of the Bengals. The Bengals lead the series 55–48 as of the end of the 2024 season. Pittsburgh Steelers The Bengals and Pittsburgh Steelers have played each other twice a year since becoming division rivals in 1970. This rivalry has gained intensity since the 2000s, as the teams have met twice in the playoffs, with both games being marked by hard hits and injuries with the most infamous example occurring in the 2005 playoffs. The Steelers lead the overall series 71–40 and the postseason series 2–0. However, the Steelers have been more dominant recently, posting a record of 28–7 since 2004, when they drafted Roethlisberger. There were two times that the rivalry has met during the playoffs: the Wild Card rounds of 2005 and 2015, with the Steelers winning both meetings at Cincinnati. The 2005 game is marked as a special time in the rivalry because this is when Steelers defensive tackle Kimo Von Oelhoffen injured Bengals quarterback Carson Palmer, while the 2015 game is also special because Bengals running back Jeremy Hill fumbled the ball in the waning minutes when the Bengals had a 16–15 lead over the Steelers to give the latter one last chance. They used that chance wisely as they drove down the field (with the help of two costly personal fouls by the Bengals) and kicked a game-winning field goal. Baltimore Ravens The Bengals' rivalry with the Baltimore Ravens began when the original Browns franchise relocated to Baltimore to become the Ravens. Since then, the rivalry heated up when longtime Ravens defensive coordinator Marvin Lewis was hired as the head coach of the Bengals. The Ravens lead the all-time series 32–27 as of the 2024 season. The Bengals won the only playoff meeting in the 2022 AFC Wild Card round.Contributions to NFL cultureNo-huddle offense A no-huddle offense was commonly used by all teams when time in the game was running low. However, Sam Wyche, the head coach of the Bengals in 1988, along with offensive coordinator Bruce Coslet, made the high-paced offense the standard modality for the ball club regardless of time remaining. By quickly substituting and setting up for the next play—often within 5–10 seconds after the last play despite being afforded 45 seconds—the Bengals hindered the other team's defense from substituting situational players, regrouping for tactics, and resting. In response, the NFL instituted rules allowing the defense ample time for substitutions when offensive substitutions were made. The hurry-up tactic was used by the franchise during the late 1980s while Sam Wyche was the coach. A rival for AFC supremacy during this time was the Buffalo Bills, coached by Marv Levy, who also used a version of the no-huddle offense starting with the 1989 season. The Bengals had beaten the Bills three times in 1988 (pre-season, regular season, and the AFC Championship Game). Marv Levy threatened to fake injuries if the Bengals used the "no-huddle" in the AFC Championship. Wyche was notified that the commissioner had ordered the "no-huddle" illegal for the game. The official notified Wyche and the Bengals' team just two hours before the game kickoff. Wyche asked to talk directly to the commissioner and word immediately came back that the "no-huddle" would not be penalized. Levy did not have his players' fake injuries in the game but installed his version the next year, 1989. The Bengals first used the "no-huddle" in 1984. Most of the high-profile games (the various games for AFC titles and regular-season games) between the two led to these changes in NFL rules. Wyche also first used the timeout periods as an opportunity to bring his entire team to the sideline to talk to all eleven players, plus substitutes, at one time. This allowed trainers time to treat a cut or bruise and equipment managers time to repair an equipment defect. West Coast offense The West Coast offense is the popular name for the high-percentage passing scheme designed by former Bengals assistant Bill Walsh. Walsh formulated what has become popularly known as the West Coast offense during his tenure as assistant coach for the Cincinnati Bengals from 1968 to 1975, while working under the tutelage of Brown (and before embarking on his legendary coaching tenure with the San Francisco 49ers in the 1980s). Bengals quarterback Virgil Carter was the first player to successfully implement Walsh's system, leading the NFL in pass completion percentage in 1971. Ken Anderson replaced Carter as Cincinnati's starting quarterback in 1972 and was even more successful. In 1975 he would bring widespread recognition to the West Coast offense as well as to the Cincinnati team and its quarterback in a nationally televised Monday night contest between the Bengals and a Buffalo Bills team built around the running game of star player O. J. Simpson. Anderson's 447 passing yards were enough to overcome Simpson's 197 yards on the ground in a game that proved a milestone, providing a striking contrast between the "old" game of defense-minded football and the new game of higher scores and more action through a sophisticated aerial attack. The game, in effect, offered its viewers a glimpse of the future of professional football. Anderson, who was drafted by Paul Brown in 1971 and installed as starting quarterback in 1972, made four trips to the Pro Bowl, won four passing titles, was named NFL MVP in 1981, and set the record for completion percentage in a single season in 1982 with 70.66%. Defeated frequently during the 1970s by the Pittsburgh Steelers, a team that won four Super Bowls with 9 future Hall of Fame players, the Bengals under Anderson and head coach Forrest Gregg would finally break through the Steel Curtain, defeating the Steelers during both of their meetings in 1980 and again in 1981. Anderson, who had been named the "team franchise" by Bengal tight end Bob Trumpy, would ultimately prove his worth with a career record of 91 wins and 81 losses. Zone blitz The defense created to combat the West Coast offense also came from Cincinnati. Then-Bengals defensive coordinator Dick LeBeau (who later served as the team's head coach from 2000 to 2002) created the zone blitz in the 1980s in response to the West Coast offense. Season-by-season records Players Current roster Retired numbers {| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:center" |- |colspan5 style""| Cincinnati Bengals retired numbers |- !style=""| No. !style=""| Player !style=""| Position !style=""| Seasons !style=""| Retired |- | 54 || Bob Johnson || C || 1968–79 || December 17, 1978 |} In addition, Despite not being formally retired, the Bengals have certain numbers that are in limited circulation: * 13 Has only been worn once (in 2000, by Daniel Pope) since the retirement of Ken Riley. * 14 Has not been worn since Andy Dalton after he was released in 2019. 14 was also worn by Ken Anderson from 1971 to 1986, arguably the best Bengals quarterback of all time. * 78 Has not been worn by anyone since Anthony Muñoz retired.Pro Football Hall of Fame members There are four members of the Hall of Fame that have spent some portion of their career with the Bengals, but only Anthony Muñoz and Ken Riley spent their entire playing careers with the Bengals. Listed below are only Hall of Famers whose induction includes their tenure with the Bengals. Bengals founder and first coach Paul Brown is in the Hall of Fame, but was inducted before founding the team and is not credited as a Bengals Hall of Famer. Additionally, the Bengals have had two head coaches, Forrest Gregg and Dick LeBeau inducted for their playing career. {| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" |- ! colspan"5" style";" | Cincinnati Bengals Hall of Famers |- ! colspan"5" style";" | Players |- ! No. ! Name ! Position ! Season(s) ! Inducted |- | 18 || Charlie Joiner || WR || 1972–1975 || 1996 |- | 78 || Anthony Muñoz || T || 1980–1992 || 1998 |- | 81 || Terrell Owens || WR || 2010 || 2018 |- | 13 || Ken Riley || CB || 1969–1983 || 2023 |} Cincinnati Bengals individual awards {| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:center" |- |colspan"3" style""| NFL MVP Winners |- !style=""| Season !style=""| Player !style=""| Position |- |1981||Ken Anderson||rowspan=2|QB |- |1988||Boomer Esiason |} {| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:center" |- |colspan"3" style""| AFL/NFL Rookie of the Year |- !style=""| Season !style=""| Player !style=""| Position |- | 1968 || Paul Robinson || RB |- | 1969 || Greg Cook || QB |- | 1985 || Eddie Brown || rowspan=3|WR |- | 1992 || Carl Pickens |- | 2021 || Ja'Marr Chase |} {| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:center" |- |colspan"4" style""| Comeback Player of the Year |- !style=""|Season !style=""|Player !style=""|Position |- | 2003 || Jon Kitna || rowspan=3|QB |- | 2021 ||rowspan2| Joe Burrow |- | 2024 |} {| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:center" |- | colspan"2" style";" nowrap| Maxwell Club NFL Coach of the Year |- !style=""| Season !style=""| Coach |- | 1969 ||rowspan=2| Paul Brown |- | 1970 |- | 2009 || Marvin Lewis |} {| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:center" |- |colspan"3" style""| Walter Payton NFL Man of the Year |- !style=""|Season !style=""|Player !style=""|Position |- | 1975 || Ken Anderson || QB |- | 1986 || Reggie Williams || LB |- | 1991 || Anthony Muñoz || T |} 40th Anniversary Team In 2007, in celebration of their 40th anniversary the Bengals named an all-time team voted on by the fans. {| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center;" |- ! scope="col" | Position ! scope="col" | Player ! scope="col" | Tenure |- ! colspan"3" style"" | Offense |- | QB | Carson Palmer | 2003–2010 |- | RB | James Brooks | 1984–1991 |- | FB | Ickey Woods | 1988–1991 |- | rowspan="2" | WR | Chad Johnson | 2001–2010 |- | T. J. Houshmandzadeh | 2001–2008 |- | TE | Dan Ross | 1979–1983, 1985 |- | rowspan="2" | OT | Anthony Muñoz | 1980–1992 |- | Willie Anderson | 1996–2007 |- | rowspan="2" | G | Max Montoya | 1979–1989 |- | Dave Lapham | 1974–1983 |- | C | Rich Braham | 1994–2006 |- ! colspan"3" style"" | Defense |- | rowspan="2" | DE | Justin Smith | 2001–2007 |- | Ross Browner | 1978–1986 |- | rowspan="2" | DT | Tim Krumrie | 1983–1994 |- | Mike Reid | 1970–1974 |- | rowspan="3" | LB | Reggie Williams | 1976–1989 |- | Takeo Spikes | 1998–2002 |- | Brian Simmons | 1998–2006 |- | rowspan="2" | CB | Ken Riley | 1969–1983 |- | Lemar Parrish | 1970–1977 |- | rowspan="2" | S | David Fulcher | 1986–1992 |- | Solomon Wilcots | 1987–1990 |- ! colspan"3" style"" | Special teams |- | K | Shayne Graham | 2003–2009 |- | P | Lee Johnson | 1988–1989 |} 50th Anniversary Team In 2017, in celebration of their 50th anniversary, a team was created based on "career statistics, team records and votes from the Bengals First 50." {| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center;" |- ! scope="col" | Position ! scope="col" | Player ! scope="col" | Tenure |- ! colspan"3" style"" | Offense |- | rowspan="2" | QB | Boomer Esiason | 1984–1992, 1997 |- | Ken Anderson | 1971–1986 |- | RB | Corey Dillon | 1997–2003 |- | FB | Pete Johnson | 1977–1983 |- | rowspan="3" | WR | Chad Johnson | 2001–2010 |- | Isaac Curtis | 1973–1984 |- | Cris Collinsworth | 1981–1988 |- | TE | Bob Trumpy | 1968–1977 |- | rowspan="2" | OT | Anthony Muñoz | 1980–1992 |- | Willie Anderson | 1996–2007 |- | rowspan="2" | G | Max Montoya | 1979–1989 |- | Dave Lapham | 1974–1983 |- | C | Bob Johnson | 1968–1979 |- ! colspan"3" style"" | Defense |- | rowspan="2" | DE | Eddie Edwards | 1977–1988 |- | Coy Bacon | 1976–1977 |- | rowspan="2" | DT | Tim Krumrie | 1983–1994 |- | Mike Reid | 1970–1974 |- | rowspan="3" | LB | Reggie Williams | 1976–1989 |- | Bill Bergey | 1969–1973 |- | Jim LeClair | 1972–1983 |- | rowspan="2" | CB | Ken Riley | 1969–1983 |- | Lemar Parrish | 1970–1977 |- | rowspan="2" | S | David Fulcher | 1986–1992 |- | Tommy Casanova | 1972–1977 |- ! colspan"3" style"" | Special teams |- | K | Jim Breech | 1980–1992 |- | P | Pat McInally | 1984–1991 |- ! colspan"3" style"" | Coach |- | rowspan="2" | HC | Forrest Gregg | 1980–1983 |- | Sam Wyche | 1984–1991 |} Source: Ring of Honor The Bengals announced they would begin a Ring of Honor in 2021. The inaugural class included Pro Football Hall of Fame tackle Anthony Muñoz and Paul Brown, who was the franchise's founder and first coach, with Ken Anderson and Ken Riley added after a season ticket holder vote. {| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" |- |colspan"5" style""|Bengals Ring of Honor |- ! style=""|Inducted ! style=""|No. ! style=""|Player ! style=""|Position ! style=""|Tenure |- | rowspan=4|2021 || 78 || Anthony Muñoz || T || 1980–1992 |- | – || Paul Brown* || Founder<br>Owner<br>Coach || N/A<br>1968–1991<br>1968–1975 |- | 14 || Ken Anderson || QB || 1971–1986 |- | 13 || Ken Riley* || CB || 1969–1983 |- | rowspan=2| 2022 || 71 || Willie Anderson || T || 1996–2007 |- | 85 || Isaac Curtis || WR || 1973–1984 |- | rowspan=2| 2023 || 7 || Boomer Esiason || QB || 1984–1992, 1997 |- | 85 || Chad Johnson || WR || 2001–2010 |- | rowspan=2| 2024 || 28 || Corey Dillon || RB || 1997–2003 |- | 69 || Tim Krumrie || NT || 1983–1994 |} Coaching staff Head coaches Current staff Radio and television The Bengals contract with iHeartMedia as their radio partner, with their flagship radio stations being WCKY (1530) and WEBN (102.7 FM), along with WLW (700) if not in conflict with the Reds. Most preseason and regular season games, are telecast on WKRC-TV, channel 12, the CBS affiliate. Mike Watts and Anthony Muñoz are the TV announcers for preseason games, with Mike Valpredo as the sideline reporter. Games that feature an NFC opponent playing at Paycor Stadium will be televised on WXIX, channel 19, the local Fox affiliate. WLWT-TV airs games when the Bengals are featured on Sunday Night Football. The radio broadcasting crew consists of Dan Hoard (play-by-play), and Dave Lapham (analyst).CultureFight song"The Bengal Growl" is the Bengals fight song. It was written by Bengals entertainment director George "Red" Bird upon the team's founding in 1968. Bird had been friends with Paul Brown for over 30 years. The two had met at Massillon Washington High School when Brown was head football coach and Bird was director of the famed Massillon Tiger Swing Band. Bird had served as the Browns' music and entertainment director in 1946, and kept that role until Brown convinced him to come to Cincinnati in 1968. His first task was to pen a fight song along the lines of the Browns' fight song, "Hi! O-Hi-O for Cleveland!" The song remains very popular among Bengals fans, who are known to belt out the song at "Bengals backer" bars all over the country. In 2021, Elizabeth Blackburn, now the team's head of strategy and fan engagement, told The Athletic recalled stopping at one such bar in San Francisco during the 2015 playoffs, and was surprised to hear the viewers break out into the song. As a measure of how popular the song remains among the Bengals fan base, when Blackburn wrote an editorial on her efforts to overhaul the team's image for the Bengals Web site, Blackburn specifically mentioned that the song was not going anywhere. "Welcome to the Jungle" is also a fight song for the Bengals. The song is mainly played before kickoffs to intimidate visiting teams.Who Dey Chant"Who Dey?!" is the name of a chant of support by fans of the Cincinnati Bengals, in use since the 1980s. The entire chant is: "Who dey, who dey, who dey think gonna beat dem Bengals?" The answer screamed in unison, "Nobody." Sometimes fans will instead shout "Who Dey?" to represent the entire cheer. "Who Dey" is also the name of the team's mascot, a Bengal tiger. The full Who Dey chant was first known to be used by fans of the 1980 Cincinnati Bengals. While the origin of the chant is disputed, one possible source for the chant is a 1980 commercial for (the now-defunct) Red Frazier Ford of Cincinnati, which used this tagline: "Who's going to give you a better deal than Red Frazier?...Nobody!" Cincinnati fans who had seen the commercial many times may have just copied it when cheering. The chant bears some similarities to the phrase "Who Dat?", which was officially adopted by the New Orleans Saints in 1983 but had been used by Louisiana's high school team fans for some time. The saying "Who Dat?" originated in minstrel shows and vaudeville acts in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, then it was taken up by New Orleans Jazz and various Big band folks in the 1920s and 1930s. In the late 1960s, local Louisiana High Schools, St. Augustine High School and Patterson High School reportedly have been using the cheer and Gulf Coast fans of Alcorn State University and Louisiana State University picked up the cheer in the 1970s. Southern University in Baton Rouge, Louisiana claims to have originated the cheer in the late 1960s in their version: "Who dat talking 'bout beating dem Jags?" See also * List of Cincinnati Bengals seasons * List of NFL team records * Sports in Ohio * Sports in Cincinnati References External links * * [https://www.nfl.com/teams/cincinnati-bengals/ Cincinnati Bengals] at the National Football League official website * [https://www.pro-football-reference.com/teams/cin/index.htm Franchise Encyclopedia] at Pro Football Reference |list = }} Category:NFL teams Category:1968 establishments in Ohio Category:American football teams established in 1968 Category:American Football League teams Category:American football teams in Cincinnati
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cincinnati_Bengals
2025-04-05T18:27:52.447317
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Yangtze
| native_name = | name_other | name_etymology <!---------------------- IMAGE & MAP --> | image = Dusk on the Yangtze River.jpg | image_size = 300 | image_caption = Dusk on the middle reaches of the Yangtze River (Three Gorges) 2002 | map = Yangtze river map.png | map_size = 300px | map_caption = Map of the Yangtze River drainage basin | pushpin_map | pushpin_map_size 300px | pushpin_map_caption = <!---------------------- LOCATION --> | subdivision_type1 = Country | subdivision_name1 = China | subdivision_type2 = Provinces | subdivision_name2 = Qinghai, Yunnan, Sichuan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi, Anhui, Jiangsu | subdivision_type3 = Municipalities | subdivision_name3 = Chongqing and Shanghai | subdivision_type4 = Autonomous region | subdivision_name4 = Tibet | subdivision_type5 = Cities | subdivision_name5 = Luzhou, Chongqing, Yichang, Jingzhou, Yueyang, Changsha, Wuhan, Jiujiang, Anqing, Tongling, Wuhu, Nanjing, Zhenjiang, Yangzhou, Nantong, Shanghai <!---------------------- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS -->| length | width_min | width_avg | width_max | depth_min | depth_avg | depth_max | discharge1_location | discharge1_min | discharge1_avg <!-- Attribution: text was copied from Steamboats on the Yangtze River on November 1, 2020. Please see the history of that page for full attribution. --> | discharge1_max <!---------------------- BASIN FEATURES -->| source1 = Dam Qu (Jari Hill) | source1_location = Tanggula Mountains, Qinghai | source1_coordinates = | source1_elevation | source2 = Ulan Moron | source2_location | source2_coordinates | source2_elevation | source3 Chuma'er River | source3_location | source3_coordinates | source3_elevation | source4 Muluwusu River | source4_location | source4_coordinates | source4_elevation | source5 Bi Qu | source5_location | source5_coordinates | source5_elevation | mouth East China Sea | mouth_location = Shanghai and Jiangsu | mouth_coordinates = | mouth_elevation | progression | river_system | basin_size | tributaries_left = Yalong, Min, Tuo, Jialing, Han | tributaries_right = Wu, Yuan, Zi, Xiang, Gan, Huangpu | custom_label | custom_data | discharge3_location = Wuhan (Hankou) | discharge3_avg (Period: 1980–2020) | discharge4_location = Yichang (Three Gorges Dam) | discharge4_avg (Period: 1980–2020) | mapframe yes | mapframe-frame-width 300 | mapframe-zoom4 | mapframe-stroke-width1.5 | mapframe-coord = }} | wuu = Zan<sup>入</sup> Kaon<sup>平</sup> | j = Coeng<sup>4</sup> Gong<sup>1</sup> | y = Chèuhng Gōng | ci = | tl = Tiông Kang | hsn = dɒŋ<sup>13</sup>kiɒŋ<sup>44</sup> | mc = ɖjang kæwng | oc-bs = * | altname = Yangtze River | t2 = 揚子江 | s2 = 扬子江 | p2 | w2 = Yang-tzu Chiang | mi2 = | wuu2 = Yang<sup>入</sup> Tse<sup>平</sup> Kaon<sup>平</sup> | hsn2 = jɒŋ<sup>13</sup>tsɯ<sup>31</sup>kiɒŋ<sup>44</sup> | j2 = Joeng<sup>4</sup>-zi<sup>2</sup> Gong<sup>1</sup> | tib = | wylie = 'Bri Chu | thdl = Dri Chu }} The Yangtze or Yangzi ( or ) is the longest river in Eurasia and the third-longest in the world. It rises at Jari Hill in the Tanggula Mountains of the Tibetan Plateau and flows in a generally easterly direction to the East China Sea. It is the fifth-largest primary river by discharge volume in the world. Its drainage basin comprises one-fifth of the land area of China, and is home to nearly one-third of the country's population. The Yangtze has played a major role in the history, culture, and economy of China. For thousands of years, the river has been used for water, irrigation, sanitation, transportation, industry, boundary-marking, and war. The Yangtze Delta generates as much as 20% of China's GDP, and the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze is the largest hydro-electric power station in the world. In mid-2014, the Chinese government announced it was building a multi-tier transport network, comprising railways, roads and airports to create a new economic belt alongside the river. The Yangtze flows through a wide array of ecosystems and is habitat to several endemic and threatened species, including the Chinese alligator, the narrow-ridged finless porpoise, and also was the home of the now extinct Yangtze river dolphin (or baiji) and Chinese paddlefish, as well as the Yangtze sturgeon, which is extinct in the wild. In recent years, the river has suffered from industrial pollution, plastic pollution, agricultural runoff, siltation, and loss of wetland and lakes, which exacerbates seasonal flooding. Some sections of the river are now protected as nature reserves. A stretch of the upstream Yangtze flowing through deep gorges in western Yunnan is part of the Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan Protected Areas, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.EtymologyChinese () or "Long River" is the official name for the Yangtze in Mandarin Chinese. However, the Chinese have given different names to the upstream sections of the river up to its confluence with the Min River at Yibin, Sichuan. Jinsha ("Gold Sands") River refers to the of the Yangtze from Yibin upstream to the confluence with the Batang River near Yushu in Qinghai, while the Tongtian ("Leading to Heaven") River describes the section from Yushu up to the confluence of the Tuotuo River and the Dangqu River. In Old Chinese, the Yangtze was simply called Jiang/Kiang , a character of phono-semantic compound origin, combining the water radical with the homophone (now pronounced , but *kˤoŋ in Old Chinese). Kong was probably a word in the Austroasiatic language of local peoples such as the Yue. Similar to *krong in Proto-Vietnamese and krung in Mon, all meaning "river", it is related to modern Vietnamese sông (river) and Khmer krung (city on riverside), whence Thai krung (กรุง capital city), not kôngkea (water) which is from the Sanskrit root gáṅgā. marked as the "Mouth of the Yangtze" (}}) on the Jiangnan map in the 1754 Provincial Atlas of the Qing Empire]] By the Han dynasty, had come to mean any river in Chinese, and this river was distinguished as the "Great River" (). The epithet (simplified version ), meaning "long", was first formally applied to the river during the Six Dynasties period. Various sections of the Yangtze have local names. From Yibin to Yichang, the river through Sichuan and Chongqing Municipality is also known as the () or "Sichuan River". In Hubei, the river is also called the () or the "Jing River" after Jingzhou, one of the Nine Provinces of ancient China. In Anhui, the river takes on the local name after the shorthand name for Anhui, (皖). () or the "Yangzi River", from which the English name Yangtze is derived, is the local name for the Lower Yangtze in the region of Yangzhou. The name likely comes from an ancient ferry crossing called or (). Europeans who arrived in the Yangtze River Delta region applied this local name to the whole river.English The river was called Quian () and Quianshui () by Marco Polo and appeared on the earliest English maps as Kian or Kiam, all recording dialects which preserved forms of the Middle Chinese pronunciation of as Kæwng. "Kyang Kew," "Kian-ku," and related names derived from mistaking the Chinese term for the mouth of the Yangtze (, <small>p</small> Jiāngkǒu) as the name of the river itself. The name Blue River began to be applied in the 18th century,}} or Min (Qīngshuǐ), literally meaning "Clear Water[way]."}} and to analogy with the Yellow River, but it was frequently explained in early English references as a 'translation' of Jiang, Jiangkou, Very common in 18th- and 19th-century sources, the name fell out of favor due to growing awareness of its lack of any connection to the river's Chinese names and to the irony of its application to such a muddy waterway. Matteo Ricci's 1615 Latin account included descriptions of the "Ianſu" and "Ianſuchian." The posthumous account's translation of the name as Fils de la Mer ("Son of the Ocean") shows that Ricci, who by the end of his life was fluent in literary Chinese, was introduced to it as the homophonic rather than the usual . Further, although railroads and the Shanghai concessions subsequently turned it into a backwater, Yangzhou was the lower river's principal port for much of the Qing dynasty, directing Liangjiang's important salt monopoly and connecting the Yangtze with the Grand Canal to Beijing. (That connection also made it one of the Yellow River's principal ports between the floods of 1344 and the 1850s, during which time the Yellow River ran well south of Shandong and discharged into the ocean a mere few hundred kilometers from the mouth of the Yangtze. as Yang-tse or Yang-tse Kiang. The British diplomat Thomas Wade emended this to Yang-tzu Chiang as part of his formerly popular romanization of Chinese, based on the Beijing dialect instead of Nanjing's and first published in 1867. The spellings Yangtze and Yangtze Kiang was a compromise between the two methods adopted at the 1906 Imperial Postal Conference in Shanghai, which established postal romanization. Hanyu Pinyin was adopted by the PRC's First Congress in 1958, but it was not widely employed in English outside mainland China prior to the normalization of diplomatic relations between the United States and the PRC in 1979; since that time, the spelling Yangzi has also been used. Tibetan The source and upper reaches of the Yangtze are located in ethnic Tibetan areas of Qinghai. In Tibetan, the Tuotuo headwaters are the Machu (, lit. "Red Water"). The Tongtian is the Drichu (, ‘Bri Chu’), literally "Water of the Female Yak"; transliterated into ). Geography south of Shandong to the Huai mouth, after its stabilization by the Grand Eunuch Li Xing's public works following the 1494 flood]] The river originates from several tributaries in the eastern part of the Tibetan Plateau, two of which are commonly referred to as the "source." Traditionally, the Chinese government has recognized the source as the Tuotuo tributary at the base of a glacier lying on the west of Geladandong Mountain in the Tanggula Mountains. This source is found at and while not the furthest source of the Yangtze, it is the highest source at above sea level. The true source of the Yangtze, hydrologically the longest river distance from the sea, is at Jari Hill at the head of the Dam Qu tributary, approximately southeast of Geladandong. This source was only discovered in the late 20th century and lies in wetlands at and above sea level just southeast of Chadan Township in Zadoi County, Yushu Prefecture, Qinghai. As the historical spiritual source of the Yangtze, the Geladandong source is still commonly referred to as the source of the Yangtze since the discovery of the Jari Hill source. It enters the basin of Sichuan at Yibin. While in the Sichuan basin, it receives several large tributaries, increasing its water volume significantly. It then cuts through Mount Wushan bordering Chongqing and Hubei to create the famous Three Gorges. Eastward of the Three Gorges, Yichang is the first city on the Yangtze Plain. After entering Hubei province, the Yangtze receives water from a number of lakes. The largest of these lakes is Dongting Lake, which is located on the border of Hunan and Hubei provinces, and is the outlet for most of the rivers in Hunan. At Wuhan, it receives its biggest tributary, the Han River, bringing water from its northern basin as far as Shaanxi. At the northern tip of Jiangxi province, Lake Poyang, the biggest freshwater lake in China, merges into the river. The river then runs through Anhui and Jiangsu, receiving more water from innumerable smaller lakes and rivers, and finally reaches the East China Sea at Shanghai. Four of China's five main freshwater lakes contribute their waters to the Yangtze River. Traditionally, the upstream part of the Yangtze River refers to the section from Yibin to Yichang; the middle part refers to the section from Yichang to Hukou County, where Lake Poyang meets the river; the downstream part is from Hukou to Shanghai. The origin of the Yangtze River has been dated by some geologists to about 45 million years ago in the Eocene, but this dating has been disputed. History Geologic history Although the mouth of the Yellow River has fluctuated widely north and south of the Shandong peninsula within the historical record, the Yangtze has remained largely static. Based on studies of sedimentation rates, however, it is unlikely that the present discharge site predates the late Miocene ( Ma). Prior to this, its headwaters drained south into the Gulf of Tonkin along or near the course of the present Red River. Early history The Yangtze River is important to the cultural origins of southern China and Japan. Human activity has been verified in the Three Gorges area as far back as 27,000 years ago, and by the 5th millennium BC, the lower Yangtze was a major population center occupied by the Hemudu and Majiabang cultures, both among the earliest cultivators of rice. By the 3rd millennium BC, the successor Liangzhu culture showed evidence of influence from the Longshan peoples of the North China Plain. What is now thought of as Chinese culture developed along the more fertile Yellow River basin; the "Yue" people of the lower Yangtze possessed very different traditions blackening their teeth, cutting their hair short, tattooing their bodies, and living in small settlements among bamboo groves and were considered barbarous by the northerners. The Central Yangtze valley was home to sophisticated Neolithic cultures. Later it became the earliest part of the Yangtze valley to be integrated into the North Chinese cultural sphere. (Northern Chinese were active there since the Bronze Age). around 350 BC, showing the former coastline of the Yangtze delta]] In the lower Yangtze, two Yue tribes, the Gouwu in southern Jiangsu and the Yuyue in northern Zhejiang, display increasing Zhou (i.e., North Chinese) influence starting in the 9th century BC. Traditional accounts credit these changes to northern refugees (Taibo and Zhongyong in Wu and Wuyi in Yue) who assumed power over the local tribes, though these are generally assumed to be myths invented to legitimate them to other Zhou rulers. As the kingdoms of Wu and Yue, they were famed as fishers, shipwrights, and sword-smiths. Adopting Chinese characters, political institutions, and military technology, they were among the most powerful states during the later Zhou. In the middle Yangtze, the state of Jing seems to have begun in the upper Han River valley a minor Zhou polity, but it adapted to native culture as it expanded south and east into the Yangtze valley. In the process, it changed its name to Chu. Whether native or nativizing, the Yangtze states held their own against the northern Chinese homeland: some lists credit them with three of the Spring and Autumn period's Five Hegemons and one of the Warring States' Four Lords. They fell in against themselves, however. Chu's growing power led its rival Jin to support Wu as a counter. Wu successfully sacked Chu's capital Ying in 506 BC, but Chu subsequently supported Yue in its attacks against Wu's southern flank. In 473 BC, King Goujian of Yue fully annexed Wu and moved his court to its eponymous capital at modern Suzhou. In 333 BC, Chu finally united the lower Yangtze by annexing Yue, whose royal family was said to have fled south and established the Minyue kingdom in Fujian. Qin was able to unite China by first subduing Ba and Shu on the upper Yangtze in modern Sichuan, giving them a strong base to attack Chu's settlements along the river. The state of Qin conquered the central Yangtze region, the previous heartland of Chu, in 278 BC, and incorporated the region into its expanding empire. Qin then used its connections along the Xiang River to expand into Hunan, Jiangxi and Guangdong, setting up military commanderies along the main lines of communication. At the collapse of the Qin Dynasty, these southern commanderies became the independent Nanyue Empire under Zhao Tuo while Chu and Han vied with each other for control of the north. Since the Han dynasty, the region of the Yangtze River grew ever more important to China's economy. The establishment of irrigation systems (the most famous one is Dujiangyan, northwest of Chengdu, built during the Warring States period) made agriculture very stable and productive, eventually exceeding even the Yellow River region. The Qin and Han empires were actively engaged in the agricultural colonization of the Yangtze lowlands, maintaining a system of dikes to protect farmland from seasonal floods. By the Song dynasty, the area along the Yangtze had become among the wealthiest and most developed parts of the country, especially in the lower reaches of the river. Early in the Qing dynasty, the region called Jiangnan (that includes the southern part of Jiangsu, the northern part of Zhejiang and Jiangxi, and the southeastern part of Anhui) provided – of the nation's revenues. The Yangtze has long been the backbone of China's inland water transportation system, which remained particularly important for almost two thousand years, until the construction of the national railway network during the 20th century. The Grand Canal connects the lower Yangtze with the major cities of the Jiangnan region south of the river (Wuxi, Suzhou, Hangzhou) and with northern China (all the way from Yangzhou to Beijing). The less well known ancient Lingqu Canal, connecting the upper Xiang River with the headwaters of the Guijiang, allowed a direct water connection from the Yangtze Basin to the Pearl River Delta. Historically, the Yangtze was the political boundary between north China and south China several times (see History of China) because crossing the river was difficult. This occurred notably during the Southern and Northern Dynasties, and the Southern Song. Many battles took place along the river, the most famous being the Battle of Red Cliffs in 208 AD during the Three Kingdoms period. The Yangtze was the site of naval battles between the Song dynasty and Jurchen Jin during the Jin–Song wars. In the Battle of Caishi of 1161, the ships of the Jin emperor Wanyan Liang clashed with the Song fleet on the Yangtze. Song soldiers fired bombs of lime and sulfur using trebuchets at the Jurchen warships. The battle was a Song victory that halted the invasion by the Jin. The Battle of Tangdao was another Yangtze naval battle in the same year. Politically, Nanjing was the capital of China several times, although most of the time its territory only covered the southeastern part of China, such as the Wu kingdom in the Three Kingdoms period, the Eastern Jin Dynasty, and during the Southern and Northern Dynasties and Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms periods. Only the Ming occupied most parts of China from their capital at Nanjing, though it later moved the capital to Beijing. The ROC capital was located in Nanjing in the periods 1911–12, 1927–37, and 1945–49. Age of steam The Jardine, the first steamship to sail the river, was built for Jardine, Matheson & Co. in 1835. This small vessel was to carry passengers and mail between Lintin Island, Macao, and Huangpu. However, the Chinese, draconian in their application of the rules relating to foreign vessels, were unhappy about a "fire-ship" steaming up the Canton River. The acting Viceroy of Liangguang issued an edict warning that she would be fired on if she attempted the trip. On the ''Jardine's first trial run from Lintin Island the forts on both sides of the Bogue opened fire and she was forced to turn back. The Chinese authorities issued a further warning insisting that the ship leave Chinese waters. The Jardine in any case needed repairs and was sent to Singapore.<br>Subsequently, Lord Palmerston, the Foreign Secretary decided mainly on the "suggestions" of William Jardine to declare war on China. In mid-1840, a large fleet of warships appeared on the China coast, and with the first cannonball fired at a British ship, the Royal Saxon, the British started the first of the Opium Wars. Royal Navy warships destroyed numerous shore batteries and Chinese warships, laying waste to several coastal forts along the way. Eventually, they pushed their way up north close enough to threaten the Imperial Palace in Beijing itself. Archibald John Little took an interest in Upper Yangtze navigation when in 1876, the Chefoo Convention opened Chongqing to consular residence but stipulated that foreign trade might only commence once steamships had succeeded in ascending the river to that point. Little formed the Upper Yangtze Steam Navigation Co., Ltd. and built Kuling but his attempts to take the vessel further upriver than Yichang were thwarted by the Chinese authorities who were concerned about the potential loss of transit duties, competition to their native junk trade and physical damage to their craft caused by steamship wakes. Kuling was sold to China Merchants Steam Navigation Company for lower river service. In 1890, the Chinese government agreed to open Chongqing to foreign trade as long as it was restricted to native craft. In 1895, the Treaty of Shimonoseki provided a provision which opened Chongqing fully to foreign trade. Little took up residence in Chongqing and built Leechuan, to tackle the gorges in 1898. In March Leechuan completed the upriver journey to Chongqing but not without the assistance of trackers. Leechuan was not designed for cargo or passengers and if Little wanted to take his vision one step further, he required an expert pilot. In 1898, Little persuaded Captain Samuel Cornell Plant to come out to China to lend his expertise. Captain Plant had just completed navigation of Persia's Upper Karun River and took up Little's offer to assess the Upper Yangtze on Leechuan at the end of 1898. With Plant's design input, Little had SS Pioneer built with Plant in command. In June 1900, Plant was the first to successfully pilot a merchant steamer on the Upper Yangtze from Yichang to Chongqing. Pioneer was sold to Royal Navy after its first run due to threat from the Boxer Rebellion and renamed HMS Kinsha. Germany's steamship effort that same year on SS Suixing ended in catastrophe. On ''Suixing's maiden voyage, the vessel hit a rock and sunk, killing its captain and ending realistic hopes of regular commercial steam service on the Upper Yangtze. In 1908, local Sichuan merchants and their government partnered with Captain Plant to form Sichuan Steam Navigation Company becoming the first successful service between Yichang and Chongqing. Captain Plant designed and commanded its two ships, SS Shutung and SS Shuhun. Other Chinese vessels came onto the run and by 1915, foreign ships expressed their interest too. Plant was appointed by Chinese Maritime Customs Service as First Senior River Inspector in 1915. In this role, Plant installed navigational marks and established signaling systems. He also wrote Handbook for the Guidance of Shipmasters on the Ichang-Chungking Section of the Yangtze River'', a detailed and illustrated account of the Upper Yangtze's currents, rocks, and other hazards with navigational instruction. Plant trained hundreds of Chinese and foreign pilots and issued licenses and worked with the Chinese government to make the river safer in 1917 by removing some of the most difficult obstacles and threats with explosives. In August 1917, British Asiatic Petroleum became the first foreign merchant steamship on the Upper Yangtze. Commercial firms, Robert Dollar Company, Jardine Matheson, Butterfield and Swire and Standard Oil added their own steamers on the river between 1917 and 1919. Between 1918 and 1919, Sichuan warlord violence and escalating civil war put Sichuan Steam Navigational Company out of business. Shutung was commandeered by warlords and Shuhun was brought down river to Shanghai for safekeeping. In 1921, when Captain Plant died at sea while returning home to England, a Plant Memorial Fund was established to perpetuate Plant's name and contributions to Upper Yangtze navigation. The largest shipping companies in service, Butterfield & Swire, Jardine Matheson, Standard Oil, Mackenzie & Co., Asiatic Petroleum, Robert Dollar, China Merchants S.N. Co. and British-American Tobacco Co., contributed alongside international friends and Chinese pilots. In 1924, a 50-foot granite pyramidal obelisk was erected in Xintan, on the site of Captain Plant's home, in a Chinese community of pilots and junk owners. One face of the monument is inscribed in Chinese and another in English. Though recently relocated to higher ground ahead of the Three Gorges Dam, the monument still stands overlooking the Upper Yangtze River near Yichang, a rare collective tribute to a westerner in China. Standard Oil ran the tankers Mei Ping, Mei An and Mei Hsia, which were collectively destroyed on December 12, 1937, when Japanese warplanes bombed and sank the U.S.S. Panay. One of the Standard Oil captains who survived this attack had served on the Upper River for 14 years. Navy ships armored cruiser Izumo in Shanghai in 1937. She sank riverboats on the Yangtze in 1941.]] Contemporary events Chinese Communist Party chairman Mao Zedong took staged swims in the river in 1956 and 1966 at Wuhan in publicity stunts to demonstrate his health, also starting a swimming craze through party propaganda. In 2002, Danish adventurer and sailor Troels Kløvedal sailed up the Yangtze, from Shanghai to past the Three Gorges Dam, in the collectively owned "Nordkaperen" sailing ship. Kløvedal had spent 12 years preparing and gathering the required permissions, and with a crew of Danes, his family members, a Chinese interpreter and several local maritime pilots, he became the first foreigner since 1949 to navigate the Yangtze. His months-long journey was documented both in his 2004 book "Kineserne syr med lang tråd" and the TV show "Kløvedal i Kina" by DR. In August 2019, Welsh adventurer Ash Dykes became the first person to complete the trek along the course of the river, walking for 352 days from its source to its mouth.HydrologyPeriodic floods Tens of millions of people live in the floodplain of the Yangtze valley, an area that naturally floods every summer and is habitable only because it is protected by river dikes. The floods large enough to overflow the dikes have caused great distress to those who live and farm there. Floods of note include those of 1931, 1954, and 1998. The 1931 Central China floods or the Central China floods of 1931 were a series of floods that are generally considered among the deadliest natural disasters ever recorded, and almost certainly the deadliest of the 20th century (when pandemics and famines are discounted). Estimates of the total death toll range from 145,000 to between 3.7 million and 4 million. The Yangtze flooded again in 1935, causing great loss of life. From June to September 1954, the Yangtze River Floods were a series of catastrophic floodings that occurred mostly in Hubei Province. Due to unusually high volume of precipitation as well as an extraordinarily long rainy season in the middle stretch of the Yangtze River late in the spring of 1954, the river started to rise above its usual level in around late June. Despite efforts to open three important flood gates to alleviate the rising water by diverting it, the flood level continued to rise until it hit the historic high of 44.67 m in Jingzhou, Hubei and 29.73 m in Wuhan. The number of dead from this flood was estimated at 33,000, including those who died of plague in the aftermath of the disaster. The 1998 Yangtze River floods were a series of major floods that lasted from middle of June to the beginning of September 1998 along the Yangtze.<!--The event was considered the worst Northern China flood in 40 years. Other sources report a total loss of 4150 people, and 180 million people were affected. The 2016 China floods caused US$22 billion in damages. In 2020, the Yangtze river saw the heaviest rainfall since 1961, with a 79% increase in June and July compared to the average for the period over the previous 41 years. A new theory suggested that abrupt reduction in emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols, caused by shutdowns during the COVID-19 pandemic, was a key cause of the intense downpours. Over the past decades rainfall had decreased due to increase of aerosols in the atmosphere, and lower greenhouse gas emissions in 2020 caused the opposite effect – a major increase in rain. Such a dramatic reduction of aerosols caused a dramatic change in the various components of the climate system, but such sudden change of the climate system would be very different from changes in response to continuous but gradual policy-driven emissions reductions. Degradation of the river Beginning in the 1950s, dams and dikes were built for flood control, land reclamation, irrigation, and control of diseases vectors such as blood flukes that caused Schistosomiasis. More than a hundred lakes were thusly cut off from the main river. Thus the lakes partially or completely dried up. For example, Baidang Lake shrunk from in the 1950s to in 2005. Zhangdu Lake dwindled to one quarter of its original size. Natural fisheries output in the two lakes declined sharply. Only a few large lakes, such as Poyang Lake and Dongting Lake, remained connected to the Yangtze. Cutting off the other lakes that had served as natural buffers for floods increased the damage done by floods further downstream. Furthermore, the natural flow of migratory fish was obstructed and biodiversity across the whole basin decreased dramatically. Intensive farming of fish in ponds spread using one type of carp who thrived in eutrophic water conditions and who feeds on algae, causing widespread pollution. The pollution was exacerbated by the discharge of waste from pig farms as well as of untreated industrial and municipal sewage. In September 2012, the Yangtze river near Chongqing turned red from pollution. The erection of the Three Gorges Dam has created an impassable "iron barrier" that has led to a great reduction in the biodiversity of the river. Yangtze sturgeon use seasonal changes in the flow of the river to signal when is it time to migrate. However, these seasonal changes will be greatly reduced by dams and diversions. Other animals facing immediate threat of extinction are the baiji dolphin, narrow-ridged finless porpoise and the Yangtze alligator. These animals numbers went into freefall from the combined effects of accidental catches during fishing, river traffic, habitat loss and pollution. In 2006 the baiji dolphin became extinct; the world lost an entire genus. In 2020, a sweeping law was passed by the Chinese government to protect the ecology of the river. The new laws include strengthening ecological protection rules for hydropower projects along the river, banning chemical plants within 1 kilometer of the river, relocating polluting industries, severely restricting sand mining as well as a complete fishing ban on all the natural waterways of the river, including all its major tributaries and lakes. Contribution to ocean pollution The Yangtze River produces more ocean plastic pollution than any other, according to The Ocean Cleanup, a Dutch environmental research foundation that focuses on ocean pollution. Ten rivers transport 90% of all the plastic that reaches the oceans, with the Yangtze River being the biggest polluter. Reconnecting lakes In 2002 a pilot program was initiated to reconnect lakes to the Yangtze with the objective to increase biodiversity and to alleviate flooding. The first lakes to be reconnected in 2004 were Zhangdu Lake, Honghu Lake, and Tian'e-Zhou in Hubei on the middle Yangtze. In 2005, Baidang Lake in Anhui was also reconnected. In 2006 China's Ministry of Agriculture made it a national policy to reconnect the Yangtze River with its lakes. As of 2010, provincial governments in five provinces and Shanghai set up a network of 40 effective protected areas, covering . As a result, populations of 47 threatened species increased, including the critically endangered Yangtze alligator. In the Shanghai area, reestablished wetlands now protect drinking water sources for the city. It is envisaged to extend the network throughout the entire Yangtze to eventually cover 102 areas and . The mayor of Wuhan announced that six huge, stagnating urban lakes including the East Lake (Wuhan) would be reconnected at the cost of US$2.3 billion creating China's largest urban wetland landscape.DischargeMajor cities along the river * Qinghai ** Yushu * Sichuan ** Panzhihua ** Yibin ** Luzhou *** Hejiang * Chongqing ** Fuling ** Fengdu ** Wanzhou * Hubei ** Yichang *** Yidu ** Jingzhou *** Shashi *** Shishou * Hunan ** Yueyang * Hubei ** Xianning ** Wuhan ** Ezhou ** Huangshi ** Huanggang * Anhui ** Chizhou * Jiangxi ** Jiujiang * Anhui ** Anqing ** Tongling ** Wuhu ** Ma'anshan * Jiangsu ** Nanjing ** Yangzhou ** Zhenjiang ** Taizhou ** Changzhou ** Nantong * Shanghai * Enters East China Sea Crossings Until 1957, there were no bridges across the Yangtze River from Yibin to Shanghai. For millennia, travelers crossed the river by ferry. On occasions, the crossing may have been dangerous, as evidenced by the ''Zhong'anlun'' disaster (October 15, 1945). The river stood as a major geographic barrier dividing northern and southern China. In the first half of the 20th century, rail passengers from Beijing to Guangzhou and Shanghai had to disembark, respectively, at Hanyang and Pukou, and cross the river by steam ferry before resuming journeys by train from Wuchang or Nanjing West. After the founding of the People's Republic in 1949, Soviet engineers assisted in the design and construction of the Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge, a dual-use road-rail bridge, built from 1955 to 1957. It was the first bridge across the Yangtze River. The second bridge across the river that was built was a single-track railway bridge built upstream in Chongqing in 1959. The Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge, also a road-rail bridge, was the first bridge to cross the lower reaches of the Yangtze, in Nanjing. It was built after the Sino-Soviet Split and did not receive foreign assistance. Road-rail bridges were then built in Zhicheng (1971) and Chongqing (1980). Bridge-building slowed in the 1980s before resuming in the 1990s and accelerating in the first decade of the 21st century. The Jiujiang Yangtze River Bridge was built in 1992 as part of the Beijing-Jiujiang Railway. A second bridge in Wuhan was completed in 1995. By 2005, there were a total of 56 bridges and one tunnel across the Yangtze River between Yibin and Shanghai. These include some of the longest suspension and cable-stayed bridges in the world on the Yangtze Delta: Jiangyin Suspension Bridge (1,385 m, opened in 1999), Runyang Bridge (1,490 m, opened 2005), Sutong Bridge (1,088 m, opened 2008). The rapid pace of bridge construction has continued. The city of Wuhan now has six bridges and one tunnel across the Yangtze. A number of power line crossings have also been built across the river. <gallery widths"220px" heights"150px" perrow="4"> File:Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge-1.jpg|Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge, the first bridge crossing Yangtze, was completed in 1957. File:First Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge.JPG|The Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge, a beam bridge, was completed in 1968. File:Jiujiang Yangtze River Bridge.jpg|The Jiujiang Yangtze River Bridge, an arch bridge, was completed in 1992. File:Yichang Yangtze Highway Bridge.JPG|The Yichang Yangtze Highway Bridge, a suspension bridge near the Gezhouba Dam lock, was completed in 1996. File:Sutong Yangtze River Bridge.JPG|The Sutong Yangtze River Bridge, between Nantong and Suzhou, was one of the longest cable-stayed bridges in the world when it was completed in 2008. File:Caiyuanba bridge.jpg|The Caiyuanba Bridge, an arch bridge in Chongqing, was completed in 2007. File:Bridge on the Yangtze River in Anqing Anhui China-2.jpg|The cable-stayed Anqing Yangtze River Bridge at Anqing, was completed in 2005. File:Route Map of Wuhan Metro Line 2.svg|Wuhan Metro Line 2 is the first underground rail line crossing the Yangtze River. </gallery> Dams As of 2007, there are two dams built on the Yangtze river: Three Gorges Dam and Gezhouba Dam. The Three Gorges Dam is the largest power station in the world by installed capacity, at 22.5 GW. Several dams are operating or are being constructed on the upper portion of the river, the Jinsha River. Among them, the Baihetan Dam is the second largest after the Three Gorges Dam, and the Xiluodu Dam is the 4th largest power station in the world. Tributaries The Yangtze River has over 700 tributaries. The major tributaries (listed from upstream to downstream) with the locations of where they join the Yangtze are: * Yalong River (Panzhihua, Sichuan) * Min River (Yibin, Sichuan) * Tuo River (Luzhou, Sichuan) * Chishui River (Hejiang, Sichuan) * Jialing River (Chongqing) * Wu River (Fuling, Chongqing) * Qing River (Yidu, Hubei) * Yuan River (via Dongting Lake) * Lishui River (via Dongting Lake) * Zi River (via Dongting Lake) * Xiang River (Yueyang, Hunan) * Han River (Wuhan, Hubei) * Gan River (near Jiujiang, Jiangxi) * Shuiyang River (Dangtu, Anhui) * Qingyi River (Wuhu, Anhui) * Chao Lake water system (Chaohu, Anhui) * Lake Tai water system (Shanghai) The Huai River flowed into the Yellow Sea until the 20th century, but now primarily discharges into the Yangtze. <gallery caption"" widths"195px" heights"140px" perrow"5"> File:Ganrivermap.png|Gan River in Jiangxi File:Hanshuirivermap.png|Han River in Hubei File:Dongtingriversmap.png|Lake Dongting and the Yuan, Zi, Li, and Xiang Rivers in Hunan File:Wujiangrivermap.png|Wu River in Guizhou File:Jialingrivermap.png|Jialing River in eastern Sichuan and Chongqing Municipality File:Min sichuan rivermap.png|Min River in central Sichuan File:Yalongrivermap.png|Yalong River in western Sichuan </gallery> Protected areas * Sanjiangyuan ("Three Rivers' Sources") National Nature Reserve in Qinghai * Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan Wildlife The Yangtze River has a high species richness, including many endemics. A high percentage of these are seriously threatened by human activities.Fish species in the Yangtze (here Chinese sturgeon) are both seriously threatened.]] , 416 fish species are known from the Yangtze basin, including 362 that strictly are freshwater species. The remaining are also known from salt or brackish waters, such as the river's estuary or the East China Sea. This makes it one of the most species-rich rivers in Asia and by far the most species-rich in China (in comparison, the Pearl River has almost 300 fish species and the Yellow River 160). Among these are three that are considered entirely extinct (Chinese paddlefish, Anabarilius liui liui and Atrilinea macrolepis), two that are extinct in the wild (Anabarilius polylepis, Schizothorax parvus), four that are critically endangered Euchiloglanis kishinouyei, Megalobrama elongata, Schizothorax longibarbus and Leiocassis longibarbus). Additionally, both the Yangtze sturgeon and Chinese sturgeon are considered critically endangered by the IUCN. The survival of these two sturgeon may rely on the continued release of captive bred specimens. Although still listed as critically endangered rather than extinct by both the Chinese red list and IUCN, recent reviews have found that the Chinese paddlefish is extinct. Surveys conducted between 2006 and 2008 by ichthyologists failed to catch any, but two probable specimens were recorded with hydroacoustic signals. The last definite record was an individual that was accidentally captured near Yibin in 2003 and released after having been radio tagged. is native to the river, but has (like other Asian carp) been spread through large parts of the world with aquaculture.]] The largest threats to the Yangtze native fish are overfishing and habitat loss (such as building of dams and land reclamation), but pollution, destructive fishing practices (such as fishing with dynamite or poison) and introduced species also cause problems. but a drastic decline in size of several important species has been recorded, as highlighted by data from lakes in the river basin. and in January 2020 China imposed a 10-year fishing moratorium on 332 sites along the Yangtze. Dams present another serious problem, as several species in the river perform breeding migrations and most of these are non-jumpers, meaning that normal fish ladders designed for salmon are ineffective. and causing the extirpation of the Yangtze population of the Japanese eel. In an attempt of minimizing the effect of the dams, the Three Gorges Dam has released water to mimic the (pre-dam) natural flooding and trigger the breeding of carp species downstream. In addition to dams already built in the Yangtze basin, several large dams are planned and these may present further problems for the native fauna.]] Due to commercial use of the river, tourism, and pollution, the Yangtze is home to several seriously threatened species of large animals (in addition to fish): the narrow-ridged finless porpoise, baiji (Yangtze river dolphin), Chinese alligator, Yangtze giant softshell turtle and Chinese giant salamander. This is the only other place besides the United States that is native to an alligator and paddlefish species. In 2010, the Yangtze population of finless porpoise was 1000 individuals. In December 2006, the Yangtze river dolphin was declared functionally extinct after an extensive search of the river revealed no signs of the dolphin's inhabitance. In 2007, a large, white animal was sighted and photographed in the lower Yangtze and was tentatively presumed to be a baiji. However, as there have been no confirmed sightings since 2004, the baiji is presumed to be functionally extinct at this time. "Baijis were the last surviving species of a large lineage dating back seventy million years and one of only six species of freshwater dolphins." It has been argued that the extinction of the Yangtze river dolphin was a result of the completion of the Three Gorges Dam, a project that has affected many species of animals and plant life found only in the gorges area. Numerous species of land mammals are found in the Yangtze valley, but most of these are not directly associated with the river. Three exceptions are the semi-aquatic Eurasian otter, water deer and Père David's deer. is the world's largest amphibian, reaching up to in length. More than 160 amphibian species are known from the Yangtze basin, including the world's largest, the critically endangered Chinese giant salamander. It has declined drastically due to hunting (it is considered a delicacy), habitat loss and pollution. The polluted Dian Lake, which is part of the upper Yangtze watershed (via Pudu River), is home to several highly threatened fish, but was also home to the Yunnan lake newt. This newt has not been seen since 1979 and is considered extinct. In contrast, the Chinese fire belly newt from the lower Yangtze basin is one of the few Chinese salamander species to remain common and it is considered least concern by the IUCN. is a commercially important species in the Yangtze, A particularly rich genus in the river basin is the potamid Sinopotamon. The Chinese mitten crab is catadromous (migrates between fresh and saltwater) and it has been recorded up to up the Yangtze, which is the largest river in its native range. It is a commercially important species in its native range where it is farmed, but the Chinese mitten crab has also been spread to Europe and North America where considered invasive.TourismThe Yangtze River cruise, also called the "Three Gorges cruise", is a popular tourist attraction. Gallery <gallery widths"240" heights"170" perrow="4"> File:长江源头.jpg|The glaciers of the Tanggula Mountains, the traditional source of the Yangtze River File:Yangtze at First Bridge.jpg|The Tuotuo River, a headwater stream of the Yangtze River, known in Tibetan as Maqu, or the "Red River" File:1 changjiang yangtze aerial pano first turn shigu 2018.jpg|The first turn of the Yangtze at Shigu (石鼓) in Yunnan, where the river turns 180 degrees from southbound to northbound File:Tiger Leaping Gorge.jpg|Tiger Leaping Gorge in Yunnan File:Hutiaoxia.jpg|Narrowest point of the Tiger Leaping Gorge near Lijiang, downstream from Shigu File:Jinshajiang River Ravine - 32229429768.jpg|The Jinsha, "Golden Sands River", in Yunnan File:Qutang Gorge on Changjiang.jpg|Qutang Gorge, one of the Three Gorges File:Wu Gorge on Yangtze.jpg|Wu Gorge, one of the Three Gorges File:Xiling Gorge along Yangtze.jpg|Xiling Gorge, one of the Three Gorges File:ThreeGorgesDam-China2009.jpg|Three Gorges Dam in Hubei, the world's largest hydroelectric project File:Golden Island, on The Yang-Tse River, China (LMS, 1869, p.64).jpg|Golden Island on the Yangtze near Zhenjiang in Jiangsu, as it was in the mid-19th century </gallery> See also * Category: Tributaries of the Yangtze River * List of direct tributaries of the Yangtze by size * List of rivers in China * List of most-polluted rivers * Northern and Southern China, traditionally divided by the Huai River but sometimes considered to separate at the Yangtze * Rediscovering the Yangtze River * Ship lifts in China * South-North Water Transfer Project * Yangtze River Crossing * Yangtze Service Medal Notes References Further reading * Carles, William Richard, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1774310 "The Yangtse Chiang"], The Geographical Journal, Vol. 12, No. 3 (Sep. 1898), pp. 225–240; Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of The Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers) * Danielson, Eric N. 2004. Nanjing and the Lower Yangzi, From Past to Present, The New Yangzi River Trilogy, Vol. II. Singapore: Times Editions/Marshall Cavendish. . * Danielson, Eric N. 2005. The Three Gorges and The Upper Yangzi, From Past to Present, The New Yangzi River Trilogy, Vol. III. Singapore: Times Editions/Marshall Cavendish. . * Grover, David H. 1992 American Merchant Ships on the Yangtze, 1920–1941. Wesport, Conn.: Praeger Publishers. * Van Slyke, Lyman P. 1988. Yangtze: nature, history, and the river. A Portable Stanford Book. * Winchester, Simon. 1996. The River at the Center of the World: A Journey Up the Yangtze and Back in Chinese Time, Holt, Henry & Company, 1996, hardcover, ; trade paperback, Owl Publishing, 1997, ; trade paperback, St. Martins, 2004, 432 pages, * Plant, Cornell. Glimpses of the Yangze Gorges; illustrations by Ivon A. Donnelly. Kelly & Walsh, Limited, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Singapore, 1926. External links * * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pRl7vr5jzwc Video of walking along the Yangtze River in Yichang City, Hubei Province] Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Drainage basins of the Pacific Ocean Category:Geography of Central China Category:Geography of East China Category:Geography of Western China Category:Rivers of Anhui Category:Rivers of Chongqing Category:Rivers of China Category:Rivers of Hubei Category:Rivers of Jiangsu Category:Rivers of Qinghai Category:Rivers of Shanghai Category:Rivers of Sichuan Category:Rivers of Tibet Category:Rivers of Yunnan Category:Rivers with fish ladders
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yangtze
2025-04-05T18:27:52.501827
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Chrono Trigger
| publisher = Square | director = | producer = Kazuhiko Aoki | designer = Hironobu Sakaguchi | programmer = | artist = | writer = | composer = | series = Chrono | platforms | released | |Super NES |PlayStation |Nintendo DS |i-mode |iOS |Android |Windows}} | genre = Role-playing | modes = Single-player, multiplayer (DS) }} is a 1995 role-playing video game by Square. It was originally released for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System as the first entry in the Chrono series. The game's development team included three designers that Square dubbed the "Dream Team": Hironobu Sakaguchi, creator of Square's Final Fantasy series; Yuji Horii, creator of Enix's Dragon Quest series; and Akira Toriyama, character designer of Dragon Quest and author of the Dragon Ball manga series. In addition, Takashi Tokita co-directed the game and co-wrote the scenario, Kazuhiko Aoki produced the game, while Masato Kato wrote most of the story. The game's plot follows a group of adventurers who travel through time to prevent a global catastrophe. Chrono Trigger was a critical and commercial success upon release, receiving multiple accolades from gaming publications, and is considered one of fourth-generation console gaming's most significant titles and among the greatest video games ever made. Nintendo Power magazine described aspects of the game as revolutionary, including its multiple endings, plot-related side-quests focusing on character development, unique battle system, and detailed graphics. The game's soundtrack, scored by Yasunori Mitsuda with assistance from veteran Final Fantasy composer Nobuo Uematsu, has been hailed as one of the best video game soundtracks of all time. Chrono Trigger was the second best-selling game of 1995 in Japan, and the various incarnations of the game have shipped more than 5 million copies worldwide. Distributed in the Japanese and North American markets in 1995, the game has been re-released on several other platforms with varying differences. Square published a ported version by Tose in Japan for the PlayStation in 1999, which was later repackaged with a Final Fantasy IV port as Final Fantasy Chronicles (2001) exclusively in North America. A slightly enhanced Chrono Trigger, again ported by Tose, was released for the Nintendo DS in Japan and North America in 2008, and PAL regions in 2009. The game has also been ported to i-mode, the Virtual Console, the PlayStation Network, iOS, and Android. In 2018, a higher resolution version was released for Windows via Steam. Gameplay Chrono Trigger features standard role-playing video game gameplay. The player controls the protagonist and his companions in the game's two-dimensional world, consisting of various forests, cities, and dungeons. Navigation occurs via an overworld map, depicting the landscape from a scaled-down overhead view. Areas such as forests, cities, and similar places are depicted as more realistic scaled-down maps, in which players can converse with locals to procure items and services, solve puzzles and challenges, or encounter enemies. Chrono Trigger gameplay deviates from that of traditional Japanese RPGs in that, rather than appearing in random encounters, many enemies are openly visible on field maps or lie in wait to ambush the party. Contact with enemies on a field map initiates a battle that occurs directly on the map rather than on a separate battle screen. Players and enemies may use physical or magical attacks to wound targets during battle, and players may use items to heal or protect themselves. Each character and enemy has a certain number of hit points; successful attacks reduce that character's hit points, which can be restored with potions and spells. When a playable character loses all hit points, they faint; if all the player's characters fall in battle, the game ends and must be restored from a previously saved chapter, except in specific storyline-related battles that allow or force the player to lose. Between battles, a player can equip their characters with weapons, armor, helmets, and accessories that provide special effects (such as increased attack power or defense against magic), and various consumable items can be used both in and out of battles. Items and equipment can be purchased in shops or found on field maps, often in treasure chests. By exploring new areas and fighting enemies, players progress through Chrono Trigger story. Chrono Trigger uses an "Active Time Battle" system—a recurring element of Square's Final Fantasy game series designed by Hiroyuki Ito for Final Fantasy IV—named "Active Time Battle 2.0". Each character can take action in battle once a personal timer dependent on the character's speed statistic counts to zero. Magic and special physical techniques are handled through a system called "Techs". Techs deplete a character's magic points (a numerical meter similar to hit points), and often have special areas of effect; some spells damage huddled monsters, while others can harm enemies spread in a line. Enemies often change positions during battle, creating opportunities for tactical Tech use. A unique feature of Chrono Trigger Tech system is that numerous cooperative techniques exist. The DS version of Chrono Trigger features a new ending that can be accessed from the End of Time upon completion of the final extra dungeon and optional final boss. Chrono Trigger also introduces a New Game Plus option; after completing the game, the player may begin a new game with the same character levels, techniques, and equipment, excluding money, with which they ended the previous playthrough. However, certain items central to the storyline are removed and must be found again, such as the sword Masamune. Square has employed the New Game Plus concept in later games including Chrono Cross and Final Fantasy XV among others. Story Setting Chrono Trigger takes place in an Earth-like world, with eras such as the prehistoric age, in which primitive humans and dinosaurs share the earth; the Middle Ages, replete with knights, monsters, and magic; and the post-apocalyptic future, where destitute humans and sentient robots struggle to survive. The characters frequently travel through time to obtain allies, gather equipment, and learn information to help them in their quest. The party also gains access to the End of Time (represented as year ∞), which serves as a hub to travel back to other time periods. The party eventually acquires a time-machine vehicle known as the Wings of Time, nicknamed the Epoch (this default name can be changed by the player when the vehicle is acquired). The vehicle is capable of time travel between any time period without first having to travel to the End of Time. Characters Chrono Trigger six playable characters (plus one optional character) come from different eras of history. Chrono Trigger begins in 1000 AD with Crono, Marle, and Lucca. Crono is the silent protagonist, characterized as a fearless young man who wields a katana in battle. Marle, revealed to be Princess Nadia, lives in Guardia Castle; though sheltered, she is at heart a princess who seeks independence from her royal identity. Lucca is a childhood friend of Crono's and a mechanical genius; her home is filled with laboratory equipment and machinery. From the era of 2300 AD comes Robo, or Prometheus (designation R-66Y), a robot with a near-human personality created to assist humans. Lying dormant in the future, Robo is found and repaired by Lucca, and joins the group out of gratitude. The fiercely confident Ayla dwells in 65,000,000 BC. Unmatched in raw strength, Ayla is the chief of Ioka Village and leads her people in war against a species of humanoid reptiles known as Reptites. The last two playable characters are Frog and Magus. Frog originated in 600 AD. He is a former squire once known as Glenn, who was turned into an anthropomorphic frog by Magus, who also killed his friend Cyrus. Chivalrous but mired in regret, Frog dedicates his life to protecting Leene, the queen of Guardia, and avenging Cyrus. Meanwhile, Guardia in 600 AD is in a state of conflict against the Mystics (known as Fiends in the US/DS port), a race of demons and intelligent animals who wage war against humanity under the leadership of Magus, a powerful sorcerer. Magus's seclusion conceals a long-lost past; he was formerly known as Janus, the young prince of the Kingdom of Zeal, which was destroyed by Lavos in 12,000 BC. The incident sent him forward through time, and as he ages, he plots revenge against Lavos and broods over the fate of his sister, Schala. After Crono and Lucca separately recreate the portal and find themselves in 600 AD, they locate Marle, only to see her vanish before their eyes. Lucca realizes that this time period's kingdom has mistaken Marle (who is actually Princess Nadia of Guardia) for Queen Leene, an ancestor of hers who had been kidnapped, thus putting off the recovery effort for her ancestor and creating a grandfather paradox. Crono and Lucca, with the help of Frog, restore history to normal by rescuing Leene. After the three part ways with Frog and return to the present, Crono is framed for kidnapping Marle and sentenced to death by the current chancellor of Guardia. Lucca and Marle help Crono escape prison, haphazardly using another time portal to evade their pursuers. This portal lands them in 2300 AD, where they learn that an advanced civilization has been wiped out by a giant creature known as Lavos that appeared in 1999 AD, and find the last remnants of humanity living in underground domes subsisting off of machine energy in place of food. The three vow to find a way to prevent the future destruction of their world. After meeting and repairing Robo, Crono and his friends find Gaspar, an old sage residing in an atemporal space known as the End of Time, who offers them the ability to travel through time by way of several pillars of light. (The party is able to challenge Lavos at any point after this scene, with completion of the game prior to its final chapter unlocking one of twelve different endings.) The party discover that a powerful mage named Magus summoned Lavos into the world in 600 AD. To stop Magus, Frog requires the legendary sword, Masamune, to open the way to the mage's castle. In search of ore to re-forge the sword, the party travel to prehistoric times and meet Ayla, the chief of an ancient hunter-gatherer tribe. The subsequent battle with Magus disrupts his spell to summon Lavos, opening a temporal distortion that throws Crono and his friends to prehistory. The party assist Ayla in battling the Reptites, enemies of prehistoric humans. The battle is cut short as the party witness the true origin of Lavos, who descends from deep space and crashes into the planet before burrowing to its core. Entering a time gate created by Lavos's impact, the party arrive in the ice age of 12,000 BC. There, the utopic Kingdom of Zeal resides on islands raised above the icy surface using energy harnessed from Lavos's body beneath the earth's crust via a machine housed on the ocean floor. The party are imprisoned by the Queen of Zeal on the orders of its mysterious Prophet, and are ultimately banished, with the time gate leading to 12,000 BC sealed by the Prophet. Seeking a way to return, the party discover a time machine in 2300 AD called the Wings of Time (or Epoch), which can access any time period at will. The party return to 12,000 BC, where Zeal inadvertently awakens Lavos, leading the Prophet to reveal himself as Magus, who tries and fails to kill the creature. Lavos defeats Magus and kills Crono, before the remaining party are transported to the safety of the surface by Schala, Zeal's princess. Lavos annihilates the Kingdom of Zeal, whose fallen continent causes devastating floods that submerge most of the world's landmass. Magus confesses to the party that he used to be Prince Janus of Zeal, Schala's brother, and that in the original timeline, he and the Gurus of Zeal were scattered across time by Lavos's awakening in 12,000 BC. Stranded as a child in 600 AD, Janus took the title of Magus and gained a cult of followers while plotting to summon and kill Lavos in revenge for the death of his sister. Magus tried once more after the party's battle in his castle returned him to Zeal, where he disguised himself as the Prophet. At this point, Magus is either killed by the party, killed in a duel with Frog, or spared and convinced to join the party. The ruined Ocean Palace then rises into the air as the Black Omen, Queen Zeal's floating fortress. The group turns to Gaspar for help, and he gives them a "Chrono Trigger", a device that allows the group to replace Crono just before the moment of death with an identical doppelgänger (doing so is optional, and the game's ending will change depending on the player's decision). The party then gather power by helping people across time with Gaspar's instructions. Their journeys involve defeating the remnants of the Mystics, stopping Robo's maniacal AI creator, giving Frog closure for Cyrus's death, locating and charging up the mythical Sun Stone, retrieving the legendary Rainbow Shell, unmasking Guardia's Chancellor as a saboteur, restoring a forest destroyed by a desert monster, and preventing an accident that disabled Lucca's mother. The party then enter the Black Omen and defeat Queen Zeal, after which they battle Lavos. They discover that Lavos is self-directing his evolution via absorbing DNA and energy from every living creature before razing the planet's surface in 1999 AD, so that it could spawn a new generation to destroy other worlds and continue the evolutionary cycle. The party slay Lavos, and celebrate at the final night of the Millennial Fair before returning to their own times. If Magus joined the party, he departs to search for Schala. If Crono was resurrected before defeating Lavos, his sentence for kidnapping Marle is revoked by her father, King Guardia XXXIII, thanks to testimonies from Marle's ancestors and descendants, whom Crono had helped during his journey. Crono's mother accidentally enters the time gate at the Millennial Fair before it closes, prompting Crono, Marle, and Lucca to set out in the Epoch to find her while fireworks light up the night sky. If Crono was not resurrected, Frog, Robo, and Ayla (along with Magus if he was recruited) chase Gaspar to the Millennial Fair and back again, revealing that Gaspar knows how to resurrect Crono; Marle and Lucca then use the Epoch to travel through time to accomplish this. Alternatively, if the party used the Epoch to break Lavos's outer shell, Marle will help her father hang Nadia's bell at the festival and accidentally get carried away by several balloons. If resurrected, Crono jumps on to help her, but cannot bring them down to earth. Hanging on in each other's arms, the pair travel through the cloudy, moonlit sky. Chrono Trigger DS added two new scenarios to the game. The group can then fight the Dream Devourer, a prototypical form of the Time Devourer—a fusion of Schala and Lavos seen in Chrono Cross. A version of Magus pleads with Schala to resist; though she recognizes him as her brother, she refuses to be helped and sends him away. Schala subsequently erases his memories and Magus awakens in a forest, determined to find what he had lost. Development Chrono Trigger was conceived in October 1992 by Hironobu Sakaguchi, producer and creator of the Final Fantasy series; Yuji Horii, writer, game designer and creator of the Dragon Quest series; and Akira Toriyama, character designer of Dragon Quest and creator of the Dragon Ball manga series. decided to create something that "no one had done before". After spending over a year considering the difficulties of developing a new game, the three received a call from Kazuhiko Aoki, who offered to produce. An uncredited Square employee suggested that the team develop a time travel-themed game, which Kato initially opposed, fearing repetitive, dull gameplay. The team hoped to release it on Nintendo's planned Super Famicom Disk Drive; when Nintendo canceled the project, Square reoriented the game for release on a Super Famicom cartridge and rebranded it as Chrono Trigger. Torishima later reflected that at least one early revision of the game had been scrapped. The development staff studied the drawings of Toriyama to approximate his style. Yasuhiko Kamata programmed graphics, and cited Ridley Scott's visual work in the film Alien as an inspiration for the game's lighting. According to Tanaka, Secret of Mana (which itself was originally intended to be Final Fantasy IV) was codenamed "Chrono Trigger" during development before being called Seiken Densetsu 2 (Secret of Mana), and then the name Chrono Trigger was adopted for a new project. After its release, the development team of Final Fantasy VI was folded into the Chrono Trigger team. Yuji Horii, a fan of time travel fiction (such as the TV series The Time Tunnel), fostered a theme of time travel in his general story outline of Chrono Trigger with input from Akira Toriyama. He took pains to avoid what he described as "a long string of errands [...] [such as] 'do this', 'take this', 'defeat these monsters', or 'plant this flag'." Kato became friends with composer Yasunori Mitsuda during development, and they would collaborate on several future projects. Music aural style and aesthetic. |filename2=Chrono trigger brink of time sample.ogg |title2="Zeal Palace" |description2= A 30-second sample of "Zeal Palace" from The Brink of Time, demonstrating the acid-jazz style of the arranged album. }} Chrono Trigger was scored primarily by Yasunori Mitsuda, with contributions from veteran Final Fantasy composer Nobuo Uematsu and one track by Noriko Matsueda. A sound programmer at the time, Mitsuda was unhappy with his pay and threatened to leave Square if he could not compose music. Hironobu Sakaguchi suggested he score Chrono Trigger, remarking, "maybe your salary will go up." After Mitsuda contracted stomach ulcers, Uematsu joined the project to compose ten pieces and finish the score. Square also released a one-disc acid jazz arrangement called The Brink of Time by Guido that year. The Brink of Time came about because Mitsuda wanted to do something that no one else was doing, and he noted that acid jazz and its related genres were uncommon in the Japanese market. While Mitsuda later held that the title piece was "rough around the edges", he maintains that it had "significant influence on [his] life as a composer". Some fans were displeased by Mitsuda's absence in creating the port, whose instruments sometimes aurally differed from the original game's. He worked with Square Enix to ensure that the music for the Nintendo DS would sound closer to the Super NES version. Mitsuda expressed difficulty in selecting the tune for the orchestral medley, eventually picking a tune from each era and certain character themes. Mitsuda later wrote: Release The team planned to release Chrono Trigger in late 1994, but release was pushed back to the following year. A few months prior to the game's release, Square shipped a beta version to magazine reviewers and game stores for review. An unfinished build of the game dated November 17, 1994, it contains unused music tracks, locations, and other features changed or removed from the final release—such as a dungeon named "Singing Mountain" and its eponymous tune. Some names also differed; the character Soysaw (Slash in the US version) was known as Wiener, while Mayonnay (Flea in the US version) was named Ketchappa. The ROM image for this early version was eventually uploaded to the internet, prompting fans to explore and document the game's differences, including two unused world map NPC character sprites and presumed additional sprites for certain non-player characters. Sakaguchi intended to perfect the "sense of dancing you get from exploring Toriyama's worlds" in the event that they would make a sequel. Developers created the North American version before adding these features to the original build, inadvertently leaving in vestiges of Chrono Trigger early development (such as the piece "Singing Mountain"). Hironobu Sakaguchi asked translator Ted Woolsey to localize Chrono Trigger for English audiences and gave him roughly thirty days to work. Lacking the help of a modern translation team, he memorized scenarios and looked at drafts of commercial player's guides to put dialogue in context. Nintendo of America censored certain dialogue, including references to breastfeeding, consumption of alcohol, and religion. and in Europe on May 20, 2011. Previously in April 2008, a Nintendo Power reader poll had identified Chrono Trigger as the third-most wanted game for the Virtual Console. The game has also been ported to i-mode, the Virtual Console, the PlayStation Network, iOS, Android, and Windows. PlayStation Square released an enhanced port of Chrono Trigger developed by Tose in Japan for the Sony PlayStation in 1999. Square timed its release before that of Chrono Cross, the 1999 sequel to Chrono Trigger, to familiarize new players with the story leading up to it. This same iteration was also re-released as a downloadable game on the PlayStation Network on October 4, 2011, for the PlayStation 3, PlayStation Vita, and PlayStation Portable. Nintendo DS On July 2, 2008, Square Enix announced that they were planning to bring Chrono Trigger to the Nintendo DS handheld platform. Composer Yasunori Mitsuda was pleased with the project, exclaiming "finally!" after receiving the news from Square Enix and maintaining, "it's still a very deep, very high-quality game even when you play it today. I'm very interested in seeing what kids today think about it when they play it." The DS re-release contains all of the bonus material from the PlayStation port, as well as other enhancements. The added features include a more accurate and revised translation by Tom Slattery, a dual-screen mode which clears the top screen of all menus, a self-completing map screen, and a default "run" option. It also features the option to choose between two control schemes: one mirroring the original SNES controls, and the other making use of the DS's touch screen. Masato Kato participated in development, overseeing the addition of the monster-battling Arena, two new areas, the Lost Sanctum and the Dimensional Vortex, and a new ending that further foreshadows the events of Chrono Cross. One of the areas within the Vortex uses the "Singing Mountain" song that was featured on the original Chrono Trigger soundtrack. Additionally, one of the dungeons absent from the original game was remade within the Vortex. These new dungeons met with mixed reviews; GameSpot called them "frustrating" and "repetitive", while IGN noted that "the extra quests in the game connect extremely well." It was a nominee for "Best RPG for the Nintendo DS" in IGNs 2008 video game awards. The Nintendo DS version of Chrono Trigger was the 22nd best-selling game of 2008 in Japan. Mobile A cellphone version was released in Japan on i-mode distribution service on August 25, 2011. An iOS version was released on December 8, 2011. This version is based on the Nintendo DS version, with graphics optimized for iOS. The game was later released for Android on October 29, 2012. An update incorporating most of the features of the Windows version—including the reintroduction of the animated cutscenes, which had been absent from the initial mobile release—was released on February 27, 2018, for both iOS and Android. Windows Square Enix released Chrono Trigger without an announcement for Windows via Steam on February 27, 2018. This version includes most content from the Nintendo DS port besides the arena mode, as well as the higher resolution graphics from the mobile device releases, support for mouse and keyboard controls, and autosave features, along with additional content such as wallpapers and music. The PC port initially received negative reception due to its inferior graphical quality, additional glitches, UI adapted for touchscreens, and failure to properly adapt the control scheme for keyboards and controllers. In response, Square Enix provided various UI updates and several other improvements including adding an original graphics option based on the game's original version, fixing glitches introduced, and adding a true 16:9 widescreen presentation for the first time, to address the aforementioned complaints. In total, five major updates were released—the first on April 10, 2018, and the last on August 3, 2018—all of which have substantially improved its overall reception. On March 11, 2022, a sixth major patch was released; it added ultrawide 21:9 support and other quality of life features and improvements. Reception | GSpot_DS 8.5/10 | GSpy_DS | GRadar_DS | IGN_DS 8.8/10 (US) <br /> 9.1/10 (AU) | NGen_SNES | NP_DS 9/10 | award1Pub Electronic Gaming Monthly | award1 = Best Super NES Game, <br /> Best Role-Playing Game, <br /> Best Music in a Cartridge-Based Game | award2Pub GamePro'' | award2 = Best RPG Game | award3Pub Nintendo Power Awards | award3 = Best Super NES Game, <br /> Best Epic Game, <br /> Best Story, Best Ending, <br /> Coolest Transportation (Epoch), <br /> Worst Baddie (Juggler) }} SNES release Chrono Trigger received critical acclaim upon its original SNES release. The gameplay received praise, with Nintendo Power and Next Generation considering it innovative. Both magazines and Super Play cited the visibility of enemies in the overworld map and the use of combos as reasons for their enjoyment. Both Edge and GamePro felt the game was easier than Final Fantasy VI, GamePro found them better than in prior role-playing video games such as Final Fantasy VI, In a Twitter post detailing his experiences with the Windows version, indie developer Fred Wood derisively compared the port to "someone's first attempt at an RPG Maker game", a comment which was republished across numerous articles addressing the poor quality of the rerelease. Square Enix released six major updates to address the complaints, thus improving its overall reception; Alex Donaldson of VG247, commenting on the improvements, wrote that "Square Enix took the criticism to heart and over the course of a string of hefty patches have slowly turned this into something that actually could be argued as the best version of Chrono Trigger." where two million copies were sold in only two months. It ended the year as the second best-selling game of 1995 in Japan, below Dragon Quest VI: Realms of Revelation. Chrono Trigger was also met with substantial success upon release in North America, and its re-release on the PlayStation as part of the Final Fantasy Chronicles package topped the NPD TRSTS PlayStation sales charts for over six weeks. By March 2003, the game's SNES and PS1 iterations had shipped copies worldwide, including 2.36 million in Japan and 290,000 abroad. The PS1 version was re-released in 2003 as part of Sony's Greatest Hits line. The original SNES version had sold 2.5 million copies by 2006. Chrono Trigger DS sold 790,000 copies worldwide, as of March 2009, including 490,000 in Japan, 240,000 in North America and 60,000 in Europe. The SNES, PS1 and DS versions shipped a combined million}} copies worldwide by March 2009. Excluding the PC version, the game had shipped over 3.5 million copies worldwide by February 2018. As of March 2025, all versions together have shipped more than 5 million copies worldwide. Awards and accolades Chrono Trigger is frequently listed among the greatest video games of all time. In 1997 Electronic Gaming Monthly ranked it the 29th best console video game of all time; while noting that it was not as good as Final Fantasy VI (which ranked 9th), they gave superlative praise to its handling of time travel and its combat engine. It has placed highly on all six of multimedia website IGNs "top 100 games of all time" lists—4th in 2002, 6th in early 2005, 13th in late 2005, 2nd in 2006, 18th in 2007, and 2nd in 2008. Game Informer called it its 15th favorite game in 2001. Its staff thought that it was the best non-Final Fantasy game Square had produced at the time. GameSpot included Chrono Trigger in "The Greatest Games of All Time" list released in April 2006, and it also appeared as 28th on an "All Time Top 100" list in a poll conducted by Japanese magazine Famitsu the same year. In 2004, Chrono Trigger finished runner up to Final Fantasy VII in the inaugural GameFAQs video game battle. In 2008, readers of Dengeki Online voted it the eighth best game ever made. Nintendo Power twentieth anniversary issue named it the fifth best Super NES game. In 2009, Official Nintendo Magazine ranked the DS version of the game 31st on a list of greatest Nintendo games. In 2012, it came 32nd place on GamesRadar's "100 best games of all time" list, and 1st place on its "Best JRPGs" list. GamesRadar named Chrono Trigger the 2nd best Super NES game of all time, behind Super Metroid. In 2023, Time Extension included the game on their "Best JRPGs of All Time" list. Legacy Add-ons Chrono Trigger inspired several related releases; the first were three games released for the Satellaview on July 31, 1995. They included Chrono Trigger: Jet Bike Special, a racing video game based on a minigame from the original; Chrono Trigger: Character Library, featuring profiles on characters and monsters from the game; and Chrono Trigger: Music Library, a collection of music from the game's soundtrack. The contents of Character Library and Music Library were later included as extras in the PlayStation rerelease of Chrono Trigger. Production I.G created a 16-minute OVA, Dimensional Adventure Numa Monjar, which was shown at the Japanese V Jump festival of July 31, 1996. Fangames There have been two notable attempts by Chrono Trigger fans to unofficially remake parts of the game for PC with a 3D graphics engine. Chrono Resurrection, an attempt at remaking ten small interactive cutscenes from Chrono Trigger, and Chrono Trigger Remake Project, which sought to remake the entire game, were forcibly terminated by Square Enix by way of a cease and desist order. Another group of fans created a sequel via a ROM hack of Chrono Trigger called Chrono Trigger: Crimson Echoes; developed from 2004 to 2009; although feature-length and virtually finished, it also was terminated through a cease & desist letter days before its May 2009 release. The letter also forbade the dissemination of existing Chrono Trigger ROM hacks and documentation. After the cease and desist was issued, an incomplete version of the game was leaked in May 2009, though due to the early state of the game, playability was limited. This was followed by a more complete ROM leak in January 2011, which allowed the game to be played from beginning to end. Sequels Square released a related Satellaview game in 1996, named Radical Dreamers. Having thought that Trigger ended with "unfinished business", scenarist Masato Kato wrote and directed the game. A short, text-based game relying on minimal graphics and atmospheric music, the game never received an official release outside Japan—though it was translated by fans to English in April 2003. Square planned to release Radical Dreamers as an easter egg in the PlayStation edition of Chrono Trigger, but Kato was unhappy with his work and halted its inclusion. Square released Chrono Cross for the Sony PlayStation in 1999. Cross is a sequel to Chrono Trigger featuring a new setting and cast of characters. Presenting a theme of parallel worlds, the story followed the protagonist Serge—a teenage boy thrust into an alternate reality in which he died years earlier. With the help of a thief named Kid, Serge endeavors to discover the truth behind his apparent death and obtain the Frozen Flame, a mythical artifact. Radical Dreamers was consequently removed from the series' main continuity, considered an alternate dimension. Chrono Cross shipped 1.5 million copies and was widely praised by critics. There are no plans for a new title, despite a statement from Hironobu Sakaguchi in 2001 that the developers of Chrono Cross wanted to make a new Chrono game. The same year, Square applied for a trademark for the names Chrono Break in the United States and Chrono Brake in Japan. However, the United States trademark was dropped in 2003. Director Takashi Tokita mentioned "Chrono Trigger 2" in a 2003 interview which has not been translated to English. Yuji Horii expressed no interest in returning to the Chrono franchise in 2005, while Hironobu Sakaguchi remarked in April 2007 that his creation Blue Dragon was an "extension of [Chrono Trigger]." During a Cubed³ interview on February 1, 2007, Square Enix's Senior Vice President Hiromichi Tanaka said that although no sequel is currently planned, some sort of sequel is still possible if the Chrono Cross developers can be reunited. Yasunori Mitsuda has expressed interest in scoring a new game, but warned that "there are a lot of politics involved" with the series. He stressed that Masato Kato should participate in development. The February 2008 issue of Game Informer ranked the Chrono series eighth among the "Top Ten Sequels in Demand", naming the games "steadfast legacies in the Square Enix catalogue" and asking, "what's the damn holdup?!" In Electronic Gaming Monthly's June 2008 "Retro Issue", writer Jeremy Parish cited Chrono as the franchise video game fans would be most thrilled to see a sequel to. In the first May Famitsu of 2009, Chrono Trigger placed 14th out of 50 in a vote of most-wanted sequels by the magazine's readers. At E3 2009, SE Senior Vice President Shinji Hashimoto remarked, "If people want a sequel, they should buy more!" In July 2010, Obsidian Entertainment designer Feargus Urquhart, replying to an interview question about what franchises he would like to work on, said that "if [he] could come across everything that [he] played", he would choose a Chrono Trigger game. At the time, Obsidian was making Dungeon Siege III for Square Enix. Urquhart said: "You make RPGs, we make RPGs, it would be great to see what we could do together. And they really wanted to start getting into Western RPGs. And, so it kind of all ended up fitting together." Yoshinori Kitase stated that he used the time travel mechanics of Chrono Trigger as a starting point for that of Final Fantasy XIII-2. Notes References External links * * Category:1995 video games Category:Fiction about airships Category:Akira Toriyama Category:Android (operating system) games Category:Apocalyptic video games Category:Chrono (series) Category:Video games about dinosaurs Category:Video games about impact events Category:IOS games Category:Japanese role-playing video games Category:Multiplayer and single-player video games Category:Super Nintendo Entertainment System games Category:Turn-based role-playing video games Category:Nintendo DS games Category:PlayStation (console) games Category:PlayStation Network games Category:Post-apocalyptic video games Category:Role-playing video games Category:Video games about time travel Category:Toei Animation video game projects Category:Tose (company) games Category:Video games developed in Japan Category:Virtual Console games Category:Video games scored by Yasunori Mitsuda Category:Video games scored by Nobuo Uematsu Category:Video games set in the Mesozoic Category:Windows games Category:TvOS games
