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7257	Caste	weaving bamboo baskets in a 1916 book. The Basor'' are a Scheduled Caste found in the state of Uttar Pradesh in India.]] A caste is a fixed social group into which an individual is born within a particular system of social stratification: a caste system. Within such a system, individuals are expected to marry exclusively within the same caste (endogamy), follow lifestyles often linked to a particular occupation, hold a ritual status observed within a hierarchy, and interact with others based on cultural notions of exclusion, with certain castes considered as either more pure or more polluted than others. The term "caste" is also applied to morphological groupings in eusocial insects such as ants, bees, and termites. The paradigmatic ethnographic example of caste is the division of India's Hindu society into rigid social groups. Its roots lie in South Asia's ancient history and it still exists; The Portuguese and Spanish word "caste" originated in Gothic "kasts" - "group of animals". The word entered the languages of the Iberian Peninsula with the sense "type of animal," and soon developed into "race of men" and later "class, condition of men". When the Spanish colonised the New World, they used the word to mean a 'clan or lineage'. It was, however, the Portuguese, the first Europeans to reach India by sea in 1498, to first employ in the primary modern sense of the English word 'caste' when they applied it to the thousands of endogamous, hereditary Indian social groups they encountered. The use of the spelling caste, with this latter meaning, is first attested in English in 1613. In South Asia India Modern India's caste system is based on the superimposition of an old four-fold theoretical classification called varna on the social ethnic grouping called jāti. The Vedic period conceptualised a society as consisting of four types of varnas, or categories: Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra, according to the nature of the work of its members. Varna was not an inherited category and the occupation determined the varna. However, a person's Jati is determined at birth and makes them take up that Jati's occupation; members could and did change their occupation based on personal strengths as well as economic, social and political factors. A 2016 study based on the DNA analysis of unrelated Indians determined that endogamous jatis originated during the Gupta Empire. Today, there are around 3,000 castes and 25,000 sub-castes in India. From 1901 onwards, for the purposes of the Decennial Census, the British colonial authorities arbitrarily and incorrectly forced all Jātis into the four Varna categories as described in ancient texts. Herbert Hope Risley, the Census Commissioner, noted that "The principle suggested as a basis was that of classification by social precedence as recognized by native public opinion at the present day, and manifesting itself in the facts that particular castes are supposed to be the modern representatives of one or other of the castes of the theoretical Indian system." Varna, as mentioned in ancient Hindu texts, describes society as divided into four categories: Brahmins (scholars and yajna priests), Kshatriyas (rulers and warriors), Vaishyas (farmers, merchants and artisans) and Shudras (workmen/service providers). Scholars believe that the Varnas system was never truly operational in society and there is no evidence of it ever being a reality in Indian history. The practical division of the society has been in terms of Jatis (birth groups), which are not based on any specific religious principle but could vary from ethnic origins to occupations to geographic areas. The Jātis have been endogamous social groups without any fixed hierarchy but subject to vague notions of rank articulated over time based on lifestyle and social, political, or economic status. Many of India's major empires and dynasties like the Mauryas, Shalivahanas, Chalukyas, Kakatiyas among many others, were founded by people who would have been classified as Shudras, under the Varnas system, as interpreted by the British rulers. It is well established that by the 9th century, kings from all the four Varnas, including Brahmins and Vaishyas, had occupied the highest seat in the monarchical system in Hindu India, contrary to the Varna theory. Historically the kings and rulers had been called upon to mediate on the ranks of Jātis, which might number in thousands all over the subcontinent and vary by region. In practice, the jātis are seen to fit into the varna classes, but the varna status of jātis itself was subject to articulation over time. Starting with the 1901 Census of India led by colonial administrator Herbert Hope Risley, all the jātis were grouped under the theoretical varnas categories. According to political scientist Lloyd Rudolph, Risley believed that varna, however ancient, could be applied to all the modern castes found in India, and "[he] meant to identify and place several hundred million Indians within it." The terms varna (conceptual classification based on occupation) and jāti (groups) are two distinct concepts: while varna is a theoretical four-part division, jāti (community) refers to the thousands of actual endogamous social groups prevalent across the subcontinent. The classical authors scarcely speak of anything other than the varnas, as it provided a convenient shorthand; but a problem arises when colonial Indologists sometimes confuse the two. in 1837, which confirms the popular perception and nature of caste as Jati, before the British colonial authorities made it applicable only to Hindus grouped under the varna categories from the 1901 census onwards]] Upon independence from Britain, the Indian Constitution listed 1,108 Jatis across the country as Scheduled Castes in 1950, for positive discrimination. This constitution would also ban discrimination of the basis of the caste, though its practice in India remained intact. The Untouchable communities are sometimes called Dalit or Harijan in contemporary literature. In 2001, Dalits were 16.2% of India's population. Most of the 15 million bonded child workers are from the lowest castes. Independent India has witnessed caste-related violence. In 2005, government recorded approximately 110,000 cases of reported violent acts, including rape and murder, against Dalits. The socio-economic limitations of the caste system are reduced due to urbanisation and affirmative action. Nevertheless, the caste system still exists in endogamy and patrimony, and politics. The globalisation and economic opportunities from foreign businesses has influenced the growth of India's middle-class population. Some members of the Chhattisgarh Potter Caste Community (CPCC) are middle-class urban professionals and no longer potters unlike the remaining majority of traditional rural potter members. There is persistence of caste in Indian politics. Caste associations have evolved into caste-based political parties. Political parties and the state perceive caste as an important factor for mobilisation of people and policy development. Studies by Bhatt and Beteille have shown changes in status, openness, mobility in the social aspects of Indian society. As a result of modern socio-economic changes in the country, India is experiencing significant changes in the dynamics and the economics of its social sphere. While arranged marriages are still the most common practice in India, the internet has provided a network for younger Indians to take control of their relationships through the use of dating apps. This remains isolated to informal terms, as marriage is not often achieved through the use of these apps. Hypergamy is still a common practice in India and Hindu culture. Men are expected to marry within their caste, or one below, with no social repercussions. If a woman marries into a higher caste, then her children will take the status of their father. If she marries down, her family is reduced to the social status of their son in law. In this case, the women are bearers of the egalitarian principle of the marriage. There would be no benefit in marrying a higher caste if the terms of the marriage did not imply equality. However, men are systematically shielded from the negative implications of the agreement. Geographical factors also determine adherence to the caste system. Many Northern villages are more likely to participate in exogamous marriage, due to a lack of eligible suitors within the same caste. Women in North India have been found to be less likely to leave or divorce their husbands since they are of a relatively lower caste system, and have higher restrictions on their freedoms. On the other hand, Pahari women, of the northern mountains, have much more freedom to leave their husbands without stigma. This often leads to better husbandry as his actions are not protected by social expectations. Chiefly among the factors influencing the rise of exogamy is the rapid urbanisation in India experienced over the last century. It is well known that urban centers tend to be less reliant on agriculture and are more progressive as a whole. As India's cities boomed in population, the job market grew to keep pace. Prosperity and stability were now more easily attained by an individual, and the anxiety to marry quickly and effectively was reduced. Thus, younger, more progressive generations of urban Indians are less likely than ever to participate in the antiquated system of arranged endogamy. India has also implemented a form of Affirmative Action, locally known as "reservation groups". Quota system jobs, as well as placements in publicly funded colleges, hold spots for the 8% of India's minority, and underprivileged groups. As a result, in states such as Tamil Nadu or those in the north-east, where underprivileged populations predominate, over 80% of government jobs are set aside in quotas. In education, colleges lower the marks necessary for the Dalits to enter. Nepal The Nepali caste system resembles in some respects the Indian jāti system, with numerous jāti divisions with a varna system superimposed. Inscriptions attest the beginnings of a caste system during the Licchavi period. Jayasthiti Malla (1382–1395) categorised Newars into 64 castes (Gellner 2001). A similar exercise was made during the reign of Mahindra Malla (1506–1575). The Hindu social code was later set up in the Gorkha Kingdom by Ram Shah (1603–1636). Pakistan McKim Marriott claims a social stratification that is hierarchical, closed, endogamous and hereditary is widely prevalent, particularly in western parts of Pakistan. Frederik Barth in his review of this system of social stratification in Pakistan suggested that these are castes. Sri Lanka The caste system in Sri Lanka is a division of society into strata, influenced by the textbook jāti system found in India. Ancient Sri Lankan texts such as the Pujavaliya, Sadharmaratnavaliya and Yogaratnakaraya and inscriptional evidence show that the above hierarchy prevailed throughout the feudal period. The repetition of the same caste hierarchy even as recently as the 18th century, in the Kandyan-period Kadayimpoth – Boundary books as well indicates the continuation of the tradition right up to the end of Sri Lanka's monarchy. Outside South Asia Southeast Asia . Photo from 1870, courtesy of Tropenmuseum, Netherlands.]] Indonesia Balinese caste structure has been described as being based either on three categories—the noble triwangsa (thrice born), the middle class of dwijāti (twice born), and the lower class of ekajāti (once born), much similar to the traditional Indian BKVS social stratification — or on four castes Brahminas – priest Satrias – knighthood Wesias – commerce Sudras – servitude The Brahmana caste was further subdivided by Dutch ethnographers into two: Siwa and Buda. The Siwa caste was subdivided into five: Kemenuh, Keniten, Mas, Manuba and Petapan. This classification was to accommodate the observed marriage between higher-caste Brahmana men with lower-caste women. The other castes were similarly further sub-classified by 19th-century and early-20th-century ethnographers based on numerous criteria ranging from profession, endogamy or exogamy or polygamy, and a host of other factors in a manner similar to castas in Spanish colonies such as Mexico, and caste system studies in British colonies such as India. * Classless societies – egalitarian societies with no class structure. Examples include the Mangyan and the Kalanguya peoples. :* Royalty – (Visayan: kadatoan) the datu and immediate descendants. They are often further categorised according to purity of lineage. The power of the datu is dependent on the willingness of their followers to render him respect and obedience. Most roles of the datu were judicial and military. In case of an unfit datu, support may be withdrawn by his followers. Datu were almost always male, though in some ethnic groups like the Banwaon people, the female shaman (babaiyon) co-rules as the female counterpart of the datu. :* Nobility – (Visayan: tumao; Tagalog: maginoo; Kapampangan ginu; Tausug: bangsa mataas) the ruling class, either inclusive of or exclusive of the royal family. Most are descendants of the royal line or gained their status through wealth or bravery in battle. They owned lands and subjects, from whom they collected taxes. :* Shamans – (Visayan: babaylan; Tagalog: katalonan) the spirit mediums, usually female or feminised men. While they were not technically a caste, they commanded the same respect and status as nobility. :* Warriors – (Visayan: timawa; Tagalog: maharlika) the martial class. They could own land and subjects like the higher ranks, but were required to fight for the datu in times of war. In some Filipino ethnic groups, they were often tattooed extensively to record feats in battle and as protection against harm. They were sometimes further subdivided into different classes, depending on their relationship with the datu. They traditionally went on seasonal raids on enemy settlements. :* Commoners and slaves – (Visayan, Maguindanao: ulipon; Tagalog: alipin; Tausug: kiapangdilihan; Maranao: kakatamokan) – the lowest class composed of the rest of the community who were not part of the enfranchised classes. They were further subdivided into the commoner class who had their own houses, the servants who lived in the houses of others, and the slaves who were usually captives from raids, criminals, or debtors. Most members of this class were equivalent to the European serf class, who paid taxes and can be conscripted to communal tasks, but were more or less free to do as they please. East Asia China and Mongolia During the period of the Yuan dynasty, ruler Kublai Khan enforced a Four Class System, which was a legal caste system. The order of four classes of people in descending order were: * Mongolian * Semu people * Han people (in the northern areas of China) * Southerners (people of the former Southern Song dynasty) Tibet There is significant controversy over the social classes of Tibet, especially with regards to the serfdom in Tibet controversy. There were three main feudal social groups in Tibet prior to 1959, namely ordinary laypeople (mi ser in Tibetan), lay nobility (sger pa), and monks. has put forth the argument that pre-1950s Tibetan society was functionally a caste system, in contrast to previous scholars who defined the Tibetan social class system as similar to European feudal serfdom, as well as non-scholarly western accounts which seek to romanticise a supposedly 'egalitarian' ancient Tibetan society. Japan , higher than most court nobles.]] In Japan's history, social strata based on inherited position rather than personal merit, were rigid and highly formalised in a system called (). At the top were the Emperor and Court nobles (kuge), together with the Shōgun and daimyō. Older scholars believed that there were of "samurai, peasants (hyakushō), craftsmen, and merchants (chōnin)" under the daimyo, with 80% of peasants under the 5% samurai class, followed by craftsmen and merchants. However, various studies have revealed since about 1995 that the classes of peasants, craftsmen, and merchants under the samurai are equal, and the old hierarchy chart has been removed from Japanese history textbooks. In other words, peasants, craftsmen, and merchants are not a social pecking order, but a social classification. . The samurai represented a hereditary social class defined by the right to bear arms and to hold public office, as well as high social status.]] Marriage between certain classes was generally prohibited. In particular, marriage between daimyo and court nobles was forbidden by the Tokugawa shogunate because it could lead to political maneuvering. For the same reason, marriages between daimyo and high-ranking hatamoto of the samurai class required the approval of the Tokugawa shogunate. It was also forbidden for a member of the samurai class to marry a peasant, craftsman, or merchant, but this was done through a loophole in which a person from a lower class was adopted into the samurai class and then married. Since there was an economic advantage for a poor samurai class person to marry a wealthy merchant or peasant class woman, they would adopt a merchant or peasant class woman into the samurai class as an adopted daughter and then marry her. Samurai had the right to strike and even kill with their sword anyone of a lower class who compromised their honour. Japan had its own untouchable caste, shunned and ostracised, historically referred to by the insulting term eta, now called burakumin. While modern law has officially abolished the class hierarchy, there are reports of discrimination against the buraku or burakumin underclasses. The burakumin are regarded as "ostracised". The burakumin are one of the main minority groups in Japan, along with the Ainu of Hokkaido and those of Korean or Chinese descent. Korea The baekjeong () were an "untouchable" outcaste of Korea. The meaning today is that of butcher. It originates in the Khitan invasion of Korea in the 11th century. The defeated Khitans who surrendered were settled in isolated communities throughout Goryeo to forestall rebellion. They were valued for their skills in hunting, herding, butchering, and making of leather, common skill sets among nomads. Over time, their ethnic origin was forgotten, and they formed the bottom layer of Korean society. In 1392, with the foundation of the Confucian Joseon dynasty, Korea systemised its own native class system. At the top were the two official classes, the Yangban, which literally means "two classes". It was composed of scholars () and warriors (). Scholars had a significant social advantage over the warriors. Below were the (: literally "middle people"). This was a small class of specialised professions such as medicine, accounting, translators, regional bureaucrats, etc. Below that were the (: literally 'commoner'), farmers working their own fields. Korea also had a serf population known as the nobi. The nobi population could fluctuate up to about one third of the population, but on average the nobi made up about 10% of the total population. In 1801, the vast majority of government nobi were emancipated, and by 1858 the nobi population stood at about 1.5% of the total population of Korea. The hereditary nobi system was officially abolished around 1886–87 and the rest of the nobi system was abolished with the Gabo Reform of 1894, They focused on social and economic injustices affecting them, hoping to create an egalitarian Korean society. Their efforts included attacking social discrimination by upper class, authorities, and "commoners", and the use of degrading language against children in public schools. With the Gabo reform of 1896, the class system of Korea was officially abolished. Following the collapse of the Gabo government, the new cabinet, which became the Gwangmu government after the establishment of the Korean Empire, introduced systematic measures for abolishing the traditional class system. One measure was the new household registration system, reflecting the goals of formal social equality, which was implemented by the loyalists' cabinet. Whereas the old registration system signified household members according to their hierarchical social status, the new system called for an occupation. While most Koreans by then had surnames and even , although still substantial number of , mostly consisted of serfs and slaves, and untouchables did not. According to the new system, they were then required to fill in the blanks for surname in order to be registered as constituting separate households. Instead of creating their own family name, some appropriated their masters' surname, while others simply took the most common surname and its in the local area. Along with this example, activists within and outside the Korean government had based their visions of a new relationship between the government and people through the concept of citizenship, employing the term ("people") and later, ("citizen"). Called Songbun, Barbara Demick describes this "class structure" as an updating of the hereditary "caste system", a combination of Confucianism and Communism. It originated in 1946 and was entrenched by the 1960s, and consisted of 53 categories ranging across three classes: loyal, wavering, and impure. The privileged "loyal" class included members of the Korean Workers' Party and Korean People's Army officers' corps, the wavering class included peasants, and the impure class included collaborators with Imperial Japan and landowners. She claims that a bad family background is called "tainted blood", and that by law this "tainted blood" lasts three generations. West Asia Kurdistan Yazidis There are three hereditary groups, often called castes, in Yazidism. Membership in the Yazidi society and a caste is conferred by birth. Pîrs and Sheikhs are the priestly castes, which are represented by many sacred lineages (). Sheikhs are in charge of both religious and administrative functions and are divided into three endogamous houses, Şemsanî, Adanî and Qatanî who are in turn divided into lineages. The Pîrs are in charge of purely religious functions and traditionally consist of 40 lineages or clans, but approximately 90 appellations of Pîr lineages have been found, which may have been a result of new sub-lineages arising and number of clans increasing over time due to division as Yazidis settled in different places and countries. Division could occur in one family, if there were a few brothers in one clan, each of them could become the founder of their own Pîr sub-clan (). Mirîds are the lay caste and are divided into tribes, who are each affiliated to a Pîr and a Sheikh priestly lineage assigned to the tribe. Iran Pre-Islamic Sassanid society was immensely complex, with separate systems of social organisation governing numerous different groups within the empire. Historians believe society comprised four social classes, which linguistic analysis indicates may have been referred to collectively as "pistras". The classes, from highest to lowest status, were priests (), warriors (), secretaries (), and commoners (). Yemen In Yemen there exists a hereditary caste, the African-descended Al-Akhdam who are kept as perennial manual workers. Estimates put their number at over 3.5 million residents who are discriminated, out of a total Yemeni population of around 22 million. Africa Various sociologists have reported caste systems in Africa. In some cases, concepts of purity and impurity by birth have been prevalent in Africa. In other cases, such as the Nupe of Nigeria, the Beni Amer of East Africa, and the Tira of Sudan, the exclusionary principle has been driven by evolving social factors. West Africa , who have been described as an endogamous caste of West Africa who specialise in oral story telling and culture preservation. They have been also referred to as the bard caste.]] Among the Igbo of Nigeria – especially Enugu, Anambra, Imo, Abia, Ebonyi, Edo and Delta states of the country – scholar Elijah Obinna finds that the Osu caste system has been and continues to be a major social issue. The Osu caste is determined by one's birth into a particular family irrespective of the religion practised by the individual. Once born into Osu caste, this Nigerian person is an outcast, shunned and ostracised, with limited opportunities or acceptance, regardless of his or her ability or merit. Obinna discusses how this caste system-related identity and power is deployed within government, Church and indigenous communities. In a review of social stratification systems in Africa, Richter reports that the term caste has been used by French and American scholars to many groups of West African artisans. These groups have been described as inferior, deprived of all political power, have a specific occupation, are hereditary and sometimes despised by others. Richter illustrates caste system in Ivory Coast, with six sub-caste categories. Unlike other parts of the world, mobility is sometimes possible within sub-castes, but not across caste lines. Farmers and artisans have been, claims Richter, distinct castes. Certain sub-castes are shunned more than others. For example, exogamy is rare for women born into families of woodcarvers. Similarly, the Mandé societies in Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Senegal and Sierra Leone have social stratification systems that divide society by ethnic ties. The Mande class system regards the jonow slaves as inferior. Similarly, the Wolof in Senegal is divided into three main groups, the geer (freeborn/nobles), jaam (slaves and slave descendants) and the underclass neeno. In various parts of West Africa, Fulani societies also have class divisions. Other castes include Griots, Forgerons, and Cordonniers. Tamari has described endogamous castes of over fifteen West African peoples, including the Tukulor, Songhay, Dogon, Senufo, Minianka, Moors, Manding, Soninke, Wolof, Serer, Fulani, and Tuareg. Castes appeared among the Malinke people no later than 14th century, and was present among the Wolof and Soninke, as well as some Songhay and Fulani populations, no later than 16th century. Tamari claims that wars, such as the Sosso-Malinke war described in the Sunjata epic, led to the formation of blacksmith and bard castes among the people that ultimately became the Mali empire. As West Africa evolved over time, sub-castes emerged that acquired secondary specialisations or changed occupations. Endogamy was prevalent within a caste or among a limited number of castes, yet castes did not form demographic isolates according to Tamari. Social status according to caste was inherited by off-springs automatically; but this inheritance was paternal. That is, children of higher caste men and lower caste or slave concubines would have the caste status of the father.Central AfricaEthel M. Albert in 1960 claimed that the societies in Central Africa were caste-like social stratification systems. Similarly, in 1961, Maquet notes that the society in Rwanda and Burundi can be best described as castes. The Tutsi, noted Maquet, considered themselves as superior, with the more numerous Hutu and the least numerous Twa regarded, by birth, as respectively, second and third in the hierarchy of Rwandese society. These groups were largely endogamous, exclusionary and with limited mobility. Horn of Africa In Ethiopia, there have been a number of studies of castes. Broad studies of castes have been written by Alula Pankhurst, who has published a study of caste groups in SW Ethiopia. and a later volume by Dena Freeman writing with Pankhurst. (Midgan) specialise in leather occupation. Along with the Tumal and Yibir, they are collectively known as sab. Among the Kafa, there were also traditionally groups labelled as castes. "Based on research done before the Derg regime, these studies generally presume the existence of a social hierarchy similar to the caste system. At the top of this hierarchy were the Kafa, followed by occupational groups including blacksmiths (Qemmo), weavers (Shammano), bards (Shatto), potters, and tanners (Manjo). In this hierarchy, the Manjo were commonly referred to as hunters, given the lowest status equal only to slaves." The Borana Oromo of southern Ethiopia in the Horn of Africa also have a class system, wherein the Wata, an acculturated hunter-gatherer group, represent the lowest class. Though the Wata today speak the Oromo language, they have traditions of having previously spoken another language before adopting Oromo. The traditionally nomadic Somali people are divided into clans, wherein the Rahanweyn agro-pastoral clans and the occupational clans such as the Madhiban were traditionally sometimes treated as outcasts. As Gabooye, the Madhiban along with the Yibir and Tumaal (collectively referred to as sab) have since obtained political representation within Somalia, and their general social status has improved with the expansion of urban centers. Basque Country For centuries, through the modern times, the majority regarded Cagots who lived primarily in the Basque region of France and Spain as an inferior caste, and a group of untouchables. While they had the same skin color and religion as the majority, in the churches they had to use segregated doors, drink from segregated fonts, and receive communion on the end of long wooden spoons. It was a closed social system. The socially isolated Cagots were endogamous, and chances of social mobility non-existent. United Kingdom In July 2013, the UK government announced its intention to amend the Equality Act 2010, to "introduce legislation on caste, including any necessary exceptions to the caste provisions, within the framework of domestic discrimination law". Section 9(5) of the Equality Act 2010 provides that "a Minister may by order amend the statutory definition of race to include caste and may provide for exceptions in the Act to apply or not to apply to caste". From September 2013 to February 2014, Meena Dhanda led a project on "Caste in Britain" for the UK Equality and Human Rights Commission (EHRC). Americas Latin America In colonial Spanish America (16th-early 19th centuries), there were legal divisions of society, the Republic of Spaniards (), comprising European whites, African slaves (), and mixed-race , the offspring of unions between whites, blacks, and indigenous. The Republic of Indians () comprised all the various indigenous peoples, now classified in a single category, , by their colonial rulers. In the social and racial hierarchy, European Spaniards were at the apex, with legal rights and privileges. Lower racial groups (Africans, mixed-race castas, and pure indigenous), had fewer legal rights and lower social status. Unlike the rigid caste system in India, in colonial Spanish America there was some fluidity within the social order. United States In the opinion of W. Lloyd Warner, discrimination in the Southern United States in the 1930s against Blacks was similar to Indian castes in such features as residential segregation and marriage restrictions. In her 2020 book Caste: The Origins of Our Discontents, journalist Isabel Wilkerson used caste as an analogy to understand racial discrimination in the United States. Gerald D. Berreman contrasted the differences between discrimination in the United States and India. In India, there are complex religious features which make up the system, whereas in the United States race and color are the basis for differentiation. The caste systems in India and the United States have higher groups which desire to retain their positions for themselves and thus perpetuate the two systems. The process of creating a homogenized society by social engineering in both India and the Southern US has created other institutions that have made class distinctions among different groups evident. Anthropologist James C. Scott elaborates on how "global capitalism is perhaps the most powerful force for homogenization, whereas the state may be the defender of local difference and variety in some instances". The caste system, a relic of feudalistic economic systems, emphasizes differences between socio-economic classes that are obviated by openly free market capitalistic economic systems, which reward individual initiative, enterprise, merit, and thrift, thereby creating a path for social mobility. When the feudalistic slave economy of the southern United States was dismantled, Jim Crow laws and acts of domestic terrorism committed by white supremacists prevented many industrious African Americans from participating in the formal economy and achieving economic success on parity with their white peers, or destroying that economic success in instances where it was achieved, such as Black Wall Street, with only rare but commonly touted exceptions to lasting personal success such as Maggie Walker, Annie Malone, and Madame C.J. Walker. Parts of the United States are sometimes divided by race and class status despite the national narrative of integration. A survey on caste discrimination conducted by Equality Labs found 67% of Indian Dalits living in the US reporting that they faced caste-based harassment at the workplace, and 27% reporting verbal or physical assault based on their caste. However, the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace study in 2021 criticizes Equality Labs findings and methodology noting Equality Labs study "relied on a nonrepresentative snowball sampling method to recruit respondents. Furthermore, respondents who did not disclose a caste identity were dropped from the data set. Therefore, it is likely that the sample does not fully represent the South Asian American population and could skew in favor of those who have strong views about caste. While the existence of caste discrimination in India is incontrovertible, its precise extent and intensity in the United States can be contested". In 2023, Seattle became the first city in the United States to ban discrimination based on caste. Racial casteism Racial casteism is a term used to identify the relationship between caste, race, and colorism. In modern-day India, the caste system has expanded to include groups and identities from diasporic groups as well such as the Africana Siddis and Kaffirs. Siddis make up 40,000 of India's vast population and are perceived as untouchables under the caste framework.This categorization is paired with anti-black ideology in the country, that is often adapted by broader uses of the term caste in western countries, most notably the United States. Like the Siddis, Africana caste Sri Lanka Kaffirs make up a small minority of the population with scholars noting that the exact number is hard to determine due to exclusion and lack of recognition from the government. Siddis and Kaffirs are considered untouchables due to their darker skin color alongside other physical factors that distinguish the group as lower caste. The migration of Africana groups such as the Siddis and Kaffirs to South Asia is widely considered to be a result of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade, initiated by Muslim Arabs. During the trade, enslaved Africans were often brought as court servants, herbalists, midwives, or as bonded labor. The limited awareness of these groups can be attributed to caste-ideology fueled from this trade. The racial understanding of caste has largely been debated by scholars, with some like Dr. B. R. Ambedkar arguing that caste differences between higher caste Aryans and lower cast native-Indians being more due to religious factors. While the term remains contended, it is widely understood that this racial assessment is based on the way lower-caste people are treated. Africana diasporic groups who do not fit the caste system reflected by the scheduled tribe are thus considered inferior for their darker skin and grouped in with the untouchables. Since caste is inherited at birth and is inflexible to change throughout a lifetime, this can lead to a racial caste system where colorism largely influences the mobility one has in their lifetime. Terminology shifted away from race-conscious terms in South Asian antiquity, where Aryans had pre-conceived social hierarchies built off of race, to a caste framework during Buddhism's rise in the third century BCE. Racial caste is embedded in the institutions that make up South Asia, particularly its governing bodies. When it comes to the electorate of India, voter preference is often based on race, caste, religion, alongside other attributing physical and political factors. This power imbalance alongside the rigid nature of caste can work against those of darker skin complexion to hold positions of power. Caste and higher education The foundational divisions of caste have historically been seen as a determining factor in one's skills and career prospects. Today, many people perceive higher education as a means of achieving their own professional goals, but there are still methods based on caste assumptions used to keep lower caste out of universities. This leads to their exclusion from the potential to be part of higher-paying jobs that are perceived as more elite. This social expectation and prevention of access to education and opportunity have elongated the struggle for financial and social equity amongst people from scheduled tribes and castes. Affirmative Action has been a global phenomenon to develop more spaces in politics, jobs, and education for people from historically disadvantaged backgrounds, which has led to the reservation system being applied to universities. Even with these regulations, caste nevertheless remains a largely determining factor in the university system in India. The guarantee of admittance to a certain proportion of people from oppressed castes is not enough to deal with the implications of divisions in higher education. For example, the reservation percentage can vary by state but is generally around 15% for Scheduled Castes, but 2019-20 data shows most universities miss this mark. Across the board, there is an average of 14.7% of scheduled caste students, meaning many universities are at a far lower rate than legislated. These reservation systems have backlash from upper caste groups, who claim that people are only admitted due to their caste status, as opposed to merit, in a similar argument playing out to affirmative action in the United States. Reservation policies constitute a first step in providing access to admittance into higher education opportunities but do not overcome the overarching challenge of casteism. Caste-based discrimination and social stigma can still affect the experiences of students from marginalized communities in academic institutions. Universities are a crucial place of integration and moving to offer equitable opportunity beyond just attendance, but implementing protective policies to ensure students can be successful. Attendance at university has already been shown to impact how people view caste and has the potential to shape equity building beyond the current interpersonal and systemic relationship. Several forms of discrimination manifest in universities: Social Discrimination: Students from marginalized castes face social discrimination, exclusion, and/or isolation on campuses. This affects their general educational experience and mental well-being. Numerous cases of harassment and bullying based on caste lines have been reported, with drastic consequences for the victims, but often none for the perpetrators. This promotes a hostile environment for students and hampers their ability to engage positively in the academic community. "When I was enrolled for an undergraduate course, I was vocal about his Dalit identity and vouched for the rights of Dalits and marginalized sections. Most of my upper-caste mates were against reservation. I was always typecast, stereotyped and even labeled with derogatory nicknames," Nishat Kabir, who is studying film at Ambedkar University in New Delhi, told Anadolu Agency. Campus Facilities: Discrimination can also be observed in access to living facilities, food services, and other campus amenities. Students from marginalized castes may encounter difficulties in availing of these services without bias, and the living arrangements are often internally segregated. Academic + Faculty Discrimination: Discrimination may extend to the academic sphere, with students facing biased treatment, unfair grading, or limited access to academic resources based on their caste background. Instances of discrimination can involve faculty members, who may hold biases that affect their interactions with students. This comes from the inherent hierarchical nature of caste having built centuries of prejudice against lower caste and indigenous students. This influences academic mentorship, guidance, and opportunities for students from marginalized backgrounds. Eighty-four percent of the SC/ST students surveyed said examiners had asked them about their caste directly or indirectly during their evaluations. One student said: "Teachers are fine till they do not know your caste. The moment they come to know, their attitude towards you changes completely." Due to the challenges experienced on top of the normal pressure of being a student, the discrimination that Dalits and people of OBCs face has led to increased rates of suicide, with numerous examples shown to be tied directly to campus harassment and lack of administrative support. The clarity that comes from people sharing their experiences has led to significant pushback in the 21st century, where students have been centering fights for justice and equity, often based on movements that student activists of the past have used. Allahabad University has seen a spike in student protests and demonstrations against institutional discrimination. Students used tactics of information spreading from pamphlets and court cases, to public civil disobedience through marches and sit-ins to disrupt the flow of university life and lead to broader discussions. The student unrest was not unique to Allahabad University but was strong enough to last over 90 days. Caste in sociology and entomology The initial observational studies of the division of labour in ant colonies attempted to demonstrate that ants specialized in tasks that were best suited to their size when they emerged from the pupae stage into the adult stage. A large proportion of the experimental work was done in species that showed strong variation in size. As the size of an adult was fixed for life, workers of a specific size range came to be called a "caste", calling up the traditional caste system in India in which a human's standing in society was decided at birth. The notion of caste encouraged a link between scholarship in entomology and sociology because it served as an example of a division of labour in which the participants seemed to be uncompromisingly adapted to special functions and sometimes even unique environments. To bolster the concept of caste, entomologists and sociologists referred to the complementary social or natural parallel and thereby appeared to generalize the concept and give it an appearance of familiarity. In the late 19th- and early 20th centuries, the perceived similarities between the Indian caste system and caste polymorphism in insects were used to create a correspondence or parallelism for the purpose of explaining or clarifying racial stratification in human societies; the explanations came particularly to be employed in the United States. Ideas from heredity and natural selection influenced some sociologists who believed that some groups were predetermined to belong to a lower social or occupational status. Chiefly through the work of W. Lloyd Warner at the University of Chicago, a group of sociologists sharing similar principles came to evolve around the creed of caste in the 1930s and 1940s. The ecologically oriented sociologist Robert E. Park, although attributing more weight to environmental explanations than the biological nonetheless believed that there were obstacles to the assimilation of blacks into American society and that an "accommodation stage" in a biracially organized caste system was required before full assimilation. He did disavow his position in 1937, suggesting that blacks were a minority and not a caste. The Indian sociologist Radhakamal Mukerjee was influenced by Robert E. Park and adopted the concept of "caste" to describe race relations in the US. According to anthropologist Diane Rodgers, Mukerjee "proceeded to suggest that a caste system should be correctly instituted in the (US) South to ease race relations." Mukerjee often employed both entomological and sociological data and clues to describe caste systems. He wrote "while the fundamental industries of man are dispersed throughout the insect world, the same kind of polymorphism appears again and again in different species of social insects which have reacted in the same manner as man, under the influence of the same environment, to ensure the supply and provision of subsistence." Comparing the caste system in India to caste polymorphism in insects, he noted, "where we find the organization of social insects developed to perfection, there also has been seen among human associations a minute and even rigid specialization of functions, along with ant- and bee-like societal integrity and cohesiveness." He considered the "resemblances between insect associations and caste-ridden societies" to be striking enough to be "amusing". See also * Estates of the realm * Inter-caste marriages in India * Job * Kamaiya * Priestly caste * Propiska * Social exclusion * Warrior caste References Notes Citations Sources * * * * * * * * * * * * Oxford English Dictionary () Quote: caste, n. 2a. spec. One of the several hereditary classes into which society in India has from time immemorial been divided; ... This is now the leading sense, which influences all others. * * * * * * * * * * * }} Further reading * * * "Early Evidence for Caste in South India", pp. 467–492 in Dimensions of Social Life: Essays in honour of David G. Mandelbaum, Edited by Paul Hockings and Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin, New York, Amsterdam, 1987. External links * * [https://www.casteless.org/ Casteless] * [http://socserv.mcmaster.ca/econ/ugcm/3ll3/comte/Philosophy3.pdf Auguste Comte on why and how castes developed across the world – in The Positive Philosophy, Volume 3 (see page 55 onwards)] * [http://sciencepolicy.colorado.edu/students/envs_5110/merton_sociology_science.pdf Robert Merton on Caste and The Sociology of Science] * [http://www.cambridge.org/gb/knowledge/isbn/item1168367/?site_locale=en_GB Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age] – Susan Bayly * [https://web.archive.org/web/20061105095243/http://www.countercurrents.org/hr-marguerite250404.htm Class In Yemen] by Marguerite Abadjian (Archive of the Baltimore Sun) * [http://idsn.org/ International Dalit Solidarity Network: An international advocacy group for Dalits] Category:Social status	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caste	2025-04-05T18:28:06.329354
7258	Creation	Creation or The Creation or Creations, may refer to: Religion Creatio ex nihilo, the concept that matter was created by God out of nothing Creation myth, a religious story of the origin of the world and how people first came to inhabit it Creationism, the belief that the universe was created in specific divine acts and the social movement affiliated with it Creator deity, a deity responsible for the creation of everything that exists Genesis creation narrative, the biblical account of creation Creation Museum, a creationist museum in Kentucky Creation Ministries International, a Christian apologetics organization Creation Festival, two annual four-day Christian music festivals held in the United States Arts, entertainment, media Creation (Dragonlance), creation of Krynn, a fictional world of Dragonlance "The Creation of Adam" (ca. 1511), a 1512 section of Michelangelo's fresco Sistine Chapel ceiling Creation (video game), an unreleased video game developed by Bullfrog Productions Literature Creation (novel), a 1981 novel by Gore Vidal The Creation: An Appeal to Save Life on Earth (2006), a book by biologist Edward O. Wilson "The Creation" (1927), a poem by James Weldon Johnson, published in God's Trombones: Seven Negro Sermons in Verse Music Creation, Nathaniel Shilkret's contribution to the Genesis Suite (1945) Creation Records, a record label created in 1983 by Alan McGee Bands Creation (American band), a teen musical group Creation (Japanese band), also known as Blues Creation, led by Kazuo Takeda Creations (band), Australian Christian band The Creation (band), a British band Albums Creation (Seven Lions EP), 2016 EP by Seven Lions Creation (Yorushika EP), 2021 EP by Yorushika Creation (John Coltrane album), 1965 Creation (Branford Marsalis album), 2001 Creation (Keith Jarrett album), 2015 Creation (Archie Roach album), 2013 Creation (The Pierces album), 2014 Creation, album by Creation Creation, album by Leslie Satcher 2005 Songs "Creation" (William Billings), a hymn tune composed by William Billings The Creation, 1954, an orchestral song by Wolfgang Fortner "Creation", a song by The Creation, 1994 "Creation", a song by Joe Higgs, 1976 "Creation", a song by Jonathan King, 1965 "Creation", a song by The Pierces from Creation, 2014 "Creation", a song by Zion I from Mind Over Matter Stage and screen The Creation (Haydn), a 1798 oratorio by Joseph Haydn Création, a 1940 ballet by Shirō Fukai La création du monde, a 1923 ballet by Darius Milhaud Creation (2009 film), by Jon Amiel about the life of Charles Darwin Creation (unfinished film), a 1931 film that inspired King Kong Other uses Creation (initial grant) of a noble title (such as a dukedom or earldom) The use of creativity a cultural artifact, a creation, an object from creativity See also Creation science Create (disambiguation) Creator (disambiguation) Creation of the world (disambiguation) Generate (disambiguation) Origin (disambiguation) Existence (disambiguation) Artifact (disambiguation)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation	2025-04-05T18:28:06.336015
7262	CORAL	\| latest release version \| latest release date <!-- --> \| typing = Static, strong \| scope = Lexical \| programming language = BCPL \| discontinued \| platform CTL Modular-1, DEC Alpha, GEC, Ferranti, Honeywell, HPE Integrity Servers, Interdata 8/32, PDP-11, SPARC, VAX, x86, Intel 8080, Zilog Z80, Motorola 68000 \| operating system OpenVMS, BSD Unix, Linux, Solaris \| license \| file ext \| file format <!-- or: \| file formats --> \| website = <!-- --> \| implementations \| dialects \| influenced by = ALGOL, JOVIAL, Fortran \| influenced = }} CORAL, short for Computer On-line Real-time Applications Language is a programming language originally developed in 1964 at the Royal Radar Establishment (RRE), Malvern, Worcestershire, in the United Kingdom. It was influenced primarily by JOVIAL, and thus ALGOL, but is not a subset of either. The most widely-known version, CORAL 66, was subsequently developed by I. F. Currie and M. Griffiths under the auspices of the Inter-Establishment Committee for Computer Applications (IECCA). Its official definition, edited by Woodward, Wetherall, and Gorman, was first published in 1970. In 1971, CORAL was selected by the Ministry of Defence as the language for future military applications and to support this, a standardization program was introduced to ensure CORAL compilers met the specifications. This process was later adopted by the US Department of Defense while defining Ada. Overview Coral 66 is a general-purpose programming language based on ALGOL 60, with some features from Coral 64, JOVIAL, and Fortran. It includes structured record types (as in Pascal) and supports the packing of data into limited storage (also as in Pascal). Like Edinburgh IMP it allows inline (embedded) assembly language, and also offers good runtime checking and diagnostics. It is designed for real-time computing and embedded system applications, and for use on computers with limited processing power, including those limited to fixed-point arithmetic and those without support for dynamic storage allocation. The language was an inter-service standard for British military programming, and was also widely adopted for civil purposes in the British control and automation industry. It was used to write software for both the Ferranti and General Electric Company (GEC) computers from 1971 onwards. Implementations also exist for the Interdata 8/32, PDP-11, VAX and Alpha platforms and HPE Integrity Servers; for the Honeywell, and for the Computer Technology Limited (CTL, later ITL) Modular-1; As Coral was aimed at a variety of real-time work, rather than general office data processing, there was no standardised equivalent to a stdio library. IECCA recommended a primitive input/output (I/O) package to accompany any compiler (in a document titled Input/Output of Character data in Coral 66 Utility Programs). Most implementers avoided this by producing Coral interfaces to extant Fortran and, later, C libraries. CORAL's most significant contribution to computing may have been enforcing quality control in commercial compilers. To have a CORAL compiler approved by IECCA, and thus allowing a compiler to be marketed as a CORAL 66 compiler, the candidate compiler had to compile and execute a standard suite of 25 test programs and 6 benchmark programs. The process was part of the British Standard (BS) 5905 approval process. This methodology was observed and adapted later by the United States Department of Defense for the certification of Ada compilers. Source code for a Coral 66 compiler (written in BCPL) has been recovered and the Official Definition of Coral 66 document by Her Majesty's Stationery Office (HMSO) has been scanned; the Ministry of Defence patent office has issued a licence to the Edinburgh Computer History project to allow them to put both the code and the language reference online for non-commercial use. Variants A variant of Coral 66 named PO-CORAL was developed during the late 1970s to early 1980s by the British General Post Office (GPO), together with GEC, STC and Plessey, for use on the System X digital telephone exchange control computers. This was later renamed BT-CORAL when British Telecom was spun off from the Post Office. Unique features of this language were the focus on real-time execution, message processing, limits on statement execution between waiting for input, and a prohibition on recursion to remove the need for a stack. References External links * [http://history.dcs.ed.ac.uk/archive/os/deimos/ercm09/emas-2900/coral2.txt CORAL 66 test program] extracted from the [http://history.dcs.ed.ac.uk/archive/os/emas/users/ercm09/emas-2900/coral.txt Test Responder report] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20041102162930/http://yfroom.8800.org/apps/1750/benchmarks/coral66/ CORAL 66 benchmarks] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927041856/http://standards.mackido.com/bs/bs-standards24_view_4284.html BS5905] CORAL 66 Standard * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100216045637/http://www.dstan.mod.uk/data/05/047/00000200.pdf DEF STAN 05-47] * [http://www.ibiblio.org/pub/academic/computer-science/history/pdp-11/rsx/decus/rsx82b/312022/ PDP-11 CORAL/ASM interfacing library] * ECCE [http://history.dcs.ed.ac.uk/archive/os/emas/users/ercm09/emas-2900/coraltrans.txt editor script to translate CORAL 66] into Edinburgh IMP Category:History of computing in the United Kingdom Category:Procedural programming languages Category:Programming languages created in 1964	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CORAL	2025-04-05T18:28:06.342251
7264	Rhyming slang	}} in London, England. The rhyming words are not omitted, to make the slang easier to understand.]] Rhyming slang is a form of slang word construction in the English language. It is especially prevalent among Cockneys in England, and was first used in the early 19th century in the East End of London; hence its alternative name, Cockney rhyming slang. In the US, especially the criminal underworld of the West Coast between 1880 and 1920, rhyming slang has sometimes been known as Australian slang. The construction of rhyming slang involves replacing a common word with a phrase of two or more words, the last of which rhymes with the original word; then, in almost all cases, omitting, from the end of the phrase, the secondary rhyming word (which is thereafter implied),<!--, in a process called hemiteleia,--> making the origin and meaning of the phrase elusive to listeners not in the know. Examples The form of Cockney slang is made clear with the following example. The rhyming phrase "apples and pears" is used to mean "stairs". Following the pattern of omission, "and pears" is dropped, thus the spoken phrase "I'm going up the apples" means "I'm going up the stairs". The following are further common examples of these phrases: {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|- ! Slang word !! Meaning !! Original phrase \|- \| Aristotle \|\| Bottle \|\| Bottle \|- \| Aris \|\| Arse (backside) \|\| This is the result of a double rhyme, starting with the original rough synonym "arse", which is rhymed with "bottle and glass", leading to "bottle". "Bottle" was then rhymed with "Aristotle" and truncated to "Aris" \|- \| Bird \|\| Time \|\| Bird lime \|- \| Bottle \|\| Arse (backside) \|\| Bottle and Glass \|- \| Brassic (Boracic) \|\| skint (Penniless) \|\| Boracic lint \|- \| Bristols \|\| Titty \|\| Bristol City \|- \| Britneys \|\| Beers \|\| Britney Spears \|- \| Butchers \|\| Look \|\| Butcher's hook: e.g. "Let's have a butchers at that." \|- \| China \|\| Mate \|\| China Plate \|- \| Threepennys (thruppny)s \|\| Tits (Breasts) \|\| Threepenny bits \|-jam tart \|\| Fart \|\| jam tart \|- \| Dog \|\| Telephone \|\| Dog and Bone \|- \| Frog \|\| Road \|\| Frog and Toad \|- \| Gary \|\| Tablet (Ecstasy) \|\| Gary Ablett \|- \| Grass \|\| Informer \|\| Grasshopper: copper ("police officer") or shopper ("cop-shop") \|- \| Gregory \|\| Neck \|\| Gregory Peck: e.g. "Stop breathing down my Gregory!" \|- \| Hampsteads \|\| Teeth \|\| Hampstead Heath \|- \| Khyber \|\| Arse \|\| Khyber Pass \|- \| Loaf \|\| Head \|\| Loaf of Bread: e.g. "Use your loaf!" \|- \|- \| Marvin \|\| Starving \|\| Hank Marvin \|- \| Minces \|\| Eyes \|\| Mince pies \|-Ogden \|\| Slash Urinate\|\| Ogden Nash \| Porkies \|\| Lies \|\| Pork pies: e.g. "Have you been telling me porkies?" \|-Plaster \|\| Aris \|\| Plaster of Paris \| Plates \|\| Feet \|\| Plates of meat \|- \| Raspberry \|\| Cripple \|\| Raspberry Ripple \|- \| Raspberry \|\| Fart \|\| Raspberry tart (especially in blowing a raspberry (with the mouth)) \|- \|Rub \|Pub \|Rub-a-dub-dub \|- \| Septic (abbr: seppo) \|\| Yank \|\| Septic Tank \|- \| Syrup \|\| Wig \|\| Syrup of figs \|- \| Titfer (Tit for) \|\| Hat \|\| Tit for tat \|- \| Tom \|\| Jewellery \|\| Tomfoolery \|- \| Trouble \|\| Wife \|\| Trouble and strife \|- \| Treacle \|\| Sweetheart \|\| Treacle Tart \|- \| Turkish \|\| Laugh \|\| Turkish bath (referring to a Victorian Turkish bath, rather than a Hammam.) \|- \|Whistle \|\| Suit \|\| Whistle and flute \|} In some examples the meaning is further obscured by adding a second iteration of rhyme and truncation to the original rhymed phrase. For example, the word "Aris" is often used to indicate the buttocks. This is the result of a double rhyme, starting with the original rough synonym "arse", which is rhymed with "bottle and glass", leading to "bottle". "Bottle" was then rhymed with "Aristotle" and truncated to "Aris". "Aris" was then rhymed with "plaster of Paris" and truncated to "plaster".<!-- An example of rhyming slang based only on sound is the Cockney "tea leaf" (thief). An example of phono-semantic rhyming slang is the Cockney "sorrowful tale" ((three months in) jail), in which case the person coining the slang term sees a semantic link, sometimes jocular, between the Cockney expression and its referent. Mainstream usage The use of rhyming slang has spread beyond the purely dialectal and some examples are to be found in the mainstream British English lexicon, although many users may be unaware of the origin of those words. * Another example is to "have a butcher's" for to have a look, from "butcher's hook". Most of the words changed by this process are nouns, but a few are adjectival, e.g., "bales" of cotton (rotten), or the adjectival phrase "on one's tod" for "on one's own", after Tod Sloan, a famous jockey. History Rhyming slang is believed to have originated in the mid-19th century in the East End of London, with several sources suggesting some time in the 1840s. The Flash Dictionary, of unknown authorship, published in 1921 by Smeeton (48mo), contains a few rhymes. John Camden Hotten's 1859 Dictionary of Modern Slang, Cant, and Vulgar Words likewise states that it originated in the 1840s ("about twelve or fifteen years ago"), but with "chaunters" and "patterers" in the Seven Dials area of London. Development }} Many examples of rhyming slang are based on locations in London, such as "Peckham Rye", meaning "tie", which dates from the late nineteenth century; "Hampstead Heath", meaning "teeth" (usually as "Hampsteads"), which was first recorded in 1887; and "barnet" (Barnet Fair), meaning "hair", which dates from the 1850s. In the 20th century, rhyming slang began to be based on the names of celebrities — Gregory Peck (neck; cheque), Ruby Murray [as Ruby] (curry), Alan Whicker [as "Alan Whickers"] (knickers), Puff Daddy (caddy), Max Miller (pillow [pronounced ]), Meryl Streep (cheap), Nat King Cole ("dole"), Britney Spears (beers, tears), Henry Halls (balls) — and after pop culture references — Captain Kirk (work), Pop Goes the Weasel (diesel), Mona Lisa (pizza), Mickey Mouse (Scouse), Wallace and Gromit (vomit), Brady Bunch (lunch), Bugs Bunny (money), Scooby-Doo (clue), Winnie the Pooh (shoe), and ''Schindler's List (pissed). Some words have numerous definitions, such as dead (Father Ted'', "gone to bed", brown bread), door (Roger Moore, Andrea Corr, George Bernard Shaw, Rory O'Moore), cocaine (Kurt Cobain; [as "Charlie"] Bob Marley, Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Gianluca Vialli, oats and barley; [as "line"] Patsy Cline; [as "powder"] Niki Lauda), flares ("Lionel Blairs", "Tony Blairs", "Rupert Bears", "Dan Dares"), etc. Many examples have passed into common usage. Some substitutions have become relatively widespread in England in their contracted form. "To have a butcher's", meaning to have a look, originates from "butcher's hook", an S-shaped hook used by butchers to hang up meat, and dates from the late nineteenth century but has existed independently in general use from around the 1930s simply as "butchers". Similarly, "use your loaf", meaning "use your head", derives from "loaf of bread" and also dates from the late nineteenth century but came into independent use in the 1930s. In some cases, false etymologies exist. For example, the term "barney" has been used to mean an altercation or fight since the late nineteenth century, although without a clear derivation. In the 2001 feature film ''Ocean's Eleven, the explanation for the term is that it derives from Barney Rubble, the name of a cartoon character from the Flintstones'' television program many decades later in origin. Rhyming slang is continually evolving, and new phrases are introduced all the time; new personalities replace old ones—pop culture introduces new words—as in "I haven't a Scooby" (from Scooby Doo, the eponymous cartoon dog of the cartoon series) meaning "I haven't a clue". Taboo terms Rhyming slang is often used as a substitute for words regarded as taboo, often to the extent that the association with the taboo word becomes unknown over time. "Berk" (often used to mean "foolish person") originates from the most famous of all fox hunts, the "Berkeley Hunt" meaning "cunt"; "cobblers" (often used in the context "what you said is rubbish") originates from "cobbler's awls", meaning "balls" (as in testicles); and "hampton" (usually "'ampton") meaning "prick" (as in penis) originates from "Hampton Wick" (a place in London) – the second part "wick" also entered common usage as "he gets on my wick" (he is an annoying person). Lesser taboo terms include "pony and trap" for "crap" (as in defecate, but often used to denote nonsense or low quality); to blow a raspberry (rude sound of derision) from raspberry tart for "fart"; "D'Oyly Carte" (an opera company) for "fart"; "Jimmy Riddle" (an American country musician) for "piddle" (as in urinate), "J. Arthur Rank" (a film mogul), "Sherman tank", "Jodrell Bank" or "ham shank" for "wank", "Bristol Cities" (contracted to 'Bristols') for "titties", etc. "Taking the Mick" or "taking the Mickey" is thought to be a rhyming slang form of "taking the piss", where "Mick" came from "Mickey Bliss". In December 2004 Joe Pasquale, winner of the fourth series of ITV's ''I'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here!'', became well known for his frequent use of the term "Jacobs", for Jacob's Cream Crackers, a rhyming slang term for knackers i.e. testicles. In popular culture Rhyming slang has been widely used in popular culture including film, television, music, literature, sport and degree classification. In university degree classification }} In the British undergraduate degree classification system a first class honours degree is known as a "Geoff Hurst" (First) after the English 1966 World Cup footballer. An upper second class degree (a.k.a. a "2:1") is called an "Attila the Hun", and a lower second class ("2:2") a "Desmond Tutu", while a third class degree is known as a "Thora Hird" or "Douglas Hurd". In film Cary Grant's character teaches rhyming slang to his female companion in Mr. Lucky (1943), describing it as 'Australian rhyming slang'. Rhyming slang is also used and described in a scene of the 1967 film To Sir, with Love starring Sidney Poitier, where the English students tell their foreign teacher that the slang is a drag and something for old people. The closing song of the 1969 crime caper, The Italian Job, ("Getta Bloomin' Move On" a.k.a. "The Self Preservation Society") contains many slang terms. Rhyming slang has been used to lend authenticity to an East End setting. Examples include Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels (1998) (wherein the slang is translated via subtitles in one scene); The Limey (1999); Sexy Beast (2000); Snatch (2000); ''Ocean's Eleven (2001); and Austin Powers in Goldmember (2002); It's All Gone Pete Tong (2004), after BBC radio disc jockey Pete Tong whose name is used in this context as rhyming slang for "wrong"; Green Street Hooligans (2005). In Margin Call'' (2011), Will Emerson, played by London-born actor Paul Bettany, asks a friend on the telephone, "How's the trouble and strife?" ("wife"). Cockneys vs Zombies (2012) mocked the genesis of rhyming slang terms when a Cockney character calls zombies "Trafalgars" to even his Cockney fellows' puzzlement; he then explains it thus: "Trafalgar square – fox and hare – hairy Greek – five day week – weak and feeble – pins and needles – needle and stitch – Abercrombie and Fitch – Abercrombie: zombie". The live-action Disney film Mary Poppins Returns song "Trip A Little Light Fantastic" involves Cockney rhyming slang in part of its lyrics, and is primarily spoken by the London lamplighters. In the animated superhero film Spider-Man: Across the Spider-Verse (2023), character Spider-Punk, a Camden native, is heard saying: "I haven't got a scooby" ("clue"). Television Slang had a resurgence of popular interest in Britain beginning in the 1970s, resulting from its use in a number of London-based television programmes such as Steptoe and Son (1970–74); and Not On Your Nellie (1974–75), starring Hylda Baker as Nellie Pickersgill, alludes to the phrase "not on your Nellie Duff", rhyming slang for "not on your puff" i.e. not on your life. Similarly, The Sweeney (1975–78) alludes to the phrase "Sweeney Todd" for "Flying Squad", a rapid response unit of London's Metropolitan Police. In The Fall and Rise of Reginald Perrin (1976–79), a comic twist was added to rhyming slang by way of spurious and fabricated examples which a young man had laboriously attempted to explain to his father (e.g. 'dustbins' meaning 'children', as in 'dustbin lids'='kids'; 'Teds' being 'Ted Heath' and thus 'teeth'; and even 'Chitty Chitty' being 'Chitty Chitty Bang Bang', and thus 'rhyming slang'...). It was also featured in an episode of The Good Life in the first season (1975) where Tom and Barbara purchase a wood-burning range from a junk trader called Sam, who litters his language with phony rhyming slang in hopes of convincing suburban residents that he is an authentic traditional Cockney trader. He comes up with a fake story as to the origin of Cockney rhyming slang and is caught out rather quickly. In The Jeffersons season 2 (1976) episode "The Breakup: Part 2", Mr. Bentley explains Cockney rhyming slang to George Jefferson, in that "whistle and flute" means "suit", "apples and pears" means "stairs", "plates of meat" means "feet". The use of rhyming slang was also prominent in Mind Your Language (1977–79), Citizen Smith (1977–80), Minder (1979–94), Only Fools and Horses (1981–91), and EastEnders (1985–). Minder could be quite uncompromising in its use of obscure forms without any clarification. Thus the non-Cockney viewer was obliged to deduce that, say, "iron" was "male homosexual" ('ironiron hoofpoof'). One episode in Series 5 of Steptoe and Son was entitled "Any Old Iron", for the same reason, when Albert thinks that Harold is 'on the turn'. Variations of rhyming slang were also used in sitcom Birds of a Feather, by main characters Sharon and Tracey, often to the confusion of character, Dorian Green, who was unfamiliar with the terms. One early US show to regularly feature rhyming slang was the Saturday morning children's show The Bugaloos (1970–72), with the character of Harmony (Wayne Laryea) often incorporating it in his dialogue. Music In popular music, Spike Jones and his City Slickers recorded "So 'Elp Me", based on rhyming slang<!-- (without the hemiteleia)-->, in 1950. The 1967 Kinks song "Harry Rag" was based on the usage of the name Harry Wragg as rhyming slang for "fag" (i.e. a cigarette). The idiom made a brief appearance in the UK-based DJ reggae music of the 1980s in the hit "Cockney Translation" by Smiley Culture of South London; this was followed a couple of years later by Domenick and Peter Metro's "Cockney and Yardie". London-based artists such as Audio Bullys and Chas & Dave (and others from elsewhere in the UK, such as The Streets, who are from Birmingham) frequently use rhyming slang in their songs. British-born M.C. MF Doom released an ode entitled "Rhymin' Slang", after settling in the UK in 2010. The track was released on the 2012 JJ Doom album Key to the Kuffs. Another contributor was Lonnie Donegan who had a song called "My Old Man's a Dustman". In it he says his father has trouble putting on his boots "He's got such a job to pull them up that he calls them daisy roots". Literature In modern literature, Cockney rhyming slang is used frequently in the novels and short stories of Kim Newman, for instance in the short story collections "The Man from the Diogenes Club" (2006) and "Secret Files of the Diogenes Club" (2007), where it is explained at the end of each book. It is also parodied in Going Postal by Terry Pratchett, which features a geriatric Junior Postman by the name of Tolliver Groat, a speaker of 'Dimwell Arrhythmic Rhyming Slang', the only rhyming slang on the Disc which does not actually rhyme. Thus, a wig is a 'prunes', from 'syrup of prunes', an obvious parody of the Cockney syrup from syrup of figs – wig. There are numerous other parodies, though it has been pointed out that the result is even more impenetrable than a conventional rhyming slang and so may not be quite so illogical as it seems, given the assumed purpose of rhyming slang as a means of communicating in a manner unintelligible to all but the initiated. In the book Goodbye to All That by Robert Graves, a beer is a "broken square" as Welch Fusiliers officers walk into a pub and order broken squares when they see men from the Black Watch. The Black Watch had a minor blemish on its record of otherwise unbroken squares. Fistfights ensued. In Dashiell Hammett's The Dain Curse, the protagonist exhibits familiarity with Cockney rhyming slang, referring to gambling at dice with the phrase "rats and mice." Cockney rhyming slang is one of the main influences for the dialect spoken in A Clockwork Orange (1962). The author of the novel, Anthony Burgess, also believed the phrase "as queer as a clockwork orange" was Cockney slang having heard it in a London pub in 1945, and subsequently named it in the title of his book. Sport In Scottish football, a number of clubs have nicknames taken from rhyming slang. Partick Thistle are known as the "Harry Rags", which is taken from the rhyming slang of their 'official' nickname "the jags". Rangers are known as the "Teddy Bears", which comes from the rhyming slang for "the Gers" (shortened version of Ran-gers). Heart of Midlothian are known as the "Jambos", which comes from "Jam Tarts" which is the rhyming slang for "Hearts" which is the common abbreviation of the club's name. Hibernian are also referred to as "The Cabbage" which comes from Cabbage and Ribs being the rhyming slang for Hibs. The phrase Hampden Roar (originally describing the loud crowd noise emanating from the national stadium) is employed as "What's the Hampden?", ("What's the score?", idiom for "What's happening / what's going on?"). In rugby league, "meat pie" is used for try. See also * Argot * Costermonger * Euphemism * Daffynition * Navvy slang * Nickname References Further reading * External links * [http://www.phrases.org.uk/bulletin_board/13/messages/932.html "Having a barney", bulletin board discussion at Phrases.org.uk] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7aSFoY3W3NM To Sir With Love, on YouTube.com] * Category:19th century in London Category:19th-century introductions * Category:Society of London Category:English language in England Category:English-based argots Category:English language in London Category:Language games Category:Rhyme Category:East End of London	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhyming_slang	2025-04-05T18:28:06.368111
7265	Canchim	thumb\|A Canchim bull The Canchim is a breed of beef cattle developed in Central Brazil by crossing European Charolais cattle with Indubrazil cattle already kept in Brazil where Asian Zebu type cattle are best suited to the tropical conditions. When compared with Zebu bulls, Canchim bulls produce the same number of calves, but heavier and of superior quality. Compared to European breeds, the Canchim bull produces calves with the same weight but in larger numbers. The fast-growing progeny, from crossbred zebu cows with Canchim bulls, can be slaughtered at 18 months old from feedlots after weaning, up to 24 months old from feedlots after grazing and at 30 months from grazing on the range. Origin Zebu cattle (Bos Indicus), introduced to Brazil in the last century, were extensively crossbred with herds of native cattle. The Indian breed, well known for its ability to survive in the tropics, adapted quickly to Brazil, and soon populated large areas, considerably improving Brazilian beef cattle breeding. Zebu cattle were however found to be inferior to the European breeds in growth rate and yield of meat. It became clear that the beef cattle population required genetic improvement. Simply placing European beef cattle (Bos Taurus), highly productive in temperate climates, in Central Brazil, would not produce good results, due to their inability to adapt to a tropical environment. Besides the climate, other factors such as the high occurrence of parasites, diseases and the very low nutritional value of the native forage were problems. Formation of the breed The European breed used in the formation of Canchim cattle was Charolais. In 1922 the Ministry of Agriculture imported Charolais cattle to the State of Goias, where they remained till 1936, when they were transferred to São Carlos in the State of São Paulo, to the Canchim Farm of the Government Research Station, EMBRAPA. From this herd originated the dams and sires utilised in the program of crossbreeding. The main Zebu breed which contributed to the formation to the Canchim was the Indubrazil, although Guzerá and Nelore cattle were also used. Preference was given to the Indubrasil breed, due to the ease of obtaining large herds at reasonable prices, which would have been difficult with Gir, Nelore or Guzerá. The alternative crossbreeding programs initiated in 1940 by Dr. Antonio Teixeira Viana had the objective of obtaining first, crossbreeds 5/8 Charolais and 3/8 Zebu and second, 3/8 Charolais x 5/8 Zebu, to evaluate which of the two was the most successful. The total number of Zebu cows utilized to produce the half-breeds was 368, of which 292 were Indubrasil, 44 Guzerá and 32 Nelore. All the animals produced were reared exclusively on the range. Control of parasites was done every 15 days and the animals were weighed at birth and monthly. The females were weighed up to 30 months and the males up to 40 months. The data collected during various years of work, permitted an evaluation of the various degrees of crossbreeding. The conclusion was that the 5/8 Charolais and 3/8 Zebu was the most suitable, presenting an excellent frame for meat, precocious, resistance to heat and parasites, and a uniform coat. The first crossbred animals, 5/8 Charolais and 3/8 Zebu, were born in 1953. Thus was born a new type of beef cattle for Central Brazil, with the name CANCHIM, derived from the name of a tree very common in the region where the breed was developed. It was not until 1971 that the Brazilian Association of Canchim Cattle Breeders (ABCCAN) was formed, and on 11 November 1972 the Herd Book was initiated. On 18 May 1983 the Ministry of Agriculture, recognized Canchim type cattle as a Breed. New bloodlines The Canchim breed, being a synthetic breed, permits breeders, in the development of new crossbreeding systems, to use the breeds used to form the Canchim breed, besides the breed itself, in its development. There are many Canchim breeders forming new blood lines. Today the Nelore breed totally dominates the Zebu breed in the formation of Canchim. American and French Charolais semen, from carefully selected bulls is also used and recommended by the ABCCAN to form new bloodlines. Past Presidents of the Brazilian Association of Canchim Cattle Breeders Roberto Luiz de Souza Barros; 1971–1978 Francisco Jacintho da Silveira; 1978–1982 Diogo Antonio de Barros; 1984–1992 João Paulo Marques Canto Porto; 1992–1997 Peter Anthony Baines; 1997–2001 Deniz Ferreira Ribeiro; 2001–2007 Luiz Adelar Scheuer; 2007–2009 References External links Extensive article at Embryoplus.com Breed society site in Portuguese Category:Cattle breeds originating in Brazil Category:São Carlos Category:Beef cattle breeds	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canchim	2025-04-05T18:28:06.371112
7271	Communist Party of the Soviet Union	\| leader1_title = Leadership \| leader1_name = Elena Stasova (first)<br>Vladimir Ivashko (last) \| slogan = "Workers of the world, unite!"" The translation of the phrase in Russian is also the translation of the original phrase in German: "Proletarians of all nations, unite!"}} \| anthem "The Internationale"}}<br>"Hymn of the Bolshevik Party" \| headquarters = 4 Staraya Square, Moscow \| founded }} \| banned }} \| founder = Vladimir Lenin \| newspaper = Pravda \| position Far-left \| split = Russian Social Democratic Labour Party \| predecessor = Bolshevik faction of the RSDLP \| successor UCP–CPSU<br>CPRF (in Russia) \| youth_wing = Komsomol \| wing1 = Little Octobrists, Young Pioneers \| wing1_title = Pioneer wing \| membership 19,487,822 (1989 ) \| ideology \|1912–1924:<br>Bolshevism<br>Leninism\|1924–1956:<br>Stalinism\|1961–1991:<br>Socialist patriotism (Soviet)\|1985–1991:<br>Democratic socialism<br>Market socialism \| affiliation1_title = \| affiliation1 = Bloc of Communists and Non-Partisans (1936–91) \| affiliation2_title = International affiliation \| affiliation2 \|Comintern (1919–43)\|Cominform (1947–56)}} \| country = the Soviet Union }} with a large sign promoting the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Moscow, 1975]] The Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU),. Abbreviated in Russian as КПСС, KPSS''.}} at some points known as the Russian Communist Party, All-Union Communist Party and Bolshevik Party, and sometimes referred to as the Soviet Communist Party (SCP), was the founding and ruling political party of the Soviet Union. The CPSU was the sole governing party of the Soviet Union until 1990 when the Congress of People's Deputies modified Article 6 of the 1977 Soviet Constitution, which had previously granted the CPSU a monopoly over the political system. The party's main ideology was Marxism–Leninism. The party was outlawed under Russian President Boris Yeltsin's decree on 6 November 1991, citing the 1991 Soviet coup attempt as a reason. The party started in 1898 as part of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. In 1903, that party split into a Menshevik ("minority") and Bolshevik ("majority") faction; the latter, led by Vladimir Lenin, is the direct ancestor of the CPSU and is the party that seized power in the October Revolution of 1917. Its activities were suspended on Soviet territory 74 years later, on 29 August 1991, soon after a failed coup d'état by conservative CPSU leaders against the reforming Soviet president and party general secretary Mikhail Gorbachev. The CPSU was a communist party based on democratic centralism. This principle, conceived by Lenin, entails democratic and open discussion of policy issues within the party, followed by the requirement of total unity in upholding the agreed policies. The highest body within the CPSU was the Party Congress, which convened every five years. When the Congress was not in session, the Central Committee was the highest body. Because the Central Committee met twice a year, most day-to-day duties and responsibilities were vested in the Politburo, (previously the Presidium), the Secretariat and the Orgburo (until 1952). The party leader was the head of government and held the office of either General Secretary, Premier or head of state, or two of the three offices concurrently, but never all three at the same time. The party leader was the de facto chairman of the CPSU Politburo and chief executive of the Soviet Union. The tension between the party and the state (Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union) for the shifting focus of power was never formally resolved. After the founding of the Soviet Union in 1922, Lenin had introduced a mixed economy, commonly referred to as the New Economic Policy, which allowed for capitalist practices to resume under the Communist Party dictation in order to develop the necessary conditions for socialism to become a practical pursuit in the economically undeveloped country. In 1929, as Joseph Stalin became the leader of the party, Marxism–Leninism, a fusion of the original ideas of German philosopher and economic theorist Karl Marx, and Lenin, became formalized by Stalin as the party's guiding ideology and would remain so throughout the rest of its existence. The party pursued state socialism, under which all industries were nationalized, and a command economy was implemented. After recovering from the Second World War, reforms were implemented which decentralized economic planning and liberalized Soviet society in general under Nikita Khrushchev. By 1980, various factors, including the continuing Cold War, and ongoing nuclear arms race with the United States and other Western European powers and unaddressed inefficiencies in the economy, led to stagnant economic growth under Alexei Kosygin, and further with Leonid Brezhnev and growing disillusionment. After the younger, vigorous Mikhail Gorbachev assumed leadership in 1985 (following two short-term elderly leaders, Yuri Andropov and Konstantin Chernenko, who quickly died in succession), rapid steps were taken to transform the tottering Soviet economic system in the direction of a market economy once again. Gorbachev and his allies envisioned the introduction of an economy similar to Lenin's earlier New Economic Policy through a program of "perestroika", or restructuring, but their reforms, along with the institution of free multi-candidate elections led to a decline in the party's power, and after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the banning of the party by later last RSFSR President Boris Yeltsin and subsequent first President of the successor Russian Federation. A number of causes contributed to CPSU's loss of control and the dissolution of the Soviet Union during the early 1990s. Some historians have written that Gorbachev's policy of "glasnost" (political openness) was the root cause, noting that it weakened the party's control over society. Gorbachev maintained that perestroika without glasnost was doomed to failure anyway. Others have blamed the economic stagnation and subsequent loss of faith by the general populace in communist ideology. In the final years of the CPSU's existence, the Communist Parties of the federal subjects of Russia were united into the Communist Party of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR). After the CPSU's demise, the Communist Parties of the Union Republics became independent and underwent various separate paths of reform. In Russia, the Communist Party of the Russian Federation emerged and has been regarded as the inheritor of the CPSU's old Bolshevik legacy into the present day.History Name * 16 August 1917 – 8 March 1918: Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks) () * 8 March 1918 – 31 December 1925: Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) () * 31 December 1925 – 14 October 1952: All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) () * 14 October 1952 – 6 November 1991: Communist Party of the Soviet Union () Early years (1898–1924) The origin of the CPSU was in the Bolshevik faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP). This faction arose out of the split between followers of Julius Martov and Vladimir Lenin in August 1903 at the Party's second conference. Martov's followers were called the Mensheviks (which means minority in Russian); and Lenin's, the Bolsheviks (majority). (The two factions were in fact of fairly equal numerical size.) The split became more formalized in 1914, when the factions became named the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks), and Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Mensheviks). Prior to the February Revolution, the first phase of the Russian Revolutions of 1917, the party worked underground as organized anti-Tsarist groups. By the time of the revolution, many of the party's central leaders, including Lenin, were in exile. After Emperor Nicholas II (1868–1918, reigned 1894–1917) abdicated in March 1917, a republic was established and administered by a provisional government, which was largely dominated by the interests of the military, former nobility, major capitalists business owners and democratic socialists. Alongside it, grassroots general assemblies spontaneously formed, called soviets, and a dual-power structure between the soviets and the provisional government was in place until such a time that their differences would be reconciled in a post-provisional government. Lenin was at this time in exile in Switzerland where he, with other dissidents in exile, managed to arrange with the Imperial German government safe passage through Germany in a sealed train back to Russia through the continent amidst the ongoing World War. In April, Lenin arrived in Petrograd (renamed former St. Petersburg) and condemned the provisional government, calling for the advancement of the revolution towards the transformation of the ongoing war into a war of the working class against capitalism. The rebellion proved not yet to be over, as tensions between the social forces aligned with the soviets (councils) and those with the provisional government now led by Alexander Kerensky (1881–1970, in power 1917), came into explosive tensions during that summer. The Bolsheviks had rapidly increased their political presence from May onward through the popularity of their program, notably calling for an immediate end to the war, land reform for the peasants, and restoring food allocation to the urban population. This program was translated to the masses through simple slogans that patiently explained their solution to each crisis the revolution created. Up to July, these policies were disseminated through 41 publications, Pravda being the main paper, with a readership of 320,000. This was roughly halved after the repression of the Bolsheviks following the July Days demonstrations so that even by the end of August, the principal paper of the Bolsheviks had a print run of only 50,000 copies. Despite this, their ideas gained them increasing popularity in elections to the soviets. The factions within the soviets became increasingly polarized in the later summer after armed demonstrations by soldiers at the call of the Bolsheviks and an attempted military coup by commanding Gen. Lavr Kornilov to eliminate the socialists from the provisional government. As the general consensus within the soviets moved leftward, less militant forces began to abandon them, leaving the Bolsheviks in a stronger position. By October, the Bolsheviks were demanding the full transfer of power to the soviets and for total rejection of the Kerensky led provisional government's legitimacy. The provisional government, insistent on maintaining the universally despised war effort on the Eastern Front because of treaty ties with its Allies and fears of Imperial German victory, had become socially isolated and had no enthusiastic support on the streets. On 7 November (25 October, old style), the Bolsheviks led an armed insurrection, which overthrew the Kerensky provisional government and left the soviets as the sole governing force in Russia. In the aftermath of the October Revolution, the soviets united federally and the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, the world's first constitutionally socialist state, was established. The Bolsheviks were the majority within the soviets and began to fulfill their campaign promises by signing a damaging peace to end the war with the Germans in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and transferring estates and imperial lands to workers' and peasants' soviets. In this context, in 1918, RSDLP(b) became All-Russian Communist Party (bolsheviks). Outside of Russia, social-democrats who supported the Soviet government began to identify as communists, while those who opposed it retained the social-democratic label. In 1921, as the Civil War was drawing to a close, Lenin proposed the New Economic Policy (NEP), a system of state capitalism that started the process of industrialization and post-war recovery. The NEP ended a brief period of intense rationing called "war communism" and began a period of a market economy under Communist dictation. The Bolsheviks believed at this time that Russia, being among the most economically undeveloped and socially backward countries in Europe, had not yet reached the necessary conditions of development for socialism to become a practical pursuit and that this would have to wait for such conditions to arrive under capitalist development as had been achieved in more advanced countries such as England and Germany. On 30 December 1922, the Russian SFSR joined former territories of the Russian Empire to form the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), of which Lenin was elected leader. On 9 March 1923, Lenin suffered a stroke, which incapacitated him and effectively ended his role in government. He died on 21 January 1924, only thirteen months after the founding of the Soviet Union, of which he would become regarded as the founding father.Stalin era (1924–1953) After Lenin's death, a power struggle ensued between Joseph Stalin, the party's General Secretary, and Leon Trotsky, the Minister of Defence, each with highly contrasting visions for the future direction of the country. Trotsky sought to implement a policy of permanent revolution, which was predicated on the notion that the Soviet Union would not be able to survive in a socialist character when surrounded by hostile governments and therefore concluded that it was necessary to actively support similar revolutions in the more advanced capitalist countries. Stalin, however, argued that such a foreign policy would not be feasible with the capabilities then possessed by the Soviet Union and that it would invite the country's destruction by engaging in armed conflict. Rather, Stalin argued that the Soviet Union should, in the meantime, pursue peaceful coexistence and invite foreign investment in order to develop the country's economy and build socialism in one country. Ultimately, Stalin gained the greatest support within the party, and Trotsky, who was increasingly viewed as a collaborator with outside forces in an effort to depose Stalin, was isolated and subsequently expelled from the party and exiled from the country in 1928. Stalin's policies henceforth would later become collectively known as Stalinism. In 1925, the name of the party was changed to the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks), reflecting that the republics outside of Russia proper were no longer part of an all-encompassing Russian state. The acronym was usually transliterated as VKP(b), or sometimes VCP(b). Stalin sought to formalize the party's ideological outlook into a philosophical hybrid of the original ideas of Lenin with orthodox Marxism into what would be called Marxism–Leninism. Stalin's position as General Secretary became the top executive position within the party, giving Stalin significant authority over party and state policy. By the end of the 1920s, diplomatic relations with Western countries were deteriorating to the point that there was a growing fear of another allied attack on the Soviet Union. Within the country, the conditions of the NEP had enabled growing inequalities between increasingly wealthy strata and the remaining poor. The combination of these tensions led the party leadership to conclude that it was necessary for the government's survival to pursue a new policy that would centralize economic activity and accelerate industrialization. To do this, the first five-year plan was implemented in 1928. The plan doubled the industrial workforce, proletarianizing many of the peasants by removing them from their land and assembling them into urban centers. Peasants who remained in agricultural work were also made to have a similarly proletarian relationship to their labor through the policies of collectivization, which turned feudal-style farms into collective farms which would be in a cooperative nature under the direction of the state. These two shifts changed the base of Soviet society towards a more working-class alignment. The plan was fulfilled ahead of schedule in 1932. The success of industrialization in the Soviet Union led Western countries, such as the United States, to open diplomatic relations with the Soviet government. In 1933, after years of unsuccessful workers' revolutions (including a short-lived Bavarian Soviet Republic) and spiraling economic calamity, Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany, violently suppressing the revolutionary organizers and posing a direct threat to the Soviet Union that ideologically supported them. The threat of fascist sabotage and imminent attack greatly exacerbated the already existing tensions within the Soviet Union and the Communist Party. A wave of paranoia overtook Stalin and the party leadership and spread through Soviet society. Seeing potential enemies everywhere, leaders of the government security apparatuses began severe crackdowns known as the Great Purge. In total, hundreds of thousands of people, many of whom were posthumously recognized as innocent, were arrested and either sent to prison camps or executed. Also during this time, a campaign against religion was waged in which the Russian Orthodox Church, which had long been a political arm of Tsarism before the revolution, was ruthlessly repressed, organized religion was generally removed from public life and made into a completely private matter, with many churches, mosques and other shrines being repurposed or demolished. The Soviet Union warned the international community of the potential danger of aggression by Nazi Germany. The Western powers, however, remained committed to maintaining peace and avoiding another war breaking out. Many considered the Soviet Union's warnings to be an unwanted provocation. After many unsuccessful attempts to create an anti-fascist alliance among the Western countries, including trying to rally international support for the Spanish Republic in its struggle against a nationalist military rebellion supported by Germany and Italy, in 1939 the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact with Germany, later jointly invading and partitioning Poland to fulfil a secret protocol of the pact, as well as occupying the Baltic States. This pact would be broken in June 1941 when the German military invaded the Soviet Union in the largest land invasion in history, beginning the Great Patriotic War. The Communist International was dissolved in 1943 after it was concluded that such an organization had failed to prevent the rise of fascism and the global war necessary to defeat it. After the 1945 Allied victory in World War II, the Party held to a doctrine of establishing socialist governments in the post-war occupied territories that would be administered by Communists loyal to Stalin's administration. The party also sought to expand its sphere of influence beyond the occupied territories, using proxy wars and espionage and providing training and funding to promote Communist elements abroad, leading to the establishment of the Cominform in 1947. In 1949, the Chinese Communist Party emerged victorious in the Chinese Civil War. This caused a major shift in the global balance of forces and greatly escalated tensions between the Communists and the Western powers, fueling the Cold War. In Europe, Yugoslavia, under the leadership of Josip Broz Tito, acquired the territory of Trieste, causing conflict both with the Western powers and with Stalin, who opposed such a provocative move. Furthermore, the Yugoslav Communists actively supported the Greek Communists during their civil war, further frustrating the Soviet government. These tensions led to a Tito–Stalin split, which marked the beginning of international sectarian division within the world Communist movement. Post-Stalin years (1953–1985) After Stalin's death, Nikita Khrushchev rose to the top post by overcoming political adversaries, including Lavrentiy Beria and Georgy Malenkov, in a power struggle. In 1955, Khrushchev achieved the demotion of Malenkov and secured his own position as Soviet leader. Early in his rule and with the support of several members of the Presidium, Khrushchev initiated the Thaw, which effectively ended the Stalinist mass terror of the prior decades and reduced socio-economic oppression considerably. At the 20th Congress held in 1956, Khrushchev denounced Stalin's crimes, being careful to omit any reference to complicity by any sitting Presidium members. His economic policies, while bringing about improvements, were not enough to fix the fundamental problems of the Soviet economy. The standard of living for ordinary citizens did increase; 108 million people moved into new housing between 1956 and 1965. Khrushchev's foreign policies led to the Sino-Soviet split, in part a consequence of his public denunciation of Stalin. Khrushchev improved relations with Josip Broz Tito's League of Communists of Yugoslavia but failed to establish the close, party-to-party relations that he wanted. While the Thaw reduced political oppression at home, it led to unintended consequences abroad, such as the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 and unrest in Poland, where the local citizenry now felt confident enough to rebel against Soviet control. Khrushchev also failed to improve Soviet relations with the West, partially because of a hawkish military stance. In the aftermath of the Cuban Missile Crisis, Khrushchev's position within the party was substantially weakened. Shortly before his eventual ousting, he tried to introduce economic reforms championed by Evsei Liberman, a Soviet economist, which tried to implement market mechanisms into the planned economy. Khrushchev was ousted on 14 October 1964 in a Central Committee plenum that officially cited his inability to listen to others, his failure in consulting with the members of the Presidium, his establishment of a cult of personality, his economic mismanagement, and his anti-party reforms as the reasons he was no longer fit to remain as head of the party. He was succeeded in office by Leonid Brezhnev as First Secretary and Alexei Kosygin as Chairman of the Council of Ministers. era is commonly referred to by historians as the Era of Stagnation, a term coined by CPSU General Secretary Gorbachev.]] The Brezhnev era began with a rejection of Khrushchevism in virtually every arena except one: continued opposition to Stalinist methods of terror and political violence. Khrushchev's policies were criticized as voluntarism, and the Brezhnev period saw the rise of neo-Stalinism. While Stalin was never rehabilitated during this period, the most conservative journals in the country were allowed to highlight positive features of his rule. At the 23rd Congress held in 1966, the names of the office of First Secretary and the body of the Presidium reverted to their original names: General Secretary and Politburo, respectively. At the start of his premiership, Kosygin experimented with economic reforms similar to those championed by Malenkov, including prioritizing light industry over heavy industry to increase the production of consumer goods. Similar reforms were introduced in Hungary under the name New Economic Mechanism; however, with the rise to power of Alexander Dubček in Czechoslovakia, who called for the establishment of "socialism with a human face", all non-conformist reform attempts in the Soviet Union were stopped. During his rule, Brezhnev supported détente, a passive weakening of animosity with the West with the goal of improving political and economic relations. However, by the 25th Congress held in 1976, political, economic and social problems within the Soviet Union began to mount, and the Brezhnev administration found itself in an increasingly difficult position. The previous year, Brezhnev's health began to deteriorate. He became addicted to painkillers and needed to take increasingly more potent medications to attend official meetings. Because of the "trust in cadres" policy implemented by his administration, the CPSU leadership