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrono_Trigger
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Cornwall Wildlife Trust
The Cornwall Wildlife Trust is a charitable organisation founded in 1962 that is concerned solely with Cornwall, England, United Kingdom. It deals with the conservation and preservation of Cornwall's wildlife, geology and habitats managing over 50 nature reserves covering approximately , amongst them Looe Island. Cornwall Wildlife Trust is part of The Wildlife Trusts partnership of 46 wildlife trusts in the United Kingdom. It works in conjunction with the Isles of Scilly Wildlife Trust on some matters. Cornwall Wildlife Trust produces a thrice-yearly magazine called Wild Cornwall. The direction and work that the Trust currently does is guided by the Cornwall Biodiversity action plan. Living Seas and Living Landscapes are two such projects. The Trust runs ERCCIS (Environmental Records Centre for Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly), a county wide database of sightings of animals and plants, and records of geology. It also gives planning advice (CEC - Cornwall Environmental Consultants) to land developers. The Trust is based at Allet near Truro in Cornwall. The headquarters and offices are adjacent to the Trust's Five Acres nature reserve. This reserve includes two ponds, as well as mixed broadleaved and conifer woodland. thumb|left|One of the ponds at Five Acres List of reserves 1. Armstrong Wood 2. Baker's Pit 3. Beales Meadows 4. Bissoe Valley 5. Bosvenning Common 6. Cabilla and Redrice Woods 7. Caer Brân 8. Carn Moor 9. Chûn Downs 10. Churchtown Farm, near Saltash 11. Chyverton 12. Devichoys Wood, near Penryn 13. Downhill Meadow 14. River Fal—River Ruan Estuary 15. Five Acres, at the Cornwall Wildlife Trust Headquarters, Allet, near Truro 16. Fox Corner, south of Truro 17. Greena Moor 18. Halbullock Moor, south of Truro 19. Hawkes Wood 20. Helman Tor (including Breney Common and Red Moor, near Lostwithiel 21. Kemyel Crease 22. Kennall Vale, at Ponsanooth, between Falmouth & Redruth 23. Lanvean Bottoms 24. Loggan's Moor, near Hayle 25. Loveny/Colliford Reservoir 26. Lower Lewdon 27. Luckett/Greenscombe Wood 28. Maer Lake 29. Nansmellyn Marsh 30. North Predannack Downs 31. Park Hoskyn - The Hayman Reserve 32. Pendarves Wood, near Camborne 33. Penlee Battery, near Kingsand 34. Phillips's Point 35. Priddacombe Downs 36. Prideaux Wood 37. Quoit Heathland 38. Redlake Cottage Meadows 39. Ropehaven Cliffs 40. Rosenannon Downs 41. St Erth Pits, at St. Erth 42. St George's Island (or Looe Island), near Looe 43. Swanvale, Falmouth 44. Sylvia's Meadow, near Callington 45. Tamar Estuary, near Saltash 46. Tincombe, near Saltash 47. Trebarwith, near Tintagel 48. Tregonetha Downs, near Goss Moor 49. Tresayes Quarry, near Roche 50. Tywardreath Marsh, near Par 51. Upton Meadow, near Bude 52. Upton Towans, near Hayle 53. Ventongimps Moor, near Zelah, Cornwall 54. Marsland Valley, north of Bude 55. Windmill Farm, on The Lizard See also Stella Turk External links 300px|thumb|Cornwall Wildlife Trust HQ Category:1962 establishments in England Category:Environment of Cornwall Category:Nature reserves in Cornwall Wildlife Category:Wildlife Trusts of England
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornwall_Wildlife_Trust
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Conservatory
Conservatory may refer to: Conservatory (greenhouse), a substantial building or room where plants are cultivated, including medicinal ones and including attached residential solariums Music school, or a school devoted to other arts such as dance Sunroom, a smaller glass enclosure or garden shed attached to a house, also called a conservatory
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatory
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Compactification (mathematics)
In mathematics, in general topology, compactification is the process or result of making a topological space into a compact space. A compact space is a space in which every open cover of the space contains a finite subcover. The methods of compactification are various, but each is a way of controlling points from "going off to infinity" by in some way adding "points at infinity" or preventing such an "escape". An example Consider the real line with its ordinary topology. This space is not compact; in a sense, points can go off to infinity to the left or to the right. It is possible to turn the real line into a compact space by adding a single "point at infinity" which we will denote by ∞. The resulting compactification is homeomorphic to a circle in the plane (which, as a closed and bounded subset of the Euclidean plane, is compact). Every sequence that ran off to infinity in the real line will then converge to ∞ in this compactification. The direction in which a number approaches infinity on the number line (either in the - direction or + direction) is still preserved on the circle; for if a number approaches towards infinity from the - direction on the number line, then the corresponding point on the circle can approach ∞ from the left for example. Then if a number approaches infinity from the + direction on the number line, then the corresponding point on the circle can approach ∞ from the right. Intuitively, the process can be pictured as follows: first shrink the real line to the open interval , )}} on the x-axis; then bend the ends of this interval upwards (in positive y-direction) and move them towards each other, until you get a circle with one point (the topmost one) missing. This point is our new point ∞ "at infinity"; adding it in completes the compact circle. A bit more formally: we represent a point on the unit circle by its angle, in radians, going from − to for simplicity. Identify each such point θ on the circle with the corresponding point on the real line tan(θ/2). This function is undefined at the point , since tan(/2) is undefined; we will identify this point with our point ∞. Since tangents and inverse tangents are both continuous, our identification function is a homeomorphism between the real line and the unit circle without ∞. What we have constructed is called the Alexandroff one-point compactification of the real line, discussed in more generality below. It is also possible to compactify the real line by adding two points, +∞ and −∞; this results in the extended real line. Definition An embedding of a topological space X as a dense subset of a compact space is called a compactification of X. It is often useful to embed topological spaces in compact spaces, because of the special properties compact spaces have. Embeddings into compact Hausdorff spaces may be of particular interest. Since every compact Hausdorff space is a Tychonoff space, and every subspace of a Tychonoff space is Tychonoff, we conclude that any space possessing a Hausdorff compactification must be a Tychonoff space. In fact, the converse is also true; being a Tychonoff space is both necessary and sufficient for possessing a Hausdorff compactification. The fact that large and interesting classes of non-compact spaces do in fact have compactifications of particular sorts makes compactification a common technique in topology. Alexandroff one-point compactification For any noncompact topological space X the (Alexandroff) one-point compactification αX of X is obtained by adding one extra point ∞ (often called a point at infinity) and defining the open sets of the new space to be the open sets of X together with the sets of the form G ∪ , where G is an open subset of X such that <math>X \setminus G</math> is closed and compact. The one-point compactification of X is Hausdorff if and only if X is Hausdorff and locally compact. Stone–Čech compactification Of particular interest are Hausdorff compactifications, i.e., compactifications in which the compact space is Hausdorff. A topological space has a Hausdorff compactification if and only if it is Tychonoff. In this case, there is a unique (up to homeomorphism) "most general" Hausdorff compactification, the Stone–Čech compactification of X, denoted by βX; formally, this exhibits the category of Compact Hausdorff spaces and continuous maps as a reflective subcategory of the category of Tychonoff spaces and continuous maps. "Most general" or formally "reflective" means that the space βX is characterized by the universal property that any continuous function from X to a compact Hausdorff space K can be extended to a continuous function from βX to K in a unique way. More explicitly, βX is a compact Hausdorff space containing X such that the induced topology on X by βX is the same as the given topology on X, and for any continuous map , where K is a compact Hausdorff space, there is a unique continuous map for which g restricted to X is identically f. The Stone–Čech compactification can be constructed explicitly as follows: let C be the set of continuous functions from X to the closed interval . Then each point in X can be identified with an evaluation function on C. Thus X can be identified with a subset of , the space of all functions from C to . Since the latter is compact by Tychonoff's theorem, the closure of X as a subset of that space will also be compact. This is the Stone–Čech compactification. Spacetime compactification Walter Benz and Isaak Yaglom have shown how stereographic projection onto a single-sheet hyperboloid can be used to provide a compactification for split complex numbers. In fact, the hyperboloid is part of a quadric in real projective four-space. The method is similar to that used to provide a base manifold for group action of the conformal group of spacetime. Projective space Real projective space RP<sup>n</sup> is a compactification of Euclidean space R<sup>n</sup>. For each possible "direction" in which points in R<sup>n</sup> can "escape", one new point at infinity is added (but each direction is identified with its opposite). The Alexandroff one-point compactification of R we constructed in the example above is in fact homeomorphic to RP<sup>1</sup>. Note however that the projective plane RP<sup>2</sup> is not the one-point compactification of the plane R<sup>2</sup> since more than one point is added. Complex projective space CP<sup>n</sup> is also a compactification of C<sup>n</sup>; the Alexandroff one-point compactification of the plane C is (homeomorphic to) the complex projective line CP<sup>1</sup>, which in turn can be identified with a sphere, the Riemann sphere. Passing to projective space is a common tool in algebraic geometry because the added points at infinity lead to simpler formulations of many theorems. For example, any two different lines in RP<sup>2</sup> intersect in precisely one point, a statement that is not true in R<sup>2</sup>. More generally, Bézout's theorem, which is fundamental in intersection theory, holds in projective space but not affine space. This distinct behavior of intersections in affine space and projective space is reflected in algebraic topology in the cohomology rings – the cohomology of affine space is trivial, while the cohomology of projective space is non-trivial and reflects the key features of intersection theory (dimension and degree of a subvariety, with intersection being Poincaré dual to the cup product). Compactification of moduli spaces generally require allowing certain degeneracies – for example, allowing certain singularities or reducible varieties. This is notably used in the Deligne–Mumford compactification of the moduli space of algebraic curves. Compactification and discrete subgroups of Lie groups In the study of discrete subgroups of Lie groups, the quotient space of cosets is often a candidate for more subtle compactification to preserve structure at a richer level than just topological. For example, modular curves are compactified by the addition of single points for each cusp, making them Riemann surfaces (and so, since they are compact, algebraic curves). Here the cusps are there for a good reason: the curves parametrize a space of lattices, and those lattices can degenerate ('go off to infinity'), often in a number of ways (taking into account some auxiliary structure of level). The cusps stand in for those different 'directions to infinity'. That is all for lattices in the plane. In -dimensional Euclidean space the same questions can be posed, for example about <math>\text{SO}(n) \setminus \text{SL}_n(\textbf{R}) / \text{SL}_n(\textbf{Z}).</math> This is harder to compactify. There are a variety of compactifications, such as the Borel–Serre compactification, the reductive Borel–Serre compactification, and the Satake compactifications, that can be formed. Other compactification theories * The theories of ends of a space and prime ends. * Some 'boundary' theories such as the collaring of an open manifold, Martin boundary, Shilov boundary and Furstenberg boundary. * The Bohr compactification of a topological group arises from the consideration of almost periodic functions. * The projective line over a ring for a topological ring may compactify it. * The Baily–Borel compactification of a quotient of a Hermitian symmetric space. * The wonderful compactification of a quotient of algebraic groups. * The compactifications that are simultaneously convex subsets in a locally convex space are called convex compactifications, their additional linear structure allowing e.g. for developing a differential calculus and more advanced considerations e.g. in relaxation in variational calculus or optimization theory. See also * References
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compactification_(mathematics)
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Cotangent space
In differential geometry, the cotangent space is a vector space associated with a point x on a smooth (or differentiable) manifold \mathcal M; one can define a cotangent space for every point on a smooth manifold. Typically, the cotangent space, T^*_x\!\mathcal M is defined as the dual space of the tangent space at x, T_x\mathcal M, although there are more direct definitions (see below). The elements of the cotangent space are called cotangent vectors or tangent covectors. Properties All cotangent spaces at points on a connected manifold have the same dimension, equal to the dimension of the manifold. All the cotangent spaces of a manifold can be "glued together" (i.e. unioned and endowed with a topology) to form a new differentiable manifold of twice the dimension, the cotangent bundle of the manifold. The tangent space and the cotangent space at a point are both real vector spaces of the same dimension and therefore isomorphic to each other via many possible isomorphisms. The introduction of a Riemannian metric or a symplectic form gives rise to a natural isomorphism between the tangent space and the cotangent space at a point, associating to any tangent covector a canonical tangent vector. Formal definitions Definition as linear functionals Let \mathcal M be a smooth manifold and let x be a point in \mathcal M. Let T_x\mathcal M be the tangent space at x. Then the cotangent space at x is defined as the dual space of T^*_x\!\mathcal M = (T_x \mathcal M)^* Concretely, elements of the cotangent space are linear functionals on T_x\mathcal M. That is, every element \alpha\in T^*_x\mathcal M is a linear map \alpha:T_x\mathcal M \to F where F is the underlying field of the vector space being considered, for example, the field of real numbers. The elements of T^*_x\!\mathcal M are called cotangent vectors. Alternative definition In some cases, one might like to have a direct definition of the cotangent space without reference to the tangent space. Such a definition can be formulated in terms of equivalence classes of smooth functions on \mathcal M. Informally, we will say that two smooth functions f and g are equivalent at a point x if they have the same first-order behavior near x, analogous to their linear Taylor polynomials; two functions f and g have the same first order behavior near x if and only if the derivative of the function f − g vanishes at x. The cotangent space will then consist of all the possible first-order behaviors of a function near x. Let \mathcal M be a smooth manifold and let x be a point in \mathcal M. Let I_xbe the ideal of all functions in C^\infty\! (\mathcal M) vanishing at x, and let I_x^2 be the set of functions of the form \sum_i f_i g_i, where f_i, g_i \in I_x. Then I_x and I_x^2 are both real vector spaces and the cotangent space can be defined as the quotient space T^*_x\!\mathcal M = I_x/I^2_x by showing that the two spaces are isomorphic to each other. This formulation is analogous to the construction of the cotangent space to define the Zariski tangent space in algebraic geometry. The construction also generalizes to locally ringed spaces. The differential of a function Let M be a smooth manifold and let f\in C^\infty(M) be a smooth function. The differential of f at a point x is the map \mathrm d f_x(X_x) = X_x(f) where X_x is a tangent vector at x, thought of as a derivation. That is X(f)\mathcal{L}_Xf is the Lie derivative of f in the direction X, and one has \mathrm df(X)X(f). Equivalently, we can think of tangent vectors as tangents to curves, and write \mathrm d f_x(\gamma'(0))=(f\circ\gamma)'(0) In either case, \mathrm df_x is a linear map on T_xM and hence it is a tangent covector at x. We can then define the differential map \mathrm d:C^\infty(M)\to T_x^*(M) at a point x as the map which sends f to \mathrm df_x. Properties of the differential map include: \mathrm d is a linear map: \mathrm d(af+bg)=a\mathrm df + b\mathrm dg for constants a and b, \mathrm d(fg)_x=f(x)\mathrm dg_x+g(x)\mathrm df_x The differential map provides the link between the two alternate definitions of the cotangent space given above. Since for all f \in I^2_x there exist g_i, h_i \in I_x such that f=\sum_i g_i h_i, we have, \begin{array}{rcl} \mathrm d f_x & = & \sum_i \mathrm d (g_i h_i)_x \\ & = & \sum_i (g_i(x)\mathrm d(h_i)_x+\mathrm d(g_i)_x h_{i}(x)) \\ & = & \sum_i (0\mathrm d(h_i)_x+\mathrm d(g_i)_x 0) \\ & = & 0 \end{array} So that all function in I^2_x have differential zero, it follows that for every two functions f \in I^2_x, g \in I_x, we have \mathrm d (f+g)=\mathrm d (g). We can now construct an isomorphism between T^*_x\!\mathcal M and I_x/I^2_x by sending linear maps \alpha to the corresponding cosets \alpha + I^2_x. Since there is a unique linear map for a given kernel and slope, this is an isomorphism, establishing the equivalence of the two definitions. The pullback of a smooth map Just as every differentiable map f:M\to N between manifolds induces a linear map (called the pushforward or derivative) between the tangent spaces f_{*}^{}\colon T_x M \to T_{f(x)} N every such map induces a linear map (called the pullback) between the cotangent spaces, only this time in the reverse direction: f^{*}\colon T_{f(x)}^{*} N \to T_{x}^{*} M . The pullback is naturally defined as the dual (or transpose) of the pushforward. Unraveling the definition, this means the following: (f^{*}\theta)(X_x) = \theta(f_{*}^{}X_x) , where \theta\in T_{f(x)}^*N and X_x\in T_xM. Note carefully where everything lives. If we define tangent covectors in terms of equivalence classes of smooth maps vanishing at a point then the definition of the pullback is even more straightforward. Let g be a smooth function on N vanishing at f(x). Then the pullback of the covector determined by g (denoted \mathrm d g) is given by f^{*}\mathrm dg = \mathrm d(g \circ f). That is, it is the equivalence class of functions on M vanishing at x determined by g\circ f. Exterior powers The k-th exterior power of the cotangent space, denoted \Lambda^k(T_x^*\mathcal{M}), is another important object in differential and algebraic geometry. Vectors in the k-th exterior power, or more precisely sections of the k-th exterior power of the cotangent bundle, are called differential k-forms. They can be thought of as alternating, multilinear maps on k tangent vectors. For this reason, tangent covectors are frequently called one-forms. References Category:Differential topology Category:Tensors
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotangent_space
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Cnidaria
Ediacaran–Present | image = Cnidaria.png | image_upright = 1.3 | image_caption = Four examples of cnidaria (clockwise, from top left): * A jellyfish Chrysaora melanaster * A gorgonian Annella mollis * A sea anemone Nemanthus annamensis * A stony coral Acropora cervicornis | display_parents = 2 | taxon = Cnidaria | authority = Hatschek, 1888 | subdivision_ranks = Subphyla and classes | subdivision_ref | subdivision = *Subphylum Anthozoa—corals and sea anemone ** Class Octocorallia ** Class Hexacorallia ** Class Ceriantharia *Subphylum Medusozoa—jellyfish and hydrozoans: ** Class Cubozoa—box jellyfish, sea wasps ** Class Hydrozoa—hydroids, hydra-like animals ** Class Polypodiozoa—parasites ** Class Scyphozoa—true jellyfish ** Class Staurozoa—stalked jellyfish * Subphylum Myxozoa—parasites is a phylum under kingdom Animalia containing over 11,000 species of aquatic invertebrates found both in freshwater and marine environments (predominantly the latter), including jellyfish, hydroids, sea anemones, corals and some of the smallest marine parasites. Their distinguishing features are an uncentralized nervous system distributed throughout a gelatinous body and the presence of cnidocytes or cnidoblasts, specialized cells with ejectable flagella used mainly for envenomation and capturing prey. Their bodies consist of mesoglea, a non-living, jelly-like substance, sandwiched between two layers of epithelium that are mostly one cell thick. Cnidarians are also some of the few animals that can reproduce both sexually and asexually. Cnidarians mostly have two basic body forms: swimming medusae and sessile polyps, both of which are radially symmetrical with mouths surrounded by tentacles that bear cnidocytes, which are specialized stinging cells used to capture prey. Both forms have a single orifice and body cavity that are used for digestion and respiration. Many cnidarian species produce colonies that are single organisms composed of medusa-like or polyp-like zooids, or both (hence they are trimorphic). Cnidarians' activities are coordinated by a decentralized nerve net and simple receptors. Cnidarians also have rhopalia, which are involved in gravity sensing and sometimes chemoreception. Several free-swimming species of Cubozoa and Scyphozoa possess balance-sensing statocysts, and some have simple eyes. Not all cnidarians reproduce sexually, but many species have complex life cycles of asexual polyp stages and sexual medusae stages. Some, however, omit either the polyp or the medusa stage, and the parasitic classes evolved to have neither form. Cnidarians were formerly grouped with ctenophores, also known as comb jellies, in the phylum Coelenterata, but increasing awareness of their differences caused them to be placed in separate phyla. Most cnidarians are classified into four main groups: the almost wholly sessile Anthozoa (sea anemones, corals, sea pens); swimming Scyphozoa (jellyfish); Cubozoa (box jellies); and Hydrozoa (a diverse group that includes all the freshwater cnidarians as well as many marine forms, and which has both sessile members, such as Hydra, and colonial swimmers (such as the Portuguese man o' war)). Staurozoa have recently been recognised as a class in their own right rather than a sub-group of Scyphozoa, and the highly derived parasitic Myxozoa and Polypodiozoa were firmly recognized as cnidarians only in 2007. Most cnidarians prey on organisms ranging in size from plankton to animals several times larger than themselves, but many obtain much of their nutrition from symbiotic dinoflagellates, and a few are parasites. Many are preyed on by other animals including starfish, sea slugs, fish, turtles, and even other cnidarians. Many scleractinian corals—which form the structural foundation for coral reefs—possess polyps that are filled with symbiotic photo-synthetic zooxanthellae. While reef-forming corals are almost entirely restricted to warm and shallow marine waters, other cnidarians can be found at great depths, in polar regions, and in freshwater. Cnidarians are a very ancient phylum, with fossils having been found in rocks formed about during the Ediacaran period, preceding the Cambrian Explosion. Other fossils show that corals may have been present shortly before and diversified a few million years later. Molecular clock analysis of mitochondrial genes suggests an even older age for the crown group of cnidarians, estimated around , almost 200 million years before the Cambrian period, as well as before any fossils. Recent phylogenetic analyses support monophyly of cnidarians, as well as the position of cnidarians as the sister group of bilaterians. Etymology The term cnidaria derives from the Ancient Greek word knídē (κνίδη “nettle”), signifying the coiled thread reminiscent of cnidocytes. Distinguishing features Cnidarians form a phylum of animals that are more complex than sponges, about as complex as ctenophores (comb jellies), and less complex than bilaterians, which include almost all other animals. Both cnidarians and ctenophores are more complex than sponges as they have: cells bound by inter-cell connections and carpet-like basement membranes; muscles; nervous systems; and some have sensory organs. Cnidarians are distinguished from all other animals by having cnidocytes that fire harpoon-like structures that are mainly used to capture prey. In some species, cnidocytes can also be used as anchors. Cnidarians are also distinguished by the fact that they have only one opening in their body for ingestion and excretion i.e. they do not have a separate mouth and anus. Like sponges and ctenophores, cnidarians have two main layers of cells that sandwich a middle layer of jelly-like material, which is called the mesoglea in cnidarians; more complex animals have three main cell layers and no intermediate jelly-like layer. Hence, cnidarians and ctenophores have traditionally been labelled diploblastic, along with sponges. As a result, some recent text books classify ctenophores as triploblastic,!!Cnidarians||colspan3|inter-cell connections; basement membranes |- style="text-align:center;" ! Sensory organs | No||colspan=3| Yes |- style="text-align:center;" ! Number of cells in middle "jelly" layer | Many||colspan=2| Few||(Not applicable) |- style="text-align:center;" ! Cells in outer layers can move inwards and change functions | Yes||colspan=2| No||(Not applicable) |- style="text-align:center;" ! Nervous system | No||colspan=2| Yes, simple||Simple to complex |- style="text-align:center;" ! Muscles | None||Mostly epitheliomuscular||Mostly myoepithelial||Mostly myocytes |} Description Basic body forms polyp]] Most adult cnidarians appear as either free-swimming medusae or sessile polyps, and many hydrozoans species are known to alternate between the two forms. Both are radially symmetrical, like a wheel and a tube respectively. Since these animals have no heads, their ends are described as "oral" (nearest the mouth) and "aboral" (furthest from the mouth). Most have fringes of tentacles equipped with cnidocytes around their edges, and medusae generally have an inner ring of tentacles around the mouth. Some hydroids may consist of colonies of zooids that serve different purposes, such as defence, reproduction and catching prey. The mesoglea of polyps is usually thin and often soft, but that of medusae is usually thick and springy, so that it returns to its original shape after muscles around the edge have contracted to squeeze water out, enabling medusae to swim by a sort of jet propulsion. and in subphylum Medusozoa in three hydrozoan families in order Anthoathecata; Milleporidae, Stylasteridae and Hydractiniidae (the latter with a mix of calcified and uncalcified species). Main cell layers Cnidaria are diploblastic animals; in other words, they have two main cell layers, while more complex animals are triploblasts having three main layers. The two main cell layers of cnidarians form epithelia that are mostly one cell thick, and are attached to a fibrous basement membrane, which they secrete. They also secrete the jelly-like mesoglea that separates the layers. The layer that faces outwards, known as the ectoderm ("outside skin"), generally contains the following types of cells: *Cnidocytes, the harpoon-like "nettle cells" that give the phylum Cnidaria its name. These appear between or sometimes on top of the muscle cells. In Hydrozoans, colonial individuals arising from individual zooids will take on separate tasks. For example, in Obelia there are feeding individuals, the gastrozooids; the individuals capable of asexual reproduction only, the gonozooids, blastostyles and free-living or sexually reproducing individuals, the medusae. Cnidocytes These "nettle cells" function as harpoons, since their payloads remain connected to the bodies of the cells by threads. Three types of cnidocytes are known:) *A tube-like extension of the wall of the cnida that points into the cnida, like the finger of a rubber glove pushed inwards. When a cnidocyte fires, the finger pops out. If the cell is a venomous nematocyte, the "finger"'s tip reveals a set of barbs that anchor it in the prey. *The thread, which is an extension of the "finger" and coils round it until the cnidocyte fires. The thread is usually hollow and delivers chemicals from the cnida to the target. *An operculum (lid) over the end of the cnida. The lid may be a single hinged flap or three flaps arranged like slices of pie. *The cell body, which produces all the other parts. It is difficult to study the firing mechanisms of cnidocytes as these structures are small but very complex. At least four hypotheses have been proposed: These sensory structures, usually called rhopalia, can generate signals in response to various types of stimuli such as light, pressure, chemical changes, and much more. Medusa usually have several of them around the margin of the bell that work together to control the motor nerve net, that directly innervates the swimming muscles. Most cnidarians also have a parallel system. In scyphozoans, this takes the form of a diffuse nerve net, which has modulatory effects on the nervous system. As well as forming the "signal cables" between sensory neurons and motoneurons, intermediate neurons in the nerve net can also form ganglia that act as local coordination centers. Communication between nerve cells can occur by chemical synapses or gap junctions in hydrozoans, though gap junctions are not present in all groups. Cnidarians have many of the same neurotransmitters as bilaterians, including chemicals such as glutamate, GABA, and glycine. Serotonin, dopamine, noradrenaline, octopamine, histamine, and acetylcholine, on the other hand, are absent. This structure ensures that the musculature is excited rapidly and simultaneously, and can be directly stimulated from any point on the body, and it also is better able to recover after injury. Although the eyes probably do not form images, Cubozoa can clearly distinguish the direction from which light is coming as well as negotiate around solid-colored objects. is sometimes called "alternation of asexual and sexual phases" or "metagenesis", but should not be confused with the alternation of generations as found in plants. Shortened forms of this life cycle are common, for example some oceanic scyphozoans omit the polyp stage completely, and cubozoan polyps produce only one medusa. Hydrozoa have a variety of life cycles. Some have no polyp stages and some (e.g. hydra) have no medusae. In some species, the medusae remain attached to the polyp and are responsible for sexual reproduction; in extreme cases these reproductive zooids may not look much like medusae. Meanwhile, life cycle reversal, in which polyps are formed directly from medusae without the involvement of sexual reproduction process, was observed in both Hydrozoa (Turritopsis dohrnii and Laodicea undulata) and Scyphozoa (Aurelia sp.1). Anthozoa have no medusa stage at all and the polyps are responsible for sexual reproduction. and these repair pathways facilitate unhindered reproduction. The identification of these pathways in hydra is based, in part, on the presence in the hydra genome of genes homologous to genes in other genetically well studied species that have been demonstrated to play key roles in these DNA repair pathways. {| class="wikitable" |- ! !!Hydrozoa!!Scyphozoa!!Cubozoa!!Anthozoa!!Myxozoa |- ! Number of species ||3,600||228||42||6,100||1300 |- ! Examples | Hydra, siphonophores||Jellyfish||Box jellies||Sea anemones, corals, sea pens||Myxobolus cerebralis |- ! Cells found in mesoglea | No||Yes||Yes||Yes|| |- ! Nematocysts in exodermis | No||Yes||Yes||Yes|| |- ! Medusa phase in life cycle | In some species||Yes||Yes||No|| |- ! Number of medusae produced per polyp | Many||Many||One||(not applicable)|| |} Stauromedusae, small sessile cnidarians with stalks and no medusa stage, have traditionally been classified as members of the Scyphozoa, but recent research suggests they should be regarded as a separate class, Staurozoa. The Myxozoa, microscopic parasites, were first classified as protozoans. Research then found that Polypodium hydriforme, a non-myxozoan parasite within the egg cells of sturgeon, is closely related to the Myxozoa and suggested that both Polypodium and the Myxozoa were intermediate between cnidarians and bilaterian animals. More recent research demonstrates that the previous identification of bilaterian genes reflected contamination of the myxozoan samples by material from their host organism, and they are now firmly identified as heavily derived cnidarians, and more closely related to Hydrozoa and Scyphozoa than to Anthozoa. Some researchers classify the extinct conulariids as cnidarians, while others propose that they form a completely separate phylum. Current classification according to the World Register of Marine Species: * class Anthozoa <small>Ehrenberg, 1834</small> ** subclass Ceriantharia <small>Perrier, 1893</small> — Tube-dwelling anemones ** subclass Hexacorallia <small>Haeckel, 1896</small> — stony corals ** subclass Octocorallia <small>Haeckel, 1866</small> — soft corals and sea fans * class Cubozoa <small>Werner, 1973</small> — box jellies * class Hydrozoa <small>Owen, 1843</small> — hydrozoans (fire corals, hydroids, hydroid jellyfishes, siphonophores...) * class Myxozoa <small>Grassé, 1970</small> — obligate parasites * class Polypodiozoa <small>Raikova, 1994</small> — (uncertain status) * class Scyphozoa <small>Goette, 1887</small> — "true" jellyfishes * class Staurozoa <small>Marques & Collins, 2004</small> — stalked jellyfishes <gallery style"text-align:center;" mode"packed"> Image:Cerianthus filiformis.jpg|Cerianthus filiformis (Ceriantharia) Image:Haeckel Actiniae.jpg|Sea anemones (Actinaria, part of Hexacorallia) Image:Hertshoon.jpg|Coral Acropora muricata (Scleractinia, part of Hexacorallia) Image:Gorgonia ventalina, Bahamas.jpg|Sea fan Gorgonia ventalina (Alcyonacea, part of Octocorallia) Image:Carybdea branchi9.jpg|Box jellyfish Carybdea branchi (Cubozoa) Image:Portuguese Man-O-War (Physalia physalis).jpg|Siphonophore Physalia physalis (Hydrozoa) Image:Fdl17-9-grey.jpg|Myxobolus cerebralis (Myxozoa) Image:Polypodium hydriforme.jpg|Polypodium hydriforme (Polypodiozoa) Image:Phyllorhiza punctata macro II.jpg|Jellyfish Phyllorhiza punctata (Scyphozoa) Image:Haliclystus antarcticus 1B.jpg|Stalked jelly Haliclystus antarcticus (Staurozoa) </gallery> Ecology Many cnidarians are limited to shallow waters because they depend on endosymbiotic algae for much of their nutrients. The life cycles of most have polyp stages, which are limited to locations that offer stable substrates. Nevertheless, major cnidarian groups contain species that have escaped these limitations. Hydrozoans have a worldwide range: some, such as Hydra, live in freshwater; Obelia appears in the coastal waters of all the oceans; and Liriope can form large shoals near the surface in mid-ocean. Among anthozoans, a few scleractinian corals, sea pens and sea fans live in deep, cold waters, and some sea anemones inhabit polar seabeds while others live near hydrothermal vents over below sea-level. Reef-building corals are limited to tropical seas between 30°N and 30°S with a maximum depth of , temperatures between , high salinity, and low carbon dioxide levels. Stauromedusae, although usually classified as jellyfish, are stalked, sessile animals that live in cool to Arctic waters. Cnidarians range in size from a mere handful of cells for the parasitic myxozoans to the lion's mane jellyfish, which may exceed in diameter and in length. Some cnidarians are parasites, mainly on jellyfish but a few are major pests of fish. starfish, notably the crown of thorns starfish, which can devastate corals; and marine turtles, which eat jellyfish. Some sea anemones and jellyfish have a symbiotic relationship with some fish; for example clownfish live among the tentacles of sea anemones, and each partner protects the other against predators. Fringing reefs just below low-tide level also have a mutually beneficial relationship with mangrove forests at high-tide level and seagrass meadows in between: the reefs protect the mangroves and seagrass from strong currents and waves that would damage them or erode the sediments in which they are rooted, while the mangroves and seagrass protect the coral from large influxes of silt, fresh water and pollutants. This additional level of variety in the environment is beneficial to many types of coral reef animals, which for example may feed in the sea grass and use the reefs for protection or breeding. Evolutionary history tidal flat in Blackberry Hill, Wisconsin.]] from Pliocene rocks in Cyprus]] Fossil record The earliest widely accepted animal fossils are rather modern-looking cnidarians, possibly from around , although fossils from the Doushantuo Formation can only be dated approximately. The identification of some of these as embryos of animals has been contested, but other fossils from these rocks strongly resemble tubes and other mineralized structures made by corals. Their presence implies that the cnidarian and bilaterian lineages had already diverged. Although the Ediacaran fossil Charnia used to be classified as a jellyfish or sea pen, more recent study of growth patterns in Charnia and modern cnidarians has cast doubt on this hypothesis, leaving the Canadian polyp Haootia and the British Auroralumina as the only recognized cnidarian body fossils from the Ediacaran. Auroralumina is the earliest known animal predator. Few fossils of cnidarians without mineralized skeletons are known from more recent rocks, except in Lagerstätten that preserved soft-bodied animals. A few mineralized fossils that resemble corals have been found in rocks from the Cambrian period, and corals diversified in the Early Ordovician. During the Mesozoic era, rudist bivalves were the main reef-builders, but they were wiped out in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event , and since then the main reef-builders have been scleractinian corals. In 1866, it was proposed that Cnidaria and Ctenophora were more closely related to each other than to Bilateria and formed a group called Coelenterata ("hollow guts") because both rely on the flow of water in and out of a single cavity for feeding, excretion and respiration. In 1881, it was proposed that Ctenophora and Bilateria were more closely related to each other, since they shared features that Cnidaria lack, such as a middle layer of cells (mesoglea in Ctenophora, mesoderm in Bilateria) between the outer and inner layer found in other animals. However, more recent analyses indicate that these similarities were evolved independently in both lineages, instead of being present in their common ancestor. The current view is that Cnidaria and Bilateria are more closely related to each other than either is to Ctenophora. This grouping of Cnidaria and Bilateria has been labelled "Planulozoa", named so because the earliest Bilateria were probably similar to the planula larvae of Cnidaria. In 2005, Katja Seipel and Volker Schmid suggested that cnidarians and ctenophores are simplified descendants of triploblastic animals, since ctenophores and the medusa stage of some cnidarians have striated muscle, which in bilaterians arises from the mesoderm. They did not commit themselves on whether bilaterians evolved from early cnidarians or from the hypothesized triploblastic ancestors of cnidarians. The group containing them has since been named "Acraspeda". The relationships between these three and Hydrozoa have since and still are debated. A relationship between Scyphozoa and Cubozoa with Staurozoa as its sister has seen support in nearly all studies, but the position of the remaining class, Hydrozoa, is not understood. Several studies have found that Acraspeda is paraphyletic, with Hydrozoa being more closely related to Scyphozoa than to the other classes. At the same time, other studies have recovered Acraspeda as being monophyletic. The subphylum Anthozoa is argued to have either two or three classes, but the relationships between them is not disputed; the tube-dwelling anemones of the class Ceriantharia have consistently shown to be more closely related to the Hexacorallia than to the Octocorallia. |2=Octocorallia }} |2= |2=Polypodiozoa }} |label2=Medusozoa |2= }} }} }} }} In molecular phylogenetics analyses from 2005 onwards, important groups of developmental genes show the same variety in cnidarians as in chordates. In fact cnidarians, and especially anthozoans (sea anemones and corals), retain some genes that are present in bacteria, protists, plants and fungi but not in bilaterians. Interaction with humans , one of the known species of box jellyfish which can cause Irukandji syndrome.]] Jellyfish stings killed about 1,500 people in the 20th century, and cubozoans are particularly dangerous. On the other hand, some large jellyfish are considered a delicacy in East and Southeast Asia. Coral reefs have long been economically important as providers of fishing grounds, protectors of shore buildings against currents and tides, and more recently as centers of tourism. However, they are vulnerable to over-fishing, mining for construction materials, pollution, and damage caused by tourism. Beaches protected from tides and storms by coral reefs are often the best places for housing in tropical countries. Reefs are an important food source for low-technology fishing, both on the reefs themselves and in the adjacent seas. However, despite their great productivity, reefs are vulnerable to over-fishing, because much of the organic carbon they produce is exhaled as carbon dioxide by organisms at the middle levels of the food chain and never reaches the larger species that are of interest to fishermen. Some large jellyfish species of the Rhizostomeae order are commonly consumed in Japan, Korea and Southeast Asia. The commercial value of jellyfish food products depends on the skill with which they are prepared, and "Jellyfish Masters" guard their trade secrets carefully. Jellyfish is very low in cholesterol and sugars, but cheap preparation can introduce undesirable amounts of heavy metals. The "sea wasp" Chironex fleckeri has been described as the world's most venomous jellyfish and is held responsible for 67 deaths, although it is difficult to identify the animal as it is almost transparent. Most stingings by C. fleckeri cause only mild symptoms. Seven other box jellies can cause a set of symptoms called Irukandji syndrome, which takes about 30 minutes to develop, and from a few hours to two weeks to disappear. Hospital treatment is usually required, and there have been a few deaths. A Scyphozoa species – Pelagia noctiluca – and a Hydrozoa – Muggiaea atlantica – have caused repeated mass mortality in salmon farms over the years around Ireland. A loss valued at £1 million struck in November 2007, 20,000 died off Clare Island in 2013 and four fish farms collectively lost tens of thousands of salmon in September 2017.<ref name="IrishTimes" /> Notes References Further readingBooks *Arai, M.N. (1997). A Functional Biology of Scyphozoa. London: Chapman & Hall [p. 316]. . *Ax, P. (1999). Das System der Metazoa I. Ein Lehrbuch der phylogenetischen Systematik. Gustav Fischer, Stuttgart-Jena: Gustav Fischer. . *Barnes, R.S.K., P. Calow, P. J. W. Olive, D. W. Golding & J. I. Spicer (2001). The invertebrates—a synthesis. Oxford: Blackwell. 3rd edition [chapter 3.4.2, p. 54]. . *Brusca, R.C., G.J. Brusca (2003). Invertebrates. Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. 2nd edition [chapter 8, p. 219]. . *Dalby, A. (2003). Food in the Ancient World: from A to Z. London: Routledge. *Moore, J.(2001). An Introduction to the Invertebrates. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press [chapter 4, p. 30]. . *Schäfer, W. (1997). Cnidaria, Nesseltiere. In Rieger, W. (ed.) Spezielle Zoologie. Teil 1. Einzeller und Wirbellose Tiere. Stuttgart-Jena: Gustav Fischer. Spektrum Akademischer Verl., Heidelberg, 2004. . *Werner, B. 4. Stamm Cnidaria. In: V. Gruner (ed.) Lehrbuch der speziellen Zoologie. Begr. von Kaestner. 2 Bde. Stuttgart-Jena: Gustav Fischer, Stuttgart-Jena. 1954, 1980, 1984, Spektrum Akad. Verl., Heidelberg-Berlin, 1993. 5th edition. . <!-- The following are now cited inline **** *Anderson, D.T. (2001). Invertebrate Zoology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2nd edition [chapter 3, p.31]. ISBN 0-19-551368-1. *Ruppert, E.E., R.S. Fox & R.P. Barnes (2004). Invertebrate Zoology—a Functional Evolutionary Approach. Belmont: Brooks-Cole [chapter 7, p.111]. ISBN 0-03-025982-7. ****** --> Journal articles * D. Bridge, B. Schierwater, C. W. Cunningham, R. DeSalle R, L. W. Buss: Mitochondrial DNA structure and the molecular phylogeny of recent cnidaria classes. in: Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Philadelphia USA 89.1992, p. 8750. * D. Bridge, C. W. Cunningham, R. DeSalle, L. W. Buss: Class-level relationships in the phylum Cnidaria—Molecular and morphological evidence. in: Molecular biology and evolution. Oxford University Press, Oxford 12.1995, p. 679. * D. G. Fautin: [http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/abs/10.1139/z02-133 Reproduction of Cnidaria]. in: Canadian Journal of Zoology. Ottawa Ont. 80.2002, p. 1735. (PDF, online) * G. O. Mackie: ''[http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/abs/10.1139/z02-138 What's new in cnidarian biology?] in: Canadian Journal of Zoology. Ottawa Ont. 80.2002, p. 1649. (PDF, online) * P. Schuchert: Phylogenetic analysis of the Cnidaria. in: Zeitschrift für zoologische Systematik und Evolutionsforschung. Paray, Hamburg-Berlin 31.1993, p. 161. * G. Kass-Simon, A. A. Scappaticci Jr.: [http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/abs/10.1139/z02-135 The behavioral and developmental physiology of nematocysts.] in: Canadian Journal of Zoology. Ottawa Ont. 80.2002, p. 1772. (PDF, online) * <!-- The following are now cited inline **** * ******** --> External links *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6zJiBc_N1Zk YouTube: Nematocysts Firing] *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WmvjGc2bojk YouTube:My Anemone Eat Meat] Defensive and feeding behaviour of sea anemone * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120119003639/http://www.tafi.org.au/zooplankton/imagekey/cnidaria/index.html Cnidaria - Guide to the Marine Zooplankton of south eastern Australia], [https://web.archive.org/web/20080930064242/http://www.tafi.org.au/ Tasmanian Aquaculture & Fisheries Institute] * [http://tolweb.org/tree?groupCnidaria&contgroupAnimals Cnidaria page at Tree of Life''] * [http://www.paleoportal.org/index.php?globalnavfossil_gallery&sectionnavsearch&taxon_id55&state_id&period_id&assemblage_id&last_sectionsearch&p0 Fossil Gallery: Cnidarians] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20180908223624/http://hercules.kgs.ku.edu/Hexacoral/Anemone2/ Hexacorallians of the World] <!-- Category:Venomous animals already includes all species in "category:Cnidarian" --> Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Animal phyla Category:Freshwater animals Category:Marine animals Category:Ediacaran first appearances Category:Taxa named by Berthold Hatschek
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidaria
2025-04-05T18:27:52.659748
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Conservative Judaism
Conservative Judaism (journal)}} }} ]] Conservative Judaism, also known as Masorti Judaism,}} is a Jewish religious movement that regards the authority of Jewish law and tradition as emanating primarily from the assent of the people through the generations, more than from divine revelation. It therefore views Jewish law, or Halakha, as both binding and subject to historical development. The Conservative rabbinate employs modern historical-critical research, rather than only traditional methods and sources, and lends great weight to its constituency, when determining its stance on matters of practice. The movement considers its approach as the authentic and most appropriate continuation of Halakhic discourse, maintaining both fealty to received forms and flexibility in their interpretation. It also eschews strict theological definitions, lacking a consensus in matters of faith and allowing great pluralism. While regarding itself as the heir of Rabbi Zecharias Frankel's 19th-century positive-historical school in Europe, Conservative Judaism fully institutionalized only in the United States during the mid-20th century. Its largest center is in North America, where its main congregational arm is the United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism, and the New York–based Jewish Theological Seminary of America operates as its largest rabbinic seminary. Globally, affiliated communities are united within the umbrella organization Masorti Olami. Conservative Judaism is the third-largest Jewish religious movement worldwide, estimated to represent close to 1.1 million people, including over 600,000 registered adult congregants and many non-member identifiers. Theology Attitude Conservative Judaism, from its earliest stages, was marked by ambivalence and ambiguity in all matters theological. Rabbi Zecharias Frankel, considered its intellectual progenitor, believed the very notion of theology was alien to traditional Judaism. He was often accused of obscurity on the subject by his opponents, both Reform and Orthodox. The American movement largely espoused a similar approach, and its leaders mostly avoided the field. Only in 1985 did a course about Conservative theology open in the Jewish Theological Seminary of America (JTS). The hitherto sole major attempt to define a clear credo was made in 1988, with the Statement of Principles Emet ve-Emunah (Truth and Belief), formulated and issued by the Leadership Council of Conservative Judaism. The introduction stated that "lack of definition was useful" in the past but a need to articulate one now arose. The platform provided many statements citing key concepts such as God, revelation and Election, but also acknowledged that a variety of positions and convictions existed within its ranks, eschewing strict delineation of principles and often expressing conflicting views. In a 1999 special edition of Conservative Judaism dedicated to the matter, leading rabbis Elliot N. Dorff and Gordon Tucker stated that "the great diversity" within the movement "makes the creation of a theological vision shared by all neither possible nor desirable".God and eschatology Conservative Judaism largely upholds the theistic notion of a personal God. Emet ve-Emunah stated that "we affirm our faith in God as the Creator and Governor of the universe. His power called the world into being; His wisdom and goodness guide its destiny." Concurrently, the platform also noted that His nature was "elusive" and subject to many options of belief. A naturalistic conception of divinity, regarding it as inseparable from the mundane world, once had an important place within the movement, especially represented by Mordecai Kaplan. After Kaplan's Reconstructionism fully coalesced into an independent movement, these views were marginalized. A similarly inconclusive position is expressed toward other precepts. Most theologians adhere to the Immortality of the Soul, but while references to the Resurrection of the Dead are maintained, English translations of the prayers obscure the issue. In Emet, it was stated that death is not tantamount to the end of one's personality. Relating to the Messianic ideal, the movement rephrased most petitions for the restoration of the Sacrifices into past tense, rejecting a renewal of animal offerings, though not opposing a Return to Zion and even a New Temple. The 1988 platform announced that "some" believe in classic eschatology, but dogmatism in this matter was "philosophically unjustified". The notions of Election of Israel and God's covenant with it were basically retained as well. Revelation Conservative conception of Revelation encompasses an extensive spectrum. Zecharias Frankel himself applied critical-scientific methods to analyze the stages in the development of the Oral Torah, pioneering modern study of the Mishnah. He regarded the Beatified Sages as innovators who added their own, original contribution to the canon, not merely as expounders and interpreters of a legal system given in its entirety to Moses on Mount Sinai. Yet he also vehemently rejected utilizing these disciplines on the Pentateuch, maintaining it was beyond human reach and wholly celestial in origin. Frankel never elucidated his beliefs, and the exact correlation between human and divine in his thought is still subject to scholarly debate. A similar negative approach toward Higher Criticism, while accepting an evolutionary understanding of Oral Law, defined Rabbi Alexander Kohut, Solomon Schechter and the early generation of American Conservative Judaism. When JTS faculty began to embrace Biblical criticism in the 1920s, they adapted a theological view consistent with it: an original, verbal revelation did occur at Sinai, but the text itself was composed by later authors. The latter, classified by Dorff as a relatively moderate metamorphosis of the old one, is still espoused by few traditionalist right-wing Conservative rabbis, though it is marginalized among senior leadership. A small but influential segment within the JTS and the movement adhered, from the 1930s, to Mordecai Kaplan's philosophy that denied any form of revelation but viewed all scripture as a purely human product. Along with other Reconstructionist tenets, it dwindled as the latter consolidated into a separate group. Kaplan's views and the permeation of Higher Criticism gradually swayed most Conservative thinkers towards a non-verbal understanding of theophany, which has become dominant in the 1970s. This was in sync with the wider trend of lowering rates of Americans who accepted the Bible as the Word of God. Dorff categorized the proponents of this into two schools. One maintains that God projected some form of message which inspired the human authors of the Pentateuch to record what they perceived. The other is often strongly influenced by Franz Rosenzweig and other existentialists, but also attracted many Objectivists who consider human reason paramount. The second school states that God conferred merely his presence on those he influenced, without any communication, and the experience drove them to spiritual creativity. While they differ in the theoretical level surrounding revelation, both practically regard all scripture and religious tradition as a human product with certain divine inspiration—providing an understanding that recognizes Biblical Criticism and also justifies major innovation in religious conduct. The first doctrine, advocated by such leaders as rabbis Ben-Zion Bokser and Robert Gordis, largely imparted that some elements within Judaism are fully divine but determining which would be impractical, and therefore received forms of interpretation should be basically upheld. Exponents of the latter view, among them rabbis Louis Jacobs and Neil Gillman, also emphasized the encounter of God with the Jews as a collective and the role of religious authorities through the generations in determining what it implied. The stress on the supremacy of community and tradition, rather than individual consciousness, defines the entire spectrum of Conservative thought.Ideology in New York City, the main rabbinical seminary of Conservative Judaism]] The Conservative mainstay was the adoption of the historical-critical method in understanding Judaism and setting its future course. In accepting an evolutionary approach to the religion, as something that developed over time and absorbed considerable external influences, the movement distinguished between the original meaning implied in traditional sources and the manner they were grasped by successive generations, rejecting belief in an unbroken chain of interpretation from God's original Revelation, immune to any major extraneous effects. This evolutionary perception of religion, while relatively moderate in comparison with more radical modernizers—the scholarship of the Positive-Historical school, for example, sought to demonstrate the continuity and cohesiveness of Judaism over the years—still challenged Conservative leaders. They regarded tradition and received mores with reverence, especially the continued adherence to the mechanism of Religious Law (Halakha), opposing indiscriminate modification, and emphasized they should be changed only with care and caution and remain observed by the people. Rabbi Louis Ginzberg, summarizing his movement's position, wrote: This discrepancy between scientific criticism and insistence on heritage had to be compensated by a conviction that would forestall either deviation from accepted norms or laxity and apathy. A key doctrine which was to fulfil this capacity was the collective will of the Jewish people. Conservatives lent great weight in determining religious practice, both in historical precedent and as a means to shape present conduct. Zecharias Frankel pioneered this approach; as Michael A. Meyer commented, "the extraordinary status which he ascribed to the ingrained beliefs and practices of the community is probably the most original element of his thought." He turned it into a source of legitimacy for both change and preservation, but mostly the latter. The basic moderation and traditionalism of the majority among the people were to guarantee a sense of continuity and unity, restraining the guiding rabbis and scholars who at his age were intent on reform but also allowing them manoeuvrability in adopting or discarding certain elements. The scope, limits and role of this corpus were a matter for contention in Conservative ranks. Schechter himself used it to oppose any major break with either traditionalist or progressive elements within American Jewry of his day, while some of his successors argued that the idea became obsolete due to the great alienation of many from received forms, that had to be countered by innovative measures to draw them back. The Conservative rabbinate often vacillated on to which degree may the non-practicing, religiously apathetic strata be included as a factor within Catholic Israel, providing impulse for them in determining religious questions; even avant-garde leaders acquiesced that the majority could not serve that function. Right-wing critics often charged that the movement allowed its uncommitted laity an exaggerated role, conceding to its demands and successively stretching halakhic boundaries beyond any limit. The Conservative leadership had limited success in imparting their worldview to the general public. While the rabbinate perceived itself as bearing a unique, original conception of Judaism, the masses lacked much interest, regarding it mainly as a compromise offering a channel for religious identification that was more traditional than Reform Judaism yet less strict than Orthodoxy. Only a low percentage of Conservative congregants actively pursue an observant lifestyle: in the mid-1980s, Charles Liebman and Daniel J. Elazar calculated that barely 3 to 4 per cent held to one quite thoroughly. This gap between principle and the public, more pronounced than in any other Jewish movement, is often credited at explaining the decline of the Conservative movement. While some 41 per cent of American Jews identified with it in the 1970s, it had shrunk to an estimated 18 per cent (and 11 per cent among those under 30) in 2013. Jewish law Role Fidelity and commitment to Halakha, while subject to criticism as disingenuous both from within and without, were and remain a cornerstone doctrine of Conservative Judaism. The movement views the legalistic system as normative and binding, and believes Jews must practically observe its precepts, like Sabbath, dietary ordinances, ritual purity, daily prayer with phylacteries and the like. Concurrently, examining Jewish history and rabbinic literature through the lens of academic criticism, it maintained that these laws were always subject to considerable evolution, and must continue to do so. Emet ve-Emunah titled its chapter on the subject with "The Indispensability of Halakha", stating that "Halakha'' in its developing form is an indispensable element of a traditional Judaism which is vital and modern." Conservative Judaism regards itself as the authentic inheritor of a flexible legalistic tradition, charging the Orthodox with petrifying the process and Reform with abandoning it. The tension between "tradition and change"—which were also the motto adopted by the movement since the 1950s—and the need to balance them were always a topic of intense debate within Conservative Judaism. In its early stages, the leadership opposed pronounced innovation, mostly adopting a relatively rigid position. Mordecai Kaplan's Reconstructionism raised the demand for thoroughgoing modification without much regard for the past or Halakhic considerations, but senior rabbis opposed him vigorously. Even in the 1940s and 1950s, when Kaplan's influence grew, his superiors rabbis Louis Ginzberg, Louis Finkelstein and Saul Lieberman espoused a very conservative line. Since the 1970s, with the strengthening of the liberal wing within the movement, the majority in the Rabbinic Assembly opted for quite radical reformulations in religious conduct, but rejected the Reconstructionist Non-Halakhic approach, insisting that the legalistic method be maintained. The Halakhic commitment of Conservative Judaism has been subject to much criticism, from within and without. Right-wing discontents, including the Union for Traditional Judaism which seceded in protest of the 1983 resolution to ordain women rabbis—adopted at an open vote, where all JTS faculty regardless of qualification were counted—contested the validity of this description, as well as progressives like Rabbi Neil Gillman, who exhorted the movement to cease describing itself as Halakhic in 2005, stating that after repeated concessions, "Our original claim has died a death by a thousand qualifications... It has lost all factual meaning." The main body entrusted with formulating rulings, responsa and statues is the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards (CJLS), a panel with 25 voting legalistic specialists and further 11 observers. There is also the smaller ''Va'ad ha-Halakha'' (Law Committee) of Israel's Masorti Movement. Every responsa must receive a minimum of six voters to be considered an official position of the CJLS. Conservative Judaism explicitly acknowledges the principle of halakhic pluralism, enabling the panel to adopt more than one resolution in any given subject. The final authority in each Conservative community is the local rabbi, the ''Mara D'Atra (Lord of the Locality, in traditional terms), enfranchised to adopt either minority or majority opinions from the CJLS or maintain local practice. Thus, on the issue of admitting openly homosexual rabbinic candidates, the Committee approved two resolutions, one in favour and one against; the JTS took the lenient position, while the Seminario Rabinico Latinoamericano still adheres to the latter. Likewise, while most Conservative synagogues approved of egalitarianism for women in religious life, some still maintain traditional gender roles and do not count females for prayer quorums. Characteristics ]] The Conservative treatment of Halakha is defined by several features, though the entire range of its Halakhic discourse cannot be sharply distinguished from either the Traditional or Orthodox one. Rabbi David Golinkin, who attempted to classify its parameters, stressed that quite often rulings merely reiterate conclusions reached in older sources or even Orthodox ones. For example, in the details of preparing Sabbath ritual enclosures, it draws directly on the opinions of the Shulchan Aruch'' and Rabbi Hayim David HaLevi. Another tendency prevalent among the movement's rabbis, yet again not particular to it, is the adoption of the more lenient positions on the matters at question—though this is not universal, and responsa also took stringent ones not infrequently. A more distinctive characterization is a greater proclivity to base rulings on earlier sources, in the Rishonim or before them, as far back as the Talmud. Conservative decisors frequently resort to less canonical sources, isolated responsa or minority opinions. They demonstrate more fluidity in regards to established precedent and continuum in rabbinic literature, mainly those by the later authorities, and lay little stress on the perceived hierarchy between major and minor legalists of the past. They are far more inclined to contend (machloket) with old rulings, to be flexible towards custom or to wholly disregard it. This is especially expressed in less hesitancy to rule against or notwithstanding the major codifications of Jewish Law, like Mishneh Torah, ''Arba'ah Turim and especially the Shulchan Aruch with its Isserles Gloss and later commentaries. Conservative authorities, while often relying on the Shulchan Aruch'' themselves, criticize the Orthodox for relatively rarely venturing beyond it and overly canonizing Rabbi Joseph Karo's work. In several occasions, Conservative rabbis discerned that the Shulchan Aruch ruled without firm precedent, sometimes deriving his conclusions from the Kabbalah. An important example is the ruling of Rabbi Golinkin—contrary to the majority consensus among the Acharonim and the more prominent Rishonim, but based on many opinions of the lesser Rishonim which is derived from a minority view in the Talmud—that the Sabbatical Year is not obligatory in present times at all (neither ''de'Oraita nor de'Rabanan) but rather an act of piety. Ethical considerations and the weight due to them in determining halakhic issues, mainly to what degree may modern sensibilities shape the outcome, are subject to much discourse. Right-wing decisors, like Rabbi Joel Roth, maintained that such elements are naturally a factor in formulating conclusions, but may not alone serve as a justification for adopting a position. The majority, however, basically subscribed to the opinion evinced already by Rabbi Seymour Siegel in the 1960s, that the cultural and ethical norms of the community, the contemporary equivalents of Talmudic Aggadah, should supersede the legalistic forms when the two came into conflict and there was a pivotal ethical concern. Rabbi Elliot Dorff concluded that in contrast to the Orthodox, Conservative Judaism maintains that the juridical details and processes mainly serve higher moral purposes and could be modified if they no longer do so: "In other words, the Aggadah should control the Halakha." The liberal Rabbi Gordon Tucker, along with Gillman and other progressives, supported a far-reaching implementation of this approach, making Conservative Judaism much more Aggadic and allowing moral priorities an overriding authority at all occasions. This idea became very popular among the young generation, but it was not fully embraced either. In the 2006 resolution on homosexuals, the CJLS chose a middle path: they agreed that the ethical consideration of human dignity was of supreme importance, but not sufficient to uproot the express Biblical prohibition on not to lie with mankind as with womankind (traditionally understood as banning full anal intercourse). All other limitations, including on other forms of sexual relations, were lifted. A similar approach is manifest in the great weight ascribed to sociological changes in deciding religious policy. The CJLS and the Rabbinical Assembly members frequently state that circumstances were profoundly transformed in modern times, fulfilling the criteria mandating new rulings in various fields (based on general talmudic principles like Shinui ha-I'ttim, "Change of Times"). This, along with the ethical aspect, was a main argument for revolutionizing the role of women in religious life and embracing egalitarianism. The most distinctive feature of Conservative legalistic discourse, in which it is conspicuously and sharply different from Orthodoxy, is the incorporation of critical-scientific methods into the process. Deliberations almost always delineate the historical development of the specific issue at hand, from the earliest known mentions until modern times. This approach enables a thorough analysis of the manner in which it was practiced, accepted, rejected or modified in various periods, not necessarily in sync with the received rabbinic understanding. Archaeology, philology and Judaic Studies are employed; rabbis use comparative compendiums of religious manuscripts, sometimes discerning that sentences were only added later or include spelling, grammar and transcription errors, changing the entire understanding of certain passages. This critical approach is central to the movement, for its historicist underpinning stresses that all religious literature has an original meaning relevant in the context of its formulation. This meaning may be analyzed and discerned, and is distinct from the later interpretations ascribed by traditional commentators. Decisors are also far more prone to include references to external scientific sources in relevant fields, like veterinarian publications in Halakhic matters concerning livestock. Conservative authorities, as part of their promulgation of a dynamic Halakha, often cite the manner in which the sages of old used rabbinic statutes (Takkanah) that enabled the bypassing of prohibitions in the Pentateuch, like the Prozbul or Heter I'ska. In 1948, when employing those was first debated, Rabbi Isaac Klein argued that since there was no consensus on leadership within Catholic Israel, formulation of significant takkanot should be avoided. Another proposal, to ratify them only with a two-thirds majority in the RA, was rejected. New statues require a simple majority, 13 supporters among the 25 members of the CJLS. In the 1950s and 1960s, such drastic measures—as Rabbi Arnold M. Goodman cited in a 1996 writ allowing members of the priestly caste to marry divorcees, "Later authorities were reluctant to assume such unilateral authority... fear that invoking this principle would create the proverbial slippery slope, thereby weakening the entire halakhic structure... thus imposed severe limitations on the conditions and situations where it would be appropriate"—were carefully drafted as temporal, emergency ordinances (Horaat Sha'ah), grounded on the need the avoid a total rift of many nonobservant Jews. Later on, these ordinances became accepted and permanent on the practical level. The Conservative movement issued a wide range of new, thoroughgoing statues, from the famous 1950 responsum that allowed driving to the synagogue on the Sabbath and up to the 2000 decision to ban rabbis from inquiring about whether someone was a mamzer, de facto abolishing this legal category. Rulings and policies , Western Wall]] The RA and CJLS reached many decisions through the years, shaping a distinctive profile for Conservative practice and worship. In the 1940s, when the public demanded mixed seating of both sexes in synagogue, some rabbis argued there was no precedent but obliged on the ground of dire need (Eth la'asot), others noted that archaeological research showed no partitions in ancient synagogues. Mixed seating became commonplace in almost all congregations. In 1950, it was ruled that using electricity (that is, closure of an electrical circuit) did not constitute kindling a fire unto itself, not even in incandescent bulbs, and therefore was not a forbidden labour and could be done on the Sabbath. On that basis, while performing banned labours is of course forbidden—for example, video recording is still constituted as writing—switching lights and other functions are allowed, though the RA strongly urges adherents to keep the sanctity of the Sabbath (refraining from doing anything that may imitate the atmosphere of weekdays, like loud noise reminiscent of work). The need to encourage arrival at synagogue also motivated the CJLS, during the same year, to issue a temporal statue allowing driving on that day, for that purpose alone; it was supported by decreeing that the combustion of fuel did not serve any of the acts prohibited during the construction of the Tabernacle, and could therefore be classified, according to their interpretation of the Tosafists' opinion, as "redundant labour" (Sh’eina Tzricha L’gufa) and be permitted. The validity of this argument was heavily disputed within the movement. In 1952, members of the priestly caste were allowed to marry divorcees, conditioned on forfeiture of their privileges, as termination of marriage became widespread and women who underwent it could not be suspected of unsavory acts. In 1967, the ban on priests marrying converts was also lifted. In 1954, the issue of agunot (women refused divorce by their husbands) was largely settled by adding a clause to the prenuptial contract under which men had to pay alimony as long as they did not concede. In 1968, this mechanism was replaced by a retroactive expropriation of the bride price, rendering the marriage void. In 1955, more girls were celebrating Bat Mitzvah and demanded to be allowed ascents to the Torah, the CJLS agreed that the ordinance under which women were banned from this due to respect for the congregation (''Kvod ha'Tzibur) was no longer relevant. In 1972 it was decreed that rennet, even if derived from unclean animals, was so transformed that it constituted a wholly new item (Panim Chadashot ba'u l'Khan'') and therefore all hard cheese could be considered kosher. The 1970s and 1980s saw the emergence of women's rights on the main agenda. Growing pressure led the CJLS to adopt a motion that females may be counted as part of a quorum, based on the argument that only the Shulchan Aruch explicitly stated that it consist of men. While accepted, this was very controversial in the Committee and heavily disputed. A more complete solution was offered in 1983 by Rabbi Joel Roth, and was also enacted to allow women rabbinic ordination. Roth noted that some decisors of old acknowledged that women may bless when performing positive time-bound commandments (from which they are exempted, and therefore unable to fulfill the obligation for others), especially citing the manner in which they assumed upon themselves the Counting of the Omer. He suggested that women voluntarily commit to pray thrice a day et cetera, and his responsa was adopted. Since then, female rabbis were ordained at JTS and other seminaries. In 1994, the movement accepted Judith Hauptman's principally egalitarian argument, according to which equal prayer obligations for women were never banned explicitly and it was only their inferior status that hindered participation. In 2006, openly gay rabbinic candidates were also to be admitted into the JTS. In 2012, a commitment ceremony for same-sex couples was devised, though not defined as kiddushin. In 2016, the rabbis passed a resolution supporting transgender rights. Conservative Judaism in the United States held a relatively strict policy regarding intermarriage. Propositions for acknowledging Jews by patrilineal descent, as in the Reform movement, were overwhelmingly dismissed. Unconverted spouses were largely barred from community membership and participation in rituals; clergy are banned from any involvement in interfaith marriage on pain of dismissal. However, as the rate of such unions rose dramatically, Conservative congregations began describing gentile family members as ''K'rov Yisrael (Kin of Israel) and be more open toward them. The Leadership Council of Conservative Judaism stated in 1995: "we want to encourage the Jewish partner to maintain his/her Jewish identity, and raise their children as Jews." Despite the centralization of legal deliberation on matters of Jewish law in the CJLS individual synagogues