evolved into a gerontocracy. At the end of Brezhnev's rule, problems continued to amount; in 1979 he consented to the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan to save the embattled communist regime there and supported the oppression of the Solidarity movement in Poland. As problems grew at home and abroad, Brezhnev was increasingly ineffective in responding to the growing criticism of the Soviet Union by Western leaders, most prominently by US Presidents Jimmy Carter and Ronald Reagan, and UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher. The CPSU, which had wishfully interpreted the financial crisis of the 1970s as the beginning of the end of capitalism, found its country falling far behind the West in its economic development. Brezhnev died on 10 November 1982, and was succeeded by Yuri Andropov on 12 November. Andropov, a staunch anti-Stalinist, chaired the KGB during most of Brezhnev's reign. He had appointed several reformers to leadership positions in the KGB, many of whom later became leading officials under Gorbachev. Andropov supported increased openness in the press, particularly regarding the challenges facing the Soviet Union. Andropov was in office briefly, but he appointed a number of reformers, including Yegor Ligachev, Nikolay Ryzhkov, and Mikhail Gorbachev, to important positions. He also supported a crackdown on absenteeism and corruption. Andropov had intended to let Gorbachev succeed him in office, but Konstantin Chernenko and his supporters suppressed the paragraph in the letter which called for Gorbachev's elevation. Andropov died on 9 February 1984 and was succeeded by Chernenko. The elderly Cherneko was in poor health throughout his short leadership and was unable to consolidate power; effective control of the party organization remained with Gorbachev. When Chernenko died on 10 March 1985, his succession was already settled in favor of Gorbachev. Gorbachev and the party's demise (1985–1991) The Politburo did not want another elderly and frail leader after its previous three leaders, and elected Gorbachev as CPSU General Secretary on 11 March 1985, one day after Chernenko's death. When Gorbachev acceded to power, the Soviet Union was stagnating but was stable and might have continued largely unchanged into the 21st century if not for Gorbachev's reforms. Gorbachev conducted a significant personnel reshuffling of the CPSU leadership, forcing old party conservatives out of office. In 1985 and early 1986 the new leadership of the party called for uskoreniye (). Gorbachev reinvigorated the party ideology, adding new concepts and updating older ones. Positive consequences of this included the allowance of "pluralism of thought" and a call for the establishment of "socialist pluralism" (literally, socialist democracy). Gorbachev introduced a policy of glasnost (, meaning openness or transparency) in 1986, which led to a wave of unintended democratization. According to the British researcher of Russian affairs, Archie Brown, the democratization of the Soviet Union brought mixed blessings to Gorbachev; it helped him to weaken his conservative opponents within the party but brought out accumulated grievances which had been suppressed during the previous decades. , the last leader of the CPSU and the Soviet Union, as seen in 1986]] In reaction to these changes, a conservative movement gained momentum in 1987 in response to Boris Yeltsin's dismissal as First Secretary of the CPSU Moscow City Committee. On 13 March 1988, Nina Andreyeva, a university lecturer, wrote an article titled "I Cannot Forsake My Principles". The publication was planned to occur when both Gorbachev and his protege Alexander Yakovlev were visiting foreign countries. In their place, Yegor Ligachev led the party organization and told journalists that the article was "a benchmark for what we need in our ideology today". Upon Gorbachev's return, the article was discussed at length during a Politburo meeting; it was revealed that nearly half of its members were sympathetic to the letter and opposed further reforms which could weaken the party. The meeting lasted for two days, but on 5 April a Politburo resolution responded with a point-by-point rebuttal to Andreyeva's article. Gorbachev convened the 19th Party Conference in June 1988. He criticized leading party conservativesLigachev, Andrei Gromyko and Mikhail Solomentsev. In turn, conservative delegates attacked Gorbachev and the reformers. According to Brown, there had not been as much open discussion and dissent at a party meeting since the early 1920s. Despite the deep-seated opposition to further reform, the CPSU remained hierarchical; the conservatives acceded to Gorbachev's demands in deference to his position as the CPSU General Secretary. The 19th Conference approved the establishment of the Congress of People's Deputies (CPD) and allowed for contested elections between the CPSU and independent candidates. Other organized parties were not allowed. The CPD was elected in 1989; one-third of the seats were appointed by the CPSU and other public organizations to sustain the Soviet one-party state. The elections were democratic, but most elected CPD members opposed any more radical reform. The elections featured the highest electoral turnout in Russian history; no election before or since had a higher participation rate. An organized opposition was established within the legislature under the name Inter-Regional Group of Deputies by dissident Andrei Sakharov. An unintended consequence of these reforms was the increased anti-CPSU pressure; in March 1990, at a session of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union, the party was forced to relinquish its political monopoly of power, in effect turning the Soviet Union into a liberal democracy. The CPSU's demise began in March 1990, when state bodies eclipsed party elements in power. From then until the Soviet Union's disestablishment, Gorbachev ruled the country through the newly created post of President of the Soviet Union. Following this, the central party apparatus did not play a practical role in Soviet affairs. Gorbachev had become independent from the Politburo and faced few constraints from party leaders. In the summer of 1990 the party convened the 28th Congress. A new Politburo was elected, previous incumbents (except Gorbachev and Vladimir Ivashko, the CPSU Deputy General Secretary) were removed. Later that year, the party began work on a new program with a working title, "Towards a Humane, Democratic Socialism". According to Brown, the program reflected Gorbachev's journey from an orthodox communist to a European social democrat. The freedoms of thought and organization which Gorbachev allowed led to a rise in nationalism in the Soviet republics, indirectly weakening the central authorities. In response to this, a referendum took place in 1991, in which most of the union republics voted to preserve the union in a different form. In reaction to this, conservative elements within the CPSU launched the August 1991 coup, which overthrew Gorbachev but failed to preserve the Soviet Union. When Gorbachev resumed control (21 August 1991) after the coup's collapse, he resigned from the CPSU on 24 August 1991 and operations were handed over to Ivashko. On 29 August 1991 the activity of the CPSU was suspended throughout the country, on 6 November Yeltsin banned the activities of the party in Russia After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russian adherents to the CPSU tradition, particularly as it existed before Gorbachev, reorganized themselves within the Communist Party of the Russian Federation (CPRF). Today a wide range of parties in Russia present themselves as successors of CPSU. Several of them have used the name "CPSU". However, the CPRF is generally seen (due to its massive size) as the heir of the CPSU in Russia. Additionally, the CPRF was initially founded as the Communist Party of the Russian SFSR in 1990 (sometime before the abolition of the CPSU) and was seen by critics as a "Russian-nationalist" counterpart to the CPSU.Governing style The style of governance in the party alternated between collective leadership and a cult of personality. Collective leadership split power between the Politburo, the Central Committee, and the Council of Ministers to hinder any attempts to create a one-man dominance over the Soviet political system. By contrast, Stalin's period as leader was characterized by an extensive cult of personality. Regardless of leadership style, all political power in the Soviet Union was concentrated in the organization of the CPSU. Democratic centralism Democratic centralism is an organizational principle conceived by Lenin. According to Soviet pronouncements, democratic centralism was distinguished from "bureaucratic centralism", which referred to high-handed formulae without knowledge or discussion. In democratic centralism, decisions are taken after discussions, but once the general party line has been formed, discussion on the subject must cease. No member or organizational institution may dissent on a policy after it has been agreed upon by the party's governing body; to do so would lead to expulsion from the party (formalized at the 10th Congress). Because of this stance, Lenin initiated a ban on factions, which was approved at the 10th Congress. Lenin believed that democratic centralism safeguarded both party unity and ideological correctness. He conceived of the system after the events of 1917 when several socialist parties "deformed" themselves and actively began supporting nationalist sentiments. Lenin intended that the devotion to policy required by centralism would protect the parties from such revisionist ills and bourgeois deformation of socialism. Lenin supported the notion of a highly centralized vanguard party, in which ordinary party members elected the local party committee, the local party committee elected the regional committee, the regional committee elected the Central Committee, and the Central Committee elected the Politburo, Orgburo, and the Secretariat. Lenin believed that the party needed to be ruled from the center and have at its disposal power to mobilize party members at will. This system was later introduced in communist parties abroad through the Communist International (Comintern). Vanguardism A central tenet of Leninism was that of the vanguard party. In a capitalist society, the party was to represent the interests of the working class and all of those who were exploited by capitalism in general; however, it was not to become a part of that class. Lenin decided that the party's sole responsibility was to articulate and plan the long-term interests of the oppressed classes. It was not responsible for the daily grievances of those classes; that was the responsibility of the trade unions. According to Lenin, the party and the oppressed classes could never become one because the party was responsible for leading the oppressed classes to victory. The basic idea was that a small group of organized people could wield power disproportionate to their size with superior organizational skills. Despite this, until the end of his life, Lenin warned of the danger that the party could be taken over by bureaucrats, by a small clique, or by an individual. Toward the end of his life, he criticized the bureaucratic inertia of certain officials and admitted to problems with some of the party's control structures, which were to supervise organizational life.Organization * Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Central Committee) Communist Party of Armenia (Central Committee) Communist Party of Azerbaijan (Central Committee) Communist Party of Bukhara Communist Party of Byelorussia (Central Committee) Communist Party of Estonia (Central Committee) Communist Party of Georgia (Central Committee) Communist Party of the Karelia-Finland SSR (Central Committee) Communist Party of Kazakhstan (Central Committee) Communist Party of Kirgizia (Central Committee) Communist Party of Khorezm * Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Central Committee) Communist Party of Latvia (Central Committee) Communist Party of Lithuania (Central Committee) Communist Party of Lithuania and Byelorussia (Central Committee) Communist Party of Moldavia–Moldova (Central Committee) Communist Party of the Russian SFSR (Central Committee) Communist Party of Tajikistan (Central Committee) Communist Party of Turkestan (Central Committee) Communist Party of Turkmenistan (Central Committee) Communist Party of Ukraine (Central Committee) Communist Party of Uzbekistan (Central Committee) Congress The Congress, nominally the highest organ of the party, was convened every five years. Leading up to the October Revolution and until Stalin's consolidation of power, the Congress was the party's main decision-making body. However, after Stalin's ascension, the Congresses became largely symbolic. CPSU leaders used Congresses as a propaganda and control tool. The most noteworthy Congress since the 1930s was the 20th Congress, in which Khrushchev denounced Stalin in a speech titled "The Personality Cult and its Consequences". Despite delegates to Congresses losing their powers to criticize or remove party leadership, the Congresses functioned as a form of elite-mass communication. They were occasions for the party leadership to express the party line over the next five years to ordinary CPSU members and the general public. The information provided was general, ensuring that party leadership retained the ability to make specific policy changes as they saw fit. The Congresses also provided the party leadership with formal legitimacy by providing a mechanism for the election of new members and the retirement of old members who had lost favor. The elections at Congresses were all predetermined and the candidates who stood for seats to the Central Committee and the Central Auditing Commission were approved beforehand by the Politburo and the Secretariat. A Congress could also provide a platform for the announcement of new ideological concepts. For instance, at the 22nd Congress, Khrushchev announced that the Soviet Union would see "communism in twenty years" a position later retracted. A Conference, officially referred to as an All-Union Conference, was convened between Congresses by the Central Committee to discuss party policy and to make personnel changes within the Central Committee. 19 conferences were convened during the CPSU's existence. It had about as many members as the Central Committee. In their place, Gorbachev called for the creations of commissions with the same responsibilities as departments, but giving more independence from the state apparatus. This change was approved at the 19th Conference, which was held in 1988. Six commissions were established by late 1988.Pravda Pravda (The Truth) was the leading newspaper in the Soviet Union. The Organizational Department of the Central Committee was the only organ empowered to dismiss Pravda editors. In 1905, Pravda began as a project by members of the Ukrainian Social Democratic Labour Party. Leon Trotsky was approached about the possibility of running the new paper because of his previous work on Ukrainian newspaper Kyivan Thought. The first issue of Pravda was published on 3 October 1908 in Lvov, where it continued until the publication of the sixth issue in November 1909, when the operation was moved to Vienna, Austria-Hungary. During the Russian Civil War, sales of Pravda were curtailed by Izvestia, the government run newspaper. At the time, the average reading figure for Pravda was 130,000. This Vienna-based newspaper published its last issue in 1912 and was succeeded the same year by a new newspaper dominated by the Bolsheviks, also called Pravda, which was headquartered in St. Petersburg. The paper's main goal was to promote Marxist–Leninist philosophy and expose the lies of the bourgeoisie. It is currently owned by the Communist Party of the Russian Federation.Higher Party School The Higher Party School (HPS) was the organ responsible for teaching cadres in the Soviet Union. It was the successor of the Communist Academy, which was established in 1918. from both the working class and rural areas. This represented an attempt to "proletarianize" the party and an attempt by Stalin to strengthen his base by outnumbering the Old Bolsheviks and reducing their influence in the Party. In 1925, the party had 1,025,000 members in a Soviet population of 147 million. In 1927, membership had risen to 1,200,000. During the collectivization campaign and industrialization campaigns of the first five-year plan from 1929 to 1933, party membership grew rapidly to approximately 3.5 million members. However, party leaders suspected that the mass intake of new members had allowed "social-alien elements" to penetrate the party's ranks and document verifications of membership ensued in 1933 and 1935, removing supposedly unreliable members. Meanwhile, the party closed its ranks to new members from 1933 to November 1936. Even after the reopening of party recruiting, membership fell to 1.9 million by 1939. Nicholas DeWitt gives 2.307 million members in 1939, including candidate members, compared with 1.535 million in 1929 and 6.3 million in 1947. In 1986, the CPSU had over 19 million membersapproximately 10% of the Soviet Union's adult population. Over 44% of party members were classified as industrial workers and 12% as collective farmers. The CPSU had party organizations in 14 of the Soviet Union's 15 republics. The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic itself had no separate Communist Party until 1990 because the CPSU controlled affairs there directly.Komsomol The All-Union Leninist Communist Youth League, commonly referred to as Komsomol, was the party's youth wing. The Komsomol acted under the direction of the CPSU Central Committee. It was responsible for indoctrinating youths in communist ideology and organizing social events. It was closely modeled on the CPSU; nominally the highest body was the Congress, followed by the Central Committee, Secretariat, and the Politburo. The Komsomol participated in nationwide policy-making by appointing members to the collegiums of the Ministry of Culture, the Ministry of Higher and Specialized Secondary Education, the Ministry of Education and, the State Committee for Physical Culture and Sports. The organization's newspaper was the Komsomolskaya Pravda. The First Secretary and the Second Secretary were commonly members of the Central Committee but were never elected to the Politburo. However, at the republican level, several Komsomol first secretaries were appointed to the Politburo. Ideology Marxism–Leninism Marxism–Leninism was the cornerstone of Soviet ideology. It explained and legitimized the CPSU's right to rule while explaining its role as a vanguard party. For instance, the ideology explained that the CPSU's policies, even if they were unpopular, were correct because the party was enlightened. It was represented as the only truth in Soviet society; the party rejected the notion of multiple truths. Marxism–Leninism was used to justify CPSU rule and Soviet policy, but it was not used as a means to an end. The relationship between ideology and decision-making was at best ambivalent; most policy decisions were made in the light of the continued, permanent development of Marxism–Leninism. Marxism–Leninism as the only truth could notby its very naturebecome outdated. Despite having evolved over the years, Marxism–Leninism had several central tenets. The main tenet was the party's status as the sole ruling party. The 1977 Constitution referred to the party as "The leading and guiding force of Soviet society, and the nucleus of its political system, of all state and public organizations, is the Communist Party of the Soviet Union". State socialism was essential and from Stalin until Gorbachev, official discourse considered that private social and economic activity retarding the development of collective consciousness and the economy. Gorbachev supported privatization to a degree but based his policies on Lenin's and Nikolai Bukharin's opinions of the New Economic Policy of the 1920s, and supported complete state ownership over the commanding heights of the economy. Unlike liberalism, Marxism–Leninism stressed the role of the individual as a member of a collective rather than the importance of the individual. Individuals only had the right to freedom of expression if it safeguarded the interests of a collective. For instance, the 1977 Constitution stated that every person had the right to express his or her opinion, but the opinion could only be expressed if it was in accordance with the "general interests of Soviet society". The number of rights granted to an individual was decided by the state, and the state could remove these rights if it saw fit. Soviet Marxism–Leninism justified nationalism; the Soviet media portrayed every victory of the state as a victory for the communist movement as a whole. Largely, Soviet nationalism was based upon ethnic Russian nationalism. Marxism–Leninism stressed the importance of the worldwide conflict between capitalism and socialism; the Soviet press wrote about progressive and reactionary forces while claiming that socialism was on the verge of victory and that the "correlations of forces" were in the Soviet Union's favor. The ideology professed state atheism and party members were consequently not allowed to be religious. Marxism–Leninism believed in the feasibility of a communist mode of production. All policies were justifiable if it contributed to the Soviet Union's achievement of that stage.Leninism In Marxist philosophy, Leninism is the body of political theory for the democratic organization of a revolutionary vanguard party and the achievement of a dictatorship of the proletariat as a political prelude to the establishment of the socialist mode of production developed by Lenin. Since Karl Marx rarely, if ever wrote about how the socialist mode of production would function, these tasks were left for Lenin to solve. Lenin's main contribution to Marxist thought is the concept of the vanguard party of the working class. He conceived the vanguard party as a highly knit, centralized organization that was led by intellectuals rather than by the working class itself. The CPSU was open only to a small number of workers because the workers in Russia still had not developed class consciousness and needed to be educated to reach such a state. Lenin believed that the vanguard party could initiate policies in the name of the working class even if the working class did not support them. The vanguard party would know what was best for the workers because the party functionaries had attained consciousness. Lenin, in light of the Marx's theory of the state (which views the state as an oppressive organ of the ruling class), had no qualms of forcing change upon the country. He viewed the dictatorship of the proletariat, rather than the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie, to be the dictatorship of the majority. The repressive powers of the state were to be used to transform the country, and to strip of the former ruling class of their wealth. Lenin believed that the transition from the capitalist mode of production to the socialist mode of production would last for a long period. According to some authors, Leninism was by definition authoritarian. In contrast to Marx, who believed that the socialist revolution would comprise and be led by the working class alone, Lenin argued that a socialist revolution did not necessarily need to be led or to comprise the working class alone. Instead, he said that a revolution needed to be led by the oppressed classes of society, which in the case of Russia was the peasant class. Stalinism , while not an ideology per se, refers to the thoughts and policies of Stalin.]] Stalinism, while not an ideology per se, refers to Stalin's thoughts and policies. Stalin's introduction of the concept "Socialism in One Country" in 1924 was an important moment in Soviet ideological discourse. According to Stalin, the Soviet Union did not need a socialist world revolution to construct a socialist society. Four years later, Stalin initiated his "Second Revolution" with the introduction of state socialism and central planning. In the early 1930s, he initiated the collectivization of Soviet agriculture by de-privatizing agriculture and creating peasant cooperatives rather than making it the responsibility of the state. With the initiation of his "Second Revolution", Stalin launched the "Cult of Lenin"a cult of personality centered upon himself. The name of the city of Petrograd was changed to Leningrad, the town of Lenin's birth was renamed Ulyanov (Lenin's birth-name), the Order of Lenin became the highest state award and portraits of Lenin were hung in public squares, workplaces and elsewhere. The increasing bureaucracy which followed the introduction of a state socialist economy was at complete odds with the Marxist notion of "the withering away of the state". Stalin explained the reasoning behind it at the 16th Congress held in 1930; <blockquote>We stand for the strengthening of the dictatorship of the proletariat, which represents the mightiest and most powerful authority of all forms of State that have ever existed. The highest development of the State power for the withering away of State power —this is the Marxian formula. Is this contradictory? Yes, it is contradictory. But this contradiction springs from life itself and reflects completely Marxist dialectic.</blockquote> At the 1939 18th Congress, Stalin abandoned the idea that the state would wither away. In its place, he expressed confidence that the state would exist, even if the Soviet Union reached communism, as long as it was encircled by capitalism. Two key concepts were created in the latter half of his rule; the "two camps" theory and the "capitalist encirclement" theory. The threat of capitalism was used to strengthen Stalin's personal powers and Soviet propaganda began making a direct link with Stalin and stability in society, saying that the country would crumble without the leader. Stalin deviated greatly from classical Marxism on the subject of "subjective factors"; Stalin said that party members of all ranks had to profess fanatic adherence to the party's line and ideology, if not, those policies would fail. Concepts Dictatorship of the proletariat }} Lenin, supporting Marx's theory of the state, believed democracy to be unattainable anywhere in the world before the proletariat seized power. According to Marxist theory, the state is a vehicle for oppression and is headed by a ruling class. He believed that by his time, the only viable solution was dictatorship since the war was heading into a final conflict between the "progressive forces of socialism and the degenerate forces of capitalism". The Russian Revolution was by 1917, already a failure according to its original aim, which was to act as an inspiration for a world revolution. The initial anti-statist posture and the active campaigning for direct democracy was replaced because of Russia's level of development withaccording to their own assessmentsdictatorship. The reasoning was Russia's lack of development, its status as the sole socialist state in the world, its encirclement by imperialist powers, and its internal encirclement by the peasantry. Marx and Lenin did not care if a bourgeois state was ruled in accordance with a republican, parliamentary or a constitutional monarchical system since this did not change the overall situation. These systems, even if they were ruled by a small clique or ruled through mass participation, were all dictatorships of the bourgeoisie who implemented policies in defense of capitalism. However, there was a difference; after the failures of the world revolutions, Lenin argued that this did not necessarily have to change under the dictatorship of the proletariat. The reasoning came from practical considerations; the majority of the country's inhabitants were not communists, neither could the party reintroduce parliamentary democracy because that was not in synchronization with its ideology and would lead to the party losing power. He, therefore, concluded that the form of government has nothing to do with the nature of the dictatorship of the proletariat. Bukharin and Trotsky agreed with Lenin; both said that the revolution had destroyed the old but had failed to create anything new. Lenin had now concluded that the dictatorship of the proletariat would not alter the relationship of power between men, but would rather "transform their productive relations so that, in the long run, the realm of necessity could be overcome and, with that, genuine social freedom realized". From 1920 to 1921, Soviet leaders and ideologists began differentiating between socialism and communism; hitherto the two terms had been used interchangeably and used to explain the same things. From then, the two terms had different meanings; Russia was in transition from capitalism to socialismreferred to interchangeably under Lenin as the dictatorship of the proletariat, socialism was the intermediate stage to communism and communism was considered the last stage of social development. By now, the party leaders believed that because of Russia's backward state, universal mass participation and true democracy could only take form in the last stage. }} In early Bolshevik discourse, the term "dictatorship of the proletariat" was of little significance, and the few times it was mentioned it was likened to the form of government which had existed in the Paris Commune. However, with the ensuing Russian Civil War and the social and material devastation that followed, its meaning altered from commune-type democracy to rule by iron-discipline. By now, Lenin had concluded that only a proletarian regime as oppressive as its opponents could survive in this world. The powers previously bestowed upon the Soviets were now given to the Council of People's Commissars, the central government, which was, in turn, to be governed by "an army of steeled revolutionary Communists [by Communists he referred to the Party]". In a letter to Gavril Myasnikov in late 1920, Lenin explained his new interpretation of the term "dictatorship of the proletariat": <blockquote>Dictatorship means nothing more nor less than authority untrammeled by any laws, absolutely unrestricted by any rules whatever, and based directly on force. The term 'dictatorship' .</blockquote> Lenin justified these policies by claiming that all states were class states by nature and that these states were maintained through class struggle. This meant that the dictatorship of the proletariat in the Soviet Union could only be "won and maintained by the use of violence against the bourgeoisie". The main problem with this analysis is that the party came to view anyone opposing or holding alternate views of the party as bourgeois. Its worst enemy remained the moderates, which were considered to be "the real agents of the bourgeoisie in the working-class movement, the labor lieutenants of the capitalist class". The term "bourgeoisie" became synonymous with "opponent" and with people who disagreed with the party in general. These oppressive measures led to another reinterpretation of the dictatorship of the proletariat and socialism in general; it was now defined as a purely economic system. Slogans and theoretical works about democratic mass participation and collective decision-making were now replaced with texts which supported authoritarian management. Considering the situation, the party believed it had to use the same powers as the bourgeoisie to transform Russia; there was no alternative. Lenin began arguing that the proletariat, like the bourgeoisie, did not have a single preference for a form of government and because of that, the dictatorship was acceptable to both the party and the proletariat. In a meeting with party officials, Lenin statedin line with his economist view of socialismthat "Industry is indispensable, democracy is not", further arguing that "we [the Party] do not promise any democracy or any freedom". Anti-imperialism }} The Marxist theory on imperialism was conceived by Lenin in his book, Imperialism: the Highest Stage of Capitalism (published in 1917). It was written in response to the theoretical crisis within Marxist thought, which occurred due to capitalism's recovery in the 19th century. According to Lenin, imperialism was a specific stage of development of capitalism; a stage he referred to as state monopoly capitalism. The Marxist movement was split on how to solve capitalism's resurgence after the great depression of the late 19th century. Eduard Bernstein from the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SDP) considered capitalism's revitalization as proof that it was evolving into a more humane system, adding that the basic aims of socialists were not to overthrow the state but to take power through elections. Karl Kautsky, also from the SDP, held a highly dogmatic view; he said that there was no crisis within Marxist theory. Both of them denied or belittled the role of class contradictions in society after the crisis. In contrast, Lenin believed that the resurgence was the beginning of a new phase of capitalism; this stage was created because of a strengthening of class contradiction, not because of its reduction. Lenin did not know when the imperialist stage of capitalism began; he said it would be foolish to look for a specific year, however, said it began at the beginning of the 20th century (at least in Europe). Lenin believed that the economic crisis of 1900 accelerated and intensified the concentration of industry and banking, which led to the transformation of the finance capital connection to industry into the monopoly of large banks. In Imperialism: the Highest Stage of Capitalism, Lenin wrote; "the twentieth century marks the turning point from the old capitalism to the new, from the domination of capital in general to the domination of finance capital". Lenin defines imperialism as the monopoly stage of capitalism. The 1986 Party Program claimed the Tsarist regime collapsed because the contradictions of imperialism, which he held to be the gap "between the social nature of production and the private capitalist form of appropriation" manifesting itself in wars, economic recessions, and exploitation of the working class, were strongest in Russia. Imperialism was held to have caused the Russo-Japanese War and the First World War, with the 1905 Russian Revolution presented as "the first people's revolution of the imperialist epoch" and the October Revolution is said to have been rooted in "the nationwide movement against imperialist war and for peace."Peaceful coexistence }} "Peaceful coexistence" was an ideological concept introduced under Khrushchev's rule. While the concept has been interpreted by fellow communists as proposing an end to the conflict between the systems of capitalism and socialism, Khrushchev saw it as a continuation of the conflict in every area except in the military field. The concept said that the two systems were developed "by way of diametrically opposed laws", which led to "opposite principles in foreign policy". Peaceful coexistence was steeped in Leninist and Stalinist thought. Lenin believed that international politics were dominated by class struggle; in the 1940s Stalin stressed the growing polarization which was occurring in the capitalist and socialist systems. Khrushchev's peaceful coexistence was based on practical changes which had occurred; he accused the old "two camp" theory of neglecting the non-aligned movement and the national liberation movements. Khrushchev considered these "grey areas", in which the conflict between capitalism and socialism would be fought. He still stressed that the main contradiction in international relations were those of capitalism and socialism. The Soviet Government under Khrushchev stressed the importance of peaceful coexistence, saying that it had to form the basis of Soviet foreign policy. Failure to do, they believed, would lead to nuclear conflict. Despite this, Soviet theorists still considered peaceful coexistence to be a continuation of the class struggle between the capitalist and socialist worlds, but not based on armed conflict. Khrushchev believed that the conflict, in its current phase, was mainly economic. The emphasis on peaceful coexistence did not mean that the Soviet Union accepted a static world with clear lines. It continued to uphold the creed that socialism was inevitable and they sincerely believed that the world had reached a stage in which the "correlations of forces" were moving towards socialism. With the establishment of socialist regimes in Eastern Europe and Asia, Soviet foreign policy planners believed that capitalism had lost its dominance as an economic system.Socialism in one country The concept of "Socialism in One Country" was conceived by Stalin in his struggle against Leon Trotsky and his concept of permanent revolution. In 1924, Trotsky published his pamphlet Lessons of October, in which he stated that socialism in the Soviet Union would fail because of the backward state of economic development unless a world revolution began. Stalin responded to Trotsky's pamphlet with his article, "October and Comrade Trotsky's Theory of Permanent Revolution". In it, Stalin stated that he did not believe an inevitable conflict between the working class and the peasants would take place, and that "socialism in one country is completely possible and probable". Stalin held the view common among most Bolsheviks at the time; there was a possibility of real success for socialism in the Soviet Union despite the country's backwardness and international isolation. While Grigoriy Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev and Nikolai Bukharintogether with Stalinopposed Trotsky's theory of permanent revolution, their views on the way socialism could be built diverged. According to Bukharin, Zinoviev, and Kamenev supported the resolution of the 14th Conference held in 1925, which stated that "we cannot complete the building of socialism due to our technological backwardness". Despite this cynical attitude, Zinoviev and Kamenev believed that a defective form of socialism could be constructed. At the 14th Conference, Stalin reiterated his position that socialism in one country was feasible despite the capitalist blockade of the Soviet Union. After the conference, Stalin wrote "Concerning the Results of the XIV Conference of the RCP(b)", in which he stated that the peasantry would not turn against the socialist system because they had a self-interest in preserving it. Stalin said the contradictions which arose within the peasantry during the socialist transition could "be overcome by our own efforts". He concluded that the only viable threat to socialism in the Soviet Union was a military intervention. In late 1925, Stalin received a letter from a party official which stated that his position of "Socialism in One Country" was in contradiction with Friedrich Engels' writings on the subject. Stalin countered that Engels' writings reflected "the era of pre-monopoly capitalism, the pre-imperialist era when there were not yet the conditions of an uneven, abrupt development of the capitalist countries". From 1925, Bukharin began writing extensively on the subject and in 1926, Stalin wrote On Questions of Leninism, which contains his best-known writings on the subject. With the publishing of Leninism, Trotsky began countering Bukharin's and Stalin's arguments, writing that socialism in one country was only possible only in the short term, and said that without a world revolution it would be impossible to safeguard the Soviet Union from the "restoration of bourgeois relations". Zinoviev disagreed with Trotsky and Bukharin, and Stalin; he maintained Lenin's position from 1917 to 1922 and continued to say that only a defective form of socialism could be constructed in the Soviet Union without a world revolution. Bukharin began arguing for the creation of an autarkic economic model, while Trotsky said that the Soviet Union had to participate in the international division of labor to develop. In contrast to Trotsky and Bukharin, in 1938, Stalin said that a world revolution was impossible and that Engels was wrong on the matter. At the 18th Congress, Stalin took the theory to its inevitable conclusion, saying that the communist mode of production could be conceived in one country. He rationalized this by saying that the state could exist in a communist society as long as the Soviet Union was encircled by capitalism. However, with the establishment of socialist regimes in Eastern Europe, Stalin said that socialism in one country was only possible in a large country like the Soviet Union and that to survive, the other states had to follow the Soviet line. Reasons for demise Western view There were few, if any, who believed that the Soviet Union was on the verge of collapse by 1985. The economy was stagnating, but stable enough for the Soviet Union to continue. The political situation was calm because of twenty years of systematic repression against any threat to the country and one-party rule, and the Soviet Union was in its peak of influence in world affairs. Archie Brown said:<ref name"BBC" /> <blockquote>The expectations of, again most notably, Lithuanians, Estonians, and Latvians were enormously enhanced by what they saw happening in the 'outer empire' [Eastern Europe], and they began to believe that they could remove themselves from the 'inner empire'. In truth, a democratized Soviet Union was incompatible with denial of the Baltic states' independence for, to the extent that those Soviet republics became democratic, their opposition to remaining in a political entity whose center was Moscow would become increasingly evident. Yet, it was not preordained that the entire Soviet Union would break up.<ref name="BBC" /></blockquote> However, Brown said that the system did not need to collapse or to do so in the way it did.<ref name"BBC" /> The democratization from above weakened the party's control over the country and put it on the defensive.<ref name"BBC" /> Brown added that a different leader than Gorbachev would probably have oppressed the opposition and continued with economic reform.<ref name"BBC" /> Nonetheless, Gorbachev accepted that the people sought a different road and consented to the Soviet Union's dissolution in 1991.<ref name"BBC" /> He said that because of its peaceful collapse, the fall of Soviet communism is "one of the great success stories of 20th-century politics".<ref name"BBC" /> According to Lars T. Lih, the Soviet Union collapsed because people stopped believing in its ideology. He wrote: <blockquote>When in 1991 the Soviet Union collapsed not with a bang but a whimper, this unexpected outcome was partly the result of the previous disenchantments of the narrative of class leadership. The Soviet Union had always been based on the fervent belief in this narrative in its various permutations. When the binding power of the narrative dissolved, the Soviet Union itself dissolved.</blockquote>According to the Chinese Communist PartyThe first research into the collapse of the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc was very simple and did not take into account several factors. However, these examinations became more advanced by the 1990s, and unlike most Western scholarship, which focuses on the role of Gorbachev and his reform efforts, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) examined "core (political) life and death issues" so that it could learn from them and not make the same mistakes. Following the CPSU's demise and the Soviet Union's collapse, the CCP's analysis began examining systematic causes. Several leading CCP officials began hailing Khrushchev's rule, saying that he was the first reformer and that if he had continued after 1964, the Soviet Union would not have witnessed the Era of Stagnation begun under Brezhnev and continued under Yuri Andropov and Konstantin Chernenko. The main economic failure was that the political leadership did not pursue any reforms to tackle the economic malaise that had taken hold, dismissing certain techniques as capitalist, and never disentangling the planned economy from socialism. Xu Zhixin from the CASS Institute of Eastern Europe, Russia, and Central Asia, argued that Soviet planners laid too much emphasis on heavy industry, which led to shortages of consumer goods. Unlike his counterparts, Xu argued that the shortages of consumer goods were not an error but "was a consciously planned feature of the system". Other CPSU failures were pursuing the policy of state socialism, the high spending on the military-industrial complex, a low tax base, and the subsidizing of the economy. The CCP argued that when Gorbachev came to power and introduced his economic reforms, they were "too little, too late, and too fast". }} While most CCP researchers criticize the CPSU's economic policies, many have criticized what they see as "Soviet totalitarianism". They accuse Joseph Stalin of creating a system of mass terror and intimidation, annulling the democracy component of democratic centralism and emphasizing centralism, which led to the creation of an inner-party dictatorship. Other points were Russian nationalism, a lack of separation between the party and state bureaucracies, suppression of non-Russian ethnicities, distortion of the economy through the introduction of over-centralization and the collectivization of agriculture. According to CCP researcher Xiao Guisen, Stalin's policies led to "stunted economic growth, tight surveillance of society, a lack of democracy in decision-making, an absence of the rule of law, the burden of bureaucracy, the CPSU's alienation from people's concerns, and an accumulation of ethnic tensions". Stalin's effect on ideology was also criticized; several researchers accused his policies of being "leftist", "dogmatist" and a deviation "from true Marxism–Leninism." He is criticized for initiating the "bastardization of Leninism", of deviating from true democratic centralism by establishing a one-man rule and destroying all inner-party consultation, of misinterpreting Lenin's theory of imperialism and of supporting foreign revolutionary movements only when the Soviet Union could get something out of it. Yu Sui, a CCP theoretician, said that "the collapse of the Soviet Union and CPSU is a punishment for its past wrongs!" Similarly, Brezhnev, Mikhail Suslov, Alexei Kosygin and Konstantin Chernenko have been criticized for being "dogmatic, ossified, inflexible, [for having a] bureaucratic ideology and thinking", while Yuri Andropov is depicted by some of having the potential of becoming a new Khrushchev if he had not died early. While the CCP concur with Gorbachev's assessment that the CPSU needed internal reform, they do not agree on how it was implemented, criticizing his idea of "humanistic and democratic socialism", of negating the leading role of the CPSU, of negating Marxism, of negating the analysis of class contradictions and class struggle, and of negating the "ultimate socialist goal of realizing communism". Unlike the other Soviet leaders, Gorbachev is criticized for pursuing the wrong reformist policies and for being too flexible and too rightist. The CCP Organization Department said, "What Gorbachev in fact did was not to transform the CPSU by correct principles—indeed the Soviet Communist Party —but instead he, step-by-step, and ultimately, eroded the ruling party's dominance in ideological, political and organizational aspects". The CPSU was also criticized for not taking enough care in building the primary party organization and not having inner-party democracy. Others, more radically, concur with Milovan Đilas assessment, saying that a new class was established within the central party leadership of the CPSU and that a "corrupt and privileged class" had developed because of the nomenklatura system. Others criticized the special privileges bestowed on the CPSU elite, the nomenklatura systemwhich some said had decayed continuously since Stalin's ruleand the relationship between the Soviet military and the CPSU. Unlike in China, the Soviet military was a state institution whereas in China it is a party (and state) institution. The CCP criticizes the CPSU of pursuing Soviet imperialism in its foreign policies. Electoral history Presidential election {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" !Election !Party candidate !Votes !% !Result \|- \|1990 \|Mikhail Gorbachev \|1,329 \|72.9% \|Elected \|} Supreme Soviet elections {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" ! rowspan="2" \|Election ! colspan="5" \|Soviet of the Union ! colspan="4" \|Soviet of Nationalities ! colspan"2" rowspan"2" \|Position \|- !Party leader !Votes !% !Seats !+/– !Votes !% !Seats !+/– \|- \|1937 \|rowspan=3\| Joseph Stalin \|89,844,271 \|99.3% \|}} \| \|89,063,169 \|99.4% \|}} \| \| 1st \| 1st \|- \|1946 \|100,621,225 \|99.2% \|}} \|<small></small> 115 \|100,603,567 \|99.2% \|}} \| 100 \| 1st \| 1st \|- \|1950 \|110,788,377 \|99.7% \|}} \| 4 \|110,782,009 \|99.7% \|}} \| 10 \| 1st \| 1st \|- \|1954 \|rowspan=3\| Nikita Khrushchev \|120,479,249 \|99.8% \|}} \| 15 \|120,539,860 \|99.8% \|}} \| 34 \| 1st \| 1st \|- \|1958 \|133,214,652 \|99.6% \|}} \| 2 \|133,431,524 \|99.7% \|}} \| \| 1st \| 1st \|- \|1962 \|139,210,431 \|99.5% \|}} \| 41 \|139,391,455 \|99.6% \|}} \| 5 \| 1st \| 1st \|- \|1966 \|rowspan=4\| Leonid Brezhnev \|143,570,976 \|99.8% \|}} \| 31 \|143,595,678 \|99.8% \|}} \| 78 \| 1st \| 1st \|- \|1970 \|152,771,739 \|99.7% \|}} \| 11 \|152,843,228 \|99.8% \|}} \| 34 \| 1st \| 1st \|- \|1974 \|161,355,959 \|99.8% \|}} \| \|161,443,605 \|99.8% \|}} \| \| 1st \| 1st \|- \|1979 \|174,734,459 \|99.9% \|}} \| 13 \|174,770,398 \|99.9% \|}} \| 8 \| 1st \| 1st \|- \|1984 \|Konstantin Chernenko \|183,897,278 \|99.94% \|}} \| 2 \|183,892,271 \|99.95% \|}} \| 5 \| 1st \| 1st \|} See also * Communist Party of the Russian Federation Communist parties within the Warsaw Pact * Bulgarian Communist Party * Communist Party of Czechoslovakia * Socialist Unity Party of Germany * Hungarian Working People's Party * Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party * Polish United Workers' Party * Romanian Communist Party Other ruling communist parties * People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan * Party of Labour of Albania * People's Revolutionary Party of Benin * Communist Party of Kampuchea * Chinese Communist Party * Communist Party of Cuba * Workers' Party of Ethiopia * New Jewel Movement * Workers' Party of Korea * Lao People's Revolutionary Party * Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party * Communist Party of Vietnam * League of Communists of Yugoslavia Footnotes Notes Citations Bibliography Articles and journal entries * Books * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * External links * [http://www.archontology.org/nations/ussr/cpsu Executive Bodies of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1917–1991)] * [http://www.xs4all.nl/~eurodos/docu/cpsu-texts/cpsu86-0.htm Program of the CPSU, 27th Party Congress (1986)] }} * Category:Parties of one-party systems Category:Political parties established in 1912 Category:Political parties disestablished in 1991 Category:Banned communist parties Category:Soviet internal politics Category:Neo-Stalinist parties Category:Eastern Bloc Category:Formerly ruling communist parties Category:1912 establishments in the Russian Empire Category:Banned communist parties in Ukraine Category:Communist parties in Russia Category:Communist parties in Armenia Category:Communist parties in Azerbaijan Category:Communist parties in Belarus Category:Communist parties in Estonia Category:Communist parties in Georgia (country) Category:Communist parties in Kazakhstan Category:Communist parties in Kyrgyzstan Category:Communist parties in Latvia Category:Communist parties in Moldova Category:Defunct communist parties Category:Defunct communist parties in Russia Category:Defunct political parties in Belarus Category:Defunct political parties in Estonia Category:Defunct political parties in Georgia (country) Category:Defunct political parties in Kyrgyzstan Category:Defunct political parties in Latvia Category:Defunct political parties in Moldova Category:Defunct political parties in Tajikistan Category:Defunct political parties in Ukraine Category:Defunct political parties in Uzbekistan Category:Political parties in Turkmenistan Category:Far-left political parties Category:Far-left politics in Russia	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union	2025-04-05T18:28:06.472396
7272	Christianity and homosexuality	and LGBTQ people, combining the Christian cross and LGBTQ rainbow flag]] Christianity developed during the 1st century AD as a Jewish Christian sect and, as such, many of its views were rooted in Jewish teaching. As Christianity established itself as a separate religion, with its own scriptures, some views moved away from the Jewish roots while others remained firmly grounded in Jewish tradition. The view within Christianity is that the Jewish scriptures within what became known as The Old Testament, as well as passages within what became known as The New Testament, both make clear the same-sex sexual behaviour is sinful - an interpretation supported by the wording of the various translations of the Bible. Today, some mainly liberal denominations, churches and individuals hold views that differ from traditional interpretations. Most denominations teach that homosexual behavior and acts are sinful. favouring exclusively penetrative vaginal intercourse between men and women within the boundaries of marriage over all other forms of human sexual activity, They have believed and taught that such behaviors are forbidden because they are considered sinful, However, the status of LGBTQ people in early Christianity is debated. The history of Christianity and homosexuality has been much debated with these disagreements often concerning the translations of certain phrases, or the meaning and context of some biblical passages. The Church states that "homosexual tendencies" are "objectively disordered", but does not consider the tendency itself to be sinful but rather a temptation toward sin. The Catechism of the Catholic Church states that "men and women who have deep-seated homosexual tendencies[...] must be accepted with respect, compassion, and sensitivity" and that "every sign of unjust discrimination in their regard should be avoided." The Catholic Church requires those who are attracted to people of the same (or opposite) sex to practise chastity, because it teaches that sexuality should only be practised within marriage, which includes chaste sex as permanent, procreative, heterosexual, and monogamous. The Vatican distinguishes between "deep-seated homosexual tendencies" and the "expression of a transitory problem", in relation to ordination to the priesthood; saying in a 2005 document that homosexual tendencies "must be clearly overcome at least three years before ordination to the diaconate." A 2011 report based on telephone surveys of self-identified American Catholics conducted by the Public Religion Research Institute found that 56% believe that sexual relations between two people of the same sex are not sinful. Research indicates that the Catholic Church's teachings on sexuality are "a major source of conflict and distress" to LGBTQ Catholics. In January 2018, German bishop Franz-Josef Bode of the Diocese of Osnabrück, and in February 2018 German Catholic cardinal Reinhard Marx, chairman of the German Bishops' Conference, said in interviews with German journalists that blessing of same-sex unions is possible in Catholic churches in Germany. In Austria blessing of same sex unions is performed in two churches located in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Linz. In 2021, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith clarified that same-sex civil unions cannot be blessed. On 11 March 2023, the Synodal Path with support of over 80 percentage of German Roman Catholic bishops allowed liturgical blessing ceremonies for same-sex unions in all 27 German Roman Catholic diocese. A similar decision had been taken a few months earlier by the Flemish bishops of the Episcopal Conference of Belgium. Both decisions received strong condemnation by the Holy See and by conservative Catholic clergy: Cardinal Pietro Parolin stated that the German bishops had no authority over the issue and Cardinal Wim Eijk urged Flemish bishops to withdraw their decision. On 18 December 2023, non-liturgical blessings of same-sex couples in the document Fiducia supplicans were approved by Pope Francis and published by the Dicastery for the Doctrine of the Faith. However, "it is not a formal liturgical blessing and does not give the impression that the Catholic Church is blessing the union as if it were a marriage". Orthodox churches The Eastern Orthodox churches condemn homosexual acts. The Orthodox Church shares a long history of church teachings and canon law with the Catholic Church and has a similar conservative stance on homosexuality. Some Orthodox Church jurisdictions, such as the Orthodox Church in America, have taken the approach of welcoming people with "homosexual feelings and emotions", while encouraging them to work towards "overcoming its harmful effects in their lives", while not allowing the sacraments to people who seek to justify homosexual activity. Other Orthodox Churches, such as those in Eastern Europe and Greece, view homosexuality less favourably. The Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America lists homosexuality along with fornication, adultery, and more because of the thinking that homosexuality breaks up the institution of marriage and family. A 2017 Pew Research Center poll found that the majority of Orthodox Christians in the Eastern European and former USSR states surveyed believe that homosexuality "should not be accepted by society"; 45% of Orthodox Christians in Greece and 31% in the United States answered the same way. In July 2022, Archbishop Elpidophoros of America baptized two babies adopted by clothing designers Evanggelos Bousis and Peter Dundas, making him the first Greek Orthodox bishop to baptize children adopted by gay couples. According to the metropolitan in whose diocese the baptism took place (Antonios of Glyfada), Elpidophoros did not inform him in advance that the baptism in question was to be performed for a gay couple. Metropolitan Antonios reported Elpidophoros to the Holy Synod of the Church of Greece, which issued a formal protest to both Elpidophoros and the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople.Protestant churches Accepting position Certain other Christian denominations do not view monogamous same-sex relationships as sinful or immoral, and may bless such unions and consider them marriages. These include the United Church of Canada, the Presbyterian Church (USA), the United Church of Christ, all German Lutheran, reformed and united churches in EKD, all Swiss reformed churches, the Protestant Church in the Netherlands, the United Protestant Church in Belgium, the United Protestant Church of France, the Church of Denmark, the Church of Sweden, the Church of Iceland, the Church of Norway, and the Uniting Church in Australia. The Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland also allows prayer for same-sex couples. The Metropolitan Community Church was founded specifically to serve the Christian LGBTQ community. The Global Alliance of Affirming Apostolic Pentecostals (GAAAP) traces its roots back to 1980, making it the oldest LGBT-affirming Apostolic Pentecostal denomination in existence. Another such organization is the Affirming Pentecostal Church International, currently the largest affirming Pentecostal organization, with churches in the US, UK, Central and South America, Europe and Africa. LGBT-affirming denominations regard homosexuality as a natural occurrence. The United Church of Christ celebrates gay marriage, and some parts of the Anglican and Lutheran In 2000, the Church's General Assembly further affirmed that "human sexual orientations, whether heterosexual or homosexual, are a gift from God and part of the marvelous diversity of creation." In addition, some Christian denominations such as the Moravian Church, believe that the Bible speaks negatively of homosexual acts but, as research on the matter continues, the Moravian Church seeks to establish a policy on homosexuality and the ordination of homosexuals. In 2014, Moravian Church in Europe allowed blessings of same-sex unions. Liberal Quakers, those in membership of Britain Yearly Meeting and Friends General Conference in the US and some Conservative Quaker Yearly Meetings approve of same-sex marriage and union. Quakers were the first Christian group in the United Kingdom to advocate for equal marriage and Quakers in Britain formally recognised same-sex relationships in 1963. The United Methodist Church elected a lesbian bishop in 2016, and on 7 May 2018, the Council of Bishops proposed the One Church Plan, which would allow individual pastors and regional church bodies to decide whether to ordain LGBTQ clergy and perform same-sex weddings. On 26 February 2019, a special session of the General Conference rejected the One Church Plan and voted to strengthen its official opposition to same-sex marriages and ordaining openly LGBTQ clergy.Various positions Anglican Since 1998, the Anglican Church has reassured people with same sex attraction they are loved by God and are welcomed as full members of the Body of Christ. The Church leadership has a variety of views in regard to homosexual expression and ordination. Some expressions of sexuality are considered sinful including "promiscuity, prostitution, incest, pornography, paedophilia, predatory sexual behaviour, and sadomasochism (all of which may be heterosexual and homosexual)". The Church is concerned with pressures on young people to engage sexually and encourages abstinence. At the 13th Lambeth Conference in 1998, homosexuality was the most hotly debated issue. It was finally decided, by a vote of 526–70, to pass a resolution (1.10) calling for a "listening process" but stating (in an amendment passed by a vote of 389–190) that "homosexual practice" (not necessarily orientation) is "incompatible with Scripture". Reflecting on resolution 1.10 in the lead up to Lambeth 2022, Angela Tilby recalled the intervention of Bishop Michael Bourke, who successfully proposed an amendment which said: "We commit ourselves to listen to the experience of homosexual persons". Tilby considered that while the amendment had appeared inconsequential at the time, it had indeed been significant: she said that the idea of "patient listening" underpinned the Church of England's process "Living in Love and Faith". The Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod, the Lutheran Church of Australia, and the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod recognize homosexual behavior as intrinsically sinful and seek to minister to those who are struggling with homosexual inclinations. However, the Church of Sweden, the Church of Denmark, the Church of Norway, or Lutheran churches of the Evangelical Church in Germany conducts same-sex marriages, while the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America and Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada opens the ministry of the church to gay pastors and other professional workers living in committed relationships. Rejecting position highlighting the conflict between some Christian denominations' views and LGBTQ rights]] Some mainline Protestant denominations, such as the African Methodist churches, the Reformed Church in America, and the Presbyterian Church in America, Christian Reformed Church in North America also oppose LGBTQ relationships. Some Conservative Quakers, those within Friends United Meeting and the Evangelical Friends International believe that sexual relations are condoned only in marriage, which they define to be between a man and a woman. Confessional Lutheran churches teach that it is sinful to have homosexual desires, even if they do not lead to homosexual activity. The Doctrinal statement issued by the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod states that making a distinction between homosexual orientation and the act of homosexuality is confusing: 5:27–28). This is true of both homosexual and heterosexual sin.}} However, confessional Lutherans also warn against selective morality which harshly condemns homosexuality while treating other sins more lightly. Some evangelical denominations have adopted neutral positions, leaving the choice to local churches to decide for same-sex marriage. Others strongly oppose same-sex marriage, same-sex sexual activity, and expression of gay/lesbian/bisexual identity generally. and think they should not be accepted by society. They tend to interpret biblical verses on homosexual acts to mean that the heterosexual family was created by God to be the bedrock of civilization and that same-sex relationships contradict God's design for marriage and is not his will. Christians who oppose homosexual relationships sometimes argue that same-gender sexual activity is a sin. In opposing interpretations of the Bible that are supportive of homosexual relationships, conservative Christians have argued for the reliability of the Bible, and the meaning of texts related to homosexual acts, while often seeing what they call the diminishing of the authority of the Bible by many homosexual authors as being ideologically driven. As an alternative to a school-sponsored Day of Silence opposing bullying of LGBTQ students, conservative Christians organized a Golden Rule Initiative, where they passed out cards saying "As a follower of Christ, I believe that all people are created in the image of God and therefore deserve love and respect." Others created a Day of Dialogue to oppose what they believe is the silencing of Christian students who make public their opposition to homosexuality. On 29 August 2017, the Council on Biblical Manhood and Womanhood released a manifesto on human sexuality known as the "Nashville Statement". The statement was signed by 150 evangelical leaders, and includes 14 points of belief. Fundamentalist position It is in some fundamentalist conservative positions, that there are anti-LGBT activists on TV or radio who accuse homosexual people of a gay agenda and of being responsible for social problems, such as terrorism. Some fundamentalists also regularly accuse homosexuals of being responsible for natural disasters. Some evangelical churches in Uganda strongly oppose homosexuality and homosexuals. They have campaigned for laws criminalizing homosexuality. Moderate position Some churches have a moderate Conservative position. They only support sexuality in marriage between a man and a woman, but show sympathy and respect towards homosexual people. Churches thus see themselves as "welcoming, but not affirming". This expression has its origin in the book Welcoming but Not Affirming: An Evangelical Response to Homosexuality published in 1998 by the American Baptist theologian Stanley Grenz. Organizations The French Evangelical Alliance, a member of the European Evangelical Alliance and the World Evangelical Alliance, adopted on 12 October 2002, through its National Council, a document entitled ("Faith, Hope and Homosexuality"), in which homophobia, hatred and rejection of homosexuals are condemned, but which denies homosexual practices and full church membership of unrepentant homosexuals and those who approve of these practices. In 2015, the Conseil national des évangéliques de France (French National Council of Evangelicals) reaffirmed its position on the issue by opposing marriage of same-sex couples, while not rejecting homosexuals, but wanting to offer them more than a blessing; an accompaniment and a welcome. The French evangelical pastor Philippe Auzenet, a chaplain of the association Oser en parler, regularly intervenes on the subject in the media. It promotes dialogue and respect, as well as sensitization in order to better understand homosexuals. He also said in 2012 that Jesus would go to a gay bar, because he was going to all people with love. Liberal positions International There are some international evangelical associations that are gay-friendly, such as the Association of Welcoming and Affirming Baptists and Affirming Pentecostal Church International. U.S. A 2014 survey reported that 43% of white evangelical American Christians between the ages of 18 and 33 supported same-sex marriage. Some evangelical churches accept homosexuality and celebrate gay weddings. The change in beliefs in favor of gay marriage in evangelical churches has certain consequences for them. Various churches thus received an excommunication from their Christian denomination for not respecting the confession of faith. Other churches have faced significant departures of members from their congregations, seeing their financial resources diminish. Neutral positions Some evangelical associations have adopted neutral positions, leaving the choice to local churches to decide for same-sex marriage. The Brethren Mennonite Council for LGBT Interests was founded in 1976 in the US and has member churches of different associations in the US and Canada. The Mennonite Church in the Netherlands and the Mennonite Church USA permit same-sex marriage. Baptist Most Baptist associations around the world hold a conservative view on homosexuality. Some Baptist associations in the United States do not have official beliefs about marriage in a confession of faith and invoke congregationalism to leave the choice to each church to decide. This is the case of American Baptist Churches USA, Progressive National Baptist Convention (USA), Cooperative Baptist Fellowship (USA), National Baptist Convention, USA and the Baptist Union of Great Britain. Some Baptist associations support same-sex marriage. This is the case of the Alliance of Baptists (USA), the Canadian Association for Baptist Freedoms, the Aliança de Batistas do Brasil, the Fraternidad de Iglesias Bautistas de Cuba, and the Association of Welcoming and Affirming Baptists (international). Pentecostalism Most Pentecostal associations take a conservative stance on homosexuality. The Covenant Network was formed in 2000 in Atlanta, Georgia, United States, and allow same-sex marriage. According to a denomination census released in 2023, it has 18 churches in 3 countries. Restorationist churches Restorationist churches, such as Seventh-Day Adventists, generally teach that homosexuals are 'broken' and can be 'fixed'. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that "The Bible condemns sexual activity that is not between a husband and wife, whether it is homosexual or heterosexual conduct. (1 Corinthians 6:18)[...] While the Bible disapproves of homosexual acts, it does not condone hatred of homosexuals or homophobia. Instead, Christians are directed to "respect everyone."—1 Peter 2:17, Good News Translation." The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints said in 2015 that it officially welcomes its gay and lesbian members, if they choose sexual abstinence. The Community of Christ, a branch of Mormonism, fully accepts LGBTQ persons, performs weddings for gay and lesbian couples, and ordains LGBTQ members. Within the Stone-Campbell aligned restorationist churches the views are divergent. The churches of Christ (A Capella) and the Independent Christian Churches/Churches of Christ mostly adhere to a conservative position on LGBTQ members and will not perform weddings for gay and lesbian couples. The Disciples of Christ, is fully accepting of LGBTQ persons, often performs weddings for gay and lesbian couples, and ordains LGBTQ members. The United Church of Christ is an officially "open and affirming" church. Other Restorationist churches such as Millerite churches, have taken mixed positions but are increasingly accepting with some of their congregations fully accepting LGBTQ persons in all aspects of religious and political life. The Seventh-day Adventist Church maintains that homosexual sex itself is forbidden in the Bible. Views supportive of homosexuality (1860)]] In the 20th century, theologians like Jürgen Moltmann, Hans Küng, John Robinson, Bishop David Jenkins, Don Cupitt, and Bishop Jack Spong challenged traditional theological positions and understandings of the Bible; following these developments some have suggested that passages have been mistranslated or that they do not refer to what is in the modern day understood as "homosexuality." Clay Witt, a minister in the Metropolitan Community Church, explains how theologians and commentators like John Shelby Spong, George Edwards and Michael England interpret injunctions against certain sexual acts as being originally intended as a means of distinguishing religious worship between Abrahamic and the surrounding pagan faiths, within which homosexual acts featured as part of idolatrous religious practices: "England argues that these prohibitions should be seen as being directed against sexual practices of fertility cult worship. As with the earlier reference from Strong's, he notes that the word 'abomination' used here is directly related to idolatry and idolatrous practices throughout the Hebrew Testament. Edwards makes a similar suggestion, observing that 'the context of the two prohibitions in Leviticus 18:22 and Leviticus 20:13 suggest that what is opposed is not same-sex activity outside the cult, as in the modern secular sense, but within the cult identified as Canaanite'". In 1986, the Evangelical and Ecumenical Women's Caucus (EEWC), then known as the Evangelical Women's Caucus International, passed a resolution stating: "Whereas homosexual people are children of God, and because of the biblical mandate of Jesus Christ that we are all created equal in God's sight, and in recognition of the presence of the lesbian minority in EWCI, EWCI takes a firm stand in favor of civil rights protection for homosexual persons." Some Christians believe that Biblical passages have been mistranslated or that these passages do not refer to LGBTQ orientation as currently understood. Liberal Christian scholars, like conservative Christian scholars, accept earlier versions of the texts that make up the Bible in Hebrew or Greek. However, within these early texts there are many terms that modern scholars have interpreted differently from previous generations of scholars. or the inferior treatment of women as not being valid today, and against the will of God present in the context of the Bible. They cite these issues when arguing for a change in theological views on sexual relationships to what they say is an earlier view. They differentiate among various sexual practices, treating rape, prostitution, or temple sex rituals as immoral and those within committed relationships as positive regardless of sexual orientation. They view certain verses, which they believe refer only to homosexual rape, as not relevant to consensual homosexual relationships. Yale professor John Boswell has argued that a number of Early Christians entered into homosexual relationships, and that certain Biblical figures had homosexual relationships, such as Ruth and her mother-in-law Naomi, Daniel and the court official Ashpenaz, and David and King Saul's son Jonathan. Boswell has also argued that adelphopoiesis, a rite bonding two men, was akin to a religiously sanctioned same-sex union. Having partaken in such a rite, a person was prohibited from entering into marriage or taking monastic vows, and the choreography of the service itself closely parallelled that of the marriage rite. His views have not found wide acceptance, and opponents have argued that this rite sanctified a platonic brotherly bond, not a homosexual union. Boswell's critics point out that many earlier doctrinal sources condemn homosexuality as a sin even if they do not prescribe a specific punishment, and that Boswell's arguments are based on sources which reflected a general trend towards harsher penalties, rather than a change in doctrine, from the 12th century onwards. Desmond Tutu, the former Anglican Archbishop of Cape Town and a Nobel Peace Prize winner, described homophobia as a "crime against humanity" and "every bit as unjust" as apartheid: "We struggled against apartheid in South Africa, supported by people the world over, because black people were being blamed and made to suffer for something we could do nothing about; our very skins. It is the same with sexual orientation. It is a given.[...] We treat them [gays and lesbians] as pariahs and push them outside our communities. We make them doubt that they too are children of God – and this must be nearly the ultimate blasphemy. We blame them for what they are." Modern gay Christian leader Justin R. Cannon promotes what he calls "Inclusive Orthodoxy" ('orthodoxy' in this sense is not to be confused with the Eastern Orthodox Church). He explains on his ministry website: "Inclusive Orthodoxy is the belief that the Church can and must be inclusive of LGBTQ individuals without sacrificing the Gospel and the Apostolic teachings of the Christian faith." Cannon's ministry takes a unique and distinct approach from modern liberal Christians while still supporting homosexual relations. His ministry affirms the divine inspiration of the Bible, the authority of Tradition, and says "...that there is a place within the full life and ministry of the Christian Church for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender Christians, both those who are called to lifelong celibacy and those who are partnered." Today, many religious people are becoming more affirming of same-sex relationships, even in denominations with official stances against homosexuality. In the United States, people in denominations who are against same-sex relationships are liberalizing quickly, though not as quickly as those in more affirming groups. This social change is creating tension within many denominations, and even schisms and mass walk-outs among Mormons and other conservative groups. Pope Francis voiced support for same-sex civil unions during an interview in a documentary film, Francesco, which was premiered at the Rome Film Festival on 21 October 2020.Homosexual Christians and organizations preaching in 2006 at a Metropolitan Community Church]] Studies in the US show more LGBTQ individuals identify as Protestant than Catholic. George Barna, a conservative Christian author and researcher, conducted a survey in the United States in 2009 that found gay and lesbian people having a Christian affiliation were more numerous than had been presumed. He characterized some of his leading conclusions from the data as follows: "People who portray gay adults as godless, hedonistic, Christian bashers are not working with the facts. A substantial majority of gays cite their faith as a central facet of their life, consider themselves to be Christian, and claim to have some type of meaningful personal commitment to Jesus Christ active in their life today." Barna also found that LGBTQ people were more likely to interpret faith as an individual rather than a collective experience. Candace Chellew-Hodge, liberal Christian lesbian founder of the online magazine Whosoever, responded to the findings: "All in all, I'm grateful for Barna even wandering into the subject of gay and lesbian religious belief. I think his study is important and can go a long way to dispelling the old "gays vs. God" dichotomy that too often gets played out in the media. However, his overall message is still harmful: Gays and lesbians are Christians – they're just not as good as straight ones." She argued that Barna had formulated his report with undue irony and skepticism, and that he had failed to take into account the reasons for the data which enkindled his "arrière pensée." The reason why far fewer homosexuals attend church, she argued, is that there are far fewer churches who will accept them. Equally, gays and lesbians do not see the Bible as unequivocally true because they are forced by its use against them to read it more closely and with less credulity, leading them to note its myriad contradictions. According to founder Justin Lee: Some organizations cater exclusively to homosexual Christians who do not want to have gay sex, or attraction; the goals of these organizations vary. Some Christian groups focus on simply refraining from gay sex, such as Courage International and North Star. Other groups additionally encourage gay members to reduce or eliminate same-sex attractions. Love Won Out and the now-defunct Exodus International are examples of such ministries. These groups are sometimes referred to as ex-gay organizations, though many no longer use the term. Alan Chambers, the president of Exodus, says the term incorrectly implies a complete change in sexual orientation, though the group Parents and Friends of Ex-Gays and Gays continues to use the term. In addition, individual Christians identifying as gay who want to subscribe to the conservative ethic are becoming more vocal themselves. Gay Christian writer and actor Peterson Toscano argues that organizations promoting orientation change are a "ruse". An organization he co-founded, Beyond Ex-Gay, supports people who feel they have been wounded by such organizations. Other groups support or advocate for gay Christians and their relationships. For example, in the United States, IntegrityUSA represents the interests of lesbian and gay Christians in the Episcopal Church, while United Methodists have the Reconciling Ministries Network and evangelical Christians have Evangelicals Concerned. GracePointe Church became one of the first evangelical megachurches in the US to support full equality for LGBTQ people in 2015. In 2014 the United Church of Christ filed a lawsuit challenging North Carolina's ban on same-sex marriage, which is America's first faith-based challenge to same-sex marriage bans; the Alliance of Baptists joined the lawsuit later that year. In Europe, working within the worldwide Anglican Communion on a range of discrimination issues, including those of LGBTQ clergy and people in the church, is Inclusive Church. The longest standing groups for lesbian and gay Christians in the UK, were Quest (for LGBTQ Catholics) and Metropolitan Community Church (UK) both founded in 1973; followed in 1976 by the non-denominational Lesbian and Gay Christian Movement; specifically aimed to meet the needs of lesbian and gay evangelicals, there is the Evangelical Fellowship for Lesbian and Gay Christians; specifically working within the Church of England is Changing Attitude, which also takes an international focus in working for gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender affirmation within the Anglican Communion. Sociologist Richard N. Pitt argues that these organizations are only available to LGBTQ members of liberal denominations, as opposed to those in conservative denominations. His review of the literature on gay Christians suggests that these organizations not only represent the interests of Christians who attend their churches, but (like gay-friendly and gay-affirming churches) also give these members useful responses to homophobic and heterosexist rhetoric. His research shows that those LGBTQ Christians who stay at homophobic churches "kill the messenger" by attacking the minister's knowledge about homosexuality, personal morality, focus on sin instead of forgiveness, and motivations for preaching against homosexuality. Movement of pro-celibacy gay Christians There is a movement of people who call themselves "gay Christians", but choose to practice celibacy. The movement is often positioned against both liberals and conservatives. Recognizing themselves as gay or bisexual, these people believe that their attraction to same-sex people, while present, does not allow them to have homosexual relationships. They often say that their Christian conversion did not instantly change their sexual desires. They insist that the church should always reject homosexual practices, but that it should welcome gay people. Ex-gay movement Various Christian organizations have been involved in the ex-gay movement. Love in Action, founded in 1973, was the first in the USA. The Catholic organization Courage International was founded in 1980. Conversion therapies for people wishing to change sexual orientation have been associated with the movement. Conversion therapy has been widely criticized and denounced by many major medical associations as pseudoscientific and harmful. Studies have found that LGBTQ individuals who experienced conversion therapy reported significantly higher rates of depression, suicide attempts, and substance abuse than their peers who did not. Criticism In 2005, Baptist Pastor Al Sharpton criticized megachurches for focusing on "bedroom morals", statements against same-sex marriage and abortion, by ignoring issues of social justice, such as the immorality of war and the erosion of affirmative action. In 2015, American theologian L. Gregory Jones has criticized some Christian churches for their lack of effort to interest young people in the Christian faith in a relevant way, while putting a lot of energy into talking negatively about homosexuality, which is even more boring for young people who want to work with the whole world.See also * List of Christian denominational positions on homosexuality * List of Christian denominations affirming LGBTQ people * Ex-gay movement * Side A, Side B, Side X, Side Y (theological views) * Christianity and sexual orientation * Homosexuality and religion * Ellen Barrett – first openly lesbian priest (Episcopal) <!-- alphabetized by surname --> * Corpus Christi (play) * Evangelical and Ecumenical Women's Caucus * Gay bishops * History of Christianity and homosexuality * Homosexuality and Judaism * LGBTQ people and Islam * Queer theology * The Bible and homosexuality * Homosexuality and religion * Homosexuality and Seventh-day Adventism * Societal attitudes toward homosexuality References Further reading * Bates, Stephen (2004). A Church at War: Anglicans and Homosexuality. I.B. Tauris. . * Boswell, John (1980). Christianity, social tolerance, and homosexuality: Gay people in Western Europe from the beginning of the Christian era to the fourteenth century. University of Chicago Press. * Boswell, John (1979). [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/pwh/1979boswell.html The Church & the Homosexual] * Brug, John F. (2009), [https://web.archive.org/web/20140522213615/http://wlsessays.net/files/BrugIsHomosexualityASin.pdf Doctrinal Brief: Is Homosexuality a Sin?], Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary Library * Crompton, Louis, et al., (2003). Homosexuality and Civilization Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. * Etengoff, C. & Daiute, C., (2014/5). Clinicians' perspectives of religious families' and gay men's negotiation of sexual orientation disclosure and prejudice, Journal of Homosexuality 62(4). Etengoff, C. & Daiute, C. 2014/15). Online Coming Out Communications between Gay Men and their Religious Family Allies: A Family of Choice and Origin Perspective, Journal of GLBT Family Studies. * Gagnon, Robert A.J. (2002). The Bible and Homosexual Practice: Texts and Hermeneutics. Abingdon Press. * Harvey, John F., O.S.F.S. (1996). The Truth about Homosexuality: The Cry of the Faithful, introduction by Benedict J. Groeschel, C.F.R.. Ignatius Press. . * Hays, Katie; Chiasson, Susan A. (2021). Family of Origin, Family of Choice: Stories of Queer Christians. Michigan: Eerdmans Publishing. * Helminiak, Daniel A. (2000). "Frequently Asked Questions About Being Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, or Transgender and Catholic" Dignity USA. * Hildegard of Bingen (c. 1142). "Scivias," Columba Hart and Jane Bishop, translators; New York: Paulist Press, 1990 * [http://christ.queer2050.com/ Homosexuality and Christianity] * Johansson, Warren (1992). "Whosoever Shall Say To His Brother, Racha." Studies in Homosexuality, Vol XII: Homosexuality and Religion and Philosophy. Ed. Wayne Dynes & Stephen Donaldson. New York & London: Garland, pp. 212–214 * Mader, Donald (1992). "The Entimos Pais of Matthew 8:5–13 and Luke 7:1–10" Studies in Homosexuality, Vol XII: Homosexuality and Religion and Philosophy. Ed. Wayne Dynes & Stephen Donaldson. New York & London: Garland, pp. 223–235. * * * * Saletan, William (29 November 2005). [http://www.slate.com/id/2131019/nav/tap1/ "Gland Inquisitor"] . Slate. * Smith, Morton (1992). "Clement of Alexandria and Secret Mark: The Score at the End of the First Decade." Studies in Homosexuality, Vol XII: Homosexuality and Religion and Philosophy. Ed. Wayne Dynes & Stephen Donaldson. New York & London: Garland, pp. 295–307 External links * [https://www.gaychurch.org/find_a_church/ gaychurch.org] — International database of LGBTQ+ friendly churches. Category:Christian ethics	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_and_homosexuality	2025-04-05T18:28:06.541483
7273	Chadic languages	The Chadic languages form a branch of the Afroasiatic language family. They are spoken in parts of the Sahel. They include 196 languages spoken across northern Nigeria, southern Niger, southern Chad, and northern Cameroon. By far the most widely spoken Chadic language is Hausa, a lingua franca of much of inland Eastern West Africa, particularly Niger and the northern half of Nigeria. Hausa is the only Chadic language with more than 1 million speakers.CompositionPaul Newman (1977) classified the languages into the four groups which have been accepted in all subsequent literature. Further subbranching, however, has not been as robust; Roger Blench (2006), for example, only accepts the A/B bifurcation of East Chadic. Subsequent work by Joseph Lovestrand argues strongly that Kujarge is a valid member of East Chadic. The placing of Luri as a primary split of West Chadic is erroneous. Bernard Caron (2004) shows that this language is South Bauchi and part of the Polci cluster. A suggestion for including the language isolate Kujargé as an early-diverged member, which subsequently became influenced by East Chadic, has been made by Blench (2008). * Chadic West Chadic * the Hausa, Ron, Bole, and Angas languages * the Bade, Warji, and Zaar languages Biu–Mandara (Central Chadic) * the Bura, Kamwe, and Bata languages, among other groups * the Buduma and Musgu languages * Gidar East Chadic * the Tumak, Nancere, and Kera languages * the Dangaléat, Mukulu, and Sokoro languages ** Masa Loanwords Chadic languages contain many Nilo-Saharan loanwords from either the Songhay or Maban branches, pointing to early contact between Chadic and Nilo-Saharan speakers as Chadic was migrating west. Although Adamawa languages are spoken adjacently to Chadic languages, interaction between Chadic and Adamawa is limited. Pronouns Pronouns in Proto-Chadic, as compared to pronouns in Proto-Afroasiatic (Vossen & Dimmendaal 2020:351): {\| class="wikitable sortable" ! Pronoun !! Proto-Chadic !! Proto-Afroasiatic \|- \| 1 \|\| ní \|\| i ~ yi \|- \| 2M \|\| ka \|\| ku, ka \|- \| 2F \|\| ki(m) \|\| kim \|- \| 3M \|\| nì \|\| si, isi \|- \| 3F \|\| ta \|\| \|- \| 1PL \|\| mun (incl.), na (excl.) \|\| (-na ~ -nu ~ -ni) ? \|- \| 2PL \|\| kun \|\| kuuna \|- \| 3PL \|\| sun \|\| su ~ usu \|} Comparative vocabulary Sample basic vocabulary in different Chadic branches listed in order from west to east, with reconstructions of other Afroasiatic branches also given for comparison: {\| class"wikitable sortable" style"font-size: 85%" ! Language !! eye !! ear !! nose !! tooth !! tongue !! mouth !! blood !! bone !! tree !! water !! eat !! name \|- \| Proto-Chadic \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| (hard); (soft) \|\| \|- \| Hausa \|\| ido \|\| kunne \|\| hanci \|\| haƙori \|\| harshe \|\| baki \|\| jini \|\| ƙashi \|\| itaci; bishiya \|\| ruwa \|\| ci \|\| suna \|- \| Proto-Ron \|\| \|\| kumu \|\| atin \|\| haŋgor \|\| liʃ \|\| fo \|\| ɟɑ̄lɑ̄, tɾɔ̃̄ \|\| kaʃ \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| sum \|- \| Proto-South Bauchi \|\| (gwà)yìr(-ŋ) \|\| kə̂m(-si) \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| bʸak(-ì) \|\| bìràm \|\| gu(ŋ)ul \|\| pit-ə̀ \|\| \|\| \|\| (yì)sûm(-s₃) \|- \| Polci \|\| yiir \|\| kəəm \|\| cin \|\| haƙori \|\| shen \|\| bii \|\| buran; bəran \|\| gooloo \|\| pət \|\| maa \|\| ci \|\| suŋ \|- \| Proto-Central Chadic \|\| hadaj; tsɨʸ \|\| ɬɨmɨɗʸ \|\| hʷɨtsɨnʸ \|\| ɬɨɗɨnʸ \|\| ɗɨrɨnɨhʸ; ɣanaɗʸ; naɬɨj \|\| \|\| maj \|\| ɗiɬ; kɨrakaɬʸ \|\| hʷɨp \|\| ɗɨjɨm \|\| zɨm \|\| ɬɨmɨɗʸ \|- \| Proto-Masa \|\| ir \|\| hum \|\| cin \|\| s- \|\| si \|\| vun \|\| vuzur \|\| sok \|\| gu \|\| mb- \|\| ti \|\| sem \|- \| Kujarge \|\| kunɟu \|\| kumayo ~ kime \|\| kaata \|\| kiya \|\| aliŋati \|\| apa \|\| ɪbɪrí \|\| (kaɟeɟa), kàyɛ́ya \|\| kaʃíè \|\| ʃia \|\| (tona), tuye [imp. sg.]; tuwona [imp. pl.] \|\| rúwà \|- \| colspan = "13" \| Other Afroasiatic branches \|- \| Proto-Cushitic \|\| ʔil- \|\| \|\| ʔisŋʷ- \|\| ʔiɬkʷ- \|\| caanrab- \|\| ʔaf-/yaf- \|\| \|\| mikʷ’-; moc’- \|\| \|\| \|\| -aħm-/-uħm-; ɬaam- \|\| sim-/sum- \|- \| Proto-Maji \|\| ʔaːb \|\| háːy \|\| \|\| aːç’u \|\| \|\| eːdu \|\| \|\| uːs \|\| inču \|\| haːy \|\| um \|\| \|- \| Tarifiyt Berber \|\| ŧit’t’ \|\| aməžžun, aməz’z’uɣ \|\| ŧinzā \|\| ŧiɣməsŧ \|\| iřəs \|\| aqəmmum \|\| iđammən \|\| iɣəss \|\| \|\| aman \|\| šš \|\| isəm \|- \| Coptic \|\| ia \|\| ma'aje \|\| ša \|\| šol, najhe \|\| las \|\| ro \|\| snof \|\| kas \|\| šēn \|\| mou \|\| wōm \|\| ran \|- \| Proto-Semitic \|\| ʕayn- \|\| ʔuḏn- \|\| ʔanp- \|\| šinn- \|\| lišān- \|\| \|\| dam- \|\| ʕaṯ̣m- \|\| ʕiṣ̂- \|\| mā̆y- \|\| ʔ-k-l \|\| (šim-) \|- \| Proto-Afroasiatic \|\| ʔǐl- \|\| -ʔânxʷ- \|\| \|\| sǐn-/sǎn- 'tip, point' \|\| -lis’- 'to lick' \|\| âf- \|\| dîm-/dâm- \|\| k’os- \|\| ɣǎ \|\| âm-; akʷ’- \|\| -mǎaʕ-; -iit-; -kʷ’-̌ \|\| sǔm-/sǐm- \|} Bibliography Caron, Bernard 2004. Le Luri: quelques notes sur une langue tchadique du Nigeria. In: Pascal Boyeldieu & Pierre Nougayrol (eds.), Langues et Cultures: Terrains d’Afrique. Hommages à France Cloarec-Heiss (Afrique et Language 7). 193–201. Louvain-Paris: Peeters. * Lukas, Johannes (1936) 'The linguistic situation in the Lake Chad area in Central Africa.' Africa, 9, 332–349. * Lukas, Johannes. Zentralsudanische Studien, Hamburg 1937; * * Newman, Paul (1977) 'Chadic classification and reconstructions.' Afroasiatic Linguistics 5, 1, 1–42. * Newman, Paul (1978) 'Chado-Hamitic 'adieu': new thoughts on Chadic language classification', in Fronzaroli, Pelio (ed.), Atti del Secondo Congresso Internazionale di Linguistica Camito-Semitica. Florence: Instituto de Linguistica e di Lingue Orientali, Università di Firenze, 389–397. * Newman, Paul (1980) The Classification of Chadic within Afroasiatic. Leiden: Universitaire Pers Leiden. * Herrmann Jungraithmayr, Kiyoshi Shimizu: Chadic lexical roots. Reimer, Berlin 1981. * Herrmann Jungraithmayr, Dymitr Ibriszimow: Chadic lexical roots. 2 volumes. Reimer, Berlin 1994 * Schuh, Russell (2003) 'Chadic overview', in M. Lionel Bender, Gabor Takacs, and David L. Appleyard (eds.), Selected Comparative-Historical Afrasian Linguistic Studies in Memory of Igor M. Diakonoff, LINCOM Europa, 55–60. ;Data sets * See also*Proto-Chadic reconstructions (Wiktionary)References }} Category:Afroasiatic languages	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chadic_languages	2025-04-05T18:28:06.566385