and communities must, in the end, depend on their local decision-makers. The rabbi in his or her or their community is regarded as the Mara D'Atra, or the local Halakhic'' decisor. Rabbis trained in the reading practices of Conservative Jewish approaches, historical evaluation of Jewish law and interpretation of Biblical and Rabbinic texts may align directly with the CJLS decisions or themselves opine on matters based on precedents or readings of text that shine light on congregants' questions. So, for instance, a rabbi may or may not choose to permit video streaming on Shabbat despite a majority ruling that allows for use of electronics. A local ''Mara D'Atra may rely on the reasoning found in the majority or minority opinions of the CJLS or have other textual and halakhic grounds, i.e., prioritizing Jewish values or legal concepts, to rule one way or another on matters of ritual, family life or sacred pursuits. This balance between a centralization of Halakhic authority and maintaining the authority of local rabbis reflects the commitment to pluralism at the heart of the Movement. Organization and demographics The term Conservative Judaism was used, still generically and not yet as a specific label, already in the 1887 dedication speech of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America by Rabbi Alexander Kohut. By 1901, the JTS alumni formed the Rabbinical Assembly, of which all ordained Conservative clergy in the world are members. As of 2010, there were 1,648 rabbis in the RA. In 1913, the United Synagogue of America, renamed the United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism in 1991, was founded as a congregational arm of the RA. The movement established the World Council of Conservative Synagogues in 1957. Offshoots outside North America mostly adopted the Hebrew name "Masorti" ("traditional"), as did the Israeli Masorti Movement, founded in 1979, and the British Assembly of Masorti Synagogues, formed in 1985. The World Council eventually changed its primary designation to "Masorti Olami." Besides the RA, the international Cantors Assembly supplies prayer leaders for congregations worldwide. The United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism, covering the United States, Canada and Mexico, is by far the largest constituent of Masorti Olami. While most congregations defining themselves as "Conservative" are affiliated with the USCJ, some are independent. While accurate information of Canada is scant, it is estimated that some third of religiously affiliated Canadian Jews are Conservative. In 2008, the more traditional Canadian Council of Conservative Synagogues seceded from the parent organization. It numbered seven communities as of 2014. According to the Pew Research Center survey in 2013, 18 per cent of Jews in the United States and in 2020 13 per cent identified with the movement, making it the second largest in the country. Steven M. Cohen calculated that as of 2013, 962,000 U.S. Jewish adults considered themselves Conservative: 570,000 were registered congregants and further 392,000 were not members in a synagogue but identified. In addition, Cohen assumed in 2006 that 57,000 unconverted non-Jewish spouses were also registered (12 per cent of member households had one at the time): 40 per cent of members intermarry. Conservatives are also the most aged group: among those aged under 30 only 11 per cent identified as such, and there are three people over 55 for every single one aged between 35 and 44. As of November 2015, the USCJ had 580 member congregations (a sharp decline from 630 two years prior), 19 in Canada and the remainder in the United States. In 2011 the USCJ initiated a plan to reinvigorate the movement. Beyond North America, the movement has little presence—in 2011, Rela Mintz Geffen appraised there were only 100,000 members outside the U.S. (and the former figure including Canada). "Masorti AmLat", the MO branch in Latin America, is the largest with 35 communities in Argentina, 7 in Brazil, 6 in Chile and further 11 in the other countries. The British Assembly of Masorti Synagogues has 13 communities and estimates its membership at over 4,000. More than 20 communities are spread across Europe, and there are 3 in Australia and 2 in Africa. The Masorti Movement in Israel incorporates some 70 communities and prayer groups with several thousand full members. In addition, while Hungarian Neolog Judaism, with a few thousands of adherents and forty partially active synagogues, is not officially affiliated with Masorti Olami, Conservative Judaism regards it as a fraternal, "non-Orthodox but halakhic" movement. at American Jewish University]] In New York, the JTS serves as the movement's original seminary and legacy institution, along with the Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies at the American Jewish University in Los Angeles; the Marshall T. Meyer Latin American Rabbinical Seminary (Spanish: Seminario Rabínico Latinoamericano Marshall T. Meyer), in Buenos Aires, Argentina; and the Schechter Institute of Jewish Studies in Jerusalem. A Conservative institution that does not grant rabbinic ordination but which runs along the lines of a traditional yeshiva is the Conservative Yeshiva, located in Jerusalem. The Neolog Budapest University of Jewish Studies also maintains connections with Conservative Judaism. The current chancellor of the JTS is Shuly Rubin Schwartz, in office since 2020. She is the first woman elected to this position in the history of JTS. The current dean of the Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies is Bradley Shavit Artson. The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards is chaired by Rabbi Elliot N. Dorff, serving since 2007. The Rabbinical Assembly is headed by President Rabbi Debra Newman Kamin, as of 2019, and managed by Chief Executive Officer, Rabbi Jacob Blumenthal. Rabbi Blumenthal holds the joint position as CEO of the United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism. The current USCJ President is Ned Gladstein. In South America, Rabbi Ariel Stofenmacher serves as chancellor in the Seminary and Rabbi Marcelo Rittner as president of Masorti AmLat. In Britain, the Masorti Assembly is chaired by Senior Rabbi Jonathan Wittenberg. In Israel, the Masorti movement's executive director is Yizhar Hess and chair Sophie Fellman Rafalovitz. The global youth movement is known as NOAM, an acronym for No'ar Masorti; its North American organization is called United Synagogue Youth. Marom Israel is the Masorti movement's organization for students and young adults, providing activities based on religious pluralism and Jewish content. The Women's League for Conservative Judaism is also active in North America. The USCJ maintains the Solomon Schechter Day Schools, comprising 76 day schools in 17 American states and 2 Canadian provinces serving Jewish children. Many other "community day schools" that are not affiliated with Schechter take a generally Conservative approach, but unlike these, generally have "no barriers to enrollment based on the faith of the parents or on religious practices in the home". During the first decade of the 21st century, a number of schools that were part of the Schechter network transformed themselves into non-affiliated community day schools. History Positive-Historical School The rise of modern, centralized states in Europe by the early 19th century heralded the end of Jewish judicial autonomy and social seclusion. Their communal corporate rights were abolished, and the process of emancipation and acculturation that followed quickly transformed the values and norms of the public. Estrangement and apathy toward Judaism were rampant. The process of communal, educational and civil reform could not be restricted from affecting the core tenets of the faith. The new academic, critical study of Judaism (Wissenschaft des Judentums) soon became a source of controversy. Rabbis and scholars argued to what degree, if at all, its findings could be used to determine present conduct. The modernized Orthodox in Germany, like rabbis Isaac Bernays and Azriel Hildesheimer, were content to cautiously study it while stringently adhering to the sanctity of holy texts and refusing to grant Wissenschaft any say in religious matters. On the other extreme were Rabbi Abraham Geiger, who would emerge as the founding father of Reform Judaism, and his supporters. They opposed any limit on critical research or its practical application, laying more weight on the need for change than on continuity. The Prague-born Rabbi Zecharias Frankel, appointed chief rabbi of the Kingdom of Saxony in 1836, gradually rose to become the leader of those who stood at the middle. Besides working for the civic betterment of local Jews and educational reform, he displayed keen interest in Wissenschaft. But Frankel was always cautious and deeply reverent towards tradition, privately writing in 1836 that "The means must be applied with such care and discretion... that forward progress will be reached unnoticed, and seem inconsequential to the average spectator." He soon found himself embroiled in the great disputes of the 1840s. In 1842, during the second Hamburg Temple controversy, he opposed the new Reform prayerbook, arguing the elimination of petitions for a future Return to Zion led by the Messiah was a violation of an ancient tenet. But he also opposed the ban placed on the tome by Rabbi Bernays, stating this was a primitive behaviour. In the same year, he and the moderate conservative S.L. Rapoport were the only ones of nineteen respondents who negatively answered the Breslau community's enquiry on whether the deeply unorthodox Geiger could serve there. In 1843, Frankel clashed with the radical Reform rabbi Samuel Holdheim, who argued that the act of marriage in Judaism was a civic (memonot) rather than sanctified () matter and could be subject to the Law of the Land. In December 1843 Frankel launched the magazine Zeitschrift für die Religiösen Interessen des Judenthums. In the preamble, he attempted to present his approach to the present plight: "The further development of Judaism cannot be done through Reform that would lead to total dissipation... But must be involved in its study... pursued via scientific research, on a positive, historical basis." The term Positive-Historical became associated with him and his middle way. The Zeitschrift was, along the convictions of its publisher, neither dogmatically orthodox nor overly polemic, wholly opposing Biblical criticism and arguing for the antiquity of custom and practice. In Germany itself, Breslau alumni founded in 1868 a short-lived society, the Jüdisch-Theologische Verein. It was dissolved within a year, boycotted by both Reform and Orthodox. Michael Sachs led the Berlin congregation in a very conservative style, eventually resigning when an organ was introduced in services. Manuel Joël, another of the Frankelist party, succeeded Geiger in Breslau. He maintained his predecessor's truncated German translation of the liturgy for the sake of compromise, but restored the full Hebrew text. The Breslau Seminary and the Reform Hochschule für die Wissenschaft des Judentums maintained very different approaches; but on the communal level, the former's alumni failure to organize or articulate a coherent agenda, coupled with the declining prestige of Breslau and the conservatism of the Hochschule's alumni—a necessity in heterogeneous communities which remained unified, especially after the Orthodox gained the right to secede in 1876—imposed a rather uniform and mild character on what was known in Germany as "Liberal Judaism". In 1909, 63 rabbis associated with the Breslau approach founded the Freie Jüdische Vereinigung, another brief attempt at institutionalization, but it too failed soon. Only in 1925 did the Religiöse Mittelpartei für Frieden und Einheit succeed in driving the same agenda. It won several seats in communal elections, but was small and of little influence. Jewish Theological Seminary ]] Jewish immigration to the United States bred an amalgam of loose communities, lacking strong tradition or stable structures. In this free-spirited environment, a multitude of forces was at work. As early as 1866, Rabbi Jonas Bondi of New York wrote that a Judaism of the "golden middleway, which was termed Orthodox by the left and heterodox or reformer by the right" developed in the new country. The rapid ascendancy of Reform Judaism by the 1880s left few who opposed it, merely a handful of congregations and ministers remained outside the Union of American Hebrew Congregations. These included Sabato Morais and Rabbi Henry Pereira Mendes of the elitist Sephardi congregations, along with rabbis Bernard Drachman (ordained at Breslau, though he regarded himself as Orthodox) and Henry Schneeberger. While spearheaded by radical and principled Reformers like Rabbi Kaufmann Kohler, the UAHC was also home to more conservative elements. President Isaac Meyer Wise, a pragmatist intent on compromise, hoped to forge a broad consensus that would turn a moderate version of Reform to dominant in America. He kept the dietary laws at home and attempted to assuage traditionalists. On 11 July 1883, apparently due to negligence by the Jewish caterer, non-kosher dishes were served to UAHC rabbis in Wise's presence. Known to posterity as the "trefa banquet", it purportedly made some guests abandon the hall in disgust, but little is factually known about the incident. In 1885, the traditionalist forces were bolstered upon the arrival of Rabbi Alexander Kohut, an adherent of Frankel. He publicly excoriated Reform for disdaining ritual and received forms, triggering a heated polemic with Kohler. The debate was one of the main factors which motivated the latter to compose the Pittsburgh Platform, which unambiguously declared the principles of Reform Judaism: "to-day we accept as binding only the moral laws, and maintain only such ceremonies as elevate and sanctify our lives." The explicit wording alienated a handful of conservative UAHC ministers: Henry Hochheimer, Frederick de Sola Mendes, Aaron Wise, Marcus Jastrow, and Benjamin Szold. They joined Kohut, Morais and the others in seeking to establish a traditional rabbinic seminary that would serve as a counterweight to Hebrew Union College. In 1886, they founded the Jewish Theological Seminary of America in New York City. Kohut, professor of Talmud who held to the Positive-Historical ideal, was the main educational influence in the early years, prominent among the founders who encompassed the entire spectrum from progressive Orthodox to the brink of Reform; to describe what the seminary intended to espouse, he used the term "Conservative Judaism", which had no independent meaning at the time and was only in relation to Reform. In 1898, Pereira Mendes, Schneeberger and Drachman also founded the Orthodox Union, which maintained close ties with the seminary. The JTS was a small, fledgling institution with financial difficulties, and was ordaining merely a rabbi per year. But soon after Chancellor Morais' death in 1897, its fortunes turned. Since 1881, a wave of Jewish immigration from Eastern Europe was inundating the country—by 1920, 2.5 million of them had arrived, increasing American Jewry tenfold. They came from regions where civil equality or emancipation were never granted, while acculturation and modernization made little headway. Whether devout or irreligious, they mostly retained strong traditional sentiments in matters of faith, accustomed to old-style rabbinate; the hardline Agudas HaRabbanim, founded by emigrant clergy, opposed secular education or vernacular sermons, and its members spoke almost only Yiddish. The Eastern Europeans were alienated by the local Jews, who were all assimilated in comparison, and especially aghast by the mores of Reform. The need to find a religious framework that would both accommodate and Americanize them motivated Jacob Schiff and other rich philanthropists, all Reform and of German descent, to donate $500,000 to the JTS. The contribution was solicited by Professor Cyrus Adler. It was conditioned on the appointment of Solomon Schechter as Chancellor. In 1901, the Rabbinical Assembly was established as the fraternity of JTS alumni. ]] Schechter arrived in 1902, and at once reorganized the faculty, dismissing both Pereira Mendes and Drachman for lack of academic merit. Under his aegis, the institute began to draw famous scholars, becoming a center of learning on par with HUC. Schechter was both traditional in sentiment and quite unorthodox in conviction. He maintained that theology was of little importance and it was practice that must be preserved. He aspired to solicit unity in American Judaism, denouncing sectarianism and not perceiving himself as leading a new denomination: "not to create a new party, but to consolidate an old one". The need to raise funds convinced him that a congregational arm for the Rabbinical Assembly and the JTS was required. On 23 February 1913, he founded the United Synagogue of America (since 1991: United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism), which then consisted of 22 communities. He and Mendes first came to major disagreement; Schechter insisted that any alumnus could be appointed to the USoA's managerial board, and not just to serve as communal rabbi, including several the latter did not consider sufficiently devout, or who tolerated mixed seating in their synagogues (though some of those he still regarded as Orthodox). Mendes, president of the Orthodox Union, therefore refused to join. He began to distinguish between the "Modern Orthodoxy" of himself and his peers in the OU, and "Conservatives" who tolerated what was beyond the pale for him. However, this first sign of institutionalization and separation was far from conclusive. Mendes himself could not clearly differentiate between the two groups, and many he viewed as Orthodox were members of the USoA. The epithets "Conservative" and "Orthodox" remained interchangeable for decades to come. JTS graduates served in OU congregations; many students of the Orthodox Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary and members of the OU's Rabbinical Council of America, or RCA, attended it. In 1926, RIETS and the JTS even negotiated a possible merger, though it was never materialized. Upon Schechter's death in 1915, the first generation of his disciples kept his non-sectarian legacy of striving for a united, traditional American Judaism. He was replaced by Cyrus Adler. The USoA grew rapidly as the Eastern European immigrant population slowly integrated. In 1923 it already had 150 affiliated communities, and 229 before 1930. Synagogues offered a more modernized ritual: English sermons, choir singing, late Friday evening services which tacitly acknowledging that most had to work until after the Sabbath began, and often mixed-gender seating. Men and women sat separately with no partition, and some houses of prayer already introduced family pews. Motivated by popular pressure and frowned upon by both RA and seminary faculty—in its own synagogue, the institute maintained a partition until 1983—this was becoming common among the OU as well. As both social conditions and apathy turned American Jews away from tradition (barely 20 per cent were attending prayers weekly), a young professor named Mordecai Kaplan promoted the idea of transforming the synagogue into a community center, a "Shul with a Pool", a policy which indeed stymied the tide somewhat. , a United Synagogue affiliate built in 1926, during the early years of the union]] In 1927, the RA also established its own Committee of Jewish Law, entrusted with determining halakhic issues. Consisting of seven members, it was chaired by the traditionalist Rabbi Louis Ginzberg, who already distinguished himself in 1922, drafting a responsa that allowed the use of grape juice rather than fermented wine for Kiddush on the background of Prohibition. Kaplan himself, who rose to become an influential and popular figure within the JTS, concluded that his fellow rabbis' ambiguity in matters of belief and the contradiction between full observance and critical study were untenable and hypocritical. He formulated his own approach of Judaism as a Civilization, rejecting the concept of Revelation and any supernatural belief in favour of a cultural-ethnic perception. While valuing received mores, he eventually suggested giving the past "a vote, not a veto". Though popular among students, Kaplan's nascent Reconstructionism was opposed by the new traditionalist Chancellor Louis Finkelstein, appointed in 1940, and a large majority among the faculty. Tensions within the JTS and RA grew. The Committee of Jewish Law consisted mainly of scholars who had little field experience, almost solely from the seminary's Talmudic department. They were greatly concerned with halakhic licitness and indifferent to the pressures exerted on the pulpit rabbis, who had to contend with an Americanized public which cared little for such considerations or for tradition in general. In 1935, the RA almost adopted a groundbreaking motion: Rabbi Louis Epstein offered a solution to the agunah predicament, a clause that would have had husbands appoint wives as their proxies to issue divorce. It was repealed under pressure from the Orthodox Union. As late as 1947, CJL Chair Rabbi Boaz Cohen, himself a historicist who argued that the Law evolved much through time, rebuked pulpit clergy who requested lenient or radical rulings, stating he and his peers were content to "progress in inches... Free setting up of new premises and the introduction of novel categories of ritual upon the basis of pure reason and thinking would be perilous, if not fatal, to the principles and continuity of Jewish Law." A third movement The boundaries between Orthodox and Conservative Judaism in America were institutionalized only in the aftermath of World War II. The 1940s saw the younger generation of JTS graduates less patient with the prudence of the CJL and Talmud faculty in face of popular demand. Kaplan's Reconstructionism, while its fully committed partisans were few, had much influence. The majority among recent alumni eschewed the epithet "Orthodox" and tended to employ "Conservative" exclusively. Succeeding Schechter's direct disciples who headed the RA, JTS and United Synagogue in the interwar period, a new strata of activist leaders was rising. Rabbi Robert Gordis, RA president in 1944–1946, represented the junior members in advocating more flexibility; Rabbi Jacob Agus, a RIETS graduate who joined the body only in 1945, clamored that "we need a law making body, not a law interpreting committee." Agus argued that the breach between the Jewish public and tradition was too wide to be bridged conventionally, and that the RA would always remain inferior to the Orthodox as long as it retained its policy of merely adopting lenient precedents in rabbinic literature. He offered to extensively apply the tool of takkanah, rabbinic ordinance. , Southfield, Michigan. The synagogue was built in 1962, after the migration to suburbia]] In 1946, a committee chaired by Gordis issued the Sabbath and Festival Prayerbook, the first clearly Conservative liturgy: references to the sacrificial cult were in the past tense instead of a petition for restoration, and it rephrased blessings such as "who hast made me according to thy will" for women to "who hast made me a woman". During the movement's national conference in Chicago, held 13–17 May 1948, the pulpit rabbis in the RA gained the upper hand. Spurred by Gordis, Agus and fellow leaders, they voted to reorganize the CJL into a Committee of Jewish Law and Standards, enfranchised to issue takkanot by a majority. Membership was conditioned on having experience as a congregational rabbi, and unseasoned JTS faculty were thus denied entrance. While the RA was asserting a Conservative distinctive identity, the seminary remained more cautious. Finkelstein opposed sectarianism and preferred the neutral epithet "traditional", later commenting that "Conservative Judaism is a gimmick to get Jews back to real Judaism". He and the very right-wing Talmud professor Saul Lieberman, who maintained ties with the Orthodox while also viewing them as obstructionist and ossified, dominated the JTS, providing a counterweight to the liberals in the Assembly. Kaplan, meanwhile, spent more time on consolidating his Society for Advancement of Judaism. Abraham Joshua Heschel, who espoused a mysticist understanding of Jewish religion, also became an important figure among the faculty. The CJLS now proceeded to demonstrate its independence. Sabbath was widely desecrated by a large majority of Jews, and the board believed attendance at synagogues should be encouraged. They therefore enacted an ordinance that allowed driving on the Sabbath (for worship alone) and the use of electricity. The driving responsum was later severely criticized by Conservative rabbis, and was charged with imparting that the movement was overly keen to condone the laxity of congregants. It also signified the final break with the Orthodox, who were themselves being bolstered by more strictly observant immigrants from Europe. In 1954, the RCA reversed its 1948 ruling that allowed the use of microphones on Sabbath and festivals and declared that praying without a partition between sexes was banned. Though enforced slowly—in 1997, there were still seven OU congregations with no physical barrier, and so-called "Conservadox" remain extant—these two attributes became a demarcation line between Orthodox and Conservative synagogues. RA converts were denied ablution in Orthodox ritual baths, and rabbis from one movement would gradually cease serving in the other's communities. Rather than a force within American Judaism, the JTS-centered movement emerged as a third movement. The historicist and critical approach to halakha, as well as other features, were emphasized by leaders eager to demonstrate their uniqueness. In their efforts to solidify a coherent identity, Conservative thinkers like Mordecai Waxman in his 1957 Tradition and Change, ventured beyond Schechter's conceptions to Rabbi Zecharias Frankel and Breslau, presenting themselves as its direct inheritors via Alexander Kohut and others. The CJLS continued to issue groundbreaking ordinances and rulings. (left), the dominant leader of JTS from 1940 to 1972.]] The postwar decades were a time of immense growth for the Conservative movement. Most of the 500,000 decommissioned Jewish GIs left the densely populated immigrant neighbourhoods of the East Coast, moving to suburbia. They were Americanized but still retained traditional sentiments, and Reform Judaism was too radical for most. The United Synagogue of America offered Jewish education for children and a familiar religious environment which was also comfortable and not strict. It expanded from 350 communities by 1945 to 832 by 1971, becoming the largest denomination, with some 350,000 dues-paying member households (1.5 million people) at synagogues and over 40 per cent of American Jewry identifying with it in polls, adding an estimated million more non-registered supporters. Already in a 1955 study, Marshall Sklare defined Conservative Judaism as the quintessential American Jewish movement, but stressed the gap between laity and clergy, noting "rabbis now recognize that they are not making decisions or writing responsa, but merely taking a poll of their membership." Most congregants, commented Edward S. Shapiro, were "Conservative Jews because their rabbi kept kosher and the Sabbath... Not because of their religious behavior." The movement established its presence outside the U.S. and Canada: In 1962, the young Rabbi Marshall Meyer founded the Seminario Rabinico Latinoamericano in Buenos Aires, which would serve as the basis for Conservative expansion in South America. In 1979, four communities formed the Israel Masorti Movement. Rabbi Louis Jacobs, dismissed in 1964 from the British Orthodox rabbinate on the charge of heresy after espousing a non-literal understanding of the Torah, joined with the Conservatives and founded his country's first Masorti community. The new branches were all united within the World Council of Synagogues, later to be named Masorti Olami. The movement peaked in numbers in the 1970s. During that decade, the tensions between the various elements within it intensified. The right wing, conservative in halakhic matters and often adhering to a verbal understanding of revelation, was dismayed by the failure to bolster observance among the laity and the resurgence of Orthodoxy. The left was influenced by the Reconstructionists, who formed their own seminary in 1968 and were slowly coalescing, as well as the growing appeal of Reform, which turned more traditional and threatened to sway congregants. While the rightists opposed further modifications, their left-wing peers demanded them. The Chavurah movement, consisting of nonaligned prayer quorums of young (and frequently, Conservative-raised) worshipers who sought a more intense religious experience, also weakened congregations. In 1972, the liberal wing gained an influential position with the appointment of Gerson D. Cohen as JTS Chancellor. During the same year, after Reform began to ordain female rabbis, a strong lobby rose to advocate the same. The CJLS rapidly enacted an ordinance which allowed women to be tallied for a minyan, and by 1976 the percentage of synagogues allowing them to bless during the reading of the Torah grew from 7 per cent to 50 per cent. In 1979, ignoring the denominational leadership, Beth Israel Congregation of Chester County accepted the RRC-ordained Rabbi Linda Joy Holtzman. Pressures to allow women to assume rabbinical positions was mounting from the congregational level, though the RA agreed to delay any action until the JTS scholars would concur. Female ordination was a matter of great friction until 1983, when Rabbi Joel Roth devised a solution that entailed women voluntarily accepting the obligation to pray regularly. The leadership passed it not by scholarly consensus but via a popular vote of all JTS faculty, including non-specialists. Two years later, the first JTS-ordained female rabbi, Amy Eilberg, was admitted into the RA. David Weiss Halivni, professor of the Talmud faculty, claimed that Roth's method must have required waiting until a considerable number of women did prove sufficient commitment. He and his sympathizers regarded the vote as belying any claim to halakhic integrity. They formed the Union for Traditional Conservative Judaism in 1985, a right-wing lobby which numbered some 10,000 supporters from the Conservative observant elite. The UTJC withdrew from the movement and erased the word "Conservative" in 1990, attempting to merge with moderate Orthodox organizations. In the very same year, the Reconstructionist also seceded fully, joining the World Union for Progressive Judaism under observer status. The double defection narrowed the movement's spectrum of opinions, at a time when large swaths of congregants were abandoning in favour of Reform, which was more tolerant of intermarriage. RA leaders were engaged in introspection through the later 1980s, resulting in the 1988 Emet ve-Emunah platform, while Reform slowly bypassed them and became the largest American Jewish movement. After the issue of egalitarianism for women subsided, LGBT acceptance replaced it as the main source of contention between the declining right wing and the liberal majority. A first attempt was rebuffed in 1992 by a harsh responsum written by Roth. The retirement of Chancellor Ismar Schorsch, a staunch opponent, allowed the CJLS to endorse a motion which still banned anal intercourse but not any other physical contact, and allowed the ordination of openly LGBT rabbis, in 2006. Roth and three other supporters resigned from the panel in protest, claiming the responsum was not valid; Masorti affiliates in South America, Israel and Hungary objected severely. The Seminario is yet to accept the resolution, while several Canadian congregations seceded from the United Synagogue in 2008 to form an independent union in protest of the slide to the left. Since the 2013 Pew survey, which assessed that only 18 per cent of American Jews identify with it, Conservative leadership is engaged in attempting to solve Conservative Judaism's demographic crisis. Notes References Further reading * Cohen, Steven M. (January 2007). "[http://www.bjpa.org/Publications/details.cfm?PublicationID=336%20%20 Gays, Lesbians, and the Conservative Movement: The JTS Survey of Conservative Clergy, Students, Professionals, and Lay Leaders]" (PDF). * |isbn978-1-56000-178-2}} * Dorff, Elliot N. (1996). Conservative Judaism: Our Ancestors To Our Descendants (Rev. ed.). New York: United Synagogue. * |isbn0-87441-547-0}} * Golinkin, David (1991). Halakha For Our Time: A Conservative Approach To Jewish Law, United Synagogue. * |url |isbn1-57718-058-5}} * }} * Keysar, Ariela; Kosmin, Barry. Eight Up: The College Years, Survey of Conservative Jewish youth from middle school to college. * Klein, Isaac (1992). [https://web.archive.org/web/20151123172835/http://www.jtsa.edu/Documents/pagedocs/Communications/Passover/Klein.pdf A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice], JTS Press, New York. * Lieber. David; Jules Harlow; Chaim Potok; Harold Kushner, eds. (2001). Etz Hayim: A Torah Commentary The Jewish Publication Society, NY. * Nadell Pamela S. (1988). Conservative Judaism in America: A Biographical Dictionary and Sourcebook, Greenwood Press, NY. * |isbn=0870682792}} * * * * |url-accesslimited |isbn1-59244-943-3}} * |url-accesslimited |isbn=<!-- 1-58465-327-2 -->}} * * |publisherRutgers University Press |placeNew Brunswick, NJ |isbn0-8135-2821-6}} * |isbn978-0-691-18129-5}}External links *[https://www.jtsa.edu/ The Jewish Theological Seminary] *[http://www.uscj.org/ The United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism] *[http://www.masorti.org/ The Masorti Foundation for Conservative Judaism in Israel] Category:Jewish religious movements
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Judaism
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CDE
CDE may refer to: Education California Department of Education Career Development Event, a type of contest sponsored by the National FFA Organization Center for Data Engineering, IIIT Hyderabad Center for Distance Education at University of Alaska Fairbanks Certified diabetes educator Colorado Department of Education Technology and computing Cable discharge event, a discharge when connecting electrical cables to a device Cardholder Data Environment, part of the Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard for credit card handling Chrome Dev Editor, a Dart programming language development environment for Google Chrome Collaborative Development Environment, a software development methodology Common Data Environment, a digital resource used in building information modeling Common Desktop Environment, a graphical desktop environment for Unix and OpenVMS Other Carbon dioxide equivalent, a scale of measurement of the "greenhouse effect" of other atmospheric gases Cde., an abbreviation of comrade CDE, NYSE stock symbol for Coeur Mining Ciudad del Este, a city in Paraguay Comissões Democráticas Eleitorais, part of the former Portuguese Democratic Movement Comitetul Democrat Evreiesc, or Jewish Democratic Committee Commandement de l'Espace, the French military space command Concept development and experimentation, a technique for developing new ideas for military capabilities Chengde Puning Airport, IATA code CDE Chenchu language, ISO 639-3 code cde
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CDE
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Common Desktop Environment
| latest release version 2.5.2 | latest release date = | latest preview version | latest preview date | programming language = C, C++ | operating_system = Unix, Unix-like, OpenVMS | size 54.9 MB (source code) | language = English, Chinese, French, German, Greek, Japanese, Italian, Korean, Spanish, Swedish | genre = Desktop environment | license = 2012: LGPL-2.0-or-later<br />Original: Proprietary | website = }} The Common Desktop Environment (CDE) is a desktop environment for Unix and OpenVMS, based on the Motif widget toolkit. It was part of the UNIX 98 Workstation Product Standard, and was for a long time the Unix desktop associated with commercial Unix workstations. It helped to influence early implementations of successor projects such as KDE and GNOME, which largely replaced CDE following the turn of the century. After a long history as proprietary software, CDE was released as free software on August 6, 2012, under the GNU Lesser General Public License, version 2.0 or later. Since its release as free software, CDE has been ported to Linux and BSD derivatives. History Hewlett-Packard, IBM, SunSoft, and USL announced CDE in June 1993 as a joint development within the Common Open Software Environment (COSE) initiative. Each development group contributed its own technology to CDE: * HP contributed the primary environment for CDE, which was based on HP's Visual User Environment (VUE). HP VUE was itself derived from the Motif Window Manager. * IBM contributed its Common User Access model from OS/2's Workplace Shell. * Sun contributed its ToolTalk application interaction framework and a port of its DeskSet productivity tools, including mail and calendar clients, from its OpenWindows environment. * USL provided desktop manager components and scalable systems technologies from UNIX System V. After its release, HP endorsed CDE as the new standard desktop for Unix, and provided documentation and software for migrating HP VUE customizations to CDE. In March 1994 CDE became the responsibility of the "new OSF", a merger of the Open Software Foundation and Unix International; in September 1995, the merger of Motif and CDE into a single project, CDE/Motif, was announced. OSF became part of the newly formed Open Group in 1996. In February 1997, the Open Group released their last major version of CDE, version 2.1. Red Hat Linux was the only Linux distribution that proprietary CDE was ported to. In 1997, Red Hat began offering a version of CDE licensed from TriTeal Corporation. In 1998, Xi Graphics, a company specializing in the X Windowing System, offered a version of CDE bundled with Red Hat Linux, called Xi Graphics maXimum cde/OS. These were phased out, and Red Hat moved to the GNOME desktop. Until about 2000, users of Unix desktops regarded CDE as the de facto standard, but at that time, other desktop environments such as GNOME and K Desktop Environment 2 were quickly becoming mature, and became widespread on Linux systems. In 2001, Sun Microsystems announced that they would phase out CDE as the standard desktop environment in Solaris in favor of GNOME. Solaris 10, released in early 2005, includes both CDE and the GNOME-based Java Desktop System. The OpenSolaris project, begun around the same time, did not include CDE, and had no intent to make Solaris CDE available as open-source. The original release of Solaris 11 in November 2011 only contained GNOME as standard desktop, though some CDE libraries, such as Motif and ToolTalk, remained for binary compatibility but Oracle Solaris 11.4, released in August 2018, removed support for the CDE runtime environment and background services. Systems that provided proprietary CDE * IBM AIX * Digital UNIX * HP-UX: from version 10.10, released in 1996. * IRIX: for a short time CDE was an alternative to IRIX Interactive Desktop. * OpenVMS: available in OpenVMS Alpha V7.1 and onwards, referred to as the "DECWindows Motif New Desktop" * Solaris: available starting with 2.3, standard in 2.6 to 10. * Tru64 UNIX * UnixWare * UXP/DS * Red Hat Linux: Two versions ported by Triteal and Xi Graphics License history From its launch until 2012, CDE was proprietary software. Motif, the toolkit on which CDE is built, was released by The Open Group in 2000 as "Open Motif," under a "revenue sharing" license. That license did not meet either the open source or free software definitions. The Open Group had wished to make Motif open source, but did not succeed doing so at that time. Release under the GNU LGPL In 2006, a petition was created asking The Open Group to release the source code for CDE and Motif under a free license. On August 6, 2012, CDE was released under the LGPL-2.0-or-later license. The CDE source code was then released to SourceForge. The free software project OpenCDE had been started in 2010 to reproduce the look and feel, organization, and feature set of CDE. In August 2012, when CDE was released as free software, OpenCDE was officially deprecated in favor of CDE. On October 23, 2012, the Motif widget toolkit was also released under the LGPL-2.1-or-later license. This allowed CDE to become a completely free and open source desktop environment. Shortly after CDE was released as free software, a Linux live CD was created based on Debian 6 with CDE 2.2.0c pre-installed, called CDEbian. The live CD has since been discontinued. The Debian-based Linux distribution SparkyLinux offers binary packages of CDE that can be installed with APT. As of March 2023, CDE is also included in the NuTyX GNU/Linux distribution which offers an ISO download image with it, in FreeBSD and in source form in pkgsrc which is the default package manager of NetBSD. Development under CDE project In March 2014, the first stable release of CDE, version 2.2.1, was made since its release as free software. Beginning with version 2.2.2, released in July 2014, CDE is able to compile under FreeBSD 10 with the default Clang compiler. Since version 2.3.0, released in July 2018, CDE uses TIRPC on Linux, so that the portmapper rpcbind does not need to be run in insecure mode. It does not use Xprint anymore, and can be compiled on the BSDs without installing first a custom version of Motif. Multihead display support with Xinerama has been improved. Since its release as free software, CDE has been ported to: * Linux distributions including: ** Debian ** Red Hat Enterprise Linux ** Slackware Linux ** Ubuntu ** Arch Linux * FreeBSD * NetBSD * OpenBSD * OpenIndiana * Solaris 11 (x86-64) Future project goals of the CDE project include: * Increased portability to more Linux, BSD, and Unix platforms. * Further internationalization into other languages. Gallery <gallery> File:CDE 2012 on Linux.png|CDE File manager File:CDE Manual Pages.png|Reading Linux kernel man pages in CDE File:HP-HP9000-C360-Workstation 01.jpg|HP 9000 C360 displaying the CDE login manager, dtlogin File:HP-HP9000-B180-Workstation 37.jpg|HP 9000 model B180L running HP-UX and CDE </gallery> See also * dtlogin * IRIX Interactive Desktop * Motif References External links * * [http://www.opengroup.org/cde/ Open Group – CDE] * Modern and functional CDE desktop based on FVWM. Category:1993 software Category:Desktop environments Category:Formerly proprietary software Category:Open Group standards Category:OpenVMS Category:Software that uses Motif (software) Category:Sun Microsystems software Category:X window managers
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Desktop_Environment
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Children of Dune
Children of Dune is a 1976 science fiction novel by Frank Herbert, the third in his Dune series of six novels. Originally serialized in Analog Science Fiction and Fact in 1976, it was the last Dune novel to be serialized before book publication. At the end of Dune Messiah, Paul Atreides walks into the desert, a blind man, leaving his sister Alia to rule the universe as regent for his twin children, Leto II and Ghanima. Awakened in the womb by the spice, the children are the heirs to Paul's prescient vision of the fate of the universe, a role that Alia desperately craves. House Corrino schemes to return to the throne, while the Bene Gesserit make common cause with the Tleilaxu and Spacing Guild to gain control of the spice and Paul's children. Initially selling over 75,000 copies, it became the first hardcover best-seller in science fiction. The novel was critically well-received for its plot, action, and atmosphere and was nominated for the Hugo Award for Best Novel in 1977. Dune Messiah (1969) and Children of Dune were collectively adapted by the Sci-Fi Channel in 2003 into a miniseries titled Frank Herbert's Children of Dune. Plot Nine years after Emperor Paul "Muad'Dib" Atreides walked into the desert, the ecological transformation of Dune has reached the point where some Fremen are living without stillsuits in the less arid climate and have started to move out of the sietches and into villages and cities. As the old ways erode, more and more pilgrims arrive to experience the planet of Muad'Dib. The imperial high council has lost its political might and is powerless to control the jihad. Paul's young twin children, Leto II and Ghanima, have concluded that their aunt and guardian Alia has succumbed to Abomination—possession by her grandfather Baron Vladimir Harkonnen—and fear that a similar fate awaits them. They (and Alia) also realize that the terraforming of Dune will kill all the sandworms, thus destroying the source of the spice, but the Baron desires this outcome. Leto also fears that, like his father, he will become trapped by his prescience. Meanwhile, a new religious figure called "The Preacher" has risen in the desert, rallying against the religious government's injustices and the changes among the Fremen. Some Fremen believe he is Paul Atreides. Princess Wensicia of the fallen House Corrino on Salusa Secundus plots to assassinate the twins and regain power for her House. Lady Jessica returns to Arrakis and recognizes that her daughter is possessed, but finds no signs of Abomination in the twins. Leto arranges for Fremen leader Stilgar to protect Ghanima if there is an attempt on their lives. The Preacher journeys to Salusa Secundus to meet Wensicia's son Farad'n, and in return pledges the Duncan Idaho ghola as an agent of House Corrino. Alia attempts to assassinate Jessica, who escapes into the desert with Duncan's help, precipitating a rebellion among the Fremen. The twins anticipate and survive the Corrino assassination plot, faking Leto's death. Leto leaves to seek out Jacurutu, a mythical Fremen sietch and possible holdout of the Preacher, while Ghanima, changing her memory with self-hypnosis, reports (and believes) that her brother has been murdered. Duncan and Jessica flee to Salusa Secundus, where Jessica begins to mentor Farad'n in the ways of the Bene Gesserit. He sidelines and publicly denounces his regent mother Wensicia over the assassination attempt, and allies with the Bene Gesserit, who promise to marry him to Ghanima and support his bid to become Emperor. A band of Fremen outlaws capture Leto and force him to undergo the spice trance at the suggestion of Gurney Halleck, who has infiltrated the group on Jessica's orders. Leto's spice-induced visions show him a myriad of possible futures where humanity becomes extinct and only one where it survives. He names this future "The Golden Path" and resolves to bring it to fruition—something that his father, who had already glimpsed this future, refused to do. He escapes his captors and sacrifices his humanity in pursuit of the Golden Path by physically fusing with a school of sandtrout, the larval form of sandworms, in the process gaining superhuman strength and near-invulnerability. He travels across the desert destroying qanats to slow down the ecological transformation of Dune, and eventually confronts the Preacher, who is indeed Paul. Duncan returns to Arrakis and provokes Stilgar into killing him so that Stilgar is forced to take Ghanima and go into hiding. Eventually though, Alia recaptures Ghanima and arranges her marriage to Farad'n, planning to exploit the expected chaos when Ghanima kills him to avenge her brother's murder. Paul and Leto return to the capital, where Jessica and Farad'n have arrived for his betrothal to Ghanima, to confront Alia. Upon arriving, Paul is publicly murdered by agents of Alia's government, to her horror. Leto reveals himself in a display of superhuman strength and triggers the return of Ghanima's genuine memories. He confronts Alia and offers to help her overcome her possession, but the Baron resists. Alia, while fighting the Baron's possession, manages to throw herself off a high balcony, killing both herself and the Baron. Leto declares himself Emperor and asserts control over the Fremen. Farad'n enlists in his service and delivers control of the Corrino armies and his Sardaukar. In describing the Golden Path to Farad'n, Leto reveals that he will live for thousands of years due to the sandworm skin and genetics he is encased in. Leto marries Ghanima to consolidate power, but because his sandworm skin destroyed his ability to reproduce, he allows Farad'n to be her true consort so the Atreides line can continue. Ghanima reflects that one twin had to follow the Path, but Leto was always the stronger. Publication history Parts of Dune Messiah and Children of Dune were written before Dune was completed. Children of Dune was originally serialized in Analog Science Fiction and Fact in 1976, and was the last Dune novel to be serialized before book publication. Dune Messiah and Children of Dune were published in one volume by the Science Fiction Book Club in 2002. Analysis Herbert likened the initial trilogy of novels (Dune, Dune Messiah, and Children of Dune) to a fugue – Dune was a heroic melody, Dune Messiah was its inversion, while Children of Dune expands the number of interplaying themes. Paul rises to power in Dune by seizing control of the single critical resource in the universe, melange. His enemies are dead or overthrown, and he is set to take the reins of power and bring a hard but enlightened peace to the universe. Herbert chose in the books that followed to undermine Paul's triumph with a string of failures and philosophical paradoxes. Critical reception Initially selling over 75,000 copies, Children of Dune became the first hardcover best-seller in the science fiction field. The novel was critically well-received for its gripping plot, action, and atmosphere, and was nominated for the Hugo Award for Best Novel in 1977. The Los Angeles Times called Children of Dune "a major event", and Challenging Destiny noted that "Herbert adds enough new twists and turns to the ongoing saga that familiarity with the recurring elements brings pleasure." Publishers Weekly wrote, "Ranging from palace intrigue and desert chases to religious speculation and confrontations with the supreme intelligence of the universe, there is something here for all science fiction fans." The novel is referred to in A Thousand Plateaus (1980) by Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari. David Pringle gave the novel a rating of two stars out of four and described the novel as "dark and convoluted stuff." Adaptation Dune Messiah (1969) and Children of Dune were collectively adapted by the Sci-Fi Channel in 2003 into a miniseries titled Frank Herbert's Children of Dune. The three-part, six-hour miniseries covers the bulk of the plot of Dune Messiah in the first installment, and adapts Children of Dune in the second and third parts. References External links Category:1976 American novels Category:1976 science fiction novels Category:Novels by Frank Herbert Category:Dune (franchise) novels Category:Works originally published in Analog Science Fiction and Fact Category:Novels first published in serial form Category:Novels set in deserts Category:G. P. Putnam's Sons books Category:Works about women in war Category:Sequel novels Category:American novels adapted into television shows
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children_of_Dune
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Candide
) is a French satire written by Voltaire, a philosopher of the Age of Enlightenment, first published in 1759. The novella has been widely translated, with English versions titled Candide: or, All for the Best (1759); Candide: or, The Optimist (1762); and Candide: Optimism (1947). A young man, Candide, lives a sheltered life in an Edenic paradise, being indoctrinated with Leibnizian optimism by his mentor, Professor Pangloss. This lifestyle is abruptly ended, followed by Candide's slow and painful disillusionment as he witnesses and experiences great hardships in the world. Voltaire concludes Candide with, if not rejecting Leibnizian optimism outright, advocating a deeply practical precept, "we must cultivate our garden", in lieu of the Leibnizian mantra of Pangloss, "all is for the best" in the "best of all possible worlds". Candide is characterized by its tone as well as its erratic, fantastical, and fast-moving plot. A picaresque novel with a story akin to a serious bildungsroman, it parodies many adventure and romance clichés, in a tone that is bitter and matter-of-fact. The events discussed are often based on historical happenings. As philosophers of Voltaire's day contended with the problem of evil, so does Candide, albeit more directly and humorously. Voltaire ridicules religion, theologians, governments, armies, philosophies, and philosophers. Through Candide, he assaults Leibniz and his optimism.<!--aldridge sources "insight into the human condition" --> Candide has enjoyed both great success and great scandal. Immediately after its secretive publication, the book was widely banned because of its religious blasphemy, political sedition, and intellectual hostility hidden under a thin veil of naivety. Martin Seymour-Smith listed Candide as one of the 100 most influential books ever written. Historical and literary background Several historical events inspired Voltaire to write Candide, most notably the publication of Leibniz's "Monadology", the Seven Years' War, and the 1755 Lisbon earthquake. Both of the latter catastrophes are frequently referred to in Candide. The earthquake, tsunami, and resulting fires of All Saints' Day had a strong influence on theologians of the day and on Voltaire, who was himself disillusioned by them. It had an especially large effect on the contemporary doctrine of optimism, a philosophical system founded on the theodicy of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, which insisted on God's benevolence in spite of such events. This concept is often put in the form, "all is for the best in the best of all possible worlds" (). Philosophers had trouble fitting the horrors of this earthquake into their optimistic world view. in flames and a tsunami overwhelming the ships in the harbour.]] Voltaire actively rejected Leibnizian optimism after the natural disaster, convinced that if this were the best possible world, it should surely be better than it is. In both Candide and ("Poem on the Lisbon Disaster"), Voltaire attacks this optimist belief, Immediately after the earthquake, unreliable rumours circulated around Europe, sometimes overestimating the severity of the event. Ira Wade, a noted expert on Voltaire and Candide, has analyzed which sources Voltaire might have referenced. speculating that Voltaire's primary source was the 1755 work by Ange Goudar. Apart from such events, contemporaneous stereotypes of the German personality may have been a source of inspiration for the text, as they were for , a 1669 satirical picaresque novel written by Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen and inspired by the Thirty Years' War. The protagonist of this novel, supposed to embody stereotypically German characteristics, is quite similar to the protagonist of Candide. Other probable sources of inspiration for Candide are (1699) by François Fénelon and (1753) by Louis-Charles Fougeret de Monbron. Candide''s parody of the bildungsroman is probably based on , which includes the prototypical parody of the tutor on whom Pangloss may have been partly based. Likewise, Monbron's protagonist undergoes a disillusioning series of travels similar to those of Candide.<!--SOURCE for more info on the connection to Monbron, see: * Voltaire and Fougeret de Monbron a "Candide" Problem Reconsidered * J. H. Broome * The Modern Language Review, Vol. 55, No. 4 (Oct., 1960), pp. 509–518 * Published by: Modern Humanities Research Association --><!-- Frederick the Great's letter another source? --><!-- Textual allusions * The 1757 execution of British admiral John Byng is alluded to in Candide. According to Martin, the character representing Byng is executed only "pour encourager les autres" (to encourage the others). This explanation has since become proverbial. NOTE: Dbaba uncommented this, I think, because he thought there was a dispute over factual accuracy; rather, the material is simply out of place and unnecessary. – Rmrfstar – 31/5/08 --> Creation <!-- Writing --> published as the frontispiece to an 1843 edition of his ]] By the time of the Lisbon earthquake, Voltaire was already a well-established author. Candide became part of his large, diverse body of philosophical, political, and artistic works expressing these views. It became a model for the eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century novels called the contes philosophiques. This genre included previous works of his such as Zadig and Micromegas. <!-- check different capitalisations in title in different manuscripts --> It is unknown exactly when Voltaire wrote Candide. Scholars estimate that it was primarily composed in late 1758 and begun as early as 1757. Voltaire is believed to have written a portion of it while living at Les Délices near Geneva and also while visiting Charles Théodore, the Elector-Palatinate, at Schwetzingen for three weeks in the summer of 1758. Despite solid evidence for these claims, a popular legend persists that he wrote Candide in three days. This idea is probably based on a misreading of the 1885 work by Lucien Pereyand Gaston Maugras. <!--Manuscripts--> There is only one extant manuscript of Candide that was written before the work's 1759 publication, discovered in 1956 by Wade and since named the La Vallière Manuscript. It is believed to have been sent, chapter by chapter, by Voltaire to the Duke and Duchess La Vallière in the autumn of 1758. The La Vallière Manuscript, the most original and authentic of all surviving copies of Candide, was probably dictated by Voltaire to his secretary, Jean-Louis Wagnière, then edited directly. In addition to this manuscript, there is believed to have been another, one copied by Wagnière for the Elector Charles-Théodore, who hosted Voltaire during the summer of 1758. The existence of this copy was first postulated by Norman L. Torrey in 1929. If it exists, it remains undiscovered. <!--1759 publication--> Voltaire published Candide simultaneously in five countries no later than 15 January 1759, although the exact date is uncertain. Seventeen versions of Candide from 1759, in the original French, are known today, and there has been great controversy over which is the earliest. The complicated science of calculating the relative publication dates of all of the versions of Candide is described at length in Wade's article "The First Edition of Candide: A Problem of Identification". The publication process was extremely secretive, probably the "most clandestine work of the century", because of the book's obviously illicit and irreverent content. Candide underwent one major revision after its initial publication, in addition to some minor ones. In 1761, a version of Candide was published that included, along with several minor changes, a major addition by Voltaire to the twenty-second chapter, a section that had been thought weak by the Duke of Vallière. The English title of this edition was ''Candide, or Optimism, Translated from the German of Dr. Ralph. With the additions found in the Doctor's pocket when he died at Minden, in the Year of Grace 1759. The last edition of Candide'' authorised by Voltaire was the one included in Cramer's 1775 edition of his complete works, known as , in reference to the border or frame around each page. <!--Illustrations--> Voltaire strongly opposed the inclusion of illustrations in his works, as he stated in a 1778 letter to the writer and publisher Charles Joseph Panckoucke: Despite this protest, two sets of illustrations for Candide'' were produced by the French artist Jean-Michel Moreau le Jeune. The first version was done, at Moreau's own expense, in 1787 and included in Kehl's publication of that year, Oeuvres Complètes de Voltaire. Four images were drawn by Moreau for this edition and were engraved by Pierre-Charles Baquoy. The second version, in 1803, consisted of seven drawings by Moreau which were transposed by multiple engravers. The twentieth-century modern artist Paul Klee stated that it was while reading Candide that he discovered his own artistic style. Klee illustrated the work, and his drawings were published in a 1920 version edited by Kurt Wolff. List of characters Main characters * Candide: The title character. The illegitimate son of the sister of the Baron of Thunder-ten-Tronckh. In love with Cunégonde. * Cunégonde: The daughter of the Baron of Thunder-ten-Tronckh. In love with Candide. * Professor Pangloss: The royal educator of the court of the baron. Described as "the greatest philosopher of the Holy Roman Empire". * The Old Woman: Cunégonde's maid while she is the mistress of Don Issachar and the Grand Inquisitor of Portugal. Flees with Candide and Cunégonde to the New World. Illegitimate daughter of Pope Urban X. * Cacambo: Born from a Mestizo father and an Indigenous mother. Lived half his life in Spain and half in Latin America. Candide's valet while in America. * Martin: Dutch amateur philosopher and Manichaean. Meets Candide in Suriname, travels with him afterwards. * The Baron of Thunder-ten-Tronckh: Brother of Cunégonde. Is seemingly killed by the Bulgarians, but becomes a Jesuit in Paraguay. Disapproves of Candide and Cunégonde's marriage. Secondary characters * The baron and baroness of Thunder-ten-Tronckh: Father and mother of Cunégonde and the second baron. Both slain by the Bulgars. * The king of the Bulgars: Frederick II * Jacques the Anabaptist: Dutch manufacturer who takes Candide in after his escape from the Prussian Army. Drowns in the port of Lisbon after saving a sailor's life. * Don Issachar: Jewish banker in Portugal. Cunégonde becomes his mistress, shared with the Grand Inquisitor of Portugal. Killed by Candide. * The Grand Inquisitor of Portugal: Sentences Candide and Pangloss at the auto-da-fé. Cunégonde is his mistress jointly with Don Issachar. Killed by Candide. * Don Fernando d'Ibarra y Figueroa y Mascarenes y Lampourdos y Souza: Spanish governor of Buenos Aires. Wants Cunégonde as a mistress. * The king of El Dorado, who helps Candide and Cacambo out of El Dorado, lets them pick gold from the grounds, and makes them rich. * Mynheer Vanderdendur: Dutch ship captain/pirate and slave holder. Offers to take Candide from America to France for 30,000 gold coins, but then departs without him, stealing most of his riches. Dies after his ship sinks. * The abbot of Périgord: Befriends Candide and Martin in the hopes of scamming them. Tries to have them arrested. * The marchioness of Parolignac: Parisian wench who takes an elaborate title. * The scholar: One of the guests of the "marchioness". Argues with Candide about art. * Paquette: A chambermaid from Thunder-ten-Tronckh who gave Pangloss syphilis after getting it herself from her Franciscan confessor. After the slaying by the Bulgars, works as a prostitute in Venice and becomes entangled with Friar Giroflée. * Friar Giroflée: Theatine friar. In love with the prostitute Paquette. * Signor Pococurante: A Venetian noble. Candide and Martin visit his estate, where he discusses his disdain of most of the canon of great art. * In an inn in Venice, Candide and Martin dine with six men who turn out to be deposed monarchs: ** Ahmed III ** Ivan VI of Russia ** Charles Edward Stuart ** Augustus III of Poland ** Stanisław Leszczyński ** Theodore of Corsica Synopsis Candide contains thirty episodic chapters, which may be grouped into two main schemes: one consists of two divisions, separated by the protagonist's hiatus in El Dorado; the other consists of three parts, each defined by its geographical setting. By the former scheme, the first half of Candide constitutes the rising action and the last part the resolution. This view is supported by the strong theme of travel and quest, reminiscent of adventure and picaresque novels, which tend to employ such a dramatic structure. By the latter scheme, the thirty chapters may be grouped into three parts each comprising ten chapters and defined by locale: I–X are set in Europe, XI–XX are set in the Americas, and XXI–XXX are set in Europe and the Ottoman Empire. The plot summary that follows uses this second format and includes Voltaire's additions of 1761. Chapters I–X The tale of Candide begins in the castle of the Baron Thunder-ten-Tronckh in Westphalia, home to the Baron's daughter, Lady Cunégonde; his bastard nephew, Candide; a tutor, Pangloss; a chambermaid, Paquette; and the rest of the Baron's family. The protagonist, Candide, is romantically attracted to Cunégonde. He is a young man of "the most unaffected simplicity" (), whose face is "the true index of his mind" (). The sailor makes no move to help the drowning Jacques, and Candide is in a state of despair until Pangloss explains to him that Lisbon harbor was created in order for Jacques to drown. Only Pangloss, Candide, and the "brutish sailor" who let Jacques drown survive the wreck and reach Lisbon, which is promptly hit by an earthquake, tsunami, and fire that kill tens of thousands. The sailor leaves in order to loot the rubble while Candide, injured and begging for help, is lectured on the optimistic view of the situation by Pangloss. The next day, Pangloss discusses his optimistic philosophy with a member of the Portuguese Inquisition, and he and Candide are arrested for heresy, set to be tortured and killed in an "" set up to appease God and prevent another disaster. Candide is flogged and sees Pangloss hanged, but another earthquake intervenes and he escapes. He is approached by an old woman, who leads him to a house where Lady Cunégonde waits, alive. Candide is surprised: Pangloss had told him that Cunégonde had been raped and disemboweled. She had been, but Cunégonde points out that people survive such things. However, her rescuer sold her to a Jewish merchant, Don Issachar, who was then threatened by a corrupt Grand Inquisitor into sharing her (Don Issachar gets Cunégonde on Mondays, Wednesdays, and the sabbath day). Her owners arrive, find her with another man, and Candide kills them both. Candide and the two women flee the city, heading to the Americas. After a few more adventures, Candide and Cacambo wander into El Dorado, a geographically isolated utopia where the streets are covered with precious stones, there exist no priests, and all of the king's jokes are funny. Candide and Cacambo stay a month in El Dorado, but Candide is still in pain without Cunégonde, and expresses to the king his wish to leave. The king points out that this is a foolish idea, but generously helps them do so. The pair continue their journey, now accompanied by one hundred red pack sheep carrying provisions and incredible sums of money, which they slowly lose or have stolen over the next few adventures. Candide and Cacambo eventually reach Suriname where they split up: Cacambo travels to Buenos Aires to retrieve Lady Cunégonde, while Candide prepares to travel to Europe to await the two. Candide's remaining sheep are stolen, and Candide is fined heavily by a Dutch magistrate for petulance over the theft. Before leaving Suriname, Candide feels in need of companionship, so he interviews a number of local men who have been through various ill-fortunes and settles on a man named Martin. Chapters XXI–XXX This companion, Martin, is a Manichaean scholar based on the real-life pessimist Pierre Bayle, who was a chief opponent of Leibniz. For the remainder of the voyage, Martin and Candide argue about philosophy, Martin painting the entire world as occupied by fools. Candide, however, remains an optimist at heart, since it is all he knows. After a detour to Bordeaux and Paris, they arrive in England and see an admiral (based on Admiral Byng) being shot for not killing enough of the enemy. Martin explains that Britain finds it necessary to shoot an admiral from time to time "pour encourager les autres" (to encourage the others). Candide, horrified, arranges for them to leave Britain immediately. Upon their arrival in Venice, Candide and Martin meet Paquette, the chambermaid who infected Pangloss with his syphilis. She is now a prostitute, and is spending her time with a Theatine monk, Brother Giroflée. Although both appear happy on the surface, they reveal their despair: Paquette has led a miserable existence as a sexual object since she was forced to become a prostitute, and the monk detests the religious order in which he was indoctrinated. Candide gives two thousand piastres to Paquette and one thousand to Brother Giroflée. Candide and Martin visit the Lord Pococurante, a noble Venetian. That evening, Cacambo—now a slave—arrives and informs Candide that Cunégonde is in Constantinople. Prior to their departure, Candide and Martin dine with six strangers who had come for the Carnival of Venice. These strangers are revealed to be dethroned kings: the Ottoman Sultan Ahmed III, Emperor Ivan VI of Russia, Charles Edward Stuart (an unsuccessful pretender to the English throne), Augustus III of Poland (deprived, at the time of writing, of his reign in the Electorate of Saxony due to the Seven Years' War), Stanisław Leszczyński, and Theodore of Corsica. On the way to Constantinople, Cacambo reveals that Cunégonde—now horribly ugly—currently washes dishes on the banks of the Propontis as a slave for a fugitive Transylvanian prince by the name of Rákóczi. After arriving at the Bosphorus, they board a galley where, to Candide's surprise, he finds Pangloss and Cunégonde's brother among the rowers. Candide buys their freedom and further passage at steep prices. They both relate how they survived, but despite the horrors he has been through, Pangloss's optimism remains unshaken: "I still hold to my original opinions, because, after all, I'm a philosopher, and it wouldn't be proper for me to recant, since Leibniz cannot be wrong, and since pre-established harmony is the most beautiful thing in the world, along with the plenum and subtle matter." Candide, the baron, Pangloss, Martin, and Cacambo arrive at the banks of the Propontis, where they rejoin Cunégonde and the old woman. Cunégonde has indeed become hideously ugly, but Candide nevertheless buys their freedom and marries Cunégonde to spite her brother, who forbids Cunégonde from marrying anyone but a baron of the Empire (he is secretly sold back into slavery). Paquette and Brother Giroflée—having squandered their three thousand piastres—are reconciled with Candide on a small farm () which he just bought with the last of his finances. One day, the protagonists seek out a dervish known as a great philosopher of the land. Candide asks him why Man is made to suffer so, and what they all ought to do. The dervish responds by asking rhetorically why Candide is concerned about the existence of evil and good. The dervish describes human beings as mice on a ship sent by a king to Egypt; their comfort does not matter to the king. The dervish then slams his door on the group. Returning to their farm, Candide, Pangloss, and Martin meet a Turk whose philosophy is to devote his life only to simple work and not concern himself with external affairs. He and his four children cultivate a small area of land, and the work keeps them "free of three great evils: boredom, vice, and poverty." Candide, Pangloss, Martin, Cunégonde, Paquette, Cacambo, the old woman, and Brother Giroflée all set to work on this "commendable plan" () on their farm, each exercising his or her own talents. Candide ignores Pangloss's insistence that all turned out for the best by necessity, instead telling him "we must cultivate our garden" (). The fast-paced and improbable plot—in which characters narrowly escape death repeatedly, for instance—allows for compounding tragedies to befall the same characters over and over again. In the end, Candide is primarily, as described by Voltaire's biographer Ian Davidson, "short, light, rapid and humorous". Behind the playful façade of Candide which has amused so many, there lies very harsh criticism of contemporary European civilization which angered many others. European governments such as France, Prussia, Portugal and England are each attacked ruthlessly by the author: the French and Prussians for the Seven Years' War, the Portuguese for their Inquisition, and the British for the execution of John Byng. Organised religion, too, is harshly treated in Candide. For example, Voltaire mocks the Jesuit order of the Roman Catholic Church. Aldridge provides a characteristic example of such anti-clerical passages for which the work was banned: while in Paraguay, Cacambo remarks, "[The Jesuits] are masters of everything, and the people have no money at all …". Here, Voltaire suggests the Christian mission in Paraguay is taking advantage of the local population. Voltaire depicts the Jesuits holding the indigenous peoples as slaves while they claim to be helping them. Voltaire depicts the worst of the world and his pathetic hero's desperate effort to fit it into an optimistic outlook. Almost all of Candide is a discussion of various forms of evil: its characters rarely find even temporary respite. There is at least one notable exception: the episode of El Dorado, a fantastic village in which the inhabitants are simply rational, and their society is just and reasonable. The positivity of El Dorado may be contrasted with the pessimistic attitude of most of the book. Even in this case, the bliss of El Dorado is fleeting: Candide soon leaves the village to seek Cunégonde, whom he eventually marries only out of a sense of obligation. Flaws in European culture are highlighted as Candide parodies adventure and romance clichés, mimicking the style of a picaresque novel. A number of archetypal characters thus have recognisable manifestations in Voltaire's work: Candide is supposed to be the drifting rogue of low social class, Cunégonde the sex interest, Pangloss the knowledgeable mentor, and Cacambo the skillful valet. As the plot unfolds, readers find that Candide is no rogue, Cunégonde becomes ugly and Pangloss is a stubborn fool. The characters of Candide are unrealistic, two-dimensional, mechanical, and even marionette-like; they are simplistic and stereotypical. As the initially naïve protagonist eventually comes to a mature conclusion—however noncommittal—the novella is a bildungsroman, if not a very serious one. Garden motif Gardens are thought by many critics to play a critical symbolic role in Candide. The first location commonly identified as a garden is the castle of the Baron, from which Candide and Cunégonde are evicted much in the same fashion as Adam and Eve are evicted from the Garden of Eden in the Book of Genesis. Cyclically, the main characters of Candide conclude the novel in a garden of their own making, one which might represent celestial paradise. The third most prominent "garden" is El Dorado, which may be a false Eden. Other possibly symbolic gardens include the Jesuit pavilion, the garden of Pococurante, Cacambo's garden, and the Turk's garden. These gardens are probably references to the Garden of Eden, but it has also been proposed, by Bottiglia, for example, that the gardens refer also to the Encyclopédie, and that Candide's conclusion to cultivate "his garden" symbolises Voltaire's great support for this endeavour. Candide and his companions, as they find themselves at the end of the novella, are in a very similar position to Voltaire's tightly knit philosophical circle which supported the : the main characters of Candide live in seclusion to "cultivate [their] garden", just as Voltaire suggested his colleagues leave society to write. In addition, there is evidence in the epistolary correspondence of Voltaire that he had elsewhere used the metaphor of gardening to describe writing the . Philosophy Optimism Candide satirises various philosophical and religious theories that Voltaire had previously criticised. Primary among these is Leibnizian optimism (sometimes called Panglossianism after its fictional proponent), which Voltaire ridicules with descriptions of seemingly endless calamity. Voltaire demonstrates a variety of irredeemable evils in the world, leading many critics to contend that Voltaire's treatment of evil—specifically the theological problem of its existence—is the focus of the work. Heavily referenced in the text are the Lisbon earthquake, disease, and the sinking of ships in storms. Also, war, thievery, and murder—evils of human design—are explored as extensively in Candide as are environmental ills. Bottiglia notes Voltaire is "comprehensive" in his enumeration of the world's evils. He is unrelenting in attacking Leibnizian optimism. Fundamental to Voltaire's attack is Candide's tutor Pangloss, a self-proclaimed follower of Leibniz and a teacher of his doctrine. Ridicule of Pangloss's theories thus ridicules Leibniz himself, and Pangloss's reasoning is silly at best. For example, Pangloss's first teachings of the narrative absurdly mix up cause and effect: }} Following such flawed reasoning even more doggedly than Candide, Pangloss defends optimism. Whatever their horrendous fortune, Pangloss reiterates "all is for the best" ("") and proceeds to "justify" the evil event's occurrence. A characteristic example of such theodicy is found in Pangloss's explanation of why it is good that syphilis exists: }} it prescribes is in dispute). Many critics have concluded that one minor character or another is portrayed as having the right philosophy. For instance, a number believe that Martin is treated sympathetically, and that his character holds Voltaire's ideal philosophy—pessimism. Others disagree, citing Voltaire's negative descriptions of Martin's principles and the conclusion of the work in which Martin plays little part. Within debates attempting to decipher the conclusion of Candide lies another primary Candide debate. This one concerns the degree to which Voltaire was advocating a pessimistic philosophy, by which Candide and his companions give up hope for a better world. Critics argue that the group's reclusion on the farm signifies Candide and his companions' loss of hope for the rest of the human race. This view is to be compared to a reading that presents Voltaire as advocating a melioristic philosophy and a precept committing the travellers to improving the world through metaphorical gardening. This debate, and others, focuses on the question of whether or not Voltaire was prescribing passive retreat from society, or active industrious contribution to it. Inside vs. outside interpretations Separate from the debate about the text's conclusion is the "inside/outside" controversy. This argument centers on the matter of whether or not Voltaire was actually prescribing anything. Roy Wolper, professor emeritus of English, argues in a revolutionary 1969 paper that Candide does not necessarily speak for its author; that the work should be viewed as a narrative independent of Voltaire's history; and that its message is entirely (or mostly) it. This point of view, the "inside", specifically rejects attempts to find Voltaire's "voice" in the many characters of Candide and his other works. Indeed, writers have seen Voltaire as speaking through at least Candide, Martin, and the Turk. Wolper argues that Candide should be read with a minimum of speculation as to its meaning in Voltaire's personal life. His article ushered in a new era of Voltaire studies, causing many scholars to look at the novel differently. <!-- this may be usable for beefing up the "inside" perspective --> Critics such as Lester Crocker, Henry Stavan, and Vivienne Mylne find too many similarities between Candides point of view and that of Voltaire to accept the "inside" view; they support the "outside" interpretation. They believe that Candide's final decision is the same as Voltaire's, and see a strong connection between the development of the protagonist and his author. Some scholars who support the "outside" view also believe that the isolationist philosophy of the Old Turk closely mirrors that of Voltaire. Others see a strong parallel between Candide's gardening at the conclusion and the gardening of the author. Martine Darmon Meyer argues that the "inside" view fails to see the satirical work in context, and that denying that Candide is primarily a mockery of optimism (a matter of historical context) is a "very basic betrayal of the text".<!-- this may be usable for beefing up the "outside" perspective --> Reception |italicno}} | source—&thinsp;Flaubert, Correspondance, éd. Conard, II, 348; III, 219}} | source—&thinsp;Flaubert, Correspondance, éd. Conard, II, 348; III, 219), his authorship of the work was hardly disputed.}}<!--END OF NOTE-->}} Immediately after publication, the work and its author were denounced by both secular and religious authorities, because the book openly derides government and church alike. It was because of such polemics that Omer-Louis-François Joly de Fleury, who was Advocate General to the Parisian parliament when Candide was published, found parts of Candide to be "contrary to religion and morals". By the end of February 1759, the Grand Council of Geneva and the administrators of Paris had banned Candide. In 1762, Candide was listed in the Index Librorum Prohibitorum, the Roman Catholic Church's list of prohibited books. Bannings of Candide lasted into the twentieth century in the United States, where it has long been considered a seminal work of Western literature. At least once, Candide was temporarily barred from entering America: in February 1929, a US customs official in Boston prevented a number of copies of the book, deemed "obscene", from reaching a Harvard University French class. Candide was admitted in August of the same year; however by that time the class was over. Legacy Candide is the most widely read of Voltaire's many works, and it is considered one of the great achievements of Western literature. Bottiglia instead calls it a miniature classic; but others have been more forgiving of its size. Candide is listed in Harold Bloom's The Western Canon: The Books and School of the Ages. It is included in the Encyclopædia Britannica collection Great Books of the Western World. Candide has influenced modern writers of black humour such as Céline, Joseph Heller, John Barth, Thomas Pynchon, Kurt Vonnegut, and Terry Southern. Its parody and picaresque methods have become favourites of black humorists. Charles Brockden Brown, an early American novelist, may have been directly affected by Voltaire, whose work he knew well. Mark Kamrath, professor of English, describes the strength of the connection between Candide and Brown's Edgar Huntly; or, Memoirs of a Sleep-Walker (1799): "An unusually large number of parallels...crop up in the two novels, particularly in terms of characters and plot." For instance, the protagonists of both novels are romantically involved with a recently orphaned young woman. Furthermore, in both works the brothers of the female lovers are Jesuits, and each is murdered (although under different circumstances). Some twentieth-century novels that may have been influenced by Candide are some dystopian science-fiction works. Armand Mattelart, a French critic, sees Candide in Aldous Huxley's Brave New World, George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four, and Yevgeny Zamyatin's We, three canonical works of the genre. Specifically, Mattelart writes that in each of these works, there exist references to Candides popularisation of the phrase "the best of all possible worlds". He cites as evidence, for example, that the French version of Brave New World was entitled (). Readers of Candide often compare it with certain works of the modern genre the Theatre of the Absurd. Haydn Mason, a Voltaire scholar, sees in Candide a few similarities to this brand of literature. For instance, he notes commonalities of Candide and Waiting for Godot (1952). In both of these works, and in a similar manner, friendship provides emotional support for characters when they are confronted with harshness of their existences. However, Mason qualifies, "the must not be seen as a forerunner of the 'absurd' in modern fiction. Candide's world has many ridiculous and meaningless elements, but human beings are not totally deprived of the ability to make sense out of it." John Pilling, biographer of Beckett, does state that Candide was an early and powerful influence on Beckett's thinking.<!--if necessary, this source includes another, perhaps stronger, example of an intertexutal reference by Beckett to Candide--> Rosa Luxemburg, in the aftermath of the First World War, remarked upon re-reading Candide: "Before the war, I would have thought this wicked compilation of all human misery a caricature. Now it strikes me as altogether realistic." The American alternative rock band Bloodhound Gang refer to Candide in their song "Take the Long Way Home", from the American edition of their 1999 album Hooray for Boobies. Derivative works in 1955]] In 1760, one year after Voltaire published Candide, a sequel was published with the name . This work is attributed both to Thorel de Campigneulles, a writer unknown today, and Henri Joseph Du Laurens, who is suspected of having habitually plagiarised Voltaire. The story continues in this sequel with Candide having new adventures in the Ottoman Empire, Persia, and Denmark. Part II has potential use in studies of the popular and literary receptions of Candide, but is almost certainly apocryphal. The operetta Candide was originally conceived by playwright Lillian Hellman, as a play with incidental music. Leonard Bernstein, the American composer and conductor who wrote the music, was so excited about the project that he convinced Hellman to do it as a "comic operetta". Many lyricists worked on the show, including James Agee, Dorothy Parker, John Latouche, Richard Wilbur, Leonard and Felicia Bernstein, and Hellman. Hershy Kay orchestrated all the pieces except for the overture, which Bernstein did himself. While this production was a box office flop, the music was highly praised, and an original cast album was made. The album gradually became a cult hit, but Hellman's libretto was criticised as being too serious an adaptation of Voltaire's novel. Candide has been revised and reworked several times. The first New York revival, directed by Hal Prince, featured an entirely new libretto by Hugh Wheeler and additional lyrics by Stephen Sondheim. Bernstein revised the work again in 1987 with the collaboration of John Mauceri and John Wells. After Bernstein's death, further revised productions of the musical were performed in versions prepared by Trevor Nunn and John Caird in 1999, and Mary Zimmerman in 2010. The BBC produced a television adaptation in 1973, with Ian Ogilvy as Candide, Emrys James as Dr. Pangloss, and Frank Finlay as Voltaire himself, acting as the narrator. (1977) or simply is a book by Leonardo Sciascia. It was at least partly based on Voltaire's Candide, although the actual influence of Candide on is a hotly debated topic. A number of theories on the matter have been proposed. Proponents of one say that is very similar to Candide, only with a happy ending; supporters of another claim that Voltaire provided Sciascia with only a starting point from which to work, that the two books are quite distinct. Nedim Gürsel wrote his 2001 novel Le voyage de Candide à Istanbul about a minor passage in Candide during which its protagonist meets Ahmed III, the deposed Turkish sultan. This chance meeting on a ship from Venice to Istanbul is the setting of Gürsel's book. Terry Southern, in writing his popular novel Candy with Mason Hoffenberg adapted Candide for a modern audience and changed the protagonist from male to female. Candy deals with the rejection of a sort of optimism which the author sees in women's magazines of the modern era; Candy also parodies pornography and popular psychology. This adaptation of Candide was adapted for the cinema by director Christian Marquand in 1968. In addition to the above, Candide was made into a number of minor films and theatrical adaptations throughout the twentieth century. For a list of these, see (1989) with preface and commentaries by Pierre Malandain. <!-- FILM: ___ 1960 Norbert Carbonnaux. Candide (The Twentieth Century Optimist) Adaptations of Candide include a modern version in X Out of Wonderland (2005) by David Allan Cates. There is also the much older adaptation Fanfluche (1892) by Quatrelles. --> In May 2009, a play titled Optimism, based on Candide, opened at the CUB Malthouse Theatre in Melbourne. It followed the basic story of Candide, incorporating anachronisms, music, and stand up comedy from comedian Frank Woodley. It toured Australia and played at the Edinburgh International Festival. In 2010, the Icelandic writer Óttar M. Norðfjörð published a rewriting and modernisation of Candide, titled . See also * ''Candide ou l'optimisme au XXe siècle (film, 1960) * Cannibalism in popular culture * List of French-language authors * Pollyanna'' Explanatory notes References Citations General and cited sources * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * <!-- lots of sources --> * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Further reading * * <!-- structuralism --> * * * * * * * * <!-- analysis in the grotesque series --> * * * <!-- Analysis of characters Cunégonde and "la vielle" --> * * * <!-- I FORGOT WHY THESE WERE IN THE BIBLIOGRAPHY; taking them out * * * * WHY?--> External links Sister project links* * Editions* * (plain text and HTML) * [https://archive.org/search.php?query=title%3ACandide%20creator%3Avoltaire%20AND%20mediatype%3Atexts Candide] at the Internet Archive (scanned books; original editions, color illustrated) * * [http://www.tailoredtexts.com/read/candide-voltaire/#!/39/en/d/0/0/0/ Candide] (; original version) with 2200+ English annotations at Tailored Texts * [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k70445g ], traduit de l'allemand. De Mr. le Docteur Ralph, 1759. ** , Par Mr. de Voltaire. Edition revue, corrigée & augmentée par L'Auteur, [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6546305g vol. 1], [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6546306w vol. 2], aux delices, 1761–1763. * [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b8458202f/ La Vallière Manuscript at http://gallica.bnf.fr]. Miscellaneous * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081022101511/http://ub-dok.uni-trier.de/ausstellung/candide/candide_engl.htm Candide: Illustrations of a classic], bibliography of illustrated editions, list of available electronic editions and more useful information from Trier University Library * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080909215737/http://voltaire-candide.wikispaces.com/ Voltaire's Candide], a public wiki dedicated to Candide * [http://www.whitman.edu/VSA/Candide/bibliography.html Brief Bibliography for the Study of Candide], issued by the Voltaire Society of America * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071013122448/http://deimos3.apple.com/WebObjects/Core.woa/Browse/itunes.stanford.edu.1291667329 Podcast lecture on Candide], from Dr Martin Evans at Stanford University, via iTunes Category:1759 novels Category:18th-century French novels Category:Anti-Catholic publications Category:Anti-Catholicism in France Category:Books critical of religion Category:Fiction about cannibalism Category:Censored books Category:Comedy literature characters Category:Fictional French people Category:French bildungsromans Category:French comedy novels Category:French novellas Category:French novels adapted into films Category:French novels adapted into plays Category:French philosophical novels Category:French satirical novels Category:Literary characters introduced in 1759 Category:Male characters in literature Category:Novels about rape Category:French novels adapted into operas Category:Novels by Voltaire Category:Novels set in Argentina Category:Novels set in England Category:Novels set in Germany Category:Novels set in Lisbon Category:Novels set in Paraguay Category:Novels set in the Netherlands Category:Novels set in Suriname Category:Novels set in Turkey Category:Parodies of literature Category:French picaresque novels Category:Works about philosophical pessimism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candide