7274	Cushitic languages	The Cushitic languages are a branch of the Afroasiatic language family. They are spoken primarily in the Horn of Africa, with minorities speaking Cushitic languages to the north in Egypt and Sudan, and to the south in Kenya and Tanzania. As of 2012, the Cushitic languages with over one million speakers were Oromo, Somali, Beja, Afar, Hadiyya, Kambaata, and Sidama. Official status The Cushitic languages with the greatest number of total speakers are Oromo (37 million), Somali (22 million), Beja (3.2 million), Sidamo (3 million), and Afar (2 million). Oromo serves as one of the official working languages of Ethiopia and is also the working language of several of the states within the Ethiopian federal system including Oromia, Harari and Dire Dawa regional states and of the Oromia Zone in the Amhara Region. Somali is the first of two official languages of Somalia and three official languages of Somaliland. It also serves as a language of instruction in Djibouti, and as the working language of the Somali Region in Ethiopia. The constitution of Eritrea also recognizes the equality of all natively spoken languages. Additionally, Afar is a language of instruction in Djibouti, The expansion of Cushitic languages of the Southern Cushitic branch into the Rift Valley is associated with the Savanna Pastoral Neolithic. Typological characteristics Phonology Most Cushitic languages have a simple five-vowel system with phonemic length (); a notable exception are the Agaw languages, which do not contrast vowel length, but have one or two additional central vowels. The consonant inventory of many Cushitic languages includes glottalic consonants, e.g. in Oromo, which has the ejectives and the implosive . Less common are pharyngeal consonants , which appear e.g. in Somali or the Saho–Afar languages. Most Cushitic languages have a system of restrictive tone also known as ‘pitch accent’ in which tonal contours overlaid on the stressed syllable play a prominent role in morphology and syntax. Grammar Nouns Nouns are inflected for case and number. All nouns are further grouped into two gender categories, masculine gender and feminine gender. In many languages, gender is overtly marked directly on the noun (e.g. in Awngi, where all female nouns carry the suffix -a). The case system of many Cushitic languages is characterized by marked nominative alignment, which is typologically quite rare and predominantly found in languages of Africa. In marked nominative languages, the noun appears in unmarked "absolutive" case when cited in isolation, or when used as predicative noun and as object of a transitive verb; on the other hand, it is explicitly marked for nominative case when it functions as subject in a transitive or intransitive sentence. Possession is usually expressed by genitive case marking of the possessor. South Cushitic—which has no case marking for subject and object—follows the opposite strategy: here, the possessed noun is marked for construct case, e.g. Iraqw afé-r mar'i "doors" (lit. "mouths of houses"), where afee "mouth" is marked for construct case. Most nouns are by default unmarked for number, but can be explicitly marked for singular ("singulative") and plural number. E.g. in Bilin, dəmmu "cat(s)" is number-neutral, from which singular dəmmura "a single cat" and plural dəmmut "several cats" can be formed. Plural formation is very diverse, and employs ablaut (i.e. changes of root vowels or consonants), suffixes and reduplication. Verbs Verbs are inflected for person/number and tense/aspect. Many languages also have a special form of the verb in negative clauses. Most Cushitic languages distinguish seven person/number categories: first, second, third person, singular and plural number, with a masculine/feminine gender distinction in third person singular. The most common conjugation type employs suffixes. Some languages also have a prefix conjugation: in Beja and the Saho–Afar languages, the prefix conjugation is still a productive part of the verb paradigm, whereas in most other languages, e.g. Somali, it is restricted to only a few verbs. It is generally assumed that historically, the suffix conjugation developed from the older prefix conjugation, by combining the verb stem with a suffixed auxiliary verb. The following table gives an example for the suffix and prefix conjugations in affirmative present tense in Somali. suffixconjugation prefixconjugation 1stperson 2ndperson 3rdperson Syntax Basic word order is verb final, the most common order being subject–object–verb (SOV). The subject or object can also follow the verb to indicate focus. Classification Overview The phylum was first designated as Cushitic in 1858. Traditionally, Cushitic has been divided into North Cushitic (consisting solely of Beja), Central Cushitic (the Agaw languages), and the large East Cushitic group. Greenberg (1950) argued for the inclusion of the South Cushitic group. The Omotic languages, once classified as West Cushitic, have almost universally been reclassified as a separate branch of Afroasiatic. Cushitic North Cushitic (Beja) Central Cushitic (Agaw) East Cushitic South Cushitic This classification has not been without contention. For example, it has been argued that Southern Cushitic belongs in the Eastern branch, with its divergence explained by contact with Hadza- and Sandawe-like languages. Hetzron (1980) and Fleming (post-1981) exclude Beja altogether, though this is rejected by other linguists. Some of the classifications that have been proposed over the years are summarized here: + Other subclassifications of Cushitic Greenberg (1963) Hetzron (1980) Orel & Stolbova (1995) Ehret (2011) Cushitic Northern Cushitic (Beja) Central Cushitic Eastern Cushitic Western Cushitic (Omotic) Southern Cushitic Beja (not part of Cushitic) Cushitic Highland Rift Valley (= Highland East Cushitic) Agaw Lowland Saho–Afar Southern Omo-Tana Oromoid Dullay Yaaku Iraqw (i.e. Southern Cushitic) Cushitic Omotic Beja Agaw Sidamic(i.e. Highland East Cushitic) East Lowlands Rift (Southern) Cushitic North Cushitic (Beja) Agäw–East–South Cushitic Agäw East–South Cushitic Eastern Cushitic Southern Cushitic For debate on the placement of the Cushitic branch within Afroasiatic, see Afroasiatic languages. Beja Beja constitutes the only member of the Northern Cushitic subgroup. As such, Beja contains a number of linguistic innovations that are unique to it, as is also the situation with the other subgroups of Cushitic (e.g. idiosyncratic features in Agaw or Central Cushitic). Hetzron (1980) argues that Beja therefore may comprise an independent branch of the Afroasiatic family. However, this suggestion has been rejected by most other scholars. The characteristics of Beja that differ from those of other Cushitic languages are instead generally acknowledged as normal branch variation. Blemmyan, an early form of Beja – mostly attested through onomastic evidence, but also directly by a small text on an ostracon from Saqqara – was spoken by the Blemmyes, an ancient people of Lower Nubia that appears in the Egyptian historical records from the 6th century BCE onwards. It is also likely that the Medjay spoke a language that was ancestral to Beja. Omotic Cushitic was formerly seen as also including most or all of the Omotic languages. An early view by Enrico Cerulli proposed a "Sidama" subgroup comprising most of the Omotic languages and the Sidamic group of Highland East Cushitic. Mario Martino Moreno in 1940 divided Cerulli's Sidama, uniting the Sidamic proper and the Lowland Cushitic languages as East Cushitic, the remainder as West Cushitic or ta/ne Cushitic. The Aroid languages were not considered Cushitic by either scholar (thought by Cerulli to be instead Nilotic); they were added to West Cushitic by Joseph Greenberg in 1963. Further work in the 1960s soon led to the putative West Cushitic being seen as typologically divergent and renamed as "Omotic". Today the inclusion of Omotic as a part of Cushitic has been abandoned. Omotic is most often seen as an independent branch of Afroasiatic, primarily due to the work of Harold C. Fleming (1974) and Lionel Bender (1975); some linguists like Paul Newman (1980) challenge Omotic's classification within the Afroasiatic family itself. Other divergent languages There are also a few languages of uncertain classification, including Yaaku, Dahalo, Aasax, Kw'adza, Boon, Ongota and the Cushitic component of Mbugu (Ma'a). There is a wide range of opinions as to how the languages are interrelated. The positions of the Dullay languages and of Yaaku are uncertain. They have traditionally been assigned to an East Cushitic subbranch along with Highland (Sidamic) and Lowland East Cushitic. However, Hayward thinks that East Cushitic may not be a valid node and that its constituents should be considered separately when attempting to work out the internal relationships of Cushitic. The Afroasiatic identity of Ongota has also been broadly questioned, as is its position within Afroasiatic among those who accept it, because of the "mixed" appearance of the language and a paucity of research and data. Harold C. Fleming (2006) proposes that Ongota is a separate branch of Afroasiatic. Bonny Sands (2009) thinks the most convincing proposal is by Savà and Tosco (2003), namely that Ongota is an East Cushitic language with a Nilo-Saharan substratum. In other words, it would appear that the Ongota people once spoke a Nilo-Saharan language but then shifted to speaking a Cushitic language while retaining some characteristics of their earlier Nilo-Saharan language. Hetzron (1980) and Ehret (1995) have suggested that the South Cushitic languages (Rift languages) are a part of Lowland East Cushitic, the only one of the six groups with much internal diversity. Hypothesized Cushitic substrate languages Some of the ancient peoples of Nubia are hypothesized to have spoken languages belonging to the Cushitic group, especially the people of the C-Group culture. It has been speculated that these people left a substratum of Cushitic words in the modern Nubian languages. Given the scarcity of data (all omomastic or toponymic), however, it remains unclear if the C-Group culture in fact spoke a Cushitic language. Christopher Ehret (1998) proposed on the basis of loanwords that South Cushitic languages (called "Tale" and "Bisha" by Ehret) were spoken in an area closer to Lake Victoria than are found today. Also, historically, the Southern Nilotic languages have undergone extensive contact with a "missing" branch of East Cushitic that Heine (1979) refers to as Baz. Reconstruction Christopher Ehret proposed a reconstruction of Proto-Cushitic in 1987, but did not base this on individual branch reconstructions. Grover Hudson (1989) has done some preliminary work on Highland East Cushitic, David Appleyard (2006) has proposed a reconstruction of Proto-Agaw, and Roland Kießling and Maarten Mous (2003) have jointly proposed a reconstruction of West Rift Southern Cushitic. No reconstruction has been published for Lowland East Cushitic, though Paul D. Black wrote his (unpublished) dissertation on the topic in 1974. Hans-Jürgen Sasse (1979) proposed a reconstruction of the consonants of Proto-East Cushitic. No comparative work has yet brought these branch reconstructions together. Comparative vocabulary Basic vocabulary Sample basic vocabulary of Cushitic languages from Vossen & Dimmendaal (2020:318) (with PSC denoting Proto-Southern Cushitic): Branch Northern Southern Eastern Central Gloss Beja Iraqw Oromo Somali Awŋi Kemantney 'foot' ragad/lagad yaaee miila/luka lug lɨkw lɨkw 'tooth' kwire siħinoo ilkee ilig ɨrkwí ɨrkw 'hair' hami/d.ifi seʔeengw dabbasaa timo ʧiʧifí ʃibka 'heart' gin'a muuná onnee wadne ɨʃew lɨbäka 'house' gau/'anda doʔ mana guri/min ŋɨn nɨŋ 'wood' hindi ɬupi mukha qori/alwaax kani kana 'meat' ʃa/dof fuʔnaay foon so'/hilib ɨʃʃi sɨya 'water' yam maʔay biʃan biyo/maayo aɣu axw 'door' ɖefa/yaf piindo balbala irrid/albaab lɨmʧi/sank bäla 'grass' siyam/ʃuʃ gitsoo ʧ'itaa caws sigwi ʃanka 'black' hadal/hadod boo gurraʧʧa madow ʧárkí ʃämäna 'red' adal/adar daaʕaat diimaa cas/guduud dɨmmí säraɣ 'road' darab loohi karaa/godaana jid/waddo dad gorwa 'mountain' reba tɬooma tuullu buur kán dɨba 'spear' fena/gwiʃ'a laabala (PSC) waraana waran werém ʃämärgina 'stick' (n) 'amis/'adi ħada ulee/dullaa ul gɨmb kɨnbɨ 'fire' n'e ʔaɬa ibidda dab leg wɨzɨŋ 'donkey' mek daqwaay haare dameer dɨɣwarí dɨɣora 'cat' bissa/kaffa maytsí adure bisad/dummad anguʧʧa damiya 'dog' yas/mani seeaay seere eey gɨséŋ gɨzɨŋ 'cow' ʃ'a/yiwe ɬee sa'a sac ɨllwa käma 'lion' hada diraangw lenʧ'a libaax wuʤi gämäna 'hyena' galaba/karai bahaa (PSC) waraabo waraabe ɨɣwí wäya 'sister' kwa ħoʔoo obboleeytii walaalo/abbaayo séná ʃän 'brother' san nana obboleessa walaal/abboowe sén zän 'mother' de aayi haaɗa hooyo ʧwá gäna 'father' baba taata aabba aabbe tablí aba 'sit' s'a/ʈaʈam iwiit taa'uu fadhiiso ɨnʤikw- täkosɨm- 'sleep' diw/nari guuʔ rafuu hurud ɣur\y- gänʤ- 'eat' tam/'am aag ɲaaʧʧu cun ɣw- xw- 'drink' gw'a/ʃifi wah ɗugaaiti cab zɨq- ʤax- 'kill' dir gaas aʤʤeesuu dil kw- kw- 'speak' hadid/kwinh ʔooʔ dubbattu hadal dibs- gämär- 'thin' 'iyai/bilil ʔiiraw (PSC) hap'ii caato ɨnʧu k'ät'än- 'fat' dah/l'a du/iya (PSC) furdaa shilis/buuran morí wäfär- 'small' dis/dabali niinaw (PSC) t'innoo yar ʧɨlí ʃigwey 'big' win/ragaga dir (PSC) guddaa/dagaaga weyn dɨngulí fɨraq Numerals Comparison of numerals in individual Cushitic languages: Classification Language 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 North Beja (Bedawi) ɡaːl ˈmale mheːj ˈfaɖiɡ eːj (lit: 'hand') aˈsaɡwir (5 + 1) asaːˈrama (5 + 2) asiˈmheːj (5 + 3) aʃˈʃaɖiɡ (5 + 4) ˈtamin Central Bilin (Bilen) laxw / la ləŋa səxwa sədʒa ʔankwa wəlta ləŋəta səxwəta səssa ʃɨka Central, Eastern Xamtanga lə́w líŋa ʃáqwa síza ákwa wálta láŋta / lánta sə́wta sʼájtʃʼa sʼɨ́kʼa Central, Southern Awngi ɨ́mpɨ́l / láɢú láŋa ʃúɢa sedza áŋkwa wɨ́lta láŋéta sóɢéta sésta tsɨ́kka Central, Western Kimant (Qimant) laɣa / la liŋa siɣwa sədʒa ankwa wəlta ləŋəta səɣwəta səssa ʃɨka East, Highland Alaaba matú lamú sasú ʃɔːlú ʔɔntú lehú lamalá hizzeːtú hɔnsú tɔnnsú East, Highland Burji mitʃːa lama fadia foola umutta lia lamala hiditta wonfa tanna East, Highland Gedeo mitte lame sase ʃoole onde dʒaane torbaane saddeeta sallane tomme East, Highland Hadiyya mato lamo saso sooro onto loho lamara sadeento honso tommo East, Highland Kambaata máto lámo sáso ʃóolo ónto lého lamála hezzéeto hónso tordúma East, Highland Libido mato lamo saso sooro ʔonto leho lamara sadeento honso tommo East, Highland Sidamo (Sidaama) mite lame sase ʃoole onte lee lamala sette honse tonne East, Dullay Gawwada tóʔon lákke ízzaħ sálaħ xúpin tappi táʔan sétten kóllan ħúɗɗan East, Dullay Tsamai (Ts'amakko) doːkːo laːkːi zeːħ salaħ χobin tabːen taħːan sezːen ɡolːan kuŋko East, Konsoid Bussa (Harso-Bobase) tóʔo lakki, lam(m)e,lamay ezzaħ,siséħ salaħ xúpin cappi caħħan sásse /sésse kollan húddʼan East, Konsoid Dirasha (Gidole) ʃakka(ha) (fem.) /ʃokko(ha) (masc.) lakki halpatta afur hen lehi tappa lakkuʃeti tsinqoota hunda East, Konsoid Konso takka lakki sessa afur ken lehi tappa sette saɡal kuɗan East, Oromo Orma tokkō lamā sadi afurī ʃanī dʒa torbā saddeetī saɡalī kuɗenī East, Oromo West Central Oromo tokko lama sadii afur ʃani dʒaha torba saddet saɡal kuɗan East, Saho-Afar Afar enèki / inìki nammàya sidòħu /sidòħoòyu ferèyi /fereèyi konòyu /konoòyu leħèyi /leħeèyi malħiini baħaàra saɡaàla tàbana East, Saho-Afar Saho inik lam:a adoħ afar ko:n liħ malħin baħar saɡal taman East, Rendille-Boni Boni kóów, hál-ó (masc.) /hás-só (fem) lába síddéh áfar ʃan líh toddóu siyyéèd saaɡal tammán East, Rendille-Boni Rendille kôːw /ko:kalɖay (isolated form) lámːa sɛ́jːaħ áfːar t͡ʃán líħ tɛːbá sijːɛ̂ːt saːɡáːl tomón East, Somali Garre (Karre) kow lamma siddeh afar ʃan liʔ toddobe siyeed saɡaal tommon East, Somali Somali ków labá sáddeħ áfar ʃán liħ toddobá siddèed saɡaal toban East, Somali Tunni (Af-Tunni) ków lámma síddiʔ áfar ʃán líʔ toddóbo siyéed saɡáal tómon East, Arboroid Arbore tokkó (masc.) /takká (fem.), ˈtaˈka laamá, ˈlaːma sezzé, ˈsɛːze ʔafúr, ʔaˈfur tʃénn, t͡ʃɛn dʒih, ˈd͡ʒi tuzba, ˈtuːzba suyé, suˈjɛ saaɡalɗ,ˈsaɡal tommoɲɗ,ˈtɔmːɔn East, Arboroid Bayso (Baiso) koo (masc.)too (fem.) lɑ́ɑmɑ sédi ɑ́fɑr ken le todobɑ́ siddéd sɑ́ɑɡɑɑl tómon East, Arboroid Daasanach tɪ̀ɡɪ̀ɗɪ̀ (adj.) /tàqàt͡ʃ ̚ (ord.)/ ʔɛ̀ɾ (ord.) nàːmə̀ sɛ̀d̪ɛ̀ ʔàfʊ̀ɾ t͡ʃɛ̀n lɪ̀h t̪ɪ̀ːjə̀ síɪ̀t̚ sàːl t̪òmòn East, Arboroid El Molo t'óko / t'áka l'ááma séépe áfur kên, cên yíi tíípa, s'ápa fúe s'áákal t'ómon South or East Dahalo vattúkwe (masc.) /vattékwe (fem.) líima kʼaba saʕála dáwàtte,possibly ← 'hand' sita i South Burunge leyiŋ / leẽ t͡ʃʼada tami t͡ʃʼiɡaħa koːʔani laħaʔu faɴqʼu daɡati ɡweleli mili South Gorowa (Gorwaa) wak tsʼar tám tsʼiyáħ kooʔán laħóoʔ fâanqʼw dakáat ɡwaléel / ɡweléel mibaanɡw South Iraqw wák tsár tám tsíyáħ kooán laħoóʔ faaɴw dakaát ɡwaleél mibaaɴw See also Cushitic speaking peoples List of Proto-Cushitic reconstructions (Wiktionary) Meroitic language Notes References Ethnologue on the Cushitic branch Bender, Marvin Lionel. 1975. Omotic: a new Afroasiatic language family. Southern Illinois University Museum series, number 3. Bender, M. Lionel. 1986. A possible Cushomotic isomorph. Afrikanistische Arbeitspapiere 6:149–155. Fleming, Harold C. 1974. Omotic as an Afroasiatic family. In: Proceedings of the 5th annual conference on African linguistics (ed. by William Leben), p 81-94. African Studies Center & Department of Linguistics, UCLA. Kießling, Roland & Maarten Mous. 2003. The Lexical Reconstruction of West-Rift Southern Cushitic. Cushitic Language Studies Volume 21 Lamberti, Marcello. 1991. Cushitic and its classification. Anthropos 86(4/6):552-561. Newman, Paul. 1980. The Classification of Chadic within Afroasiatic. Universitaire Pers. Zaborski, Andrzej. 1986. Can Omotic be reclassified as West Cushitic? In Gideon Goldenberg, ed., Ethiopian Studies: Proceedings of the 6th International Conference, pp. 525–530. Rotterdam: Balkema. Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary (1995) Christopher Ehret Further reading External links Encyclopædia Britannica: Cushitic languages BIBLIOGRAPHY OF HIGHLAND EAST CUSHITIC Faculty of Humanities – Leiden University Category:Afroasiatic languages	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cushitic_languages	2025-04-05T18:28:06.689301
7279	Chapter 11, Title 11, United States Code	Chapter 11 of the United States Bankruptcy Code (Title 11 of the United States Code) permits reorganization under the bankruptcy laws of the United States. Such reorganization, known as Chapter 11 bankruptcy, is available to every business, whether organized as a corporation, partnership or sole proprietorship, and to individuals, although it is most prominently used by corporate entities. In contrast, Chapter 7 governs the process of a liquidation bankruptcy, though liquidation may also occur under Chapter 11; while Chapter 13 provides a reorganization process for the majority of private individuals. Chapter 11 overview When a business is unable to service its debt or pay its creditors, the business or its creditors can file with a federal bankruptcy court for protection under either Chapter 7 or Chapter 11. In Chapter 7, the business ceases operations, a trustee sells all of its assets, and then distributes the proceeds to its creditors. Any residual amount is returned to the owners of the company. In Chapter 11, in most instances the debtor remains in control of its business operations as a debtor in possession, and is subject to the oversight and jurisdiction of the court. A Chapter 11 bankruptcy will result in one of three outcomes for the debtor: reorganization, conversion to Chapter 7 bankruptcy, or dismissal. In order for a Chapter 11 debtor to reorganize, the debtor must file (and the court must confirm) a plan of reorganization. In effect, the plan is a compromise between the major stakeholders in the case, including the debtor and its creditors. Most Chapter 11 cases aim to confirm a plan, but that may not always be possible. If the judge approves the reorganization plan and the creditors all agree, then the plan can be confirmed. Section 1129 of the Bankruptcy Code requires the bankruptcy court reach certain conclusions prior to confirming or approving the plan and making it binding on all parties in the case, most notably that the plan complies with applicable law and was proposed in good faith. The court must also find that the reorganization plan is feasible in that, unless the plan provides otherwise, the plan is not likely to be followed by further reorganization or liquidation. In a Chapter 11 bankruptcy, the debtor corporation is typically recapitalized so that it emerges from bankruptcy with more equity and less debt, a process through which some of the debtor corporation's debts may be discharged. Determinations as to which debts are discharged, and how equity and other entitlements are distributed to various groups of investors, are often based on a valuation of the reorganized business. Bankruptcy valuation is often highly contentious because it is both subjective and important to case outcomes. The methods of valuation used in bankruptcy have changed over time, generally tracking methods used in investment banking, Delaware corporate law, and corporate and academic finance, but with a significant time lag.Features of Chapter 11 reorganization Chapter 11 retains many of the features present in all or most bankruptcy proceedings in the United States. It provides additional tools for debtors as well. Most importantly, empowers the trustee to operate the debtor's business. In Chapter 11, unless a separate trustee is appointed for cause, the debtor, as debtor in possession, acts as trustee of the business. Chapter 11 affords the debtor to possess several mechanisms to restructure its business. A debtor in possession can acquire financing and loans on favorable terms by giving new lenders first priority on the business's earnings. The court may also permit the debtor in possession to reject and cancel contracts. Debtors are also protected from other litigation against the business through the imposition of an automatic stay. While the automatic stay is in place, creditors are stayed from any collection attempts or activities against the debtor in possession, and most litigation against the debtor is stayed, or put on hold, until it can be resolved in bankruptcy court, or resumed in its original venue. An example of proceedings that are not necessarily stayed automatically is family law proceedings against a spouse or parent. Further, creditors may file with the court seeking relief from the automatic stay. If the business is insolvent, its debts exceed its assets, and the business is unable to pay debts as they come due, the bankruptcy restructuring may result in the company's owners being left with nothing; instead, the owners' rights and interests are ended and the company's creditors are left with ownership of the newly reorganized company. All creditors are entitled to be heard by the court. The court is ultimately responsible for determining whether the proposed plan of reorganization complies with bankruptcy laws. One controversy that has broken out in bankruptcy courts concerns the proper amount of disclosure that the court and other parties are entitled to receive from the members of the creditor's committees that play a large role in many proceedings. Chapter 11 plan Chapter 11 usually results in the reorganization of the debtor's business or personal assets and debts, but can also be used as a mechanism for liquidation. Debtors may "emerge" from a Chapter 11 bankruptcy within a few months or within several years, depending on the size and complexity of the bankruptcy. The Bankruptcy Code accomplishes this objective through the use of a bankruptcy plan. The debtor in possession typically has the first opportunity to propose a plan during the period of exclusivity. This period allows the debtor 120 days from the date of filing for Chapter 11 to propose a plan of reorganization before any other party in interest may propose a plan. If the debtor proposes a plan within the 120-day exclusivity period, a 180-day exclusivity period from the date of filing for Chapter 11 is granted in order to allow the debtor to gain confirmation of the proposed plan. Interested creditors then vote for a plan. Confirmation If the judge approves the reorganization plan and the creditors agree, the plan can be confirmed. If at least one class of creditors objects and votes against the plan, it may nonetheless be confirmed if the requirements of cramdown are met. In order to be confirmed over the creditors' objection, the plan must not discriminate against that class of creditors, and the plan must be found fair and equitable to that class. Upon confirmation, the plan becomes binding and identifies the treatment of debts and operations of the business for the duration of the plan. If a plan cannot be confirmed, the court may either convert the case to a liquidation under Chapter 7 or, if, in the best interests of the creditors and the estate, the case may be dismissed, resulting in a return to the status quo before bankruptcy. If the case is dismissed, creditors will look to non-bankruptcy law in order to satisfy their claims. In order to proceed to the confirmation hearing, the bankruptcy court must approve a disclosure statement. Once the disclosure statement is approved, the plan proponent will solicit votes from the classes of creditors. Solicitation is the process by which creditors vote on the proposed confirmation plan. This process can be complicated if creditors fail or refuse to vote. In this case, the plan proponent might tailor his or her efforts to obtain votes, or the plan itself. The plan may be modified before confirmation, so long as the modified plan meets all the requirements of Chapter 11. A chapter 11 case typically results in one of three outcomes: a reorganization, a conversion into chapter 7 liquidation, or it is dismissed. For a Chapter 11 debtor to reorganize, they must file (and the court must confirm) a reorganization plan. Simply put, the plan is a compromise between the major stakeholders in the case, including, but not limited to the debtor and its creditors. Most chapter 11 cases aim to confirm a plan, but that may not always be possible. Section 1121(b) of the Bankruptcy Code provides for an exclusivity period in which only the debtor may file a plan of reorganization. This period lasts 120 days after the date of the order for relief, and if the debtor does file a plan within the first 120 days, the exclusivity period is extended to 180 days after the order for relief for the debtor to seek acceptance of the plan by holders of claims and interests. Most importantly, the bankruptcy court must find the plan (a) complies with applicable law, and (b) has been proposed in good faith. Furthermore, the court must determine whether the plan is "feasible," In other words, the court must safeguard that confirming the plan will not yield to liquidation down the road. The plan must ensure that the debtor will be able to pay most administrative and priority claims (priority claims over unsecured claims) on the effective date. Automatic stay Like other forms of bankruptcy, petitions filed under Chapter 11 invoke the automatic stay of § 362. The automatic stay requires all creditors to cease collection attempts, making many post-petition debt collection efforts void or voidable. Under some circumstances, some creditors, or the United States Trustee, can request the court convert the case into a liquidation under Chapter 7 or appoint a trustee to manage the debtor's business. The court will grant a motion to convert to Chapter 7 or appoint a trustee if either of these actions is in the best interest of all creditors. Sometimes, a company will liquidate under Chapter 11 (perhaps in a 363 sale), in which the pre-existing management may be able to help get a higher price for divisions or other assets than a Chapter 7 liquidation would be likely to achieve. Section 362(d) of the Bankruptcy Code allows the court to terminate, annul, or modify the continuation of the automatic stay as may be necessary or appropriate to balance the competing interests of the debtor, its estate, creditors, and other parties in interest and grants the bankruptcy court considerable flexibility to tailor relief to the exigencies of the circumstances. Relief from the automatic stay is generally sought by motion and, if opposed, is treated as a contested matter under Bankruptcy Rule 9014. A party seeking relief from the automatic stay must also pay the filing fee required by 28 U.S.C.A. § 1930(b). Every major US airline has filed for Chapter 11 since 2002. In the space of 2 years (2002–2004) US Airways filed for bankruptcy twice leaving the AFL–CIO, pilot unions and other airline employees claiming the rules of Chapter 11 have helped turn the United States into a corporatocracy. The trustee or debtor-in-possession is given the right, under § 365 of the Bankruptcy Code, subject to court approval, to assume or reject executory contracts and unexpired leases. The trustee or debtor-in-possession must assume or reject an executory contract in its entirety unless some portion of it is severable. The trustee or debtor-in-possession normally assumes a contract or lease if it is needed to operate the reorganized business or if it can be assigned or sold at a profit. The trustee or debtor-in-possession normally rejects a contract or lease to transform damage claims arising from the nonperformance of those obligations into a prepetition claim. In some situations, rejection can limit the damages a contract counterparty can claim against the debtor. Secured creditors—creditors who have a security interest, or collateral, in the debtor's property—will be paid before unsecured creditors. Unsecured creditors' claims are prioritized by § 507. For instance, the claims of suppliers of products or employees of a company may be paid before other unsecured creditors are paid. Each priority level must be paid in full before the next lower priority level may receive payment. Section 1110 Section 1110 () generally provides a secured party with an interest in an aircraft the ability to take possession of the equipment within 60 days after a bankruptcy filing unless the airline cures all defaults. More specifically, the right of the lender to take possession of the secured equipment is not hampered by the automatic stay provisions of the Bankruptcy Code. Subchapter V In August 2019, the Small Business Reorganization Act of 2019 ("SBRA") added Subchapter V to Chapter 11 of the Bankruptcy Code. Subchapter V, which took effect in February 2020, is reserved exclusively for small business debtors to expedite bankruptcy procedures and economically resolve small business bankruptcy cases. Subchapter V retains many of the advantages of a traditional Chapter 11 case without the unnecessary procedural burdens and costs. It seeks to increase the debtor's ability to negotiate a successful reorganization, retain control of the business, increase oversight, and ensure a quick reorganization. A Subchapter V case contrasts with a traditional Chapter 11 in several key aspects: it is earmarked only for the "small business debtor" (as defined by the Bankruptcy Code), so only a debtor can file a plan of reorganization. The SBRA requires the U.S. Trustee to appoint a "Subchapter V trustee" to every Subchapter V case to supervise and control estate funds and facilitate the development of a consensual plan. It also eliminates the automatic appointment of an official committee of unsecured creditors and abolishes quarterly fees usually paid to the U.S. Trustee throughout the case. Most notably, Subchapter V allows the small business owner to retain their equity in the business so long as the reorganization plan does not discriminate unfairly and is fair and equitable with respect to each class of claims or interests. Considerations The reorganization and court process may take an inordinate amount of time, limiting the chances of a successful outcome and sufficient debtor-in-possession financing may be unavailable during an economic recession. A preplanned, pre-agreed approach between the debtor and its creditors (sometimes called a pre-packaged bankruptcy) may facilitate the desired result. A company undergoing Chapter 11 reorganization is effectively operating under the "protection" of the court until it emerges. An example is the airline industry in the United States; in 2006 over half the industry's seating capacity was on airlines that were in Chapter 11. These airlines were able to stop making debt payments, break their previously agreed upon labor union contracts, freeing up cash to expand routes or weather a price war against competitors — all with the bankruptcy court's approval. Studies on the impact of forestalling the creditors' rights to enforce their security reach different conclusions. Statistics Frequency Chapter 11 cases dropped by 60% from 1991 to 2003. One 2007 study found this was because businesses were turning to bankruptcy-like proceedings under state law, rather than the federal bankruptcy proceedings, including those under chapter 11. Insolvency proceedings under state law, the study stated, are currently faster, less expensive, and more private, with some states not even requiring court filings. However, a 2005 study Company did not emerge from Chapter 11 bankruptcy}} {\| class"wikitable sortable" border"1" \|- ! Company ! Filing date ! Total Assets pre-filing ! Assets adjusted to the year 2012 ! Filing court district \|- \| Lehman Brothers Holdings Inc. # \| \| $639,063,000,800 \| $}} \| NY-S \|- \| Washington Mutual # \| \| $327,913,000,000 \| $}} \| DE \|- \| Worldcom Inc. \| \| $103,914,000,000 \| $}} \| NY-S \|- \| General Motors Corporation \| \| $82,300,000,000 \| $}} \| NY-S \|- \| CIT Group \| \| $71,019,200,000 \| $}} \| NY-S \|- \| Enron Corp. #‡ \| \| $63,392,000,000 \| $}} \| NY-S \|- \| Conseco, Inc. \| \| $61,392,000,000 \| $}} \| IL-N \|- \| MF Global # \| \| $41,000,000,000 \| $}} \| NY-S \|- \| Chrysler LLC \| \| $39,300,000,000 \| $}} \| NY-S \|- \| Texaco, Inc. \| \| $35,892,000,000 \| $}} \| NY-S \|- \| Financial Corp. of America \| \| $33,864,000,000 \| $}} \| CA-C \|- \| Penn Central Transportation Company # \| \| $7,000,000,000 \| $}} \| PA-S \|- \| Refco Inc. # \| \| $33,333,172,000 \| $}} \| NY-S \|- \| Global Crossing Ltd. \| \| $30,185,000,000 \| $}} \| NY-S \|- \| Pacific Gas and Electric Co. \| \| $29,770,000,000 \| $}} \| CA-N \|- \| UAL Corp. \| \| $25,197,000,000 \| $}} \| IL-N \|- \| Delta Air Lines, Inc. \| \| $21,801,000,000 \| $}} \| NY-S \|- \| Delphi Corporation, Inc. \| \| $22,000,000,000 \| $}} \| NY-S \|} Enron, Lehman Brothers, MF Global and Refco have all ceased operations while others were acquired by other buyers or emerged as a new company with a similar name. ‡ The Enron assets were taken from the 10-Q filed on November 11, 2001. The company announced that the annual financials were under review at the time of filing for Chapter 11. See also * 722 redemption * Administration (law) in the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand * Examinership in Ireland * Insolvency law of Canada * List of private equity owned companies that have filed for bankruptcy References External links * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4342900.stm US changes bankruptcy protection laws], via BBC News. * [http://uscode.house.gov/download/pls/Title_11.ZIP Complete Title 11 (ZIP file)], via www.house.gov Category:United States bankruptcy legislation Category:Title 11 of the United States Code	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapter_11,_Title_11,_United_States_Code	2025-04-05T18:28:06.731921
7280	Conjugation	Conjugation or conjugate may refer to: Linguistics Grammatical conjugation, the modification of a verb from its basic form Emotive conjugation or Russell's conjugation, the use of loaded language Mathematics Complex conjugation, the change of sign of the imaginary part of a complex number Conjugate (square roots), the change of sign of a square root in an expression Conjugate element (field theory), a generalization of the preceding conjugations to roots of a polynomial of any degree Conjugate transpose, the complex conjugate of the transpose of a matrix Harmonic conjugate in complex analysis Conjugate (graph theory), an alternative term for a line graph, i.e. a graph representing the edge adjacencies of another graph In group theory, various notions are called conjugation: Inner automorphism, a type of conjugation homomorphism Conjugacy class in group theory, related to matrix similarity in linear algebra Conjugation (group theory), the image of an element under the conjugation homomorphisms Conjugate closure, the image of a subgroup under the conjugation homomorphisms Conjugate words in combinatorics; this operation on strings resembles conjugation in groups Isogonal conjugate, in geometry Conjugate gradient method, an algorithm for the numerical solution of particular systems of linear equations Conjugate points, in differential geometry Topological conjugation, which identifies equivalent dynamical systems Convex conjugate, the ("dual") lower-semicontinuous convex function resulting from the Legendre–Fenchel transformation of a "primal" function Probability and statistics Conjugate prior, in Bayesian statistics, a family of probability distributions that contains a prior and the posterior distributions for a particular likelihood function (particularly for one-parameter exponential families) Conjugate pairing of probability distributions, in the Fourier-analytic theory of characteristic functions and statistical mechanics Science Sexual conjugation, a type of isogamy in unicellular eukaryotes Bacterial conjugation, a mechanism of exchange of genetic material between bacteria Conjugate vaccine, in immunology Conjugation (biochemistry), covalently linking a biomolecule with another molecule Conjugate (acid-base theory), a system describing a conjugate acid-base pair Conjugated system, a system of atoms covalently bonded with alternating single and multiple bonds Conjugate variables (thermodynamics), pairs of variables that always change simultaneously Conjugate quantities, observables that are linked by the Heisenberg uncertainty principle Conjugate focal plane, in optics Charge conjugation See also Conjugal (disambiguation) Conjoint Category:Linguistics disambiguation pages Category:Mathematics disambiguation pages Category:Biology disambiguation pages	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjugation	2025-04-05T18:28:06.735464
7283	Controversy	thumb\|A scene of rabbis in debate in Carl Schleicher's painting A controversy from the Talmud, 19th century Controversy (, ) is a state of prolonged public dispute or debate, usually concerning a matter of conflicting opinion or point of view. The word was coined from the Latin controversia, as a composite of controversus – "turned in an opposite direction", and also means an exercise in rhetoric practiced in Rome. Legal In the theory of law, a controversy differs from a legal case; while legal cases include all suits, criminal as well as civil, a controversy is a purely civil proceeding. For example, the Case or Controversy Clause of Article Three of the United States Constitution (Section 2, Clause 1) states that "the judicial Power shall extend ... to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party". This clause has been deemed to impose a requirement that United States federal courts are not permitted to cases that do not pose an actual controversy—that is, an actual dispute between adverse parties which is capable of being resolved by the [court]. In addition to setting out the scope of the jurisdiction of the federal judiciary, it also prohibits courts from issuing advisory opinions, or from hearing cases that are either unripe, meaning that the controversy has not arisen yet, or moot, meaning that the controversy has already been Benford's law Benford's law of controversy, as expressed by the astrophysicist and science fiction author Gregory Benford in 1980, states: Passion is inversely proportional to the amount of real information available. In other words, it claims that the less factual information is available on a topic, the more controversy can arise around that topic – and the more facts are available, the less controversy can arise. Thus, for example, controversies in physics would be limited to subject areas where experiments cannot be carried out yet, whereas controversies would be inherent to politics, where communities must frequently decide on courses of action based on insufficient information. Psychological bases Controversies are frequently thought to be a result of a lack of confidence on the part of the disputants – as implied by Benford's law of controversy, which only talks about lack of information ("passion is inversely proportional to the amount of real information available"). For example, in analyses of the political controversy over anthropogenic climate change, which is exceptionally virulent in the United States, it has been proposed that those who are opposed to the scientific consensus do so because they don't have enough information about the topic. A study of 1540 US adults found instead that levels of scientific literacy correlated with the strength of opinion on climate change, but not on which side of the debate that they stood. The puzzling phenomenon of two individuals being able to reach different conclusions after being exposed to the same facts has been frequently explained (particularly by Daniel Kahneman) by reference to a 'bounded rationality' – in other words, that most judgments are made using fast acting heuristics that work well in every day situations, but are not amenable to decision-making about complex subjects such as climate change. Anchoring has been particularly identified as relevant in climate change controversies as individuals are found to be more positively inclined to believe in climate change if the outside temperature is higher, if they have been primed to think about heat, and if they are primed with higher temperatures when thinking about the future temperature increases from climate change. In other controversies – such as that around the HPV vaccine, the same evidence seemed to license inference to radically different conclusions. Kahan et al. explained this by the cognitive biases of biased assimilation and a credibility heuristic. Similar effects on reasoning are also seen in non-scientific controversies, for example in the gun control debate in the United States. As with other controversies, it has been suggested that exposure to empirical facts would be sufficient to resolve the debate once and for all. In computer simulations of cultural communities, beliefs were found to polarize within isolated sub-groups, based on the mistaken belief of the community's unhindered access to ground truth. However, if there is no access to the ground truth, as there was not in this model, the method will fail. Bayesian decision theory allows these failures of rationality to be described as part of a statistically optimized system for decision making. Experiments and computational models in multisensory integration have shown that sensory input from different senses is integrated in a statistically optimal way, in addition, it appears that the kind of inferences used to infer single sources for multiple sensory inputs uses a Bayesian inference about the causal origin of the sensory stimuli. As such, it appears neurobiologically plausible that the brain implements decision-making procedures that are close to optimal for Bayesian inference. Brocas and Carrillo propose a model to make decisions based on noisy sensory inputs, beliefs about the state of the world are modified by Bayesian updating, and then decisions are made based on beliefs passing a threshold. They show that this model, when optimized for single-step decision making, produces belief anchoring and polarization of opinions – exactly as described in the global warming controversy context – in spite of identical evidence presented, the pre-existing beliefs (or evidence presented first) has an overwhelming effect on the beliefs formed. In addition, the preferences of the agent (the particular rewards that they value) also cause the beliefs formed to change – this explains the biased assimilation (also known as confirmation bias) shown above. This model allows the production of controversy to be seen as a consequence of a decision maker optimized for single-step decision making, rather than a result of limited reasoning in the bounded rationality of Daniel Kahneman. See also Argument Bipartisanship Criticism Dialectic Misinformation ProCon.org Scandal Third rail (politics) References External links Brian Martin, The Controversy Manual (Sparsnäs, Sweden: Irene Publishing, 2014). Controversial topics based on machine learning on Wikipedia data Controversial Today Category:English words	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Controversy	2025-04-05T18:28:06.745766
7284	Centromere	thumb\|In this diagram of a duplicated chromosome, (2) identifies the centromere—the region that joins the two sister chromatids, or each half of the chromosome. In prophase of mitosis, specialized regions on centromeres called kinetochores attach chromosomes to spindle fibers. The centromere links a pair of sister chromatids together during cell division. This constricted region of chromosome connects the sister chromatids, creating a short arm (p) and a long arm (q) on the chromatids. During mitosis, spindle fibers attach to the centromere via the kinetochore. The physical role of the centromere is to act as the site of assembly of the kinetochores – a highly complex multiprotein structure that is responsible for the actual events of chromosome segregation – i.e. binding microtubules and signaling to the cell cycle machinery when all chromosomes have adopted correct attachments to the spindle, so that it is safe for cell division to proceed to completion and for cells to enter anaphase. There are, broadly speaking, two types of centromeres. "Point centromeres" bind to specific proteins that recognize particular DNA sequences with high efficiency. Any piece of DNA with the point centromere DNA sequence on it will typically form a centromere if present in the appropriate species. The best characterized point centromeres are those of the budding yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae. "Regional centromeres" is the term coined to describe most centromeres, which typically form on regions of preferred DNA sequence, but which can form on other DNA sequences as well. The signal for formation of a regional centromere appears to be epigenetic. Most organisms, ranging from the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe to humans, have regional centromeres. Regarding mitotic chromosome structure, centromeres represent a constricted region of the chromosome (often referred to as the primary constriction) where two identical sister chromatids are most closely in contact. When cells enter mitosis, the sister chromatids (the two copies of each chromosomal DNA molecule resulting from DNA replication in chromatin form) are linked along their length by the action of the cohesin complex. It is now believed that this complex is mostly released from chromosome arms during prophase, so that by the time the chromosomes line up at the mid-plane of the mitotic spindle (also known as the metaphase plate), the last place where they are linked with one another is in the chromatin in and around the centromere. Position thumb\|Classifications of Chromosomes I Telocentric Centromere placement very close to the top, p arms barely visible if visible at all. II Acrocentric q arms are still much longer than the p arms, but the p arms are longer than those in telocentric. III Submetacentric p and q arms are very close in length but not equal. IV Metacentric p and q arms are equal in length. A: Short arm (p arm)B: CentromereC: Long arm (q arm)D: Sister Chromatids In humans, centromere positions define the chromosomal karyotype, in which each chromosome has two arms, p (the shorter of the two) and q (the longer). The short arm 'p' is reportedly named for the French word "petit" meaning 'small'. The position of the centromere relative to any particular linear chromosome is used to classify chromosomes as metacentric, submetacentric, acrocentric, telocentric, or holocentric. + Categorization of chromosomes according to the relative arms length The domestic horse genome includes one metacentric chromosome that is homologous to two acrocentric chromosomes in the conspecific but undomesticated Przewalski's horse. This may reflect either fixation of a balanced Robertsonian translocation in domestic horses or, conversely, fixation of the fission of one metacentric chromosome into two acrocentric chromosomes in Przewalski's horses. A similar situation exists between the human and great ape genomes, with a reduction of two acrocentric chromosomes in the great apes to one metacentric chromosome in humans (see aneuploidy and the human chromosome 2). Many diseases from the result of unbalanced translocations more frequently involve acrocentric chromosomes than other non-acrocentric chromosomes. Acrocentric chromosomes are usually located in and around the nucleolus. As a result, these chromosomes tend to be less densely packed than chromosomes in the nuclear periphery. Consistently, chromosomal regions that are less densely packed are also more prone to chromosomal translocations in cancers. Telocentric Telocentric chromosomes have a centromere at one end of the chromosome and therefore exhibit only one arm at the cytological (microscopic) level. They are not present in humans but can form through cellular chromosomal errors. Telocentric chromosomes occur naturally in many species, such as the house mouse, in which all chromosomes except the Y are telocentric. Subtelocentric Subtelocentric chromosomes' centromeres are located between the middle and the end of the chromosomes, but reside closer to the end of the chromosomes. Centromere types Acentric An acentric chromosome is fragment of a chromosome that lacks a centromere. Since centromeres are the attachment point for spindle fibers in cell division, acentric fragments are not evenly distributed to daughter cells during cell division. As a result, a daughter cell will lack the acentric fragment and deleterious consequences could occur. Chromosome-breaking events can also generate acentric chromosomes or acentric fragments. Dicentric A dicentric chromosome is an abnormal chromosome with two centromeres, which can be unstable through cell divisions. It can form through translocation between or fusion of two chromosome segments, each with a centromere. Some rearrangements produce both dicentric chromosomes and acentric fragments which can not attach to spindles at mitosis. The formation of dicentric chromosomes has been attributed to genetic processes, such as Robertsonian translocation and paracentric inversion. Dicentric chromosomes can have a variety of fates, including mitotic stability. In some cases, their stability comes from inactivation of one of the two centromeres to make a functionally monocentric chromosome capable of normal transmission to daughter cells during cell division. For example, human chromosome 2, which is believed to be the result of a Robertsonian translocation at some point in the evolution between the great apes and Homo, has a second, vestigial, centromere near the middle of its long arm. Monocentric The monocentric chromosome is a chromosome that has only one centromere in a chromosome and forms a narrow constriction. Monocentric centromeres are the most common structure on highly repetitive DNA in plants and animals. Holocentric Unlike monocentric chromosomes, holocentric chromosomes have no distinct primary constriction when viewed at mitosis. Instead, spindle fibers attach along almost the entire (Greek: holo-) length of the chromosome. In holocentric chromosomes centromeric proteins, such as CENPA (CenH3) are spread over the whole chromosome. The nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans, is a well-known example of an organism with holocentric chromosomes, but this type of centromere can be found in various species, plants, and animals, across eukaryotes. Holocentromeres are actually composed of multiple distributed centromere units that form a line-like structure along the chromosomes during mitosis. Alternative or nonconventional strategies are deployed at meiosis to achieve the homologous chromosome pairing and segregation needed to produce viable gametes or gametophytes for sexual reproduction. Different types of holocentromeres exist in different species, namely with or without centromeric repetitive DNA sequences and with or without CenH3. Holocentricity has evolved at least 13 times independently in various green algae, protozoans, invertebrates, and different plant families. Contrary to monocentric species where acentric fragments usually become lost during cell division, the breakage of holocentric chromosomes creates fragments with normal spindle fiber attachment sites. Because of this, organisms with holocentric chromosomes can more rapidly evolve karyotype variation, able to heal fragmented chromosomes through subsequent addition of telomere caps at the sites of breakage. Polycentric Polycentric chromosomes have several kinetochore clusters, i.e. centromes. The term overlaps partially with "holocentric", but "polycentric" is clearly preferred when discussing defectively formed monocentric chromosomes. There is some actual ambiguity as well, as there is no clear line dividing up the transition from kinetochores covering the whole chromosome to distinct clusters. In other words, the difference between "the whole chromosome is a centrome" and "the chromosome has no centrome" is hazy and usage varies. Beyond "polycentricity" being used more about defects, there is no clear preference in other topics such as evolutionary origin or kinetochore distribution and detailed structure (e.g. as seen in tagging or genome assembly analysis). Even clearly distinct clusters of kinetochore proteins do not necessarily produce more than one constriction: "Metapolycentric" chromosomes feature one elongated constriction of the chromosome, joining a longer segment which is still visibly shorter than the chromatids. Metapolycentric chromosomes may be a step in the emergence and suppression of centromere drive, a type of meiotic drive that disrupts parity by monocentric centromeres growing additional kinetochore proteins to gain an advantage during meiosis. Human chromosomes thumb\|Human karyogram, with each row vertically aligned at centromere level, and with annotated bands and sub-bands. It is a graphical representation of the idealized human diploid karyotype. It shows dark and white regions on G banding. It shows both the female (XX) and male (XY) versions of the sex chromosome. + Table of human chromosomes with data on centromeres and sizes. Chromosome Centromere position (Mbp) Category Chromosome Size (Mbp) Centromere size (Mbp) 1 125.0 metacentric 247.2 7.4 2 93.3 submetacentric 242.8 6.3 3 91.0 metacentric 199.4 6.0 4 50.4 submetacentric 191.3 — 5 48.4 submetacentric 180.8 — 6 61.0 submetacentric 170.9 — 7 59.9 submetacentric 158.8 — 8 45.6 submetacentric 146.3 — 9 49.0 submetacentric 140.4 — 10 40.2 submetacentric 135.4 — 11 53.7 submetacentric 134.5 — 12 35.8 submetacentric 132.3 — 13 17.9 acrocentric 114.1 — 14 17.6 acrocentric 106.3 — 15 19.0 acrocentric 100.3 — 16 36.6 metacentric 88.8 — 17 24.0 submetacentric 78.7 — 18 17.2 submetacentric 76.1 — 19 26.5 metacentric 63.8 — 20 27.5 metacentric 62.4 — 21 13.2 acrocentric 46.9 — 22 14.7 acrocentric 49.5 — X 60.6 submetacentric 154.9 — Y 12.5 acrocentric 57.7 — Based on the micrographic characteristics of size, position of the centromere and sometimes the presence of a chromosomal satellite, the human chromosomes are classified into the following groups: Group Chromosomes Features Group A Chromosome 1–3 Large, metacentric and submetacentric Group B Chromosome 4–5 Large, submetacentric Group C Chromosome 6–12, X Medium-sized, submetacentric Group D Chromosome 13–15 Medium-sized, acrocentric, with satellite Group E Chromosome 16–18 Small, metacentric and submetacentric Group F Chromosome 19–20 Very small, metacentric Group G Chromosome 21–22, Y Very small, acrocentric, with satellite Sequence There are two types of centromeres. In regional centromeres, DNA sequences contribute to but do not define function. Regional centromeres contain large amounts of DNA and are often packaged into heterochromatin. In most eukaryotes, the centromere's DNA sequence consists of large arrays of repetitive DNA (e.g. satellite DNA) where the sequence within individual repeat elements is similar but not identical. In humans, the primary centromeric repeat unit is called α-satellite (or alphoid), although a number of other sequence types are found in this region. Centromere satellites are hypothesized to evolve by a process called layered expansion. They evolve rapidly between species, and analyses in wild mice show that satellite copy number and heterogeneity relates to population origins and subspecies. Additionally, satellite sequences may be affected by inbreeding. The daughter chromosomes will assemble centromeres in the same place as the parent chromosome, independent of sequence. It has been proposed that histone H3 variant CENP-A (Centromere Protein A) is the epigenetic mark of the centromere. The question arises whether there must be still some original way in which the centromere is specified, even if it is subsequently propagated epigenetically. If the centromere is inherited epigenetically from one generation to the next, the problem is pushed back to the origin of the first metazoans. On the other hand, thanks to comparisons of the centromeres in the X chromosomes, epigenetic and structural variations have been seen in these regions. In addition, a recent assembly of the human genome has detected a possible mechanism of how pericentromeric and centromeric structures evolve, through a layered expansion model for αSat sequences. This model proposes that different αSat sequence repeats emerge periodically and expand within an active vector, displacing old sequences, and becoming the site of kinetochore assembly. The αSat can originate from the same, or from different vectors. As this process is repeated over time, the layers that flank the active centromere shrink and deteriorate. This process raises questions about the relationship between this dynamic evolutionary process and the position of the centromere. Structure The centromeric DNA is normally in a heterochromatin state, which is essential for the recruitment of the cohesin complex that mediates sister chromatid cohesion after DNA replication as well as coordinating sister chromatid separation during anaphase. In this chromatin, the normal histone H3 is replaced with a centromere-specific variant, CENP-A in humans. The presence of CENP-A is believed to be important for the assembly of the kinetochore on the centromere. CENP-C has been shown to localise almost exclusively to these regions of CENP-A associated chromatin. In human cells, the histones are found to be most enriched for H4K20me3 and H3K9me3 which are known heterochromatic modifications. In Drosophila, Islands of retroelements are major components of the centromeres. In the yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe (and probably in other eukaryotes), the formation of centromeric heterochromatin is connected to RNAi. In nematodes such as Caenorhabditis elegans, some plants, and the insect orders Lepidoptera and Hemiptera, chromosomes are "holocentric", indicating that there is not a primary site of microtubule attachments or a primary constriction, and a "diffuse" kinetochore assembles along the entire length of the chromosome. Centromeric aberrations In rare cases, neocentromeres can form at new sites on a chromosome as a result of a repositioning of the centromere. This phenomenon is most well known from human clinical studies and there are currently over 90 known human neocentromeres identified on 20 different chromosomes. The formation of a neocentromere must be coupled with the inactivation of the previous centromere, since chromosomes with two functional centromeres (Dicentric chromosome) will result in chromosome breakage during mitosis. In some unusual cases human neocentromeres have been observed to form spontaneously on fragmented chromosomes. Some of these new positions were originally euchromatic and lack alpha satellite DNA altogether. Neocentromeres lack the repetitive structure seen in normal centromeres which suggest that centromere formation is mainly controlled epigenetically. Over time a neocentromere can accumulate repetitive elements and mature into what is known as an evolutionary new centromere. There are several well known examples in primate chromosomes where the centromere position is different from the human centromere of the same chromosome and is thought to be evolutionary new centromeres. Centromere proteins are also the autoantigenic target for some anti-nuclear antibodies, such as anti-centromere antibodies. Dysfunction and disease It has been known that centromere misregulation contributes to mis-segregation of chromosomes, which is strongly related to cancer and miscarriage. Notably, overexpression of many centromere genes have been linked to cancer malignant phenotypes. Overexpression of these centromere genes can increase genomic instability in cancers. Elevated genomic instability on one hand relates to malignant phenotypes; on the other hand, it makes the tumor cells more vulnerable to specific adjuvant therapies such as certain chemotherapies and radiotherapy. Instability of centromere repetitive DNA was recently shown in cancer and aging. Repair of centromeric DNA When DNA breaks occur at centromeres in the G1 phase of the cell cycle, the cells are able to recruit the homologous recombinational repair machinery to the damaged site, even in the absence of a sister chromatid. It appears that homologous recombinational repair can occur at centromeric breaks throughout the cell cycle in order to prevent the activation of inaccurate mutagenic DNA repair pathways and to preserve centromeric integrity.) uses combining forms of centro- and -mere, yielding "central part", describing the centromere's location at the center of the chromosome. See also Telomere Chromatid Diploid Monopolin References Further reading External links Category:Chromosomes Category:DNA replication	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centromere	2025-04-05T18:28:06.803261
7287	Castello	Castello may refer to: Places Municipalities of San Marino, known as Castello in Italian Castello, Venice, the largest of the six sestieri of Venice Castello, the old town center of Giudicato of Cagliari in Sardinia Castello, a neighbourhood in Florence Castello, Hong Kong, a private housing estate in Hong Kong A locality in the town of Monteggio in Switzerland Cittadella (Gozo), a citadel in Gozo, Malta Short name of Castellón de la Plana, a city in the Valencian Community, Spain Città di Castello, a town in Umbria, Italy Other Roman Catholic Diocese of Castello, a former diocese based in Venice Castello (surname) Castello cheeses See also Castell (disambiguation) Castella (disambiguation) Castelli (disambiguation) Castellón (disambiguation) Castells (disambiguation)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castello	2025-04-05T18:28:06.807915
7291	CuteFTP	/ 3.1.2 (Mac) <!-- When updating this, also update Comparison of FTP clients --> \| operating_system = Windows & Mac OS X \| genre = FTP client: Home & Pro \| license = Proprietary \| website = }} CuteFTP is a series of FTP (file transfer protocol) client applications distributed and supported since 1996 by GlobalSCAPE, who later bought the rights to the software. Both a Windows-based or Mac-based interface were made for both home and professional use. CuteFTP is used to transfer files between computers and File Transfer Protocol (FTP) servers to publish web pages, download digital images, music, multi-media files and software, and transfer files of any size or type between home and office. Since 1999, CuteFTP Pro and CuteFTP Mac Pro have also been available alongside CuteFTP Home with free trial periods. It was originally developed by Alex Kunadze, a Russian programmer. See also Comparison of FTP client software References [https://cuteftp.en.softonic.com/ CuteFTP Softonic Review] <references /> Further reading * External links * * [https://www.Globalscape.com/ Globalscape Parent Company] Category:FTP clients Category:1996 software	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CuteFTP	2025-04-05T18:28:06.811694
7293	Commodore 64	\| os = \|}} \| cpu = MOS Technology 6510/8500 (NTSC version)\|@ (PAL version)}} \| memory = + \| graphics = VIC-II (, , sprites, ) \| sound = SID 6581/8580 (, , filter, ADSR, ring)<!-- Tried to keep it short --> \| connectivity = \| predecessor = \| successor = \| releasedate \| unitssold 12.5 – 17 million \| price <!-- not exactly the same as template gives: ($1,844.62 in 2023)--> }} The Commodore 64, also known as the C64, is an 8-bit home computer introduced in January 1982 by Commodore International (first shown at the Consumer Electronics Show, January 7–10, 1982, in Las Vegas). It has been listed in the Guinness World Records as the highest-selling single computer model of all time, with independent estimates placing the number sold between 12.5 and 17 million units. Volume production started in early 1982, marketing in August for . Preceded by the VIC-20 and Commodore PET, the C64 took its name from its of RAM. With support for multicolor sprites and a custom chip for waveform generation, the C64 could create superior visuals and audio compared to systems without such custom hardware. The C64 dominated the low-end computer market (except in the UK, France and Japan, lasting only about six months in Japan) for most of the later years of the 1980s. For a substantial period (1983–1986), the C64 had between 30% and 40% share of the US market and two million units sold per year, outselling IBM PC compatibles, the Apple II, and Atari 8-bit computers. Sam Tramiel, a later Atari president and the son of Commodore's founder, said in a 1989 interview, "When I was at Commodore we were building C64s a month for a couple of years." In the UK market, the C64 faced competition from the BBC Micro, the ZX Spectrum, and later the Amstrad CPC 464, but the C64 was still the second-most-popular computer in the UK after the ZX Spectrum. The Commodore 64 failed to make any impact in Japan, as their market was dominated by Japanese computers, such as the NEC PC-8801, Sharp X1, Fujitsu FM-7 and MSX, and in France, where the ZX Spectrum, Thomson MO5 and TO7, and Amstrad CPC 464 dominated the market. Part of the Commodore 64's success was its sale in regular retail stores instead of only electronics or computer hobbyist specialty stores. Commodore produced many of its parts in-house to control costs, including custom integrated circuit chips from MOS Technology. In the United States, it has been compared to the Ford Model T automobile for its role in bringing a new technology to middle-class households via creative and affordable mass-production. Approximately 10,000 commercial software titles have been made for the Commodore 64, including development tools, office productivity applications, and video games. C64 emulators allow anyone with a modern computer, or a compatible video game console, to run these programs today. The C64 is also credited with popularizing the computer demoscene and is still used today by some computer hobbyists. In 2011, 17 years after it was taken off the market, research showed that brand recognition for the model was still at 87%. History In January 1981, MOS Technology, Inc., Commodore's integrated circuit design subsidiary, initiated a project to design the graphic and audio chips for a next-generation video game console. Design work for the chips, named MOS Technology VIC-II (Video Integrated Circuit for graphics) and MOS Technology SID (Sound Interface Device for audio), was completed in November 1981. Commodore then began a game console project that would use the new chips—called the Ultimax or the MAX Machine, engineered by Yash Terakura from Commodore Japan. This project was eventually cancelled after just a few machines were manufactured for the Japanese market. At the same time, Robert "Bob" Russell (system programmer and architect on the VIC-20) and Robert "Bob" Yannes (engineer of the SID) were critical of the current product line-up at Commodore, which was a continuation of the Commodore PET line aimed at business users. With the support of Al Charpentier (engineer of the VIC-II) and Charles Winterble (manager of MOS Technology), they proposed to Commodore CEO Jack Tramiel a low-cost sequel to the VIC-20. Tramiel dictated that the machine should have of random-access memory (RAM). Although 64-Kbit dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) chips cost over at the time, he knew that 64K DRAM prices were falling and would drop to an acceptable level before full production was reached. The team was able to quickly design the computer because, unlike most other home-computer companies, Commodore had its own semiconductor fab to produce test chips; because the fab was not running at full capacity, development costs were part of existing corporate overhead. The chips were complete by November, by which time Charpentier, Winterble, and Tramiel had decided to proceed with the new computer; the latter set a final deadline for the first weekend of January, to coincide with the 1982 Consumer Electronics Show (CES). The product was code named the VIC-40 as the successor to the popular VIC-20. The team that constructed it consisted of Yash Terakura, Shiraz Shivji, Bob Russell, Bob Yannes, and David A. Ziembicki. The design, prototypes, and some sample software were finished in time for the show, after the team had worked tirelessly over both Thanksgiving and Christmas weekends. The machine used the same case, same-sized motherboard, and same Commodore BASIC 2.0 in ROM as the VIC-20. BASIC also served as the user interface shell and was available immediately on startup at the <code>READY</code> prompt. When the product was to be presented, the VIC-40 product was renamed C64. The C64 made an impressive debut at the January 1982 Consumer Electronics Show, as recalled by Production Engineer David A. Ziembicki: "All we saw at our booth were Atari people with their mouths dropping open, saying, 'How can you do that for $595? The answer was vertical integration; due to Commodore's ownership of MOS Technology's semiconductor fabrication facilities, each C64 had an estimated production cost of (equivalent to $350 in 2022). Reception In July 1983, BYTE magazine stated that "the 64 retails for . At that price it promises to be one of the hottest contenders in the under- personal computer market." It described the SID as "a true music synthesizer ... the quality of the sound has to be heard to be believed", while criticizing the use of Commodore BASIC 2.0, the floppy disk performance which is "even slower than the Atari 810 drive", and Commodore's quality control. BYTE gave more details, saying the C64 had "inadequate Commodore BASIC 2.0. An 8K-byte interpreted BASIC" which they assumed was because "Obviously, Commodore feels that most home users will be running prepackaged software - there is no provision for using graphics (or sound as mentioned above) from within a BASIC program except by means of POKE commands." This was one of very few warnings about C64 BASIC published in any computer magazines. Creative Computing said in December 1984 that the C64 was "the overwhelming winner" in the category of home computers under . Despite criticizing its "slow disk drive, only two cursor directional keys, zero manufacturer support, non-standard interfaces, etc.", the magazine said that at the C64's price of less than "you can't get another system with the same features: 64K, color, sprite graphics, and barrels of available software". The Tandy Color Computer was the runner up. The Apple II was the winner in the category of home computer over , which was the category the Commodore 64 was in when it was first released at the price of . Market war: 1982–1983 and International Soccer'']] Commodore had a reputation for announcing products that never appeared, so the company sought to ship the C64 quickly. Production began in the spring of 1982, and volume shipments began in August. The C64 faced a wide range of competing home computers, but, with a lower price and more flexible hardware, it quickly outsold many of its competitors. In the United States, the greatest competitors were the Atari 8-bit computers and the Apple II. The Atari 400 and 800 had been designed to accommodate previously stringent FCC emissions requirements and so were expensive to manufacture. Though similar in specifications, the C64 and Apple II represented differing design philosophies; as an open architecture system, upgrade capability for the Apple II was granted by internal expansion slots, whereas the C64's comparatively closed architecture had only a single external ROM cartridge port for bus expansion. However, the Apple II used its expansion slots for interfacing with common peripherals like disk drives, printers, and modems; the C64 had a variety of ports integrated into its motherboard, which were used for these purposes, usually leaving the cartridge port free. Commodore's was not a completely closed system, however; the company had published detailed specifications for most of their models since the Commodore PET and VIC-20 days, and the C64 was no exception. C64 sales were nonetheless relatively slow due to a lack of software, reliability issues with early production models, particularly high failure rates of the PLA chip, which used a new production process, and a shortage of 1541 disk drives, which also suffered rather severe reliability issues. During 1983, however, a trickle of software turned into a flood and sales began rapidly climbing. Commodore sold the C64 not only through its network of authorized dealers but also through department stores, discount stores, toy stores and college bookstores. The C64 had a built-in RF modulator and thus could be plugged into any television set. This allowed it (like its predecessor, the VIC-20) to compete directly against video game consoles such as the Atari 2600. Like the Apple IIe, the C64 could also output a composite video signal, avoiding the RF modulator altogether. This allowed the C64 to be plugged into a specialized monitor for a sharper picture. Unlike the IIe, the C64's NTSC output capability also included separate luminance/chroma signal output equivalent to (and electrically compatible with) S-Video, for connection to the Commodore 1702 monitor, providing even better video quality than a composite signal. Aggressive pricing of the C64 is considered to have been a major catalyst in the video game crash of 1983. In January 1983, Commodore offered a $100 rebate in the United States on the purchase of a C64 to anyone that traded in another video game console or computer. To take advantage of this rebate, some mail-order dealers and retailers offered a Timex Sinclair 1000 (TS1000) for as little as with the purchase of a C64. This deal meant that the consumer could send the TS1000 to Commodore, collect the rebate, and pocket the difference; Timex Corporation departed the computer market within a year. Commodore's tactics soon led to a price war with the major home computer manufacturers. The success of the VIC-20 and C64 contributed significantly to Texas Instruments and other smaller competitors exiting the field. The price war with Texas Instruments was seen as a personal battle for Commodore president Jack Tramiel. Commodore dropped the C64's list price by within two months of its release. In June 1983 the company lowered the price to (equivalent to $ in ), and some stores sold the computer for . At one point, the company was selling as many C64s as all computers sold by the rest of the industry combined. Meanwhile, TI lost money by selling the TI-99/4A for . TI's subsequent demise in the home computer industry in October 1983 was seen as revenge for TI's tactics in the electronic calculator market in the mid-1970s, when Commodore was almost bankrupted by TI. All four machines had similar memory configurations which were standard in 1982–83: for the Apple II+ (upgraded within months of C64's release to with the Apple IIe) and for the Atari 800. At upwards of , the Apple II was about twice as expensive, while the Atari 800 cost $899. One key to the C64's success was Commodore's aggressive marketing tactics, and they were quick to exploit the relative price/performance divisions between its competitors with a series of television commercials after the C64's launch in late 1982. The company also published detailed documentation to help developers, while Atari initially kept technical information secret. Although many early C64 games were inferior Atari 8-bit ports, by late 1983, the growing installed base caused developers to create new software with better graphics and sound. Rumors spread in late 1983 that Commodore would discontinue the C64, but it was the only non-discontinued, widely available home computer in the US by then, with more than 500,000 sold during the Christmas season; because of production problems in Atari's supply chain, by the start of 1984 "the Commodore 64 largely has [the low-end] market to itself right now", The Washington Post reported. 1984–1987 }} With sales booming and the early reliability issues with the hardware addressed, software for the C64 began to grow in size and ambition during 1984. This growth shifted to the primary focus of most US game developers. The two holdouts were Sierra, who largely skipped over the C64 in favor of Apple and PC-compatible machines, and Broderbund, who were heavily invested in educational software and developed primarily around the Apple II. In the North American market, the disk format had become nearly universal while cassette and cartridge-based software all but disappeared. Most US-developed games by this point grew large enough to require multi-loading from disk. At a mid-1984 conference of game developers and experts at Origins Game Fair, Dan Bunten, Sid Meier, and a representative of Avalon Hill said that they were developing games for the C64 first as the most promising market. By 1985, games were an estimated 60 to 70% of Commodore 64 software. Computer Gaming World stated in January 1985 that companies such as Epyx that survived the video game crash did so because they "jumped on the Commodore bandwagon early". Over 35% of SSI's 1986 sales were for the C64, ten points higher than for the Apple II. The C64 was even more important for other companies, which often found that more than half the sales for a title ported to six platforms came from the C64 version. That year, Computer Gaming World published a survey of ten game publishers that found that they planned to release forty-three Commodore 64 games that year, compared to nineteen for Atari and forty-eight for Apple II, and Alan Miller stated that Accolade developed first for the C64 because "it will sell the most on that system". In Europe, the primary competitors to the C64 were British-built computers: the Sinclair ZX Spectrum, the BBC Micro, and the Amstrad CPC 464. In the UK, the 48K Spectrum had not only been released a few months ahead of the C64's early 1983 debut, but it was also selling for £175, less than half the C64's £399 price. The Spectrum quickly became the market leader and Commodore had an uphill struggle against it in the marketplace. The C64 did however go on to rival the Spectrum in popularity in the latter half of the 1980s. Adjusted to the population size, the popularity of Commodore 64 was the highest in Finland at roughly 3 units per 100 inhabitants, where it was subsequently marketed as "the Computer of the Republic". By early 1985 the C64's price was ; with an estimated production cost of , its profitability was still within the industry-standard markup of two to three times. Commodore sold about one million C64s in 1985 and a total of 3.5 million by mid-1986. Although the company reportedly attempted to discontinue the C64 more than once in favor of more expensive computers such as the Commodore 128, demand remained strong. In 1986, Commodore introduced the 64C, a redesigned 64, which Compute! saw as evidence that—contrary to C64 owners' fears that the company would abandon them in favor of the Amiga and 128—"the 64 refuses to die". Its introduction also meant that Commodore raised the price of the C64 for the first time, which the magazine cited as the end of the home-computer price war. Software sales also remained strong; MicroProse, for example, in 1987 cited the Commodore and IBM PC markets as its top priorities. 1988–1994 By 1988, PC compatibles were the largest and fastest-growing home and entertainment software markets, displacing former leader Commodore. Commodore 64 software sales were almost unchanged in the third quarter of 1988 year over year while the overall market grew 42%, but the company was still selling 1 to 1.5 million units worldwide each year of what Computer Chronicles that year called "the Model T of personal computers". Epyx CEO Dave Morse cautioned that "there are no new 64 buyers, or very few. It's a consistent group that's not growing... it's going to shrink as part of our business." One computer gaming executive stated that the Nintendo Entertainment System's enormous popularityseven million sold in 1988, almost as many as the number of C64s sold in its first five yearshad stopped the C64's growth. Trip Hawkins reinforced that sentiment, stating that Nintendo was "the last hurrah of the 8-bit world". SSI exited the Commodore 64 market in 1991, after most competitors. Ultima VI, released in 1991, was the last major C64 game release from a North American developer, and The Simpsons, published by Ultra Games, was the last arcade conversion. The latter was a somewhat uncommon example of a US-developed arcade port as after the early years of the C64, most arcade conversions were produced by UK developers and converted to NTSC and disk format for the US market, American developers instead focusing on more computer-centered game genres such as RPGs and simulations. In the European market, disk software was rarer and cassettes were the most common distribution method; this led to a higher prevalence of arcade titles and smaller, lower-budget games that could fit entirely in the computer's memory without requiring multiloads. European programmers also tended to exploit advanced features of the C64's hardware more than their US counterparts. The Commodore 64 Light Fantastic pack was release in time for the 1989 Christmas holiday season. The package included a C64C, a Cheetah Defender 64 Light gun and 3D-glasses. This pack included several games compatible with the light gun, including some developed purely for the packs release (Mindscape.) In the United States, demand for 8-bit computers all but ceased as the 1990s began and PC compatibles completely dominated the computer market. However, the C64 continued to be popular in the UK and other European countries. The machine's eventual demise was not due to lack of demand or the cost of the C64 itself (still profitable at a retail price point between £44 and £50), but rather because of the cost of producing the disk drive. In March 1994, at CeBIT in Hanover, Germany, Commodore announced that the C64 would be finally discontinued in 1995, noting that the Commodore 1541 cost more than the C64 itself. However, only one month later in April 1994, the company filed for bankruptcy. When Commodore went bankrupt, all production on their inventory, including the C64, was discontinued, thus ending the C64's -year production. Claims of sales of 17, 22 and 30 million of C64 units sold worldwide have been made. Company sales records, however, indicate that the total number was about 12.5 million. Based on that figure, the Commodore 64 was still the third most popular computing platform into the 21st century until 2017 when the Raspberry Pi family replaced it. While 360,000 C64s were sold in 1982, about 1.3 million were sold in 1983, followed by a large spike in 1984 when 2.6 million were sold. After that, sales held steady at between 1.3 and 1.6 million a year for the remainder of the decade and then dropped off after 1989. North American sales peaked between 1983 and 1985 and gradually tapered off afterward, while European sales remained quite strong into the early 1990s. Commodore itself reported a robust sales figure of over 800,000 units during the 1991 fiscal year, but sales during the 1993 fiscal year had declined to fewer than 200,000 units. Throughout the early 1990s, European sales had accounted for more than 80% of Commodore's total sales revenue. C64 family Commodore MAX ]] In 1982, Commodore released the MAX Machine in Japan. It was called the Ultimax in the United States and VC-10 in Germany. The MAX was intended to be a game console with limited computing capability and was based on a cut-down version of the hardware family later used in the C64. The MAX was discontinued months after its introduction because of poor sales in Japan. Commodore Educator 64 ]] 1983 saw Commodore attempt to compete with the Apple II's hold on the US education market with the Educator 64, essentially a C64 and "green" monochrome monitor in a PET case. Schools preferred the all-in-one metal construction of the PET over the standard C64's separate components, which could be easily damaged, vandalized, or stolen. Schools did not prefer the Educator 64 to the wide range of software and hardware options the Apple IIe was able to offer, and it was produced in limited quantities. SX-64 ]] Also in 1983, Commodore released the SX-64, a portable version of the C64. The SX-64 has the distinction of being the first commercial full-color portable computer. While earlier computers using this form factor only incorporate monochrome ("green screen") displays, the base SX-64 unit features a color cathode-ray tube (CRT) and one integrated 1541 floppy disk drive. Even though Commodore claimed in advertisements that it would have dual 1541 drives, when the SX-64 was released there was only one and the other became a floppy disk storage slot. Also, unlike most other C64s, the SX-64 does not have a datasette connector so an external cassette was not an option. Commodore 128 Two designers at Commodore, Fred Bowen and Bil Herd, were determined to rectify the problems of the Plus/4. They intended that the eventual successors to the C64—the Commodore 128 and 128D computers (1985)—were to build upon the C64, avoiding the Plus/4's flaws. The successors had many improvements such as a BASIC with graphics and sound commands (like almost all home computers not made by Commodore), 80-column display ability, and full CP/M compatibility. The decision to make the Commodore 128 plug compatible with the C64 was made quietly by Bowen and Herd, software and hardware designers respectively, without the knowledge or approval by the management in the post Jack Tramiel era. The designers were careful not to reveal their decision until the project was too far along to be challenged or changed and still make the impending Consumer Electronics Show (CES) in Las Vegas. Upon learning that the C128 was designed to be compatible with the C64, Commodore's marketing department independently announced that the C128 would be 100% compatible with the C64, thereby raising the bar for C64 support. In a case of malicious compliance, the 128 design was altered to include a separate "64 mode" using a complete C64 environment to try to ensure total compatibility. Commodore 64C floppy disk drive and 1084S monitor displaying television-compatible S-Video ]] The C64's designers intended the computer to have a new, wedge-shaped case within a year of release, but the change did not occur. In 1986, Commodore released the 64C computer, which is functionally identical to the original. The exterior design was remodeled in the sleeker style of the Commodore 128. The 64C uses new versions of the SID, VIC-II, and I/O chips being deployed. Models with the C64E board had the graphic symbols printed on the top of the keys, instead of the normal location on the front. The sound chip (SID) was changed to use the MOS 8580 chip, with the core voltage reduced from 12V to 9V. The most significant changes include different behavior in the filters and in the volume control, which result in some music/sound effects sounding differently than intended, and in digitally-sampled audio being almost inaudible, respectively (though both of these can mostly be corrected-for in software). The 64 KB RAM memory went from eight chips to two chips. BASIC and the KERNAL went from two separate chips into one 16 KB ROM chip. The PLA chip and some TTL chips were integrated into a DIL 64-pin chip.<!--https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/C64Cmotherboard.jpg U8 "252535"--> The "252535-01" PLA integrated the color RAM as well into the same chip. The smaller physical space made it impossible to put in some internal expansions like a floppy-speeder. In the United States, the 64C was often bundled with the third-party GEOS graphical user interface (GUI)-based operating system, as well as the software needed to access Quantum Link. The 1541 drive received a matching face-lift, resulting in the 1541C. Later, a smaller, sleeker 1541-II model was introduced, along with the 3.5-inch microfloppy 1581. Commodore 64 Games System "C64GS"]] In 1990, the C64 was repackaged in the form of a game console, called the C64 Games System (C64GS), with most external connectivity removed. A simple modification to the 64C's motherboard was made to allow cartridges to be inserted from above. A modified ROM replaced the BASIC interpreter with a boot screen to inform the user to insert a cartridge. Designed to compete with the Nintendo Entertainment System and Sega's Master System, it suffered from very low sales compared to its rivals. It was another commercial failure for Commodore, and it was never released outside Europe. The Commodore game system lacked a keyboard, so any software that required a keyboard could not be used. Commodore 65 In 1990, an advanced successor to the C64, the Commodore 65 (also known as the "C64DX"), was prototyped, but the project was canceled by Commodore's chairman Irving Gould in 1991. The C65's specifications were impressive for an 8-bit computer, bringing specs comparable to the 16-bit Apple IIGS. For example, it could display 256 colors on the screen, while OCS based Amigas could only display 64 in HalfBrite mode (32 colors and half-bright transformations). Although no specific reason was given for the C65's cancellation, it would have competed in the marketplace with Commodore's lower-end Amigas and the Commodore CDTV. Software In 1982, the C64's graphics and sound capabilities were rivaled only by the Atari 8-bit computers and appeared exceptional when compared with the popular Apple II. The C64 is often credited with starting the demoscene subculture (see Commodore 64 demos). It is still being actively used in the demoscene, especially for music (its SID sound chip even being used in special sound cards for PCs, and the Elektron SidStation synthesizer). Even though other computers quickly caught up with it, the C64 remained a strong competitor to the later video game consoles Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) and Master System, thanks in part to its by-then established software base, especially outside North America, where it comprehensively outsold the NES. Because of lower incomes and the domination of the ZX Spectrum in the UK, almost all British C64 software used cassette tapes. Few cassette C64 programs were released in the US after 1983 and, in North America, the diskette was the principal method of software distribution. The cartridge slot on the C64 was also mainly a feature used in the computer's first two years on the US market and became rapidly obsolete once the price and reliability of 1541 drives improved. A handful of PAL region games used bank switched cartridges to get around the 16 KB memory limit. BASIC interpreter start-up screen. Note the altered background and text colors (vs the ordinary C64 blue tones) and the reduction of available BASIC-interpreter program memory allocation, due to the address space used by the cartridge.]] As is common for home computers of the early 1980s, the C64 comes with a BASIC interpreter, in ROM. KERNAL, I/O, and tape/disk drive operations are accessed via custom BASIC language commands. The disk drive has its own interfacing microprocessor and ROM (firmware) I/O routines, much like the earlier CBM/PET systems and the Atari 400 and Atari 800. This means that no memory space is dedicated to running a disk operating system, as was the case with earlier systems such as the Apple II and TRS-80. Commodore BASIC 2.0 is used instead of the more advanced BASIC 4.0 from the PET series, since C64 users were not expected to need the disk-oriented enhancements of BASIC 4.0. The company did not expect many to buy a disk drive, and using BASIC 2.0 simplified VIC-20 owners' transition to the 64. "The choice of BASIC 2.0 instead of 4.0 was made with some soul-searching, not just at random. The typical user of a C64 is not expected to need the direct disk commands as much as other extensions, and the amount of memory to be committed to BASIC were to be limited. We chose to leave expansion space for color and sound extensions instead of the disk features. As a result, you will have to handle the disk in the more cumbersome manner of the 'old days'." The version of Microsoft BASIC is not very comprehensive and does not include specific commands for sound or graphics manipulation, instead requiring users to use the "PEEK and POKE" commands to access the graphics and sound chip registers directly. To provide extended commands, including graphics and sound, Commodore produced two different cartridge-based extensions to BASIC 2.0: Simons' BASIC and Super Expander 64. Other languages available for the C64 include Pascal, C, Logo, Forth, and FORTRAN. Compilers for BASIC 2.0 such as Petspeed 2 (from Commodore), Blitz (from Jason Ranheim), and Turbo Lightning (from Ocean Software) were produced. Most commercial C64 software was written in assembly language, either cross-developed on a larger computer, or directly on the C64 using a machine code monitor or an assembler. This maximized speed and minimized memory use. Some games, particularly adventures, used high-level scripting languages and sometimes mixed BASIC and machine language. Alternative operating systems Many third-party operating systems have been developed for the C64. As well as the original GEOS, two third-party GEOS-compatible systems have been written: Wheels and GEOS megapatch. Both of these require hardware upgrades to the original C64. Several other operating systems are or have been available, including WiNGS OS, the Unix-like LUnix, operated from a command-line, and the embedded systems OS Contiki, with full GUI. Other less well-known OSes include ACE, Asterix, DOS/65, and GeckOS. C64 OS is commercially available today and under active development. It features a full GUI in character mode, and many other modern features. A version of CP/M was released, but this requires the addition of an external Z80 processor to the expansion bus. Furthermore, the Z80 processor is underclocked to be compatible with the C64's memory bus, so performance is poor compared to other CP/M implementations. C64 CP/M and C128 CP/M both suffer a lack of software; although most commercial CP/M software can run on these systems, software media is incompatible between platforms. The low usage of CP/M on Commodores means that software houses saw no need to invest in mastering versions for the Commodore disk format. The C64 CP/M cartridge is also not compatible with anything except the early 326298 motherboards. Networking software During the 1980s, the Commodore 64 was used to run bulletin board systems using software packages such as Punter BBS, Bizarre 64, Blue Board, C-Net, Color 64, CMBBS, C-Base, DMBBS, Image BBS, EBBS, and The Deadlock Deluxe BBS Construction Kit, often with sysop-made modifications. These boards sometimes were used to distribute cracked software. As late as December 2013, there were 25 such Bulletin Board Systems in operation, reachable via the Telnet protocol. There were major commercial online services, such as Compunet (UK), CompuServe (US later bought by America Online), The Source (US), and Minitel (France) among many others. These services usually required custom software which was often bundled with a modem and included free online time as they were billed by the minute. Quantum Link (or Q-Link) was a US and Canadian online service for Commodore 64 and 128 personal computers that operated from November 5, 1985, to November 1, 1994. It was operated by Quantum Computer Services of Vienna, Virginia, which in October 1991 changed its name to America Online and continued to operate its AOL service for the IBM PC compatible and Apple Macintosh. Q-Link was a modified version of the PlayNET system, which Control Video Corporation (CVC, later renamed Quantum Computer Services) licensed. Online gaming The first graphical character-based interactive environment is Club Caribe. First released as Habitat in 1988, Club Caribe was introduced by LucasArts for Q-Link customers on their Commodore 64 computers. Users could interact with one another, chat and exchange items. Although the game's open world was very basic, its use of online avatars and the combination of chat and graphics was revolutionary. Online graphics in the late 1980s were severely restricted by the need to support modem data transfer rates as low as 300 bits per second. Habitat's graphics were stored locally on floppy disk, eliminating the need for network transfer. Hardware CPU and memory The C64 uses an 8-bit MOS Technology 6510 microprocessor that is almost identical to the 6502 but has three-state buses, a different pinout, slightly different clock signals and other minor changes for this application. It also has six I/O lines on otherwise-unused legs on the 40-pin IC package. These are used for two purposes in the C64: to bank-switch the machine's read-only memory (ROM) in and out of the processor's address space, and to operate the datasette tape recorder. The C64 has of 8-bit-wide dynamic RAM, of 4-bit-wide static color RAM for text mode, and are available to built-in Commodore BASIC 2.0 on startup. There is of ROM, made up of the BASIC interpreter, the KERNAL, and the character ROM. Because the processor can only address at a time, the ROM was mapped into memory and only of RAM (plus between the ROMs) were available at startup. Most "breadbin" Commodore 64s used 4164 DRAM with eight chips totaling 64K of system RAM. Later models, featuring Assy 250466 and Assy 250469 motherboards, used 41464 DRAM (64K×4) chips which stored per chip (so only two were required). Because 4164 DRAMs are 64K×1, eight chips are needed to make an entire byte; the computer will not function without all of them present. The first chip contains Bit 0 for the memory space, the second chip contains Bit 1, and so forth. The C64 performs a RAM test on power-up and if a RAM error is detected, the amount of free BASIC memory will be lower than the normal 38,911. If the faulty chip is in lower memory, then an <code>?OUT OF MEMORY IN 0</code> error is displayed rather than the usual BASIC startup banner. The C64 uses a complicated memory-banking scheme; the normal power-on default is the BASIC ROM mapped in at -, and the screen editor (KERNAL) ROM at –. RAM under the system ROMs can be written to, but not read back, without swapping out the ROMs. Memory location contains a register with control bits for enabling or disabling the system ROMs and the I/O area at . If the KERNAL ROM is swapped out, BASIC will be removed at the same time. BASIC is not active without the KERNAL; BASIC often calls KERNAL routines, and part of the ROM code for BASIC is in the KERNAL ROM. The character ROM is normally invisible to the CPU. The character ROM may be mapped into –, where it is then visible to the CPU. Because doing so necessitates swapping out the I/O registers, interrupts must first be disabled. By removing I/O from the memory map, – becomes free RAM. C64 cartridges map into assigned ranges in the CPU's address space. The most common cartridge auto-starting requires a string at which contains "" followed by the address where program execution begins. A few C64 cartridges released in 1982 use Ultimax mode (or MAX mode), a leftover feature of the unsuccessful MAX Machine. These cartridges map into and displace the KERNAL ROM. If Ultimax mode is used, the programmer will have to provide code for handling system interrupts. The cartridge port has 16 address lines, which grants access to the computer's entire address space if needed. Disk and tape software normally load at the start of BASIC memory ($0801), and use a small BASIC stub (such as <code>10 SYS(2064)</code>) to jump to the start of the program. Although no Commodore 8-bit machine except the C128 can automatically boot from a floppy disk, some software intentionally overwrites certain BASIC vectors in the process of loading so execution begins automatically (instead of requiring the user to type RUN at the BASIC prompt after loading). About 300 cartridges were released for the C64, primarily during the machine's first years on the market, after which most software outgrew the cartridge limit. Larger software companies, such as Ocean Software, began releasing games on bank-switched cartridges to overcome the cartridge limit during the C64's final years. Commodore did not include a reset button on its computers until the CBM-II line, but third-party cartridges had a reset button. A soft reset can be triggered by jumping to the CPU reset routine at (64738). A few programs use this as an exit feature, although it does not clear memory. The KERNAL ROM underwent three revisions, mainly designed to fix bugs. The initial version is only found on 326298 motherboards (used in the first production models), and cannot detect whether an NTSC or PAL VIC-II is present. The second revision is found on all C64s made from late 1982 through 1985. The final KERNAL ROM revision was introduced on the 250466 motherboard (late breadbin models with 41464 RAM), and is found in all C64Cs. The 6510 CPU is clocked at (NTSC) and (PAL), lower than some competing systems; the Atari 800, for example, is clocked at ). Performance can be boosted slightly by disabling the VIC-II's video output via a register write. This feature is often used by tape and disk fast loaders and the KERNAL cassette routine to keep a standard CPU cycle timing not modified by the VIC-II's sharing of the bus. The restore key is gated directly to the CPU's NMI line, and will generate an NMI if pressed. The KERNAL handler for the NMI checks if run/stop is also pressed; if not, it ignores the NMI and exits. Run/stop-restore is normally a soft reset in BASIC which restores all I/O registers to their power-on default state, but does not clear memory or reset pointers; any BASIC programs in memory will be left untouched. Machine-language software usually disables run/stop-restore by remapping the NMI vector to a dummy RTI instruction. The NMI can also be used for an extra interrupt thread by programs, but risks a system lockup or other undesirable side effects if the restore key is accidentally pressed (which activates the NMI thread). Joysticks, mice, and paddles The C64 retained the VIC-20's DE-9 Atari joystick port and added another; any Atari-specification game controller can be used on a C64. The joysticks are read from the registers at and , and most software is designed to use a joystick in port 2 for control rather than port 1; the upper bits of are used by the keyboard, and an I/O conflict can result. Although it is possible to use Sega gamepads on a C64, it is not recommended; their slightly different signal can damage the CIA chip. The SID chip's register , used to control paddles, is an analog input. A handful of games, primarily released early in the computer's life cycle, can use paddles. In 1986, Commodore released two mice for the C64 and C128: the 1350 and 1351. The 1350 is a digital device read from the joystick registers, and can be used with any program supporting joystick input. The 1351 is an analog potentiometer-based mouse, read with the SID's analog-to-digital converter. Graphics The VIC-II graphics chip features a new palette, eight hardware sprites per scanline (enabling up to 112 sprites per PAL screen), scrolling capabilities, and two bitmap graphics modes. {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|+ Commodore 64 palette ! Color # ! Name ! Hexadecimal RGB value \|- \| style="text-align:right" \| 0 \| style="color: white; background-color: #000000" \| Black \| #000000 \|- \| style="text-align:right" \| 1 \| style="color: black; background-color: #FFFFFF" \| White \| #FFFFFF \|- \| style="text-align:right" \| 2 \| style="color: white; background-color: #9F4E44" \| Red \| #9F4E44 \|- \| style="text-align:right" \| 3 \| style="color: black; background-color: #6ABFC6" \| Cyan \| #6ABFC6 \|- \| style="text-align:right" \| 4 \| style="color: white; background-color: #A057A3" \| Purple \| #A057A3 \|- \| style="text-align:right" \| 5 \| style="color: white; background-color: #5CAB5E" \| Green \| #5CAB5E \|- \| style="text-align:right" \| 6 \| style="color: white; background-color: #50459B" \| Blue \| #50459B \|- \| style="text-align:right" \| 7 \| style="color: black; background-color: #C9D487" \| Yellow \| #C9D487 \|- \| style="text-align:right" \| 8 \| style="color: white; background-color: #A1683C" \| Orange \| #A1683C \|- \| style="text-align:right" \| 9 \| style="color: white; background-color: #6D5412" \| Brown \| #6D5412 \|- \| style="text-align:right" \| 10 \| style="color: black; background-color: #CB7E75" \| Light Red \| #CB7E75 \|- \| style="text-align:right" \| 11 \| style="color: white; background-color: #626262" \| Dark-Gray \| #626262 \|- \| style="text-align:right" \| 12 \| style="color: white; background-color: #898989" \| Mid-Gray \| #898989 \|- \| style="text-align:right" \| 13 \| style="color: black; background-color: #9AE29B" \| Light Green \| #9AE29B \|- \| style="text-align:right" \| 14 \| style="color: black; background-color: #887ECB" \| Light Blue \| #887ECB \|- \| style="text-align:right" \| 15 \| style="color: black; background-color: #ADADAD" \| Light-Gray \| #ADADAD \|} Text modes The standard text mode features 40 columns, like most Commodore PET models; the built-in character encoding is not standard ASCII but PETSCII, an extended form of ASCII-1963. The KERNAL ROM sets the VIC-II to a dark-blue background on power-up, with a light-blue border and text. Unlike the PET and VIC-20, the C64 uses double-width text; some early VIC-IIs had poor video quality which resulted in a fuzzy picture. Most screenshots show borders around the screen, a feature of the VIC-II chip. By utilizing interrupts to reset hardware registers with precise timing, it was possible to place graphics within the borders and use the full screen. The C64 has a resolution of 320×200 pixels, consisting of a 40×25 grid of 8×8 character blocks. It has 255 predefined character blocks, known as PETSCII. The character set can be copied into RAM and modified by a programmer. There are two color modes: high resolution, with two colours available per character block (one foreground and one background), and multicolour (four colors per character blockthree foreground and one background). In multicolor mode, attributes are shared between pixel pairs so the effective visible resolution is 160×200 pixels; only 16 KB of memory is available for the VIC-II video processor. Since the C64 has a bitmapped screen, it is possible (but slow) to draw each pixel individually. Most programmers used techniques developed for earlier, non-bitmapped systems like the Commodore PET and TRS-80. A programmer redraws the character set, and the video processor fills the screen block by block from the top left corner to the bottom right corner. Two types of animation are used: character block animation and hardware sprites. Character block animation The user draws a series of characters of a person walking, possibly two in the middle of the block and another two walking in and out of the block. Then the user sequences them so the character walks into the block and out again. Drawing a series of these gets a person walking across the screen. By timing the redraw to occur when the television screen blanks out to restart drawing the screen, there will be no flicker. For this to happen, a user programs the VIC-II that it generates a raster interrupt when video flyback occurs. This technique is used in the Space Invaders arcade game. Horizontal and vertical pixel scrolling of up to one character block is supported by two hardware scroll registers. Depending on timing, hardware scrolling affects the entire screen or selected lines of character blocks. On a non-emulated C64, scrolling is glass-like and blur-free. Hardware sprites A sprite is a character which moves over an area of the screen, draws over the background, and redraws it after it moves. This differs from character block animation, where the user flips character blocks. On the C64, the VIC-II video controller handles most sprite emulation; the programmer defines the sprite and where it goes. The C64 has two types of sprites, respecting their color-mode limitations. Hi-res sprites have one color (one background and one foreground), and multi-color sprites have three (one background and three foreground). Color modes can be split or windowed on a single screen. Sprites can be doubled in size vertically and horizontally up to four times their size, but the pixel attributes are the same – the pixels become "fatter". There are eight sprites, and all eight can be shown in each horizontal line concurrently. Sprites can move with glassy smoothness in front of, and behind, screen characters and other sprites. The hardware sprites of a C64 can be displayed on a bitmapped (high-resolution) screen or a text-mode screen in conjunction with fast and smooth character block animation. Software-emulated sprites on systems without support for hardware sprites, such as the Apple II and ZX Spectrum, required