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Chapterhouse: Dune
| cover_artist = John Schoenherr | country = United States | language = English | series = Dune series | genre = Science fiction | published = April 1985 | publisher = Putnam | media_type = Print (hardcover & paperback) | pages = 464 | isbn = 0-399-13027-6 | isbn_note (hardcover)<br/> (paperback) | dewey = 813/.54 | congress = PS3558.E63 C48 1985 | oclc = 780493996 | preceded_by = Heretics of Dune | followed_by = Hunters of Dune }} Chapterhouse: Dune is a 1985 science fiction novel by Frank Herbert, the last in his Dune series of six novels. It rose to No. 2 on The New York Times Best Seller list. A direct follow-up to Heretics of Dune, the novel chronicles the continued struggles of the Bene Gesserit sisterhood against the violent Honored Matres, who are succeeding in their bid to seize control of the universe and destroy the factions and planets that oppose them. Chapterhouse: Dune ends with a cliffhanger, and Herbert's subsequent death in 1986 left some overarching plotlines of the series unresolved. Two decades later, Herbert's son Brian Herbert, along with Kevin J. Anderson, published two sequels – Hunters of Dune (2006) and Sandworms of Dune (2007) – based in part on notes left behind by Frank Herbert for what he referred to as Dune 7, his own planned seventh novel in the Dune series. Plot The Bene Gesserit find themselves the target of the Honored Matres, whose conquest of the Old Empire is almost complete. The Matres are seeking to assimilate the technology and superhuman skills of the Bene Gesserit, and exterminate the Sisterhood itself. Now in command of the Bene Gesserit, Mother Superior Darwi Odrade continues to develop her drastic, secret plan to overcome the Honored Matres. The Bene Gesserit are also terraforming the planet Chapterhouse to accommodate the all-important sandworms, as the planet Dune had been destroyed by the Matres. Sheeana, in charge of the project, expects sandworms to appear soon. The Honored Matres have also destroyed the entire Bene Tleilax civilization, with Tleilaxu Master Scytale the only one of his kind left alive. In Bene Gesserit captivity, Scytale possesses the Tleilaxu secret of ghola production, which he has reluctantly traded for the Sisterhood's protection. The first ghola produced is that of their recently deceased military genius, Miles Teg. The Bene Gesserit have two other prisoners on Chapterhouse: the latest Duncan Idaho ghola, and former Honored Matre Murbella, whom they have accepted as a novice despite their suspicion that she intends to escape back to the Honored Matres. Lampadas, a center for Bene Gesserit education, has been destroyed by the Honored Matres. The planet's Chancellor, Reverend Mother Lucilla, manages to escape carrying the shared-minds of millions of Reverend Mothers. Lucilla is forced to land on Gammu where she seeks refuge with an underground group of Jews. The Rabbi gives Lucilla sanctuary, but to save his people from the Matres he must deliver her to them. Before doing so, he reveals Rebecca, a "wild" Reverend Mother who has gained her Other Memory without Bene Gesserit training. Lucilla shares minds with Rebecca, who promises to take the memories of Lampadas safely back to the Sisterhood. Lucilla is then "betrayed", and taken before the Great Honored Matre Dama, who tries to persuade her to join the Honored Matres, preserving her life in exchange for Bene Gesserit secrets. The Honored Matres are particularly interested in learning to voluntarily modify their body chemistry, a skill that atrophied among the Bene Gesserit who went out into the Scattering and evolved into the Honored Matres. From this, Lucilla deduces that the greater enemy that the Matres are fleeing from is making extensive use of biological warfare. Lucilla refuses to share this knowledge with the Matres, and Dama ultimately kills her. Back on Chapterhouse, Odrade confronts Duncan and forces him to admit that he is a Mentat, proving that he retains the memories of his many ghola lives. Meanwhile, Murbella collapses under the pressure of Bene Gesserit training, and realizes that she wants to be Bene Gesserit. Odrade believes that the Sisterhood made a mistake in fearing emotion, and that in order to evolve, they must learn to accept emotions. Murbella survives the spice agony and becomes a Reverend Mother. Odrade confronts Sheeana, discovering that Duncan and Sheeana have been allies for some time. Sheeana does not reveal that they have been considering the option of reawakening Teg's memory through imprinting, nor does Odrade discover that Sheeana has the keys to Duncan's no-ship prison. Teg is awakened by Sheeana using imprinting techniques. Odrade appoints him again as Bashar of the military forces of the Sisterhood for the assault on the Honored Matres. Odrade announces to the Bene Gesserit that Teg will lead an attack against the Honored Matres. She also makes clear her intention to share her memories with Murbella and Sheeana, making them candidates to succeed her as Mother Superior if she dies. Odrade meets with the Great Honored Matre while the Bene Gesserit forces under Teg attack Gammu with tremendous force. Teg uses his secret ability to see no-ships to secure control of the system, and victory for the Bene Gesserit seems inevitable. In the midst of this battle, Rebecca and the Jews take refuge with the Bene Gesserit fleet. Dama's chief advisor Logno assassinates Dama with poison and assumes control of the Honored Matres. Too late, Odrade and Teg realize they have fallen into a trap, and the Honored Matres use a mysterious weapon to turn defeat into victory, and capture Odrade. Murbella saves as much of the Bene Gesserit force as she can and they withdraw to Chapterhouse. Odrade, however, had planned for the possible failure of the Bene Gesserit attack and left Murbella instructions for a last desperate gamble. Murbella pilots a small craft down to the surface, announcing herself as an Honored Matre who, in the confusion, has managed to escape the Bene Gesserit with all their secrets. She arrives on the planet and is taken to the Great Honored Matre. Unable to control her anger, Logno attacks but is killed by Murbella. Awed by her physical prowess, the remaining Honored Matres are forced to accept her as their new leader. Odrade is also killed in the melee and Murbella shares with Odrade to absorb her newest memories, as they had already shared prior to the battle. Murbella's ascension to leadership is not accepted as victory by all the Bene Gesserit. Some flee Chapterhouse, notably Sheeana, who has a vision of her own, and arranges to have some of the new worms that have emerged in the Chapterhouse desert brought aboard the no-ship. Sheeana is joined by Duncan. The two escape in the giant no-ship, with Scytale, Teg and the Jews. Murbella recognizes their plan at the last minute, but is powerless to stop them. Reception Chapterhouse: Dune debuted at No. 5 and rose to No. 2 on The New York Times Best Seller list. Gerald Jonas of The New York Times noted that "Against all odds, the universe of Dune keeps getting richer in texture, more challenging in its moral dilemmas." Dave Langford reviewed the novel for White Dwarf #65, and stated that "The hyper-acute characters are impressive, the resolution thoughtful and humane. Though initially I gave up after Children, Heretics and Chapter House have partially Restored My Faith." Sequels Two decades after Frank Herbert's death, his son Brian Herbert, along with Kevin J. Anderson, published two sequels – Hunters of Dune (2006) and Sandworms of Dune (2007) – based on notes left behind by Frank Herbert for what he referred to as Dune 7, his own planned seventh novel in the Dune series, while also continuing plot-lines from Brian Herbert's and Kevin J. Anderson's own Dune prequel novels. References External links * * [https://archive.org/details/chapterhousedune00herb Chapterhouse: Dune] Category:1985 American novels Category:Sequel novels Category:1985 science fiction novels Category:Dune (franchise) novels Category:G. P. Putnam's Sons books Category:Novels by Frank Herbert Category:Works about women in war
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapterhouse:_Dune
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Bus (computing)
250px|thumb|Four PCI Express bus card slots (from top to second from bottom: ×4, ×16, ×1 and ×16), compared to a 32-bit conventional PCI bus card slot (very bottom) In computer architecture, a bus (historically also called a data highway or databus) is a communication system that transfers data between components inside a computer or between computers. It encompasses both hardware (e.g., wires, optical fiber) and software, including communication protocols. At its core, a bus is a shared physical pathway, typically composed of wires, traces on a circuit board, or busbars, that allows multiple devices to communicate. To prevent conflicts and ensure orderly data exchange, buses rely on a communication protocol to manage which device can transmit data at a given time. Buses are categorized based on their role, such as system buses (also known as internal buses, internal data buses, or memory buses) connecting the CPU and memory. Expansion buses, also called peripheral buses, extend the system to connect additional devices, including peripherals. Examples of widely used buses include PCI Express (PCIe) for high-speed internal connections and Universal Serial Bus (USB) for connecting external devices. Modern buses utilize both parallel and serial communication, employing advanced encoding methods to maximize speed and efficiency. Features such as direct memory access (DMA) further enhance performance by allowing data transfers directly between devices and memory without requiring CPU intervention. Address bus An address bus is a bus that is used to specify a physical address. When a processor or DMA-enabled device needs to read or write to a memory location, it specifies that memory location on the address bus (the value to be read or written is sent on the data bus). The width of the address bus determines the amount of memory a system can address. For example, a system with a 32-bit address bus can address 232 (4,294,967,296) memory locations. If each memory location holds one byte, the addressable memory space is about . Address multiplexing Early processors used a wire for each bit of the address width. For example, a 16-bit address bus had 16 physical wires making up the bus. As the buses became wider and lengthier, this approach became expensive in terms of the number of chip pins and board traces. Beginning with the Mostek 4096 DRAM, address multiplexing implemented with multiplexers became common. In a multiplexed address scheme, the address is sent in two equal parts on alternate bus cycles. This halves the number of address bus signals required to connect to the memory. For example, a 32-bit address bus can be implemented by using 16 lines and sending the first half of the memory address, immediately followed by the second half memory address. Typically two additional pins in the control busrow-address strobe (RAS) and column-address strobe (CAS)are used to tell the DRAM whether the address bus is currently sending the first half of the memory address or the second half. Implementation Accessing an individual byte frequently requires reading or writing the full bus width (a word) at once. In these instances the least significant bits of the address bus may not even be implemented - it is instead the responsibility of the controlling device to isolate the individual byte required from the complete word transmitted. This is the case, for instance, with the VESA Local Bus which lacks the two least significant bits, limiting this bus to aligned 32-bit transfers. Historically, there were also some examples of computers that were only able to address wordsword machines. Memory bus The memory bus is the bus that connects the main memory to the memory controller in computer systems. Originally, general-purpose buses like VMEbus and the S-100 bus were used, but to reduce latency, modern memory buses are designed to connect directly to DRAM chips, and thus are defined by chip standards bodies such as JEDEC. Examples are the various generations of SDRAM, and serial point-to-point buses like SLDRAM and RDRAM. Implementation details Buses can be parallel buses, which carry data words in parallel on multiple wires, or serial buses, which carry data in bit-serial form. The addition of extra power and control connections, differential drivers, and data connections in each direction usually means that most serial buses have more conductors than the minimum of one used in 1-Wire and UNI/O. As data rates increase, the problems of timing skew, power consumption, electromagnetic interference and crosstalk across parallel buses become more and more difficult to circumvent. One partial solution to this problem has been to double pump the bus. Often, a serial bus can be operated at higher overall data rates than a parallel bus, despite having fewer electrical connections, because a serial bus inherently has no timing skew or crosstalk. USB, FireWire, and Serial ATA are examples of this. Multidrop connections do not work well for fast serial buses, so most modern serial buses use daisy-chain or hub designs. The transition from parallel to serial buses was allowed by Moore's law which allowed for the incorporation of SerDes in integrated circuits which are used in computers. Network connections such as Ethernet are not generally regarded as buses, although the difference is largely conceptual rather than practical. An attribute generally used to characterize a bus is that power is provided by the bus for the connected hardware. This emphasizes the busbar origins of bus architecture as supplying switched or distributed power. This excludes, as buses, schemes such as serial RS-232, parallel Centronics, IEEE 1284 interfaces and Ethernet, since these devices also needed separate power supplies. Universal Serial Bus devices may use the bus supplied power, but often use a separate power source. This distinction is exemplified by a telephone system with a connected modem, where the RJ11 connection and associated modulated signalling scheme is not considered a bus, and is analogous to an Ethernet connection. A phone line connection scheme is not considered to be a bus with respect to signals, but the Central Office uses buses with cross-bar switches for connections between phones. However, this distinctionthat power is provided by the busis not the case in many avionic systems, where data connections such as ARINC 429, ARINC 629, MIL-STD-1553B (STANAG 3838), and EFABus (STANAG 3910) are commonly referred to as data buses or, sometimes, databuses. Such avionic data buses are usually characterized by having several equipments or Line Replaceable Items/Units (LRI/LRUs) connected to a common, shared media. They may, as with ARINC 429, be simplex, i.e. have a single source LRI/LRU or, as with ARINC 629, MIL-STD-1553B, and STANAG 3910, be duplex, allow all the connected LRI/LRUs to act, at different times (half duplex), as transmitters and receivers of data. The frequency or the speed of a bus is measured in Hz such as MHz and determines how many clock cycles there are per second; there can be one or more data transfers per clock cycle. If there is a single transfer per clock cycle it is known as Single Data Rate (SDR), and if there are two transfers per clock cycle it is known as Double Data Rate (DDR) although the use of signalling other than SDR is uncommon outside of RAM. An example of this is PCIe which uses SDR. Within each data transfer there can be multiple bits of data. This is described as the width of a bus which is the number of bits the bus can transfer per clock cycle and can be synonymous with the number of physical electrical conductors the bus has if each conductor transfers one bit at a time. The data rate in bits per second can be obtained by multiplying the number of bits per clock cycle times the frequency times the number of transfers per clock cycle. Alternatively a bus such as PCIe can use modulation or encoding such as PAM4 which groups 2 bits into symbols which are then transferred instead of the bits themselves, and allows for an increase in data transfer speed without increasing the frequency of the bus. The effective or real data transfer speed/rate may be lower due to the use of encoding that also allows for error correction such as 128/130b (b for bit) encoding. The data transfer speed is also known as the bandwidth. Bus multiplexing The simplest system bus has completely separate input data lines, output data lines, and address lines. To reduce cost, most microcomputers have a bidirectional data bus, re-using the same wires for input and output at different times. Some processors use a dedicated wire for each bit of the address bus, data bus, and the control bus. For example, the 64-pin STEbus is composed of 8 physical wires dedicated to the 8-bit data bus, 20 physical wires dedicated to the 20-bit address bus, 21 physical wires dedicated to the control bus, and 15 physical wires dedicated to various power buses. Bus multiplexing requires fewer wires, which reduces costs in many early microprocessors and DRAM chips. One common multiplexing scheme, address multiplexing, has already been mentioned. Another multiplexing scheme re-uses the address bus pins as the data bus pins, they were named after electrical power buses, or busbars. Almost always, there was one bus for memory, and one or more separate buses for peripherals. These were accessed by separate instructions, with completely different timings and protocols. One of the first complications was the use of interrupts. Early computer programs performed I/O by waiting in a loop for the peripheral to become ready. This was a waste of time for programs that had other tasks to do. Also, if the program attempted to perform those other tasks, it might take too long for the program to check again, resulting in loss of data. Engineers thus arranged for the peripherals to interrupt the CPU. The interrupts had to be prioritized, because the CPU can only execute code for one peripheral at a time, and some devices are more time-critical than others. High-end systems introduced the idea of channel controllers, which were essentially small computers dedicated to handling the input and output of a given bus. IBM introduced these on the IBM 709 in 1958, and they became a common feature of their platforms. Other high-performance vendors like Control Data Corporation implemented similar designs. Generally, the channel controllers would do their best to run all of the bus operations internally, moving data when the CPU was known to be busy elsewhere if possible, and only using interrupts when necessary. This greatly reduced CPU load, and provided better overall system performance. thumb|right|400px |Single system bus To provide modularity, memory and I/O buses can be combined into a unified system bus. In this case, a single mechanical and electrical system can be used to connect together many of the system components, or in some cases, all of them. Later computer programs began to share memory common to several CPUs. Access to this memory bus had to be prioritized, as well. The simple way to prioritize interrupts or bus access was with a daisy chain. In this case signals will naturally flow through the bus in physical or logical order, eliminating the need for complex scheduling. Minis and micros Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) further reduced cost for mass-produced minicomputers, and mapped peripherals into the memory bus, so that the input and output devices appeared to be memory locations. This was implemented in the Unibus of the PDP-11 around 1969. Early microcomputer bus systems were essentially a passive backplane connected directly or through buffer amplifiers to the pins of the CPU. Memory and other devices would be added to the bus using the same address and data pins as the CPU itself used, connected in parallel. Communication was controlled by the CPU, which read and wrote data from the devices as if they are blocks of memory, using the same instructions, all timed by a central clock controlling the speed of the CPU. Still, devices interrupted the CPU by signaling on separate CPU pins. For instance, a disk drive controller would signal the CPU that new data was ready to be read, at which point the CPU would move the data by reading the memory location that corresponded to the disk drive. Almost all early microcomputers were built in this fashion, starting with the S-100 bus in the Altair 8800 computer system. In some instances, most notably in the IBM PC, although similar physical architecture can be employed, instructions to access peripherals (in and out) and memory (mov and others) have not been made uniform at all, and still generate distinct CPU signals, that could be used to implement a separate I/O bus. These simple bus systems had a serious drawback when used for general-purpose computers. All the equipment on the bus had to talk at the same speed, as it shared a single clock. Increasing the speed of the CPU becomes harder, because the speed of all the devices must increase as well. When it is not practical or economical to have all devices as fast as the CPU, the CPU must either enter a wait state, or work at a slower clock frequency temporarily, to talk to other devices in the computer. While acceptable in embedded systems, this problem was not tolerated for long in general-purpose, user-expandable computers. Such bus systems are also difficult to configure when constructed from common off-the-shelf equipment. Typically each added expansion card requires many jumpers in order to set memory addresses, I/O addresses, interrupt priorities, and interrupt numbers. Second generation Second-generation bus systems like NuBus addressed some of these problems. They typically separated the computer into two address spaces, the CPU and memory on one side, and the various peripheral devices on the other. A bus controller accepted data from the CPU side to be moved to the peripherals side, thus shifting the communications protocol burden from the CPU itself. This allowed the CPU and memory side to evolve separately from the peripheral bus. Devices on the bus could talk to each other with no CPU intervention. This led to much better performance but also required the cards to be much more complex. These buses also often addressed speed issues by being bigger in terms of the size of the data path, moving from 8-bit parallel buses in the first generation, to 16 or 32-bit in the second, as well as adding software setup (later standardized as Plug-n-play) to supplant or replace the jumpers. However, these newer systems shared one quality with their earlier cousins, in that everyone on the bus had to talk at the same speed. While the CPU was now isolated and could increase speed, CPUs and memory continued to increase in speed much faster than the buses they talked to. The result was that the bus speeds were now much slower than what a modern system needed, and the machines were left starved for data. A particularly common example of this problem was that video cards quickly outran even the newer bus systems like PCI, and computers began to include AGP just to drive the video card. By 2004 AGP was outgrown again by high-end video cards and other peripherals and has been replaced by the new PCI Express bus. An increasing number of external devices started employing their own bus systems as well. When disk drives were first introduced, they would be added to the machine with a card plugged into the bus, which is why computers have so many slots on the bus. But through the 1980s and 1990s, new systems like SCSI and IDE were introduced to serve this need, leaving most slots in modern systems empty. Today there are likely to be about five different buses in the typical machine, supporting various devices. Third generation Third-generation buses have been emerging into the market since about 2001, including HyperTransport and InfiniBand. They also tend to be very flexible in terms of their physical connections, allowing them to be used both as internal buses, as well as connecting different machines together. This can lead to complex problems when trying to service different requests, so much of the work on these systems concerns software design, as opposed to the hardware itself. In general, these third-generation buses tend to look more like a network than the original concept of a bus, with a higher protocol overhead needed than early systems, while also allowing multiple devices to use the bus at once. Buses such as Wishbone have been developed by the open source hardware movement in an attempt to further remove legal and patent constraints from computer design. The Compute Express Link (CXL) is an open standard interconnect for high-speed CPU-to-device and CPU-to-memory, designed to accelerate next-generation data center performance. Examples of internal computer buses Parallel Asus Media Bus proprietary, used on some Asus Socket 7 motherboards Computer Automated Measurement and Control (CAMAC) for instrumentation systems Extended ISA or EISA Industry Standard Architecture or ISA Low Pin Count or LPC MBus MicroChannel or MCA Multibus for industrial systems NuBus or IEEE 1196 OPTi local bus used on early Intel 80486 motherboards. Peripheral Component Interconnect or Conventional PCI Parallel ATA (also known as Advanced Technology Attachment, ATA, PATA, IDE, EIDE, ATAPI, etc.), Hard disk drive, optical disk drive, tape drive peripheral attachment bus S-100 bus or IEEE 696, used in the Altair 8800 and similar microcomputers SBus or IEEE 1496 SS-50 Bus Runway bus, a proprietary front side CPU bus developed by Hewlett-Packard for use by its PA-RISC microprocessor family GSC/HSC, a proprietary peripheral bus developed by Hewlett-Packard for use by its PA-RISC microprocessor family Precision Bus, a proprietary bus developed by Hewlett-Packard for use by its HP3000 computer family STEbus STD Bus (for STD-80 [8-bit] and STD32 [16-/32-bit]), FAQ Unibus, a proprietary bus developed by Digital Equipment Corporation for their PDP-11 and early VAX computers. Q-Bus, a proprietary bus developed by Digital Equipment Corporation for their PDP and later VAX computers. VESA Local Bus or VLB or VL-bus VMEbus, the VERSAmodule Eurocard bus PC/104 PC/104-Plus PCI-104 PCI/104-Express PCI/104 Zorro II and Zorro III, used in Amiga computer systems Serial 1-Wire HyperTransport I²C I3C (bus) SLIMbus PCI Express or PCIe Serial ATA (SATA), Hard disk drive, solid-state drive, optical disc drive, tape drive peripheral attachment bus Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) bus UNI/O SMBus Advanced eXtensible Interface M-PHY Examples of external computer buses Parallel HIPPI High Performance Parallel Interface IEEE-488 (also known as GPIB, General-Purpose Interface Bus, and HPIB, Hewlett-Packard Instrumentation Bus) PC Card, previously known as PCMCIA, much used in laptop computers and other portables, but fading with the introduction of USB and built-in network and modem connections Serial Many field buses are serial data buses (not to be confused with the parallel data bus section of a system bus or expansion card), several of which use the RS-485 electrical characteristics and then specify their own protocol and connector: CAN bus ("Controller Area Network") Modbus ARINC 429 MIL-STD-1553 IEEE 1355 Other serial buses include: Camera Link eSATA ExpressCard IEEE 1394 interface (FireWire) RS-232 Thunderbolt USB Examples of internal/external computer buses Futurebus InfiniBand PCI Express External Cabling QuickRing Scalable Coherent Interface (SCI) Small Computer System Interface (SCSI), Hard disk drive and tape drive peripheral attachment bus Serial Attached SCSI (SAS) and other serial SCSI buses Thunderbolt Yapbus, a proprietary bus developed for the Pixar Image Computer See also Address decoder Bus contention Bus error Bus mastering Communication endpoint Computer port (hardware) Control bus Crossbar switch Memory address Front-side bus (FSB) External Bus Interface (EBI) Harvard architecture Master/slave (technology) Network on chip List of device bandwidths List of network buses Software bus References External links Computer hardware buses and slots pinouts with brief descriptions Category:Digital electronics Category:Motherboard Category:Communication interfaces
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bus_(computing)
2025-04-05T18:27:52.802649
6634
Cadillac (disambiguation)
Cadillac is a General Motors luxury car brand. Cadillac may also refer to: People Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac, French explorer, founder of Detroit Marie-Therese Guyon Cadillac, American pioneer Cadillac Anderson (born 1964) nickname of U.S. basketball player Gregory Wayne Anderson Cadillac Williams (born 1982) nickname of U.S. American football player Carnell Lamar Williams Geography Cadillac (Montreal Metro), a metro station on the green line in Montreal Cadillac, Gironde, a commune in the Gironde department, in southwestern France Cadillac, Michigan, United States Cadillac, Saskatchewan, Canada Cadillac, a former municipality now part of Rouyn-Noranda, Quebec, Canada Cadillac Mountain, Maine, United States Cadillac Ranch (disambiguation) Lake Cadillac, a lake in Cadillac, Michigan Arts, entertainment, and media Games Cadillac, a variation on the card game Thirty-one played in south Louisiana Square Deal: The Game of Two Dimensional Poker, known in Japan as Cadillac II, a Hect video game Cadillacs and Dinosaurs (video game), a 1993 beat 'em up video game Music Cadillac (album), a 1989 album by Johnny Hallyday Cadillac (band), a Spanish pop band Cadillac (record label), a jazz record label founded in the United Kingdom in 1973 The Cadillacs, a vocal group from the United States Songs "Brand New Cadillac", a 1959 song also recorded as "Cadillac" "Cadilac" (sic), the B-side of the T. Rex 1972 single Telegram Sam "Cadillac", a 1960 song from Bo Diddley's album Bo Diddley Is a Gunslinger "Cadillac", a 1964 song by the British rock band The Renegades "Cadillac", a 1986 song from The Firm's album Mean Business "Cadillac", a 1989 song from Johnny Hallyday's eponymous album Cadillac "Cadillac", a 2011 song from the Original 7ven album Condensate "Cadillac", a 2020 song from the Foster the People EP In the Darkest of Nights, Let the Birds Sing "Cadillac" (Morgenshtern and Eldzhey song), a 2020 song by Russian rappers Morgenshtern and Eldzhey Other arts, entertainment, and media Cadillac, a guitar model made by Dean Guitars "The Cadillac", an episode of the television series Seinfeld Cadillacs and Dinosaurs, a TV animated series Brands and enterprises Cadillac Gage, now part of Textron Marine & Land Systems Cadillac insurance plan in the United States Wine and grapes Burger (grape), a California-French wine grape that is also known as Cadillac Cadillac AOC, the appellation d'origine contrôlée Bordeaux wine produced in the French commune Muscadelle, a French wine grape that is also known as Cadillac Trebbiano, an Italian wine grape that is also known as Cadillac Other uses Cadillac, an alternative name for cocaine Project Cadillac, a World War 2 US Navy project to develop radar-equipped early warning aircraft See also List of Cadillac vehicles, automobiles from GM division Cadillac Cadillac-en-Fronsadais, a commune in the Gironde department, in southwestern France Cadillac, Cadillac (2014 song) rock song by Train
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadillac_(disambiguation)
2025-04-05T18:27:52.806114
6635
Chinese checkers
| players = 2–4, 6 | playing_time = 10–30 minutes | random_chance = None | ages = 7+ | skills = Strategy, tactics | AKA = }} Chinese checkers (US) or Chinese chequers (UK), known as Sternhalma in German, is a strategy board game of German origin that can be played by two, three, four, or six people, playing individually or with partners. The game is a modern and simplified variation of the game Halma. The objective is to be first to race all of one's pieces across the hexagram-shaped board into "home"—the corner of the star opposite one's starting corner—using single-step moves or moves that over other pieces. The remaining players continue the game to establish second-, third-, fourth-, fifth-, and last-place finishers. History and nomenclature , 1942]] The game was invented in Germany in 1892 under the name "Stern-Halma" as a variation of the older American game Halma. Like all Halma games, there is a similarity to checkers. The (German for star) refers to the board's star shape (in contrast to the square board used in Halma). The name "Chinese checkers" originated in the United States as a marketing scheme by Bill and Jack Pressman in 1928. The Pressman company's game was originally called "Hop Ching checkers". The game is known as () in Chinese. In Japan, the game has a variation called with slightly different rules. Rules The aim is to race all one's pieces into the star corner on the opposite side of the board before the opponents do the same. The destination corner is called home. Each player has 10 pieces, except in games between two players, when 15 pieces are used. (On bigger star boards, 15 or 21 pieces are used.) In "hop across", the most popular variation, each player starts with their colored pieces on one of the six points or corners of the star and attempts to race them all home into the opposite corner. Players take turns moving a single piece, either by moving one step in any direction to an adjacent empty space, or by jumping in one or any number of available consecutive hops over other single pieces. A player may not combine hopping with a single-step move — a move consists of one or the other. There is no capturing in Chinese checkers, so pieces that are hopped over remain active and in play. Turns proceed clockwise around the board. a piece may hop over a non-adjacent piece. A hop consists of jumping over a distant piece (friend or enemy) to a symmetrical position on the opposite side, in the same line of direction. (For example, if there are two empty positions between the jumping piece and the piece being jumped, the jumping piece lands, leaving exactly two empty positions immediately beyond the jumped piece.) As in the standard rules, a jumping move may consist of any number of a chain of hops. (When making a chain of hops, a piece is usually allowed to enter an empty corner, as long as it hops out again before the move is completed.) Jumping over two or more pieces in a hop is not allowed. Therefore, in this variant, even more than in the standard version, it is sometimes strategically important to keep one's pieces bunched in order to prevent a long opposing hop. An alternative variant allows hops over any symmetrical arrangement, including pairs of pieces, pieces separated by empty positions, and so on. Capture In the capture variant, all sixty game pieces start out in the hexagonal field in the center of the gameboard. The center position is left unoccupied, so pieces form a symmetric hexagonal pattern. Color is irrelevant in this variant, so players take turns hopping any game piece over any other eligible game piece(s) on the board. The hopped-over pieces are captured (retired from the game, as in English draughts) and collected in the capturing player's bin. Only jumping moves are allowed; the game ends when no further jumps are possible. The player with the most captured pieces is the winner. The board is tightly packed at the start of the game. As more pieces are captured, the board frees up, often allowing multiple captures to take place in a single move. Two or more players can compete in this variant, but if there are more than six players, not everyone will get a fair turn. This variant resembles the game Leap Frog. The main difference being that in Leap Frog, the board is a square board. Diamond game Diamond game () is a variant of Chinese checkers played in South Korea and Japan. It uses the same jump rule as in Chinese checkers. The aim of the game is to enter all one's pieces into the star corner on the opposite side of the board, before opponents do the same. Each player has ten or fifteen pieces. Ten-piece diamond uses a smaller gameboard than Chinese checkers, with 73 spaces. Fifteen-piece diamond uses the same board as in Chinese checkers, with 121 spaces. To play diamond, each player selects one color and places their 10 or 15 pieces on a triangle. Two or three players can compete. Usually, there are one "king piece" () and 14 common pieces () on each side. The king piece is the piece at the apex of each area and can jump over the common pieces, but the common pieces cannot jump over the king piece. Yin and Yang In Yin and Yang, only two players compete and as in chess, Go, and Othello, only the black and the white marbles are used. For more interesting play, at the start of the game, the triangle placement of the opponents' marbles does not have to be 180 degrees in opposition. Order Out Of Chaos Two or more players select their coloured marbles and then those marbles are randomly placed in the centre of the board. The object of the game is then for the players to move their marbles out of the chaos to their home corners, creating order; the reverse of half a traditional game. Notes References * * * * External links * [http://chinesecheckers.vegard2.net/history.html Chinese Checkers] history of Halma and Chinese Checkers by Vegard Krog Petersen * [http://arxiv.org/abs/0803.1245 Shortest Possible Game] study of 10- and 15-marble armies * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1ZU5CpoNJZc Shortest Possible Game] video of 10-marble army * * [https://www.amazon.com/Regal-Chinese-Checkers-Natural-Marbles/dp/B08C1TXMGL/refsxin_16_pa_sp_search_thematic_sspa?content-idamzn1.sym.1c86ab1a-a73c-4131-85f1-15bd92ae152d%3Aamzn1.sym.1c86ab1a-a73c-4131-85f1-15bd92ae152d&crid1EWMFQ3UQAG61&cv_ct_cxchinese+checkers&keywordschinese+checkers&pd_rd_iB08C1TXMGL&pd_rd_rdd2b6d8d-06ce-4b8b-a69a-51cd7e7555e9&pd_rd_wqwwsB&pd_rd_wgNLH35&pf_rd_p1c86ab1a-a73c-4131-85f1-15bd92ae152d&pf_rd_rQTGFM4M8JREE32T96WC0&qid1690476682&sboRZvfv%2F%2FHxDF%2BO5021pAnSA%3D%3D&sprefixChinese+%2Caps%2C113&sr1-4-364cf978-ce2a-480a-9bb0-bdb96faa0f61-spons&sp_csdd2lkZ2V0TmFtZT1zcF9zZWFyY2hfdGhlbWF0aWM&psc1&smidA3SZ3BN7XJVZ4H Classic Chinese Checkers Board] Category:Abstract strategy games Category:Board games introduced in the 1890s Category:German inventions Category:Marble games
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_checkers
2025-04-05T18:27:52.811047
6639
Cantor Fitzgerald
| location = New York City, U.S. | key_people = Brandon Lutnick (Chairman)<br />Pascal Bandelier, Sage Kelly, and Christian Wall (co-CEOs) | industry = Financial services<br />Investment banking | num_employees 12,000 | homepage = }} Cantor Fitzgerald, L.P. is an American financial services firm that was founded in 1945. It specializes in institutional equity, fixed-income sales and trading, and serving the middle market with investment banking services, prime brokerage, and commercial real estate financing. It is also active in new businesses, including advisory and asset management services, gaming technology, and e-commerce. It has more than 5,000 institutional clients. Cantor Fitzgerald is one of 24 primary dealers that are authorized to trade US government securities with the Federal Reserve Bank of New York. Cantor Fitzgerald's 1,600 employees work in more than 30 locations, including financial centers in the Americas, Europe, Asia-Pacific, and the Middle East. Together with its affiliates, Cantor Fitzgerald operates in more than 60 offices in 20 countries and has more than 12,500 employees. Before 2001, the company's headquarters were located between the 101st and 105th floors of the North Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City, just above the impact site of American Airlines Flight 11 during the September 11 attacks. 658 Cantor Fitzgerald employees who were present that day were killed, representing the largest loss of life among any single organization in the attacks. Early history Cantor Fitzgerald was formed in 1945 by Bernard Gerald Cantor and John Fitzgerald as an investment bank and brokerage business. It later became known for its computer-based bond brokerage, the quality of its institutional distribution business model, and the market's premier government securities dealer. In 1965, Cantor Fitzgerald began "large block" sales/trading of equities for institutional customers. It became the world's first electronic marketplace for US government securities in 1972, and in 1983, it was the first to offer worldwide screen brokerage services in US government securities. In 1991, Howard Lutnick was named president and CEO of Cantor Fitzgerald; he became chairman of Cantor Fitzgerald, L.P., in 1996. September 11 attacks Cantor Fitzgerald's corporate headquarters and New York City office, on the 101st to the 105th floors of 1 World Trade Center in Lower Manhattan (2 to 6 floors above the impact zone of American Airlines Flight 11), were destroyed during the September 11, 2001 attacks. At 8:46:46 a.m., eighteen seconds after the plane struck the tower, a Goldman Sachs server issued an alert saying that its trading system had gone offline because it could not connect with the server. Since all stairwells leading past the impact zone were destroyed by the initial crash or blocked with smoke, fire, or debris, every employee who reported for work that morning was killed in the attacks; 658 of its 960 New York employees were killed or missing, or 68.5% of its total workforce, which was considerably more than any of the other World Trade Center tenants, the New York City Police Department, the Port Authority Police Department, the New York City Fire Department, or the Department of Defense. Forty-six contractors, food service workers, and visitors in the Cantor Fitzgerald offices at the time were also killed. CEO Howard Lutnick was not present that day, but his younger brother, Gary, was among those killed. Lutnick vowed to keep the company alive, and the company was able to bring its trading markets back online within a week. On September 19, Cantor Fitzgerald made a pledge to distribute 25% of the firm's profits for the next five years, and it committed to paying for ten years of health care for the benefit of the families of its 658 former Cantor Fitzgerald, eSpeed, and TradeSpark employees (profits that would otherwise have been distributed to the Cantor Fitzgerald partners). In 2006, the company had completed its promise, having paid a total of $180 million (and an additional $17 million from a relief fund run by Lutnick's sister, Edie). Until the attacks, Cantor had handled about a quarter of the daily transactions in the multi-trillion dollar treasury security market. Cantor Fitzgerald has since rebuilt its infrastructure, partly through the efforts of its London office, and now has its headquarters in Midtown Manhattan. The company's effort to regain its footing was the subject of Tom Barbash's 2003 book On Top of the World: Cantor Fitzgerald, Howard Lutnick, and 9/11: A Story of Loss and Renewal as well as a 2012 documentary, Out of the Clear Blue Sky. On September 2, 2004, Cantor and other organizations filed a civil lawsuit against Saudi Arabia for allegedly providing money to the hijackers and al-Qaeda. It was later joined in the suit by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Most of the claims against Saudi Arabia were dismissed on January 18, 2005. In December 2013, Cantor Fitzgerald settled its lawsuit against American Airlines for $135 million. Cantor Fitzgerald had been suing for loss of property and interruption of business by alleging the airline to have been negligent by allowing hijackers to board Flight 11.Recent historyIn 2003, the firm launched its fixed-income sales and trading group. Three years later, the Federal Reserve added Cantor Fitzgerald & Co. to its list of primary dealers. The firm later launched Cantor Prime Services in 2009. It was meant to be a provider of multi-asset, perimeter brokerage prime brokerage platforms to exploit its clearing, financing, and execution capabilities. A year after, Cantor Fitzgerald began building its real estate business with the launch of CCRE. Cantor's affiliate, BGC Partners, expanded into commercial real estate services in 2011 by its purchase of Newmark Knight Frank and the assets of Grubb & Ellis, to form Newmark Grubb Knight Frank. On December 5, 2014, two Cantor Fitzgerald analysts were said to be in the top 25 analysts on TipRanks. Cantor Fitzgerald has a prolific special-purpose acquisition company underwriting practice, having led all banks in SPAC underwriting activity in both 2018 and 2019. In March 2016, Sage Kelly, formerly of Jefferies & Co., joined the firm as senior managing director and head of its investment-banking division. Philanthropy Edie wrote An Unbroken Bond: The Untold Story of How the 658 Cantor Fitzgerald Families Faced the Tragedy of 9/11 and Beyond. All proceeds from the book's sale benefit the Cantor Fitzgerald Relief Fund and the charities it assists. The Cantor Fitzgerald Relief Fund provided $10 million to families affected by Hurricane Sandy. Howard Lutnick and the Relief Fund "adopted" 19 elementary schools in impacted areas by distributing $1,000 prepaid debit cards to each family from the schools. A total of $10 million in funds was given to families affected by the storm. Two days after the 2013 Moore tornado struck Moore, Oklahoma, killing 24 people and injuring hundreds, Lutnick pledged to donate $2 million to families affected by the tornado. The donation was given to families in the form of $1,000 debit cards. Each year, on September 11, Cantor Fitzgerald and its affiliate, BGC Partners, donate 100% of their revenue to charitable causes on their annual Charity Day, which was initially established to raise money to assist the families of the Cantor employees who died in the World Trade Center attacks. Since its inception, Charity Day has raised $192 million for charities globally.Subsidiaries and affiliates The firm has many subsidiaries and affiliates, including: * BGC Partners, named after fixed-income trading innovator and founder B. Gerald Cantor, is a global brokerage company that services the wholesale financial markets and commercial real estate marketplace in New York, London, and other financial centers. BGC Partners includes Newmark Grubb Knight Frank, the fourth-largest real estate service provider in the US. * Cantor Ventures is the company's corporate venture capital and enterprise development arm. Led by Henrique De Castro, the group's current investments include delivery.com, Ritani, TopLine Game Labs, AdFin, Lucera, NewsWhip, and XIX Entertainment. *Hollywood Stock Exchange, founded in 1996, is the world's virtual entertainment stock market. * TopLine Game Labs is a technology company to create short-duration fantasy sports and entertainment-based social gaming. Headquartered in Los Angeles, TopLine Game Labs was, in 2013, building a platform-agnostic architecture to power game experiences for sports.Senior management List of chairpersons # Bernie Cantor (1945–1996) # Howard Lutnick (1996–2025) # Brandon Lutnick (2025–present) List of CEOs # Bernie Cantor (1945–1991) # Howard Lutnick (1991–2025) # Pascal Bandelier, Sage Kelly, and Christian Wall (co-CEOs) (since February 2025)See also * Boutique investment bank * List of investment banks References External links * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20061207150215/http://www.cantorfamilies.com/cantor/jsp/index.jsp Cantor Families Memorial] * [http://cantorrelief.org/ Cantor Relief Fund] * [https://search.worldcat.org/title/50244084 On Top of the World: Cantor Fitzgerald, Howard Lutnick, and 9/11: A Story of Loss and Renewal] () * [https://www.nytimes.com/2002/09/17/nyregion/17FUND.html "Worst-Hit Firm Faults Fairness of Sept. 11 Aid"], The New York Times, September 17, 2002 Category:1945 establishments in New York (state) Category:American companies established in 1945 Category:Banks based in New York City Category:Banks established in 1945 Category:Financial derivative trading companies Category:Investment banks in the United States Category:Primary dealers Category:September 11 attacks
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantor_Fitzgerald
2025-04-05T18:27:52.820054
6641
Cane toad
| image = Canetoadmale.jpg | image_caption = Adult male | image2 = Canetoadfemale.jpg | image2_caption = Adult female | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref | genus = Rhinella | species = marina | authority = (Linnaeus, 1758) | range_map = Bufo marinus distribution.png | range_map_caption = Distribution of the cane toad, native distribution in blue, introduced in red | synonyms = * Rana marina <small>Linnaeus, 1758</small> * Bufo marinus <small>Schneider, 1799</small> * Rhinella marinus * Chaunus marinus Linnaeus based the specific epithet marina on an illustration by Dutch zoologist Albertus Seba, who mistakenly believed the cane toad to inhabit both terrestrial and marine environments. Other common names include "giant neotropical toad", "Dominican toad", "giant marine toad", and "South American cane toad". In Trinidadian English, they are commonly called crapaud, the French word for toad. The genus Rhinella is considered to constitute a distinct genus of its own, thus changing the scientific name of the cane toad. In this case, the specific name marinus (masculine) changes to marina (feminine) to conform with the rules of gender agreement as set out by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, changing the binomial name from Bufo marinus to Rhinella marina; the binomial Rhinella marinus was subsequently introduced as a synonym through misspelling by Pramuk, Robertson, Sites, and Noonan (2008). Amphibian Species of the World In Australia, the adults may be confused with large native frogs from the genera Limnodynastes, Cyclorana, and Mixophyes. These species can be distinguished from the cane toad by the absence of large parotoid glands behind their eyes and the lack of a ridge between the nostril and the eye. Cane toads have been confused with the giant burrowing frog (Heleioporus australiacus), because both are large and warty in appearance; however, the latter can be readily distinguished from the former by its vertical pupils and its silver-grey (as opposed to gold) irises. Juvenile cane toads may be confused with species of the genus Uperoleia, but their adult colleagues can be distinguished by the lack of bright colouring on the groin and thighs. In the United States, the cane toad closely resembles many bufonid species. In particular, it could be confused with the southern toad (Bufo terrestris), which can be distinguished by the presence of two bulbs in front of the parotoid glands. Taxonomy and evolution The cane toad genome has been sequenced and certain Australian academics believe this will help in understanding how the toad can quickly evolve to adapt to new environments, the workings of its infamous toxin, and hopefully provide new options for halting this species' march across Australia and other places it has spread as an invasive pest. Studies of the genome confirm its evolutionary origins in northern part of South America and its close genetic relation to Rhinella diptycha and other similar species of the genus. Recent studies suggest that R. marina diverged between 2.75 and 9.40 million years ago. A recent split in the species into further subspecies may have occurred approximately 2.7 million years ago following the isolation of population groups by the rising Venezuelan Andes.DescriptionConsidered the largest species in the Bufonidae, the females are significantly longer than males, reaching a typical length of , They have a life expectancy of 10 to 15 years in the wild, and can live considerably longer in captivity, with one specimen reportedly surviving for 35 years. The skin of the cane toad is dry and warty. A large parotoid gland lies behind each eye. Tadpoles range from in length.Ecology, behaviour and life history ]] The common name "marine toad" and the scientific name Rhinella marina suggest a link to marine life, but cane toads do not live in the sea. However, laboratory experiments suggest that tadpoles can tolerate salt concentrations equivalent to 15% of seawater (~5.4‰), and recent field observations found living tadpoles and toadlets at salinities of 27.5‰ on Coiba Island, Panama. The cane toad inhabits open grassland and woodland, and has displayed a "distinct preference" for areas modified by humans, such as gardens and drainage ditches. In their native habitats, the toads can be found in subtropical forests, The cane toad begins life as an egg, which is laid as part of long strings of jelly in water. A female lays 8,000–25,000 eggs at once and the strings can stretch up to in length. This rapid growth is important for their survival; in the period between metamorphosis and subadulthood, the young toads lose the toxicity that protected them as eggs and tadpoles, but have yet to fully develop the parotoid glands that produce bufotoxin. Only an estimated 0.5% of cane toads reach adulthood, in part because they lack this key defense—but also due to tadpole cannibalism. Although cannibalism does occur in the native population in South America, the rapid evolution occurring in the unnaturally large population in Australia has produced tadpoles 30x more likely to be interested in cannibalising their siblings, and 2.6x more likely to actually do so. They have also evolved to shorten their tadpole phase in response to the presence of older tadpoles. These changes are likely genetic, although no genetic basis has been determined. As with rates of growth, the point at which the toads become sexually mature varies across different regions. In New Guinea, sexual maturity is reached by female toads with a snout–vent length between , while toads in Panama achieve maturity when they are between in length. In tropical regions, such as their native habitats, breeding occurs throughout the year, but in subtropical areas, breeding occurs only during warmer periods that coincide with the onset of the wet season. The cane toad is estimated to have a critical thermal maximum of and a minimum of around . The ranges can change due to adaptation to the local environment. Cane toads from some populations can adjust their thermal tolerance within a few hours of encountering low temperatures. The toad is able to rapidly acclimate to the cold using physiological plasticity, though there is also evidence that more northerly populations of cane toads in the United States are better cold-adapted than more southerly populations. These adaptations have allowed the cane toad to establish invasive populations across the world. The toad's ability to rapidly acclimate to thermal changes suggests that current models may underestimate the potential range of habitats that the toad can populate. They eat a wide range of material; in addition to the normal prey of small rodents, other small mammals, reptiles, other amphibians, birds, and even bats and a range of invertebrates (such as ants, beetles, earwigs, dragonflies, grasshoppers, true bugs, crustaceans, and gastropods), they also eat plants, dog food, cat food, Defences : The large parotoid glands are visible behind the eyes.|alt=An adult cane toad with dark colouration, as found in El Salvador: The parotoid gland is prominently displayed on the side of the head.]] The skin of the adult cane toad is toxic, as well as the enlarged parotoid glands behind the eyes, and other glands across its back. When the toad is threatened, its glands secrete a milky-white fluid known as bufotoxin. Components of bufotoxin are toxic to many animals; even human deaths have been recorded due to the consumption of cane toads. The effects of bufotenin are thought to be similar to those of mild poisoning; the stimulation, which includes mild hallucinations, lasts less than an hour. As the cane toad excretes bufotenin in small amounts, and other toxins in relatively large quantities, toad licking could result in serious illness or death. In addition to releasing toxin, the cane toad is capable of inflating its lungs, puffing up, and lifting its body off the ground to appear taller and larger to a potential predator. Young cane toads that aren't lethal upon ingestion have also been used to teach native predators avoidance, namely yellow-spotted monitors. 200,000 metamorphs, tadpoles, and eggs in total were released in areas ahead of inevitable invasion fronts. Following invasion by wild cane toads, yellow-spotted monitors in control areas bereft of the "teacher toads" were virtually wiped out, but experimental areas still contained substantial populations of yellow-spotted monitors. Predators (Dacelo novaeguineae) preying on a juvenile cane toad]] Many species prey on the cane toad and its tadpoles in its native habitat, including the broad-snouted caiman (Caiman latirostris), the banded cat-eyed snake (Leptodeira annulata), eels (family Anguillidae), various species of killifish, Predators outside the cane toad's native range include the rock flagtail (Kuhlia rupestris), some species of catfish (order Siluriformes), some species of ibis (subfamily Threskiornithinae), the whistling kite (Haliastur sphenurus), the rakali (Hydromys chrysogaster), the black rat (Rattus rattus) and the water monitor (Varanus salvator). The tawny frogmouth (Podargus strigoides) and the Papuan frogmouth (Podargus papuensis) have been reported as feeding on cane toads; some Australian crows (Corvus spp.) have also learned strategies allowing them to feed on cane toads, such as using their beak to flip toads onto their backs. Kookaburras also prey on the amphibians. Opossums of the genus Didelphis likely can eat cane toads with impunity. Meat ants are unaffected by the cane toads' toxins, so are able to kill them. The cane toad's normal response to attack is to stand still and let its toxin kill or repel the attacker, which allows the ants to attack and eat the toad. Saw-shelled turtles have also been seen successfully and safely eating cane toads. In Australia rakali (Australian water rats) in two years learnt how to eat cane toads safely. They select the largest toads, turn them over, remove the poisonous gallbladder, and eat the heart and other organs with "surgical precision". They remove the toxic skin and eat the thigh muscle. Other animals such as crows and kites turn cane toads inside out and eat non-poisonous organs, also thus avoiding the skin. Distribution The cane toad is native to the Americas, and its range stretches from the Rio Grande Valley in South Texas to the central Amazon and southeastern Peru, and some of the continental islands near Venezuela (such as Trinidad and Tobago). This area encompasses both tropical and semiarid environments. The density of the cane toad is significantly lower within its native distribution than in places where it has been introduced. In South America, the density was recorded to be 20 adults per of shoreline, 1 to 2% of the density in Australia. As an introduced species The cane toad has been introduced to many regions of the world—particularly the Pacific—for the biological control of agricultural pests. These introductions have generally been well documented, and the cane toad may be one of the most studied of any introduced species. Before the early 1840s, the cane toad had been introduced into Martinique and Barbados, from French Guiana and Guyana. An introduction to Jamaica was made in 1844 in an attempt to reduce the rat population. Despite its failure to control the rodents, the cane toad was introduced to Puerto Rico in the early 20th century in the hope that it would counter a beetle infestation ravaging the sugarcane plantations. The Puerto Rican scheme was successful and halted the economic damage caused by the beetles, prompting scientists in the 1930s to promote it as an ideal solution to agricultural pests. As a result, many countries in the Pacific region emulated the lead of Puerto Rico and introduced the toad in the 1930s. Introduced populations are in Australia, Florida, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, the Ogasawara, Ishigaki Island and the Daitō Islands of Japan, Taiwan Nantou Caotun, most Caribbean islands, Since then, the cane toad has become a pest in many host countries, and poses a serious threat to native animals. As a result, 102 toads were collected from Hawaiʻi and brought to Australia. Queensland's sugar scientists released the toad into cane fields in August 1935. After this initial release, the Commonwealth Department of Health decided to ban future introductions until a study was conducted into the feeding habits of the toad. The study was completed in 1936 and the ban lifted, when large-scale releases were undertaken; by March 1937, 62,000 toadlets had been released into the wild. The toads became firmly established in Queensland, increasing exponentially in number and extending their range into the Northern Territory and New South Wales. However, the toad was generally unsuccessful in reducing the targeted grey-backed cane beetles (Dermolepida albohirtum), in part because the cane fields provided insufficient shelter for the predators during the day, and in part because the beetles live at the tops of sugar cane—and cane toads are not good climbers. Meat ants, however, are able to kill cane toads. The cane toad has also been linked to decreases in northern quolls in the southern region of Kakadu National Park and even their local extinction.CaribbeanThe cane toad was introduced to various Caribbean islands to counter a number of pests infesting local crops. While it was able to establish itself on some islands, such as Barbados, Jamaica, Hispaniola and Puerto Rico, other introductions, such as in Cuba before 1900 and in 1946, and on the islands of Dominica and Grand Cayman, were unsuccessful. The earliest recorded introductions were to Barbados and Martinique. The Barbados introductions were focused on the biological control of pests damaging the sugarcane crops, and while the toads became abundant, they have done even less to control the pests than in Australia. The toad was introduced to Martinique from French Guiana before 1944 and became established. Today, they reduce the mosquito and mole cricket populations. A third introduction to the region occurred in 1884, when toads appeared in Jamaica, reportedly imported from Barbados to help control the rodent population. While they had no significant effect on the rats, they nevertheless became well established. Other introductions include the release on Antigua—possibly before 1916, although this initial population may have died out by 1934 and been reintroduced at a later date—and Montserrat, which had an introduction before 1879 that led to the establishment of a solid population, which was apparently sufficient to survive the Soufrière Hills volcano eruption in 1995. In 1920, the cane toad was introduced into Puerto Rico to control the populations of white grub (Phyllophaga spp.), a sugarcane pest. Before this, the pests were manually collected by humans, so the introduction of the toad eliminated labor costs. The population of white grubs dramatically decreased, However, there may have been other factors. Nevertheless, the cane toad was assumed to have controlled the white grub; this view was reinforced by a Nature article titled "Toads save sugar crop", The cane toad has been spotted in Carriacou and Dominica, the latter appearance occurring in spite of the failure of the earlier introductions. On September 8, 2013, the cane toad was also discovered on the island of New Providence in the Bahamas. The Philippines are referred to as kamprag, a corruption of 'American frog'. It subsequently became the most ubiquitous amphibian in the islands. It still retains the common name of bakî or kamprag in the Visayan languages, a corruption of 'American frog', referring to its origins. It is also commonly known as "bullfrog" in Philippine English. Fiji The cane toad was introduced into Fiji to combat insects that infested sugarcane plantations. The introduction of the cane toad to the region was first suggested in 1933, following the successes in Puerto Rico and Hawaiʻi. After considering the possible side effects, the national government of Fiji decided to release the toad in 1953, and 67 specimens were subsequently imported from Hawaiʻi. Once the toads were established, a 1963 study concluded, as the toad's diet included both harmful and beneficial invertebrates, it was considered "economically neutral".New GuineaThe cane toad was introduced into New Guinea to control the hawk moth larvae eating sweet potato crops. Initial reports argued the toads were effective in reducing the levels of cutworms and sweet potato yields were thought to be improving. As a result, these first releases were followed by further distributions across much of the region, A similar situation had previously arisen in the Australian cane fields, but this experience was either unknown or ignored in New Guinea. United States The cane toad naturally exists in South Texas, but attempts (both deliberate and accidental) have been made to introduce the species to other parts of the country. These include introductions to Florida and to Hawaiʻi, as well as largely unsuccessful introductions to Louisiana. Initial releases into Florida failed. Attempted introductions before 1936 and 1944, intended to control sugarcane pests, were unsuccessful as the toads failed to proliferate. Later attempts failed in the same way. However, the toad gained a foothold in the state after an accidental release by an importer at Miami International Airport in 1957, and deliberate releases by animal dealers in 1963 and 1964 established the toad in other parts of Florida. Today, the cane toad is well established in the state, from the Keys to north of Tampa, and they are gradually extending further northward. In Florida, the toad is a regarded as a threat to native species and pets; so much so, the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission recommends residents to kill them. Around 150 cane toads were introduced to Oʻahu in Hawaiʻi in 1932, and the population swelled to 105,517 after 17 months. eventually over 600,000 were transported.UsesOther than the use as a biological control for pests, the cane toad has been employed in a number of commercial and noncommercial applications. Traditionally, within the toad's natural range in South America, the Embera-Wounaan would "milk" the toads for their toxin, which was then employed as an arrow poison. The toxins may have been used as an entheogen by the Olmec people. The toad has been hunted as a food source in parts of Peru, and eaten after the careful removal of the skin and parotoid glands. When properly prepared, the meat of the toad is considered healthy and as a source of omega-3 fatty acids. More recently, the toad's toxins have been used in a number of new ways: bufotenin has been used in Japan as an aphrodisiac and a hair restorer, and in cardiac surgery in China to lower the heart rates of patients. Other modern applications of the cane toad include pregnancy testing, laboratory research, and the production of leather goods. Pregnancy testing was conducted in the mid-20th century by injecting urine from a woman into a male toad's lymph sacs, and if spermatozoa appeared in the toad's urine, the patient was deemed to be pregnant. There are several commercial uses for dead cane toads. Cane toad skin is made into leather and novelty items. Stuffed cane toads, posed and accessorised, are merchandised at souvenir shops for tourists. Attempts have been made to produce fertiliser from toad carcasses.ReferencesCitationsBibliography * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * External links * [https://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/aquatic/fish-and-other-vertebrates/cane-toad Species Profile – Cane Toad (Rhinella marina)], National Invasive Species Information Center, United States National Agricultural Library. Lists general information and resources for cane toad. Category:Rhinella Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus Category:Agricultural pests Category:Amphibians described in 1758 Category:Amphibians of Central America Category:Amphibians of the Dominican Republic Category:Amphibians of Guyana Category:Amphibians of Japan Category:Amphibians of Mauritius Category:Amphibians of New South Wales Category:Amphibians of the Northern Territory Category:Amphibians of Queensland Category:Amphibians of Trinidad and Tobago Category:Fauna of Barbados Category:Fauna of the Rio Grande valleys Category:Frogs of Australia Category:Frogs of Brazil
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cane_toad
2025-04-05T18:27:52.878418
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Croquet
thumb|Leon Wyczółkowski, A Game of Croquet (1892–1895), National Museum, Warsaw Croquet ( or ) is a sport which involves hitting wooden, plastic, or composite balls with a mallet through hoops (often called "wickets" in the United States) embedded in a grass playing court. Other regional variants which developed in parallel remain common in parts of the world. Association croquet thumb|Croquet being played at a club in the UK; four balls are visible on the lawn black, green, red, and brown showing that two games are in progress (known as "double-banking"): red and black belong to one game, green and brown to the other thumb|right|Croquet being played recreationally in Wetherby, West Yorkshire Association croquet is played between two individuals or teams, each playing with two balls. The object of the game is to be the first to strike each of one's balls through all six hoops in both directions, in a fixed order, and to strike the central peg. Each of these actions scores a point, with the maximum score being 26 points. The first four turns must be taken to play the four balls onto the lawn from one of two "baulk lines" defined as one yard into the lawn on the western half of the south boundary and the eastern half of the north boundary. After this, a player elects at the start of each turn which of their two balls to play for the duration of that turn. During a turn, a player may earn extra shots in two ways. A player earns a single extra shot by scoring a hoop point (hitting the striker's ball through a hoop), or two extra shots by causing their ball to contact another ball-an action called a "roquet". When a roquet is made, the player may pick up their ball and place it in contact with the roqueted ball. The next shot must move both the player's ball and the roqueted ball, and it is the "croquet" stroke that gives the game its name. After a successful croquet stroke, the player has a single further shot, known as the "continuation". During a turn, each of the other three balls may only be croqueted once between hoop points, but by stringing together a series of roquets, croquets, and scored hoops, several points may be scored in a single turn. Advanced variants of association croquet give further penalties to dissuade skilled players from running every hoop with a ball on a single , while handicap versions give weaker players chances to continue play after making an error. The extra turns, called "bisques" are effective in levelling the odds of winning. Golf croquet Golf croquet is played between two individuals or teams, each playing with two balls. The object of the game is to reach a certain number of points, typically seven, earned by being the first to run a hoop. The game opens by playing each ball into the lawn from the fourth (south-eastern) corner of the lawn. Balls must be played in order (for the primary ball colours, this is blue, red, black, and yellow), and this order of play is maintained throughout the game. Hoops are contested in a fixed order, with a point awarded to the owner of the first ball to pass through the hoop in the correct direction. After a point is awarded, all players move on to contest the next hoop. Balls that are played more than halfway to the next hoop before a point is scored are considered offside, and are moved to penalty areas. Golf croquet is the fastest-growing version of the game, owing largely to its simplicity and competitiveness. There is an especially large interest in competitive success among players in Egypt. By comparison with association croquet, golf croquet requires a smaller variety of shots and emphasises strategic skills and accurate shot-making. Games are shorter, balls are more likely to be hit harder, and 'jump' shots are more likely to be witnessed, where a ball is played to deliberately jump off the ground and over another ball. Five hoop croquet Five hoop croquet is a variation of Golf Croquet created to provide a simple introduction of Golf Croquet to new players. It follows the key principles of Golf Croquet but only plays the first 5 hoops. The winner is the player or team to reach a score of 3 hoops first. This version takes around 15 minutes to play and is normally played on a quarter size croquet lawn. It was originally created to be used for croquet events but has grown in popularity and is now played by many clubs when introducing new members. American six-wicket The American-rules version of croquet is the dominant version of the game in the United States and is also widely played in Canada. It is governed by the United States Croquet Association. Its genesis is mostly in association croquet, but it differs in a number of important ways that reflect the home-grown traditions of American "backyard" croquet. Official rules were first published in 1894 by the Spalding Athletic Library, as adopted by the National American Croquet Association. American six-wicket uses the same six-wicket layout as both association croquet and golf croquet, and is also played by two individuals or teams, each owning two balls. Like association croquet, the object of the game is to be the first to pass each of their balls through all six hoops in both directions and to strike the central peg, for a total of 26 points. Unlike association croquet, balls are always played in the same sequence (blue, red, black, yellow). The limitation of roqueting each ball once between hoop points is, unlike in association croquet, carried over from turn to turn until the ball scores the next hoop. In American six-wicket, this is termed "deadness", and a separate board is required to keep track of the deadness for all four balls. A further difference is the more restrictive boundary-line rules of American croquet. In the American game, roqueting a ball out of bounds or running a hoop so that the ball goes out of bounds causes the turn to end, and balls that go out of bounds are replaced only from the boundary rather than as in association croquet. From a mallet-head distance or less away from the ball that was hit ("taking a mallet-head") From a position in contact with the ball that was hit, with the striker's ball held steady by the striker's foot or hand (a "foot shot" or "hand shot") From a position in contact with the ball that was hit, with the striker's ball not held by foot or hand (a "croquet shot") From where the striker ball stopped after the roquet The second bonus shot ("continuation shot") is an ordinary shot played from where the striker ball came to rest. An alternative endgame is "poison": in this variant, a player who has scored the last wicket but not hit the starting stake becomes a "poison ball", which may eliminate other balls from the game by roqueting them. A non-poison ball that roquets a poison ball has the normal options. A poison ball that hits a stake or passes through any wicket (possibly through the action of a non-poison player) is eliminated. The last person remaining is the winner. The Richmond Virginia Extreme Croquet Club has these rules: • Revert Rule: If a ball traverses its prior wicket in the opposite direction, this now becomes its current wicket; exceptions: (1) a rover cannot be reverted; (2) until the ball remakes that wicket, it cannot be reverted again. • Nosering Rule (an admittedly stupid name, the origin lost to history): Once per game, or sometimes once per half, at the end of one's turn, one may move one's ball exactly one mallet head, except not into or thru any wicket in either direction, and not to be touching either stake. In a team game, one may use a teammate's unused nosering move. • Alzheimer's Rule: Before or after hitting the ball, if that player or anyone else realizes that the player forgot their current wicket, stake, or other mandatory objective, the hit is retaken (if in fact it has been taken), except when croqueting another ball; all players have the obligation to point this out before the hit. • Act of Dog: If a player's ball is relocated by an unleashed dog, it shall be played from the location the dog released the ball. If the ball is released out of bounds, then the ball shall be played from the point (after adjusting for a mallet width from the boundary) it was removed from the field. • Dynamic Starting Order: After lagging to the stake for starting order, the players exercise the option to go or not go in order of closeness; after each player goes, the remaining players re-choose who goes next in the same order. • McKlintoc Start, an option to start the game: A ball still on start 1-out or 2-out cannot be used to roquet another ball, nor can it be roquet'd without its owner's permission. Nevertheless, such a ball may hit any other ball or be hit by any other ball; however, the hitter's go is over and no deadness is established. International Croquet International Croquet is governed by the World Croquet Federation, often referred to as the WCF. The European Regional Committee is a subsidiary of the WCF set up to manage European croquet tournaments and provide a closer link to European Clubs in the management of international croquet. As well as club-level games, county-level tournaments, and leagues, there are regular world championships and international matches between croquet-playing countries. The sport has particularly strong followings in the UK, Spain, US, New Zealand, Australia, and Egypt; many other countries also play. Every four years, the top countries play in the World Team Championships in AC (the MacRobertson Shield) and GC (the Openshaw Shield). The current world rankings show England in top place for AC, followed by Australia in second place, and New Zealand in third place, with the United States in fourth position. The same four countries appear in the top six of the GC country rankings, below Egypt in top position, and with Spain at number six. Individual World Championships usually take place every two or three years. The 2023 AC World Championships took place in London; the winner was Robert Fulford. The current Women's Association Croquet World Champion (2023) is Debbie Lines of England. The most prestigious international team competition in association croquet is the MacRobertson International Croquet Shield. It is contested every three to four years between Australia, England (formerly Great Britain), the United States, and New Zealand. Other nations compete in Tier 2 and Tier 3 World Team Championships. Teams are promoted and relegated between the lower tiers, but there is no relegation to or promotion from the MacRobertson Shield. The current holders of the MacRobertson Shield are England, who won the title in 2023. At the Golf Croquet World Team Championships, eight nations contest the Openshaw Shield. There is promotion and relegation between Tier 1, Tier 2, and Tier 3. The current holders of the Openshaw Shield are New Zealand, who won in 2020. The world's top 10 association croquet players as of October 2023 were Robert Fletcher (Australia), Robert Fulford (England), Paddy Chapman (New Zealand), Jamie Burch (England), Reg Bamford (South Africa), Matthew Essick (USA), Mark Avery (England), Simon Hockey (Australia), Harry Fisher (England), and Jose Riva (Spain). In April 2013, Reg Bamford of South Africa beat Ahmed Nasr of Egypt in the final of the Golf Croquet World Championship in Cairo, becoming the first person to simultaneously hold the title in both association croquet and golf croquet. As of 2023, the Golf Croquet World Champion was Matthew Essick (USA), and the Women's Golf Croquet World Champion was Jamie Gumbrell (Australia). In 2018, two international championships open to both sexes were won by women: in May, Rachel Gee of England beat Pierre Beaudry of Belgium to win the European Golf Croquet championship, and in October, Hanan Rashad of Egypt beat Yasser Fathy (also from Egypt) to win the World over-50s Golf Croquet championship. Croquet was an event at the 1900 Summer Olympics. Roque, an American variation on croquet, was an event at the 1904 Summer Olympics. Croquet is recognized as the first Olympic sport to include female participants. In the 1900 Olympic croquet events, France claimed victory in all three competitions. Gaston Aumoitte won the one-ball singles, Chrétien Waydelich won the two-ball singles, and the doubles event was won by the pair of Gaston Aumoitte and Georges Johin, securing all the medals as all 10 participants were French. History thumb|left|upright|Paille-maille (pall-mall) illustrated in Old English Sports, Pastimes and Customs, published 1891; original image by Lauthier, 1717 The oldest document to bear the word croquet with a description of the modern game is the set of rules registered by Isaac Spratt in November 1856 with the Stationers' Company of London. This record is now in the Public Record Office. In 1868, the first croquet all-comers meet was held at Moreton-in-Marsh, Gloucestershire, and in the same year, the All England Croquet Club was formed at Wimbledon, London. Regardless of when and by what route it reached the British Isles and the British colonies in its recognizable form, croquet is, like pall-mall and trucco, among the later forms of ground billiards, which as a class have been popular in Western Europe back to at least the Late Middle Ages, with roots in classical antiquity, including sometimes the use of arches and pegs along with balls and mallets or other striking sticks (some more akin to modern field hockey sticks). By the 12th century, a team ball game called or , akin to a chaotic version of hockey or football (depending on whether sticks were used), was regularly played in France and southern Britain between villages or parishes; it was attested in Cornwall as early as 1283. In the book Queen of Games: The History of Croquet, Nicky Smith presents two theories of the origin of the modern game of croquet, which took England by storm in the 1860s and then spread overseas. French origin theory The first explanation is that the ancestral game was introduced to Britain from France during the 1660–1685 reign of Charles II of England, Scotland, and Ireland and was played under the name of (among other spellings, today usually pall-mall), derived ultimately from Latin words for 'ball and mallet' (the latter also found in the name of the earlier French game, ). This was the explanation given in the ninth edition of Encyclopædia Britannica, dated 1877. In his 1801 book The Sports and Pastimes of the People of England, Joseph Strutt described the way pall-mall was played in England at the time:"Pale-maille is a game wherein a round box[wood] ball is struck with a mallet through a high arch of iron, which he that can do at the fewest blows, or at the number agreed upon, wins. It is to be observed that there are two of these arches, that is, one at either end of the alley. The game of mall was a fashionable amusement in the reign of Charles the Second, and the walk in Saint James's Park, now called the Mall, received its name from having been appropriated to the purpose of playing at mall, where Charles himself and his courtiers frequently exercised themselves in the practice of this pastime." While the name pall-mall and various games bearing this name also appeared elsewhere (France and Italy), the description above suggests that the croquet-like games in particular were popular in England by the early 17th century. Some other early modern sources refer to pall-mall being played over a large distance (as in golf); however, an image in Strutt's 1801 book shows a croquet-like ground billiards game (balls on the ground, hoop, bats, and peg) being played over a , garden-sized distance. The image's caption describes the game as "a curious ancient pastime", confirming that croquet games were not new in early-19th-century England. thumb|Early croquet-like game from The Sports and Pastimes of the People of England, first published in 1801; a hoop, peg, and two players with balls are clearly shown Such implements in ground billiards games date to classical antiquity. In Samuel Johnson's 1755 dictionary, his definition of "pall-mall" clearly describes a game with similarities to modern croquet: "A play in which the ball is struck with a mallet through an iron ring". However, there is no evidence that pall-mall involved the croquet stroke, which is the distinguishing characteristic of the modern game. Irish origin theory The second theory is that the rules of the modern game of croquet arrived in Ireland during the 1850s, perhaps after being brought there from Brittany, where a similar game was played on the beaches. Regular contact between Ireland and France had continued since the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169. By no later than the early 15th century, the game (itself ancestral to pall-mall and perhaps to indoor billiards) was popular in France, including in the courts of Henry II in the 16th century and Louis XIV of the 17th. At least one version of it, ('wheel'), was a multi-ball lawn game. Records show a game called "crookey", similar to croquet, being played at Castlebellingham in County Louth, Ireland, in 1834, which was introduced to Galway in 1835 and played on the bishop's palace garden, and in the same year to the genteel Dublin suburb of Kingstown (today Dún Laoghaire) where it was first spelled as "croquet". There is, however, no pre-1858 Irish document that describes the way the game was played; in particular, there is no reference to the distinctive croquet stroke, which is described above under "Variations: Association". The noted croquet historian Dr. Prior, in his book of 1872, makes the categorical statement, "One thing only is certain: it is from Ireland that croquet came to England and it was on the lawn of the late Lord Lonsdale that it was first played in this country." John Jaques apparently claimed in a letter to Arthur Lillie in 1873 that he had himself seen the game played in Ireland, writing, "I made the implements and published directions (such as they were) before Mr. Spratt [mentioned above] introduced the subject to me." Whatever the truth of the matter, Jaques certainly played an important role in popularising the game, producing editions of the rules in 1857, 1860, and 1864. Heyday and decline Croquet became highly popular as a social pastime in England during the 1860s. It was enthusiastically adopted and promoted by the Earl of Essex, who held lavish croquet parties at Cassiobury House, his stately home in Watford, Hertfordshire, and the Earl even launched his own Cassiobury brand croquet set. By 1867, Jaques had printed 65,000 copies of his Laws and Regulations of the game. It quickly spread to other Anglophone countries, including Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, and the United States. No doubt one of the attractions was that the game could be played by both sexes; this also ensured a certain amount of adverse comment. It is no coincidence that the game became popular at the same time as the cylinder lawn mower, since croquet can only be played well on a lawn that is flat and finely-cut. thumb|Croquet players in Sweden, early 20th century By the late 1870s, however, croquet had been eclipsed by another fashionable game, lawn tennis, and many of the newly created croquet clubs, including the All England Club at Wimbledon, converted some or all of their lawns into tennis courts. There was a revival in the 1890s, but going forward croquet was always a minority sport, with national individual participation amounting to a few thousand players. The All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club still has a croquet lawn, but has not hosted any significant tournaments. Its championship was won 38 times by Bernard Neal. The English headquarters for the game is now in Cheltenham. thumb|left|A game of croquet being played at Eglinton Castle, North Ayrshire, in the early 1860s The earliest known reference to croquet in Scotland is the booklet The Game of Croquet, its Laws and Regulations, which was published in the mid-1860s for the proprietor of Eglinton Castle, the Earl of Eglinton. On the page facing the title page is a picture of Eglinton Castle with a game of "croquet" in full swing. The croquet lawn existed on the northern terrace, between Eglinton Castle and the Lugton Water. The 13th Earl developed a variation on croquet named Captain Moreton's Eglinton Castle croquet, which had small bells on the eight hoops "to ring the changes", two pegs, a double hoop with a bell, and two tunnels for the ball to pass through. In 1865, the 'Rules of the Eglinton Castle and Cassiobury Croquet' was published by Edmund Routledge. Several incomplete sets of this form of croquet are known to exist, and one complete set is still used for demonstration games in the West of Scotland. Ball-in-hand A ball that the striker can pick up to change its position, for example: Any ball when it leaves the court has to be replaced on the yard-line The striker's ball after making a roquet must be placed in contact with the roqueted ball The striker's ball when the striker is entitled to a lift Ball in play A ball after it has been played into the game, which is not a ball in hand or pegged out Continuation stroke Either the bonus stroke played after running a hoop in order or the second bonus stroke played after making a roquet Croquet stroke A stroke taken after making a roquet, in which the striker's ball and the roqueted ball are placed together in contact) Leave The position of the balls after a successful break, in which a player leaves the balls placed so as to make life as difficult as possible for the opponent and/or easy for themselves on the next turn if the opponent misses That may derive from the fact that (unlike in golf) players will often attempt to move their opponents' balls to unfavourable positions. However, purely negative play is rarely a winning strategy; successful players (in all versions other than golf croquet) will use all four balls to set up a break for themselves, rather than simply making the game as difficult as possible for their opponents. The way croquet is depicted in paintings and books says much about popular perceptions of the game, though little about the reality of modern play. In 1868 a song titled Croquet (essentially anonymous: by M.B.C.S and W.O.F.) was included in a popular song book by W. O. Perkins, The Golden Robin (Pub. Oliver Ditson & Company, New York). ("Upon the smoothly shaven lawn, Beneath the skies of May, Oh, boys and girls, this merry morn, Come out and play Croquet ..."); there are four full verses. Winslow Homer, Édouard Manet, and Pierre Bonnard Croquet is popular pastime of Leo Tolstoy's Anna Karenina characters. H. G. Wells wrote The Croquet Player which uses croquet as a metaphor for the way in which people confront the very problem of their own existence. thumb|upright|Alice trying to play croquet with a flamingo in Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1865) Lewis Carroll featured a nonsense version of the game in the popular children's novel Alice's Adventures in Wonderland: a hedgehog was used as the ball, a flamingo as the mallet, and playing cards as the hoops. In the Thursday Next series of novels, notably Something Rotten, Jasper Fforde depicts an alternative world in which croquet is a brutal mass spectator sport. The cover of the 1971 Genesis album Nursery Cryme shows Cynthia, a character in the song "Musical Box" holding a croquet mallet with a few heads on the playing field including another character of the song Henry's head that she removed with said mallet. In Stephen King's 1977 novel The Shining, the main character, Jack Torrance, uses a croquet mallet to chase and attack the other characters. The 1997 miniseries features the use of croquet however, Stanley Kubrick's 1980 film adaptation uses a fire axe instead. though at the beginning, the Heathers are playing croquet to hit Veronica on the head. Croquet mallets also feature in the publicity posters for Heathers: The Musical. Croquet is featured prominently in the music video for "I'm Not Okay (I Promise)" by My Chemical Romance. Croquet is featured in the novel Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck wherein the Joads stay at the government camp in Weedpatch, Ca. In the 1951 Woody Woodpecker animated short Wicket Wacky, Woody sneaks into a croquet field to play, while a gopher bothered by the noise tries to stop him. Clubs About 200 croquet clubs across the United States are members of the United States Croquet Association. Many colleges have croquet clubs as well, such as The University of Virginia, The University of Chicago, Pennsylvania State University, Bates College, SUNY New Paltz, Harvard University, and Dartmouth College. Notably, St. John's College and the US Naval Academy engage in a yearly match in Annapolis, Maryland. Both schools also compete at the collegiate level and the rivalry continues to be an Annapolis tradition, attracting thousands of spectators each April. In England and Wales, there are over 200 clubs affiliated with Croquet England. The All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club at Wimbledon is famous for its lawn tennis tournament, but retains an active croquet section. There are clubs in many universities and colleges, with an annual varsity match being played between Oxford and Cambridge. With over 1800 participants, the 2011 Oxford University "Cuppers" (inter-college) tournament claimed to be not only the largest croquet tournament ever, but the largest sporting event in the university's history. In Spain there are 37 clubs federated to the Federación Española de Croquet. Croquet is a growing sport in Spain with 4 new clubs joining the FEC in 2024. There are 112 clubs in New Zealand, affiliated with 19 associations. They are governed by Croquet New Zealand. See also Croquet Hall of Fame Jaques of London US intercollegiate croquet champions Roque Woodball References External links A Synopsis of the Laws of Association Croquet, from Oxford Croquet Synopsis of American Croquet, from the United States Croquet Association The official rules of Backyard Croquet (nine-wicket layout), from the United States Croquet Association Official Rules of Garden Croquet (British six-hoop garden croquet) Croquet Rules and Regulations, from Croquet.com The Croquet Association Jargon List Arkley Croquet Collection – An exceptional selection of paintings, cartoons and photographs depicting the game of croquet, from UBC Library Digital Collections Checklist of Croquet Books and Pamphlets, 1853 to 2002 Category:Former Summer Olympic sports Category:Lawn games Category:Stick sports Category:Sports originating in England Category:Sports originating in the United Kingdom