a bitmapped screen. Sprite-sprite and sprite-background collisions are detected in hardware, and the VIC-II can be programmed to trigger an interrupt accordingly. Sound The SID chip has three channels, each with its own ADSR envelope generator and filter capabilities. Ring modulation makes use of channel three to work with the other two channels. Bob Yannes developed the SID chip and, later, co-founded the synthesizer company Ensoniq. Composers and programmers of game music on the C64 include Rob Hubbard, Jeroen Tel, Tim Follin, David Whittaker, Chris Hülsbeck, Ben Daglish, Martin Galway, Kjell Nordbø and David Dunn. Due to the chip's three channels, chords are often played as arpeggios. It was also possible to continuously update the master volume with sampled data to enable the playback of 4-bit digitized audio. By 2008, it was possible to play four-channel 8-bit audio samples and two SID channels and still use filtering. There are two versions of the SID chip: the 6581 and the 8580. The MOS Technology 6581 was used in the original ("breadbin") C64s, the early versions of the 64C, and the Commodore 128. The 6581 was replaced with the MOS Technology 8580 in 1987. Although the 6581 sound quality is a little crisper, it lacks the 8580's versatility; the 8580 can mix all available waveforms on each channel, but the 6581 can only mix waveforms in a channel in a limited fashion. The main difference between the 6581 and the 8580 is the supply voltage; the 6581 requires , and the 8580 . A modification can be made to use the 6581 in a newer 64C board (which uses the chip). In 1986, the Sound Expander was released for the Commodore 64. It was a sound module with a Yamaha YM3526 chip capable of FM synthesis, primarily intended for professional music production. Revisions Commodore made many changes to the C64's hardware, sometimes introducing compatibility issues. The computer's rapid development and Commodore and Jack Tramiel's focus on cost-cutting instead of product testing resulted in several defects which caused developers like Epyx to complain and required many revisions; Charpentier said that "not coming a little close to quality" was one of the company's mistakes. Cost reduction was the reason for most of the revisions. Reducing manufacturing costs was vitally important to Commodore's survival during the price war and lean years of the 16-bit era. The C64's original (NMOS-based) motherboard went through two major redesigns and a number of revisions, exchanging positions of the VIC-II, SID and PLA chips. Much of the cost was initially eliminated by reducing the number of discrete components, such as diodes and resistors, which enabled a smaller printed circuit board. There were 16 C64 motherboard revisions to simplify production and reduce manufacturing costs. Some board revisions were exclusive to PAL regions. All C64 motherboards were manufactured in Hong Kong. IC locations changed frequently with each motherboard revision, as did the presence (or lack) of the metal RF shield around the VIC-II; PAL boards often had aluminized cardboard instead of a metal shield. The SID and VIC-II are socketed on all boards, but the other ICs may be socketed or soldered. The first production C64s, made from 1982 to early 1983, are known as "silver label" models due to the case having a silver-colored "Commodore" logo. The power LED had a silver badge reading "64" around it. These machines have only a five-pin video cable, and cannot produce S-Video. Commodore introduced the familiar "rainbow badge" case in late 1982, but many machines produced into early 1983 also used silver-label cases until the existing stock was used up. The original 326298 board was replaced in spring 1983 by the 250407 motherboard, which had an eight-pin video connector and added S-Video support. This case design was used until the C64C appeared in 1986. All ICs switched to plastic shells, but the silver-label C64s (notably the VIC-II) had some ceramic ICs. The case is made from ABS plastic, which may become brown with time; this can be reversed with retrobright. ICs 1982)]] The VIC-II was manufactured with 5-micrometer NMOS technology, and was clocked at (PAL) or (NTSC). Internally, the clock was divided to generate the dot clock (about 8 MHz) and the two-phase system clocks (about 1 MHz; the pixel and system clock speeds differ slightly on NTSC and PAL machines). At such high clock rates the chip generated considerable heat, forcing MOS Technology to use a ceramic dual in-line package known as a CERDIP. The ceramic package was more expensive, but dissipated heat more effectively than plastic. After a redesign in 1983, the VIC-II was encased in a plastic dual in-line package; this reduced costs substantially, but did not eliminate the heat problem. Without a ceramic package, the VIC-II required a heat sink. To avoid extra cost, the metal RF shielding doubled as the VIC's heat sink; not all units shipped with this type of shielding, however. Most C64s in Europe shipped with a cardboard RF shield coated with a layer of metal foil. The effectiveness of the cardboard was questionable; it acted instead as an insulator, blocking airflow and trapping heat generated by the SID, VIC, and PLA chips. The SID was originally manufactured using NMOS at 7 micrometers and, in some areas, 6 micrometers. The prototype SID and some early production models had a ceramic dual in-line package, but (unlike the VIC-II) are very rare; the SID was encased in plastic when production began in early 1982. Motherboard In 1986, Commodore released the last revision of the classic C64 motherboard. It was otherwise identical to the 1984 design, except for two 64-kilobit × 4-bit DRAM chips which replaced the original eight 64-kilobit × 1-bit ICs. After the release of the Commodore 64C, MOS Technology began to reconfigure the original C64's chipset to use HMOS technology. The main benefit of HMOS was that it required less voltage to drive the IC, generating less heat. This enhanced the reliability of the SID and VIC-II. The new chipset was renumbered 85xx to reflect the change to HMOS. In 1987, Commodore released a 64C variant with a redesigned motherboard known as a "short board". The new board used the HMOS chipset, with a new 64-pin PLA chip. The "SuperPLA", as it was called, integrated discrete components and transistor–transistor logic (TTL) chips. In the last revision of the 64C motherboard, the 2114 4-bit-wide color RAM was integrated into the SuperPLA. Power supply The C64 used an external power supply, a linear transformer with multiple taps differing from switch mode (presently used on PC power supplies). It was encased in epoxy resin gel, which discouraged tampering but increased the heat level during use. The design saved space in the computer's case, and allowed international versions to be more easily manufactured. The 1541-II and 1581 disk drives and third-party clones also have external power-supply "bricks", like most peripherals. Commodore power supplies often failed sooner than expected. The computer reportedly had a 30-percent return rate in late 1983, compared to the 5–7 percent rate considered acceptable by the industry; Creative Computing reported four working C64s, out of seven. Malfunctioning power bricks were notorious for damaging the RAM chips. Due to their higher density and single supply (+5V), they had less tolerance for over-voltage. The usually-failing voltage regulator could be replaced by piggybacking a new regulator on the board and fitting a heat sink on top. The original PSU on early-1982 and 1983 machines had a 5-pin connector which could accidentally be plugged into the computer's video output. Commodore later changed the design, omitting the resin gel to reduce costs. The following model, the Commodore 128, used a larger, improved power supply which included a fuse. The power supply for the Commodore REU was similar to that of the Commodore 128, providing an upgrade for customers purchasing the accessory. Specifications Internal hardware * Microprocessor CPU: MOS Technology 6510/8500 (the 6510/8500 is a modified 6502 with an integrated 6-bit I/O port) Clock speed: or * Video: MOS Technology VIC-II 6567/8562 (NTSC), 6569/8565 (PAL) 16 colors<!--to be listed--> Text mode: 40×25 characters; 256 user-defined chars (8×8 pixels, or 4×8 in multicolor mode); or extended background color; 64 user-defined chars with 4 background colors, 4-bit color RAM defines foreground color Bitmap modes: 320×200 (2 unique colors in each 8×8 pixel block), 160×200 (3 unique colors + 1 common color in each 4×8 block) 16 bit interval timers * RAM: 64 KB, of which 38 KB were available for BASIC programs 1024 nybbles color RAM (memory allocated for screen color data storage) ** Expandable to 320 KB with Commodore 1764 256 KB RAM Expansion Unit (REU); although only 64 KB directly accessible; REU used mostly for the GEOS. REUs of 128 KB and 512 KB, originally designed for the C128, were also available, but required the user to buy a stronger power supply from some third party supplier; with the 1764 this was included. Creative Micro Designs also produced a 2 MB REU for the C64 and C128, called the 1750 XL. The technology actually supported up to 16 MB, but 2 MB was the biggest one officially made. Expansions of up to 16 MB were also possible via the CMD SuperCPU. * ROM: ** ( Commodore BASIC 2.0; KERNAL<!-- the BASIC continues into the upper ROM chip-->; character generator, providing two character sets) Input/output (I/O) ports and power supply * I/O ports: ROM cartridge expansion slot (44-pin slot for edge connector with 6510 CPU address/data bus lines and control signals, as well as GND and voltage pins; used for program modules and memory expansions, among others) Integrated RF modulator television antenna output via an RCA connector. The used channel could be adjusted from number 36 with the potentiometer to the left. 8-pin DIN connector containing composite video output, separate Y/C outputs and sound input/output. This is a 262° horseshoe version of the plug, rather than the 270° circular version. Early C64 units (with motherboard Assy 326298) use a 5-pin DIN connector that carries composite video and luminance signals, but lacks a chroma signal. Serial bus (proprietary serial version of IEEE-488, 6-pin DIN plug) for CBM printers and disk drives PET-type Commodore Datasette 300 baud tape interface (edge connector with digital cassette motor/read/write/key-sense signals), Ground and +5V DC lines. The cassette motor is controlled by a +5V DC signal from the 6510 CPU. The 9V AC input is transformed into unregulated 6.36V DC which is used to actually power the cassette motor. User port (edge connector with TTL-level signals, for modems and so on; byte-parallel signals which can be used to drive third-party parallel printers, among other things, 17 logic signals, 7 Ground and voltage pins, including 9V AC) ** 2 × screwless DE9M game controller ports (compatible with Atari 2600 controllers), each supporting five digital inputs and two analog inputs. Available peripherals included digital joysticks, analog paddles, a light pen, the Commodore 1351 mouse, and graphics tablets such as the KoalaPad. * Power supply: ** 5V DC and 9V AC from an external "power brick", attached to a 7-pin female DIN-connector on the computer. The is used to supply power via a charge pump to the SID sound generator chip, provide via a rectifier to the cassette motor, a "0" pulse for every positive half wave to the time-of-day (TOD) input on the CIA chips, and directly to the user-port. Thus, as a minimum, a square wave is required. But a sine wave is preferred. Memory map {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Address \|\| Size<br />[KB] !colspan=4\| Description \|- \|align="right"\| 0x0000 <!--0x7FFF--> \|align="right"\| 32 \|colspan3\| RAM \|\| \|- \|align="right"\| 0x8000 <!--0x9FFF--> \|align="right"\| 8 \|colspan=2\| RAM \|\| Cartridge ROM \|\| \|- \|align="right"\| 0xA000 <!--0xBFFF--> \|align="right"\| 8 \|colspan=2\| RAM \|\| BASIC ROM \|\| \|- \|align="right"\| 0xC000<!--0x1FFF--> \|align="right"\| 4 \|colspan=3\| RAM \|\| \|- \|align="right"\| 0xD000 <!--0xDFFF--> \|align="right"\| 4 \| RAM \|\| I/O/Color RAM \|\| Character ROM \|\| \|- \|align="right"\| 0xE000 <!--0xBFFF--> \|align="right"\| 8 \|colspan=2\| RAM \|\| KERNAL ROM \|\| \|} Note that even if an I/O chip like the VIC-II only uses 64 positions in the memory address space, it will occupy 1,024 addresses because some address bits are left undecoded. Peripherals <gallery modepacked heights170px> Commodore-64-1541-Floppy-Drive-01.jpg\|Commodore 1541 floppy drive Commodore 1541 white.jpg\|Commodore 1541C floppy drive C64-IMG 5372.jpg\|Commodore 1541-II floppy drive Commodore-Datasette-C2N-Mk1-Front.jpg\|Commodore 1530 Datasette Commodore Matrixdrucker MPS-802 (weißen hintergrund).jpg\|Commodore MPS-802 dot matrix printer CommodoreVICModem.jpg\|Commodore VIC-Modem Commodore blockomaus.jpg\|Commodore 1351 mouse Commodore 1702 (made by JVC) front.jpg\|Commodore 1702 video monitor Commodore 1581 Disk Drive Front.jpg\|Commodore 1581 3.5" double-sided floppy drive </gallery> Manufacturing cost Vertical integration was the key to keeping Commodore 64 production costs low. At the introduction in 1982, the production cost was US$135 and the retail price US$595. In 1985, the retail price went down to US$149 (US$ today) and the production costs were believed to be somewhere between US$35–50 (– today).}} }} Commodore would not confirm this cost figure. Dougherty of the Berkeley Softworks estimated the costs of the Commodore 64 parts based on his experience at Mattel and Imagic. {\| class="wikitable" \|+Cost \|- ! Count \|\| Price in 1985 US$ \|\| Part \|- \| 3 \|\| 1 \|\| ROMs \|- \| 8 \|\| 1.85 \|\| Dynamic RAMs \|- \| \|\| 4 \|\| SID (sound) chip \|- \| \|\| 4 \|\| VIC-II (graphics) chip \|- \| \|\| 3 \|\| RF modulator package \|- \| \|\| 1–2 \|\| 6510 8-bit microprocessor \|- \| \|\| 5 \|\| A handful of TTL, buffers, power regulators and capacitors \|- \| \|\| 10 max \|\| Keyboard \|- \| \|\| 1–2 \|\| Printed circuit board \|- \| \|\| 1–2 \|\| Plastic case \|- \| \|\| 5–10 \|\| Power supply and miscellaneous connectors \|- \| \|\| 1–2 \|\| Packaging and manual \|- \| Total: \|\| 52.8–61.8 \|} To lower costs, TTL chips were replaced with less expensive custom chips and ways to increase the yields on the sound and graphics chips were found. The video chip 6567 had the ceramic package replaced with plastic but heat dissipation demanded a redesign of the chip and the development of a plastic package that can dissipate heat as well as ceramic. Clones Clones are computers which imitate C64 functions. In mid-2004, after an absence from the marketplace of more than 10 years, PC manufacturer Tulip Computers (owners of the Commodore brand since 1997) announced the C64 Direct-to-TV (C64DTV): a joystick-based TV game based on the C64, with 30 games in its ROM. Designed by Jeri Ellsworth, a self-taught computer designer who had designed the C-One C64 implementation, the C64DTV was similar to other mini-consoles based on the modestly-successful Atari 2600 and Intellivision. The C64DTV was advertised on QVC in the United States for the 2004 holiday season. In 2015, a Commodore 64-compatible motherboard was produced by Individual Computers. Called the C64 Reloaded, it is a redesign of Commodore 64 motherboard revision 250466 with several new features. The motherboard is designed to be placed in an existing, empty C64 or C64C case. Produced in limited quantities, models of this Commodore 64 clone have machined or ZIF sockets in which custom C64 chips are placed. The board contains jumpers to accept revisions of the VIC-II and SID chips and the ability to switch between the PAL and NTSC video systems. It has several innovations, including selection (via the restore key) of KERNAL and character ROMs, built-in reset toggle on the power switch, and an S-Video socket to replace the original TV modulator. The motherboard is powered by a DC-to-DC converter which uses from a mains adapter, rather than the original (and failure-prone) Commodore 64 power-supply brick. Compatible hardware C64 enthusiasts were developing new hardware in 2008, including Ethernet cards, specially-adapted hard disks and flash card interfaces (sd2iec). A-SID, which gives the C-64 a wah-wah effect, was introduced in 2022. Brand reuse The C64 brand was reused in 1998 for the Web.it Internet Computer, a low-powered, Internet-oriented, all-in-one x86 PC running MS-DOS and Windows 3.1. It uses an AMD Élan SC400 SoC with 16 MB of RAM, a 3.5-inch floppy disk drive, 56k modem and PC Card. Despite its Commodore 64 nameplate, the C64 Web.it looks different and is only directly compatible with the original via included emulation software. PC clones branded C64x sold by Commodore USA, a company licensing the Commodore trademark, began shipping in June 2011.<!-- No video in this archive, page otherwise is basically useless as a source: --> The C64x's case resembles the original C64 computer, but – like the Web.it – it is based on x86 architecture and is not compatible with the Commodore 64. Virtual Console Several Commodore 64 games were released on the Nintendo Wii's Virtual Console service in Europe and North America. They were delisted from the service in August 2013. THEC64 and THEC64 Mini THEC64 Mini, an unofficial Linux-based console emulating the Commodore 64, was released in 2018. It was designed and released by British company Retro Games, who licensed the name from Dutch based Commodore Corporation B.V. who own the Commodore marque. The console is a decorative, half-scale Commodore 64 with two USB and one HDMI port, and a mini USB connection to power the system. The console's keyboard is non-functional; the system is controlled by an included THEC64 joystick or a separate USB keyboard. New software ROMs can be loaded into the console, which uses emulator x64 (as part of VICE) to run software and has a built-in graphical operating system. The full-size THEC64 was released in 2019 in Europe and Australia, and was scheduled for release in November 2020 in North America. The console and built-in keyboard are built to scale with the original Commodore 64, including a functional keyboard. Enhancements include VIC-20 emulation, four USB ports, and an upgraded joystick. Neither product has a Commodore trademark. The Commodore key on the original keyboard is replaced with a THEC64 key; Retro Games can call neither product a C64, although the system ROMs are licensed from Cloanto Corporation. The consoles can be switched between carousel mode (to access the built-in game library) and classic mode, in which they operate similarly to a traditional Commodore 64. USB storage can be used to hold disk, cartridge and tape images for use with the machine. Emulators Commodore 64 emulators include the open source VICE, Hoxs64, and CCS64. An iPhone app was also released with a compilation of C64 ports. See also * List of Commodore 64 games * History of personal computers * IDE64 – P-ATA interface cartridge for the C64 * Keyboard computer * SuperCPU – CPU upgrade for C64 and C128 Footnotes References Sources * * Bagnall, Brian (2005). On the Edge: the Spectacular Rise and Fall of Commodore. Variant Press. . See especially pp. 224–260. * Tomczyk, Michael (1984). ''The Home Computer Wars: An Insider's Account of Commodore and Jack Tramiel''. COMPUTE! Publications, Inc. . * Jeffries, Ron. "[http://www.atarimagazines.com/creative/v9n1/21_A_best_buy_for_83_Commo.php A best buy for '83: Commodore 64]". Creative Computing, January 1983. * Amiga Format News Special. "Commodore at CeBIT '94". Amiga Format, Issue 59, May 1994. * Computer Chronicles; "[https://archive.org/details/CC517_commodore_64 Commodore 64 – Interview with Commodore president Max Toy]", 1988. * The C-64 Scene Database; "[http://noname.c64.org/csdb/scener/?id=1591 – Kjell Nordbø artist page (bio/release history) at CSDb]". * ** External links <!-- \| PLEASE BE CAUTIOUS IN ADDING MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. Wikipedia \| \| is not a collection of links nor should it be used for advertising. \| \| \| \| Excessive or inappropriate links WILL BE DELETED. \| \| See Wikipedia:External links & Wikipedia:Spam for details. \| \| \| \| If there are already plentiful links, please propose additions or \| \| replacements on this article's discussion page, or submit your link \| \| to the relevant category at the "long dead (2017)" Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) \| \| and link back to that category using the template. \| --> * [http://www.commodore.ca/products/c64/commodore_64.htm Commodore 64 history, manuals, and photos] * [https://www.c64-wiki.com/wiki/Main_Page C64-Wiki (wiki-based encyclopaedia)] * [https://www.c64.com/ C64.com (C64 game database)] * [https://www.lemon64.com/ Lemon64 (C64 fanbase)] * [https://Csdb.dk Csdb.dk (Commodore Scene/Software Database)] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100504034815/http://www.commodoremagazine.com/2010/04/64-variations.html Extensive collection of information on C64 programming] * [http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/1991/a_history_of_gaming_platforms_the_.php/ A History of Gaming Platforms: The Commodore 64] from October 2007 * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100504034815/http://www.commodoremagazine.com/2010/04/64-variations.html A Commodore 64 Web Server Using Contiki v2.3]* * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120513181613/http://spectrum.ieee.org/ns/pdfs/commodore64_mar1985.pdf Design case history: the Commodore 64], IEEE Spectrum, March 1985 * [https://www.pagetable.com/?p=547 Comparing different unit sales analyses] Category:6502-based home computers Category:American inventions Category:Products introduced in 1982	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_64	2025-04-05T18:28:06.867886
7294	Cartography	Shrines (Purity Ring album)}} (1482, Johannes Schnitzer, engraver), constructed after the coordinates in Ptolemy's Geography and using his second map projection. The translation into Latin and dissemination of Geography in Europe, in the beginning of the 15th century, marked the rebirth of scientific cartography, after more than a millennium of stagnation.]] Cartography (; from , 'papyrus, sheet of paper, map'; and , 'write') is the study and practice of making and using maps. Combining science, aesthetics and technique, cartography builds on the premise that reality (or an imagined reality) can be modeled in ways that communicate spatial information effectively. The fundamental objectives of traditional cartography are to: * Set the map's agenda and select traits of the object to be mapped. This is the concern of map editing. Traits may be physical, such as roads or land masses, or may be abstract, such as toponyms or political boundaries. * Represent the terrain of the mapped object on flat media. This is the concern of map projections. * Eliminate the mapped object's characteristics that are irrelevant to the map's purpose. This is the concern of generalization. * Reduce the complexity of the characteristics that will be mapped. This is also the concern of generalization. * Orchestrate the elements of the map to best convey its message to its audience. This is the concern of map design. Modern cartography constitutes many theoretical and practical foundations of geographic information systems (GIS) and geographic information science (GISc). History Ancient times (I), Paspardo r. 29, topographic composition, 4th millennium BCE]] What is the earliest known map is a matter of some debate, both because the term "map" is not well-defined and because some artifacts that might be maps might actually be something else. A wall painting that might depict the ancient Anatolian city of Çatalhöyük (previously known as Catal Huyuk or Çatal Hüyük) has been dated to the late 7th millennium BCE. Among the prehistoric alpine rock carvings of Mount Bego (France) and Valcamonica (Italy), dated to the 4th millennium BCE, geometric patterns consisting of dotted rectangles and lines are widely interpreted in archaeological literature as depicting cultivated plots. Other known maps of the ancient world include the Minoan "House of the Admiral" wall painting from , showing a seaside community in an oblique perspective, and an engraved map of the holy Babylonian city of Nippur, from the Kassite period (14th12th centuries BCE). The oldest surviving world maps are from 9th century BCE Babylonia. One shows Babylon on the Euphrates, surrounded by Assyria, Urartu and several cities, all, in turn, surrounded by a "bitter river" (Oceanus). Another depicts Babylon as being north of the center of the world. In the 2nd century CE, Ptolemy wrote his treatise on cartography, Geographia. This contained Ptolemy's world map – the world then known to Western society (Ecumene). As early as the 8th century, Arab scholars were translating the works of the Greek geographers into Arabic. Roads were essential in the Roman world, motivating the creation of maps, called itinerarium, that portrayed the world as experienced via the roads. The is the only surviving example. map of the British Isles from a manuscript of Ptolemy's Geography, using Greek numerals for its graticule: 52–63°N of the equator and 6–33°E from Ptolemy's Prime Meridian at the Fortunate Isles.]] In ancient China, geographical literature dates to the 5th century BCE. The oldest extant Chinese maps come from the State of Qin, dated back to the 4th century BCE, during the Warring States period. In the book Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao, published in 1092 by the Chinese scientist Su Song, a star map on the equidistant cylindrical projection. Although this method of charting seems to have existed in China even before this publication and scientist, the greatest significance of the star maps by Su Song is that they represent the oldest existent star maps in printed form. Early forms of cartography of India included depictions of the pole star and surrounding constellations.Middle Ages and Renaissance TO map of the world.]] ('maps of the world') are the medieval European maps of the world. About 1,100 of these are known to have survived: of these, some 900 are found illustrating manuscripts, and the remainder exist as stand-alone documents. , drawn by Muhammad al-Idrisi for Roger II of Sicily in 1154. South is at the top.]] The Arab geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi produced his medieval atlas Tabula Rogeriana (Book of Roger) in 1154. By combining the knowledge of Africa, the Indian Ocean, Europe, and the Far East (which he learned through contemporary accounts from Arab merchants and explorers) with the information he inherited from the classical geographers, he was able to write detailed descriptions of a multitude of countries. Along with the substantial text he had written, he created a world map influenced mostly by the Ptolemaic conception of the world, but with significant influence from multiple Arab geographers. It remained the most accurate world map for the next three centuries. The map was divided into seven climatic zones, with detailed descriptions of each zone. As part of this work, a smaller, circular map depicting the south on top and Arabia in the center was made. Al-Idrisi also made an estimate of the circumference of the world, accurate to within 10%. in Sebastian Münster's "Cosmographia", 1570]] In the Age of Discovery, from the 15th century to the 17th century, European cartographers both copied earlier maps (some of which had been passed down for centuries) and drew their own based on explorers' observations and new surveying techniques. The invention of the magnetic compass, telescope and sextant enabled increasing accuracy. In 1492, Martin Behaim, a German cartographer and advisor to the king John II of Portugal, made the oldest extant globe of the Earth. In 1507, Martin Waldseemüller produced a globular world map and a large 12-panel world wall map (Universalis Cosmographia) bearing the first use of the name "America." Portuguese cartographer Diogo Ribero was the author of the first known planisphere with a graduated Equator (1527). Italian cartographer Battista Agnese produced at least 71 manuscript atlases of sea charts. Johannes Werner refined and promoted the Werner projection. This was an equal-area, heart-shaped world map projection (generally called a cordiform projection) that was used in the 16th and 17th centuries. Over time, other iterations of this map type arose; most notable are the sinusoidal projection and the Bonne projection. The Werner projection places its standard parallel at the North Pole; a sinusoidal projection places its standard parallel at the equator; and the Bonne projection is intermediate between the two. In 1569, mapmaker Gerardus Mercator first published a map based on his Mercator projection, which uses equally-spaced parallel vertical lines of longitude and parallel latitude lines spaced farther apart as they get farther away from the equator. By this construction, courses of constant bearing are conveniently represented as straight lines for navigation. The same property limits its value as a general-purpose world map because regions are shown as increasingly larger than they actually are the further from the equator they are. Mercator is also credited as the first to use the word "atlas" to describe a collection of maps. In the later years of his life, Mercator resolved to create his Atlas, a book filled with many maps of different regions of the world, as well as a chronological history of the world from the Earth's creation by God until 1568. He was unable to complete it to his satisfaction before he died. Still, some additions were made to the Atlas after his death, and new editions were published after his death. In 1570, the Brabantian cartographer Abraham Ortelius, strongly encouraged by Gillis Hooftman, created the first true modern atlas, Theatrum Orbis Terrarum. In a rare move, Ortelius credited mapmakers who contributed to the atlas, the list of which grew to 183 individuals by 1603. In the Renaissance, maps were used to impress viewers and establish the owner's reputation as sophisticated, educated, and worldly. Because of this, towards the end of the Renaissance, maps were displayed with equal importance of painting, sculptures, and other pieces of art. In the sixteenth century, maps were becoming increasingly available to consumers through the introduction of printmaking, with about 10% of Venetian homes having some sort of map by the late 1500s. There were three main functions of maps in the Renaissance: * General descriptions of the world * Navigation and wayfinding * Land surveying and property management In medieval times, written directions of how to get somewhere were more common than the use of maps. With the Renaissance, cartography began to be seen as a metaphor for power. Map publishing in Venice was completed with humanities and book publishing in mind, rather than just informational use. Printing technology There were two main printmaking technologies in the Renaissance: woodcut and copper-plate intaglio, referring to the medium used to transfer the image onto paper. In woodcut, the map image is created as a relief chiseled from medium-grain hardwood. The areas intended to be printed are inked and pressed against the sheet. Being raised from the rest of the block, the map lines cause indentations in the paper that can often be felt on the back of the map. There are advantages to using relief to make maps. For one, a printmaker doesn't need a press because the maps could be developed as rubbings. Woodblock is durable enough to be used many times before defects appear. Existing printing presses can be used to create the prints rather than having to create a new one. On the other hand, it is hard to achieve fine detail with the relief technique. Inconsistencies in linework are more apparent in woodcut than in intaglio. To improve quality in the late fifteenth century, a style of relief craftsmanship developed using fine chisels to carve the wood, rather than the more commonly used knife. In intaglio, lines are engraved into workable metals, typically copper but sometimes brass. The engraver spreads a thin sheet of wax over the metal plate and uses ink to draw the details. Then, the engraver traces the lines with a stylus to etch them into the plate beneath. The engraver can also use styli to prick holes along the drawn lines, trace along them with colored chalk, and then engrave the map. Lines going in the same direction are carved at the same time, and then the plate is turned to carve lines going in a different direction. To print from the finished plate, ink is spread over the metal surface and scraped off such that it remains only in the etched channels. Then the plate is pressed forcibly against the paper so that the ink in the channels is transferred to the paper. The pressing is so forceful that it leaves a "plate mark" around the border of the map at the edge of the plate, within which the paper is depressed compared to the margins. Copper and other metals were expensive at the time, so the plate was often reused for new maps or melted down for other purposes. In the early seventeenth century, the Selden map was created by a Chinese cartographer. Historians have put its date of creation around 1620, but there is debate in this regard. This map's significance draws from historical misconceptions of East Asian cartography, the main one being that East Asians did not do cartography until Europeans arrived. The map's depiction of trading routes, a compass rose, and scale bar points to the culmination of many map-making techniques incorporated into Chinese mercantile cartography. In 1689, representatives of the Russian tsar and Qing Dynasty met near the border town of Nerchinsk, which was near the disputed border of the two powers, in eastern Siberia. The two parties, with the Qing negotiation party bringing Jesuits as intermediaries, managed to work a treaty which placed the Amur River as the border between the Eurasian powers, and opened up trading relations between the two. This treaty's significance draws from the interaction between the two sides, and the intermediaries who were drawn from a wide variety of nationalities.Age of Enlightenment , 1630]] Maps of the Enlightenment period practically universally used copper plate intaglio, having abandoned the fragile, coarse woodcut technology. Use of map projections evolved, with the double hemisphere being very common and Mercator's prestigious navigational projection gradually making more appearances. Due to the paucity of information and the immense difficulty of surveying during the period, mapmakers frequently plagiarized material without giving credit to the original cartographer. For example, a famous map of North America known as the "Beaver Map" was published in 1715 by Herman Moll. This map is a close reproduction of a 1698 work by Nicolas de Fer. De Fer, in turn, had copied images that were first printed in books by Louis Hennepin, published in 1697, and François Du Creux, in 1664. By the late 18th century, mapmakers often credited the original publisher with something along the lines of, "After [the original cartographer]" in the map's title or cartouche. Modern period (). It belongs to the so-called plane chart model, where observed latitudes and magnetic directions are plotted directly into the plane, with a constant scale, as if the Earth were a plane (Portuguese National Archives of Torre do Tombo, Lisbon).]] and laser rangefinder directly in the field. Image shows mapping of forest structure (position of trees, dead wood and canopy).]] In cartography, technology has continually changed in order to meet the demands of new generations of mapmakers and map users. The first maps were produced manually, with brushes and parchment; so they varied in quality and were limited in distribution. The advent of magnetic devices, such as the compass and much later, magnetic storage devices, allowed for the creation of far more accurate maps and the ability to store and manipulate them digitally. Advances in mechanical devices such as the printing press, quadrant, and vernier allowed the mass production of maps and the creation of accurate reproductions from more accurate data. Hartmann Schedel was one of the first cartographers to use the printing press to make maps more widely available. Optical technology, such as the telescope, sextant, and other devices that use telescopes, allowed accurate land surveys and allowed mapmakers and navigators to find their latitude by measuring angles to the North Star at night or the Sun at noon. Advances in photochemical technology, such as the lithographic and photochemical processes, make possible maps with fine details, which do not distort in shape and which resist moisture and wear. This also eliminated the need for engraving, which further speeded up map production. In the 20th century, aerial photography, satellite imagery, and remote sensing provided efficient, precise methods for mapping physical features, such as coastlines, roads, buildings, watersheds, and topography. The United States Geological Survey has devised multiple new map projections, notably the Space Oblique Mercator for interpreting satellite ground tracks for mapping the surface. The use of satellites and space telescopes now allows researchers to map other planets and moons in outer space. Advances in electronic technology ushered in another revolution in cartography: ready availability of computers and peripherals such as monitors, plotters, printers, scanners (remote and document) and analytic stereo plotters, along with computer programs for visualization, image processing, spatial analysis, and database management, have democratized and greatly expanded the making of maps. The ability to superimpose spatially located variables onto existing maps has created new uses for maps and new industries to explore and exploit these potentials. See also digital raster graphic. In the early years of the new millennium, three key technological advances transformed cartography: the removal of Selective Availability in the Global Positioning System (GPS) in May 2000, which improved locational accuracy for consumer-grade GPS receivers to within a few metres; the invention of OpenStreetMap in 2004, a global digital counter-map that allowed anyone to contribute and use new spatial data without complex licensing agreements; and the launch of Google Earth in 2005 as a development of the virtual globe EarthViewer 3D (2004), which revolutionised accessibility of accurate world maps, as well as access to satellite and aerial imagery. These advances brought more accuracy to geographical and location-based data and widened the range of applications for cartography, for example in the development of satnav devices. Today most commercial-quality maps are made using software of three main types: CAD, GIS and specialized illustration software. Spatial information can be stored in a database, from which it can be extracted on demand. These tools lead to increasingly dynamic, interactive maps that can be manipulated digitally. On the other hand, we can observe a reverse trend. In contemporary times, there is a resurgence of interest in the most beautiful periods of cartography, with various maps being created using, for example, Renaissance-style aesthetics. We encounter imitators or continuators of Renaissance traditions that merge the realms of science and art. Among them are figures such as Luther Phillips (1891–1960) and Ruth Rhoads Lepper Gardner (1905–2011), who still operated using traditional cartographic methods, as well as creators utilizing modern developments based on GIS solutions and those employing techniques that combine advanced GIS/CAD methods with traditional artistic forms. Field-rugged computers, GPS, and laser rangefinders make it possible to create maps directly from measurements made on site. Deconstruction There are technical and cultural aspects to producing maps. In this sense, maps can sometimes be said to be biased. The study of bias, influence, and agenda in making a map is what comprise a map's deconstruction. A central tenet of deconstructionism is that maps have power. Other assertions are that maps are inherently biased and that we search for metaphor and rhetoric in maps. An example of this understanding is that "[<nowiki />European reproduction of terrain on maps] reality can be expressed in mathematical terms; that systematic observation and measurement offer the only route to cartographic truth…". According to deconstructionist models, cartography was used for strategic purposes associated with imperialism and as instruments and representations of power during the conquest of Africa. The depiction of Africa and the low latitudes in general on the Mercator projection has been interpreted as imperialistic and as symbolic of subjugation due to the diminished proportions of those regions compared to higher latitudes where the European powers were concentrated. Maps furthered imperialism and colonization of Africa in practical ways by showing basic information like roads, terrain, natural resources, settlements, and communities. Through this, maps made European commerce in Africa possible by showing potential commercial routes and made natural resource extraction possible by depicting locations of resources. Such maps also enabled military conquests and made them more efficient, and imperial nations further used them to put their conquests on display. These same maps were then used to cement territorial claims, such as at the Berlin Conference of 1884–1885.Topographic vs. topologicalA topographic map is primarily concerned with the topographic description of a place, including (especially in the 20th and 21st centuries) the use of contour lines showing elevation. Terrain or relief can be shown in a variety of ways (see Cartographic relief depiction). In the present era, one of the most widespread and advanced methods used to form topographic maps is to use computer software to generate digital elevation models which show shaded relief. Before such software existed, cartographers had to draw shaded relief by hand. One cartographer who is respected as a master of hand-drawn shaded relief is the Swiss professor Eduard Imhof whose efforts in hill shading were so influential that his method became used around the world despite it being so labor-intensive. A topological map is a very general type of map, the kind one might sketch on a napkin. It often disregards scale and detail in the interest of clarity of communicating specific route or relational information. Beck's London Underground map is an iconic example. Although the most widely used map of "The Tube," it preserves little of reality: it varies scale constantly and abruptly, it straightens curved tracks, and it contorts directions. The only topography on it is the River Thames, letting the reader know whether a station is north or south of the river. That and the topology of station order and interchanges between train lines are all that is left of the geographic space. Yet those are all a typical passenger wishes to know, so the map fulfills its purpose.Map design Modern technology, including advances in printing, the advent of geographic information systems and graphics software, and the Internet, has vastly simplified the process of map creation and increased the palette of design options available to cartographers. This has led to a decreased focus on production skill, and an increased focus on quality design, the attempt to craft maps that are both aesthetically pleasing and practically useful for their intended purposes. Map purpose and audience A map has a purpose and an audience. Its purpose may be as broad as teaching the major physical and political features of the entire world, or as narrow as convincing a neighbor to move a fence. The audience may be as broad as the general public or as narrow as a single person. Mapmakers use design principles to guide them in constructing a map that is effective for its purpose and audience. Cartographic process The cartographic process spans many stages, starting from conceiving the need for a map and extending all the way through its consumption by an audience. Conception begins with a real or imagined environment. As the cartographer gathers information about the subject, they consider how that information is structured and how that structure should inform the map's design. Next, the cartographers experiment with generalization, symbolization, typography, and other map elements to find ways to portray the information so that the map reader can interpret the map as intended. Guided by these experiments, the cartographer settles on a design and creates the map, whether in physical or electronic form. Once finished, the map is delivered to its audience. The map reader interprets the symbols and patterns on the map to draw conclusions and perhaps to take action. By the spatial perspectives they provide, maps help shape how we view the world.Aspects of map design Designing a map involves bringing together a number of elements and making a large number of decisions. The elements of design fall into several broad topics, each of which has its own theory, its own research agenda, and its own best practices. That said, there are synergistic effects between these elements, meaning that the overall design process is not just working on each element one at a time, but an iterative feedback process of adjusting each to achieve the desired gestalt. * ]]Map projections: The foundation of the map is the plane on which it rests (whether paper or screen), but projections are required to flatten the surface of the Earth or other celestial bodies. While all projections distort the surface, cartographers strategically control how and where distortion occurs For example, the popular Mercator projection does not distort angles on the surface, but it makes regions near the poles appear larger than they are. * Layout: The map image must be placed on the page (whether paper, web, or other media), along with related elements, such as the title, legend, additional maps, text, images, and so on. Each of these elements have their own design considerations, as does their integration, which largely follows the principles of graphic design. * Map type-specific design: Different kinds of maps, especially thematic maps, have their own design needs and best practices. Deliberate cartographic errors Some maps contain deliberate errors or distortions, either as propaganda or as a "watermark" to help the copyright owner identify infringement if the error appears in competitors' maps. The latter often come in the form of nonexistent, misnamed, or misspelled "trap streets". Other names and forms for this are paper towns, fictitious entries, and copyright easter eggs. Another motive for deliberate errors is cartographic "vandalism": a mapmaker wishing to leave their mark on the work. Mount Richard, for example, was a fictitious peak on the Rocky Mountains' continental divide that appeared on a Boulder County, Colorado map in the early 1970s. It is believed to be the work of draftsman Richard Ciacci. The fiction was not discovered until two years later. Sandy Island in New Caledonia is an example of a fictitious location that stubbornly survives, reappearing on new maps copied from older maps while being deleted from other new editions. With the emergence of the internet and Web mapping, technologies allow for the creation and distribution of maps by people without proper cartographic training are readily available. This has led to maps that ignore cartographic conventions and are potentially misleading.Professional and learned societies Professional and learned societies include: * International Cartographic Association (ICA), the world body for mapping and GIScience professionals, as well as the ICA member organizations * British Cartographic Society (BCS) a registered charity in the UK dedicated to exploring and developing the world of maps * Society of Cartographers supports in the UK the practising cartographer and encourages and maintains a high standard of cartographic illustration * Cartography and Geographic Information Society (CaGIS), promotes in the U.S. research, education, and practice to improve the understanding, creation, analysis, and use of maps and geographic information. The society serves as a forum for the exchange of original concepts, techniques, approaches, and experiences by those who design, implement, and use cartography, geographical information systems, and related geospatial technologies. * North American Cartographic Information Society (NACIS), A North American-based cartography society that is aimed at improving communication, coordination and cooperation among the producers, disseminators, curators, and users of cartographic information. Their members are located worldwide and the meetings are on an annual basis * Canadian Cartographic Association (CCA) Academic journals Journals related to cartography, as well as GIS, GISc, include: International Journal of Cartography The Cartographic Journal Cartographica Cartography and Geographic Information Science Cartographic Perspectives KN - Journal of Cartography and Geographic Information Journal of Maps Journal of Geovisualization and Spatial Analysis Transactions in GIS Journal of Spatial Science Geocarto International GIScience & Remote Sensing International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation International Journal of Digital Earth Geoinformatica ISPRS International Journal of Geo-information Journal of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Geoinformation Science Geo-spatial Information Science ACM Transactions on Spatial Algorithms and Systems Imago Mundi Revista Cartográfica Terrae Incognitae See also * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * <!-- The article titled explains how to find that quantity if one knows the two latitudes and longitudes. --> References Bibliography * Further reading Mapmaking * * * * * History * * * * * * * * * Meanings * * External links * [http://www.bl.uk/learning/artimages/maphist/mappinghistory.html Mapping History] – a learning resource from the British Library * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070202062403/http://www.antiquemaps.co.uk/contents.html Antique Maps] by Carl Moreland and David Bannister – complete text of the book, with information both on mapmaking and on mapmakers, including short biographies of many cartographers (archived 2 February 2007) * [http://www.newberry.org/collections/conbib.html Concise Bibliography of the History of Cartography] , Newberry Library Category:Geodesy	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography	2025-04-05T18:28:06.897792
7295	Consumption	Consumption may refer to: Eating Resource consumption Tuberculosis, an infectious disease, historically known as consumption Consumer (food chain), receipt of energy by consuming other organisms Consumption (economics), the purchasing of newly produced goods for current use also defined as the consuming of products Consumption function, an economic formula Consumption (sociology) of resources, associated with social class, identity, group membership, and age See also Eating (disambiguation) Consumerism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumption	2025-04-05T18:28:06.899649