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croquet
2025-04-05T18:27:52.923261
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Curling
| paralympic = Wheelchair curling officially added in 2006 }} Curling is a sport in which players slide stones on a sheet of ice toward a target area that is segmented into four concentric circles. It is related to bowls, boules, and shuffleboard. Two teams, each with four players, take turns sliding heavy, polished granite stones, also called rocks, across the ice curling sheet toward the house, a circular target marked on the ice. Each team has eight stones, with each player throwing two. The goal is to accumulate the highest score for a game; points are scored for the stones resting closest to the centre of the house at the conclusion of each end, which is completed when both teams have thrown all of their stones once. A game usually consists of eight or ten ends. Players induce a curved path, described as curl, by causing the stone to slowly rotate as it slides. The path of the rock may be further influenced by two sweepers with brooms or brushes, who accompany it as it slides down the sheet and sweep the ice in front of the stone. "Sweeping a rock" decreases the friction, which makes the stone travel a straighter path (with less curl) and a longer distance. A great deal of strategy and teamwork go into choosing the ideal path and placement of a stone for each situation, and the skills of the curlers determine the degree to which the stone will achieve the desired result. History Evidence that curling existed in Scotland in the early 16th century includes a curling stone inscribed with the date 1511 found (along with another bearing the date 1551) when an old pond was drained at Dunblane, Scotland. The world's oldest curling stone and the world's oldest football are now kept in the same museum (the Stirling Smith Art Gallery and Museum) in Stirling. The first written reference to a contest using stones on ice coming from the records of Paisley Abbey, Renfrewshire, in February 1541. Two paintings, "Winter Landscape with a Bird Trap" and "The Hunters in the Snow" (both dated 1565) by Pieter Bruegel the Elder, depict Flemish peasants curling, albeit without brooms; Scotland and the Low Countries had strong trading and cultural links during this period, which is also evident in the history of golf. , Ayrshire, Scotland in 1860. The curling house is located to the left of the picture.]] The word curling first appears in print in 1620 in Perth, Scotland, in the preface and the verses of a poem by Henry Adamson. The sport was (and still is, in Scotland and Scottish-settled regions like southern New Zealand, as well as in Canada) also known as "the roaring game" because of the sound the stones make while travelling over the pebble (droplets of water applied to the playing surface). The verbal noun curling is formed from the Scots (and English) verb curl, which describes the motion of the stone. , Canada, ]] Kilsyth Curling Club claims to be the first club in the world, having been formally constituted in 1716; it is still in existence today. Kilsyth also claims the oldest purpose-built curling pond in the world at Colzium, in the form of a low dam creating a shallow pool some in size. The International Olympic Committee recognises the Royal Caledonian Curling Club (founded as the Grand Caledonian Curling Club in 1838) as developing the first official rules for the sport. However, although not written as a "rule book", this is preceded by Rev James Ramsay of Gladsmuir, a member of the Duddingston Curling Club, who wrote An Account of the Game of Curling in 1811, which speculates on its origin and explains the method of play. In the early history of curling, the playing stones were simply flat-bottomed stones from rivers or fields, which lacked a handle and were of inconsistent size, shape, and smoothness. Some early stones had holes for a finger and the thumb, akin to ten-pin bowling balls. Unlike today, the thrower had little control over the 'curl' or velocity and relied more on luck than on precision, skill, and strategy. The sport was often played on frozen rivers although purpose-built ponds were later created in many Scottish towns. For example, the Scottish poet David Gray describes whisky-drinking curlers on the Luggie Water at Kirkintilloch. from 2010. The last official Grand Match was held here in 1979.]] In Darvel, East Ayrshire, the weavers relaxed by playing curling matches using the heavy stone weights from the looms' warp beams, fitted with a detachable handle for the purpose. Central Canadian curlers often used 'irons' rather than stones until the early 1900s; Canada is the only country known to have done so, while others experimented with wood or ice-filled tins. Outdoor curling was very popular in Scotland between the 16th and 19th centuries because the climate provided good ice conditions every winter. Scotland is home to the international governing body for curling, the World Curling Federation in Perth, which originated as a committee of the Royal Caledonian Curling Club, the mother club of curling. In the 19th century, several private railway stations in the United Kingdom were built to serve curlers attending bonspiels, such as those at Aboyne, Carsbreck, and Drummuir. Today, the sport is most firmly established in Canada, having been taken there by Scottish emigrants. The Royal Montreal Curling Club, the oldest established sports club still active in North America, was established in 1807. The first curling club in the United States was established in 1830, and the sport was introduced to Switzerland and Sweden before the end of the 19th century, also by Scots. Today, curling is played all over Europe and has spread to Brazil, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, China, and Korea. The first world championship for curling was limited to men and was known as the Scotch Cup, held in Falkirk and Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1959. The first world title was won by the Canadian team from Regina, Saskatchewan, skipped by Ernie Richardson. (The skip is the team member who calls the shots; see below.) Olympics 2012]] Curling has been a medal sport in the Winter Olympic Games since the 1998 Winter Olympics. It currently includes men's, women's, and mixed doubles tournaments (the mixed doubles event was held for the first time in 2018). In February 2002, the International Olympic Committee retroactively decided that the curling competition from the 1924 Winter Olympics (originally called ''Semaine des Sports d'Hiver'', or International Winter Sports Week) would be considered official Olympic events and no longer be considered demonstration events. Thus, the first Olympic medals in curling, which at the time was played outdoors, were retroactively awarded for the 1924 Winter Games, with the gold medal won by Great Britain, two silver medals by Sweden, and the bronze by France. A demonstration tournament was also held during the 1932 Winter Olympic Games between four teams from Canada and four from the United States, with Canada winning 12 games to 4. Since the sport's official addition in the 1998 Olympics, Canada has dominated the sport with their men's teams winning gold in 2006, 2010, and 2014, and silver in 1998 and 2002. The women's team won gold in 1998 and 2014, a silver in 2010, and a bronze in 2002 and 2006. The mixed doubles team won gold in 2018. Equipment Curling sheet <!-- This Anchor tag serves to provide a permanent target for incoming section links. Please do not remove it, nor modify it, except to add another appropriate anchor. If you modify the section title, please anchor the old title. It is always best to anchor an old section header that has been changed so that links to it will not be broken. See Template:Anchor for details. This template is --><!--the redirect House (curling) targets this section--> The playing surface or curling sheet is defined by the World Curling Federation Rules of Curling. It is a rectangular area of ice, carefully prepared to be as flat and level as possible, in length by in width. The shorter borders of the sheet are called the backboards. A target, the house, is centred on the intersection of the centre line, drawn lengthwise down the centre of the sheet and the tee line, drawn from, and parallel to, the backboard. These lines divide the house into quarters. The house consists of a centre circle (the button) and three concentric rings, of diameters 4, 8, and 12 feet, formed by painting or laying a coloured vinyl sheet under the ice and are usually distinguished by colour. A stone must at least touch the outer ring in order to score (see Scoring below); otherwise, the rings are merely a visual aid for aiming and judging which stone is closer to the button. Two hog lines are drawn from, and parallel to, the backboard. The hacks, which give the thrower something to push against when making the throw, are fixed behind each button. On indoor rinks, there are usually two fixed hacks, rubber-lined holes, one on each side of the centre line, with the inside edge no more than from the centre line and the front edge on the hack line. A single moveable hack may also be used. The ice may be natural, but is usually frozen by a refrigeration plant pumping a brine solution through numerous pipes fixed lengthwise at the bottom of a shallow pan of water. Most curling clubs have an ice maker whose main job is to care for the ice. At the major curling championships, ice maintenance is extremely important. Large events, such as national/international championships, are typically held in an arena that presents a challenge to the ice maker, who must constantly monitor and adjust the ice and air temperatures as well as air humidity levels to ensure a consistent playing surface. It is common for each sheet of ice to have multiple sensors embedded in order to monitor surface temperature, as well as probes set up in the seating area (to monitor humidity) and in the compressor room (to monitor brine supply and return temperatures). The surface of the ice is maintained at a temperature of around . A key part of the preparation of the playing surface is the spraying of water droplets onto the ice, which form pebble on freezing. The pebbled ice surface resembles an orange peel, and the stone moves on top of the pebbled ice. The pebble, along with the concave bottom of the stone, decreases the friction between the stone and the ice, allowing the stone to travel further. As the stone moves over the pebble, any rotation of the stone causes it to curl, or travel along a curved path. The amount of curl (commonly referred to as the feet of curl) can change during a game as the pebble wears; the ice maker must monitor this and be prepared to scrape and re-pebble the surface prior to each game. HOL: Hogline TL: Teeline BL: Backline HA: Hackline with Hacks FGZ: Free Guard Zone</div>}} Curling stone The curling stone (also sometimes called a rock in North America) is made of granite and is specified by the World Curling Federation, which requires a weight between , a maximum circumference of , and a minimum height of . an island located in the Firth of Clyde off the Ayrshire coast of Scotland, and the Trefor Granite Quarry, North of the Llŷn Peninsula, Gwynedd in Wales. These locations provide four variations in colour known as Ailsa Craig Common Green, Ailsa Craig Blue Hone, Blue Trefor and Red Trefor. Blue Hone has very low water absorption, which prevents the action of repeatedly freezing water from eroding the stone. Ailsa Craig Common Green is a lesser quality granite than Blue Hone. In the past, most curling stones were made from Blue Hone, but the island is now a wildlife reserve, and the quarry is restricted by environmental conditions that exclude blasting. Kays of Scotland has been making curling stones in Mauchline, Ayrshire, since 1851 and has the exclusive rights to the Ailsa Craig granite, granted by the Marquess of Ailsa, whose family has owned the island since 1560. According to the 1881 Census, Andrew Kay employed 30 people in his curling stone factory in Mauchline. The last harvest of Ailsa Craig granite by Kays took place in 2013, after a hiatus of 11 years; 2,000 tons were harvested, sufficient to fill anticipated orders through at least 2020. Kays have been involved in providing curling stones for the Winter Olympics since Chamonix in 1924 and has been the exclusive manufacturer of curling stones for the Olympics since the 2006 Winter Olympics. Trefor granite comes from the Yr Eifl or Trefor Granite Quarry in the village of Trefor on the north coast of the Llŷn Peninsula in Gwynedd, Wales and has produced granite since 1850. Trefor granite comes in shades of pink, blue, and grey. The quarry supplies curling stone granite exclusively to the Canada Curling Stone Company, which has been producing stones since 1992 and supplied the stones for the 2002 Winter Olympics. A handle is attached by a bolt running vertically through a hole in the centre of the stone. The handle allows the stone to be gripped and rotated upon release; on properly prepared ice the rotation will bend (curl) the path of the stone in the direction in which the front edge of the stone is turning, especially as the stone slows. Handles are coloured to identify each team, two popular colours in major tournaments being red and yellow. In competition, an electronic handle known as the Eye on the Hog may be fitted to detect hog line violations. This electronically detects whether the thrower's hand is in contact with the handle as it passes the hog line and indicates a violation by lights at the base of the handle (see delivery below). The eye on the hog eliminates human error and the need for hog line officials. It is mandatory in high-level national and international competition, but its cost, around US$650 each, currently puts it beyond the reach of most curling clubs. Curling broom The curling broom, or brush, is used to sweep the ice surface in the path of the stone (see sweeping) and is also often used as a balancing aid during delivery of the stone. Prior to the 1950s, most curling brooms were made of corn strands and were similar to household brooms of the day. In 1958, Fern Marchessault of Montreal inverted the corn straw in the centre of the broom. This style of corn broom was referred to as the Blackjack. Artificial brooms made from human-made fabrics rather than corn, such as the Rink Rat, also became common later during this time period. Prior to the late sixties, Scottish curling brushes were used primarily by some of the Scots, as well as by recreational and elderly curlers, as a substitute for corn brooms, since the technique was easier to learn. In the late sixties, competitive curlers from Calgary, Alberta, such as John Mayer, Bruce Stewart, and, later, the world junior championship teams skipped by Paul Gowsell, proved that the curling brush could be just as (or more) effective without all the blisters common to corn broom use. The new brooms were temporarily banned by the World Curling Federation and Curling Canada for the 2015–2016 season. Since 2016, only one standardized brush head is approved by the World Curling Federation for competitive play. Shoes Curling shoes are similar to ordinary athletic shoes except for special soles; the slider shoe (usually known as a "slider") is designed for the sliding foot and the "gripper shoe" (usually known as a gripper) for the foot that kicks off from the hack. The slider is designed to slide and typically has a Teflon sole. It is worn by the thrower during delivery from the hack and by sweepers or the skip to glide down the ice when sweeping or otherwise traveling down the sheet quickly. Stainless steel and "red brick" sliders with lateral blocks of PVC on the sole are also available as alternatives to Teflon. Most shoes have a full-sole sliding surface, but some shoes have a sliding surface covering only the outline of the shoe and other enhancements with the full-sole slider. Some shoes have small disc sliders covering the front and heel portions or only the front portion of the foot, which allow more flexibility in the sliding foot for curlers playing with tuck deliveries. When a player is not throwing, the player's slider shoe can be temporarily rendered non-slippery by using a slip-on gripper. Ordinary athletic shoes may be converted to sliders by using a step-on or slip-on Teflon slider or by applying electrical or gaffer tape directly to the sole or over a piece of cardboard. This arrangement often suits casual or beginning players. The gripper is worn by the thrower on the foot that kicks off from the hack during delivery and is designed to grip the ice. It may have a normal athletic shoe sole or a special layer of rubbery material applied to the sole of a thickness to match the sliding shoe. The toe of the hack foot shoe may also have a rubberised coating on the top surface or a flap that hangs over the toe to reduce wear on the top of the shoe as it drags on the ice behind the thrower. Other equipment Other types of equipment include: * Curling pants, made to be stretchy to accommodate the curling delivery. * A stopwatch to time the stones over a fixed distance to calculate their speed. Stopwatches can be attached either to clothing or the broom. * Curling gloves and mittens, to keep the hands warm and improve grip on the broom. Gameplay , Mark Nichols from Team Canada delivers a stone while his teammates look on, ready to begin sweeping. The curler uses his broom to help keep his balance during delivery.]] The purpose of a game is to score points by getting stones closer to the house centre, or the "button", than the other team's stones. Players from either team alternate in taking shots from the far side of the sheet. An end is complete when all eight rocks from each team have been delivered, a total of sixteen stones. If the teams are tied at the end of regulation, often extra ends are played to break the tie. The winner is the team with the highest score after all ends have been completed (see Scoring below). A game may be conceded if winning the game is infeasible. International competitive games are generally ten ends, so most of the national championships that send a representative to the World Championships or Olympics also play ten ends. However, there is a movement on the World Curling Tour to make the games only eight ends. Most tournaments on that tour are eight ends, as are the vast majority of recreational games. In international competition, each side is given 73 minutes to complete all of its throws. Each team is also allowed two minute-long timeouts per 10-end game. If extra ends are required, each team is allowed 10 minutes of playing time to complete its throws and one added 60-second timeout for each extra end. However, the "thinking time" system, in which the delivering team's game timer stops as soon as the shooter's rock crosses the t-line during the delivery, is becoming more popular, especially in Canada. This system allows each team 38 minutes per 10 ends, or 30 minutes per 8 ends, to make strategic and tactical decisions, with 4 minutes and 30 seconds an end for extra ends. The "thinking time" system was implemented after it was recognized that using shots which take more time for the stones to come to rest was being penalized in terms of the time the teams had available compared to teams which primarily use hits which require far less time per shot. Delivery The process of sliding a stone down the sheet is known as the delivery or throw. Players, with the exception of the skip, take turns throwing and sweeping; when one player (e.g., the lead) throws, the players not delivering (the second and third) sweep (see Sweeping, below). When the skip throws, the vice-skip takes their role. The skip, or the captain of the team, determines the desired stone placement and the required weight, turn, and line that will allow the stone to stop there. The placement will be influenced by the tactics at this point in the game, which may involve taking out, blocking, or tapping another stone. * The weight of the stone is its velocity, which depends on the leg drive of the delivery rather than the arm. * The turn or curl is the rotation of the stone, which gives it a curved trajectory. * The line is the direction of the throw ignoring the effect of the turn. The skip may communicate the weight, turn, line, and other tactics by calling or tapping a broom on the ice. In the case of a takeout, guard, or a tap, the skip will indicate the stones involved. Before delivery, the running surface of the stone is wiped clean and the path across the ice swept with the broom if necessary, since any dirt on the bottom of a stone or in its path can alter the trajectory and ruin the shot. Intrusion by a foreign object is called a pick-up or pick. .]] The thrower starts from the hack. The thrower's gripper shoe (with the non-slippery sole) is positioned against one of the hacks; for a right-handed curler the right foot is placed against the left hack and vice versa for a left-hander. The thrower, now in the hack, lines the body up with shoulders square to the skip's broom at the far end for line. The stone is placed in front of the foot now in the hack. Rising slightly from the hack, the thrower pulls the stone back (some older curlers may actually raise the stone in this backward movement) then lunges smoothly out from the hack pushing the stone ahead while the slider foot is moved in front of the gripper foot, which trails behind. The thrust from this lunge determines the weight, and hence the distance the stone will travel. Balance may be assisted by a broom held in the free hand with the back of the broom down so that it slides. One older writer suggests the player keep "a basilisk glance" at the mark. There are two common types of delivery currently, the typical flat-foot delivery and the Manitoba tuck delivery where the curler slides on the front ball of their foot. When the player releases the stone, a rotation (called the turn) is imparted by a slight clockwise or counter-clockwise twist of the handle from around the two or ten o'clock position to the twelve o'clock on release. A typical rate of turn is about rotations before coming to a rest. The stone must be released before its front edge crosses the near hog line. In major tournaments, the "Eye on the Hog" sensor is commonly used to enforce this rule. The sensor is in the handle of the stone and will indicate whether the stone was released before the near hog line. The lights on the stone handle will either light up green, indicating that the stone has been legally thrown, or red, in which case the illegally thrown stone will be immediately pulled from play instead of waiting for the stone to come to rest. The stone must clear the far hog line or else be removed from play (hogged); an exception is made if a stone fails to come to rest beyond the far hog line after rebounding from a stone in play just past the hog line. Sweeping in Vancouver]] After the stone is delivered, its trajectory is influenced by the two sweepers under instruction from the skip. Sweeping is done for several reasons: to make the stone travel further, to decrease the amount of curl, and to clean debris from the stone's path. Sweeping is able to make the stone travel further and straighter by slightly melting the ice under the brooms, thus decreasing the friction as the stone travels across that part of the ice. The stones curl more as they slow down, so sweeping early in travel tends to increase distance as well as straighten the path, and sweeping after sideways motion is established can increase the sideways distance. One of the basic technical aspects of curling is knowing when to sweep. When the ice in front of the stone is swept, a stone will usually travel both further and straighter, and in some situations one of those is not desirable. For example, a stone may be traveling too fast (said to have too much weight), but require sweeping to prevent curling into another stone. The team must decide which is better: getting by the other stone, but traveling too far, or hitting the stone. Much of the yelling that goes on during a curling game is the skip and sweepers exchanging information about the stone's line and weight and deciding whether to sweep. The skip evaluates the path of the stone and calls to the sweepers to sweep as necessary to maintain the intended track. The sweepers themselves are responsible for judging the weight of the stone, ensuring that the length of travel is correct and communicating the weight of the stone back to the skip. Many teams use a number system to communicate in which of 10 zones the sweepers estimate the stone will stop. Some sweepers use stopwatches to time the stone from the back line or tee line to the nearest hog line to aid in estimating how far the stone will travel. Usually, the two sweepers will be on opposite sides of the stone's path, although depending on which side the sweepers' strengths lie this may not always be the case. Speed and pressure are vital to sweeping. In gripping the broom, one hand should be one third of the way from the top (non-brush end) of the handle while the other hand should be one third of the way from the head of the broom. The angle of the broom to the ice should be such that the most force possible can be exerted on the ice. The precise amount of pressure may vary from relatively light brushing ("just cleaning" - to ensure debris will not alter the stone's path) to maximum-pressure scrubbing. Sweeping is allowed anywhere on the ice up to the tee line; once the leading edge of a stone crosses the tee line only one player may sweep it. Additionally, if a stone is behind the tee line one player from the opposing team is allowed to sweep it. This is the only case that a stone may be swept by an opposing team member. In international rules, this player must be the skip, but if the skip is throwing, then the sweeping player must be the third. Burning a stone Occasionally, players may accidentally touch a stone with their broom or a body part. This is often referred to as burning a stone. Players touching a stone in such a manner are expected to call their own infraction as a matter of good sportsmanship. Touching a stationary stone when no stones are in motion (there is no delivery in progress) is not an infraction as long as the stone is struck in such a manner that its position is not altered, and this is a common way for the skip to indicate a stone that is to be taken out. When a stone is touched when stones are in play, the remedies vary This rule, a relatively recent addition to curling, was added in response to a strategy by teams of gaining a lead in the game and then peeling all of the opponents' stones (knocking them out of play at an angle that caused the shooter's stone to also roll out of play, leaving no stones on the ice). By knocking all stones out the opponents could at best score one point, if they had the last stone of the end (called the hammer). If the team peeling the rocks had the hammer they could peel rock after rock which would blank the end (leave the end scoreless), keeping the last rock advantage for another end. This strategy had developed (mostly in Canada) as ice-makers had become skilled at creating a predictable ice surface and newer brushes allowed greater control over the rock. While a sound strategy, this made for an unexciting game. Observers at the time noted that if two teams equally skilled in the peel game faced each other on good ice, the outcome of the game would be predictable from who won the coin flip to have last rock (or had earned it in the schedule) at the beginning of the game. The 1990 Brier (Canadian men's championship) was considered by many curling fans as boring to watch because of the amount of peeling and the quick adoption of the free guard zone rule the following year reflected how disliked this aspect of the game had become. The free guard zone rule was originally called the Modified Moncton Rule and was developed from a suggestion made by Russ Howard for the Moncton 100 cashspiel in Moncton, New Brunswick, in January 1990. "Howard's Rule" (later known as the Moncton Rule), used for the tournament and based on a practice drill his team used, had the first four rocks in play unable to be removed no matter where they were at any time during the end. This method of play was altered by restricting the area in which a stone was protected to the free guard zone only for the first four rocks thrown and adopted as a four-rock free guard zone rule for international competition shortly after. Canada kept to the traditional rules until a three-rock free guard zone rule was adopted for the 1993–94 season. After several years of having the three-rock rule used for the Canadian championships and the winners then having to adjust to the four-rock rule in the World Championships, the Canadian Curling Association adopted the four-rock free guard zone in the 2002–03 season. One strategy that has been developed by curlers in response to the free guard zone (Kevin Martin from Alberta is one of the best examples) is the "tick" game, where a shot is made attempting to knock (tick) the guard to the side, far enough that it is difficult or impossible to use, but still remaining in play while the shot itself goes out of play. The effect is functionally identical to peeling the guard, but significantly harder, as a shot that hits the guard too hard (knocking it out of play) results in it being replaced, while not hitting it hard enough can result in it still being tactically useful for the opposition. There is also a greater chance that the shot will miss the guard entirely because of the greater accuracy required to make the shot. Because of the difficulty of making this type of shot, only the best teams will normally attempt it, and it does not dominate the game the way the peel formerly did. Steve Gould from Manitoba popularized ticks played across the face of the guard stone. These are easier to make because they impart less speed on the object stone, therefore increasing the chance that it remains in play even if a bigger chunk of it is hit. With the tick shot reducing the effectiveness of the four-rock rule, the Grand Slam of Curling series of bonspiels adopted a five-rock rule in 2014. In 2017, the five-rock rule was adopted by the World Curling Federation and member organizations for official play, beginning in the 2018–19 season. Hammer <!-- This section is linked from Hammer (disambiguation) --> The last rock in an end is called the hammer, and throwing the hammer gives a team a tactical advantage. Before the game, teams typically decide who gets the hammer in the first end either by chance (such as a coin toss), by a "draw-to-the-button" contest, where a representative of each team shoots to see who gets closer to the centre of the rings, or, particularly in tournament settings like the Winter Olympics, by a comparison of each team's win–loss record. In all subsequent ends, the team that did not score in the preceding end gets to throw second, thus having the hammer. In the event that neither team scores, called a blanked end, the hammer remains with the same team. Naturally, it is easier to score points with the hammer than without; the team with the hammer generally tries to score two or more points. If only one point is possible, the skip may try to avoid scoring at all in order to retain the hammer the next end, giving the team another chance to use the hammer advantage to try to score two points. Scoring without the hammer is commonly referred to as stealing, or a steal, and is much more difficult. Strategy Curling is a game of strategy, tactics, and skill. The strategy depends on the team's skill, the opponent's skill, the conditions of the ice, the score of the game, how many ends remain and whether the team has last-stone advantage (the hammer). A team may play an end aggressively or defensively. Aggressive playing will put a lot of stones in play by throwing mostly draws; this makes for an exciting game and although risky the rewards can be great. Defensive playing will throw a lot of hits preventing a lot of stones in play; this tends to be less exciting and less risky. A good drawing team will usually opt to play aggressively, while a good hitting team will opt to play defensively. If a team does not have the hammer in an end, it will opt to try to clog up the four-foot zone in the house to deny the opposing team access to the button. This can be done by throwing "centre line" guards in front of the house on the centre line, which can be tapped into the house later or drawn around. If a team has the hammer, they will try to keep this four-foot zone free so that they have access to the button area at all times. A team with the hammer may throw a corner guard as their first stone of an end placed in front of the house, but outside the four-foot zone to utilize the free guard zone. Corner guards are key for a team to score two points in an end, because they can either draw around it later or hit and roll behind it, making the opposing team's shot to remove it more difficult. Ideally, the strategy in an end for a team with the hammer is to score two points or more. Scoring one point is often a wasted opportunity, as they will then lose last-stone advantage for the next end. If a team cannot score two points, they will often attempt to "blank an end" by removing any leftover opposition stones and rolling out; or, if there are no opposition stones, just throwing the stone through the house so that no team scores any points, and the team with the hammer can try again the next end to score two or more with it. Generally, a team without the hammer would want to either force the team with the hammer to only one point, so that they can get the hammer back, or "steal" the end by scoring one or more points of their own. Large leads are often defended by displacing the opponent's stones to reduce their opportunity to score multiple points. However, a comfortably leading team that leaves their own stones in play becomes vulnerable as the opponent can draw around guard stones, stones in the house can be "tapped back" if they are in front of the tee line, or "frozen onto" if they are behind the tee line. A frozen stone is placed in front of and touching the opponent's stone and is difficult to remove. At this point, a team may opt for "peels"; throws with a lot of "weight" that can move opposition stones out of play. Conceding a game It is common at any level for a losing team to terminate the match before all ends are completed if it believes it no longer has a realistic chance of winning. Competitive games end once the losing team has "run out of rocks"—that is, once it has fewer stones in play and available for play than the number of points needed to tie the game. Dispute resolution Most decisions about rules are left to the skips, although in official tournaments, decisions may be left to the officials. However, all scoring disputes are handled by the vice skip. No players other than the vice skip from each team should be in the house while score is being determined. In tournament play, the most frequent circumstance in which a decision has to be made by someone other than the vice skip is the failure of the vice skips to agree on which stone is closest to the button. An independent official (supervisor at Canadian and World championships) then measures the distances using a specially designed device that pivots at the centre of the button. When no independent officials are available, the vice skips measure the distances. Scoring The winner is the team having the highest number of accumulated points at the completion of ten ends. Points are scored at the conclusion of each of these ends as follows: when each team has thrown its eight stones, the team with the stone closest to the button wins that end; the winning team is then awarded one point for each of its own stones lying closer to the button than the opponent's closest stone. Only stones that are in the house are considered in the scoring. A stone is in the house if it lies within the zone or any portion of its edge lies over the edge of the ring. Since the bottom of the stone is rounded, a stone just barely in the house will not have any actual contact with the ring, which will pass under the rounded edge of the stone, but it still counts. This type of stone is known as a biter. It may not be obvious to the eye which of the two rocks is closer to the button (centre) or if a rock is actually biting or not. There are specialized devices to make these determinations, but these cannot be brought out until after an end is completed. Therefore, a team may make strategic decisions during an end based on assumptions of rock position that turn out to be incorrect. The score is marked on a scoreboard, of which there are two types; the baseball type and the club scoreboard. The baseball-style scoreboard was created for televised games for audiences not familiar with the club scoreboard. The ends are marked by columns 1 through to the regulation number of ends for the competition (usually with an extra column to account for the possibility of an extra end to break ties) plus an additional column for the total. Below this are two rows, one for each team, containing the team's score for that end and their total score in the right-hand column. The club scoreboard is traditional and used in most curling clubs. Scoring on this board only requires the use of (up to) 11 digit cards, whereas with baseball-type scoring an unknown number of multiples of the digits (especially low digits like 1 and especially 0) may be needed. The numbered centre row represents various possible scores, and the numbers placed in the team rows represent the end in which that team achieved that cumulative score. If the red team scores three points in the first end (called a three-ender), then a 1 (indicating the first end) is placed beside the number 3 in the red row. If they score two more in the second end, then a 2 will be placed beside the 5 in the red row, indicating that the red team has five points in total This scoreboard works because only one team can get points in an end. However, some confusion may arise if neither team scores points in an end, this is called a blank end. The blank end numbers are usually listed in the furthest column on the right in the row of the team that has the hammer (last rock advantage), or on a special spot for blank ends. The following example illustrates the difference between the two types. The example illustrates the men's final at the 2006 Winter Olympics. {| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" |+ Baseball-style scoreboard |- style="background:#ffc; font-weight:bold;" | Team | style="width:12px;"| 1 | style="width:12px;"| 2 | style="width:12px;"| 3 | style="width:12px;"| 4 | style="width:12px;"| 5 | style="width:12px;"| 6 | style="width:12px;"| 7 | style="width:12px;"| 8 | style="width:12px;"| 9 | style="width:12px;"| 10 | style="width:12px;"| Final |- style="background:#fff;" | align="left" nowrap| | 0 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 6 | 0 | 0 | X | X | 10 |- style="background:#fff;" | align="left" nowrap| | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | X | X | 4 |} {| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" |+ Curling club-style scoreboard |- style="background:#f00;" | align="left" nowrap| | | 2 | 3 | 4 | | | | | | 6 | | | | | | |- style="background:#fff; font-weight:bold;" | Points | style="width:12px;"| 1 | style="width:12px;"| 2 | style="width:12px;"| 3 | style="width:12px;"| 4 | style="width:12px;"| 5 | style="width:12px;"| 6 | style="width:12px;"| 7 | style="width:12px;"| 8 | style="width:12px;"| 9 | style="width:12px;"| 10 | style="width:12px;"| 11 | style="width:12px;"| 12 | style="width:12px;"| 13 | style="width:12px;"| 14 | style="width:12px;"| 15 | Blank ends |- style="background:#add8e6;" | align="left" nowrap| | | 1 | 5 | 8 | | | | | | | | | | | | 7 |} Eight points – all the rocks thrown by one team counting – is the highest score possible in an end, and is known as an "eight-ender" or "snowman". Scoring an eight-ender is very difficult; in curling, it is the equivalent of pitching a perfect game in baseball. Probably the best-known snowman came at the 2006 Players' Championships. Future (2007) World Champion Kelly Scott scored eight points in one of her games against 1998 World bronze medalist Cathy King. Culture ]] (1862) by John George Brown]] (1899) by Charles Martin Hardie]] Competition teams are normally named after the skip, for example, Team Martin after skip Kevin Martin. Amateur league players can (and do) creatively name their teams, but when in competition (a bonspiel) the official team will have a standard name. Top curling championships are typically played by all-male or all-female teams. It is known as mixed curling when a team consists of two men and two women. For many years, in the absence of world championship or Olympic mixed curling events, national championships (of which the Canadian Mixed Curling Championship was the most prominent) were the highest-level mixed curling competitions. However, a European Mixed Curling Championship was inaugurated in 2005, a World Mixed Doubles Curling Championship was established in 2008, and the European Mixed Championship was replaced with the World Mixed Curling Championship in 2015. A mixed tournament was held at the Olympic level for the first time in 2018, although it was a doubles tournament, not a four-person. Curling tournaments may use the Schenkel system for determining the participants in matches. Curling is played in many countries, including Canada, the United Kingdom (especially Scotland), the United States, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Denmark, Finland, and Japan, all of which compete in the world championships. Curling has been depicted by many artists including: George Harvey, John Levack, The Dutch School, Charles Martin Hardie, John Elliot Maguire, John McGhie, and John George Brown. Curling is particularly popular in Canada. Improvements in ice making and changes in the rules to increase scoring and promote complex strategy have increased the already high popularity of the sport in Canada, and large television audiences watch annual curling telecasts, especially the Scotties Tournament of Hearts (the national championship for women), the Montana's Brier (the national championship for men), and the women's and men's world championships. Despite the Canadian province of Manitoba's small population (ranked 5th of 10 Canadian provinces), Manitoban teams have won the Brier more times than teams from any other province, except for Alberta. The Tournament of Hearts and the Brier are contested by provincial and territorial champions, and the world championships by national champions. Curling is the provincial sport of Saskatchewan. From there, Ernie Richardson and his family team dominated Canadian and international curling during the late 1950s and early 1960s and have been considered to be the best male curlers of all time. Sandra Schmirler led her team to the first-ever gold medal in women's curling in the 1998 Winter Olympics. When she died two years later from cancer, over 15,000 people attended her funeral, and it was broadcast on national television. Good sportsmanship <!-- This section is linked from Curling --> More so than in many other team sports, good sportsmanship, often referred to as the "Spirit of Curling", is an integral part of curling. The Spirit of Curling also leads teams to congratulate their opponents for making a good shot, strong sweeping, or spectacular form. Perhaps most importantly, the Spirit of Curling dictates that one never cheers mistakes, misses, or gaffes by one's opponent (unlike most team sports), and one should not celebrate one's own good shots during the game beyond modest acknowledgement of the shot such as a head nod, fist bump, or thumbs-up gesture. Modest congratulation, however, may be exchanged between winning team members after the match. On-the-ice celebration is usually reserved for the winners of a major tournament after winning the final game of the championship. It is completely unacceptable to attempt to throw opposing players off their game by way of negative comment, distraction, or heckling. A match traditionally begins with players shaking hands with and saying "good curling" or "have a pleasant game" to each member of the opposing team. It is also traditional in some areas for the winning team to buy the losing team a drink after the game. Even at the highest levels of play, players are expected to call their own fouls. It is not uncommon for a team to concede a curling match after it believes it no longer has any hope of winning. Concession is an honourable act and does not carry the stigma associated with quitting. It also allows for more socializing. To concede a match, members of the losing team offer congratulatory handshakes to the winning team. Thanks, wishes of future good luck, and hugs are usually exchanged between the teams. To continue playing when a team has no realistic chance of winning can be seen as a breach of etiquette. Accessibility Curling has been adapted for wheelchair users and people otherwise unable to throw the stone from the hack. These curlers may use a device known as a "delivery stick". The cue holds on to the handle of the stone and is then pushed along by the curler. At the end of delivery, the curler pulls back on the cue, which releases it from the stone. The Canadian Curling Association Rules of Curling allows the use of a delivery stick in club play, but does not permit it in championships. The delivery stick was specifically invented for elderly curlers in Canada in 1999. In early 2016 an international initiative started to allow use of the delivery sticks by players over 60 years of age in World Curling Federation Senior Championships, as well as in any projected Masters (60+) Championship that develops in the future. Floor curling An iceless variation of the sport called "floor curling" was developed by Hong Konger John Li Shek-chong in 2014. Floor curling is governed by the World FloorCurling Federation which was also set up by Li. Terminology Terms used to describe the game include: The ice in the game may be fast (keen) or slow. If the ice is keen, a rock will travel further with a given amount of weight (throwing force) on it. The speed of the ice is measured in seconds. One such measure, known as "hog-to-hog" time, is the speed of the stone and is the time in seconds the rock takes from the moment it crosses the near hog line until it crosses the far hog line. If this number is lower, the rock is moving faster, so again low numbers mean more speed. The ice in a match will be somewhat consistent and thus this measure of speed can also be used to measure how far down the ice the rock will travel. Once it is determined that a rock taking (for example) 13 seconds to go from hog line to hog line will stop on the tee line, the curler can know that if the hog-to-hog time is matched by a future stone, that stone will likely stop at approximately the same location. As an example, on keen ice, common times might be 16 seconds for guards, 14 seconds for draws, and 8 seconds for peel weight. The back line to hog line speed is used principally by sweepers to get an initial sense of the weight of a stone. As an example, on keen ice, common times might be 4.0 seconds for guards, 3.8 seconds for draws, 3.2 for normal hit weight, and 2.9 seconds for peel weight. Especially at the club level, this metric can be misleading, due to amateurs sometimes pushing stones on release, causing the stone to travel faster than the back-to-hog speed. Champions and major championships * Curling at the Winter Olympics * World Curling Championships * World Junior Curling Championships * World Senior Curling Championships * World Mixed Doubles Curling Championship * European Curling Championships * Continental Cup of Curling * Montana's Brier * Scotties Tournament of Hearts * United States Men's Curling Championship * United States Women's Curling Championship * Canada Cup of Curling * European Mixed Curling Championship Notable clubs * Bemidji Curling Club – Bemidji, Minnesota, Home of the 2006 United States Men's & Women's Olympic Curling Teams * Broomstones Curling Club – Wayland, Massachusetts * Chicago Curling Club – Chicago, Illinois * Dakota Curling Club – Burnsville, Minnesota – a leading example of the development of new curling clubs on arena ice in the USA * Detroit Curling Club – Ferndale, Michigan * Duluth Curling Club – Duluth, Minnesota – Home of the 2018 United States Men's Gold Medal Olympic Curling Team * Garrison Golf and Curling Club, Kingston, Ontario * Grand National Curling Club – Organization in the United States covering clubs on the east coast * Granite Curling Club – Winnipeg, Manitoba * Granite Curling Club – Seattle, Washington, the only dedicated curling facility on the west coast of the United States * Ice Melters Curling Club – England * Markinch Curling Club – Fife, Scotland * Mayflower Curling Club – Halifax, Nova Scotia * Milwaukee Curling Club – Mequon, Wisconsin — The oldest curling club in the U.S. – Since 1845 * Ottawa Curling Club – Ottawa, Ontario * Potomac Curling Club – Laurel, Maryland – Near Washington, D.C. * Pittsburgh Curling Club – Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania – Established in 2002 * Plainfield Curling Club – South Plainfield, New Jersey * Rideau Curling Club – Ottawa, Ontario * Royal Caledonian Curling Club – Scotland, the official Mother Club of curling * Royal Montreal Curling Club – Montreal, Quebec, the oldest active athletic club in North America * Royal City Curling Club – New Westminster, British Columbia * Saint Paul Curling Club – St. Paul, Minnesota – Founded in 1885. Club with largest active membership in the United States (over 1000 members). * Utica Curling Club – Utica, New York * Kilsyth Curling Club – the first constituted curling club in the world In popular culture * The Beatles participate in a game of curling during one scene of their 1965 film Help!. The villains booby-trap one of the curling stones with a bomb; George sees the "fiendish thingy" and tells everyone to run. The bomb eventually goes off after a delay, creating a big hole in the ice. * The 1969 James Bond film ''On Her Majesty's Secret Service features scenes of curling. * Men with Brooms is a 2002 Canadian film that takes a satirical look at curling. A TV adaptation, also titled Men with Brooms, debuted in 2010 on CBC Television. * The Corner Gas'' episode "Hurry Hard" involves the townspeople of Dog River competing in a local curling bonspiel for the fictitious "Clavet Cup". The episode also features cameos by Canadian curlers Randy Ferbey and Dave Nedohin. * In Louise Penny's mystery novel A Fatal Grace, published in 2007, the main character investigates a murder at a local Christmas bonspiel. *"Boy Meets Curl" is a 2010 episode from The Simpsons: Homer and Marge form a mixed curling team with Agnes and Seymour Skinner, which is chosen to play in the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, where they win the gold medal. *The Move of the Penguin is a 2013 Italian comedy film where an unlikely team tries to qualify for the 2006 Winter Olympics held in Turin. *The 2014 Canadian drama film Sweeping Forward centres on a group of troubled young women who are recruited to train and compete as a curling team. * In 2021, the sitcom The Great North aired the episode "Curl Interrupted Adventure" in which two characters join a curling league. See also <!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order & add a short description WP:SEEALSO --> * Glossary of curling * Grand Slam of Curling * List of curlers * World Curling Federation * * Women's curling * Drummuir Curlers' Platform railway station <!-- please keep entries in alphabetical order --> References Further reading * * * * Smith, David B. (1981), Curling: An Illustrated History, John Donald Publishers Ltd., Edinburgh, External links * [http://www.worldcurling.org/ World Curling Federation] * [http://www.cbc.ca/archives/categories/sports/curling/curling-sweeping-the-nation/topic---curling-sweeping-the-nation.html CBC Digital Archives – Curling: Sweeping the Nation] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160527005136/http://collectionscanada.ca/curling/ Bonspiel! The History of Curling in Canada at Library and Archives Canada] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150924014238/http://www.folklife.si.edu/resources/festival2003/scot_curling2.htm curling stones], Smithsonian Center for Folklife and Cultural Heritage. * [https://books.google.com/books?idht8DAAAAMBAJ&pgPA78 The Game Of The Magic Broom, March 1944] one of the first magazine articles to introduce the game of curling to the American public * [http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/32838 The Canadian Curler's Manual] transcription of 1840 text * [https://archive.today/20130714050734/http://www.sportlistings.com/winter-sports/curling/world-curling-federation-l112.html Sportlistings.com] - World Curling Federation Directory listing Category:Winter Olympic sports Category:Sports originating in Scotland Category:Precision sports Category:Team sports Category:Scottish games Category:Ice sports Category:Sports originating in the United Kingdom
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curling
2025-04-05T18:27:52.964262
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Craven Cottage
; | built = 1780 (as a cottage) | opened = 1896 (as a stadium) | owner = Fulham | operator =Fulham | surface = Grass (Fibrelastic) | dimensions | record_attendance = 49,335 (October 1938) }} Craven Cottage is a football stadium in Fulham, West London, England, which has been the home of Fulham F.C. since 1896. The ground's capacity is 29,589; Next to Bishop's Park on the banks of the River Thames, it was originally a royal hunting lodge and has a history dating back over 300 years. The stadium has also been used by national teams and was formerly the home ground for rugby league club Fulham RLFC. Life Pre-Fulham as of 2010.<!-- based on file creation date -->]] The original Cottage was built in 1780, by William Craven, the sixth Baron Craven and was located close to where the Johnny Haynes Stand is now. At the time, the surrounding areas were woods which once made up part of Anne Boleyn's hunting grounds.) and other somewhat notable (and moneyed) persons before settling in at Craven Cottage for good. Therefore, The Cottagers have had 12 grounds overall (including a temporary stay at Loftus Road.) Of particular note, was Ranelagh House, Fulham's palatial home from 1886 to 1888. Under construction: 1894–1905 's redesign in 1904-5]] When representatives of Fulham first came across the land, in 1894, it was so overgrown that it took two years to be made suitable for football to be played on it. was hired to work on the stadium.), he built a pavilion (the present-day 'Cottage' itself and, following the death of Fulham FC's favourite son, former England captain Johnny Haynes, in a car accident in October 2005 the Stevenage Road Stand was renamed the Johnny Haynes Stand after the club sought the opinions of Fulham supporters. Both the Johnny Haynes Stand and Cottage remain among the finest examples of Archibald Leitch football architecture to remain in existence and both have been designated as Grade II listed buildings. followed by a rugby league international between England and Australia in 1911. One of the club's directors Henry Norris, and his friend William Hall, took over Arsenal in the early 1910s, the plan being to merge Fulham with Arsenal, to form a "London superclub" at Craven Cottage. This move was largely motivated by Fulham's failure thus far to gain promotion to the top division of English football. There were also plans for Henry Norris to build a larger stadium on the other side of Stevenage Road but there was little need after the merger idea failed. During this era, the Cottage was used for choir singing and marching bands along with other performances, and Mass. In 1933 there were plans to demolish the ground and start again from scratch with a new 80,000 capacity stadium. These plans never materialised mainly due to the Great Depression. On 8 October 1938, 49,335 spectators watched Fulham play Millwall.Post-World War II (1934–2005), Fulham's most famous player, in his classic 'hand-on-hip' pose, outside the stand named after him]] It was not until after Fulham first reached the top division, in 1949, that further improvements were made to the stadium. In 1962 Fulham became the final side in the first division to erect floodlights. An electronic scoreboard was installed on the Riverside Terrace at the same time and flagpoles flying the flags of all of the other first division teams were flown from them. Following the sale of Alan Mullery to Tottenham Hotspur in 1964 (for £72,500) the Hammersmith End had a roof put over it at a cost of approximately £42,500. Although Fulham were relegated, the development of Craven Cottage continued. The Riverside terracing, infamous for the fact that fans occupying it would turn their heads annually to watch The Boat Race pass, was replaced by what was officially named the 'Eric Miller Stand', Eric Miller being a director of the club at the time. The stand, which cost £334,000 Pelé was also to appear on the ground, with a friendly played against his team Santos F.C. The Miller stand brought the seated capacity up to 11,000 out of a total 40,000. Eric Miller committed suicide five years later after a political and financial scandal, and had shady dealings with trying to move Fulham away from the Cottage. The stand is now better known as the Riverside Stand. The international record is held by Jimmy O'Connor, an Irish player who notched up his hat trick in 2 minutes 14 seconds in 1967. Between 1980 and 1984, Fulham rugby league played their home games at the Cottage. Craven Cottage held the team's largest ever crowd at any ground with 15,013, at a game against Wakefield Trinity on 15 February 1981. Modern times .]] When the Hillsborough disaster occurred in 1989, Fulham were in the second bottom rung of The Football League, but following the Taylor report Fulham's ambitious chairman Jimmy Hill tabled plans in 1996 for an all-seater stadium. These plans never came to fruition, partly due to local residents' pressure groups, and by the time Fulham reached the Premier League, they still had standing areas in the ground, but by the time the last league game was played there, against Leicester City on 27 April 2002, no building plans had been made. Two more Intertoto Cup games were played there later that year (against FC Haka of Finland and Egaleo FC of Greece), and the eventual solution was to decamp to Loftus Road, home of local rivals QPR. During this time, many Fulham fans only went to away games in protest of moving from Craven Cottage. 'Back to the Cottage', later to become the 'Fulham Supporters Trust', was set up as a fans pressure group to encourage the chairman and his advisers that Craven Cottage was the only viable option for Fulham Football Club. After one and a half seasons at Loftus Road, no work had been done on the Cottage. In December 2003, plans were unveiled for £8 million worth of major refurbishment work to bring it in line with Premier League requirements. With planning permission granted, work began in January 2004 in order to meet the deadline of the new season. The work proceeded as scheduled and the club were able to return to their home for the start of the 2004–05 season. Their first game in the new-look 22,000 all-seater stadium was a pre-season friendly against Watford on 10 July 2004. Much admired for its fine architecture, the stadium has recently hosted a few international games, mostly including Australia. This venue is suitable for Australia because most of the country's top players are based in Europe, and West London has a significant community of expatriate Australians. Also, Greece vs. South Korea was hosted on 6 February 2007. In 2011 Brazil played Ghana, in an international friendly, and the Women's Champions League Final was hosted. Craven Cottage often hosts other events such as 5-a-side football tournaments and weddings. Some have Sunday Lunch at the Riverside restaurant or the 'Cottage Cafe'), 2008, 2009, and 2014 as well as having a Soccer Aid warm-up match in 2006. The half-time entertainment includes the SW6ers (previously called The Cravenettes) which are a group of female cheerleaders. Other events have included brass bands, Michael Jackson (although just walking on the pitch, as opposed to performing), Travis playing, Arabic dancing, keepie uppie professionals and presentational awards. Most games also feature the 'Fulham flutter', a half-time draw; and a shoot-out competition of some kind, usually involving scoring through a 'hoop' or 'beat the goalie'. On the first home game of the season, there is a carnival where Fulham fans are encouraged to attend in black-and-white colours. The revived Fulham F.C. Women and reserve teams occasionally play home matches at the Cottage. Other than this, they generally play at the club's training ground at Motspur Park. Craven Cottage is known by several affectionate nicknames from fans, including: The (River) Cottage, The Fortress (or Fortress Fulham), or The River of Dreams. The most accessible route to the ground is to walk through Bishops Park from Putney Bridge (the nearest Underground station), often known as 'The Green Mile' by Fulham fans (as it is roughly a mile walk through pleasant greenery). In 2016 The Daily Telegraph ranked the Cottage 9th out of 54 grounds to hold Premier League football.PlansOn 27 July 2012, Fulham FC were granted permission to redevelop the Riverside Stand, increasing the capacity of Craven Cottage to 30,000 seats. Beforehand various rumours arose including plans to return to ground-sharing with QPR in a new 40,000 seater White City stadium, although these now appear firmly on hold with the construction of the Westfield shopping centre on the proposed site. The board seem to have moved away from their ambition to make Fulham the "Manchester United of the south" as it became clear how expensive such a plan would be. With large spaces of land at a premium in south-west London, Fulham appear to be committed to a gradual increase of the ground's capacity often during the summer between seasons. The capacity of Craven Cottage has been increased during summers for instance in 2008 with a small increase in the capacity of the Hammersmith End. Fulham previously announced in 2007 that they are planning to increase the capacity of Craven Cottage by 4,000 seats, but this is yet to be implemented. There were also proposals for a bridge to span the Thames, for a redeveloped Riverside stand and a museum. More substantial plans arose in October 2011 with the 'Fulham Forever' campaign. With Mohamed Al-Fayed selling Harrods department store for £1.5 billion in May 2010 a detailed plan emerged in the Riverside Stand as the only viable area for expansion. The scheme involved the demolition of the back of the Riverside Stand with a new tier of seating added on top of the current one and a row of corporate boxes; bringing Craven Cottage up to 30,000 capacity. Taking into account local residents, the proposal would: reopen the riverside walk; light pollution would be reduced with the removal of floodlight masts; new access points would make match-day crowds more manageable; and the new stand would be respectful in design to its position on the River Thames. Buckingham Group Contracting were chosen in March 2013 as the construction company for the project. In May 2019, the club confirmed that work on the new Riverside Stand would commence in the summer of 2019. During the 2019–20, 2020–21 and 2021–22 seasons, the ground's capacity was temporarily reduced to 19,000. The club announced on 17 March 2022 that the lower tier of the Riverside Stand would be open for the 2022–23 season for over 2000 supporters, with season tickets going on sale from 29 March. The ground Hammersmith End The Hammersmith End is the northernmost stand in the ground, the closest to Hammersmith. The roofing was financed through the sale of Alan Mullery to Tottenham Hotspur F.C. and many stand during games at the back rows of the stand. If Fulham win the toss, they usually choose to play towards the Hammersmith End in the second half. The hardcore fans tend to sit (or rather stand) in the back half of the Hammersmith End, plus the entire Block H5 (known as 'H Block' to the faithful). The stand had terracing until the reopening of the ground in 2004, when it was replaced with seating in order to comply with league rules following the Taylor Report. Flags of every nationality in the Fulham squad were hung from the roofing, although they were removed after the 2006–07 season commenced and there is now an electronic scoreboard in place. There is a plane tree in the corner by the river.Riverside Stand ]] The Riverside was originally terracing that backed onto the Thames. unlike the other three stands. It contained corporate hospitality seating The Hammersmith End is to its left, the Putney End to its right and opposite is the Johnny Haynes Stand. while on non-match days there was the Cottage Cafe, located near to the Cottage itself. Under Tommy Trinder's chairmanship in the 60s, flags of all other teams in the Division 1 were proudly flown along the Thames. Trinder decided not to change the flags as "Fulham won't be in this division next season". True to Trinder's prophecy, Fulham were relegated again. The roof of the stand had been used by sponsors, with VisitFlorida advertising in this way, and Pipex.com, FxPro, Lee Cooper Jeans and LG having previously done so. After the 2019–20 season, the stand was demolished and rebuilt. Upon completion, the capacity of the ground will increase to around 29,600. On 26 November 2019, the Chairman Shahid Khan announced that the new development will be known as Fulham Pier, a destination venue outside of match-day use. Several issues postponed completion from 2021 to 2024. As of February 2025 the stand the fit out is still being completed.Johnny Haynes Stand stand at Craven Cottage, is a Grade II listed building.]] ]] Originally called the Stevenage Road Stand, the Johnny Haynes stand is the oldest remaining football stand in the Football League and professional football, The exterior facing Stevenage Road has a brick façade and features the club's old emblem in the artwork. The front of the stand now contains plastic seating, but originally was a standing area. Children were often placed at the front of this enclosure and the area had a distinctive white picket fence to keep fans off the pitch up until the 1970s.The PavilionThe Cottage Pavilion dates back to 1905 along with the Johnny Haynes Stand, Besides being the changing rooms, the Cottage (also called The Clubhouse) is traditionally used by the players' families and friends who sit on the balcony to watch the game. In the three other corners of the ground there are what have been described as large 'filing cabinets', which are corporate boxes on three levels, but the box on the other side of the Putney End has been removed due to the redevelopment of the Riverside. Details Records *Record attendance: 49,335 v. Millwall, 29 December 2024 - Premier LeagueAll-time attendance*Total attendance: 31,234,275 (correct up to January 2013) *Average total attendance: 15,759 (ranked 31 of 130 English club teams in history) Sammy Morgan and a Trevor Anderson brace concluded the scoring in the first half. On 22 February 2000, it hosted England's under 21s international under 21 friendly against Argentina's under 21s team. The hosts won 1–0 with Lee Hendrie's sixty seventh-minute goal with 15,747 in attendance. In recent years, Craven Cottage has hosted several International Friendly matches, including the Ireland national team who played Colombia and Nigeria there in May 2008 and May 2009 respectively and Oman in 2012. and then against Croatia in February 2013. On 17 November 2007 Australia beat Nigeria 1–0 in an international friendly at Craven Cottage. On 26 May 2011, Craven Cottage hosted the game of 2011 UEFA Women's Champions League Final between Lyon and Potsdam. In September 2011, a friendly between Ghana and Brazil was also held at Craven Cottage. One plane tree survives today in a corner of the Putney End, In 2013, Al-Fayed stated that the statue would be moved to a different property he owned, though it was eventually moved to the National Football Museum in Manchester in 2014. The statue was removed from public display at that museum in March 2019, likely due to sexual abuse allegations made in the Channel 4/HBO documentary Leaving Neverland, which had aired days before. *2016 Saudi Super Cup, Played on 8 August 2016, ended with Al-Hilal losing 4–3 on penalties to Al-Ahli. The match had no added extra time. It ended 1–1 at 90 minutes. *In October 2023, Ashwater Press (Ken Coton Martin Plumb) published a book 'Craven Cottage – 250 years' which charts the history of the site from 1777 and the first Craven Cottage with its 15 owners, to the present day. See also *Fulham RLFC References Further reading * * External links *[http://www.fulhamfc.com/visit/craven-cottage Craven Cottage] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20120313134451/http://www.sport-grounds.co.uk/craven-cottage-stadium Craven Cottage Social Media] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20150704035702/http://www.footballgroundguide.com/leagues/england/championship/craven-cottage-fulham.html Football Ground Guide profile] Category:History of the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham Category:Listed sports venues in England Category:Venues of the 1948 Summer Olympics Category:Football venues in London Category:Fulham F.C. home grounds Category:Premier League venues Category:English Football League venues Category:Grade II listed buildings in the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham Category:Defunct rugby league venues in England Category:London Broncos Category:Sports venues completed in 1896 Category:Fulham Category:1896 establishments in England Category:Grade II listed sports and recreation buildings Category:Sport in the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craven_Cottage
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Constantine
Constantine most often refers to: Constantine the Great, Roman emperor from 306 to 337, also known as Constantine I Constantine, Algeria, a city in Algeria Constantine may also refer to: People Constantine (name), a masculine given name and surname Roman/Byzantine emperors Constantine II (emperor) Constantine III (Western Roman emperor) Constantine III (Byzantine emperor) Constantine IV Constantine V Constantine VI Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus Constantine VIII Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine X Doukas Constantine XI Palaiologos Emperors not enumerated Tiberius II, reigned officially as "Constantine" Constans II, reigned officially as "Constantine" Constantine (son of Leo V) Constantine (son of Theophilos) Constantine (son of Basil I) Constantine Doukas (co-emperor) Constantine Lekapenos Constantine Laskaris (?) Other rulers Constantine I, Prince of Armenia Constantine II, Prince of Armenia Constantine I, King of Armenia, also called Constantine III Constantine II, King of Armenia, also called Constantine IV Constantine III, King of Armenia, also called Constantine V Constantine IV, King of Armenia, also called Constantine VI Constantine of Baberon, regent of Zabel, and father of Hetoum I of Armenia, 13th century Constantine I (or Kuestantinos I) of Ethiopia, also known as Zara Yaqob Constantine II (or Kuestantinos II) of Ethiopia, also known as Eskender Constantine I of Greece Constantine II of Greece Constantine I of Arborea Constantín mac Fergusa, or Constantin of the Picts Constantín mac Cináeda, or Constantine I of Scotland Constantine II of Scotland Constantine III of Scotland Constantine I of Cagliari Constantine II of Cagliari Constantine III of Gallura Constantine I of Torres Constantine Tikh of Bulgaria Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich of Russia Constantine Dragaš Constantine I of Georgia Constantine II of Georgia Constantine I of Imereti Constantine Mavrocordatos Constantine Ypsilantis Constantine (Briton), king in sub-Roman Britain Constantine of Strathclyde, supposed king of Strathclyde Religious leaders Constantine I of Constantinople Constantine II of Constantinople Constantine III of Constantinople Constantine IV of Constantinople Constantine V of Constantinople Constantine VI of Constantinople Pope Constantine Antipope Constantine II Other people Constantine (British saint), several obscure saints Constantine of Preslav, a medieval Bulgarian scholar Constantine or Causantín, Earl of Fife (fl. 1095–1128), a Scottish nobleman Constantine Stilbes (fl. 1070–1220), a Byzantine clergyman and poet Constantine the African (c. 1020–1087), a Tunisian doctor Constantine the Jew (d. c. 886), Byzantine monk Constantine-Silvanus (also called Silvanus), founder of the Paulicians Saint Cyril the Philosopher, whose original name was Constantine Fiction John Constantine, a fictional character appearing in the DC Comics franchise, including Hellblazer Constantine (comic book), a comic book series replacing the earlier Hellblazer Constantine (film), a 2005 American film based on the DC Comic book character from the Hellblazer series Constantine (video game), an action-adventure video game based on the film Constantine (TV series), a 2014 NBC TV series, based on the comic book Hellblazer Constantine: City of Demons, a 2018 CW Seed animated web series Constantine, the main antagonist of the film Muppets Most Wanted Places Algeria Constantine, Algeria, the nation's third largest city and capital of Constantine Province Constantine Province, surrounding the city of the same name Beylik of Constantine, an administrative unit of the Regency of Algiers Constantine (departement), similar area during French Algeria Serbia Constantine the Great Airport, Niš, Serbia Switzerland Constantine, Switzerland, a municipality in the canton of Vaud United Kingdom Constantine Bay, near Padstow, Cornwall Constantine, Cornwall, near Falmouth Constantine College, York, a college of the University of York United States Constantine, Michigan, a village in St. Joseph county Other uses Order of Constantine Constantine (album), a 2007 album by Constantine Maroulis Constantine, a 2020 album by 40 Glocc Constantine, a frog character who resembles Kermit the Frog and is the foremost criminal in the 2014 film Muppets Most Wanted See also Constantin (disambiguation) Constantines, indie rock band Constantius (disambiguation)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine
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Lists of composers
This is a list of lists of composers grouped by various criteria. Name List of composers by name Women List of female composers by name List of female composers by birth date List of Australian female composers Genre Anime composer List of Carnatic composers List of film score composers List of major opera composers List of composers of musicals List of musicals by composer: A to L, M to Z List of ragtime composers List of symphony composers List of acousmatic-music composers List of Spaghetti Western composers List of television theme music composers Western classical period List of Medieval composers List of Renaissance composers List of Baroque composers List of Classical-era composers List of Romantic-era composers List of 20th-century classical composers List of 21st-century classical composers Nationality or ethnicity Chronological lists of classical composers by nationality List of composers by nationality Instrument List of composers for the classical guitar List of organ composers List of piano composers List of composers and their preferred lyricists List of string quartet composers Classification Chronological lists of classical composers List of Anglican church composers – See also Religious music List of composers in the Mannheim school List of composers of African descent List of composers of Caribbean descent List of modernist composers List of Byzantine composers List of composers in literature See also Lists of musicians Lists of singers List of singer-songwriters – see also Pop music and Rock music List of burial places of classical musicians External links Sheet music by composer at the International Music Score Library Project Famous composers
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_composers
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Cedar Falls, Iowa
| subdivision_type = Country | subdivision_name = | subdivision_type1 = State | subdivision_name1 = Iowa | subdivision_type2 = County | subdivision_name2 = Black Hawk | subdivision_type3 = Township | subdivision_name3 = <!-- Established --> | established_title = Founded | established_date | established_title1 Platted | established_date1 | established_title2 Incorporated | established_date2 = <!-- Government --> | government_footnotes | government_type | leader_title = Mayor | leader_name = Rob Green (L) | leader_title1 | leader_name1 <!-- Area --> | area_footnotes | area_total_sq_mi = 30.29 | area_land_sq_mi = 29.43 | area_water_sq_mi = 0.85 | area_total_km2 = 78.44 | area_land_km2 = 76.23 | area_water_km2 = 2.21 | unit_pref = Imperial <!-- Elevation -->| elevation_footnotes | elevation_ft 879 | elevation_m = 268 <!-- Population -->| population_footnotes | population_as_of 2020 | population_total = 40713 | pop_est_footnotes | pop_est_as_of | population_est | population_rank 13th in Iowa | population_density_km2 = 534.07 | population_density_sq_mi = 1383.24 <!-- General information -->| timezone = CST | utc_offset = -6 | timezone_DST = CDT | utc_offset_DST = -5 | postal_code_type = ZIP code | postal_code = 50613 | area_code_type = Area code | area_code = 319 | blank_name = FIPS code | blank_info = | blank1_name = GNIS ID | blank1_info = | website = }} Cedar Falls is a city in Black Hawk County, Iowa, United States. As of the 2020 United States census, the city population was 40,713. Cedar Falls is home to the University of Northern Iowa, a public university. Cedar Falls along with neighboring city Waterloo, Iowa are the two principal municipalities within the Waterloo-Cedar Falls Metropolitan Statistical Area. This area is known locally as the "Cedar Valley," due to the Cedar River that traverses the vicinity. History Cedar Falls was first settled in March 1845 by brothers-in-law William R. Sturgis and Erasmus D. Adams. Initially, the city was named Sturgis Falls. The city was called Sturgis Falls until it was merged with Cedar City (another city on the other side of the Cedar River), creating Cedar Falls. The city's founders are honored each year with a week long community-wide celebration named in their honor – the Sturgis Falls Celebration. Because of the availability of water power, Cedar Falls developed as a milling and industrial center prior to the Civil War. The establishment of the Civil War Soldiers' Orphans Home in Cedar Falls changed the direction in which the city developed when, following the war, it became the first building on the campus of the Iowa State Normal School (now the University of Northern Iowa).GeographyCedar Falls is located at (42.523520, −92.446402). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water. Natural forest, prairie and wetland areas are found within the city limits at the Hartman Reserve Nature Center. Demographics Cedar Falls is part of the Waterloo-Cedar Falls metropolitan area. 2020 census As of the census of 2020, there were 40,713 people, and 15,254 households. The population density was . The racial makeup of the city was 91.2% White, 1.3% African American, 0.3% Native American, 4.5% Asian, and 2.5% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 2.7% of the population. 2010 census As of the census of 2010, there were 39,260 people, 14,608 households, and 8,091 families living in the city. The population density was . There were 15,477 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 93.4% White, 2.1% African American, 0.2% Native American, 2.3% Asian, 0.5% from other races, and 1.7% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 2.0% of the population. There were 14,608 households, of which 24.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.5% were married couples living together, 7.2% had a female householder with no husband present, 2.7% had a male householder with no wife present, and 44.6% were non-families. 28.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.37 and the average family size was 2.88. The median age in the city was 26.8 years. 17.3% of residents were under the age of 18; 29.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 20.5% were from 25 to 44; 20.1% were from 45 to 64; and 12.4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.1% male and 51.9% female. 2000 census As of the census of 2000, there were 36,145 people, 12,833 households, and 7,558 families living in the city. The population density was . There were 13,271 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 95.14% White, 1.57% Black or African American, 0.15% Native American, 1.61% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.41% from other races, and 1.09% from two or more races. 1.08% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 12,833 households, out of which 26.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.9% were married couples living together, 7.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.1% were non-families. 25.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.45 and the average family size was 2.91. Age spread: 18.0% under the age of 18, 30.6% from 18 to 24, 20.5% from 25 to 44, 19.0% from 45 to 64, and 11.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 26 years. For every 100 females, there were 88.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.7 males. The median income for a household in the city was $70,226, and the median income for a family was $85,158. Males had a median income of $60,235 versus $50,312 for females. The per capita income for the city was $27,140. About 5.6% of families and 4.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.5% of those under age 18, and 6.1% of those age 65 or over. Arts and culture In 1986, the City of Cedar Falls established the Cedar Falls Art and Culture Board, which oversees the operation of the city's Cultural Division and the James & Meryl Hearst Center for the Arts. Library The Cedar Falls Public Library is housed in the Adele Whitenach Davis building located at 524 Main Street. The 47,000 square foot (4,400 m<sup>2</sup>) structure, designed by Struxture Architects, replaced the Carniege-Dayton building in early 2004. As of the 2016 fiscal year, the library's holdings included approximately 8,000 audio materials, 12,000 video materials, and 104,000 books and periodicals, for a total of approximately 124,000 items. Patrons made 245,000 visits to take advantage of circulation services, adult, teen, and youth programming. Circulation of library materials for fiscal year 2016 was 543,134. The library also provides public access to more than 30 public computers which provide internet access, office software suites, high resolution color printing, wi-fi, and games. The library offers digital loaning through Libby, Hoopla, and other platforms. The mission of the Cedar Falls Public Library is to promote literacy and provide open access to resources which facilitate lifelong learning. The library is a member of the Cedar Valley Library Consortium. Cedar Falls Public Library shares an Integrated Library System (SirsiDynix Symphony) with the Waterloo Public Library. Library management is provided by Kelly Stern, Director of the Cedar Falls Public Library. Historical Society The Cedar Falls Historical Society has its offices in the Victorian Home and Carriage House Museum. It preserves Cedar Falls' history through its five museums, collection, archives, and public programs. The society also operates the Cedar Falls Ice House, Little Red Schoolhouse, and Behrens-Rapp Station. Retail The city's major shopping mall is College Square Mall, built in 1969. Theatre The Oster Regent Theatre in downtown Cedar Falls originally opened in 1910 as the Cotton Theatre. It is currently the home of the Cedar Falls Community Theatre which was founded in 1978. The company produces approximately seven to eight shows per season. The Gallagher-Bluedorn Performing Arts Center on the University of Northern Iowa campus hosts many professionally touring Broadway plays and musicals throughout the year. The facility's Great Hall can seat 1,680 patrons. Education It hosts one of three public universities in Iowa, University of Northern Iowa (UNI). Cedar Falls Community Schools, which covers most of the city limits, includes Cedar Falls High School, two junior high schools, seven elementary schools. Waterloo Community School District covers a small section of Cedar Falls. There is a private Christian school, Valley Lutheran High School. There is a private Catholic elementary school at St. Patrick Catholic Church, under the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Dubuque. A significant renovation occurred beginning in May 2014. The Malcolm Price Lab School/Northern University High School, was a state-funded K–12 school run by the university. It closed in 2012 following cuts at UNI.Utilities and internet accessThe city owns its power, gas and water, and cable TV service. Because of this, Cedar Falls Utilities provides gigabit speeds to residents, this became available on January 14, 2015. Cedar Falls has the power to do so because, unlike 19 other states, Iowa does not prohibit municipal broadband from competing with the private cable TV monopoly. In 2020, Cedar Falls Utilities was recognized by PC Magazine as having the nation's fastest internet, by a factor of three.Transportation Cedar Falls has public transportation provided by the Metropolitan Transit Authority of Black Hawk County. Media ;FM radio * 88.1 KBBG * 88.9 KWVI * 89.5 KHKE * 90.9 KUNI (FM) * 92.3 KOEL-FM – licensed to Oelwein with main studios in Waterloo * 93.5 KCVM * 94.5 KULT-LP * 97.7 KCRR – licensed to Grundy Center with main studios in Waterloo * 98.5 KKHQ-FM * 99.3 KWAY-FM – located in Waverly * 101.9 KNWS-FM * 105.1 KCFI * 105.7 KOKZ * 107.9 KFMW ;AM radio * 600 WMT – located in Cedar Rapids * 640 WOI – located in Ames * 950 KOEL – located in Oelwein * 1040 WHO – located in Des Moines * 1090 KNWS * 1250 KCFI * 1330 KPTY * 1540 KXEL * 1650 KCNZ ;Broadcast television *2 KGAN (CBS, Fox on DT2) – located in Cedar Rapids *7 KWWL (NBC, Heroes & Icons on DT2, MeTV on DT3) – located in Waterloo *9 KCRG-TV (ABC, MyNetworkTV on DT2, The CW on DT3) – located in Cedar Rapids *12 KIIN (PBS/Iowa PBS) – located in Iowa City *20 KWKB (TCT, This TV on DT5) – located in Iowa City *28 KFXA (Dabl) – located in Cedar Rapids *32 KRIN (PBS/Iowa PBS) – located in Waterloo *40 KFXB-TV (CTN) – located in Dubuque *48 KPXR-TV (Ion) – located in Cedar Rapids ;Print * The Courier, daily newspaper * The Cedar Falls Times, weekly newspaper * The Cedar Valley What Not, weekly advertiser ;Music The underground music scene in the Cedar Falls area from 1977 to the present day is well documented. The Wartburg College Art Gallery in Waverly hosted a collaborative history of the bands, record labels, and music venues involved in the Cedar Falls music scene which ran from March 17 to April 14, 2007. This effort has been continued as a wiki-style website called "The Secret History of the Cedar Valley". Notable people <!--consensus reached to standardize this heading per WikiProject Cities/US Guideline--> <!-- NOTICE * * * NOTICE * * * NOTICE * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *NOTICE * * * NOTICE * * * NOTICE Only people who already have a Wikipedia article may appear here as notable people. This establishes notability. The biographical article must clarify how they are associated with Cedar Falls. Examples = born, raised, residing etc. The fact of their association with Cedar Falls. should have a reliable source cited in their article. Alphabetical by last name, please. Use a short, one-line description of notability. All others will be deleted without further explanation. If the person you think is notable and does not have a Wikipedia article for themselves, create one. Guidelines for the notability of a person can be found by entering WP:PEOPLE in the wiki search Guidelines on what is needed and how to write the article can be found by entering WP:MOSBIO in the wiki search END OF NOTICE * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * END OF NOTICE * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *END OF NOTICE --> <!--NOTE TO EDITORS: Alumni from University of Northern Iowa should be moved over to that article. Please move them! --> ;Actors * Annabeth Gish – actress * Gary Kroeger – actor, Saturday Night Live 1982–1985 * Michael Mosley – actor, Scrubs * Mark Steines – co-host, Entertainment Tonight, alumnus of University of Northern Iowa ;Athletes * Trev Alberts – football player, 1993 Butkus Award (for best linebacker in NCAA Division I), All-American at Nebraska; a No. 1 draft choice of Indianapolis Colts, broadcaster, former director of athletics at University of Nebraska-Omaha 2009–2021, Vice Chancellor, and Director of Athletics at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 2021–2024; Texas A&M University, 2024–present * Isaac Boettger – NFL player * Jack Campbell – NFL player, Linebacker for the Detroit Lions * Don Denkinger – Major League Baseball umpire, made controversial call in 1985 World Series * Travis Fulton – UFC fighter * A. J. Green – NBA player for the Milwaukee Bucks * David Johnson – running back for NFL's Arizona Cardinals, UNI alumnus * Bryce Paup – NFL player, UNI alumnus * Ross Pierschbacher – NFL player * Chad Rinehart – NFL player, Boone High School, UNI * Nick Ring – UFC fighter * Edgar Seymour – Olympic bobsledder * Terry Stotts – NBA player and coach * Dedric Ward – NFL wide receiver, UNI alumnus * Kurt Warner – NFL quarterback for St. Louis Rams, New York Giants and Arizona Cardinals, Super Bowl champion, UNI alumnus ;Military * Robert Hibbs – Medal of Honor recipient ;Musicians * House of Large Sizes – alternative rock band * Karen Holvik – classical soprano, currently on the faculty of the Eastman School of Music * Nilo Hovey – acclaimed instrumental music pedagogue, author of numerous instrument method books * Bonnie Koloc – folk singer, songwriter and musician, born in Waterloo, Iowa, attended UNI * Tracie Spencer – singer * Spirit of the Stairway – mathcore band * Bill Stewart – jazz drummer and composer, attended UNI ;Politicians * Marv Diemer – Iowa state legislator * Charles Grassley – U.S. Senator, attended UNI * Gil Gutknecht – former Minnesota congressman * Roger Jepsen – former U.S. Senator ;Scientists * Gerald Guralnik – physicist, co-discoverer of the "Higgs Mechanism" ;Writers * Bess Streeter Aldrich (1881–1954) – novelist * R.V. Cassill – novelist and short story writer * James Hearst – poet, farmer, professor of creative writing at UNI between 1941 and 1975 * Helen Markley Miller (1896–1984) – writer of historical and biographical fiction for children about the Western United States * Ferner Nuhn (1903–1989) – literary critic, author of articles and essays, artist, Quaker activist * Ruth Suckow Nuhn (1892–1960) – author of short stories and novels (including Country People, The Folks, New Hope) * Nancy Price – author of Sleeping with the Enemy * Leland Sage – professor at UNI and historian * Robert James Waller – author of The Bridges of Madison County, attended UNI ;Other * Marc Andreessen – co-founder, Netscape Corporation, Andreessen Horowitz * Raja Chari – astronaut * Tim Dodd – STEM communicator and YouTube creator known as the "Everyday Astronaut" * Adelia M. Hoyt (1865–1966) – Braille librarian, Library of Congress * John H. Livingston – aviator and air racer * Randy & Vicki Weaver – parents of John Deere employee, Ruby Ridge incident Sister cities Cedar Falls' sister cities are: * Ferizaj, Kosovo (2023) See also * Black Hawk Hotel * Cedar Falls Ice House * Cedar Falls Utilities * University of Northern Iowa Teaching and Research Greenhouse References Further reading * Brian C. Collins. Images of America: Cedar Falls, Iowa. [https://web.archive.org/web/20060927023326/http://www.arcadiapublishing.com/Merchant2/merchant.mvc?ScreenPROD&Product_Code0738545821 Arcadia Publishing, Inc.] 1998. External links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20111026082546/http://www.cedarfalls.com/ City of Cedar Falls] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20031214202419/http://www.cedarfalls.org/ Cedar Falls Chamber of Commerce] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070623142732/http://www.cedarfallstourism.org/ Cedar Falls Tourism and Visitors Bureau] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160216113909/http://www.cfhistory.org/ Cedar Falls Historical Society] Category:Cities in Iowa Category:Cities in Black Hawk County, Iowa Category:Waterloo – Cedar Falls metropolitan area Category:1845 establishments in Iowa Territory Category:Populated places established in 1845
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cedar_Falls,_Iowa
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Cleveland Guardians
| logo = Guardians_winged_"G".svg | uniformlogo = Cleveland_Guardians_cap_logo.svg | current league = American League | y1 = 1901 | division = Central Division | y2 = 1994 | past division = East Division | y5 = 1969 | y6 = 1993 | Uniform = MLB-ALC-CLE-Uniform.png | retirednumbers = | colors = Navy blue, red, white<!-- Please provide a reliable source from MLB.com before changing or re-ordering the color name designations or HTML color codes. Thank you. --><br /> | y3 = 2022 | nicknames Guards, Tribe | pastnames = * Cleveland Indians (–) * Cleveland Naps (–) * Cleveland Broncos () * Cleveland Bluebirds () * Cleveland Lakeshores () * Grand Rapids Furniture Makers () * Columbus Buckeyes/Senators (–) | ballpark = Progressive Field | y4 = 1994 | pastparks = * Cleveland Stadium (–, –) to }} * League Park (–, –) * Ramona Park () * Western League Park (–) | WS = (2) | WORLD CHAMPIONS = | }} | LEAGUE = AL | P = (6) | PENNANTS = | | }} | misc1 | OTHER PENNANTS | DIV = AL Central | DV = (12) | Division Champs = | misc5 | OTHER DIV CHAMPS | WC = (2) | Wild Card = | misc6 | owner Dolan family | president = Paul J. Dolan (Owner/Chairman / CEO) | presbo = Chris Antonetti | gm = Mike Chernoff | manager = Stephen Vogt | website = }} The Cleveland Guardians are an American professional baseball team based in Cleveland. The Guardians compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the American League (AL) Central Division. Since , the team has played its home games at Progressive Field (originally known as Jacobs Field after the team's then-owner). Since their establishment as a Major League franchise in 1901, the team has won 12 Central Division titles, six American League pennants, and two World Series championships (in and ). The team's World Series championship drought since 1948 is the longest active among all 30 current Major League teams. which is adjacent to Progressive Field. The team's mascot is named "Slider". The team's spring training facility is at Goodyear Ballpark in Goodyear, Arizona. The franchise originated in 1896 as the Columbus Buckeyes (also known as the Columbus Senators), a minor league team based in Columbus, Ohio that played in the Western League. The team relocated to Grand Rapids, Michigan midseason in 1899, where they were known as the Grand Rapids Furniture Makers. In 1900, the franchise moved to Cleveland and was called the Cleveland Lakeshores. The Western League itself was renamed the American League prior to the 1900 season while continuing its minor league status. When the American League declared itself a major league in 1901, Cleveland was one of its eight charter franchises. Originally called the Cleveland Bluebirds or Blues, the team was also unofficially called the Cleveland Broncos in 1902. Beginning in 1903, the team was named the Cleveland Napoleons or Naps, after team captain and manager Nap Lajoie. Lajoie left after the 1914 season, and club owner Charles Somers requested that baseball writers choose a new name. They chose the name Cleveland Indians. That name stuck and remained in use for more than a century. Common nicknames for the Indians were "the Tribe" and "the Wahoos", the latter referencing their longtime logo, Chief Wahoo. After the Indians name came under criticism as part of the Native American mascot controversy, the team adopted the current name (Guardians) following the 2021 season. From August 24 to September 14, 2017, the team won 22 consecutive games, the longest winning streak in American League history and the second longest winning streak in Major League Baseball history. As of the end of the 2024 season, the franchise's overall major league record is (). Early Cleveland baseball teams next to their home field.]] According to one historian of baseball, "in 1857, baseball games were a daily spectacle in Cleveland's Public Squares. City authorities tried to find an ordinance forbidding it; to the joy of the crowd, they were unsuccessful." 1865–1872 Forest Citys of Cleveland From 1865 to 1868 Forest Citys was an amateur ball club. During the 1869 season, Cleveland was among several cities that established professional baseball teams following the success of the 1869 Cincinnati Red Stockings, the first fully professional team. In the newspapers before and after 1870, the team was often called the Forest Citys, in the same generic way that the team from Chicago was sometimes called The Chicagos. In 1871 the Forest Citys joined the new National Association of Professional Base Ball Players (NA), the first professional league. Ultimately, two of the league's western clubs went out of business during the first season and the Chicago Fire left that city's White Stockings impoverished, unable to field a team again until 1874. Cleveland was thus the NA's westernmost outpost in 1872, the year the club folded. Cleveland played its full schedule to July 19 followed by two games versus Boston in mid-August and disbanded at the end of the season.1879–1884 Cleveland Forest Citys and BluesIn 1876, the National League (NL) supplanted the NA as the major professional league. Cleveland was not among its charter members, but by 1879 the league was looking for new entries and the city gained an NL team. A new Cleveland Forest Citys were recreated, but by 1882 were known as the Cleveland Blues, because the National League required distinct colors for that season. The Blues had mediocre records for six seasons and were ruined by a trade war with the Union Association (UA) in 1884, when its three best players (Fred Dunlap, Jack Glasscock, and Jim McCormick) jumped to the UA after being offered higher salaries. The Cleveland Blues merged with the St. Louis Maroons UA team in 1885.1887–1899 Cleveland Spiders (nicknamed "Blues") on a 1911 baseball card]] Cleveland went without major league baseball for two seasons until gaining a team in the American Association (AA) in 1887. After the AA's Pittsburgh Alleghenys jumped to the NL, Cleveland followed suit in 1889, as the AA began to crumble. The Cleveland ball club, called the Spiders (supposedly inspired by their "skinny and spindly" players), slowly became a power in the league. In 1891, the Spiders moved into League Park, which would serve as the home of Cleveland professional baseball for the next 55 years. Led by native Ohioan Cy Young, the Spiders became a contender in the mid-1890s, playing in the Temple Cup Series (that era's World Series) twice and winning it in 1895. The team began to fade after this success, and was dealt a severe blow under the ownership of the Robison brothers. Prior to the season, Frank Robison, the Spiders' owner, bought the St. Louis Browns, thus owning two clubs at the same time. The Browns were renamed the "Perfectos", and restocked with Cleveland talent. Just weeks before the season opener, most of the better Spiders were transferred to St. Louis, including three future Hall of Famers: Cy Young, Jesse Burkett and Bobby Wallace. The roster maneuvers failed to create a powerhouse Perfectos team, as St. Louis finished fifth in both 1899 and . The Spiders were left with essentially a minor league lineup, and began to lose games at a record pace. Drawing almost no fans at home, they ended up playing most of their season on the road, and became known as "The Wanderers". The team ended the season in 12th place, 84 games out of first place, with an all-time worst record of 20–134 (.130 winning percentage). Following the 1899 season, the National League disbanded four teams, including the Spiders franchise. The disastrous 1899 season would actually be a step toward a new future for Cleveland fans the next year.1890 Cleveland Infants (nickname "Babes")The Cleveland Infants competed in the Players' League, which was well-attended in some cities, but club owners lacked the confidence to continue beyond the one season. The Cleveland Infants finished with 55 wins and 75 losses, playing their home games at Brotherhood Park.History1896–1935: Columbus, Grand Rapids, and the early Cleveland yearsThe origins of the Cleveland Guardians date back to 1896, when the team was founded as the Columbus Buckeyes, a team based in Columbus, Ohio and competing in the Western League. The club was owned by Tom Loftus, a close friend of both league president Ban Johnson and Charlie Comiskey, owner of the league's St. Paul Saints. In 1900, the American League was still considered a minor league. In 1901, the team was called the Cleveland Bluebirds or Blues when the American League broke with the National Agreement and declared itself a competing Major League. The Cleveland franchise was among its eight charter members, and is one of four teams that remain in its original city, along with Boston, Chicago, and Detroit. The new team was owned by coal magnate Charles Somers and tailor Jack Kilfoyl. Somers, a wealthy industrialist and also co-owner of the Boston Americans, lent money to other team owners, including Connie Mack's Philadelphia Athletics, to keep them and the new league afloat. Players did not think the name "Bluebirds" was suitable for a baseball team. Writers frequently shortened it to Cleveland Blues due to the players' all-blue uniforms, but the players did not like this unofficial name either. The players themselves tried to change the name to Cleveland Bronchos in , but this name never caught on. Due to the injunction, however, Lajoie had to sit out any games played against the A's in Philadelphia. Lajoie arrived in Cleveland on June 4 and was an immediate hit, drawing 10,000 fans to League Park. Soon afterward, he was named team captain, and in 1903 the team was called the Cleveland Napoleons or Naps after a newspaper conducted a write-in contest. However, the success did not last and Lajoie resigned during the 1909 season as manager but remained on as a player. ]] After that, the team began to unravel, leading Kilfoyl to sell his share of the team to Somers. Cy Young, who returned to Cleveland in 1909, was ineffective for most of his three remaining years and Addie Joss died from tubercular meningitis prior to the 1911 season. Despite a strong lineup anchored by the potent Lajoie and Shoeless Joe Jackson, poor pitching kept the team below third place for most of the next decade. One reporter referred to the team as the Napkins, "because they fold up so easily". The team hit bottom in 1914 and 1915, finishing last place both years. 1915 brought significant changes to the team. Lajoie, nearly 40 years old, was no longer a top hitter in the league, batting only .258 in 1914. With Lajoie engaged in a feud with manager Joe Birmingham, the team sold Lajoie back to the A's. With Lajoie gone, the club needed a new name. Somers asked the local baseball writers to come up with a new name, and based on their input, the team was renamed the Cleveland Indians. The name referred to the nickname "Indians" that was applied to the Cleveland Spiders baseball club during the time when Louis Sockalexis, a Native American, played in Cleveland (1897–1899). At the same time, Somers' business ventures began to fail, leaving him deeply in debt. With the Indians playing poorly, attendance and revenue suffered. Somers decided to trade Jackson midway through the 1915 season for two players and $31,500, one of the largest sums paid for a player at the time. By 1916, Somers was at the end of his tether, and sold the team to a syndicate headed by Chicago railroad contractor James C. "Jack" Dunn. All three would ultimately become key players in bringing a championship to Cleveland. Speaker took over the reins as player-manager in , and led the team to a championship in 1920. On August 16, 1920, the Indians were playing the Yankees at the Polo Grounds in New York. Shortstop Ray Chapman, who often crowded the plate, was batting against Carl Mays, who had an unusual underhand delivery. It was also late in the afternoon and the infield was completely shaded with the center field area (the batters' background) bathed in sunlight. As well, at the time, "part of every pitcher's job was to dirty up a new ball the moment it was thrown onto the field. By turns, they smeared it with dirt, licorice, tobacco juice; it was deliberately scuffed, sandpapered, scarred, cut, even spiked. The result was a misshapen, earth-colored ball that traveled through the air erratically, tended to soften in the later innings, and as it came over the plate, was very hard to see." In any case, Chapman did not move reflexively when Mays' pitch came his way. The pitch hit Chapman in the head, fracturing his skull. Chapman died the next day, becoming the only player to sustain a fatal injury from a pitched ball. The Indians, who at the time were locked in a tight three-way pennant race with the Yankees and White Sox, were not slowed down by the death of their teammate. Rookie Joe Sewell hit .329 after replacing Chapman in the lineup. on a 1933 baseball card]] In September 1920, the Black Sox Scandal came to a boil. With just a few games left in the season, and Cleveland and Chicago neck-and-neck for first place at 94–54 and 95–56 respectively, the Chicago owner suspended eight players. The White Sox lost two of three in their final series, while Cleveland won four and lost two in their final two series. Cleveland finished two games ahead of Chicago and three games ahead of the Yankees to win its first pennant, led by Speaker's .388 hitting, Jim Bagby's 30 victories and solid performances from Steve O'Neill and Stan Coveleski. Cleveland went on to defeat the Brooklyn Robins 5–2 in the World Series for their first title, winning four games in a row after the Robins took a 2–1 Series lead. The Series included three memorable "firsts", all of them in Game 5 at Cleveland, and all by the home team. In the first inning, right fielder Elmer Smith hit the first Series grand slam. In the fourth inning, Jim Bagby hit the first Series home run by a pitcher. In the top of the fifth inning, second baseman Bill Wambsganss executed the first (and only, so far) unassisted triple play in World Series history, in fact, the only Series triple play of any kind. The team would not reach the heights of 1920 again for 28 years. Speaker and Coveleski were aging and the Yankees were rising with a new weapon: Babe Ruth and the home run. They managed two second-place finishes but spent much of the decade in last place. In 1927 Dunn's widow, Mrs. George Pross (Dunn had died in 1922), sold the team to a syndicate headed by Alva Bradley. 1936–1946: Bob Feller enters the show The Indians were a middling team by the 1930s, finishing third or fourth most years. brought Cleveland a new superstar in 17-year-old pitcher Bob Feller, who came from Iowa with a dominating fastball. That season, Feller set a record with 17 strikeouts in a single game and went on to lead the league in strikeouts from 1938 to 1941. ; winner of the A.L. pitching Triple Crown in 1940, member of the 1948 World Series Championship team, the Indians all-time leader in wins and strikeouts, and an MLB Hall of Famer]] On August 20, 1938, Indians catchers Hank Helf and Frank Pytlak set the "all-time altitude mark" by catching baseballs dropped from the Terminal Tower. By , Feller, along with Ken Keltner, Mel Harder and Lou Boudreau, led the Indians to within one game of the pennant. However, the team was wracked with dissension, with some players (including Feller and Mel Harder) going so far as to request that Bradley fire manager Ossie Vitt. Reporters lampooned them as the Cleveland Crybabies. Feller, who had pitched a no-hitter to open the season and won 27 games, lost the final game of the season to unknown pitcher Floyd Giebell of the Detroit Tigers. The Tigers won the pennant and Giebell never won another major league game. Cleveland entered 1941 with a young team and a new manager; Roger Peckinpaugh had replaced the despised Vitt; but the team regressed, finishing in fourth. Cleveland would soon be depleted of two stars. Hal Trosky retired in 1941 due to migraine headaches and Bob Feller enlisted in the Navy two days after the Attack on Pearl Harbor. Starting third baseman Ken Keltner and outfielder Ray Mack were both drafted in 1945 taking two more starters out of the lineup.1946–1949: The Bill Veeck yearsIn , Bill Veeck formed an investment group that purchased the Cleveland Indians from Bradley's group for a reported $1.6 million. Among the investors was Bob Hope, who had grown up in Cleveland, and former Tigers slugger, Hank Greenberg. A former owner of a minor league franchise in Milwaukee, Veeck brought to Cleveland a gift for promotion. At one point, Veeck hired rubber-faced Max Patkin, the "Clown Prince of Baseball" as a coach. Patkin's appearance in the coaching box was the sort of promotional stunt that delighted fans but infuriated the American League front office. Recognizing that he had acquired a solid team, Veeck soon abandoned the aging, small and lightless League Park to take up full-time residence in massive Cleveland Municipal Stadium. The Indians had briefly moved from League Park to Municipal Stadium in mid-1932, but moved back to League Park due to complaints about the cavernous environment. From 1937 onward, however, the Indians began playing an increasing number of games at Municipal, until by 1940 they played most of their home slate there. League Park was mostly demolished in 1951, but has since been rebuilt as a recreational park. Making the most of the cavernous stadium, Veeck had a portable center field fence installed, which he could move in or out depending on how the distance favored the Indians against their opponents in a given series. The fence moved as much as between series opponents. Following the 1947 season, the American League countered with a rule change that fixed the distance of an outfield wall for the duration of a season. The massive stadium did, however, permit the Indians to set the then-record for the largest crowd to see a Major League baseball game. On October 10, 1948, Game 5 of the World Series against the Boston Braves drew over 84,000. The record stood until the Los Angeles Dodgers drew a crowd in excess of 92,500 to watch Game 5 of the 1959 World Series at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum against the Chicago White Sox. Under Veeck's leadership, one of Cleveland's most significant achievements was breaking the color barrier in the American League by signing Larry Doby, formerly a player for the Negro league's Newark Eagles in , 11 weeks after Jackie Robinson signed with the Dodgers. , 1948 American League MVP]] In , veterans Boudreau, Keltner, and Joe Gordon had career offensive seasons, while newcomers Doby and Gene Bearden also had standout seasons. The team went down to the wire with the Boston Red Sox, winning a one-game playoff, the first in American League history, to go to the World Series. In the series, the Indians defeated the Boston Braves four games to two for their first championship in 28 years. Boudreau won the American League MVP Award. The Indians appeared in a film the following year titled The Kid From Cleveland, in which Veeck had an interest. and featured many members of the Indians organization. However, filming during the season cost the players valuable rest days leading to fatigue towards the end of the season. to a syndicate headed by insurance magnate Ellis Ryan.1950–1959: Near misses , 1953 Most Valuable Player]] In , Al Rosen was an All Star for the second year in a row, was named The Sporting News Major League Player of the Year, and won the American League Most Valuable Player Award in a unanimous vote playing for the Indians after leading the AL in runs, home runs, RBIs (for the second year in a row), and slugging percentage, and coming in second by one point in batting average. Ryan was forced out in 1953 in favor of Myron Wilson, who in turn gave way to William Daley in . Despite this turnover in the ownership, a powerhouse team composed of Feller, Doby, Minnie Miñoso, Luke Easter, Bobby Ávila, Al Rosen, Early Wynn, Bob Lemon, and Mike Garcia continued to contend through the early 1950s. However, Cleveland only won a single pennant in the decade, in 1954, finishing second to the New York Yankees five times. – who was the 1955 American League Rookie of the Year, a two-time A.L. All-Star, and after his playing career was a member of the Indians broadcast team for 34 seasons (1964–1997).]] The winningest season in franchise history came in 1954, when the Indians finished the season with a record of 111–43 (.721). That mark set an American League record for wins that stood for 44 years until the Yankees won 114 games in 1998 (a 162-game regular season). The Indians' 1954 winning percentage of .721 is still an American League record. The Indians returned to the World Series to face the New York Giants. The team could not bring home the title, however, ultimately being upset by the Giants in a sweep. The series was notable for Willie Mays' over-the-shoulder catch off the bat of Vic Wertz in Game 1. Cleveland remained a talented team throughout the remainder of the decade, finishing in second place in 1959, George Strickland's last full year in the majors. 1960–1993: The 33-year slump From 1960 to 1993, the Indians managed one third-place finish (in 1968) and six fourth-place finishes (in 1960, 1974, 1975, 1976, 1990, and 1992) but spent the rest of the time at or near the bottom of the standings, including four seasons with over 100 losses (1971, 1985, 1987, 1991). Frank Lane becomes general manager The Indians hired general manager Frank Lane, known as "Trader" Lane, away from the St. Louis Cardinals in 1957. Lane over the years had gained a reputation as a GM who loved to make deals. With the White Sox, Lane had made over 100 trades involving over 400 players in seven years. In a short stint in St. Louis, he traded away Red Schoendienst and Harvey Haddix. One of Lane's early trades in Cleveland was to send Roger Maris to the Kansas City Athletics in the middle of 1958. Indians executive Hank Greenberg was not happy about the trade and neither was Maris, who said that he could not stand Lane. Curse of Rocky Colavito In 1960, Lane made the trade that would define his tenure in Cleveland when he dealt slugging right fielder and fan favorite Rocky Colavito to the Detroit Tigers for Harvey Kuenn just before Opening Day in . It was a blockbuster trade that swapped the AL home run co-champion (Colavito) for the AL batting champion (Kuenn). After the trade, however, Colavito hit over 30 home runs four times and made three All-Star teams for Detroit and Kansas City before returning to Cleveland in . Kuenn, on the other hand, played only one season for the Indians before departing for San Francisco in a trade for an aging Johnny Antonelli and Willie Kirkland. Akron Beacon Journal columnist Terry Pluto documented the decades of woe that followed the trade in his book The Curse of Rocky Colavito. Despite being attached to the curse, Colavito said that he never placed a curse on the Indians but that the trade was prompted by a salary dispute with Lane. Lane also engineered a unique trade of managers in mid-season 1960, sending Joe Gordon to the Tigers in exchange for Jimmy Dykes. Lane left the team in 1961, but ill-advised trades continued. In 1965, the Indians traded pitcher Tommy John, who would go on to win 288 games in his career, and 1966 Rookie of the Year Tommy Agee to the White Sox to get Colavito back. for a number of players who made no impact. Constant ownership changes did not help the Indians. In 1963, Daley's syndicate sold the team to a group headed by general manager Gabe Paul. of the Stouffer's frozen-food empire. Prior to Stouffer's purchase, the team was rumored to be relocated due to poor attendance. Despite the potential for a financially strong owner, Stouffer had some non-baseball related financial setbacks and, consequently, the team was cash-poor. In order to solve some financial problems, Stouffer had made an agreement to play a minimum of 30 home games in New Orleans with a view to a possible move there. After rejecting an offer from George Steinbrenner and former Indian Al Rosen, Stouffer sold the team in 1972 to a group led by Cleveland Cavaliers and Cleveland Barons owner Nick Mileti. Only five years later, Mileti's group sold the team for $11 million to a syndicate headed by trucking magnate Steve O'Neill and including former general manager and owner Gabe Paul. O'Neill's death in 1983 led to the team going on the market once more. O'Neill's nephew Patrick O'Neill did not find a buyer until real estate magnates Richard E. and David H. Jacobs purchased the team in 1986. The team was unable to move out of last place, with losing seasons between 1969 and 1975. One highlight was the acquisition of Gaylord Perry in . The Indians traded fireballer "Sudden Sam" McDowell for Perry, who became the first Indian pitcher to win the Cy Young Award. In , Cleveland broke another color barrier with the hiring of Frank Robinson as Major League Baseball's first African American manager. Robinson served as player-manager and provided a franchise highlight when he hit a pinch-hit home run on Opening Day. But the high-profile signing of Wayne Garland, a 20-game winner in Baltimore, proved to be a disaster after Garland suffered from shoulder problems and went 28–48 over five years. The team failed to improve with Robinson as manager and he was fired in . In 1977, pitcher Dennis Eckersley threw a no-hitter against the California Angels. The next season, he was traded to the Boston Red Sox where he won 20 games in 1978 and another 17 in 1979. The 1970s also featured the infamous Ten Cent Beer Night at Cleveland Municipal Stadium. The ill-conceived promotion at a 1974 game against the Texas Rangers ended in a riot by fans and a forfeit by the Indians. There were more bright spots in the 1980s. In May 1981, Len Barker threw a perfect game against the Toronto Blue Jays, joining Addie Joss as the only other Indian pitcher to do so. "Super Joe" Charboneau won the American League Rookie of the Year award. Charboneau was out of baseball by 1983 due to back injuries and Barker, who was also hampered by injuries, never became a consistently dominant starting pitcher. Cleveland's struggles over the 30-year span were highlighted in the 1989 film Major League, which comically depicted a hapless Cleveland ball club going from worst to first by the end of the film. right|thumb|Slider, the team mascot since 1990 Throughout the 1980s, the Indians' owners had pushed for a new stadium. Cleveland Stadium had been a symbol of the Indians' glory years in the 1940s and 1950s. However, during the lean years even crowds of 40,000 were swallowed up by the cavernous environment. The old stadium was not aging gracefully; chunks of concrete were falling off in sections and the old wooden pilings were petrifying. In 1984, a proposal for a $150 million domed stadium was defeated in a referendum 2–1. Finally, in May 1990, Cuyahoga County voters passed an excise tax on sales of alcohol and cigarettes in the county. The tax proceeds were to be used for financing the construction of the Gateway Sports and Entertainment Complex, which would include Jacobs Field for the Indians and Gund Arena for the Cleveland Cavs basketball team. The team's fortunes started to turn in , ironically with a very unpopular trade. The team sent power-hitting outfielder Joe Carter to the San Diego Padres for two unproven players, Sandy Alomar Jr. and Carlos Baerga. Alomar made an immediate impact, not only being elected to the All-Star team but also winning Cleveland's fourth Rookie of the Year award and a Gold Glove. Baerga became a three-time All-Star with consistent offensive production. Indians general manager John Hart made a number of moves that finally brought success to the team. In , he hired former Indian Mike Hargrove to manage and traded catcher Eddie Taubensee to the Houston Astros who, with a surplus of outfielders, were willing to part with Kenny Lofton. Lofton finished second in AL Rookie of the Year balloting with a .285 average and 66 stolen bases. The Indians were named "Organization of the Year" by Baseball America in 1992, in response to the appearance of offensive bright spots and an improving farm system. The team suffered a tragedy during spring training of , when a boat carrying pitchers Steve Olin, Tim Crews, and Bob Ojeda crashed into a pier. Olin and Crews were killed, and Ojeda was seriously injured. (Ojeda missed most of the season, and retired the following year). By the end of the 1993 season, the team was in transition, leaving Cleveland Stadium and fielding a talented nucleus of young players. Many of those players came from the Indians' new AAA farm team, the Charlotte Knights, who won the International League title that year. 1994–2001: New beginnings 1994: Jacobs Field opens sign pictured in 2006]] Indians General Manager John Hart and team owner Richard E. Jacobs managed to turn the team's fortunes around. The Indians opened Jacobs Field in 1994 with the aim of improving on the prior season's sixth-place finish. The Indians were only one game behind the division-leading Chicago White Sox on August 12 when a players strike wiped out the rest of the season. 1995–1996: First AL pennant since 1954 Having contended for the division in the aborted 1994 season, Cleveland sprinted to a 100–44 record (the season was shortened by 18 games due to player/owner negotiations) in 1995, winning its first-ever divisional title. Veterans Dennis Martínez, Orel Hershiser and Eddie Murray combined with a young core of players including Omar Vizquel, Albert Belle, Jim Thome, Manny Ramírez, Kenny Lofton and Charles Nagy to lead the league in team batting average as well as team ERA. After defeating the Boston Red Sox in the Division Series and the Seattle Mariners in the ALCS, Cleveland clinched the American League pennant and a World Series berth, for the first time since 1954. The World Series ended in disappointment, however: the Indians fell in six games to the Atlanta Braves. in 1996]] Tickets for every Indians home game sold out several months before opening day in 1996. The Indians repeated as AL Central champions but lost to the wild card Baltimore Orioles in the Division Series. 1997: Two outs away In 1997, Cleveland started slow but finished with an 86–75 record. Taking their third consecutive AL Central title, the Indians defeated the New York Yankees in the Division Series, 3–2. After defeating the Baltimore Orioles in the ALCS, Cleveland went on to face the Florida Marlins in the World Series that featured the coldest game in World Series history. With the series tied after Game 6, the Indians went into the ninth inning of Game Seven with a 2–1 lead, but closer José Mesa allowed the Marlins to tie the game. In the eleventh inning, Édgar Rentería drove in the winning run giving the Marlins their first championship. Cleveland became the first team to lose the World Series after carrying the lead into the ninth inning of the seventh game. 1998–2001 In 1998, the Indians made the postseason for the fourth straight year. After defeating the wild-card Boston Red Sox 3–1 in the Division Series, Cleveland lost the 1998 ALCS in six games to the New York Yankees, who had come into the postseason with a then-AL record 114 wins in the regular season. For the 1999 season, Cleveland added relief pitcher Ricardo Rincón and second baseman Roberto Alomar, brother of catcher Sandy Alomar Jr., and won the Central Division title for the fifth consecutive year. The team scored 1,009 runs, becoming the first (and to date only) team since the 1950 Boston Red Sox to score more than 1,000 runs in a season. This time, Cleveland did not make it past the first round, losing the Division Series to the Red Sox, despite taking a 2–0 lead in the series. In game three, Indians starter Dave Burba went down with an injury in the 4th inning. Four pitchers, including presumed game four starter Jaret Wright, surrendered nine runs in relief. Without a long reliever or emergency starter on the playoff roster, Hargrove started both Bartolo Colón and Charles Nagy in games four and five on only three days rest. Four days later, Hargrove was dismissed as manager. In 2000, the Indians had a 44–42 start, but caught fire after the All Star break and went 46–30 the rest of the way to finish 90–72. The team had one of the league's best offenses that year and a defense that yielded three gold gloves. However, they ended up five games behind the Chicago White Sox in the Central division and missed the wild card by one game to the Seattle Mariners. Mid-season trades brought Bob Wickman and Jake Westbrook to Cleveland. After the season, free-agent outfielder Manny Ramírez departed for the Boston Red Sox. In 2000, Larry J. Dolan bought the Indians for $320 million from Richard E. Jacobs, who, along with his late brother David, had paid $45 million for the club in 1986. The sale set a record at the time for the sale of a baseball franchise. 2001 saw a return to the postseason. After the departures of Ramírez and Sandy Alomar Jr., the Indians signed Ellis Burks and former MVP Juan González, who helped the team win the Central division with a 91–71 record. One of the highlights came on August 5, when the Indians completed the biggest comeback in MLB History. Cleveland rallied to close a 14–2 deficit in the seventh inning to defeat the Seattle Mariners 15–14 in 11 innings. The Mariners, who won an MLB record-tying 116 games that season, had a strong bullpen, and Indians manager Charlie Manuel had already pulled many of his starters with the game seemingly out of reach. Seattle and Cleveland met in the first round of the postseason; however, the Mariners won the series 3–2. In the 2001–02 offseason, GM John Hart resigned and his assistant, Mark Shapiro, took the reins. 2002–2010: The Shapiro/Wedge years – Indians GM from 2001 to 2010, President from 2010 to 2015, and two-time Sporting News Executive of the Year]] First "rebuilding of the team" Shapiro moved to rebuild by dealing aging veterans for younger talent. He traded Roberto Alomar to the New York Mets for a package that included outfielder Matt Lawton and prospects Alex Escobar and Billy Traber. When the team fell out of contention in mid-, Shapiro fired manager Charlie Manuel and traded pitching ace Bartolo Colón for prospects Brandon Phillips, Cliff Lee, and Grady Sizemore; acquired Travis Hafner from the Rangers for Ryan Drese and Einar Díaz; and picked up Coco Crisp from the St. Louis Cardinals for aging starter Chuck Finley. Jim Thome left after the season, going to the Phillies for a larger contract. Young Indians teams finished far out of contention in 2002 and under new manager Eric Wedge. They posted strong offensive numbers in , but continued to struggle with a bullpen that blew more than 20 saves. A highlight of the season was a 22–0 victory over the New York Yankees on August 31, one of the worst defeats suffered by the Yankees in team history. In early , the offense got off to a poor start. After a brief July slump, the Indians caught fire in August, and cut a 15.5 game deficit in the Central Division down to 1.5 games. However, the season came to an end as the Indians went on to lose six of their last seven games, five of them by one run, missing the playoffs by only two games. Shapiro was named Executive of the Year in 2005. The next season, the club made several roster changes, while retaining its nucleus of young players. The off-season was highlighted by the acquisition of top prospect Andy Marte from the Boston Red Sox. The Indians had a solid offensive season, led by career years from Travis Hafner and Grady Sizemore. Hafner, despite missing the last month of the season, tied the single season grand slam record of six, which was set in by Don Mattingly. Despite the solid offensive performance, the bullpen struggled with 23 blown saves (a Major League worst), and the Indians finished a disappointing fourth. In , Shapiro signed veteran help for the bullpen and outfield in the offseason. Veterans Aaron Fultz and Joe Borowski joined Rafael Betancourt in the Indians bullpen. The Indians improved significantly over the prior year and went into the All-Star break in second place. The team brought back Kenny Lofton for his third stint with the team in late July. The Indians finished with a 96–66 record tied with the Red Sox for best in baseball, their seventh Central Division title in 13 years and their first postseason trip since 2001. won the 2007 AL Cy Young Award with the Indians.]] right|thumb|Sabathia's teammate Cliff Lee won the AL Cy Young Award in 2008. The Indians began their playoff run by defeating the Yankees in the ALDS three games to one. This series will be most remembered for the swarm of bugs that overtook the field in the later innings of Game Two. They also jumped out to a three-games-to-one lead over the Red Sox in the ALCS. The season ended in disappointment when Boston swept the final three games to advance to the 2007 World Series. Indians Pitcher CC Sabathia won the second Cy Young Award in team history with a 19–7 record, a 3.21 ERA and an MLB-leading 241 innings pitched. Eric Wedge was awarded the first Manager of the Year Award in team history. Shapiro was named to his second Executive of the Year in 2007. The Indians, falling to last place for a short time in June and July, traded CC Sabathia to the Milwaukee Brewers for prospects Matt LaPorta, Rob Bryson, and Michael Brantley. and traded starting third baseman Casey Blake for catching prospect Carlos Santana. Pitcher Cliff Lee went 22–3 with an ERA of 2.54 and earned the AL Cy Young Award. Grady Sizemore had a career year, winning a Gold Glove Award and a Silver Slugger Award, and the Indians finished with a record of 81–81. Prospects for the 2009 season dimmed early when the Indians ended May with a record of 22–30. Shapiro made multiple trades: Cliff Lee and Ben Francisco to the Philadelphia Phillies for prospects Jason Knapp, Carlos Carrasco, Jason Donald and Lou Marson; Victor Martinez to the Boston Red Sox for prospects Bryan Price, Nick Hagadone and Justin Masterson; Ryan Garko to the Texas Rangers for Scott Barnes; and Kelly Shoppach to the Tampa Bay Rays for Mitch Talbot. The Indians finished the season tied for fourth in their division, with a record of 65–97. The team announced on September 30, 2009, that Eric Wedge and all of the team's coaching staff were released at the end of the 2009 season. Manny Acta was hired as the team's 40th manager on October 25, 2009. On February 18, 2010, it was announced that Shapiro (following the end of the 2010 season) would be promoted to team President, with current President Paul J. Dolan becoming the new Chairman/CEO, and longtime Shapiro assistant Chris Antonetti filling the GM role.2011–present: Antonetti/Chernoff/Francona eraleft|thumb|upright0.75|Mike Chernoff (baseball)|Mike Chernoff, who has served as Indians/Guardians' general manager since 2015 , who in his tenure with the Indians/Guardians (2013–2023) was a three-time AL Manager of the Year (2013, 2016, 2022), led the team to the 2016 AL Championship, and is the all-time franchise leader in wins by a manager]] On January 18, 2011, longtime popular former first baseman and manager Mike Hargrove was brought in as a special adviser. The Indians started the 2011 season strong – going 30–15 in their first 45 games and seven games ahead of the Detroit Tigers for first place. Injuries led to a slump where the Indians fell out of first place. Many minor leaguers such as Jason Kipnis and Lonnie Chisenhall got opportunities to fill in for the injuries. The biggest news of the season came on July 30 when the Indians traded four prospects for Colorado Rockies star pitcher, Ubaldo Jiménez. The Indians sent their top two pitchers in the minors, Alex White and Drew Pomeranz along with Joe Gardner and Matt McBride. On August 25, the Indians signed the team leader in home runs, Jim Thome off of waivers. He made his first appearance in an Indians uniform since he left Cleveland after the 2002 season. To honor Thome, the Indians placed him at his original position, third base, for one pitch against the Minnesota Twins on September 25. It was his first appearance at third base since 1996, and his last for Cleveland. The Indians finished the season in 2nd place, 15 games behind the division champion Tigers. , who is a two-time AL Cy Young Award winner with the Indians (2014, 2017)]] The Indians broke Progressive Field's Opening Day attendance record with 43,190 against the Toronto Blue Jays on April 5, 2012. The game went 16 innings, setting the MLB Opening Day record, and lasted 5 hours and 14 minutes. On September 27, 2012, with six games left in the Indians' 2012 season, Manny Acta was fired; Sandy Alomar Jr. was named interim manager for the remainder of the season. On October 6, the Indians announced that Terry Francona, who managed the Boston Red Sox to five playoff appearances and two World Series between 2004 and 2011, would take over as manager for 2013. The Indians entered the 2013 season following an active offseason of dramatic roster turnover. Key acquisitions included free agent 1B/OF Nick Swisher and CF Michael Bourn. The team added prized right-handed pitching prospect Trevor Bauer, OF Drew Stubbs, and relief pitchers Bryan Shaw and Matt Albers in a three-way trade with the Arizona Diamondbacks and Cincinnati Reds that sent RF Shin-Soo Choo to the Reds, and Tony Sipp to the Arizona Diamondbacks Other notable additions included utility man Mike Avilés, catcher Yan Gomes, designated hitter Jason Giambi, and starting pitcher Scott Kazmir. The 2013 Indians increased their win total by 24 over 2012 (from 68 to 92), finishing in second place, one game behind Detroit in the Central division, but securing the number one seed in the American League Wild Card Standings. In their first postseason appearance since 2007, Cleveland lost the 2013 American League Wild Card Game 4–0 at home to Tampa Bay. Francona was recognized for the turnaround with the 2013 American League Manager of the Year Award. With an 85–77 record, the 2014 Indians had consecutive winning seasons for the first time since 1999–2001, but they were eliminated from playoff contention during the last week of the season and finished third in the AL Central. upright=0.7|thumb|right|Shane Bieber, who won the 2020 AL Cy Young Award, giving the team five winners in 14 seasons In 2015, after struggling through the first half of the season, the Indians finished 81–80 for their third consecutive winning season, which the team had not done since 1999–2001. For the second straight year, the Tribe finished third in the Central and was eliminated from the Wild Card race during the last week of the season. Following the departure of longtime team executive Mark Shapiro on October 6, the Indians promoted GM Chris Antonetti to President of Baseball Operations, assistant general manager Mike Chernoff to GM, and named Derek Falvey as assistant GM. Falvey was later hired by the Minnesota Twins in 2016, becoming their President of Baseball Operations. The Indians set what was then a franchise record for longest winning streak when they won their 14th consecutive game, a 2–1 win over the Toronto Blue Jays in 19 innings on July 1, 2016, at Rogers Centre. The team clinched the Central Division pennant on September 26, their eighth division title overall and first since 2007, as well as returning to the playoffs for the first time since 2013. They finished the regular season at 94–67, marking their fourth straight winning season, a feat not accomplished since the 1990s and early 2000s. The Indians began the 2016 postseason by sweeping the Boston Red Sox in the best-of-five American League Division Series, then defeated the Blue Jays in five games in the 2016 American League Championship Series to claim their sixth American League pennant and advance to the World Series against the Chicago Cubs. It marked the first appearance for the Indians in the World Series since 1997 and first for the Cubs since 1945. The Indians took a 3–1 series lead following a victory in Game 4 at Wrigley Field, but the Cubs rallied to take the final three games and won the series 4 games to 3. The Indians' 2016 success led to Francona winning his second AL Manager of the Year Award with the club. From August 24 through September 15 during the 2017 season, the Indians set a new American League record by winning 22 games in a row. On September 28, the Indians won their 100th game of the season, marking only the third time in history the team has reached that milestone. They finished the regular season with 102 wins, second-most in team history (behind 1954's 111 win team). The Indians earned the AL Central title for the second consecutive year, along with home-field advantage throughout the American League playoffs, but they lost the 2017 ALDS to the Yankees 3–2 after being up 2–0. In 2018, the Indians won their third consecutive AL Central crown with a 91–71 record, but were swept in the 2018 American League Division Series by the Houston Astros, who outscored Cleveland 21–6. In 2019, despite a two-game improvement, the Indians missed the playoffs as they trailed three games behind the Tampa Bay Rays for the second AL Wild Card berth. During the 2020 season (shortened to 60 games because of the COVID-19 pandemic), the Indians were 35–25, finishing second behind the Minnesota Twins in the AL Central, but qualified for the expanded playoffs. In the best-of-three AL Wild Card Series, the Indians were swept by the New York Yankees, ending their season. In February 2025, Larry J. Dolan, who owned the team since the year 2000 and served as the longest owner in the history of the Cleveland franchise, died. His son Paul, who is listed as the team's "Owner/CEO/Chairman," has held ownership duties over the team since 2013, and is also the only of Larry J. Dolan's children who has held major leadership roles over the Guardians.Guardians rebranding ]] On December 18, 2020, the team announced that the Indians name and logo would be dropped after the 2021 season, later revealing the replacement to be the Guardians. Following Francona's retirement at the end of the 2023 season, the Guardians named Stephen Vogt as their new manager on November 6, 2023. Vogt would lead the Guardians to a bounce-back season, winning the AL Central with a 92–69 record. The Guardians would beat their AL Central rival the Detroit Tigers in the AL Division Series in five games, but would lose to the New York Yankees in the AL Pennant in five games. Season-by-season results Rivalries Interleague The rivalry with fellow Ohio team the Cincinnati Reds is known as the Battle of Ohio or Buckeye Series and features the Ohio Cup trophy for the winner. Prior to 1997, the winner of the cup was determined by an annual pre-season baseball game, played each year at minor-league Cooper Stadium in the state capital of Columbus, and staged just days before the start of each new Major League Baseball season. A total of eight Ohio Cup games were played, with the Guardians winning six of them. It ended with the start of interleague play in 1997. The winner of the game each year was awarded the Ohio Cup in postgame ceremonies. The Ohio Cup was a favorite among baseball fans in Columbus, with attendances regularly topping 15,000. Since 1997, the two teams have played each other as part of the regular season, with the exception of 2002. The Ohio Cup was reintroduced in 2008 and is presented to the team who wins the most games in the series that season. Initially, the teams played one three-game series per season, meeting in Cleveland in 1997 and Cincinnati the following year. The teams have played two series per season against each other since 1999, with the exception of 2002, one at each ballpark. A format change in 2013 made each series two games, except in years when the AL and NL Central divisions meet in interleague play, where it is usually extended to three games per series. As of 2024, the Guardians lead the series 76–59. An on-and-off rivalry with the Pittsburgh Pirates stems from the close proximity of the two cities, and features some carryover elements from the longstanding rivalry in the National Football League between the Cleveland Browns and Pittsburgh Steelers. Because the Guardians' designated interleague rival is the Reds and the Pirates' designated rival is the Tigers, the teams have played periodically. The teams played one three-game series each year from 1997 to 2001 and periodically between 2002 and 2022, generally only in years in which the AL Central played the NL Central in the former interleague play rotation. The teams played six games in 2020 as MLB instituted an abbreviated schedule focusing on regional match-ups. Beginning in 2023, the teams will play a three-game series each season as a result of the new "balanced" schedule. The Pirates lead the series 21–18.Detroit Tigers As the Guardians play most of their games every year with each of their AL Central competitors (formerly 19 for each team until 2023), several rivalries have developed. The Guardians have a geographic rivalry with the Detroit Tigers, highlighted in past years by intense battles for the AL Central title. The matchup has some carryover elements from the Ohio State-Michigan rivalry, as well as the general historic rivalry between Michigan and Ohio dating back to the Toledo War. Chicago White Sox The Chicago White Sox are another rival, dating back to the 1959 season, when the Sox slipped past the Indians to win the AL pennant. The rivalry intensified when both clubs were moved to the newly created AL Central in 1994. During that season, the two teams challenged for the division title, with the Indians one game back of Chicago when the season ended in August due to the players' strike. During a game in Chicago, the White Sox confiscated Albert Belle's corked bat, followed by an attempt by Indians pitcher Jason Grimsley to crawl through the Comiskey Park clubhouse ceiling to retrieve it. Belle later signed with the White Sox in 1997, adding additional intensity to the rivalry. In 2005, the White Sox led the division by 15 games in July, only to see the Indians trim the lead to a single game late in the season. However, the White Sox swept a three-game series to end the season to win the division by six games; the Sox later won that year's World Series. On August 5, 2023, Cleveland third baseman José Ramírez and Chicago shortstop Tim Anderson instigated a bench-clearing brawl after Anderson applied a tag to Ramírez. Anderson then attempted to punch Ramírez, after which Ramírez wound up knocking Anderson to the ground with a right hook. Anderson and Ramírez were suspended five and two games, respectively, for their roles in the brawl. Uniforms The official team colors are navy blue, red, and white. Home The primary home uniform is white with red and navy blue piping around each sleeve. Across the front of the jersey in script font is the word "Guardians" in red with a navy blue outline, with navy blue undershirts, belts, and socks. The alternate home jersey is red with a navy blue "diamond C" font "Guardians" trimmed in white on the front, and white and navy blue piping on both sleeves, with navy blue undershirts, belts, and socks. right|thumb|200px|Cleveland in "diamond C" font is featured on the team's standard grey road uniform. In 2024, the team introduced "City Connect" uniforms, primarily (but not exclusively) worn on Friday home dates. The jerseys are blue with red and white stripes going down the sleeve, featuring "CLE" on the front of the jersey and the player names and numbers on the back (all in a white art deco style font), with sandstone colored pants and red socks featuring a logo which was also introduced in 2024 (a "Guardians of Traffic" statue holding a baseball bat). The standard home cap is red with a navy blue bill, and features a navy blue "diamond C" on the front and is worn with the primary white uniforms. With the alternate red jerseys, the cap is navy blue with a red bill and red "diamond C". The "City Connect" home cap is similar to the alternate cap with the exception of the front section over the bill being white. Road The primary road uniform is gray, with "Cleveland" in navy blue "diamond C" letters, trimmed in red across the front of the jersey, red and navy blue piping around the sleeves, and navy blue undershirts, belts, and socks. The alternate road jersey is navy blue with a red "diamond C" trimmed in white on the front of the jersey, red and white piping around the sleeves, and navy blue undershirts, belts, and socks. With either road jersey, the team wears a navy blue cap with a red bill and red "diamond C". Universal For all games, the team uses a navy blue batting helmet with a red "diamond C" on the front. All jerseys (sans the "City Connect" version) feature the "winged G" logo on one sleeve, and every jersey has a patch from Marathon Petroleum – in a sponsorship deal lasting through the 2026 season – on the other. The sleeve featuring the Marathon logo depends on how the player bats – left handed hitters have it on their right sleeve, as that is the arm facing the main TV camera when he bats, and vice versa for right handed batters.Former name and logo controversy <gallery class="center"> File:Logo of the Cleveland Indians (1946-1950).png|Logo from 1946 to 1950 file:Chief Wahoo (mascot character).svg|Chief Wahoo logo used from 1949 through 2018 file:Cleveland Indians primary logo.svg|"Block C" logo used secondarily from 2014 until 2019, then as the team's primary logo from 2019 through 2021 – the final three years under the Indians name <!-- Deleted image removed: file:CLE Guards 2024 logo.jpg|"City Connect" alternate logo introduced in 2024 --> </gallery> The club name and its cartoon logo have been criticized for perpetuating Native American stereotypes. In 1997 and 1998, protesters were arrested after effigies were burned. Charges were dismissed in the 1997 case, and were not filed in the 1998 case. Protesters arrested in the 1998 incident subsequently fought and lost a lawsuit alleging that their First Amendment rights had been violated. Bud Selig (then–Commissioner of Baseball) said in 2014 that he had never received a complaint about the logo. He has heard that there are some protesting against the mascots, but individual teams such as the Indians and Atlanta Braves, whose name was also criticized for similar reasons, should make their own decisions. An organized group consisting of Native Americans, which had protested for many years, protested Chief Wahoo on Opening Day 2015, noting that this was the 100th anniversary since the team became the Indians. Owner Paul Dolan, while stating his respect for the critics, said he mainly heard from fans who wanted to keep Chief Wahoo, and had no plans to change. On January 29, 2018, Major League Baseball announced that Chief Wahoo would be removed from the Indians' uniforms as of the 2019 season, stating that the logo was no longer appropriate for on-field use. The block "C" was promoted to the primary logo; at the time, there were no plans to change the team's name. In 2020, protests over the murder of George Floyd, a black man, by a Minneapolis police officer, led the United States into a period of social changes. This made Dolan to reconsider use of the Indians name. On July 3, 2020, on the heels of the Washington Redskins <!-- they were not the Washington Football Team until later that month --> announcing that they would "undergo a thorough review" of that team's name, the Indians announced that they would "determine the best path forward" regarding the team's name and emphasized the need to "keep improving as an organization on issues of social justice". On December 13, 2020, it was reported that the Indians name would be dropped after the 2021 season out of respect for the Native American community. It had been hinted by the team that they may move forward without a replacement name (in a similar manner to the Washington Football Team, which used its name for 2 years until being named the Washington Commanders). It was announced via Twitter on July 23, 2021, that the team will be named the Guardians, after the Guardians of Traffic, eight large Art Deco statues on the Hope Memorial Bridge, located close to Progressive Field. The club, however, found itself amid a trademark dispute with a men's roller derby team called the Cleveland Guardians. The Cleveland Guardians roller derby team has competed in the Men's Roller Derby Association since 2016. In addition, two other entities have attempted to preempt the team's use of the trademark by filing their own registrations with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. On November 16, 2021, the lawsuit was resolved, and both teams were allowed to continue using the Guardians name. The name change from Indians to Guardians became official on November 19, 2021. Media (seated, center) and longtime lead radio announcer Tom Hamilton (right)]] Radio Cleveland radio stations WTAM ( and ) and WMMS (), both owned by iHeartMedia, serve as flagship stations for the Cleveland Guardians Radio Network. Tom Hamilton and Jim Rosenhaus comprise the announcing team and call all games on-site. Fellow sister station WARF (), while primarily an English language station, airs Spanish broadcasts of home games, complementing the flagship coverage. Rafa Hernández-Brito serves as the primary Spanish announcer, alongside analyst and former Indian Carlos Baerga (Octavio Sequera fills in when Brito calls Cleveland Cavaliers Spanish radio broadcasts). TV Guardians games that are not televised nationally by MLB's national TV partners are televised exclusively on Guardians TV—operated by MLB Local Media—which launched on February 11, 2025. MLB Local Media assumed television production/distribution rights in October 2024 as part of a settlement related to the bankruptcy of former broadcaster Diamond Sports Group. Lead announcer Matt Underwood, analyst and former Indians Gold Glove-winning centerfielder Rick Manning, and field reporter Andre Knott form the TV broadcast team, with Al Pawlowski hosting the pre- and postgame shows, alongside former Indian Chris Gimenez serving as analyst, with various other former Indians/Guardians making guest appearances. Guardians TV airs on cable systems throughout Northeast Ohio, as well as functioning as a streaming service. Past announcers Notable former broadcasters include Tom Manning, Jack Graney (the first ex-baseball player to become a play-by-play announcer), Ken Coleman, Joe Castiglione, Van Patrick, Nev Chandler, Bruce Drennan, Jim "Mudcat" Grant, Rocky Colavito, Dan Coughlin, and Jim Donovan. Previous broadcasters who have had lengthy tenures with the team include Joe Tait (15 seasons between TV and radio), Jack Corrigan (18 seasons on TV), Ford C. Frick Award winner Jimmy Dudley (19 seasons on radio), Mike Hegan (23 seasons between TV and radio), and Herb Score (34 seasons between TV and radio). Popular culture Under the Cleveland Indians name, the team has been featured in several films, including: *The Kid from Cleveland – a 1949 film featuring then-owner Bill Veeck and numerous players from the team (coming off winning the 1948 World Series). *Major League – a 1989 film centered around a fictionalized version of the Indians. *Major League II – a 1994 sequel to the 1989 original. Awards and honors ]] ]] ]] ]] ]] Baseball Hall of Famers Ford C. Frick Award recipients Retired numbers }} * Jackie Robinson's number 42 is retired throughout Major League Baseball. * The number 455 was retired in honor of the Indians fans after the team sold out 455 consecutive games between 1995 and 2001, which was an MLB record until it was surpassed by the Boston Red Sox on September 8, 2008. Guardians Hall of Fame Statues Numerous Naps/Indians players have had statues made in their honor: In and around Progressive Field * Bob Feller (team all-time leader in wins and strikeouts by a pitcher, 1948 World Series Champion, eight-time All-Star) – since 1994* * Jim Thome (team all-time leader in home runs and walks by a hitter, three-time All-Star with the Indians) – since 2014* * Larry Doby (First black player in the American League, 1948 World Series Champion, seven-time All-Star) – since 2015* * Frank Robinson (Became first black manager in MLB history when he served as player/manager from 1975 to 1977) – since 2017 * Lou Boudreau (1948 AL MVP, 1948 World Series Champion as player/manager, eight-time All-Star) – since 2017*In and around Cleveland *Hall of Fame outfielder Elmer Flick has a statue in his hometown of Bedford, Ohio, a nearby suburb of Cleveland – since 2013* *Former outfielder Luke Easter has a statue outside of his namesake park on the east side of Cleveland – since 1980 (when the park was renamed in Easter's honor following his murder) *Five-time All-Star (with the Indians) outfielder Rocky Colavito has a statue in Cleveland's Little Italy neighborhood – since August 10, 2021. (*) – Inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame as an Indian/Nap. Murals In July 2022 – in honor of the 75th anniversary of Larry Doby becoming the AL's first black player – a mural was added to the exterior of Progressive Field, honoring players who were viewed as barrier breakers that played for the Indians/Guardians. The mural features Doby, Frank Robinson, and Satchel Paige. Streets A portion of Eagle Avenue near Progressive Field was renamed "Larry Doby Way" in 2012 Parks and fields A number of parks and newly built and renovated youth baseball fields in Cleveland have been named after former and current Indians/Guardians players, including: *Luke Easter Park – named for Easter in 1980 following his murder *Jim Thome All-Star Complex – 2019 *CC Sabathia Field at Luke Easter Park – 2021 *José Ramírez Field – 2023 Franchise records Season records * Highest batting average: .408, Joe Jackson (1911) * Most games: 163, Leon Wagner (1964) * Most runs: 140, Earl Averill (1930) * Highest slugging %: .714, Albert Belle (1994) * Most doubles: 64, George Burns (1926) * Most triples: 26, Joe Jackson (1912) * Most home runs: 52, Jim Thome (2002) * Most RBIs: 165, Manny Ramírez (1999) * Most stolen bases: 75, Kenny Lofton (1996) * Most wins: 31, Jim Bagby, Sr. (1920) * Lowest ERA: 1.16, Addie Joss (1908) * Strikeouts: 348, Bob Feller (1946) * Complete games: 36, Bob Feller (1946) * Saves: 47, Emmanuel Clase (2024) * Longest win streak: 22 games (2017) Roster Minor league affiliations The Cleveland Guardians farm system consists of seven minor league affiliates. {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable" |- !scope"col" style""|Class !scope"col" style""|Team !scope"col" style""|League !scope"col" style""|Location !scope"col" style""|Ballpark !scope"col" style""|Affiliated |- | Triple-A !scope="row"| Columbus Clippers | International League | Columbus, Ohio | Huntington Park | align="right"| 2009 |- | Double-A !scope="row"| Akron RubberDucks | Eastern League | Akron, Ohio | Canal Park | align="right"| 1989 |- | High-A !scope="row"| Lake County Captains | Midwest League | Eastlake, Ohio | Classic Park | align="right"| 1991 |- | Single-A !scope="row"| Lynchburg Hillcats | Carolina League | Lynchburg, Virginia | Bank of the James Stadium | align="right"| 2015 |- | rowspan=3| Rookie !scope="row"| ACL Guardians | Arizona Complex League | Goodyear, Arizona | Goodyear Ballpark | align="right"| 2021 |- !scope="row"| DSL Guardians Goryl | rowspan=2|Dominican Summer League | rowspan=2|Boca Chica, Santo Domingo | rowspan=2|Academia de Prospecto Complex | rowspan2 align"right"| 2021 |- !scope="row"| DSL Guardians Mendoza |} Regular season home attendance {| cellpadding"1" style"width:300px; font-size:90%; border:2px solid #E31937;" |- style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | colspan5 style";"|Home Attendance at Jacobs/Progressive Field |- style=;" | Year || Total attendance || Game average || AL rank |- | 2000 | 3,456,278 | 42,670 | 1st |- | 2001 | 3,175,523 | 39,694 | 3rd |- | 2002 | 2,616,940 | 32,308 | 5th |- | 2003 | 1,730,002 | 21,358 | 12th |- | 2004 | 1,814,401 | 22,400 | 12th |- | 2005 | 2,013,763 | 24,861 | 12th |- | 2006 | 1,997,995 | 24,667 | 11th |- | 2007 | 2,275,912 | 28,449 | 9th |- | 2008 | 2,169,760 | 26,787 | 9th |- | 2009 | 1,766,242 | 21,805 | 13th |- | 2010 | 1,391,644 | 17,181 | 14th |- | 2011 | 1,840,835 | 22,726 | 9th |- | 2012 | 1,603,596 | 19,797 | 13th |- | 2013 | 1,572,926 | 19,419 | 14th |- | 2014 | 1,437,393 | 17,746 | 15th |- | 2015 | 1,388,905 | 17,361 | 14th |- | 2016 | 1,591,667 | 19,650 | 13th |- | 2017 | 2,048,138 | 25,286 | 11th |- | 2018 | 1,926,701 | 23,786 | 9th |- | 2019 | 1,738,642 | 21,465 | 9th |- | 2020 | 0* | 0 | T-1st |- | 2021 | 1,114,368** | 13,758 | 10th |- | 2022 | 1,295,870 | 15,998 | 12th |- | 2023 | 1,834,068 | 22,643 | 10th |- | 2024 | 2,056,264 | 25,703 | 9th |} (*): There were no fans allowed in any MLB stadium in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. (**): At the beginning of the season, there was a limit of 30% capacity due to COVID-19 restrictions implemented by Ohio Governor Mike DeWine. On June 2, DeWine lifted the restrictions, and the team immediately allowed full capacity at Progressive Field. See also * Cleveland Guardians all-time roster * List of Cleveland Guardians managers * List of Cleveland Guardians seasons * List of Cleveland Guardians team records * List of World Series champions Notes References External links * * [https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1059019/0000950152-99-002807.txt Cleveland Indians 1998 Annual Report], the last filed with the SEC * [http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/al/clevind/indians.html Sports E-Cyclopedia] }} ;|list1= ;|list1= }} }} Category:1896 establishments in Ohio Category:Baseball teams established in 1896 Category:David Blitzer Category:Major League Baseball teams Category:Name changes due to the George Floyd protests
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleveland_Guardians
2025-04-05T18:27:53.120342
6653
Cape Town
* * }}}} | official_name | settlement_type Capital city (legislative branch) | image_skyline = | image_flag = <!--Flag of Cape Town, South Africa.svg--> | image_shield = Coat of arms of Cape Town, South Africa.png | blank_emblem_type = Logo | blank_emblem_size = 100px | blank_emblem_alt | image_blank_emblem Logo of Cape Town, South Africa.svg | blank_emblem_link | nicknames Mother City, Tavern of the Seas (archaic) | motto = (Latin for "Good Hope") | pushpin_map = South Africa Western Cape#South Africa#Africa | coordinates | subdivision_type = Country | subdivision_name = | subdivision_type1 = Province | subdivision_name1 = | subdivision_type2 = District | subdivision_type3 = Municipality | subdivision_name3 = City of Cape Town | subdivision_type4 = Main Place | established_title = Founded | established_date | established_title1 = Municipal government | established_date1 | government_footnotes | government_type = Metropolitan municipality | leader_title1 = Mayor | leader_name1 = Geordin Hill-Lewis (DA) | leader_title2 = Deputy Mayor | leader_name2 = Eddie Andrews (DA) | area_footnotes | area_total_km2 = 2461<!-- urban: 400.28--> | elevation_max_m = 1590.4 | elevation_min_m = 0 | population_demonym = Capetonian | demographics_type1 Racial makeup (2022) | demographics1_footnotes | demographics_type2 = First languages (2011) | demographics2_footnotes | demographics2_title1 = Afrikaans | demographics2_info1 = 34.9% | demographics2_title2 = Xhosa | demographics2_info2 = 29.2% | demographics2_title3 = English | demographics2_info3 = 27.8% | demographics2_title4 | demographics2_info4 | demographics2_title5 | demographics2_info5 | blank_name_sec1 = HDI | blank_info_sec1 0.82 – | blank_name_sec2 = GMP (2020) | blank_info_sec2 US$121 billion | blank1_name_sec2 = GMP per capita (2011) | blank1_info_sec2 US$19,656 | timezone1 = SAST | utc_offset1 = +2 | postal_code_type = Postal codes (street) | postal_code = 7400–8099 | postal2_code_type = PO box | postal2_code = 7000 | area_code_type = Area code | website = | population_urban = 433,688 | population_metro 4,772,846 | population_density_metro_km2 1,952 | population_density_urban_km2 = 1,083 | population_metro_footnotes = (2022) | population_urban_footnotes = (2011) | population_footnotes | population_rank = 13th in Africa <br> 2nd in South Africa }} Cape Town ; ; ; also known as "the Mother City".}} is the legislative capital of South Africa. It is the country's oldest city and the seat of the Parliament of South Africa. Cape Town is the country's second-largest city, after Johannesburg, and the largest in the Western Cape. The city is part of the City of Cape Town metropolitan municipality. The city is known for its harbour, its natural setting in the Cape Floristic Region, and for landmarks such as Table Mountain and Cape Point. In 2014, Cape Town was named the best place in the world to visit by The New York Times, and was similarly ranked number one by The Daily Telegraph in both 2016 and 2023. Located on the shore of Table Bay, the City Bowl area of Cape Town is the oldest urban area in the Western Cape, with a significant cultural heritage. It was founded by the Dutch East India Company (VOC) as a supply station for Dutch ships sailing to East Africa, India, and the Far East. Jan van Riebeeck's arrival on 6 April 1652 established the VOC Cape Colony, the first permanent European settlement in South Africa. Cape Town outgrew its original purpose as the first European outpost at the Castle of Good Hope, becoming the economic and cultural hub of the Cape Colony. Until the Witwatersrand Gold Rush and the development of Johannesburg, Cape Town was the largest city in southern Africa. The metropolitan area has a long coastline on the Atlantic Ocean, which includes False Bay, and extends to the Hottentots Holland mountains to the east. The Table Mountain National Park is within the city boundaries and there are several other nature reserves and marine-protected areas within, and adjacent to, the city, protecting the diverse terrestrial and marine natural environment. History Early period planting the cross at Cape Point, 1488.]] The earliest known remnants of human occupation in the region were found at Peers Cave in Fish Hoek and have been dated to between 15,000 and 12,000 years old. Bartolomeu Dias, the first European to reach the area, arrived in 1488 and named it "Cape of Storms" (). It was later renamed by John II of Portugal as "Cape of Good Hope" () because of the great optimism engendered by the opening of a sea route to the Indian subcontinent and East Indies. In 1497, Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama recorded a sighting of the Cape of Good Hope. In 1510, at the Battle of Salt River, the Portuguese admiral Francisco de Almeida and sixty-four of his men were killed and his party was defeated by the "Goringhaiqua" in Dutch approximate spelling) using cattle that were specially trained to respond to whistles and shouts. The Gorinaiqua were one of the Khoikhoi clans who inhabited the area. In the late 16th century French, Danish, Dutch, and English, but mainly Portuguese, ships regularly continued to stop over in Table Bay en route to the Indies. They traded tobacco, copper, and iron with the Khoikhoi clans of the region in exchange for fresh meat and other essential traveling provisions. Dutch period In 1652, Jan van Riebeeck and other employees of the United East India Company (, VOC) were sent to the Cape Colony to establish a way-station for ships travelling to the Dutch East Indies, and the Fort de Goede Hoop (later replaced by the Castle of Good Hope). The settlement grew slowly during this period, as it was hard to find adequate labour. This labour shortage prompted the local authorities to import enslaved people from Indonesia and Madagascar. Many of these people are ancestors of modern-day Cape Coloured and Cape Malay communities. Under Van Riebeeck and his successors, as VOC commanders and later governors at the Cape, a wide range of agricultural plants were introduced to the Cape. Some of these, including grapes, cereals, ground nuts, potatoes, apples and citrus, had a large and lasting influence on the societies and economies of the region. British period in 1897 was an important commercial hub in Cape Town at a time when the city was the most important centre of economic activity in the Southern Africa region.]] With the Dutch Republic being transformed into Revolutionary France's vassal Batavian Republic, Great Britain moved to take control of Dutch colonies, including the colonial possessions of the VOC. Britain captured Cape Town in 1795, but it was returned to the Dutch by treaty in 1803. British forces occupied the Cape again in 1806 following the Battle of Blaauwberg when the Batavian Republic allied with Britain's rival, France, during the Napoleonic Wars. Following the conclusion of the war Cape Town was permanently ceded to the United Kingdom in the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814. The city became the capital of the newly formed Cape Colony, whose territory expanded very substantially through the 1800s, partially as a result of numerous wars with the amaXhosa on the colony's eastern frontier. In 1833 slavery was abolished in the colony freeing over 5500 slaves in the city, almost a third of the city's population at the time. The Convict Crisis of 1849, marked by substantial civil upheaval, bolstered the push for self-governance in the Cape. With expansion came calls for greater independence from the UK, with the Cape attaining its own parliament (1854) and a locally accountable Prime Minister (1872). Suffrage was established according to the non-racial Cape Qualified Franchise. During the 1850s and 1860s, additional plant species were introduced from Australia by the British authorities. Notably rooikrans was introduced to stabilise the sand of the Cape Flats to allow for a road connecting the peninsula with the rest of the African continent and eucalyptus was used to drain marshes. In 1859 the first railway line was built by the Cape Government Railways and a system of railways rapidly expanded in the 1870s. The discovery of diamonds in Griqualand West in 1867, and the Witwatersrand Gold Rush in 1886, prompted a flood of immigration into South Africa. In 1895 the city's first public power station, the Graaff Electric Lighting Works, was opened. Conflicts between the Boer republics in the interior and the British colonial government resulted in the Second Boer War of 1899–1902. Britain's victory in this war led to the formation of a united South Africa. From 1891 to 1901, the city's population more than doubled from 67,000 to 171,000. As the 19th century came to an end, the economic and political dominance of Cape Town in the Southern Africa region during the 19th century started to give way to the dominance of Johannesburg and Pretoria in the 20th century. South African period in 1945. Visible in this photograph as the large area of empty land between the City Centre and the newly constructed harbour out of reclaimed land from Table Bay. |alt=]] In 1910, Britain established the Union of South Africa, which unified the Cape Colony with the two defeated Boer Republics and the British colony of Natal. Cape Town became the legislative capital of the Union, and later of the Republic of South Africa. By the time of the 1936 census, Johannesburg had overtaken Cape Town as the largest city in the country. In 1945 the expansion of the Cape Town foreshore was completed adding an additional to the City Bowl area to the city centre. In the 1948 national elections, the National Party won on a platform of apartheid (racial segregation) under the slogan of "swart gevaar" (Afrikaans for "black danger"). This led to the erosion and eventual abolition of the Cape's multiracial franchise. In 1950, the apartheid government first introduced the Group Areas Act, which classified and segregated urban areas according to race. Formerly multi-racial suburbs of Cape Town were either purged of residents deemed unlawful by apartheid legislation, or demolished. The most infamous example of this in Cape Town was the suburb of District Six. After it was declared a whites-only area in 1965, all housing there was demolished and over 60,000 residents were forcibly removed. Many of these residents were relocated to the Cape Flats. The earliest of the Cape Flats forced removals saw the expulsion of Black South Africans to the Langa, Cape Town's first and oldest township, in line with the 1923 Native Urban Areas Act. Under apartheid, the Cape was considered a "Coloured labour preference area", to the exclusion of "Bantus", i.e. Black Africans. The implementation of this policy was widely opposed by trade unions, civil society and opposition parties. It is notable that this policy was not advocated for by any Coloured political group, and its implementation was a unilateral decision by the apartheid government. During the student-led Soweto Uprising of June 1976, school students from Langa, Gugulethu and Nyanga in Cape Town reacted to the news of the protests against Bantu Education by organising gatherings and marches of their own. A number of school buildings were burnt down and the protest action was met with forceful resistance from the police. Cape Town has been home to many leaders of the anti-apartheid movement. In Table Bay, from the city is Robben Island. This penitentiary island was the site of a maximum security prison where many famous apartheird-era political prisoners served long prison sentences. Famous prisoners include activist, lawyer and future president Nelson Mandela who served 18 of his 27 years of imprisonment on the island, as well as two other future presidents, Kgalema Motlanthe and Jacob Zuma. In one of the most famous moments marking the end of apartheid, Nelson Mandela made his first public speech since his imprisonment, from the balcony of Cape Town City Hall, hours after being released on 11 February 1990. His speech heralded the beginning of a new era for the country. The first democratic election, was held four years later, on 27 April 1994. Nobel Square in the Victoria & Alfred Waterfront features statues of South Africa's four Nobel Peace Prize winners: Albert Luthuli, Desmond Tutu, F. W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela. Post-apartheid era Cape Town has undergone significant changes in the years since Apartheid. Cape Town has experienced economic growth and development in the post-apartheid era. The city has become a major economic hub in South Africa, attracting international investment and tourism. The Democratic Alliance (DA), a liberal political party which came to power in Cape Town in 2006, has been credited with improving bureaucratic efficiency, public safety and fostering economic development. Opinion polls show that South Africans see it as the best governed province and city in the country. Of South Africa's 257 municipalities, only 38 received a clean financial audit in 2022 from the Auditor-General. Of those, 21 were in the Western Cape. In 2014, Cape Town was named World Design Capital of the Year. Cape Town was voted the best tourist destination in Africa at the 2023 World Travel Awards in Dubai and continues to be the most important tourist destination in the country. Cape Town has been named the best travel city in the world every year since 2013 in the Telegraph Travel Awards. The legacy of apartheid's spatial planning is still evident, with significant disparities between affluent areas and impoverished townships. 60% of the city's population live in townships and informal settlements far from the city centre. The legacy of Apartheid means Cape Town remains one of the most racially segregated cities in South Africa. Many Black South Africans continue to live in informal settlements with limited access to basic services such as healthcare, education, and sanitation. The unemployment rate remains high at 23% (though nearly 10 points lower than the nationwide average), particularly among historically disadvantaged groups, and economic opportunities are unevenly distributed. According to Oxfam, "in the face of an imminent water shortage, the city of Cape Town in South Africa successfully reduced its water use by more than half in three years, cutting it from 1.2bn litres per day in February 2015 to 516m litres per day in 2018." In 2021 Cape Town also experienced a violent turf war between rival mini-bus taxi firms which led to the deaths of 83 people. Two years later a strike by the mini-bus taxi firms resulted in 5 deaths. Since the 2010s, Cape Town and the wider Western Cape province have seen the rise of a small secessionist movement. Support for parties "which have formally adopted Cape independence" was around 5% in the 2021 municipal elections. Geography and the natural environment , Table Mountain and Lion's Head]] (left), Cape Flats and False Bay]] and Table Mountain]] Cape Town is located at latitude 33.55° S (approximately the same as Sydney and Buenos Aires and equivalent to Casablanca and Los Angeles in the northern hemisphere) and longitude 18.25° E. Table Mountain, with its near vertical cliffs and flat-topped summit over high, and with Devil's Peak and Lion's Head on either side, together form a dramatic mountainous backdrop enclosing the central area of Cape Town, the so-called City Bowl. A thin strip of cloud, known colloquially as the "tablecloth" ("Karos" in Afrikaans), sometimes forms on top of the mountain. To the immediate south of the city, the Cape Peninsula is a scenic mountainous spine jutting southward into the Atlantic Ocean and terminating at Cape Point. There are over 70 peaks above within Cape Town's official metropolitan limits. Many of the city's suburbs lie on the large plain called the Cape Flats, which extends over to the east and joins the peninsula to the mainland. The Cape Town region is characterised by an extensive coastline, rugged mountain ranges, coastal plains and inland valleys. Extent The extent of Cape Town has varied considerably over time. It originated as a small settlement at the foot of Table Mountain and has grown beyond its city limits as a metropolitan area to encompass the entire Cape Peninsula to the south, the Cape Flats, the Helderberg basin and part of the Steenbras catchment area to the east, and the Tygerberg hills, Blouberg and other areas to the north. Robben Island in Table Bay is also part of Cape Town. It is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and False Bay to the south. To the north and east, the extent is demarcated by boundaries of neighbouring municipalities within the Western Cape province. The official boundaries of the city proper extend between the City Bowl and the Atlantic Seaboard to the east and the Southern Suburbs to the south. The City of Cape Town, the metropolitan municipality that takes its name from the city covers the Greater Cape Town metropolitan area, known as the Cape Metropole, extending beyond the city proper itself to include a number of satellite towns, suburbs and rural areas such as Atlantis, Bellville, Blouberg, Brackenfell, Durbanville, Goodwood, Gordon's Bay, Hout Bay, Khayelitsha, Kraaifontein, Kuilsrivier, Macassar, Melkbosstrand, Milnerton, Muizenberg, Noordhoek, Parow, Philadelphia, Simon's Town, Somerset West, and Strand among others. The Cape Peninsula is long from Mouille Point in the north to Cape Point in the south, Geology The Cape Peninsula is a rocky and mountainous peninsula that juts out into the Atlantic Ocean at the south-western extremity of the continent. At its tip is Cape Point and the Cape of Good Hope. The peninsula forms the west side of False Bay and the Cape Flats. On the east side are the Helderberg and Hottentots Holland mountains. The three main rock formations are the late-Precambrian Malmebury group (sedimentary and metamorphic rock), the Cape Granite suit, comprising the huge Peninsula, Kuilsrivier-Helderberg, and Stellenbosch batholiths, that were intruded into the Malmesbury Group about 630 million years ago, and the Table Mountain group sandstones that were deposited on the eroded surface of the granite and Malmesbury series basement about 450 million years ago. The sand, silt and mud deposits were lithified by pressure and then folded during the Cape Orogeny to form the Cape Fold Belt, which extends in an arc along the western and southern coasts. The present landscape is due to prolonged erosion having carved out deep valleys, removing parts of the once continuous Table Mountain Group sandstone cover from over the Cape Flats and False Bay, and leaving high residual mountain ridges. with mild, moderately wet winters and dry, warm summers. Winter, which lasts from June to September, may see large cold fronts entering for limited periods from the Atlantic Ocean with significant precipitation and strong north-westerly winds. Winter months in the city average a maximum of and minimum of . Winters are snow and frost free, except on Table Mountain and on other mountain peaks, where light accumulation of snow and frost can sometimes occur. Total annual rainfall in the city averages although in the Southern Suburbs, close to the mountains, rainfall is significantly higher and averages closer to . Summer, which lasts from December to March, is warm and dry with an average maximum of and minimum of . The region can get uncomfortably hot when the Berg Wind, meaning "mountain wind", blows from the Karoo interior. Spring and summer generally feature a strong wind from the south-east, known locally as the south- or the Cape Doctor, so called because it blows air pollution away. This wind is caused by a persistent high-pressure system over the South Atlantic to the west of Cape Town, known as the South Atlantic High, which shifts latitude seasonally, following the sun, and influencing the strength of the fronts and their northward reach. Cape Town receives about 3,100 hours of sunshine per year. South African Weather Service, eNCA |dateMarch 2011 }} Climate change A 2019 paper published in PLOS One estimated that under Representative Concentration Pathway 4.5, a "moderate" scenario of climate change where global warming reaches ~ by 2100, the climate of Cape Town in the year 2050 would most closely resemble the current climate of Perth in Australia. The annual temperature would increase by , and the temperature of the coldest month by , while the temperature of the warmest month would be higher. According to Climate Action Tracker, the current warming trajectory appears consistent with , which closely matches RCP 4.5. Moreover, according to the 2022 IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, Cape Town is one of 12 major African cities (Abidjan, Alexandria, Algiers, Cape Town, Casablanca, Dakar, Dar es Salaam, Durban, Lagos, Lomé, Luanda and Maputo) which would be the most severely affected by future sea level rise. It estimates that they would collectively sustain cumulative damages of US$65 billion under RCP 4.5 and US$86.5 billion for the high-emission scenario RCP 8.5 by the year 2050. Additionally, RCP 8.5 combined with the hypothetical impact from marine ice sheet instability at high levels of warming would involve up to US$137.5 billion in damages, while the additional accounting for the "low-probability, high-damage events" may increase aggregate risks to US$187 billion for the "moderate" RCP4.5, US$206 billion for RCP8.5 and US$397 billion under the high-end ice sheet instability scenario. Since sea level rise would continue for about 10,000 years under every scenario of climate change, future costs of sea level rise would only increase, especially without adaptation measures.Hydrology <!-- --> Sea surface temperatures Cape Town's coastal water ranges from cold to mild, and the difference between the two sides of the peninsula can be dramatic. While the Atlantic Seaboard averages annual sea surface temperatures around , the False Bay coast is much warmer, averaging between annually. In summer, False Bay water averages slightly over , with an occasional high. Beaches located on the Atlantic Coast tend to have colder water due to the wind driven upwellings which contribute to the Benguela Current which originates off the Cape Peninsula, while the water at False Bay beaches may occasionally be warmer by up to at the same time in summer. In summer False Bay is thermally stratified, with a vertical temperature variation of 5 to 9˚C between the warmer surface water and cooler depths below 50 m, while in winter the water column is at nearly constant temperature at all depths. The development of a thermocline is strongest around late December and peaks in late summer to early autumn. These protected areas are a World Heritage Site, and an estimated 2,200 species of plants are confined to Table Mountain – more than exist in the whole of the United Kingdom which has 1200 plant species and 67 endemic plant species. Many of these species, including a great many types of proteas, are endemic to the mountain and can be found nowhere else. It is home to a total of 19 different vegetation types, of which several are endemic to the city and occur nowhere else in the world. It is also the only habitat of hundreds of endemic species, and hundreds of others which are severely restricted or threatened. This enormous species diversity is mainly because the city is uniquely located at the convergence point of several different soil types and micro-climates. Table Mountain has an unusually rich biodiversity. Its vegetation consists predominantly of several different types of the unique and rich Cape Fynbos. The main vegetation type is endangered Peninsula Sandstone Fynbos, but critically endangered Peninsula Granite Fynbos, Peninsula Shale Renosterveld and Afromontane forest occur in smaller portions on the mountain. Rapid population growth and urban sprawl has covered much of these ecosystems with development. Consequently, Cape Town now has over 300 threatened plant species and 13 which are now extinct. The Cape Peninsula, which lies entirely within the city of Cape Town, has the highest concentration of threatened species of any continental area of equivalent size in the world. Tiny remnant populations of critically endangered or near extinct plants sometimes survive on road sides, pavements and sports fields. The remaining ecosystems are partially protected through a system of over 30 nature reserves – including the massive Table Mountain National Park. Cape Town reached first place in the 2019 iNaturalist City Nature Challenge in two out of the three categories: Most Observations, and Most Species. This was the first entry by Capetonians in this annual competition to observe and record the local biodiversity over a four-day long weekend during what is considered the worst time of the year for local observations. A worldwide survey suggested that the extinction rate of endemic plants from the City of Cape Town is one of the highest in the world, at roughly three per year since 1900 – partly a consequence of the very small and localised habitats and high endemicity.Government Cape Town is governed by a 231-member city council elected in a system of mixed-member proportional representation. The city is divided into 116 wards, each of which elects a councillor by first-past-the-post voting. The remaining 115 councillors are elected from party lists so that the total number of councillors for each party is proportional to the number of votes received by that party. In the 2021 Municipal Elections, the Democratic Alliance (DA) kept its majority, this time diminished, taking 136 seats. The African National Congress lost substantially, receiving 43 of the seats. The Democratic Alliance candidate for the Cape Town mayoralty, Geordin Hill-Lewis was elected mayor. <gallery mode"packed" height"270px"> CT City Hall Before the Sun.jpg|The Old Cape Town City Hall as seen from the Grand Parade in front of the building. Cape Town Civic Centre.jpg|The Cape Town Civic Centre, the central offices of the City of Cape Town. Western Cape Provincial Parliament (2018) (cropped wo cars).jpg|The Western Cape Provincial Parliament 9 2 018 0234-Houses of Parliament-The Cape-s.jpg|South Africa's national parliament building is located in Cape Town. </gallery> International relations Cape Town has nineteen active sister city agreements * Aachen, Germany * Accra, Ghana * Atlanta, United States * Buenos Aires, Argentina * Bujumbura, Burundi * Dubai, United Arab Emirates * Hangzhou, China * Houston, United States * Huangshan, China * İzmir, Turkey * Los Angeles, United States * Malmö, Sweden * Miami-Dade County, United States * Monterrey, Mexico * Munich, Germany * Nairobi, Kenya * Rio de Janeiro, Brazil * Shenzhen, China * Varna, Bulgaria * Wuhan, China 2022 invasion of Ukraine The City of Cape Town has expressed explicit support for Ukraine during the 2022 invasion of the country by Russia. To show this support the City of Cape Town lit up the Old City Hall in the colours of the Ukrainian flag on 2 March 2022. This has differentiated the city from the officially neutral foreign policy position taken by the South African national government. 1833, 1936, 1950–1990, 1996, 2001, and 2011 Census; 2007, 2016 & 2021, 2022 }} According to the South African National Census of 2011, the population of the City of Cape Town metropolitan municipalityan area that includes suburbs and exurbsis 3,740,026 people. This represents an annual growth rate of 2.6% compared to the results of the previous census in 2001 which found a population of 2,892,243 people. Of those residents who were asked about their first language, 35.7% spoke Afrikaans, 29.8% spoke Xhosa and 28.4% spoke English. 24.8% of the population is under the age of 15, while 5.5% is 65 or older. Of those households, 78.4% are in formal structures (houses or flats), while 20.5% are in informal structures (shacks). and 94.0% of households use electricity for lighting. According to the 2016 City of Cape Town community survey, there were 4,004,793 people in the City of Cape Town metro. Out of this population, 45.7% identified as Black African, 35.1% identified as Coloured, 16.2% identified as White and 1.6% identified as Asian. During the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic in South Africa, local media reported that increasing numbers of wealthy and middle-class South Africans have started moving from inland areas to coastal regions of the country, most notably Cape Town, in a phenomenon referred to as "semigration" – short for "semi-emigration" Declining municipal services in the rest of the country and the South African energy crisis are other cited reasons for semigration. The city's population is expected to grow by an additional 400,000 residents between 2020 and 2025 with 76% of those new residents falling into the low-income bracket earning less than a month.Religion is one of the largest and oldest religious sites in the city.]] In the 2015 General Household Survey 82.3% of respondents self identified as Christian, 8% as Muslim, 3.8% as following a traditional African religion and 3.1% as "nothing in particular." Most places of worship in the city are Christian churches and cathedrals: Dutch Reformed Church in South Africa (NGK), Zion Christian Church, Apostolic Faith Mission of South Africa, Assemblies of God, Baptist Union of Southern Africa (Baptist World Alliance), Methodist Church of Southern Africa (World Methodist Council), Anglican Church of Southern Africa (Anglican Communion), Presbyterian Church of Africa (World Communion of Reformed Churches), Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Cape Town (Catholic Church), the Orthodox Archbishopric of Good Hope (Greek Orthodox Cathedral of St George) and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). Islam is the city's second largest religion with a long history in Cape Town, resulting in a number of mosques and other Muslim religious sites spread across the city, such as the Auwal Mosque, South Africa's first mosque. Cape Town's significant Jewish population supports a number of synagogues most notably the historic Gardens Shul, the oldest Jewish congregation in South Africa. Marais Road Shul in the city's Jewish hub, Sea Point, is the largest Jewish congregation in South Africa. Temple Israel (Cape Town Progressive Jewish Congregation) also has three temples in the city. There is also a Chabad centre in Sea Point and a Chabad on Campus at the University of Cape Town, catering to Jewish students. Other religious sites in the city include Hindu and Buddhist temples and centres. Crime Hot Spot in Retreat, Road M5]]In recent years, Cape Town has experienced a resurgence in violent crime, particularly driven by gang violence in areas like the Cape Flats. This increase in violence is attributed to various factors, including economic inequality, unemployment, and the legacy of apartheid's spatial and social divisions. Crime in Cape Town is a serious problem which affects the quality of life and safety of its residents and visitors. Between 2022 and 2023, Cape Town recorded the highest number of murders in a single year of any city in the world at 2,998, followed by Johannesburg and Durban, an increase of 8.6% year-on-year. Household crimes including burglary also increased in the same period. Mexico’s Citizen Council for Public Security and Criminal Justice ranks it among the most violent cities in the world. While the UK Foreign Office considers Cape Town safe to travel to, it notes the extremely high crime rates and highlights a particular increase on violent attacks and murders on the roads to and from Cape Town International Airport. At the same time, the economy has grown due to the boom in the tourism and the real estate industries. Since July 2019 widespread violent crime in poorer gang dominated areas of greater Cape Town has resulted in an ongoing military presence in these neighbourhoods. The minibus taxi industry has been the source of a number of violent confrontations in the city. The northern and eastern sections of the city was the scene of the 2021 Cape Town taxi conflict, a violent turf war which led to 83 deaths. The 2023 Cape Town taxi strike resulted in 5 recorded deaths.Economy {| class"toc" style"float:right; font-size:90%; text-align:center; margin:1em;" |- | colspan"6" style"background:#afa;"|Top publicly traded companies<br />in the Cape Town/Stellenbosch<br /> region for 2021<br />(ranked by market capitalisation)<br />with Metropolitan and JSE ranks |- style="background:#ccc;" || Metro|||| style"background:#ccc;"|corporation|||| style"background:#ccc;"|JSE |- | 1|||| |Naspers||||4 |- | 2|||||Capitec|||||14 |- | 3|||| |Sanlam||||20 |- | 4|||||Shoprite||||24 |- |5||||Pepkor||||30 |- |6||||Clicks||||32 |- |7|||| |Woolworths||||35 |- |8|||||Remgro||||37 |- |colspan"5"|Source: JSE top 40 |} The city is South Africa's second main economic centre and Africa's third main economic hub city. It serves as the regional manufacturing centre in the Western Cape. In 2019 the city's GMP of R489 billion (US$33.04 billion) represented 71.1% of the Western Cape's total GRP and 9.6% of South Africa's total GDP; With the highest number of successful information technology companies in Africa, Cape Town is an important centre for the industry on the continent. This includes an increasing number of companies in the space industry. Growing at an annual rate of 8.5% and an estimated worth of R77 billion in 2010, nationwide the high tech industry in Cape Town is becoming increasingly important to the city's economy. ]] The city has the largest film industry in the Southern Hemisphere generating R5 billion (US$476.19 million) in revenue and providing an estimated 6,058 direct and 2,502 indirect jobs in 2013. Much of the industry is based out of the Cape Town Film Studios. Major companies is the headquarters of Naspers, the largest listed company headquartered in Cape Town.]] Most companies headquartered in the city are insurance companies, retail groups, publishers, design houses, fashion designers, shipping companies, petrochemical companies, architects and advertising agencies. Some of the most notable companies headquartered in the city are food and fashion retailer Woolworths, supermarket chain Pick n Pay Stores and Shoprite, New Clicks Holdings Limited, fashion retailer Foschini Group, internet service provider MWEB, Mediclinic International, eTV, multinational mass media giant Naspers, and financial services giant Sanlam and Old Mutual Park. Other notable companies include Belron, Ceres Fruit Juices, Coronation Fund Managers, Vida e Caffè, Capitec Bank. The city is a manufacturing base for several multinational companies including, Johnson & Johnson, GlaxoSmithKline, Levi Strauss & Co., Adidas, Bokomo Foods, Yoco and Nampak. Amazon Web Services maintains one of its largest facilities in the world in Cape Town with the city serving as the Africa headquarters for its parent company Amazon. Inequality The city of Cape Town's Gini coefficient of 0.58 is lower than South Africa's Gini coefficient of 0.7 making it more equal than the rest of the country, including any other major South African city, although still highly unequal by international standards. Between 2001 and 2010 the city's Gini coefficient, a measure of inequality, improved by dropping from 0.59 in 2007 to 0.57 in 2010 only to increase to 0.58 by 2017. Tourism is one of Cape Town's most famous beaches]] from the Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden]] s at Boulders Penguin Colony]] The Western Cape is a highly important tourist region in South Africa; the tourism industry accounts for 9.8% of the GDP of the province and employs 9.6% of the province's workforce. In 2010, over 1.5 million international tourists visited the area. Cape Town is not only a popular international tourist destination in South Africa, but Africa as a whole. This is due to its mild climate, natural setting, and well-developed infrastructure. The city has several well-known natural features that attract tourists, most notably Table Mountain, which forms a large part of the Table Mountain National Park and is the back end of the City Bowl. Reaching the top of the mountain can be achieved either by hiking up, or by taking the Table Mountain Cableway. Cape Point is the dramatic headland at the end of the Cape Peninsula. Many tourists also drive along Chapman's Peak Drive, a narrow road that links Noordhoek with Hout Bay, for the views of the Atlantic Ocean and nearby mountains. It is possible to either drive or hike up Signal Hill for closer views of the City Bowl and Table Mountain. Many tourists also visit Cape Town's beaches, which are popular with local residents. It is possible to visit several different beaches in the same day, each with a different setting and atmosphere. Both coasts are popular, although the beaches in affluent Clifton and elsewhere on the Atlantic Coast are better developed with restaurants and cafés, with a strip of restaurants and bars accessible to the beach at Camps Bay. The Atlantic seaboard, known as Cape Town's Riviera, is regarded as one of the most scenic routes in South Africa, along the slopes of the Twelve Apostles to the boulders and white sand beaches of Llandudno, with the route ending in Hout Bay, a diverse suburb with a fishing and recreational boating harbour near a small island with a breeding colony of African fur seals. This suburb is also accessible by road from the Constantia valley over the mountains to the northeast, and via the picturesque Chapman's Peak drive from the residential suburb Noordhoek in the Fish Hoek valley to the south-east. Boulders Beach near Simon's Town is known for its colony of African penguins. The city has several notable cultural attractions. The Victoria & Alfred Waterfront, built on top of part of the docks of the Port of Cape Town, is the city's most visited tourist attraction. It is also one of the city's most popular shopping venues, with several hundred shops as well as the Two Oceans Aquarium. The V&A also hosts the Nelson Mandela Gateway, through which ferries depart for Robben Island. It is possible to take a ferry from the V&A to Hout Bay, Simon's Town and the Cape fur seal colonies on Seal and Duiker Islands. Several companies offer tours of the Cape Flats, a region of mostly Coloured & Black townships. Within the metropolitan area, the most popular areas for visitors to stay include Camps Bay, Sea Point, the V&A Waterfront, the City Bowl, Hout Bay, Constantia, Rondebosch, Newlands, and Somerset West. In November 2013, Cape Town was voted the best global city in ''The Daily Telegraph's'' annual Travel Awards. Cape Town offers tourists a range of air, land and sea-based adventure activities, including helicopter rides, paragliding and skydiving, snorkelling and scuba diving, boat trips, game-fishing, hiking, mountain biking and rock climbing. Surfing is popular and the city hosts the Red Bull Big Wave Africa surfing competition every year, and there is some local and international recreational scuba tourism. The City of Cape Town works closely with Cape Town Tourism to promote the city both locally and internationally. The primary focus of Cape Town Tourism is to represent Cape Town as a tourist destination. Cape Town Tourism receives a portion of its funding from the City of Cape Town while the remainder is made up of membership fees and own-generated funds. The Tristan da Cunha government owns and operates a lodging facility in Cape Town which charges discounted rates to Tristan da Cunha residents and non-resident natives. Cape Town's transport system links it to the rest of South Africa; it serves as the gateway to other destinations within the province. The Cape Winelands and in particular the towns of Stellenbosch, Paarl and Franschhoek are popular day trips from the city for sightseeing and wine tasting. Infrastructure and services Most goods are handled through the Port of Cape Town or Cape Town International Airport. Most major shipbuilding companies have offices in Cape Town. The province is also a centre of energy development for the country, with the existing Koeberg nuclear power station providing energy for the Western Cape's needs. Greater Cape Town has four major commercial nodes, with Cape Town Central Business District containing the majority of job opportunities and office space. Century City, the Bellville/Tygervalley strip and Claremont commercial nodes are well established and contain many offices and corporate headquarters.Health ]] *The Alexandra Hospital is a specialist mental health care hospital in Cape Town, it provides care for complex mental health issues and intellectual disability. *Groote Schuur Hospital is a large, government-funded, teaching hospital situated on the slopes of Devil's Peak. It was founded in 1938 and is famous for being the institution where the first human-to-human heart transplant took place. Groote Schuur is the chief academic hospital of the University of Cape Town's medical school, providing tertiary care and instruction in all the major branches of medicine. The hospital underwent major extension in 1984 when two new wings were added. *The Hottentots Holland Hospital, also known as Helderberg Hospital, is a district hospital for the Helderberg basin located in Somerset West, and also serves surrounding areas in the Overberg district. *Vergelegen Medi-clinic – Private hospital in Somerset West Education with the Devil's Peak]] , with Table Mountain in the background]] Public primary and secondary schools in Cape Town are run by the Western Cape Education Department. This provincial department is divided into seven districts; four of these are "Metropole" districts – Metropole Central, North, South, and East – which cover various areas of the metropolis. There are also many private schools, both religious and secular. Cape Town has a well-developed higher system of public universities. Cape Town is served by three public universities: the University of Cape Town (UCT), the University of the Western Cape (UWC) and the Cape Peninsula University of Technology (CPUT). Stellenbosch University, while not based in the metropolitan area itself, has its main campus and administrative section 50 kilometres from the City Bowl and has additional campuses, such as the Tygerberg Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences and the Bellville Business Park, north-west of the city in the town of Bellville. Both the University of Cape Town and Stellenbosch University are leading universities in South Africa. This is due in large part to substantial financial contributions made to these institutions by both the public and private sector. UCT is an English-language tuition institution. It has over 21,000 students and has an MBA programme that was ranked 51st by the Financial Times in 2006. It is also the top-ranked university in Africa, being the only African university to make the world's Top 200 university list at number 146. Since the African National Congress has become the country's ruling party, some restructuring of Western Cape universities has taken place and as such, traditionally non-white universities have seen increased financing, which has evidently benefitted the University of the Western Cape. The Cape Peninsula University of Technology was formed on 1 January 2005, when two separate institutions – Cape Technikon and Peninsula Technikon – were merged. The new university offers education primarily in English, although one may take courses in any of South Africa's official languages. The institution generally awards the National Diploma. Students from the universities and high schools are involved in the South African SEDS, Students for the Exploration and Development of Space. This is the South African SEDS, and there are many SEDS branches in other countries, preparing enthusiastic students and young professionals for the growing Space industry. As well as the universities, there are also several colleges in and around Cape Town. Including the College of Cape Town, False Bay College and Northlink College. Many students use NSFAS funding to help pay for tertiary education at these TVET colleges. Cape Town has also become a popular study abroad destination for many international college students. Many study abroad providers offer semester, summer, short-term, and internship programs in partnership with Cape Town universities as a chance for international students to gain intercultural understanding. Water supply The Western Cape Water Supply System (WCWSS) is a complex water supply system in the Western Cape region of South Africa, comprising an inter-linked system of six main dams, pipelines, tunnels and distribution networks, and a number of minor dams, some owned and operated by the Department of Water and Sanitation and some by the City of Cape Town.Water crisis of 2017 to 2018 The Cape Town water crisis of 2017 to 2018 was a period of severe water shortage in the Western Cape region, most notably affecting the City of Cape Town. While dam water levels had been declining since 2015, the Cape Town water crisis peaked during mid-2017 to mid-2018 when water levels hovered between 15 and 30 percent of total dam capacity. In late 2017, there were first mentions of plans for "Day Zero", a shorthand reference for the day when the water level of the major dams supplying the city could fall below 13.5 percent.Transport Air ]] Cape Town International Airport serves both domestic and international flights. It is the second-largest airport in South Africa and serves as a major gateway for travellers to the Cape region. Cape Town has regularly scheduled services to Southern Africa, East Africa, Mauritius, Middle East, Far East, Europe, Brazil and the United States as well as eleven domestic destinations. Cape Town International Airport opened a brand new central terminal building that was developed to handle an expected increase in air traffic as tourism numbers increased in the lead-up to the tournament of the 2010 FIFA World Cup. Other renovations include several large new parking garages, a revamped domestic departure terminal, a new Bus Rapid Transit system station and a new double-decker road system. The airport's cargo facilities are also being expanded and several large empty plots are being developed into office space and hotels. Cape Town is one of five internationally recognised Antarctic gateway cities with transportation connections. Since 2021, commercial flights have operated from Cape Town to Wolf's Fang Runway, Antarctica. The Cape Town International Airport was among the winners of the World Travel Awards for being Africa's leading airport. Cape Town International Airport is located 18 km from the Central Business District.Sea is a major transport node in southern Africa. In addition to moving freight it also serves as a major repair site for ships and oil rigs.]] Cape Town has a long tradition as a port city, and its role as a re-provisioning stop at the midpoint of the Cape Route gained it the nicknames "Tavern of the Seas" and "Tavern of the Indian Ocean". The Port of Cape Town, the city's main port, is in Table Bay directly to the north of the CBD. The port is a hub for ships in the southern Atlantic: it is located along one of the busiest shipping corridors in the world, and acts as a stopover point for goods en route to or from Latin America and Asia. It is also an entry point into the South African market. It is the second-busiest container port in South Africa after Durban. In 2004, it handled 3,161 ships and 9.2 million tonnes of cargo. Simon's Town Harbour on the False Bay coast of the Cape Peninsula is the main operational base of the South African Navy.<!-- The SAN headquarters is in Pretoria, not Simon's Town. But Simon's Town is, as stated, a major operational base for the South African Navy --> Until the 1970s the city was served by the Union Castle Line with service to the United Kingdom and St Helena. The RMS St Helena provided passenger and cargo service between Cape Town and St Helena until the opening of St Helena Airport. The cargo vessel M/V Helena, under AW Shipping Management, takes a limited number of passengers, between Cape Town and St Helena and Ascension Island on its voyages. Multiple vessels also take passengers to and from Tristan da Cunha, inaccessible by aircraft, to and from Cape Town. In addition takes passengers on its cargo service to the Canary Islands and Hamburg, Germany. Buses Golden Arrow Bus Services operates scheduled bus services in the Cape Town metropolitan area. Several companies run long-distance bus services from Cape Town to the other cities in South Africa. MyCiTi station and bus]] Cape Town has a public transport system in about 10% of the city, running north to south along the west coastline of the city, comprising Phase 1 of the IRT system. This is known as the MyCiTi service. MyCiTi Phase 1 includes services linking the Airport to the Cape Town inner city, as well as the following areas: Blouberg / Table View, Dunoon, Atlantis and Melkbosstrand, Milnerton, Paarden Eiland, Century City, Salt River and Walmer Estate, and all suburbs of the City Bowl and Atlantic Seaboard all the way to Llandudno and Hout Bay. The MyCiTi N2 Express service consists of four routes each linking the Cape Town inner city and Khayelitsha and Mitchells Plain on the Cape Flats. The service use high floor articulated and standard size buses in dedicated busways, low floor articulated and standard size buses on the N2 Express service, and smaller Optare buses in suburban and inner city areas. It offers universal access through level boarding and numerous other measures, and requires cashless fare payment using the EMV compliant smart card system, called myconnect. Headway of services (i.e. the time between buses on the same route) range from three to twenty minutes in peak times to an hour in off-peak times.Taxis ]] Cape Town has various kinds of taxis available, including those obtained through ride-hailing services such as Bolt and Uber. Taxis are either metered taxis or minibus taxis. Metered taxis can be found at transport hubs as well as other tourist establishments, while minibus taxis can be found at taxi ranks, and, commonly, travelling along main streets. Minibus taxis can be hailed from the road. Cape Town metered taxi cabs mostly operate in the city bowl, suburbs and Cape Town International Airport areas. Large companies that operate fleets of cabs can be reached by phone and are cheaper than the single operators that apply for hire from taxi ranks and Victoria and Alfred Waterfront. There are about one thousand meter taxis in Cape Town. Their rates vary from R8 per kilometre to about R15 per kilometre. The larger taxi companies in Cape Town are Excite Taxis, Cabnet and Intercab and single operators are reachable by cellular phone. The seven seated Toyota Avanza are the most popular with larger Taxi companies. Meter cabs are mostly used by tourists and are safer to use than minibus taxis. Minibus taxis are the standard form of transport for the majority of the population who cannot afford private vehicles. Although essential, these taxis are often poorly maintained and are frequently not road-worthy. These taxis make frequent unscheduled stops to pick up passengers, which can cause accidents. With the high demand for transport by the working class of South Africa, minibus taxis are often filled over their legal passenger allowance. Minibuses are generally owned and operated in fleets.Culture (2017)]] Cape Town is noted for its architectural heritage, with the highest density of Cape Dutch style buildings in the world. Cape Dutch style, which combines the architectural traditions of the Netherlands, Germany, France and Indonesia, is most visible in Constantia, the old government buildings in the Central Business District, and along Long Street. is a good example of Cape Dutch architecture. ]] The annual Cape Town Minstrel Carnival, also known by its Afrikaans name of Kaapse Klopse, is a large minstrel festival held annually on 2 January or "Tweede Nuwe Jaar" (Second New Year). Competing teams of minstrels parade in brightly coloured costumes, performing Cape Jazz, either carrying colourful umbrellas or playing an array of musical instruments. The Artscape Theatre Centre is the largest performing arts venue in Cape Town. The city was named the World Design Capital for 2014 by the International Council of Societies of Industrial Design. festival at the Grand Parade]] The city also encloses the 36 hectare Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden that contains protected natural forest and fynbos along with a variety of animals and birds. There are over 7,000 species in cultivation at Kirstenbosch, including many rare and threatened species of the Cape Floristic Region. In 2004 this Region, including Kirstenbosch, was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Whale watching is popular amongst tourists: southern right whales and humpback whales are seen off the coast during the breeding season (August to November) and Bryde's whales and orca can be seen any time of the year. The nearby town of Hermanus is known for its Whale Festival, but whales can also be seen in False Bay. The koe'sister is a traditional Cape Malay pastry described as a cinnamon infused dumpling with a cake-like texture, finished off with a sprinkling of desiccated coconut. Malva pudding (sometimes known as Cape Malva pudding) is a sticky sweet dessert often served with hot custard is also associated with the city and dates back to the 17th century. A related dessert dish, Cape Brandy Pudding, is also associated with the city and surrounding region. Cape Town is also the home of the South African wine industry with the first wine produced in the country being bottled in the city; a number of notable wineries still exist in the city including Groot Constantia and Klein Constantia.Media outside the Houses of Parliament]] Several newspapers, magazines and printing facilities have their offices in the city. Independent News and Media publishes the major English language papers in the city, the Cape Argus and the Cape Times. Naspers, the largest media conglomerate in South Africa, publishes Die Burger, the major Afrikaans language paper. Cape Town has many local community newspapers. Some of the largest community newspapers in English are the Athlone News from Athlone, the Atlantic Sun, the Constantiaberg Bulletin from Constantiaberg, the City Vision from Bellville, the False Bay Echo from False Bay, the Helderberg Sun from Helderberg, the Plainsman from Michell's Plain, the Sentinel News from Hout Bay, the Southern Mail from the Southern Peninsula, the Southern Suburbs Tatler from the Southern Suburbs, Table Talk from Table View and Tygertalk from Tygervalley/Durbanville. Afrikaans language community newspapers include the Landbou-Burger and the Tygerburger. Vukani, based in the Cape Flats, is published in Xhosa. Cape Town is a centre for major broadcast media with several radio stations that only broadcast within the city. 94.5 Kfm (94.5 MHz FM) and Good Hope FM (94–97 MHz FM) mostly play pop music. Heart FM (104.9 MHz FM), the former P4 Radio, plays jazz and R&B, while Fine Music Radio (101.3 FM) plays classical music and jazz, and Magic Music Radio (828 kHz MW) plays adult contemporary and classic rock from the '80s, '90s and '00s. Bush Radio is a community radio station (89.5 MHz FM). The Voice of the Cape (95.8 MHz FM) and Cape Talk (567 kHz MW) are the major talk radio stations in the city. Bokradio (98.9 MHz FM) is an Afrikaans music station. The University of Cape Town also runs its own radio station, UCT Radio (104.5 MHz FM). The SABC has a small presence in the city, with satellite studios located at Sea Point. e.tv has a greater presence, with a large complex located at Longkloof Studios in Gardens. M-Net is not well represented with infrastructure within the city. Cape Town TV is a local TV station, supported by numerous organisation and focusing mostly on documentaries. Numerous productions companies and their support industries are located in the city, mostly supporting the production of overseas commercials, model shoots, TV-series and movies. The local media infrastructure remains primarily in Johannesburg.Sport and recreation in Green Point]] ]] ]] in Table Bay]] Cape Town's most popular sports by participation are cricket, association football, swimming, and rugby union. In rugby union, Cape Town is the home of the Western Province side, who play at Cape Town Stadium and compete in the Currie Cup. In addition, Western Province players (along with some from Wellington's Boland Cavaliers) comprise the Stormers in the United Rugby Championship competition. Cape Town has also been a host city for both the 1995 Rugby World Cup and 2010 FIFA World Cup, and annually hosts the Africa leg of the World Rugby 7s. It has hosted the 2023 Netball World Cup. Association football, which is mostly known as soccer in South Africa, is also popular. One club from Cape Town plays in the Premiership, South Africa's premier league, Cape Town City F.C. Cape Town was also the location of several of the matches of the 2010 FIFA World Cup including a semi-final, held in South Africa. The Mother City built a new 70,000-seat stadium (Cape Town Stadium) in the Green Point area. In cricket, the Cape Cobras represent Cape Town at the Newlands Cricket Ground. The team is the result of an amalgamation of the Western Province Cricket and Boland Cricket teams. They take part in the Supersport and Standard Bank Cup Series. The Newlands Cricket Ground regularly hosts international matches. Cape Town has had Olympic aspirations. For example, in 1996, Cape Town was one of the five candidate cities shortlisted by the IOC to launch official candidatures to host the 2004 Summer Olympics. Although the Games ultimately went to Athens, Cape Town came in third place. There has been some speculation that Cape Town was seeking the South African Olympic Committee's nomination to be South Africa's bid city for the 2020 Summer Olympic Games. That was quashed when the International Olympic Committee awarded the 2020 Games to Tokyo. The city of Cape Town has vast experience in hosting major national and international sports events. The Cape Town Cycle Tour is the world's largest individually timed road cycling race – and the first event outside Europe to be included in the International Cycling Union's Golden Bike series. It sees over 35,000 cyclists tackling a route around Cape Town. The Absa Cape Epic is the largest full-service mountain bike stage race in the world. Some notable events hosted by Cape Town have included the 1995 Rugby World Cup, 2003 ICC Cricket World Cup, and World Championships in various sports such as athletics, fencing, weightlifting, hockey, cycling, canoeing, gymnastics and others. Cape Town was also a host city to the 2010 FIFA World Cup from 11 June to 11 July 2010, further enhancing its profile as a major events city. It was also one of the host cities of the 2009 Indian Premier League cricket tournament. The Mother City has also played host to the Africa leg of the annual World Rugby 7s event since 2015; for nine seasons, from 2002 until 2010, the event was staged in George in the Western Cape, before moving to Port Elizabeth for the 2011 edition, and then to Cape Town in 2015. The event usually takes place in mid-December, and is hosted at the Cape Town Stadium in Green Point. There are several golf courses in Cape Town. The Clovelly Country Club and Metropolitan Golf Club have 18 holes. The coastline of Cape Town is relatively long, and the varied exposure to weather conditions makes it fairly common for water conditions to be conducive to recreational scuba diving at some part of the city's coast. There is considerable variation in the underwater environment and regional ecology as there are dive sites on reefs and wrecks on both sides of the Cape Peninsula and False Bay, split between two coastal marine ecoregions by the Cape Peninsula, and also variable by depth zone. ]] False Bay is open to the south, and the prevailing open ocean swell arrives from the southwest, so the exposure varies considerably around the coastline. The inshore bathymetry near Cape Point is shallow enough for a moderate amount of refraction of long period swell, but deep enough to have less effect on short period swell, and acts as a filter to pass mainly the longer swell components to the Western shores, although they are significantly attenuated. The eastern shores get more of the open ocean spectrum, and this results in very different swell conditions between the two sides at any given time. The fetch is generally too short for southeasterly winds to produce good surf. There are more than 20 named breaks in False Bay. The north-wester can have a long fetch and can produce large waves, but they may also be associated with local wind and be very poorly sorted. The Atlantic coast is exposed to the full power of the South-westerly swell produced by the westerly winds of the southern ocean, often a long way away, so the swell has time to separate into similar wavelengths, and there are some world class big wave breaks among the named breaks of the Atlantic shore. See also * * * Notes References External links <!-- DO NOT ADVERTISE HERE! COMMERCIAL LINKS WILL BE REMOVED AS SPAM. --> * of the City of Cape Town * of the Western Cape * of Cape Town Tourism <!--please leave the empty space as standard--> Category:Capitals in Africa Category:Cities in South Africa Category:Populated coastal places in South Africa Category:17th-century establishments in the Cape Colony Category:1652 establishments in Africa Category:1652 establishments in the Dutch Empire Category:Populated places established in 1652 Category:Populated places established by the Dutch East India Company Category:Populated places in the City of Cape Town Category:Port cities and towns of the Atlantic Ocean Category:Port cities and towns in South Africa Category:Provincial capitals in South Africa
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Town
2025-04-05T18:27:53.232935
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Chicago Cubs
| y7 = 1871 | y8 = 1875 | Uniform = MLB-NLC-CHC-Uniform.png | retirednumbers = | colors Blue, red, white<br> | y3 = 1903 | nicknames = The Cubbies * The North Siders * The North Side Nine * The Boys in Blue * The Lovable Losers | pastnames = * Chicago Orphans (–) * Chicago Colts (–) * Chicago White Stockings (–) | ballpark = Wrigley Field (–present) | y4 | pastparks * West Side Park (II) (–) * South Side Park (–) * West Side Park (I) (–) * Lakefront Park (II) (–) * Lakefront Park (I) (–) * 23rd Street Grounds (–) * Lake Park () * Ogden Park and Dexter Park () | WS = (3) | WORLD CHAMPIONS = | | }} | LEAGUE = NL | P = (17) | PENNANTS = }} | misc1 = NA Pennants (1) | OTHER PENNANTS = | DIV = Central | DV = (6) | Division Champs = | misc5 = East Division titles (2) | OTHER DIV CHAMPS = | WC = (3) | Wild Card = | misc6 | owner Thomas S. Ricketts<br>Laura Ricketts<br>Pete Ricketts<br>Todd Ricketts<br>Joe Ricketts | manager = Craig Counsell | gm = Carter Hawkins | presbo = Jed Hoyer | mascots = Clark the Cub | website = }} The Chicago Cubs are an American professional baseball team based in Chicago. The Cubs compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the National League (NL) Central Division. The club plays its home games at Wrigley Field, which is located on Chicago's North Side. They are one of two major league teams based in Chicago, alongside the American League (AL)’s Chicago White Sox. The Cubs, first known as the White Stockings, were founded in and are one of two remaining NL charter franchises that debuted in . They have been known as the Chicago Cubs since 1903. Throughout the club's history, the Cubs have played in a total of 11 World Series. The 1906 Cubs won 116 games, finishing 116–36 and posting a modern-era record winning percentage of , before losing the World Series to the Chicago White Sox ("The Hitless Wonders") by four games to two. The Cubs won back-to-back World Series championships in and , becoming the first major league team to play in three consecutive World Series, and the first to win it twice. Most recently, the Cubs won the 2016 National League Championship Series and 2016 World Series, which ended a 71-year National League pennant drought and a 108-year World Series championship drought, both of which are record droughts in Major League Baseball. The 108-year drought was also the longest such occurrence in all major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada. Since the start of divisional play in 1969, the Cubs have appeared in the postseason 11 times through the 2024 season. The Cubs are known as "the North Siders", a reference to the location of Wrigley Field within the city of Chicago, and in contrast to the White Sox, whose home field (Rate Field) is located on the South Side. The Cubs won the Laureus World Team of the Year in 2017. Through 2024, the franchise has played the most games in MLB history, with an all-time regular season record of (). HistoryEarly club history1876–1902: A National League The Cubs began in 1870 as the Chicago White Stockings, playing their home games at West Side Grounds. Six years later, they joined the National League (NL) as a charter member. In the runup to their NL debut, owner William Hulbert signed various star players, such as pitcher Albert Spalding and infielders Ross Barnes, Deacon White, and Adrian "Cap" Anson. The White Stockings quickly established themselves as one of the new league's top teams. Spalding won forty-seven games and Barnes led the league in hitting at .429 as Chicago won the first National League pennant, which at the time was the game's top prize. After back-to-back pennants in 1880 and 1881, Hulbert died, and Spalding, who had retired from playing to start Spalding sporting goods, assumed ownership of the club. The White Stockings, with Anson acting as player-manager, captured their third consecutive pennant in 1882, and Anson established himself as the game's first true superstar. In 1885 and 1886, after winning NL pennants, the White Stockings met the champions of the short-lived American Association in that era's version of a World Series. Both seasons resulted in matchups with the St. Louis Brown Stockings; the clubs tied in 1885 and St. Louis won in 1886. This was the genesis of what would eventually become one of the greatest rivalries in sports. In all, the Anson-led Chicago Base Ball Club won six National League pennants between 1876 and 1886. By 1890, the team had become known the Chicago Colts, or sometimes "Anson's Colts", referring to Cap's influence within the club. Anson was the first player in history credited with 3,000 career hits. In 1897, after a disappointing record of 59–73 and a ninth-place finish, Anson was released by the club as both a player and manager. His departure after 22 years led local newspaper reporters to refer to the Colts as the "Orphans".1902–1920: A Cubs dynastyIn 1902, Spalding, who by this time had revamped the roster to boast what would soon be one of the best teams of the early century, sold the club to Jim Hart. Referencing the youth of the team's roster, the Chicago Daily News called the franchise the Cubs in 1902; it officially took the name five years later. During this period, which has become known as baseball's dead-ball era, Cub infielders Joe Tinker, Johnny Evers, and Frank Chance were made famous as a double-play combination by Franklin P. Adams' poem "Baseball's Sad Lexicon". The poem first appeared in the July 18, 1910, edition of the New York Evening Mail. Mordecai "Three-Finger" Brown, Jack Taylor, Ed Reulbach, Jack Pfiester, and Orval Overall were several key pitchers for the Cubs during this time period. With Chance acting as player-manager from 1905 to 1912, the Cubs won four pennants and two World Series titles over a five-year span. Although they fell to the "Hitless Wonders" White Sox in the 1906 World Series, the Cubs recorded a record 116 victories and the best winning percentage (.763) in Major League history. With mostly the same roster, Chicago won back-to-back World Series championships in 1907 and 1908, becoming the first Major League club to play three times in the Fall Classic and the first to win it twice. However, the Cubs would not win another World Series until 2016; this remains the longest championship drought in North American professional sports. The next season, veteran catcher Johnny Kling left the team to become a professional pocket billiards player. Some historians think Kling's absence was significant enough to prevent the Cubs from also winning a third straight title in 1909, as they finished 6 games out of first place. When Kling returned the next year, the Cubs won the pennant again, but lost to the Philadelphia Athletics in the 1910 World Series. In 1914, advertising executive Albert Lasker obtained a large block of the club's shares and before the 1916 season assumed majority ownership of the franchise. Lasker brought in a wealthy partner, Charles Weeghman, the proprietor of a popular chain of lunch counters who had previously owned the Chicago Whales of the short-lived Federal League. As principal owners, the pair moved the club from the West Side Grounds to the much newer Weeghman Park, which had been constructed for the Whales only two years earlier, where they remain to this day. The Cubs responded by winning a pennant in the war-shortened season of 1918, where they played a part in another team's curse: the Boston Red Sox defeated Grover Cleveland Alexander's Cubs four games to two in the 1918 World Series, Boston's last Series championship until 2004. Beginning in 1916, Bill Wrigley of chewing-gum fame acquired an increasing quantity of stock in the Cubs and by 1921, he was the majority owner.The Wrigley years (1921–1945)1929–1938: Every three years ]] Near the end of the first decade of the double-Bills' guidance, the Cubs won the NL Pennant in 1929 and then achieved the unusual feat of winning a pennant every three years, following up the 1929 flag with league titles in 1932, 1935, and 1938. Their success did not extend to the Fall Classic, as they fell to their AL rivals each time. The '32 series against the Yankees featured Babe Ruth's "called shot" at Wrigley Field in game three. There were some historic moments for the Cubs as well; In 1930, Hack Wilson, one of the top home run hitters in the game, had one of the most impressive seasons in MLB history, hitting 56 home runs and establishing the current runs-batted-in record of 191. That 1930 club, which boasted six eventual hall of fame members (Wilson, Gabby Hartnett, Rogers Hornsby, George "High Pockets" Kelly, Kiki Cuyler and manager Joe McCarthy) established the current team batting average record of .309. In 1935 the Cubs claimed the pennant in thrilling fashion, winning a record 21 games in a row in September. The '38 club saw Dizzy Dean lead the team's pitching staff and provided a historic moment when they won a crucial late-season game at Wrigley Field over the Pittsburgh Pirates with a walk-off home run by Gabby Hartnett, which became known in baseball lore as "The Homer in the Gloamin'". After the "Double-Bills" (Wrigley and Veeck) died in 1932 and 1933 respectively, P.K. Wrigley, son of Bill Wrigley, took over as majority owner. He was unable to extend his father's baseball success beyond 1938, and the Cubs slipped into years of mediocrity, although the Wrigley family would retain control of the team until 1981. 1945: "The Curse of the Billy Goat" that was supposedly placed on the Chicago Cubs by Billy Goat Tavern owner William Sianis during Game 4 of the 1945 World Series.]] The Cubs enjoyed one more pennant at the close of World War II, finishing 98–56. Due to the wartime travel restrictions, the first three games of the 1945 World Series were played in Detroit, where the Cubs won two games, including a one-hitter by Claude Passeau, and the final four were played at Wrigley. The Cubs lost the series, and did not return until the 2016 World Series. After losing the 1945 World Series to the Detroit Tigers, the Cubs finished with a respectable 82–71 record in the following year, but this was only good enough for third place. In the following two decades, the Cubs played mostly forgettable baseball, finishing among the worst teams in the National League on an almost annual basis. From 1947 to 1966, they only notched one winning season. Longtime infielder-manager Phil Cavarretta, who had been a key player during the 1945 season, was fired during spring training in 1954 after admitting the team was unlikely to finish above fifth place. Although shortstop Ernie Banks would become one of the star players in the league during the next decade, finding help for him proved a difficult task, as quality players such as Hank Sauer were few and far between. This, combined with poor ownership decisions such as the College of Coaches, and the ill-fated trade of future Hall of Fame member Lou Brock to the Cardinals for pitcher Ernie Broglio (who won only seven games over the next three seasons), hampered on-field performance. 1969: Fall of '69 ("Mr. Cub")]] The late-1960s brought hope of a renaissance, with third baseman Ron Santo, pitcher Ferguson Jenkins, and outfielder Billy Williams joining Banks. After losing a dismal 103 games in 1966, the Cubs brought home consecutive winning records in '67 and '68, marking the first time a Cub team had accomplished that feat in over two decades. In the Cubs, managed by Leo Durocher, built a substantial lead in the newly created National League Eastern Division by mid-August. Ken Holtzman pitched a no-hitter on August 19, and the division lead grew to 8 games over the St. Louis Cardinals and by 9 games over the New York Mets. After the game of September 2, the Cubs record was 84–52 with the Mets in second place at 77–55. But then a losing streak began just as a Mets winning streak was beginning. The Cubs lost the final game of a series at Cincinnati, then came home to play the resurgent Pittsburgh Pirates (who would finish in third place). After losing the first two games by scores of 9–2 and 13–4, the Cubs led going into the ninth inning. A win would be a positive springboard since the Cubs were to play a crucial series with the Mets the next day. But Willie Stargell drilled a two-out, two-strike pitch from the Cubs' ace reliever, Phil Regan, onto Sheffield Avenue to tie the score in the top of the ninth. The Cubs would lose 7–5 in extra innings.[6] Burdened by a four-game losing streak, the Cubs traveled to Shea Stadium for a short two-game set. The Mets won both games, and the Cubs left New York with a record of 84–58 just 1⁄2 game in front. More of the same followed in Philadelphia, as a 99 loss Phillies team nonetheless defeated the Cubs twice, to extend Chicago's losing streak to eight games. In a key play in the second game, on September 11, Cubs starter Dick Selma threw a surprise pickoff attempt to third baseman Ron Santo, who was nowhere near the bag or the ball. Selma's throwing error opened the gates to a Phillies rally. After that second Philly loss, the Cubs were 84–60 and the Mets had pulled ahead at 85–57. The Mets would not look back. The Cubs' eight-game losing streak finally ended the next day in St. Louis, but the Mets were in the midst of a ten-game winning streak, and the Cubs, wilting from team fatigue, generally deteriorated in all phases of the game.[1] The Mets (who had lost a record 120 games 7 years earlier), would go on to win the World Series. The Cubs, despite a respectable 92–70 record, would be remembered for having lost a remarkable 17½ games in the standings to the Mets in the last quarter of the season. 1977–1979: June Swoon Following the 1969 season, the club posted winning records for the next few seasons, but no playoff action. After the core players of those teams started to move on, the team declined during the 1970s, and they became known as "the Loveable Losers", which would become a long-standing moniker for the club. In , the team found some life, but ultimately experienced one of its biggest collapses. The Cubs hit a high-water mark on June 28 at 47–22, boasting an game NL East lead, as they were led by Bobby Murcer (27 HR/89 RBI), and Rick Reuschel (20–10). However, the Philadelphia Phillies cut the lead to two by the All-star break, as the Cubs sat 19 games over .500, but they swooned late in the season, going 20–40 after July 31. The Cubs finished in fourth place at 81–81, while Philadelphia surged, finishing with 101 wins. The following two seasons also saw the Cubs get off to a fast start, as the team rallied to over 10 games above .500 well into both seasons, only to again wear down and play poorly later on, and ultimately settling back to mediocrity. This trait is known as the "June Swoon". Again, the Cubs' unusually high number of day games is often pointed to as one reason for the team's inconsistent late-season play. Wrigley died in 1977. The Wrigley family sold the team to the Chicago Tribune for $20.5 million in 1981, ending the family's 65-year relationship with the Cubs.Tribune Company years (1981–2008)1984: Heartbreak After over a dozen more subpar seasons, in 1981 the Cubs hired GM Dallas Green from Philadelphia to turn around the franchise. Green had managed the 1980 Phillies to the World Series title. One of his early GM moves brought in a young Phillies minor-league 3rd baseman named Ryne Sandberg, along with Larry Bowa for Iván DeJesús. The 1983 Cubs had finished 71–91 under Lee Elia, who was fired before the season ended by Green. Green continued the culture of change and overhauled the Cubs roster, front-office and coaching staff prior to 1984. Jim Frey was hired to manage the 1984 Cubs, with Don Zimmer coaching 3rd base and Billy Connors serving as pitching coach. Green shored Reserve players Hebner, Thad Bosley, Henry Cotto, Hassey and Dave Owen produced exciting moments. The bullpen depth of Rich Bordi, George Frazier, Warren Brusstar and Dickie Noles did their job in getting the game to Smith or Stoddard. At the top of the order, Dernier and Sandberg were exciting, aptly coined "the Daily Double" by Harry Caray. With strong defense – Dernier CF and Sandberg 2B, won the NL Gold Glove- solid pitching and clutch hitting, the Cubs were a well-balanced team. Following the "Daily Double", Matthews, Durham, Cey, Moreland and Davis gave the Cubs an order with no gaps to pitch around. Sutcliffe anchored a strong top-to-bottom rotation, and Smith was one of the top closers in the game. The shift in the Cubs' fortunes was characterized June 23 on the "NBC Saturday Game of the Week" contest against the St. Louis Cardinals; it has since been dubbed simply "The Sandberg Game". With the nation watching and Wrigley Field packed, Sandberg emerged as a superstar with not one, but two game-tying home runs against Cardinals closer Bruce Sutter. With his shots in the 9th and 10th innings, Wrigley Field erupted and Sandberg set the stage for a comeback win that cemented the Cubs as the team to beat in the East. No one would catch them. In early August the Cubs swept the Mets in a 4-game home series that further distanced them from the pack. An infamous Keith Moreland-Ed Lynch fight erupted after Lynch hit Moreland with a pitch, perhaps forgetting Moreland was once a linebacker at the University of Texas. It was the second game of a doubleheader and the Cubs had won the first game in part due to a three-run home run by Moreland. After the bench-clearing fight, the Cubs won the second game, and the sweep put the Cubs at 68–45. In 1984, each league had two divisions, East and West. The divisional winners met in a best-of-5 series to advance to the World Series, in a "2–3" format, first two games were played at the home of the team who did not have home-field advantage. Then the last three games were played at the home of the team, with home-field advantage. Thus the first two games were played at Wrigley Field and the next three at the home of their opponents, San Diego. A common and unfounded myth is that since Wrigley Field did not have lights at that time the National League decided to give the home field advantage to the winner of the NL West. In fact, home-field advantage had rotated between the winners of the East and West since 1969 when the league expanded. In even-numbered years, the NL West had home-field advantage. In odd-numbered years, the NL East had home-field advantage. Since the NL East winners had had home-field advantage in 1983, the NL West winners were entitled to it. The confusion may stem from the fact that Major League Baseball did decide that, should the Cubs make it to the World Series, the American League winner would have home-field advantage. At the time home field advantage was rotated between each league. Odd-numbered years the AL had home-field advantage. Even-numbered years the NL had home-field advantage. In the 1982 World Series the St. Louis Cardinals of the NL had home-field advantage. In the 1983 World Series the Baltimore Orioles of the AL had home-field advantage. In the NLCS, the Cubs easily won the first two games at Wrigley Field against the San Diego Padres. The Padres were the winners of the Western Division with Steve Garvey, Tony Gwynn, Eric Show, Goose Gossage and Alan Wiggins. With wins of 13–0 and 4–2, the Cubs needed to win only one game of the next three in San Diego to make it to the World Series. After being beaten in Game 3 7–1, the Cubs lost Game 4 when Smith, with the game tied 5–5, allowed a game-winning home run to Garvey in the bottom of the ninth inning. In Game 5 the Cubs took a 3–0 lead into the 6th inning, and a 3–2 lead into the seventh with Sutcliffe (who won the Cy Young Award that year) still on the mound. Then, Leon Durham had a sharp grounder go under his glove. This critical error helped the Padres win the game 6–3, with a 4-run 7th inning and keep Chicago out of the 1984 World Series against the Detroit Tigers. The loss ended a spectacular season for the Cubs, one that brought alive a slumbering franchise and made the Cubs relevant for a whole new generation of Cubs fans. The Padres would be defeated in 5 games by Sparky Anderson's Tigers in the World Series. , 5× All-Star and 1987 NL MVP during tenure in Chicago]]The 1985 season brought high hopes. The club started out well, going 35–19 through mid-June, but injuries to Sutcliffe and others in the pitching staff contributed to a 13-game losing streak that pushed the Cubs out of contention. 1989: NL East division championship In 1989, the first full season with night baseball at Wrigley Field, Don Zimmer's Cubs were led by a core group of veterans in Ryne Sandberg, Rick Sutcliffe and Andre Dawson, who were boosted by a crop of youngsters such as Mark Grace, Shawon Dunston, Greg Maddux, Rookie of the Year Jerome Walton, and Rookie of the Year Runner-Up Dwight Smith. The Cubs won the NL East once again that season winning 93 games. This time the Cubs met the San Francisco Giants in the NLCS. After splitting the first two games at home, the Cubs headed to the Bay Area, where despite holding a lead at some point in each of the next three games, bullpen meltdowns and managerial blunders ultimately led to three straight losses. The Cubs could not overcome the efforts of Will Clark, whose home run off Maddux, just after a managerial visit to the mound, led Maddux to think Clark knew what pitch was coming. Afterward, Maddux would speak into his glove during any mound conversation, beginning what is a norm today. Mark Grace was 11–17 in the series with 8 RBI. Eventually, the Giants lost to the "Bash Brothers" and the Oakland A's in the famous "Earthquake Series". 1998: Wild card race and home run chase was the captain of the Chicago Cubs during his tenure with the team.]] The 1998 season began on a somber note with the death of broadcaster Harry Caray. After the retirement of Sandberg and the trade of Dunston, the Cubs had holes to fill, and the signing of Henry Rodríguez to bat cleanup provided protection for Sammy Sosa in the lineup, as Rodriguez slugged 31 round-trippers in his first season in Chicago. Kevin Tapani led the club with a career-high 19 wins while Rod Beck anchored a strong bullpen and Mark Grace turned in one of his best seasons. The Cubs were swamped by media attention in 1998, and the team's two biggest headliners were Sosa and rookie flamethrower Kerry Wood. Wood's signature performance was one-hitting the Houston Astros, a game in which he tied the major league record of 20 strikeouts in nine innings. His torrid strikeout numbers earned Wood the nickname "Kid K", and ultimately earned him the 1998 NL Rookie of the Year award. Sosa caught fire in June, hitting a major league record 20 home runs in the month, and his home run race with Cardinal's slugger Mark McGwire transformed the pair into international superstars in a matter of weeks. McGwire finished the season with a new major league record of 70 home runs, but Sosa's .308 average and 66 homers earned him the National League MVP Award. After a down-to-the-wire Wild Card chase with the San Francisco Giants, Chicago and San Francisco ended the regular season tied, and thus squared off in a one-game playoff at Wrigley Field. Third baseman Gary Gaetti hit the eventual game-winning homer in the playoff game. The win propelled the Cubs into the postseason for the first time since 1989 with a 90–73 regular-season record. The bats went cold in October, as manager Jim Riggleman's club batted .183 and scored only four runs en route to being swept by Atlanta in the National League Division Series. The home run chase between Sosa, McGwire and Ken Griffey Jr. helped professional baseball to bring in a new crop of fans as well as bringing back some fans who had been disillusioned by the 1994 strike. The Cubs retained many players who experienced career years in 1998, but, after a fast start in 1999, they collapsed again (starting with being swept at the hands of the cross-town White Sox in mid-June) and finished in the bottom of the division for the next two seasons.2001: Playoff push Despite losing fan favorite Grace to free agency and the lack of production from newcomer Todd Hundley, skipper Don Baylor's Cubs put together a good season in 2001. The season started with Mack Newton being brought in to preach "positive thinking". One of the biggest stories of the season transpired as the club made a midseason deal for Fred McGriff, which was drawn out for nearly a month as McGriff debated waiving his no-trade clause. The Cubs led the wild card race by 2.5 games in early September, but crumbled when Preston Wilson hit a three-run walk-off homer off of closer Tom "Flash" Gordon, which halted the team's momentum. The team was unable to make another serious charge, and finished at 88–74, five games behind both Houston and St. Louis, who tied for first. Sosa had perhaps his finest season and Jon Lieber led the staff with a 20-win season. 2003: Five more outs The Cubs had high expectations in 2002, but the squad played poorly. On July 5, 2002, the Cubs promoted assistant general manager and player personnel director Jim Hendry to the General Manager position. The club responded by hiring Dusty Baker and by making some major moves in 2003. Most notably, they traded with the Pittsburgh Pirates for outfielder Kenny Lofton and third baseman Aramis Ramírez, and rode dominant pitching, led by Kerry Wood and Mark Prior, as the Cubs led the division down the stretch. , along with Mark Prior, led the Cubs' rotation in 2003.]] Chicago halted the St. Louis Cardinals' run to the playoffs by taking four of five games from the Cardinals at Wrigley Field in early September, after which they won their first division title in 14 years. They then went on to defeat the Atlanta Braves in a dramatic five-game Division Series, the franchise's first postseason series win since beating the Detroit Tigers in the 1908 World Series. After losing an extra-inning game in Game 1, the Cubs rallied and took a three-games-to-one lead over the Wild Card Florida Marlins in the National League Championship Series. Florida shut the Cubs out in Game 5, but the Cubs returned home to Wrigley Field with young pitcher Mark Prior to lead the Cubs in Game 6 as they took a 3–0 lead into the 8th inning. It was at this point when a now-infamous incident took place. Several spectators attempted to catch a foul ball off the bat of Luis Castillo. A Chicago Cubs fan by the name of Steve Bartman, of Northbrook, Illinois, reached for the ball and deflected it away from the glove of Moisés Alou for the second out of the eighth inning. Alou reacted angrily toward the stands and after the game stated that he would have caught the ball. Alou at one point recanted, saying he would not have been able to make the play, but later said this was just an attempt to make Bartman feel better and believing the whole incident should be forgotten. 2004–2006 In 2004, the Cubs were a consensus pick by most media outlets to win the World Series. The offseason acquisition of Derek Lee (who was acquired in a trade with Florida for Hee-seop Choi) and the return of Greg Maddux only bolstered these expectations. Despite a mid-season deal for Nomar Garciaparra, misfortune struck the Cubs again. They led the Wild Card by 1.5 games over the San Francisco Giants and the Houston Astros on September 25. On that day, both teams lost, giving the Cubs a chance at increasing the lead to 2.5 games with only eight games remaining in the season, but reliever LaTroy Hawkins blew a save to the New York Mets, and the Cubs lost the game in extra innings. The defeat seemingly deflated the team, as they proceeded to drop six of their last eight games as the Astros won the Wild Card. Despite the fact that the Cubs had won 89 games, this fallout was decidedly unlovable, as the Cubs traded superstar Sammy Sosa after he had left the season's final game after the first pitch, which resulted in a fine (Sosa later stated that he had gotten permission from Baker to leave early, but he regretted doing so). Already a controversial figure in the clubhouse after his corked-bat incident, Sosa's actions alienated much of his once strong fan base as well as the few teammates still on good terms with him, to the point where his boombox was reportedly smashed after he left to signify the end of an era. The disappointing season also saw fans start to become frustrated with the constant injuries to ace pitchers Mark Prior and Kerry Wood. Additionally, the 2004 season led to the departure of popular commentator Steve Stone, who had become increasingly critical of management during broadcasts and was verbally attacked by reliever Kent Mercker. Things were no better in 2005, despite a career year from first baseman Derrek Lee and the emergence of closer Ryan Dempster. The club struggled and suffered more key injuries, only managing to win 79 games after being picked by many to be a serious contender for the National League pennant. In 2006, the bottom fell out as the Cubs finished 66–96, last in the National League Central.2007–2008: Back to back division titles signed with the club in 2007.]] After finishing last in the NL Central with 66 wins in 2006, the Cubs re-tooled and went from "worst to first" in 2007. In the offseason they signed Alfonso Soriano to a contract at eight years for $136 million, and replaced manager Dusty Baker with fiery veteran manager Lou Piniella. After a rough start, which included a brawl between Michael Barrett and Carlos Zambrano, the Cubs overcame the Milwaukee Brewers, who had led the division for most of the season. The Cubs traded Barrett to the Padres, and later acquired catcher Jason Kendall from Oakland. Kendall was highly successful with his management of the pitching rotation and helped at the plate as well. By September, Geovany Soto became the full-time starter behind the plate, replacing the veteran Kendall. Winning streaks in June and July, coupled with a pair of dramatic, late-inning wins against the Reds, led to the Cubs ultimately clinching the NL Central with a record of 85–77. They met Arizona in the NLDS, but controversy followed as Piniella, in a move that has since come under scrutiny, pulled Carlos Zambrano after the sixth inning of a pitcher's duel with D-Backs ace Brandon Webb, to "....save Zambrano for (a potential) Game 4." The Cubs, however, were unable to come through, losing the first game and eventually stranding over 30 baserunners in a three-game Arizona sweep. warming up before a game]]The Tribune company, in financial distress, was acquired by real-estate mogul Sam Zell in December 2007. This acquisition included the Cubs. However, Zell did not take an active part in running the baseball franchise, instead concentrating on putting together a deal to sell it. The Cubs successfully defended their National League Central title in 2008, going to the postseason in consecutive years for the first time since 1906–08. The offseason was dominated by three months of unsuccessful trade talks with the Orioles involving 2B Brian Roberts, as well as the signing of Chunichi Dragons star Kosuke Fukudome. The team recorded their 10,000th win in April, while establishing an early division lead. Reed Johnson and Jim Edmonds were added early on and Rich Harden was acquired from the Oakland Athletics in early July. The Cubs headed into the All-Star break with the NL's best record, and tied the league record with eight representatives to the All-Star game, including catcher Geovany Soto, who was named Rookie of the Year. The Cubs took control of the division by sweeping a four-game series in Milwaukee. On September 14, in a game moved to Miller Park due to Hurricane Ike, Zambrano pitched a no-hitter against the Astros, and six days later the team clinched by beating St. Louis at Wrigley. The club ended the season with a 97–64 record and met Los Angeles in the NLDS. The heavily favored Cubs took an early lead in Game 1, but James Loney's grand slam off Ryan Dempster changed the series' momentum. Chicago committed numerous critical errors and were outscored 20–6 in a Dodger sweep, which provided yet another sudden ending. The Ricketts era (2009–present) The Ricketts family acquired a majority interest in the Cubs in 2009, ending the Tribune years. Apparently handcuffed by the Tribune's bankruptcy and the sale of the club to the Ricketts siblings, led by chairman Thomas S. Ricketts, the Cubs' quest for a NL Central three-peat started with notice that there would be less invested into contracts than in previous years. Chicago engaged St. Louis in a see-saw battle for first place into August 2009, but the Cardinals played to a torrid 20–6 pace that month, designating their rivals to battle in the Wild Card race, from which they were eliminated in the season's final week. The Cubs were plagued by injuries in 2009, and were only able to field their Opening Day starting lineup three times the entire season. Third baseman Aramis Ramírez injured his throwing shoulder in an early May game against the Milwaukee Brewers, sidelining him until early July and forcing journeyman players like Mike Fontenot and Aaron Miles into more prominent roles. Additionally, key players like Derrek Lee (who still managed to hit .306 with 35 home runs and 111 RBI that season), Alfonso Soriano, and Geovany Soto also nursed nagging injuries. The Cubs posted a winning record (83–78) for the third consecutive season, the first time the club had done so since 1972, and a new era of ownership under the Ricketts family was approved by MLB owners in early October. 2010–2014: The decline and rebuild during his 2010 rookie season]]Rookie Starlin Castro debuted in early May (2010) as the starting shortstop. The club played poorly in the early season, finding themselves 10 games under .500 at the end of June. In addition, long-time ace Carlos Zambrano was pulled from a game against the White Sox on June 25 after a tirade and shoving match with Derrek Lee, and was suspended indefinitely by Jim Hendry, who called the conduct "unacceptable". On August 22, Lou Piniella, who had already announced his retirement at the end of the season, announced that he would leave the Cubs prematurely to take care of his sick mother. Mike Quade took over as the interim manager for the final 37 games of the year. Despite being well out of playoff contention the Cubs went 24–13 under Quade, the best record in baseball during that 37 game stretch, earning Quade the manager position going forward on October 19. On December 3, 2010, Cubs broadcaster and former third baseman, Ron Santo, died due to complications from bladder cancer and diabetes. He spent 13 seasons as a player with the Cubs, and at the time of his death was regarded as one of the greatest players not in the Hall of Fame. He was posthumously elected to the Major League Baseball Hall of Fame in 2012. Despite trading for pitcher Matt Garza and signing free-agent slugger Carlos Peña, the Cubs finished the 2011 season 20 games under .500 with a record of 71–91. Weeks after the season came to an end, the club was rejuvenated in the form of a new philosophy, as new owner Tom Ricketts signed Theo Epstein away from the Boston Red Sox, naming him club President and giving him a five-year contract worth over $18 million, and subsequently discharged manager Mike Quade. Epstein, a proponent of sabremetrics and one of the architects of the 2004 and 2007 World Series championships in Boston, brought along Jed Hoyer from the Padres to fill the role of GM and hired Dale Sveum as manager. Although the team had a dismal 2012 season, losing 101 games (the worst record since 1966), it was largely expected. The youth movement ushered in by Epstein and Hoyer began as longtime fan favorite Kerry Wood retired in May, followed by Ryan Dempster and Geovany Soto being traded to Texas at the All-Star break for a group of minor league prospects headlined by Christian Villanueva, but also included little thought of Kyle Hendricks. The development of Castro, Anthony Rizzo, Darwin Barney, Brett Jackson and pitcher Jeff Samardzija, as well as the replenishing of the minor-league system with prospects such as Javier Baez, Albert Almora, and Jorge Soler became the primary focus of the season, a philosophy which the new management said would carry over at least through the 2013 season. , swinging in the box]] The 2013 season resulted in much as the same the year before. Shortly before the trade deadline, the Cubs traded Matt Garza to the Texas Rangers for Mike Olt, Carl Edwards Jr, Neil Ramirez, and Justin Grimm. Three days later, the Cubs sent Alfonso Soriano to the New York Yankees for minor leaguer Corey Black. The mid season fire sale led to another last place finish in the NL Central, finishing with a record of 66–96. Although there was a five-game improvement in the record from the year before, Anthony Rizzo and Starlin Castro seemed to take steps backward in their development. On September 30, 2013, Theo Epstein made the decision to fire manager Dale Sveum after just two seasons at the helm of the Cubs. The regression of several young players was thought to be the main focus point, as the front office said Sveum would not be judged based on wins and losses. In two seasons as skipper, Sveum finished with a record of 127–197. The 2013 season was also notable as the Cubs drafted future Rookie of the Year and MVP Kris Bryant with the second overall selection. On November 7, 2013, the Cubs hired San Diego Padres bench coach Rick Renteria to be the 53rd manager in team history. The Cubs finished the 2014 season in last place with a 73–89 record in Rentería's first and only season as manager. Despite the poor record, the Cubs improved in many areas during 2014, including rebound years by Anthony Rizzo and Starlin Castro, ending the season with a winning record at home for the first time since 2009, and compiling a 33–34 record after the All-Star Break. However, following unexpected availability of Joe Maddon when he exercised a clause that triggered on October 14 with the departure of General Manager Andrew Friedman to the Los Angeles Dodgers, the Cubs relieved Rentería of his managerial duties on October 31, 2014. During the season, the Cubs drafted Kyle Schwarber with the fourth overall selection. Hall of Famer Ernie Banks died of a heart attack on January 23, 2015, shortly before his 84th birthday. The 2015 uniform carried a commemorative #14 patch on both its home and away jerseys in his honor.2015–2019: Championship runOn November 2, 2014, the Cubs announced that Joe Maddon had signed a five-year contract to be the 54th manager in team history. On December 10, 2014, Maddon announced that the team had signed free agent Jon Lester to a six-year, $155 million contract. Many other trades and acquisitions occurred during the off season. The opening day lineup for the Cubs contained five new players including center fielder Dexter Fowler. Rookies Kris Bryant and Addison Russell were in the starting lineup by mid-April, along with the addition of rookie Kyle Schwarber who was added in mid-June. On August 30, Jake Arrieta threw a no hitter against the Los Angeles Dodgers. The Cubs finished the 2015 season in third place in the NL Central, with a record of 97–65, the third best record in the majors and earned a wild card berth. On October 7, in the 2015 National League Wild Card Game, Arrieta pitched a complete game shutout and the Cubs defeated the Pittsburgh Pirates 4–0. The Cubs defeated the Cardinals in the NLDS three-games-to-one, qualifying for a return to the NLCS for the first time in 12 years, where they faced the New York Mets. This was the first time in franchise history that the Cubs had clinched a playoff series at Wrigley Field. However, they were swept in four games by the Mets and were unable to make it to their first World Series since 1945. After the season, Arrieta won the National League Cy Young Award, becoming the first Cubs pitcher to win the award since Greg Maddux in 1992. .]] Before the 2016 season, in an effort to shore up their lineup, free agents Ben Zobrist, Jason Heyward and John Lackey were signed. To make room for the Zobrist signing, Starlin Castro was traded to the Yankees for Adam Warren and Brendan Ryan, the latter of whom was released a week later. Also during the middle of the season, the Cubs traded their top prospect Gleyber Torres for Aroldis Chapman. In a season that included another no-hitter on April 21 by Jake Arrieta as well as an MVP award for Kris Bryant, the Cubs finished with the best record in Major League Baseball and won their first National League Central title since the 2008 season, winning by 17.5 games. The team also reached the 100-win mark for the first time since 1935 and won 103 total games, the most wins for the franchise since 1910. The Cubs defeated the San Francisco Giants in the National League Division Series and returned to the National League Championship Series for the second year in a row, where they defeated the Los Angeles Dodgers in six games. This was their first NLCS win since the series was created in 1969. The win earned the Cubs their first World Series appearance since 1945 and a chance for their first World Series win since 1908. Coming back from a three-games-to-one deficit, the Cubs defeated the Cleveland Indians in seven games in the 2016 World Series, They were the first team to come back from a three-games-to-one deficit since the Kansas City Royals in 1985. On November 4, the city of Chicago held a victory parade and rally for the Cubs that began at Wrigley Field, headed down Lake Shore Drive, and ended in Grant Park. The city estimated that over five million people attended the parade and rally, which made it one of the largest recorded gatherings in history. In an attempt to be the first team to repeat as World Series champions since the Yankees in 1998, 1999, and 2000, the Cubs struggled for most of the first half of the 2017 season, never moving more than four games over .500 and finishing the first half two games under .500. On July 15, the Cubs fell to a season-high 5.5 games out of first in the NL Central. The Cubs struggled mainly due to their pitching as Jake Arrieta and Jon Lester struggled and no starting pitcher managed to win more than 14 games (four pitchers won 15 games or more for the Cubs in 2016). The Cubs offense also struggled as Kyle Schwarber batted near .200 for most of the first half and was even sent to the minors. However, the Cubs recovered in the second half of the season to finish 22 games over .500 and win the NL Central by six games over the Milwaukee Brewers. The Cubs pulled out a five-game NLDS series win over the Washington Nationals to advance to the NLCS for the third consecutive year. For the second consecutive year, they faced the Dodgers. This time, however, the Dodgers defeated the Cubs in five games. In May 2017, the Cubs and the Rickets family formed Marquee Sports & Entertainment as a central sales and marketing company for the various Rickets family sports and entertainment assets: the Cubs, Wrigley Rooftops and Hickory Street Capital. Prior to the 2018 season, the Cubs made several key free agent signings to bolster their pitching staff. The team signed starting pitcher Yu Darvish to a six-year, $126 million contract and veteran closer Brandon Morrow to two-year, $21-million contract, in addition to Tyler Chatwood and Steve Cishek. However, the Cubs struggled to stay healthy throughout the season. Anthony Rizzo missed much of April due to a back injury, and Bryant missed almost a month due to shoulder injury. However, Darvish, who only started eight games in 2018, was lost for the season due to elbow and triceps injuries. Morrow also faced two injuries before the team ruled him out for the season in September. The team maintained first place in their division for much of the season. The injury-depleted team only went 16–11 during September, which allowed the Milwaukee Brewers, to finish with the same record. The Brewers defeated the Cubs in a tie-breaker game to win the Central Division and secure the top-seed in the National League. The Cubs subsequently lost to the Colorado Rockies in the 2018 National League Wild Card Game for their earliest playoff exit in three seasons. The Cubs' roster remained largely intact going into the 2019 season. The team led the Central Division by a half-game over the Brewers at the All-Star Break. However, the team's control over the division once again dissipated going into final months of the season. The Cubs lost several key players to injuries, including Javier Báez, Anthony Rizzo, and Kris Bryant during this stretch. The Cubs announced they would not renew manager Joe Maddon's contract at the end of the season. 2020–present: Post-Maddon years On October 24, 2019, the Cubs hired David Ross as their new manager. Ross led the Cubs to a 34–26 record during the 2020 season, which was shortened due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Starting pitcher Yu Darvish rebounded with an 8–3 record and 2.01 ERA, while also finishing as the runner-up for the NL Cy Young Award. Following the 2020 season, the Cubs' president, Theo Epstein, resigned from his position on November 17, 2020. He was succeeded Jed Hoyer, who previously served as the team's general manager since 2011. Prior to the 2021 season, the Cubs announced they would not re-sign Jon Lester, Kyle Schwarber, or Albert Almora. In addition, the team then traded Darvish and Victor Caratini to the San Diego Padres in exchange for prospects. After suffering an 11-game losing streak in late June and early July 2021 that put the Cubs out of the pennant race, they traded Javier Báez, Kris Bryant, and Anthony Rizzo and other pieces at the trade deadline. These trades allowed journeymen such as Rafael Ortega and Patrick Wisdom to craft larger roles on the team, the latter of whom set a Cubs rookie record for home runs at 28. By the end of the season, the only remaining players from the World Series team were Willson Contreras, Jason Heyward, and Kyle Hendricks. On October 15, 2021, the Cubs hired Cleveland assistant general manager Carter Hawkins as the new general manager. Following his hiring, the Cubs signed Marcus Stroman to a 3-year $71 million deal and previous World Series foe Yan Gomes to a 2-year $13 million deal. In another rebuilding year, the Cubs finished the 2022 season 74–88, finishing third in the division and 19 games out of first. In the ensuing off-season, Jason Heyward was released and Willson Contreras left in free agency, leaving Kyle Hendricks as the only remaining player from their 2016 championship team. Additionally, fan-favorite Rafael Ortega was non-tendered, signaling a new chapter for the Cubs after two straight years of mediocrity. In an attempt to bolster the team for 2023, the Cubs made big moves in free agency, signing all-star, reigning gold glove shortstop Dansby Swanson to a 7-year, $177 million contract as well as former MVP Cody Bellinger to a 1-year, $17.5 million deal. In addition, the ballclub added veterans such as Jameson Taillon, Trey Mancini, Mike Tauchman and Tucker Barnhart as well as trading for utility-man Miles Mastrobuoni. The team also extended key contributors from the previous season including Ian Happ, Nico Hoerner, and Drew Smyly. Despite these moves, the Cubs entered the 2023 season with low expectations. Projection systems such as PECOTA projected them to finish under .500 for the third year in a row. In May 2023, multiple top prospects were called up, namely Miguel Amaya, Matt Mervis, and Christopher Morel; although Mervis was eventually sent back down. After falling as far as 10 games below .500, the Cubs were propelled by an 8-game win streak versus the White Sox and Cardinals in late July, prompting the front office to become "buyers" at the August 1 trade deadline. Thus, the team acquired former-Cub Jeimer Candelario from the Nationals and reliever José Cuas from the Royals, firmly cementing their intent to compete and contend for postseason baseball. The team would set a run-scoring mark of 36 runs in back-to-back games, a mark not achieved since 1897 when the club was called the Colts. The Cubs were poised to earn a wild-card berth entering September 2023. However, the team lost 15 of their last 22 games and were eliminated from the playoffs after their penultimate game of the season. On November 6, the Cubs fired Ross and hired Craig Counsell as their new manager. Ballpark Wrigley Field and Wrigleyville The Cubs have played their home games at Wrigley Field, also known as "The Friendly Confines" since 1916. It was built in 1914 as Weeghman Park for the Chicago Whales, a Federal League baseball team. The Cubs also shared the park with the Chicago Bears of the NFL for 50 years. The ballpark includes a manual scoreboard, ivy-covered brick walls, and relatively small dimensions. Located in Chicago's Lake View neighborhood, Wrigley Field sits on an irregular block bounded by Clark and Addison Streets and Waveland and Sheffield Avenues. The area surrounding the ballpark is typically referred to as Wrigleyville. There is a dense collection of sports bars and restaurants in the area, most with baseball-inspired themes, including Sluggers, Murphy's Bleachers and The Cubby Bear. Many of the apartment buildings surrounding Wrigley Field on Waveland and Sheffield Avenues have built bleachers on their rooftops for fans to view games and other sell space for advertisement. One building on Sheffield Avenue has a sign atop its roof which says "Eamus Catuli!" which roughly translates into Latin as "Let's Go Cubs!" and another chronicles the years since the last Division title, National League pennant, and World Series championship. On game days, many residents rent out their yards and driveways to people looking for parking spots. The uniqueness of the neighborhood itself has ingrained itself into the culture of the Chicago Cubs as well as the Wrigleyville neighborhood, and has led to being used for concerts and other sporting events, such as the 2010 NHL Winter Classic between the Chicago Blackhawks and Detroit Red Wings, as well as a 2010 NCAA men's football game between the Northwestern Wildcats and Illinois Fighting Illini. In 2013, Tom Ricketts and team president Crane Kenney unveiled plans for a five-year, $575 million privately funded renovation of Wrigley Field. Called the 1060 Project, the proposed plans included vast improvements to the stadium's facade, infrastructure, restrooms, concourses, suites, press box, bullpens, and clubhouses, as well as a jumbotron to be added in the left field bleachers, batting tunnels, a video board in right field, and, eventually, an adjacent hotel, plaza, and office-retail complex. In previous years mostly all efforts to conduct any large-scale renovations to the field had been opposed by the city, former mayor Richard M. Daley (a staunch White Sox fan), and especially the rooftop owners. Months of negotiations between the team, a group of rooftop properties investors, local Alderman Tom Tunney, and Chicago Mayor Rahm Emanuel followed with the eventual endorsements of the city's Landmarks Commission, the Plan Commission and final approval by the Chicago City Council in July 2013. The project began at the conclusion of the 2014 season. Bleacher Bums The "Bleacher Bums" is a name given to fans, many of whom spend much of the day heckling, who sit in the bleacher section at Wrigley Field. Initially, the group was called "bums" because they attended most of the games, and as Wrigley did not yet have lights, these were all day games, so it was jokingly presumed these fans were jobless. The group was started in 1967 by dedicated fans Ron Grousl, Tom Nall and "mad bugler" Mike Murphy, who was a sports radio host during mid days on Chicago-based WSCR AM 670 "The Score". Murphy has said that Grousl started the Wrigley tradition of throwing back opposing teams' home run balls. A 1977 Broadway play called Bleacher Bums, starring Joe Mantegna, Dennis Farina, Dennis Franz, and James Belushi, was based on a group of Cub fans who frequented the club's games.CultureCubs Win Flag Beginning in the days of P.K. Wrigley and the 1937 bleacher/scoreboard reconstruction, and prior to modern media saturation, a flag with either a "W" or an "L" has flown from atop the scoreboard masthead, indicating the day's result(s) when baseball was played at Wrigley. In case of a split doubleheader, both the "W" and "L" flags are flown. Past Cubs media guides show that originally the flags were blue with a white "W" and white with a blue "L". In 1978, consistent with the dominant colors of the flags, blue and white lights were mounted atop the scoreboard, denoting "win" and "loss" respectively for the benefit of nighttime passers-by. The flags were replaced by 1990, the first year in which the Cubs media guide reports the switch to the now-familiar colors of the flags: White with blue "W" and blue with white "L". In addition to needing to replace the worn-out flags, by then the retired numbers of Banks and Williams were flying on the foul poles, as white with blue numbers; so the "good" flag was switched to match that scheme. This long-established tradition has evolved to fans carrying the white-with-blue-W flags to both home and away games, and displaying them after a Cub win. The flags are known as the Cubs Win Flag. The flags have become more and more popular each season since 1998, and are now even sold as T-shirts with the same layout. In 2009, the tradition spilled over to the NHL as Chicago Blackhawks fans adopted a red and black "W" flag of their own. During the early and mid-2000s, Chip Caray usually declared that a Cubs win at home meant it was "White flag time at Wrigley!" More recently, the Cubs have promoted the phrase "Fly the W!" among fans and on social media. Mascots The official Cubs team mascot is a young bear cub, named Clark, described by the team's press release as a young and friendly Cub. Clark made his debut at Advocate Health Care on January 13, 2014, the same day as the press release announcing his installation as the club's first-ever official physical mascot. The bear cub itself was used in the clubs since the early 1900s and was the inspiration of the Chicago Staleys changing their team's name to the Chicago Bears, because the Cubs allowed the bigger football players—like bears to cubs—to play at Wrigley Field in the 1930s. The Cubs had no official physical mascot prior to Clark, though a man in a 'polar bear' looking outfit, called "The Bear-man" (or Beeman), which was mildly popular with the fans, paraded the stands briefly in the early 1990s. There is no record of whether or not he was just a fan in a costume or employed by the club. Through the 2013 season, there were "Cubbie-bear" mascots outside of Wrigley on game day, but none were employed by the team. They pose for pictures with fans for tips. The most notable of these was "Billy Cub" who worked outside of the stadium for over six years until July 2013, when the club asked him to stop. Billy Cub, who is played by fan John Paul Weier, had unsuccessfully petitioned the team to become the official mascot. Another unofficial but much more well-known mascot is Ronnie "Woo Woo" Wickers who is a longtime fan and local celebrity in the Chicago area. He is known to Wrigley Field visitors for his idiosyncratic cheers at baseball games, generally punctuated with an exclamatory "Woo!" (e.g., "Cubs, woo! Cubs, woo! Big-Z, woo! Zambrano, woo! Cubs, woo!") Longtime Cubs announcer Harry Caray dubbed Wickers "Leather Lungs" for his ability to shout for hours at a time. He is not employed by the team, although the club has on two separate occasions allowed him into the broadcast booth and allow him some degree of freedom once he purchases or is given a ticket by fans to get into the games. He is largely allowed to roam the park and interact with fans by Wrigley Field security. Music During the summer of 1969, a Chicago studio group produced a single record called "Hey Hey! Holy Mackerel! (The Cubs Song)" whose title and lyrics incorporated the catch-phrases of the respective TV and radio announcers for the Cubs, Jack Brickhouse and Vince Lloyd. Several members of the Cubs recorded an album called Cub Power which contained a cover of the song. The song received a good deal of local airplay that summer, associating it very strongly with that season. It was played much less frequently thereafter, although it remained an unofficial Cubs theme song for some years after. For many years, Cubs radio broadcasts started with "It's a Beautiful Day for a Ball Game" by the Harry Simeone Chorale. In 1979, Roger Bain released a 45 rpm record of his song "Thanks Mr. Banks", to honor "Mr. Cub" Ernie Banks. The song "Go, Cubs, Go!" by Steve Goodman was recorded early in the 1984 season, and was heard frequently during that season. Goodman died in September of that year, four days before the Cubs clinched the National League Eastern Division title, their first title in 39 years. Since 1984, the song started being played from time to time at Wrigley Field; since 2007, the song has been played over the loudspeakers following each Cubs home victory. The Mountain Goats recorded a song entitled "Cubs in Five" on its 1995 EP Nine Black Poppies which refers to the seeming impossibility of the Cubs winning a World Series in both its title and chorus. In 2007, Pearl Jam frontman Eddie Vedder composed a song dedicated to the team called "All the Way." Vedder, a Chicago native, and lifelong Cubs fan, composed the song at the request of Ernie Banks. Pearl Jam has played this song live multiple times several of which occurring at Wrigley Field. Eddie Vedder has played this song live twice, at his solo shows at the Chicago Auditorium on August 21 and 22, 2008. An album entitled Take Me Out to a Cubs Game was released in 2008. It is a collection of 17 songs and other recordings related to the team, including Harry Caray's final performance of "Take Me Out to the Ball Game" on September 21, 1997, the Steve Goodman song mentioned above, and a newly recorded rendition of "Talkin' Baseball" (subtitled "Baseball and the Cubs") by Terry Cashman. The album was produced in celebration of the 100th anniversary of the Cubs' 1908 World Series victory and contains sounds and songs of the Cubs and Wrigley Field.Popular culture Season 1 Episode 3 of the television show Kolchak: The Night Stalker ("They Have Been, They Are, They Will Be...") is supposed to take place during a fictional 1974 World Series matchup between the Chicago Cubs and the Boston Red Sox. The 1986 film ''Ferris Bueller's Day Off'' showed a game played by the Cubs when Ferris' principal goes to a bar looking for him. The 1989 film Back to the Future Part II depicts the Chicago Cubs defeating a baseball team from Miami in the 2015 World Series, ending the longest championship drought in all four of the major North American professional sports leagues. In 2015, the Miami Marlins failed to make the playoffs but the Cubs were able to make it to the 2015 National League Wild Card round and move on to the 2015 National League Championship Series by October 21, 2015, the date where protagonist Marty McFly traveled to the future in the film. However, it was on October 21 that the Cubs were swept by the New York Mets in the NLCS. The 1993 film Rookie of the Year, directed by Daniel Stern, centers on the Cubs as a team going nowhere into August when the team chances upon 12-year-old Cubs fan Henry Rowengartner (Thomas Ian Nicholas), whose right (throwing) arm tendons have healed tightly after a broken arm and granted him the ability to regularly pitch at speeds in excess of . Following the Cubs' win over the Cleveland Indians in Game 7 of the 2016 World Series, Nicholas, in celebration, tweeted the final shot from the movie: Henry holding his fist up to the camera to show a Cubs World Series ring. Director Daniel Stern, also reprised his role as Brickma during the Cubs playoff run. Tinker to Evers to Chance ''"Baseball's Sad Lexicon", also known as "Tinker to Evers to Chance" after its refrain, is a 1910 baseball poem by Franklin Pierce Adams. The poem is presented as a single, rueful stanza from the point of view of a New York Giants fan seeing the talented Chicago Cubs infield of shortstop Joe Tinker, second baseman Johnny Evers, and first baseman Frank Chance complete a double play. The trio began playing together with the Cubs in 1902, and formed a double-play combination that lasted through April 1912. The Cubs won the pennant four times between 1906 and 1910, often defeating the Giants en route to the World Series. <blockquote> :These are the saddest of possible words: :"Tinker to Evers to Chance." :Trio of bear cubs, and fleeter than birds, :Tinker and Evers and Chance. :Ruthlessly pricking our gonfalon bubble, :Making a Giant hit into a double – :Words that are heavy with nothing but trouble: :"Tinker to Evers to Chance." </blockquote> The poem was first published in the New York Evening Mail'' on July 12, 1912. Popular among sportswriters, numerous additional verses were written. The poem gave Tinker, Evers, and Chance increased popularity and has been credited with their elections to the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1946. Rivalries St. Louis Cardinals The Cardinals–Cubs rivalry refers to games between the Cubs and St. Louis Cardinals. The rivalry is also known as the Downstate Illinois rivalry or the I-55 Series (in earlier years as the Route 66 Series) as both cities are located along Interstate 55 (which itself succeeded the famous U.S. Route 66). The Cubs lead the series 1,253–1,196, through October 2021, while the Cardinals lead in National League pennants with 19 against the Cubs' 17. The Cubs have won 11 of those pennants in Major League Baseball's Modern Era (1901–present), while all 19 of the Cardinals' pennants have been won since 1926. The Cardinals also have an edge when it comes to World Series successes, having won 11 championships to the Cubs' 3. Games featuring the Cardinals and Cubs see numerous visiting fans in either Busch Stadium in St. Louis or Wrigley Field in Chicago given the proximity of both cities. When the National League split into multiple divisions, the Cardinals and Cubs remained together through the two realignments. This has added intensity to several pennant races over the years. The Cardinals and Cubs have played each other once in the postseason, 2015 National League Division Series, which the Cubs won 3–1.I-94 Series: Chicago Cubs vs. Milwaukee Brewers The Cubs' rivalry with the Milwaukee Brewers refers to games between the Milwaukee Brewers and Chicago Cubs, the rivalry is also known as the I-94 rivalry due to the proximity between clubs' ballparks along an 83.3-mile drive along Interstate 94. The rivalry followed a 1969–97 rivalry between the Brewers, then in the American League, and the Chicago White Sox. The proximity of the two cities and the Bears-Packers football rivalry helped make the Cubs-Brewers rivalry one of baseball's best. In the 2018 season, the teams faced off in a Game 163 for the NL Central division title, which Milwaukee won. Chicago White Sox The Cubs have held a longtime rivalry with crosstown foes the Chicago White Sox as Chicago has only retained two franchises in one major sports league since the Chicago Cardinals of the NFL relocated in 1960. The rivalry takes multiple names such as the Wintrust Crosstown Cup, Crosstown Classic, The Windy City Showdown, Red Line Series, City Series, Crosstown Series, Crosstown Cup or Crosstown Showdown Road The Cubs' road gray uniform has been in use since 1997. This design has "Chicago" in blue letters outlined in white arranged in a radial arch, along with front numbers of red outlined in white. The back of the uniform has player names in blue outlined in white, and numbers in red with white outlines. This set also features the "walking cub" patch on the left sleeve. The primary home, primary road and alternate road uniform designs are paired with an all-blue cap with the red "C" outlined in white, which was first worn in 1959.City ConnectBeginning in 2021, Major League Baseball and Nike introduced the "City Connect" series, featuring uniquely designed uniforms inspired by each city's community and personality. The Cubs' design is navy blue with light blue accents on both the uniform and pants, and features the "Wrigleyville" wordmark inspired by the Wrigley Field marquee. Caps are navy blue with a light blue brim, and feature the "C" monogram in white with light blue trim with a red six-pointed star inside. The left sleeve patch features the full team name inside a navy circle, along with a specially designed municipal device incorporating the Chicago city flag. The Cubs' "City Connect" uniforms were worn until 2024, when it was replaced by a new alternate powder blue uniform.Past designsPrior to unveiling their current look, the Cubs went through a variety of uniform looks in their early years, incorporating either a "standing cub" logo, a primitive version of the "C-UBS" logo, a "wishbone C" mark (later adopted by the Chicago Bears of the NFL), or the team or city name in various fonts. The uniform itself went from having pinstripes to racing stripes and chest piping. Navy blue and sometimes red served as the team colors through the mid-1940s when the team switched to the more familiar royal blue and red color scheme. |- style=;" | Year || Total attendance || Game average || League rank |- | 2000 | 2,789,511 | 34,438 | 9th |- | 2001 | 2,779,465 | 34,314 | 8th |- | 2002 | 2,693,096 | 33,248 | 7th |- | 2003 | 2,962,630 | 36,576 | 3rd |- | 2004 | 3,170,154 | 38,660 | 4th |- | 2005 | 3,099,992 | 38,272 | 4th |- | 2006 | 3,123,215 | 38,558 | 5th |- | 2007 | 3,252,462 | 40,154 | 4th |- | 2008 | 3,300,200 | 40,743 | 5th |- | 2009 | 3,168,859 | 39,611 | 4th |- | 2010 | 3,062,973 | 37,814 | 4th |- | 2011 | 3,017,966 | 37,259 | 5th |- | 2012 | 2,882,756 | 35,590 | 5th |- | 2013 | 2,642,682 | 32,626 | 7th |- | 2014 | 2,652,113 | 32,742 | 6th |- | 2015 | 2,919,122 | 36,039 | 4th |- | 2016 | 3,232,420 | 39,906 | 4th |- | 2017 | 3,199,562 | 39,501 | 4th |- | 2018 | 3,181,089 | 38,794 | 4th |- | 2019 | 3,094,865 | 38,208 | 3rd |- | 2020* | — | — | — |- | 2021** | 1,978,934 | 24,431 | 9th |- | 2022 | 2,616,780 | 32,306 | 9th |- | 2023 | 2,775,149 | 34,261 | 9th |} <nowiki>*</nowiki>Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, no fans were allowed at Wrigley Field during the 2020 season. <nowiki>**</nowiki>Attendance capped at 20% capacity until June 11. Playoffs/Championships {| class"wikitable" style"font-size:95%; text-align:center;" ! rowspan"2" style";"|Season ! rowspan"2" style";"|Manager ! rowspan"2" style";"|Record ! colspan"2" style";"|Wild Card/Division ! colspan"2" style";"|National League<br>Division Series ! colspan"2" style";"|National League<br>Championship Series ! colspan"2" style";"|World Series |- ! style=";"|Runners-up ! style=";"| ! style=";"|Opponent ! style=";"|Series ! style=";"|Opponent ! style=";"|Series ! style=";"|Opponent ! style=";"|Series |- | | Albert Spalding | 52–14 | colspan"2" rowspan"16" | Nonexistent | colspan"2" rowspan"18" | Nonexistent | colspan"2" rowspan"16" style="background:#dfd;" | Clinched pennant | colspan"2" rowspan"3" | No series |- | | rowspan="5" | Cap Anson | 67–17 |- | | 56–28 |- | | 55–29 | Cincinnati Red Stockings | 1–1 |- | | 87–25 | St. Louis Browns | 3–3 |- | | 90–34 | St. Louis Browns | 2–4 |- | | rowspan="4" | Frank Chance | 116–36 | Chicago White Sox | 2–4 |- | | 107–45 | style="background:#fcc;" | Detroit Tigers | style="background:#fcc;" | 4–0 |- | | 99–55 | style="background:#fcc;" | Detroit Tigers | style="background:#fcc;" | 4–1 |- | | 104–50 | Philadelphia Athletics | 1–4 |- | | Fred Mitchell | 84–45 | Boston Red Sox | 2–4 |- | | Joe McCarthy | 98–54 | Philadelphia Athletics | 1–4 |- | | Rogers Hornsby<sup>(first 99 games)</sup><br>Charlie Grimm<sup>(final 55 games)</sup> | 90–64 | New York Yankees | 0–4 |- | | Charlie Grimm | 100–54 | Detroit Tigers | 2–4 |- | | Charlie Grimm<sup>(first 81 games)</sup><br>Gabby Hartnett<sup>(final 73 games)</sup> | 89–63 | New York Yankees | 0–4 |- | | Charlie Grimm | 98–56 | Detroit Tigers | 3–4 |- | | Jim Frey | 96–65 | style="background:#d0e7ff;" | New York Mets | style="background:#d0e7ff;" | 6½ | San Diego Padres | 2–3 | colspan"2" rowspan"7" | Eliminated |- | | Don Zimmer | 93–69 | style="background:#d0e7ff;" | New York Mets | style="background:#d0e7ff;" | 6 | San Francisco Giants | 1–4 |- | | Jim Riggleman | 90–73 | Wild Card | N/A | Atlanta Braves | 0–3 | colspan="2" | Eliminated |- | | Dusty Baker | 88–74 | style="background:#d0e7ff;" | Houston Astros | style="background:#d0e7ff;" | 1 | style="background:#dfd;" | Atlanta Braves | style="background:#dfd;" | 3–2 | Florida Marlins | 3–4 |- | | rowspan="2" | Lou Piniella | 85–77 | style="background:#d0e7ff;" | Milwaukee Brewers | style="background:#d0e7ff;" | 2 | Arizona Diamondbacks | 0–3 | colspan"2" rowspan"2" | Eliminated |- | | 97–64 | style="background:#d0e7ff;" | Milwaukee Brewers | style="background:#d0e7ff;" | 7½ | Los Angeles Dodgers | 0–3 |- | | rowspan="4"|Joe Maddon | 97–65 | style="background:#dfd;" |Wild Card<br>Pittsburgh Pirates | style="background:#dfd;" |4–0 | style="background:#dfd;" |St. Louis Cardinals | style="background:#dfd;" |3–1 | New York Mets | 0–4 |- | | 103–58 | style="background:#d0e7ff;" | | style="background:#d0e7ff;" | 17½ | style="background:#dfd;" | San Francisco Giants | style="background:#dfd;" | 3–1 | style="background:#dfd;" | Los Angeles Dodgers | style="background:#dfd;" | 4–2 | style="background:#fcc;" | Cleveland Indians | style="background:#fcc;" | 4–3 |- | | 92–70 | style="background:#d0e7ff;" | Milwaukee | style="background:#d0e7ff;" | 6 | style="background:#dfd;" | Washington Nationals | style="background:#dfd;" | 3–2 |Los Angeles Dodgers |1–4 | colspan"3 rowspan"3" | Eliminated |- | | 95–68 | Wild Card<br>Colorado Rockies | 1–2 | colspan="6" | Eliminated |- | rowspan="2"| | rowspan="2"|David Ross | rowspan="2"|34–26 | style="background:#d0e7ff;" | <br>Cincinnati Reds | style="background:#d0e7ff;" | 3 | rowspan"2" colspan"6" | Eliminated |- | Wild Card Series<br>Miami Marlins | 0–2 |- ! colspan"3" style";"|Total ! style=";"|Wild Cards<br>Division titles ! style=";"|3<br>8 ! style=";"|Division Series titles ! style=";"|4 ! style=";"|NL pennants ! style=";"|17 ! style=";"|World Series titles ! style=";"|3 |} * Prior to 1969, divisions did not exist in MLB. The Chicago Cubs played in the National League East between 1969 and 1993 before moving to the newly created National League Central in 1994. * Prior to 1995, only two divisions existed in each league. With the realignment into three divisions and the institution of the wild card in 1995, the Division Series was added. Division Series. * Prior to 1969, the National League champion was determined by the best win–loss record at the end of the regular season. See League Championship Series. * None of the World Series contested before 1903 are recognized by MLB. See List of pre-World Series baseball champions. * The 2020 season was shortened to 60 games due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The season's playoff structure was changed to allow eight teams to advance to the playoffs in each league with all eight teams playing a best-of-three Wild Card Series.Distinctions Throughout the history of the Chicago Cubs' franchise, 15 different Cubs pitchers have pitched no-hitters; however, no Cubs pitcher has thrown a perfect game. Forbes value rankings As of 2020, the Chicago Cubs are ranked as the 17th most valuable sports team in the world, 14th in the United States, fourth in MLB, and tied for second in the city of Chicago with the Bulls. |- | 2011 | 42 | 34 | 4 | 2 | $773,000,000 | |- | 2012 | 36 | 29 | 4 | 2 | $879,000,000 | |- | 2013 | 31 | 25 | 4 | 2 | $1,000,000,000 | |- | 2014 | 21 | 16 | 4 | 2 | $1,200,000,000 | |- | 2015 | 17 | 13 | 4 | 2 | $1,800,000,000 | |- | 2016 | 21 | 17 | 5 | 3 | $2,200,000,000 | |- | 2017 | 18 | 14 | 4 | 2 | $2,680,000,000 | |- |2018 | 16 | 12 | 3 | 1 |$2,900,000,000 | |- |2019 | 14 | 11 | 4 | 1 |$3,200,000,000 | |- |2020 | 17 | 14 | 4 | 2 |$3,200,000,000 | |} Team Roster Retired numbers ]] ]] ]] ]] ]] The Chicago Cubs retired numbers are commemorated on pinstriped flags flying from the foul poles at Wrigley Field, with the exception of Jackie Robinson, the Brooklyn Dodgers player whose number 42 was retired for all clubs. The first retired number flag, Ernie Banks' number 14, was raised on the left-field pole, and they have alternated since then. 14, 10 and 31 (Jenkins) fly on the left-field pole; and 26, 23 and 31 (Maddux) fly on the right-field pole. }} <nowiki>*</nowiki> Robinson's number was retired by all MLB clubs. Hall of Famers Cubs Hall of Fame In August 2021, the Cubs reintroduced the Hall of Fame exhibit. The team had first established a Cubs Hall of Fame in 1982, inducting 41 members in the next four years. Six years later, it began again with the Cubs Walk of Fame, which enshrined nine until it was paused in 1998. As such, every member of those exhibits was inducted into the new Hall of Fame alongside the five most recent Cubs to enter the National Baseball Hall of Fame (Sutter, Dawson, Santo, Maddux, Smith). The 2021 class inducted one new member with Margaret Donahue (team corporate/executive secretary and vice president) to make 56 names inducted as the inaugural members of the Hall. Two stipulations were put for induction: at least five years as a Cub and significant contributions done as a member of the Cubs. The exhibit is located in the Budweiser Bleacher concourse in left field of Wrigley Field. {| class="wikitable" |+Key |- !scope"row" style"background:#ffb;"| Bold |Member of the Baseball Hall of Fame |- !scope"row" style"background:#ffb;"| }} |Member of the Baseball Hall of Fame as a Cub |- !scope"row" style"background:#cfc;"| Bold |Recipient of the Hall of Fame's Ford C. Frick Award |} {| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" |- | colspan"5" style";|Cubs Hall of Fame |- ! style=";"|Year ! style=";"|No. ! style=";"|Player ! style=";"|Position ! style=";"|Tenure |- | rowspan56|2021 || — || style"background:#ffb;"|Albert Spalding}} || P/Owner/Manager || 1876–1878 |- | 10 ||style="background:#ffb;"|Andre Dawson || RF || 1987–1992 |- | 48 || Andy Pafko || CF / 3B || 1943–1951 |- | 22 || Bill Buckner || 1B / LF || 1977–1984 |- | — || Bill Lange || CF || 1893–1899 |- | 2 || style="background:#ffb;"|Billy Herman}} || 2B || 1931–1941 |- | 26 || style="background:#ffb;"|Billy Williams}} || LF || 1959–1974 |- | 42 || style="background:#ffb;"|Bruce Sutter || P || 1976–1980 |- | 40 || Charlie Grimm || 1B / Manager || 1925–1936<br>1932–1938<br>1944–1949<br>1960 |- | 17 || Charlie Root || P || 1926–1941 |- | — || style="background:#ffb;"|Clark Griffith || P || 1893–1900 |- | 11 || Don Kessinger || SS || 1964–1975 |- | — || Ed Reulbach || P || 1905–1913 |- | 14 || style="background:#ffb;"|Ernie Banks}} || SS / 1B || 1953–1971 |- | 31 || style="background:#ffb;"|Ferguson Jenkins}} || P || 1966–1973<br>1982–1983 |- | — || style="background:#ffb;"|Frank Chance}} || 1B / Manager || 1898–1912 |- | — || Frank Schulte || OF || 1904–1916 |- | 9 || style="background:#ffb;"|Gabby Hartnett}} || C / Manager || 1922–1940 |- | 18 || Glenn Beckert || 2B || 1965–1973 |- | 31 || style="background:#ffb;"|Greg Maddux || P ||1986–1992<br>2004–2006 |- | — || style="background:#ffb;"|Grover Cleveland Alexander || P || 1918–1926 |- | — || style="background:#ffb;"|Hack Wilson}} || OF || 1926–1931 |- | 9 || Hank Sauer || OF || 1949–1955 |- | — || style="background:#cfc;"|Harry Caray || Broadcaster || 1982–1997 |- | — ||Heinie Zimmerman || 3B / 2B || 1907–1916 |- | — || Hippo Vaughn || P || 1913–1921 |- | — || style="background:#cfc;"|Jack Brickhouse || Broadcaster || 1941–1944, 1947–1981 |- | — || Jimmy Ryan || CF || 1891–1900 |- | — || style="background:#ffb;"|Joe McCarthy || Manager || 1926–1930 |- | — ||style="background:#ffb;"|Joe Tinker}} || SS / Manager || 1902–1912<br>1916 |- | — || style="background:#ffb;"|John Clarkson || P || 1884–1887 |- | — || style="background:#ffb;"|Johnny Evers}} || 2B / Manager || 1902–1913<br>1921 |- | 30 || Ken Holtzman || P || 1965–1971, 1978–1979 |- | 3 || style="background:#ffb;"|Kiki Cuyler}} || RF || 1928–1935 |- | — || style="background:#ffb;"|King Kelly}} || OF / C|| 1880–1886 |- | 46 || style="background:#ffb;"|Lee Smith}} || P || 1980–1987 |- | 2 || style="background:#ffb;"|Leo Durocher || Manager ||1966–1972 |- | 5 || style="background:#ffb;"|Lou Boudreau || Broadcaster/Manager || 1958–59, 1961–1987<br>1960 |- | — || Margaret Donahue || Executive || 1926–1958 |- | — || style="background:#ffb;"|Mordecai Brown}} || P || 1904–1912, 1916 |- | — || Orval Overall || P || 1906–1910, 1913 |- | — || Philip K. Wrigley || Owner / Executive || 1932–1977 |- | — || Pat Pieper || Public address announcer || 1917–1974 |- | 44 || Phil Cavarretta || 1B / OF / Manager || 1934–1953 |- | 9 || Randy Hundley || C || 1966–1973, 1976–1977 |- | 48 || Rick Reuschel || P || 1972–1981, 1983–1984 |- | 40 || Rick Sutcliffe || P || 1984–1991 |- | 5 || Riggs Stephenson || LF || 1926–1934 |- | 9 || style="background:#ffb;"|Rogers Hornsby || 2B / Manager || 1929–1932 |- | 10 || style="background:#ffb;"|Ron Santo}} || 3B || 1960–1973 |- | 23 || style="background:#ffb;"|Ryne Sandberg}} || 2B || 1982–1994, 1996–1997 |- | 6 || Stan Hack || 3B / Manager || 1932–1947<br>1954–1956 |- | — || William Hulbert || Executive || 1876–1882 |- | — || William Wrigley III || Owner || 1977–1981 |- | — || William Wrigley Jr || Owner || 1916–1932 |- | — || Yosh Kawano || Clubhouse manager || 1943–2008 |- | rowspan3|2022 || — || style"background:#ffb;"|'''Buck O'Neil'''}} || Scout<br>Coach || 1955–1988<br>1962–1965 |- |1 ||José Cardenal || OF || 1972–1977 |- | — ||Pat Hughes || Broadcaster ||1996–present |- | rowspan=2|2023 || 12 || Shawon Dunston || SS || 1985–1995<br>1997 |- | 17 ||Mark Grace || 1B || 1988–2000 |- | rowspan=2|2024 || 16 || Aramis Ramírez || 3B || 2003–2011 |- | 34 ||Kerry Wood || P || 1998, 2000–2008<br>2011–2012 |- | rowspan=2|2025 || 25 || Derrek Lee || 1B || 2004–2010 |- | 21 ||Sammy Sosa || RF || 1992–2004 |} Awards Most Valuable Player *1911 – Frank Schulte *1929 – Rogers Hornsby *1935 – Gabby Hartnett *1945 – Phil Cavarretta *1952 – Hank Sauer *1958 – Ernie Banks *1959 – Ernie Banks *1984 – Ryne Sandberg *1987 – Andre Dawson *1998 – Sammy Sosa *2016 – Kris Bryant Cy Young Award *1971 – Ferguson Jenkins *1979 – Bruce Sutter *1984 – Rick Sutcliffe *1992 – Greg Maddux *2015 – Jake Arrieta Rookie of the Year *1961 – Billy Williams *1962 – Ken Hubbs *1989 – Jerome Walton *1998 – Kerry Wood *2008 – Geovany Soto *2015 – Kris Bryant Minor league affiliations The Chicago Cubs farm system consists of seven minor league affiliates. {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable" |- !scope"col" style""|Class !scope"col" style""|Team !scope"col" style""|League !scope"col" style""|Location !scope"col" style""|Ballpark !scope"col" style""|Affiliated |- | Triple-A !scope="row"| Iowa Cubs | International League | Des Moines, Iowa | Principal Park | align="right"| 1981 |- | Double-A !scope="row"| Knoxville Smokies | Southern League | Knoxville, Tennessee | Covenant Health Park | align="right"| 2007 |- | High-A !scope="row"| South Bend Cubs | Midwest League | South Bend, Indiana | Four Winds Field at Coveleski Stadium | align="right"| 2015 |- | Single-A !scope="row"| Myrtle Beach Pelicans | Carolina League | Myrtle Beach, South Carolina | Pelicans Ballpark | align="right"| 2015 |- | rowspan=3| Rookie !scope="row"| ACL Cubs | Arizona Complex League | Mesa, Arizona | Sloan Park | align="right"| 2021 |- !scope="row"| DSL Cubs Blue | rowspan=2|Dominican Summer League | rowspan=2|Boca Chica, Santo Domingo | rowspan=2|Baseball City Complex | rowspan2 align"right"| 2016 |- !scope="row"| DSL Cubs Red |} Spring training history The Chicago White Stockings, (today's Chicago Cubs), began spring training in Hot Springs, Arkansas, in 1886. President Albert Spalding (founder of Spalding Sporting Goods) and player/manager Cap Anson brought their players to Hot Springs and played at the Hot Springs Baseball Grounds. The concept was for the players to have training and fitness before the start of the regular season, utilizing the bath houses of Hot Springs after practices. After the White Stockings had a successful season in 1886, winning the National League Pennant, other teams began bringing their players to Hot Springs for "spring training". The Chicago Cubs, St. Louis Browns, New York Yankees, St. Louis Cardinals, Cleveland Spiders, Detroit Tigers, Pittsburgh Pirates, Cincinnati Reds, New York Highlanders, Brooklyn Dodgers and Boston Red Sox were among the early squads to arrive. Whittington Park (1894) and later Majestic Park (1909) and Fogel Field (1912) were all built in Hot Springs specifically to host Major League teams. The Cubs' current spring training facility is located in Sloan Park in Mesa, Arizona, where they play in the Cactus League. The park seats 15,000, making it Major League baseball's largest spring training facility by capacity. The Cubs annually sell out most of their games both at home and on the road. Before Sloan Park opened in 2014, the team played games at HoHoKam Park – Dwight Patterson Field from 1979. "HoHoKam" is literally translated from Native American as "those who vanished". The North Siders have called Mesa their spring home for most seasons since 1952. In addition to Mesa, the club has held spring training in Hot Springs, Arkansas (1886, 1896–1900), (1909–1910) New Orleans (1870, 1907, 1911–1912); Champaign, Illinois (1901–02, 1906); Los Angeles (1903–04, 1948–1949), Santa Monica, California (1905); French Lick, Indiana (1908, 1943–1945); Tampa, Florida (1913–1916); Pasadena, California (1917–1921); Santa Catalina Island, California (1922–1942, 1946–1947, 1950–1951); Rendezvous Park in Mesa (1952–1965); Blair Field in Long Beach, California (1966); and Scottsdale, Arizona (1967–1978). The curious location on Catalina Island stemmed from Cubs owner William Wrigley Jr.'s then-majority interest in the island in 1919. Wrigley constructed a ballpark on the island to house the Cubs in spring training: it was built to the same dimensions as Wrigley Field. The ballpark was called Wrigley Field of Avalon. (The ballpark is long gone, but a clubhouse built by Wrigley to house the Cubs exists as the Catalina County Club.) However, by 1951 the team chose to leave Catalina Island and spring training was shifted to Mesa, Arizona. The Cubs' 30-year association with Catalina is chronicled in the book, The Cubs on Catalina, by Jim Vitti, which was named International 'Book of the Year' by The Sporting News. The Cubs left Catalina after some bad weather in 1951, choosing to move to Mesa, a city where the Wrigleys also had interests. Today, there is an exhibit at the Catalina Museum dedicated to the Cubs' spring training on the island. The former location in Mesa is actually the second Hohokam Park (Hohokam Stadium 1997–2013); the first was built in 1976 as the spring-training home of the Oakland Athletics who left the park in 1979. Apart from HoHoKam Park and Sloan Park the Cubs also have another Mesa training facility called Fitch Park, this complex provides of team facilities, including major league clubhouse, four practice fields, one practice infield, enclosed batting tunnels, batting cages, a maintenance facility, and administrative offices for the Cubs. Media<!--Anchor from redirect of [Pat and Ron Show]; caution. --> Radio Cubs radio rights are held by Entercom; its acquisition of the radio rights effective 2015 (under CBS Radio) ended the team's 90-year association with 720 WGN. During the first season of the contract, Cubs games aired on WBBM, taking over as flagship of the Chicago Cubs Radio Network. On November 11, 2015, CBS announced that the Cubs would move to WBBM's all-sports sister station, WSCR, beginning in the 2016 season. The move was enabled by WSCR's end of their rights agreement for the White Sox, who moved to WLS. The play-by-play voice of the Cubs is Pat Hughes, who has held the position since 1996, joined by Ron Coomer. Former Cubs third baseman and fan favorite Ron Santo had been Hughes' long-time partner until his death in 2010. Keith Moreland replaced Hall of Fame inductee Santo for three seasons, followed by Coomer for the 2014 season. Print The club publishes a traditional media guide. Formerly, the club also produced an official magazine Vineline, which had 12 annual issues and ran for 33 years, spotlighting players and events involving the club. The club discontinued the magazine in 2018.Television As of the 2020 season, all Cubs games not aired on broadcast television will air on Marquee Sports Network, a joint venture between the team and Sinclair Broadcast Group. The venture was officially announced in February 2019. ]] WGN-TV had a long-term association with the team, having aired Cubs games via its WGN Sports department from its establishment in 1948, through the 2019 season. For a period, WGN's Cubs games aired nationally on WGN America (formerly Superstation WGN); however, prior to the 2015 season, the Cubs, as well as all other Chicago sports programming, was dropped from the channel as part of its re-positioning as a general entertainment cable channel. To compensate, all games carried by over-the-air channels were syndicated to a network of other television stations within the Cubs' market, which includes Illinois and parts of Indiana and Iowa. Due to limits on program pre-emptions imposed by WGN's former affiliations with The WB and its successor The CW, WGN occasionally sub-licensed some of its sports broadcasts to another station in the market, particularly independent station WCIU-TV (and later MyNetworkTV station WPWR-TV). In November 2013, the Cubs exercised an option to terminate its existing broadcast rights with WGN-TV after the 2014 season, requesting a higher-valued contract lasting through the 2019 season (which would be aligned with the end of its contract with CSN Chicago). The team would split its over-the-air package with a second partner, ABC owned-and-operated station WLS-TV, who would acquire rights to 25 games per season from 2015 through 2019. On January 7, 2015, WGN announced that it would air 45 games per-season through 2019. From 1999, regional sports network FSN Chicago served as a cable rightsholder for games not on WGN or MLB's national television outlets. In 2003, the owners of the Cubs, White Sox, Blackhawks, and Bulls all broke away from FSN Chicago, and partnered with Comcast to form Comcast SportsNet Chicago (CSN Chicago, now NBC Sports Chicago) in 2004, assuming cable rights to all four teams. As of the 2021 season, Jon Sciambi serves as the Cubs' lead television play-by-play announcer; when Sciambi is on national TV/radio assignment with ESPN, his role would be filled by either Chris Myers, Beth Mowins, or Pat Hughes. Sciambi is joined by Jim Deshaies, Ryan Dempster, Joe Girardi or Rick Sutcliffe. Len Kasper (play-by-play, 2005–2020), Bob Brenly (analyst, 2005–2012), Chip Caray (play-by-play, 1998–2004), Steve Stone (analyst, 1983–2000, 2003–04), Joe Carter (analyst for WGN-TV games, 2001–02) and Dave Otto (analyst for FSN Chicago games, 2001–02) also have spent time broadcasting from the Cubs booth since the death of Harry Caray in 1998.Ford C. Frick Award recipients See also * The Bleacher Preacher * Cardinals-Cubs rivalry * Brewers–Cubs rivalry * Cubs–White Sox rivalry * Curse of the Billy Goat * Grant DePorter * Lee Elia * Major League Baseball uniforms * Major professional sports teams of the United States and Canada * Old Style Beer Notes References Further reading * * * * * *Bales, Jack (2019). [https://mcfarlandbooks.com/product/Before-They-Were-the-Cubs/ Before They Were the Cubs: The Early Years of Chicago’s First Professional Baseball Team.] Jefferson, NC: McFarland. * External links * *[https://chicago.suntimes.com/cubs Chicago Cubs] at Chicago Sun-Times * [https://www.chicagotribune.com/sports/mlb/chicago-cubs/ Chicago Cubs] at Chicago Tribune }} ;|list1= ;|list1= }} }} Category:1876 establishments in Illinois Category:Baseball teams established in 1876 Category:Baseball teams in Chicago Category:Cactus League Category:Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2009 Category:Companies that have filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy Category:Events in Chicago Category:Major League Baseball teams Category:Professional baseball teams in Illinois
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Cubs
2025-04-05T18:27:53.719549
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Coldcut
| years_active = 1986&ndash;present | label = Ninja Tune, /Reprise/}} | associated_acts = DJ Food, Hex, Hexstatic, Yazz, , | website = | current_members = * Matt Black * Jonathan More }} Coldcut are an English electronic music duo composed of Matt Black and Jonathan More. Credited as pioneers for pop sampling in the 1980s, Coldcut are also considered the first stars of UK electronic dance music due to their innovative style, which featured cut-up samples of hip-hop, soul, funk, spoken word and various other types of music, as well as video and multimedia. According to Spin, "in '87 Coldcut pioneered the British fad for 'DJ records'". Coldcut's records first introduced the public to pop artists Yazz and Lisa Stansfield, through which these artists achieved pop chart success. In addition, Coldcut has remixed and created productions on tracks by the likes of Eric B & Rakim, James Brown, Queen Latifah, Eurythmics, INXS, Steve Reich, Blondie, the Fall, Pierre Henry, Nina Simone, Fog, Red Snapper, and BBC Radiophonic Workshop. Beyond their work as a production duo, Coldcut are the founders of Ninja Tune, an independent record label in London, England (with satellite offices in Los Angeles and Berlin) with an overall emphasis on encouraging interactive technology and finding innovative uses of software. The label's first releases (the first four volumes of DJ Food - Jazz Brakes) were produced by Coldcut in the early '90s, and composed of instrumental hip-hop cuts that led the duo to help pioneer the trip hop genre, with artists such as Funki Porcini, the Herbaliser and DJ Vadim. Music career 1980s In 1986, computer programmer Matt Black and ex-art teacher Jonathan More were part-time DJs on the rare groove scene. More also DJed on pirate radio, hosting the Meltdown Show on Kiss FM and worked at the Reckless Records store on Berwick Street, London where Black visited as a customer. The first collaboration between the two artists was "Say Kids What Time Is It?" on a white label in January 1987, which mixed The Jungle Book<nowiki/>'s "King of the Swingers" with the break from James Brown's "Funky Drummer". The innovation of "Say Kids..." caused More and Black to be heralded by SPIN as "the first Brit artists to really get hip-hop's class-cutup aesthetic". It is regarded as the UK's first breaks record, the first UK record to be built entirely of samples and "the final link in the chain connecting European collage-experiment with the dance-remix-scratch edit". This was later sampled in "Pump Up the Volume" by MARRS, a single that reached #1 in the UK in October 1987. Though Black had joined Kiss FM with his own mix-based show, the pair eventually joined forces on its own show later in 1987 called Solid Steel. The eclectic show became a unifying force in underground experimental electronic music is said to have "laid the groundwork for hip hop's entry into the UK mainstream", becoming a breakthrough hit for Eric B & Rakim outside the U.S., reaching No. 15 in the UK, and the top 20 in a number of European countries. It featured a prominent Ofra Haza sample and many other vocal cut ups as well as a looped rhythm which later, when sped up, proved popular in the Breakbeat genre. Off the back of its success in clubs, the Coldcut "Seven Minutes of Madness" remix ended up being promoted as the single in the UK. In 1988, More and Black formed Hex, a self-titled "multimedia pop group", with Mile Visman and Rob Pepperell. While working on videos for artists such as Kevin Saunderson, Queen Latifah and Spiritualized, Hex's collaborative work went on to incorporate 3D modelling, punk video art, and algorithmic visuals on desktop machines. The video for Coldcut's 'Christmas Break' in 1989 is arguably one of the first pop promos produced entirely on microcomputers. In 1988, Coldcut released Out To Lunch With Ahead Of Our Time, a double LP of Coldcut productions and re-cuts, and the various aliases under which the duo had recorded. This continued the duo's tradition of releasing limited available vinyl. The next Coldcut single, released in February 1988, moved towards a more house-influenced style. "Doctorin' the House", which debuted singer Yazz, became a top ten hit, and peaked at No. 6. In the same year, under the guise Yazz and the Plastic Population, they produced "The Only Way Is Up", a cover of a Northern soul song. The record reached No. 1 in the UK in August, and remained there for five weeks, becoming 1988's second biggest selling single. The single "People Hold On" became another UK Top 20 hit. Released in March 1989, it helped launch the career of the then relatively unknown singer Lisa Stansfield. Coldcut and Mark Saunders produced her debut solo single "This Is the Right Time", which became another UK Top 20 hit in August as well as reaching No. 21 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 the following year. As the duo started to enjoy critical and commercial success, their debut album ''What's That Noise?'' was released in April 1989 on Ahead of Our Time and distributed by Big Life Records. The album gave "breaks the full length treatment", and showcased "their heady blend of hip-hop production aesthetics and proto-acid house grooves". It also rounded up a heap of unconventional guest features, quoted by SPIN as having "somehow found room at the same table for Queen Latifah and Mark E. Smith". The album's track "I'm in Deep" (featuring Smith) prefigured the indie-dance guitar-breaks crossover of such bands as the Stone Roses and Happy Mondays, utilizing Smith's freestyle raucous vocals over an acid house backing, and also including psych guitar samples from British rock band Deep Purple. ''What's That Noise?'' reached the Top 20 in the UK and was certified Silver.1990s Coldcut's second album, Some Like It Cold, released in 1990 on Ahead Of Our Time, featured a collaboration with Queen Latifah on the single "Find a Way". Though "Find a Way" was a minor hit in the UK, no more singles were released from the album. The duo was given the BPI "Producer of the Year Award" in 1990. Hex - alongside some other London visual experimenters such as iE - produced a series of videos for a longform VHS version of the album. This continued Coldcut and Hex's pioneering of the use of microcomputers to synthesize electronic music visuals. After their success with Lisa Stansfield, Coldcut signed with her label, Arista. Conflicts arose with the major label, as Coldcut's "vision extended beyond the formulae of house and techno" and mainstream pop culture (CITATION: The Virgin Encyclopedia Of Nineties Music, 2000). Eventually, the duo's album Philosophy emerged in 1993. Singles "Dreamer" and "Autumn Leaves" (1994) sung by vocalist Janis Alexander were both minor hits but the album did not chart. "Autumn Leaves" had strings recorded at Abbey Road, with a 30-piece string section and an arrangement by film composer Ed Shearmur. The leader of the string section was Simon Jeffes of Penguin Cafe Orchestra. Coldcut's insistence on their friend Mixmaster Morris to remix "Autumn Leaves" led to one of Morris' most celebrated remixes, which became a minor legend in ambient music. It has appeared on numerous compilations. In 1990, whilst on their first tour in Japan (which also featured Norman Cook, who later became Fatboy Slim), Matt and Jon formed their second record label, Ninja Tune, as a self-titled "technocoloured escape pod", and a way to escape the creative control of major labels. The label enabled them to release music under different aliases (e.g. Bogus Order, DJ Food), which also helped them to avoid pigeonholing as producers. Ninja Tune's first release was Bogus Order's "Zen Brakes". The name Coldcut stayed with Arista so there were no official Coldcut releases for the next three years. During this time, Coldcut still produced for artists on their new label, releasing a flood of material under different names and continuing to work with young groups. Top Banana was innovative in that it used sampled graphics, contained an ecological theme and a female lead character (dubbed "KT"), and its music changed through random processes. Coldcut and Hex presented this multimedia project as an example of the forthcoming convergence of pop music and computer-game characters. In 1992, Hex's first single - "Global Chaos" / "Digital Love Opus 1" - combined rave visuals with techno and ambient interactive visuals. In November of that year, Hex released Global Chaos CDTV, which took advantage of the possibilities of the new CD-ROM medium. The Global Chaos CDTV disk (which contained the Top Banana game, interactive visuals and audio), was a forerunner of the "CD+" concept, uniting music, graphics, and video games into one. This multi-dimensional entertainment product received wide coverage in the national media, including features on Dance Energy, Kaleidoscope on BBC Radio 4, ''What's Up Doc? on ITV and Reportage on BBC Two. i-D Magazine'' was quoted as saying, "It's like your TV tripping". Coldcut videos were made for most songs, often by Hexstatic, and used a lot of stock and sampled footage. Their "Timber" video, which created an AV collage piece using analogous techniques to audio sample collage, was put on heavy rotation on MTV. Stuart Warren Hill of Hexstatic referred to this technique as: "What you see is what you hear". "Timber" (which appears on both Let Us Play, Coldcut's fourth album, and Let Us Replay, their fifth) won awards for its innovative use of repetitive video clips synced to the music, including being shortlisted at the Edinburgh Television and Film Festival in their top five music videos of the year in 1998. Coldcut began integrating video sampling into their live DJ gigs at the time, and incorporated multimedia content that caused press to credit the act as segueing "into the computer age". Throughout the 90s, Hex created visuals for Coldcut's live performances, and developed the CD-ROM portion of Coldcut's Let Us Play and Let Us Replay, in addition to software developed specifically for the album's world tour. Hex's inclusion of music videos and "playtools" (playful art/music software programs) on Coldcut's CD-ROM was completely ahead of the curve at that time, offering viewers/listeners a high level of interactivity. Playtools such as My Little Funkit and Playtime were the prototypes for [http://www.ninjajamm.com/ Ninja Jamm], the app Coldcut designed and launched 16 years later. Playtime followed on from Coldcut and Hex's Synopticon installation, developing the auto-cutup algorhythm, and using other random processes to generate surprising combinations. Coldcut and Hex performed live using Playtime at the 1st Sonar Festival in 1994. Playtime was also used to generate the backing track for Coldcut's collaboration with Jello Biafra, "Every Home a Prison". In 1994, Coldcut and Hex contributed an installation to the Glasgow Gallery of Modern Art. The piece, called Generator, was installed in the Fire Gallery. Generator was an interactive installation which allowed users to mix sound, video, text and graphics and make their own audio-visual mix, modelled on the techniques and technology used by Coldcut in clubs and live performance events. It consisted of two consoles: the left controlling how the sounds are played, the right controlling how the images are played. As part of the JAM exhibition of "Style, Music and Media" at the Barbican Art Gallery in 1996, Coldcut and Hex were commissioned to produce an interactive audiovisual piece called Synopticon. Conceived and designed by Robert Pepperell and Matt Black, the digital culture synthesiser allows users to "remix" sounds, images, text and music in a partially random, partially controlled way. The year 1996 also brought the Coldcut name back to More and Black, and the pair celebrated with 70 Minutes of Madness, a mix CD that became part of the Journeys by DJ series. The release was credited with "bringing to wider attention the sort of freestyle mixing the pair were always known for through their radio show on KISS FM, Solid Steel, and their steady club dates". It was voted "Best Compilation of All Time" by Jockey Slut in 1998. In February 1997, they released a double pack single "Atomic Moog 2000" / "Boot the System", the first Coldcut release on Ninja Tune. This was not eligible for the UK chart because time and format restrictions prevented the inclusion of the "Natural Rhythm" video on the CD. In August 1997, a reworking of the early track "More Beats + Pieces" gave them their first UK Top 40 hit since 1989. The album Let Us Play! followed in September and also made the Top 40. The fourth album by Coldcut, Let Us Play! paid homage to the greats that inspired them. Their first album to be released on Ninja Tune, it featured guest appearances by Grandmaster Flash, Steinski, Jello Biafra, Jimpster, The Herbaliser, Talvin Singh, Daniel Pemberton and Selena Saliva. Coldcut's cut 'n' paste method on the album was compared to that of Dadaism and William Burroughs. Hex collaborated with Coldcut to produce the multimedia CD-ROM for the album. Hex later evolved the software into the engine that was used on the Let Us Play! world tour. In 1997, Matt Black - alongside Cambridge based developers Camart - created real-time video manipulation software VJAMM. It allowed users to be a "digital video jockey", remixing and collaging sound and images and trigger audio and visual samples simultaneously, subsequently bringing futuristic technology to the audio-visual field. VJAMM rivalled some of the features of high-end and high cost tech at the time. The VJAMM technology, praised as being proof of how far computers changed the face of live music, became seminal in both Coldcut's live sets (which were called a "revelaton" by Melody Maker software was deemed revolutionary, and became recognized as a major factor in the evolution of clubs. It eventually earned a place in the American Museum of the Moving Image's permanent collection. NME was quoted as saying: "Veteran duo Coldcut are so cool they invented the remix - now they are doing the same for television." Also working with Camart, Black designed DJamm software in 1998, which Coldcut used on laptops for their live shows, providing the audio bed alongside VJAMM's audiovisual samples. Matt Black explained they designed DJamm so they "could perform electronic music in a different way – i.e., not just taking a session band out to reproduce what you put together in the studio using samples. It had a relationship to DJing, but was more interactive and more effective." Excitingly at that time, DJamm was pioneering in its ability to shuffle sliced loops into intricate sequences, enabling users to split loops into any number of parts. In 1999, Let Us Replay! was released, a double-disc remix album where Coldcut's classic tunes were remixed by the likes of Cornelius (which was heralded as a highlight of the album, Let Us Replay! pieces together "short sharp shocks that put the mental in 'experimental' and still bring the breaks till the breakadawn". It also includes a few live tracks from the duo's innovative world tour. The CD-ROM of the album, which also contained a free demo disc of the VJamm software, was one of the earliest audiovisual CD- ROMs on the market, and Muzik claimed deserved to "have them canonized...it's like buying an entire mini studio for under $15".2000s In 2000, the Solid Steel show moved to BBC London. Coldcut continued to forge interesting collaborations, including 2001's Re:volution as an EP in which Coldcut created their own political party (The Guilty Party). Featuring scratches and samples of Tony Blair and William Hague speeches, the 3-track EP included Nautilus' "Space Journey", which won an Intermusic contest in 2000. The video was widely played on MTV. With "Space Journey", Coldcut were arguably the first group to give fans access to the multitrack parts, or "stems" of their songs, building on the idea of interactivity and sharing from Let Us Play. In 2001, Coldcut produced tracks for the Sega music video game Rez. Rez replaced typical video-game sound effects with electronic music; the player created sounds and melodies, intended to simulate a form of synesthesia. The soundtrack also featured Adam Freeland and Oval. In 2002, while utilizing VJamm and Detraktor, Coldcut and Juxta remixed Herbie Hancock's classic "Rockit", creating both an audio and video remix. Working with Marcus Clements in 2002, Coldcut released the sample manipulation algorhythm from their DJamm software as a standalone VST plugin that could be used in other software, naming it the "Coldcutter". Also in 2002, Coldcut with UK VJs Headspace (now mainly performing as the VJamm Allstars developed Gridio, an interactive, immersive audio-visual installation for the Pompidou Centre as part of the ‘'Sonic Process exhibition. The Sonic Process'' exhibition was launched at the MACBA in Barcelona in conjunction with Sónar, featuring Gridio as its centerpiece. In 2003, a commission for Graz led to a specially built version of Gridio, in a cave inside the castle mountain in Austria. Gridio was later commissioned by O2 for two simultaneous customised installations at the O2 Wireless Festivals in Leeds and London in 2007. That same year, Gridio was featured as part of Optronica at the opening week of the new BFI Southbank development in London. In 2003, Black worked with Penny Rimbaud (ex Crass) on Crass Agenda's Savage Utopia project. Black performed the piece with Rimbaud, Eve Libertine and other players at London's Vortex Jazz Club. In 2004, Coldcut collaborated with American video mashup artist TV Sheriff to produce their cut-up entitled "Revolution USA". The tactical-media project (coordinated with Canadian art duo NomIg) followed on from the UK version and extended the premise "into an open access participatory project". Through the multimedia political art project, over 12 gigabytes of footage from the last 40 years of US politics were made accessible to download, allowing participants to create a cut-up over a Coldcut beat. Coldcut also collaborated with TV Sheriff and NomIg to produce two audiovisual pieces "World of Evil" (2004) and "Revolution '08" (2008), both composed of footage from the United States presidential elections of respective years. The music used was composed by Coldcut, with "Revolution '08" featuring a remix by the Qemists. Later that year, a collaboration with the British Antarctic Survey (BAS) led to the psychedelic art documentary Wavejammer. Coldcut was given access to the BAS archive in order to create sounds and visuals for the short film. Two thousand and four also saw Coldcut produce a radio play in conjunction with renowned young author Hari Kunzru for BBC Radio 3 (incidentally called Sound Mirrors). Coldcut returned with the single "Everything Is Under Control" at the end of 2005, featuring Jon Spencer (of Jon Spencer Blues Explosion) and Mike Ladd. It was followed in 2006 by their fifth studio album Sound Mirrors, which was quoted as being "one of the most vital and imaginative records Jon Moore and Matt Black have ever made", and saw the duo "continue, impressively, to find new ways to present political statements through a gamut of pristine electronics and breakbeats" (CITATION: Future Music, 2007). The fascinating array of guest vocalists The same track appeared on the soundtrack of the video game FIFA Street 2. Sponsored by the British Council, in 2005 Coldcut introduced AV mixing to India with the Union project, alongside collaborators Howie B and Aki Nawaz of Fun-Da-Mental. Coldcut created an A/V remix of the Bollywood hit movie Kal Ho Naa Ho. In 2006, Coldcut performed an A/V set based on "Music for 18 Musicians" as part of Steve Reich's 70th birthday gig at the Barbican Centre in London. This was originally written for the 1999 album Reich Remixed. Coldcut remixed another classic song in 2007: Nina Simone's "Save Me". This was part of a remix album called Nina Simone: Remixed & Re-imagined, featuring remixes from Tony Humphries, Francois K and Chris Coco. In February 2007, Coldcut and Mixmaster Morris created a psychedelic AV obituary/tribute Coldcut, Mixmaster Morris, Ken Campbell, Bill Drummond and Alan Moore (18 March 2007). [http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x366w1_robert-anton-wilson-1-ken-campbell_fun Robert Anton Wilson tribute show]. Queen Elizabeth Hall, London: Mixmaster Morris. (28 August 2009) to Robert Anton Wilson, the 60s author of Illuminatus! Trilogy. The tribute featured graphic novel writer Alan Moore and artist Bill Drummond and a performance by experimental theatre legend Ken Campbell. Coldcut and Morris' hour and a half performance resembled a documentary being remixed on the fly, cutting up nearly 15 hours' worth of Wilson's lectures. In 2008, an international group of party organisers, activists and artists including Coldcut received a grant from the Intelligent Energy Department of the European Union, to create a project that promoted intelligent energy and environmental awareness to the youth of Europe. The result was Energy Union, a piece of VJ cinema, political campaign, music tour, party, art exhibition and social media hub. Energy Union toured 12 EU countries throughout 2009 and 2010, completing 24 events in total. Coldcut created the Energy Union show for the tour, a one-hour Audio/Visual montage on the theme of Intelligent Energy. In presenting new ideas for climate, environmental and energy communication strategies, the Energy Union tour was well received, and reached a widespread audience in cities across the UK, Germany, Belgium, The Netherlands, Croatia, Slovenia, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, Spain and the Czech Republic. Also in 2008, Coldcut was asked to remix the theme song for British cult TV show Doctor Who for the program's 40th anniversary. In October 2008, Coldcut celebrated the legacy of the BBC Radiophonic Workshop (the place where the Doctor Who theme was created) with a live DJ mix at London's legendary Roundhouse. The live mix incorporated classic Radiophonic Workshop compositions with extended sampling of the original gear. Additionally in 2008, Coldcut remixed "Ourselves", a Japanese No. 1 hit from the single "&" by Ayumi Hamasaki. This mix was included on the album Ayu-mi-x 6: Gold. Starting in 2009, Matt Black, with musician/artist/coder Paul Miller (creator of the TX Modular Open Source synth), developed Granul8, a new type of visual fx/source Black termed a "granular video synthesiser". Granul8 allows the use of realtime VJ techniques including video feedback combined with VDMX VJ software. From 2009 onwards, Black has been collaborating with coder and psychedelic mathematician William Rood to create a forthcoming project called Liveloom, a social media AV mixer. Recent work In 2010, Coldcut celebrated 20 years of releasing music with its label, Ninja Tune. A book entitled Ninja Tune: 20 Years of Beats and Pieces was released on 12 August 2010, and an exhibition was held at Black Dog Publishing's Black Dog Space in London, showcasing artwork, design and photography from the label's 20-year history. A compilation album was released on 20 September in two formats: a regular version consisting of two 2-disc volumes, and a limited edition which contained six CDs, six 7" vinyl singles, a hardback copy of the book, a poster and additional items. Ninja Tune also incorporated a series of international parties. This repositioned Ninja as a continually compelling and influential label, being one of the "longest-running (and successful) UK indie labels to come out of the late-1980s/early-90s explosion in dance music and hip-hop" (Pitchfork, 28 September 2010). Pitchfork claimed it had a "right to show off a little". In July 2013, Coldcut produced a piece entitled "D'autre" based on the writings of French poet Arthur Rimbaud, for Forum Des Images in Paris. The following month, in August, Coldcut produced a new soundtrack for a section of André Sauvage's classic film Études sur Paris, which was shown as part of Noise of Art at the BFI in London, which celebrated 100 years of electronic music and silent cinema. Coldcut put new music to films from the Russolo era, incorporating original recordings of Russolo's proto-synths. In 2014, Coldcut did three soundtracks as part of the project New City, a series of animated skylines of the near future developed by Tomorrow's Thought Today's Liam Young, with accompanying writing from sci-fi authors Jeff Noon, Pat Cadigan and Tim Maughan. Most recently, Coldcut released Ninja Jamm, a music making app, for Android and iOS, in collaboration with London-based arts and technology firm Seeper. Geared toward both casual listeners and more experienced DJs and music producers, the freemium app allows users to download, remix and make music with samplepacks and tunepacks that feature pro quality sample libraries and also original tracks and mixes by Coldcut, as well as other Ninja artists, creating something new altogether. With the "intuitive yet deep" app, users can turn instruments on and off, swap between clips, add glitches and effects, trigger and pitch-bend stabs and one-off samples, and change the tempo of the track instantly. Users can additionally record as they mix and instantly upload to SoundCloud or save the mixes locally. Tunepack releases for Ninja Jamm are increasingly synchronised with Ninja Tune releases on conventional formats. To date, over 30 tunepacks have been released, including Amon Tobin, Bonobo, Coldcut, DJ Food, Martyn, Lapalux, Machinedrum, Raffertie, Irresistible Force, FaltyDL, Shuttle, Starkey. Ninja Jamm was featured by Apple in the New and Noteworthy section of the App Store in the week of release and it received over 100,000 downloads in the first week. Coldcut are developing Ninja Jamm further after the Android release garnered acclaim from the Guardian, Independent, Gizmodo and many more reviewers. In 2017, Ahead Of Our Time released the album Stories From Far Away On Piano by James Heather, and also released its follow up in 2022, the album Invisible Forces. On 6 December 2017, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a play, Billie Homeless Dies at the End by Tom Kelly with electronic music by Coldcut. In 2020, Coldcut appeared on the global music/afrobeat album Keleketla! (with artists such as Tenderlonious, Tamar Osborn, Sibusile Xaba, Thabang Tabane and Tony Allen), which was released on their Ahead of Our Time Records label. On November 19th, 2021 Ahead of Our Time released an ambient compilation curated out of old and new compositions and extra sequencing with the help of Mixmaster Morris. The compilation featured music by Ryuichi Sakamoto, Julianna Barwick, Daniel Pemberton, Kaitlyn Aurelia Smith, Sigur Rós, Laraaji and many more artists, purposefully ranging in prominence. Discography Albums {| class"wikitable plainrowheaders" style"text-align:center;" border="1" |+ List of albums, with selected chart positions ! scope"col" rowspan"2" style="width:12em;" | Title ! scope"col" rowspan"2" style="width:16em;" | Album details ! scope"col" colspan"2" | Peak chart<br />positions |- ! scope"col" style"width:3em; font-size:85%" | UK<br> ! scope"col" style"width:3em; font-size:85%" | AUS<br /> |- ! scope="row" | ''What's That Noise? | * Released: 1989 | 20 || 103 |- ! scope="row" | Some Like It Cold | * Released: 1990 | || 153 |- ! scope="row" | Philosophy | * Released: 1993 | || — |- ! scope="row" | Let Us Play! | * Released: 1997 * Label: Ninja Tune | 33 || 153 |- ! scope="row" | Sound Mirrors | * Released: 2006 | — || — |- |} Singles {| class"wikitable plainrowheaders" style"text-align:center;" |- ! rowspan="2"| Year ! rowspan"2" style"width:38em;"| Single ! colspan="10"| Peak positions ! rowspan="2"| Album |- style="font-size:smaller;" ! style"width:35px;"| <small>UK</small><br> ! style="width:35px;"| <small>IRE</small> ! style="width:35px;"| <small>NED</small> ! style="width:35px;"| <small>BEL<br>(FLA)</small> ! style="width:35px;"| <small>FRA</small> ! style="width:35px;"| <small>SWI</small> ! style"width:35px;"| <small>GER</small><br> ! style"width:35px;"| <small>AUS</small> |- | rowspan="2"| 1987 ! scope="row"| "Say Kids What Time Is It?" | — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — | style="text-align:left;"| Single only |- ! scope="row"| "Beats + Pieces" <small>(featuring Floormaster Squeeze)</small> | — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — | style"text-align:left;" rowspan"5"| What's That Noise?'' |- | rowspan="2"| 1988 ! scope="row"| "Doctorin' the House" <small>(featuring Yazz & the Plastic Population)</small> | 6 || 16 || 20 || 40 || — || 4 || 11 || 45 || 33 || 3 |- ! scope="row"| "Stop This Crazy Thing" <small>(featuring Junior Reid & the Ahead of Our Time Orchestra)</small> | 21 || — || 22 || 24 || — || 19 || 28 || 83 || — || 32 |- | rowspan="3"| 1989 ! scope="row"| "People Hold On" <small>(featuring Lisa Stansfield)</small> | 11 || — || 37 || 32 || 45 || — || 24 || 78 || 38 || 6 |- ! scope="row"| "My Telephone" <small>(featuring Lisa Stansfield)</small> | 52 || — || — || — || — || — || 62 || — || — || — |- ! scope="row"| "Coldcut's Christmas Break" | 67 || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — | style"text-align:left;" rowspan"2"| Singles only |- | rowspan="2"| 1990 ! scope="row"| "Coldcut' Megamix" <small>(France only)</small> | — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — |- ! scope="row"| "Find a Way" <small>(featuring Queen Latifah)</small> | 52 || — || 85 || — || — || — || — || — || — || — | style="text-align:left;"| Some Like It Cold |- | 1993 ! scope="row"| "Dreamer" | 54 || — || — || — || — || — || — || 107 || — || — | style"text-align:left;" rowspan"2"| Philosophy |- | 1993 ! scope="row"| "Autumn Leaves" | 50 || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — |- | rowspan="2"| 1997 ! scope="row"| "Atomic Moog 2000 / Boot the System" | — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — | style"text-align:left;" rowspan"3"| Let Us Play! |- ! scope="row"| "More Beats + Pieces" | 37 || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — |- | 1998 ! scope="row"| "Timber" <small>(with Hexstatic)</small> | 86 || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || 30 || — |- | 2001 ! scope="row"| "Re:volution" <small>(as Coldcut & the Guilty Party)</small> | 67 || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — | style="text-align:left;"| Single only |- | rowspan="2"| 2005 ! scope="row"| "Mr. Nichols" <small>(featuring Saul Williams)</small> <small>(promo only)</small> | — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — | style"text-align:left;" rowspan"5"| Sound Mirrors |- ! scope="row"| "Everything Is Under Control" <small>(featuring Jon Spencer and Mike Ladd)</small> | 93 || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — |- | rowspan="3"| 2006 ! scope="row"| "Man in a Garage" <small>(featuring John Matthias)</small> | 95 || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — |- ! scope="row"| "True Skool" <small>(featuring Roots Manuva)</small> | 61 || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — |- ! scope="row"| "Walk a Mile in My Shoes" <small>(featuring Robert Owens)</small> | 103 || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — |- | 2016 ! scope="row"| "Everyday Another Sanction" <small>(as Coldcut x On-U Sound featuring Chezidek)</small> | — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — | style="text-align:left;"| Outside the Echo Chamber |- | colspan"13" style"text-align:center; font-size:8pt;"| "—" denotes releases that did not chart or were not released. |} Compilations and mix albums * ColdKrushCuts (mixed by Coldcut / DJ Food + DJ Krush) (1996) * Journeys by DJ: 70 minutes of Madness (1995) * Let Us Replay! (1999) * Cold-Cut-Outs (2002) * People Hold On — The Best of Coldcut (2004) * Coldcut Selection Deal * @0 (with Mixmaster Morris) (2021) Other * Zen Brakes [as Bogus Order] (1990) * Only Heaven EP (2016) * Outside the Echo Chamber [as Coldcut x On-U Sound] (2017) References External links * [http://coldcut.net/ Coldcut.net], official site * * * [http://www.ninjatune.net/ninja/artist.php?id=3 Ninja Tune: Coldcut] * [http://r4nt.com/article/interview-with-coldcut/ Interview with Matt Black on R4NT Magazine] * [http://www.furious.com/perfect/coldcut.html Interview by Iara Lee (Modulations)] at Furious.com Category:English electronic music duos Category:English hip-hop groups Category:British record production teams Category:Record production duos Category:English male musical duos Category:Electronic music groups from London Category:Ninja Tune artists Category:Tommy Boy Records artists Category:Big Life artists
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coldcut
2025-04-05T18:27:53.800848