7296	Cardiac glycoside	-ATPase \| ATC_prefix = C01A \| MeshID = D002301 \| Drugs.com \| Consumer_Reports \| medicinenet \| rxlist }} Cardiac glycosides are a class of organic compounds that increase the output force of the heart and decrease its rate of contractions by inhibiting the cellular sodium-potassium ATPase pump. Their beneficial medical uses include treatments for congestive heart failure and cardiac arrhythmias; however, their relative toxicity prevents them from being widely used. Most commonly found as secondary metabolites in several plants such as foxglove plants and milkweed plants, these compounds nevertheless have a diverse range of biochemical effects regarding cardiac cell function and have also been suggested for use in cancer treatment. Classification General structure The general structure of a cardiac glycoside consists of a steroid molecule attached to a sugar (glycoside) and an R group. The steroid nucleus consists of four fused rings to which other functional groups such as methyl, hydroxyl, and aldehyde groups can be attached to influence the overall molecule's biological activity. In particular, the structure of the ring attached at the R end of the molecule allows it to be classified as either a cardenolide or bufadienolide. Cardenolides differ from bufadienolides due to the presence of an "enolide," a five-membered ring with a single double bond, at the lactone end. Bufadienolides, on the other hand, contain a "dienolide," a six-membered ring with two double bonds, at the lactone end. Below is a list of organisms from which cardiac glycosides can be derived. Plant cardenolides * Convallaria majalis (Lily of the Valley): convallatoxin * Antiaris toxicaria (upas tree): antiarin * Strophanthus kombe (Strophanthus vine): ouabain (g-strophanthin) and other strophanthins * Digitalis lanata and Digitalis purpurea (Woolly and purple foxglove): digoxin, digitoxin * Nerium oleander (oleander tree): oleandrin * Asclepias sp. (milkweed): asclepin, calotropin, uzarin, calactin, coroglucigenin, uzarigenin, oleandrin * Adonis vernalis (Spring pheasant's eye): adonitoxin * Kalanchoe daigremontiana and other Kalanchoe species: daigremontianin * Erysimum cheiranthoides (wormseed wallflower) and other Erysimum species * Cerbera odollam (suicide tree): cerberin * Periploca sepium: periplocin Other cardenolides * some species of Chrysolina beetles, including Chrysolina coerulans, have cardiac glycosides (including Xylose) in their defensive glands. Bufadienolides * Leonurus cardiaca (motherwort): scillarenin Mechanism of action Cardiac glycosides affect the sodium-potassium ATPase pump in cardiac muscle cells to alter their function. Nevertheless, by carefully controlling the dosage, such adverse effects can be avoided. Continuing on with the mechanism, raised intracellular sodium levels inhibit the function of a second membrane ion exchanger, NCX, which is responsible for pumping calcium ions out of the cell and sodium ions in at a ratio of /. Thus, calcium ions are also not extruded and will begin to build up inside the cell as well. The disrupted calcium homeostasis and increased cytoplasmic calcium concentrations cause increased calcium uptake into the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) via the SERCA2 transporter. Raised calcium stores in the SR allow for greater calcium release on stimulation, so the myocyte can achieve faster and more powerful contraction by cross-bridge cycling. Clinical significance Cardiac glycosides have long served as the main medical treatment to congestive heart failure and cardiac arrhythmia, due to their effects of increasing the force of muscle contraction while reducing heart rate. Heart failure is characterized by an inability to pump enough blood to support the body, possibly due to a decrease in the volume of the blood or its contractile force. Treatments for the condition thus focus on lowering blood pressure, so that the heart does not have to exert as much force to pump the blood, or directly increasing the heart's contractile force, so that the heart can overcome the higher blood pressure. Cardiac glycosides, such as the commonly used digoxin and digitoxin, deal with the latter, due to their positive inotropic activity. On the other hand, cardiac arrhythmia are changes in heart rate, whether faster (tachycardia) or slower (bradycardia). Medicinal treatments for this condition work primarily to counteract tachycardia or atrial fibrillation by slowing down heart rate, as done by cardiac glycosides. Because cardiac glycosides affect the cardiovascular, neurologic, and gastrointestinal systems, these three systems can be used to determine the effects of toxicity. The effect of these compounds on the cardiovascular system presents a reason for concern, as they can directly affect the function of the heart through their inotropic and chronotropic effects. In terms of inotropic activity, excessive cardiac glycoside dosage results in cardiac contractions with greater force, as further calcium is released from the SR of cardiac muscle cells. Toxicity also results in changes to heart chronotropic activity, resulting in multiple kinds of dysrhythmia and potentially fatal ventricular tachycardia. These dysrhythmias are an effect of an influx of sodium and decrease of resting membrane potential threshold in cardiac muscle cells. When taken beyond a narrow dosage range specific to each particular cardiac glycoside, these compounds can rapidly become dangerous. In sum, they interfere with fundamental processes that regulate membrane potential. They are toxic to the heart, the brain, and the gut at doses that are not difficult to reach. In the heart, the most common negative effect is premature ventricular contraction. References External links * Category:Plant toxins	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac_glycoside	2025-04-05T18:28:06.932686
7299	Colonialism	entrepôt, a basic example of colonialism illustrating its different elements, hierarchies and impact on the land and people (the Dutch V.O.C. factory in Hugli-Chuchura, Bengal, in 1665)]] Colonialism is the control over and exploitation of natural resources and people by a foreign group. Colonizers monopolize political power and treat conquered societies and their people as social, cultural, or biological inferiors. Colonialism developed as a concept describing European colonial empires of the modern era, which spread globally from the 15th century to the mid-20th century, spanning 35% of Earth's land by 1800 and peaking at 84% by the beginning of World War I. European colonialism employed mercantilism and chartered companies, and established coloniality, which keeps the colonized socio-economically othered and subaltern through modern biopolitics of sexuality, gender, race, disability and class, among others, resulting in intersectional violence and discrimination. Colonialism has been justified with beliefs of having a civilizing mission to cultivate land and life, based on beliefs of entitlement and superiority, historically often rooted in the belief of a Christian mission. Because of this broad impact different instances of colonialism have been identified from around the world and in history, starting with when colonization was developed by developing colonies and metropoles, the base colonial separation and characteristic. Decolonization, which started in the 18th century, gradually led to the independence of colonies in waves, with a particular large wave of decolonizations happening in the aftermath of World War II between 1945 and 1975. Colonialism has a persistent impact on a wide range of modern outcomes, as scholars have shown that variations in colonial institutions can account for variations in economic development, regime types, and state capacity. Some academics have used the term neocolonialism to describe the continuation or imposition of elements of colonial rule through indirect means in the contemporary period. Etymology Colonialism is etymologically rooted in the Latin word "Colonus", which was used to describe tenant farmers in the Roman Empire. The term expanded its meaning in the early 20th century to primarily refer to European imperial expansion and the imperial subjection of Asian and African peoples. Webster's Encyclopedic Dictionary defines colonialism as "the system or policy of a nation seeking to extend or retain its authority over other people or territories". The Merriam-Webster Dictionary offers four definitions, including "something characteristic of a colony" and "control by one power over a dependent area or people". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy uses the term "to describe the process of European settlement and political control over the rest of the world, including the Americas, Australia, and parts of Africa and Asia". It discusses the distinction between colonialism, imperialism and conquest and states that "[t]he difficulty of defining colonialism stems from the fact that the term is often used as a synonym for imperialism. Both colonialism and imperialism were forms of conquest that were expected to benefit Europe economically and strategically," and continues "given the difficulty of consistently distinguishing between the two terms, this entry will use colonialism'' broadly to refer to the project of European political domination from the sixteenth to the twentieth centuries that ended with the national liberation movements of the 1960s". In his preface to Jürgen Osterhammel's Colonialism: A Theoretical Overview, Roger Tignor says "For Osterhammel, the essence of colonialism is the existence of colonies, which are by definition governed differently from other territories such as protectorates or informal spheres of influence." In the book, Osterhammel asks, "How can 'colonialism' be defined independently from 'colony? He settles on a three-sentence definition: According to Julian Go, "Colonialism refers to the direct political control of a society and its people by a foreign ruling state... The ruling state monopolizes political power and keeps the subordinated society and its people in a legally inferior position." He also writes, "colonialism depends first and foremost upon the declaration of sovereignty and/or territorial seizure by a core state over another territory and its inhabitants who are classified as inferior subjects rather than equal citizens." According to David Strang, decolonization is achieved through the attainment of sovereign statehood with de jure recognition by the international community or through full incorporation into an existing sovereign state. Types of colonialism , 1927]] The Times once quipped that there were three types of colonial empire: "The English, which consists in making colonies with colonists; the German, which collects colonists without colonies; the French, which sets up colonies without colonists." Modern studies of colonialism have often distinguished between various overlapping categories of colonialism, broadly classified into four types: settler colonialism, exploitation colonialism, surrogate colonialism, and internal colonialism. Some historians have identified other forms of colonialism, including national and trade forms. * Settler colonialism involves large-scale immigration by settlers to colonies, often motivated by religious, political, or economic reasons. This form of colonialism aims largely to supplant prior existing populations with a settler one, and involves large number of settlers emigrating to colonies for the purpose of establishing settlements. * Exploitation colonialism involves fewer colonists and focuses on the exploitation of natural resources or labour to the benefit of the metropole. This form consists of trading posts as well as larger colonies where colonists would constitute much of the political and economic administration. The European colonization of Africa and Asia was largely conducted under the auspices of exploitation colonialism. * Surrogate colonialism involves a settlement project supported by a colonial power, in which most of the settlers do not come from the same ethnic group as the ruling power, as it has been (controversially) argued was the case of Mandatory Palestine and the Colony of Liberia. * Internal colonialism is a notion of uneven structural power between areas of a state. The source of exploitation comes from within the state. This is demonstrated in the way control and exploitation may pass from people from the colonizing country to an immigrant population within a newly independent country., ]] * National colonialism is a process involving elements of both settler and internal colonialism, in which nation-building and colonization are symbiotically connected, with the colonial regime seeking to remake the colonized peoples into their own cultural and political image. The goal is to integrate them into the state, but only as reflections of the state's preferred culture. The Republic of China in Taiwan is the archetypal example of a national-colonialist society. * Trade colonialism involves the undertaking of colonialist ventures in support of trade opportunities for merchants. This form of colonialism was most prominent in 19th-century Asia, where previously isolationist states were forced to open their ports to Western powers. Examples of this include the Opium Wars and the opening of Japan. Socio-cultural evolution When colonists settled in pre-populated areas, the societies and cultures of the people in those areas permanently changed. Colonial practices directly and indirectly forced the colonized peoples to abandon their traditional cultures. For example, European colonizers in the United States implemented the residential schools program to force native children to assimilate into the hegemonic culture. Cultural colonialism gave rise to culturally and ethnically mixed populations such as the mestizos of the Americas, as well as racially divided populations such as those found in French Algeria or in Southern Rhodesia. In fact, everywhere where colonial powers established a consistent and continued presence, hybrid communities existed. Notable examples in Asia include the Anglo-Burmese, Anglo-Indian, Burgher, Eurasian Singaporean, Filipino mestizo, Kristang, and Macanese peoples. In the Dutch East Indies (later Indonesia) the vast majority of "Dutch" settlers were in fact Eurasians known as Indo-Europeans, formally belonging to the European legal class in the colony. (1872) by John Gast is an allegorical representation of the idea of manifest destiny. Columbia, a personification of the United States, leads settler civilization westward, bringing light, stringing telegraph wire, holding a book, and highlighting different stages of economic activity and evolving forms of transportation, while on the left, displacing Native Americans in the United States from their homeland]] History Antiquity Activity that could be called colonialism has a long history, starting at least as early as the ancient Egyptians. Phoenicians, Greeks, and Romans founded colonies in antiquity. Phoenicia had an enterprising maritime trading-culture that spread across the Mediterranean from 1550 BC to 300 BC; later the Persian Empire and various Greek city-states continued on this line of setting up colonies. The Romans would soon follow, setting up coloniae throughout the Mediterranean, in North Africa, and in Western Asia. Medieval Beginning in the 7th century, Arabs colonized a substantial portion of the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of Asia and Europe. From the 9th century Vikings (Norsemen) such as Leif Erikson established colonies in Britain, Ireland, Iceland, Greenland, North America, present-day Russia and Ukraine, France (Normandy) and Sicily. In the 9th century a new wave of Mediterranean colonisation began, with competitors such as the Venetians, Genovese and Amalfians infiltrating the wealthy previously Byzantine or Eastern Roman islands and lands. European Crusaders set up colonial regimes in Outremer (in the Levant, 1097–1291) and in the Baltic littoral (12th century onwards). Venice began to dominate Dalmatia and reached its greatest nominal colonial extent at the conclusion of the Fourth Crusade in 1204, with the declaration of the acquisition of three octaves of the Byzantine Empire. Modern of Spain and Portugal between 1580 and 1640]] The European early modern period began with the Turkish colonization of Anatolia. After the Ottoman Empire conquered Constantinople in 1453, the sea routes discovered by Portuguese Prince Henry the Navigator (1394–1460) became central to trade, and helped fuel the Age of Discovery. The Crown of Castile encountered the Americas in 1492 through sea travel and built trading posts or conquered large extents of land. The Treaty of Tordesillas divided the areas of these "new" lands between the Spanish Empire and the Portuguese Empire in 1494. A first wave of separatism started with the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), initiating the Rise of the "Second" British Empire (1783–1815). The Spanish Empire largely collapsed in the Americas with the Spanish American wars of independence (1808–1833). Empire-builders established several new colonies after this time, including in the German colonial empire and Belgian colonial empire. Starting with the end of the French Revolution European authors such as Johann Gottfried Herder, August von Kotzebue, and Heinrich von Kleist prolifically published so as to conjure up sympathy for the oppressed native peoples and the slaves of the new world, thereby starting the idealization of native humans. The Habsburg monarchy, the Russian Empire, and the Ottoman Empire existed at the same time but did not expand over oceans. Rather, these empires expanded through the conquest of neighbouring territories. There was, though, some Russian colonization of North America across the Bering Strait. From the 1860s onwards the Empire of Japan modelled itself on European colonial empires and expanded its territories in the Pacific and on the Asian mainland. The Empire of Brazil fought for hegemony in South America. The United States gained overseas territories after the 1898 Spanish–American War, hence, the coining of the term "American imperialism". In the late 19th century, many European powers became involved in the Scramble for Africa. Outside Europe, few areas had remained without coming under formal colonial tutorship – and even Siam, China, Japan, Nepal, Afghanistan, Persia, and Abyssinia had felt varying degrees of Western colonial-style influenceconcessions, unequal treaties, extraterritoriality and the like. Asking whether colonies paid, economic historian Grover Clark (1891–1938) argues an emphatic "No!" He reports that in every case the support cost, especially the military system necessary to support and defend colonies, outran the total trade they produced. Apart from the British Empire, they did not provide favoured destinations for the immigration of surplus metropole populations. The question of whether colonies paid is a complicated one when recognizing the multiplicity of interests involved. In some cases colonial powers paid a lot in military costs while private investors pocketed the benefits. In other cases the colonial powers managed to move the burden of administrative costs to the colonies themselves by imposing taxes. After World War I (1914–1918), the victorious Allies divided up the German colonial empire and much of the Ottoman Empire between themselves as League of Nations mandates, grouping these territories into three classes according to how quickly it was deemed that they could prepare for independence. The empires of Russia and Austria collapsed in 1917–1918, and the Soviet empire started. Nazi Germany set up short-lived colonial systems (Reichskommissariate, Generalgouvernement) in Eastern Europe in the early 1940s. In the aftermath of World War II (1939–1945), decolonisation progressed rapidly. The tumultuous upheaval of the war significantly weakened the major colonial powers, and they quickly lost control of colonies such as Singapore, India, and Libya. In addition, the United Nations shows support for decolonisation in its 1945 charter. In 1960, the UN issued the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples, which affirmed its stance (though notably, colonial empires such as France, Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States abstained). The word "neocolonialism" originated from Jean-Paul Sartre in 1956, to refer to a variety of contexts since the decolonisation that took place after World War II. Generally it does not refer to a type of direct colonisationrather to colonialism or colonial-style exploitation by other means. Specifically, neocolonialism may refer to the theory that former or existing economic relationships, such as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and the Central American Free Trade Agreement, or the operations of companies (such as Royal Dutch Shell in Nigeria and Brunei) fostered by former colonial powers were or are used to maintain control of former colonies and dependencies after the colonial independence movements of the post–World War II period. The term "neocolonialism" became popular in ex-colonies in the late 20th century. Contemporary While colonies of contiguous empires have been historically excluded, they can be seen as colonies. Contemporary expansion of colonies is seen by some in case of Russian imperialism and Chinese imperialism. There is also ongoing debate in academia about Zionism as settler colonialism. Impact about the brutality committed by Western nations: the personifications of England, the United States, and Germany carrying spears topped by the severed heads of Tibet, the Philippines, and Southwest Africa respectively. The caption describes this as "The advance guard of civilization".]] , May 1946.]] The impacts of colonisation are immense and pervasive. Various effects, both immediate and protracted, include the spread of virulent diseases, unequal social relations, detribalization, exploitation, enslavement, medical advances, the creation of new institutions, abolitionism, improved infrastructure, and technological progress. Colonial practices also spur the spread of conquerors' languages, literature and cultural institutions, while endangering or obliterating those of Indigenous peoples. The cultures of the colonised peoples can also have a powerful influence on the imperial country. With respect to international borders, Britain and France traced close to 40% of the entire length of the world's international boundaries. Economy, trade and commerce Economic expansion, sometimes described as the colonial surplus, has accompanied imperial expansion since ancient times. Greek trade networks spread throughout the Mediterranean region while Roman trade expanded with the primary goal of directing tribute from the colonised areas towards the Roman metropole. According to Strabo, by the time of emperor Augustus, up to 120 Roman ships would set sail every year from Myos Hormos in Roman Egypt to India. With the development of trade routes under the Ottoman Empire, (blue) and the rival Manila-Acapulco galleons trade routes (white) established in 1568]] Aztec civilisation developed into an extensive empire that, much like the Roman Empire, had the goal of exacting tribute from the conquered colonial areas. For the Aztecs, a significant tribute was the acquisition of sacrificial victims for their religious rituals. On the other hand, European colonial empires sometimes attempted to channel, restrict and impede trade involving their colonies, funneling activity through the metropole and taxing accordingly. Despite the general trend of economic expansion, the economic performance of former European colonies varies significantly. In "Institutions as a Fundamental Cause of Long-run Growth", economists Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson and James A. Robinson compare the economic influences of the European colonists on different colonies and study what could explain the huge discrepancies in previous European colonies, for example, between West African colonies like Sierra Leone and Hong Kong and Singapore. According to the paper, economic institutions are the determinant of the colonial success because they determine their financial performance and order for the distribution of resources. At the same time, these institutions are also consequences of political institutions – especially how de facto and de jure political power is allocated. To explain the different colonial cases, we thus need to look first into the political institutions that shaped the economic institutions. Through the rise of European colonialism came a large push for development and industrialisation of most economic systems. When working to improve productivity, Europeans focused mostly on male workers. Foreign aid arrived in the form of loans, land, credit, and tools to speed up development, but were only allocated to men. In a more European fashion, women were expected to serve on a more domestic level. The result was a technologic, economic, and class-based gender gap that widened over time. Within a colony, the presence of extractive colonial institutions in a given area has been found have effects on the modern day economic development, institutions and infrastructure of these areas. Slavery and indentured servitude European nations entered their imperial projects with the goal of enriching the European metropoles. Exploitation of non-Europeans and of other Europeans to support imperial goals was acceptable to the colonisers. Two outgrowths of this imperial agenda were the extension of slavery and indentured servitude. In the 17th century, nearly two-thirds of English settlers came to North America as indentured servants. European slave traders brought large numbers of African slaves to the Americas by sail. Spain and Portugal had brought African slaves to work in African colonies such as Cape Verde and São Tomé and Príncipe, and then in Latin America, by the 16th century. The British, French and Dutch joined in the slave trade in subsequent centuries. The European colonial system took approximately 11 million Africans to the Caribbean and to North and South America as slaves. , 18th century]] {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! European empire !! Colonial destination !! Number of slaves imported between 1450 and 1870 British colonising activity in New Zealand from the early 19th century played a part in ending slave-taking and slave-keeping among the indigenous Māori. On the other hand, British colonial administration in Southern Africa, when it officially abolished slavery in the 1830s, caused rifts in society which arguably perpetuated slavery in the Boer Republics and fed into the philosophy of apartheid. , 1823]] The labour shortages that resulted from abolition inspired European colonisers in Queensland, British Guaiana and Fiji (for example) to develop new sources of labour, re-adopting a system of indentured servitude. Indentured servants consented to a contract with the European colonisers. Under their contract, the servant would work for an employer for a term of at least a year, while the employer agreed to pay for the servant's voyage to the colony, possibly pay for the return to the country of origin, and pay the employee a wage as well. The employees became "indentured" to the employer because they owed a debt back to the employer for their travel expense to the colony, which they were expected to pay through their wages. In practice, indentured servants were exploited through terrible working conditions and burdensome debts imposed by the employers, with whom the servants had no means of negotiating the debt once they arrived in the colony. India and China were the largest source of indentured servants during the colonial era. Indentured servants from India travelled to British colonies in Asia, Africa and the Caribbean, and also to French and Portuguese colonies, while Chinese servants travelled to British and Dutch colonies. Between 1830 and 1930, around 30 million indentured servants migrated from India, and 24 million returned to India. China sent more indentured servants to European colonies, and around the same proportion returned to China. Following the Scramble for Africa, an early but secondary focus for most colonial regimes was the suppression of slavery and the slave trade. By the end of the colonial period they were mostly successful in this aim, though slavery persists in Africa and in the world at large with much the same practices of de facto servility despite legislative prohibition. Alexander the Great exploited this military foundation further during his conquests. The Spanish Empire held a major advantage over Mesoamerican warriors through the use of weapons made of stronger metal, predominantly iron, which was able to shatter the blades of axes used by the Aztec civilisation and others. The use of gunpowder weapons cemented the European military advantage over the peoples they sought to subjugate in the Americas and elsewhere. End of empire with Lord Pethwick-Lawrence, British Secretary of State for India, after a meeting on 18 April 1946]] The populations of some colonial territories, such as Canada, enjoyed relative peace and prosperity as part of a European power, at least among the majority. Minority populations such as First Nations peoples and French-Canadians experienced marginalisation and resented colonial practices. Francophone residents of Quebec, for example, were vocal in opposing conscription into the armed services to fight on behalf of Britain during World War I, resulting in the Conscription crisis of 1917. Other European colonies had much more pronounced conflict between European settlers and the local population. Rebellions broke out in the later decades of the imperial era, such as India's Sepoy Rebellion of 1857. The territorial boundaries imposed by European colonisers, notably in central Africa and South Asia, defied the existing boundaries of native populations that had previously interacted little with one another. European colonisers disregarded native political and cultural animosities, imposing peace upon people under their military control. Native populations were often relocated at the will of the colonial administrators. The Partition of British India in August 1947 led to the Independence of India and the creation of Pakistan. These events also caused much bloodshed at the time of the migration of immigrants from the two countries. Muslims from India and Hindus and Sikhs from Pakistan migrated to the respective countries they sought independence for. Post-independence population movement in London is a celebration led by the Trinidadian and Tobagonian British community.]] In a reversal of the migration patterns experienced during the modern colonial era, post-independence era migration followed a route back towards the imperial country. In some cases, this was a movement of settlers of European origin returning to the land of their birth, or to an ancestral birthplace. 900,000 French colonists (known as the Pied-Noirs) resettled in France following Algeria's independence in 1962. A significant number of these migrants were also of Algerian descent. 800,000 people of Portuguese origin migrated to Portugal after the independence of former colonies in Africa between 1974 and 1979; 300,000 settlers of Dutch origin migrated to the Netherlands from the Dutch West Indies after Dutch military control of the colony ended. After WWII 300,000 Dutchmen from the Dutch East Indies, of which the majority were people of Eurasian descent called Indo Europeans, repatriated to the Netherlands. A significant number later migrated to the US, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. Global travel and migration in general developed at an increasingly brisk pace throughout the era of European colonial expansion. Citizens of the former colonies of European countries may have a privileged status in some respects with regard to immigration rights when settling in the former European imperial nation. For example, rights to dual citizenship may be generous, or larger immigrant quotas may be extended to former colonies. In some cases, the former European imperial nations continue to foster close political and economic ties with former colonies. The Commonwealth of Nations is an organisation that promotes cooperation between and among Britain and its former colonies, the Commonwealth members. A similar organisation exists for former colonies of France, the Francophonie; the Community of Portuguese Language Countries plays a similar role for former Portuguese colonies, and the Dutch Language Union is the equivalent for former colonies of the Netherlands. Migration from former colonies has proven to be problematic for European countries, where the majority population may express hostility to ethnic minorities who have immigrated from former colonies. Cultural and religious conflict have often erupted in France in recent decades, between immigrants from the Maghreb countries of north Africa and the majority population of France. Nonetheless, immigration has changed the ethnic composition of France; by the 1980s, 25% of the total population of "inner Paris" and 14% of the metropolitan region were of foreign origin, mainly Algerian. Introduced diseases , 1540–1585)]] Encounters between explorers and populations in the rest of the world often introduced new diseases, which sometimes caused local epidemics of extraordinary virulence. For example, smallpox, measles, malaria, yellow fever, and others were unknown in pre-Columbian America. Half the native population of Hispaniola in 1518 was killed by smallpox. Smallpox also ravaged Mexico in the 1520s, killing 150,000 in Tenochtitlan alone, including the emperor, and Peru in the 1530s, aiding the European conquerors. Measles killed a further two million Mexican natives in the 17th century. In 1618–1619, smallpox wiped out 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans. Smallpox epidemics in 1780–1782 and 1837–1838 brought devastation and drastic depopulation among the Plains Indians. Some believe that the death of up to 95% of the Native American population of the New World was caused by Old World diseases. Over the centuries, the Europeans had developed high degrees of immunity to these diseases, while the indigenous peoples had no time to build such immunity. Smallpox decimated the native population of Australia, killing around 50% of indigenous Australians in the early years of British colonisation. It also killed many New Zealand Māori. As late as 1848–49, as many as 40,000 out of 150,000 Hawaiians are estimated to have died of measles, whooping cough and influenza. Introduced diseases, notably smallpox, nearly wiped out the native population of Easter Island. In 1875, measles killed over 40,000 Fijians, approximately one-third of the population. The Ainu population decreased drastically in the 19th century, due in large part to infectious diseases brought by Japanese settlers pouring into Hokkaido. Conversely, researchers have hypothesised that a precursor to syphilis may have been carried from the New World to Europe after Columbus's voyages. The findings suggested Europeans could have carried the nonvenereal tropical bacteria home, where the organisms may have mutated into a more deadly form in the different conditions of Europe. The disease was more frequently fatal than it is today; syphilis was a major killer in Europe during the Renaissance. The first cholera pandemic began in Bengal, then spread across India by 1820. Ten thousand British troops and countless Indians died during this pandemic. Between 1736 and 1834 only some 10% of East India Company's officers survived to take the final voyage home. Waldemar Haffkine, who mainly worked in India, who developed and used vaccines against cholera and bubonic plague in the 1890s, is considered the first microbiologist. According to a 2021 study by Jörg Baten and Laura Maravall on the anthropometric influence of colonialism on Africans, the average height of Africans decreased by 1.1 centimetres upon colonization and later recovered and increased overall during colonial rule. The authors attributed the decrease to diseases, such as malaria and sleeping sickness, forced labor during the early decades of colonial rule, conflicts, land grabbing, and widespread cattle deaths from the rinderpest viral disease. Countering disease As early as 1803, the Spanish Crown organised a mission (the Balmis expedition) to transport the smallpox vaccine to the Spanish colonies, and establish mass vaccination programs there. By 1832, the federal government of the United States established a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans. Under the direction of Mountstuart Elphinstone a program was launched to propagate smallpox vaccination in India. From the beginning of the 20th century onwards, the elimination or control of disease in tropical countries became a driving force for all colonial powers. The sleeping sickness epidemic in Africa was arrested due to mobile teams systematically screening millions of people at risk. In the 20th century, the world saw the biggest increase in its population in human history due to lessening of the mortality rate in many countries due to medical advances. The world population has grown from 1.6 billion in 1900 to over seven billion today. Botany Colonial botany refers to the body of works concerning the study, cultivation, marketing and naming of the new plants that were acquired or traded during the age of European colonialism. Notable examples of these plants included sugar, nutmeg, tobacco, cloves, cinnamon, Peruvian bark, peppers, Sassafras albidum, and tea. This work was a large part of securing financing for colonial ambitions, supporting European expansion and ensuring the profitability of such endeavors. Vasco de Gama and Christopher Columbus were seeking to establish routes to trade spices, dyes and silk from the Moluccas, India and China by sea that would be independent of the established routes controlled by Venetian and Middle Eastern merchants. Naturalists like Hendrik van Rheede, Georg Eberhard Rumphius, and Jacobus Bontius compiled data about eastern plants on behalf of the Europeans. Though Sweden did not possess an extensive colonial network, botanical research based on Carl Linnaeus identified and developed techniques to grow cinnamon, tea and rice locally as an alternative to costly imports. Geography in 1953]] Settlers acted as the link between indigenous populations and the imperial hegemony, thus bridging the geographical, ideological and commercial gap between the colonisers and colonised. While the extent in which geography as an academic study is implicated in colonialism is contentious, geographical tools such as cartography, shipbuilding, navigation, mining and agricultural productivity were instrumental in European colonial expansion. Colonisers' awareness of the Earth's surface and abundance of practical skills provided colonisers with a knowledge that, in turn, created power. Anne Godlewska and Neil Smith argue that "empire was 'quintessentially a geographical project. Historical geographical theories such as environmental determinism legitimised colonialism by positing the view that some parts of the world were underdeveloped, which created notions of skewed evolution. Political geographers also maintain that colonial behaviour was reinforced by the physical mapping of the world, therefore creating a visual separation between "them" and "us". Geographers are primarily focused on the spaces of colonialism and imperialism; more specifically, the material and symbolic appropriation of space enabling colonialism. Maps played an extensive role in colonialism, as Bassett would put it "by providing geographical information in a convenient and standardised format, cartographers helped open West Africa to European conquest, commerce, and colonisation". Because the relationship between colonialism and geography was not scientifically objective, cartography was often manipulated during the colonial era. Social norms and values had an effect on the constructing of maps. During colonialism map-makers used rhetoric in their formation of boundaries and in their art. The rhetoric favoured the view of the conquering Europeans; this is evident in the fact that any map created by a non-European was instantly regarded as inaccurate. Furthermore, European cartographers were required to follow a set of rules which led to ethnocentrism; portraying one's own ethnicity in the centre of the map. As J.B. Harley put it, "The steps in making a mapselection, omission, simplification, classification, the creation of hierarchies, and 'symbolisation'are all inherently rhetorical." A common practice by the European cartographers of the time was to map unexplored areas as "blank spaces". This influenced the colonial powers as it sparked competition amongst them to explore and colonise these regions. Imperialists aggressively and passionately looked forward to filling these spaces for the glory of their respective countries. The Dictionary of Human Geography notes that cartography was used to empty 'undiscovered' lands of their Indigenous meaning and bring them into spatial existence via the imposition of "Western place-names and borders, [therefore] priming 'virgin' (putatively empty land, 'wilderness') for colonisation (thus sexualising colonial landscapes as domains of male penetration), reconfiguring alien space as absolute, quantifiable and separable (as property)." (as of 1910). At its height, it was the largest empire in history.]] David Livingstone stresses "that geography has meant different things at different times and in different places" and that we should keep an open mind in regards to the relationship between geography and colonialism instead of identifying boundaries. Ocean and space With contemporary advances in deep sea and outer space technologies, colonization of the seabed and the Moon have become an object of non-terrestrial colonialism. Versus imperialism Marxism Marxism views colonialism as a form of capitalism, enforcing exploitation and social change. Marx thought that working within the global capitalist system, colonialism is closely associated with uneven development. It is an "instrument of wholesale destruction, dependency and systematic exploitation producing distorted economies, socio-psychological disorientation, massive poverty and neocolonial dependency". Colonies are constructed into modes of production. The search for raw materials and the current search for new investment opportunities is a result of inter-capitalist rivalry for capital accumulation. Lenin regarded colonialism as the root cause of imperialism, as imperialism was distinguished by monopoly capitalism via colonialism and as Lyal S. Sunga explains: "Vladimir Lenin advocated forcefully the principle of self-determination of peoples in his "Theses on the Socialist Revolution and the Right of Nations to Self-Determination" as an integral plank in the programme of socialist internationalism" and he quotes Lenin who contended that "The right of nations to self-determination implies exclusively the right to independence in the political sense, the right to free political separation from the oppressor nation. Specifically, this demand for political democracy implies complete freedom to agitate for secession and for a referendum on secession by the seceding nation." Non-Russian Marxists within the RSFSR and later the USSR, like Sultan Galiev and Vasyl Shakhrai, meanwhile, between 1918 and 1923 and then after 1929, considered the Soviet regime a renewed version of Russian imperialism and colonialism. In his critique of colonialism in Africa, the Guyanese historian and political activist Walter Rodney states:<blockquote>The decisiveness of the short period of colonialism and its negative consequences for Africa spring mainly from the fact that Africa lost power. Power is the ultimate determinant in human society, being basic to the relations within any group and between groups. It implies the ability to defend one's interests and if necessary to impose one's will by any means available ... When one society finds itself forced to relinquish power entirely to another society that in itself is a form of underdevelopment ... During the centuries of pre-colonial trade, some control over social political and economic life was retained in Africa, in spite of the disadvantageous commerce with Europeans. That little control over internal matters disappeared under colonialism. Colonialism went much further than trade. It meant a tendency towards direct appropriation by Europeans of the social institutions within Africa. Africans ceased to set indigenous cultural goals and standards, and lost full command of training young members of the society. Those were undoubtedly major steps backwards ... Colonialism was not merely a system of exploitation, but one whose essential purpose was to repatriate the profits to the so-called 'mother country'. From an African view-point, that amounted to consistent expatriation of surplus produced by African labour out of African resources. It meant the development of Europe as part of the same dialectical process in which Africa was underdeveloped. Colonial Africa fell within that part of the international capitalist economy from which surplus was drawn to feed the metropolitan sector. As seen earlier, exploitation of land and labour is essential for human social advance, but only on the assumption that the product is made available within the area where the exploitation takes place.</blockquote>According to Lenin, the new imperialism emphasised the transition of capitalism from free trade to a stage of monopoly capitalism to finance capital. He states it is, "connected with the intensification of the struggle for the partition of the world". As free trade thrives on exports of commodities, monopoly capitalism thrived on the export of capital amassed by profits from banks and industry. This, to Lenin, was the highest stage of capitalism. He goes on to state that this form of capitalism was doomed for war between the capitalists and the exploited nations with the former inevitably losing. War is stated to be the consequence of imperialism. As a continuation of this thought, G.N. Uzoigwe states, "But it is now clear from more serious investigations of African history in this period that imperialism was essentially economic in its fundamental impulses." Liberalism and capitalism Classical liberals were generally in abstract opposition to colonialism and imperialism, including Adam Smith, Frédéric Bastiat, Richard Cobden, John Bright, Henry Richard, Herbert Spencer, H.R. Fox Bourne, Edward Morel, Josephine Butler, W.J. Fox and William Ewart Gladstone. Their philosophies found the colonial enterprise, particularly mercantilism, in opposition to the principles of free trade and liberal policies. Adam Smith wrote in The Wealth of Nations that Britain should grant independence to all of its colonies and also argued that it would be economically beneficial for British people in the average, although the merchants having mercantilist privileges would lose out. Race and gender During the colonial era, the global process of colonisation served to spread and synthesize the social and political belief systems of the "mother-countries" which often included a belief in a certain natural racial superiority of the race of the mother-country. Colonialism also acted to reinforce these same racial belief systems within the "mother-countries" themselves. Usually also included within the colonial belief systems was a certain belief in the inherent superiority of male over female. This particular belief was often pre-existing amongst the pre-colonial societies, prior to their colonisation. Popular political practices of the time reinforced colonial rule by legitimising European (and/ or Japanese) male authority, and also legitimising female and non-mother-country race inferiority through studies of craniology, comparative anatomy, and phrenology. Biologists, naturalists, anthropologists, and ethnologists of the 19th century were focused on the study of colonised indigenous women, as in the case of Georges Cuvier's study of Sarah Baartman. Within the former European colonies, non-Europeans and women sometimes faced invasive studies by the colonial powers in the interest of the then prevailing pro-colonial scientific ideology of the day. Othering is the creation of those who discriminate, to distinguish, label, categorise those who do not fit in the societal norm. Several scholars in recent decades developed the notion of the "other" as an epistemological concept in social theory. Colonistics The field of colonistics studies colonialism from such viewpoints as those of economics, sociology and psychology. Migrations ]] leaving Ireland, many in response to the Great Famine in the 1840s]] Nations and regions outside Northern China with significant populations of Han Chinese ancestry: * Xinjiang: 42.24% Han settlers, 44.96% Indigenous * Tibet: disputed. 12.2% Han Chinese in the Tibet Autonomous Region. * Taiwan: 95–97% Han Taiwanese, 2.3% Indigenous * Manchuria: 80%+ Han Chinese, <20% Indigenous Manchurians. Nations and regions outside Europe with significant populations of European ancestry family in South Africa, 1886]] * Africa (see Europeans in Africa) South Africa (European South African): 5.8% of the population Namibia (European Namibians): 6.5% of the population, of which most are Afrikaans-speaking, in addition to a German-speaking minority. Réunion: estimated to be approximately 25% of the population Zimbabwe (Europeans in Zimbabwe) Algeria (Pied-noir) Botswana: 3% of the population Kenya (Europeans in Kenya) Mauritius (Franco-Mauritian) Morocco (European Moroccans) Ivory Coast (French people) Senegal Canary Islands (Spaniards), known as Canarians. Seychelles (Franco-Seychellois) Somalia (Italian Somalis) Eritrea (Italian Eritreans) Saint Helena (UK) including Tristan da Cunha (UK): predominantly European. Eswatini: 3% of the population Tunisia (European Tunisians) , present-day Kazakhstan, 1911]] * Asia Siberia (Russians, Germans and Ukrainians) Kazakhstan (Russians in Kazakhstan, Germans of Kazakhstan): 30% of the population Kyrgyzstan (Russians and other Slavs): 14% of the population Turkmenistan (Russians and other Slavs): 4% of the population Tajikistan (Russians and other Slavs): 1% of the population Hong Kong Philippines (Spanish Ancestry): 3% of the population China (Russians in China) ** Indian subcontinent (Anglo-Indians) * Latin America (see White Latin American) , Brazil, ]] Argentina (European Immigration to Argentina): 97% European and mestizo of the population Bolivia: 15% of the population Brazil (White Brazilian): 47% of the population Chile (White Chilean): 60–70% of the population. Colombia (White Colombian): 37% of the population Costa Rica: 83% of the population Cuba (White Cuban): 65% of the population Dominican Republic: 16% of the population Ecuador: 7% of the population Honduras: 1% of the population El Salvador: 12% of the population Mexico (White Mexican): 9% or ~17% of the population. and 70–80% more as Mestizos. Panama: 10% of the population Puerto Rico: approx. 80% of the population Peru (European Peruvian): 15% of the population Paraguay: approx. 20% of the population Uruguay (White Uruguayan): 88% of the population of German descent in Belize ]] Venezuela (White Venezuelan): 42% of the population * Rest of the Americas Bahamas: 12% of the population Barbados (White Barbadian): 4% of the population Bermuda: 34% of the population Canada (European Canadians): 80% of the population Falkland Islands: mostly of British descent. French Guiana: 12% of the population Greenland: 12% of the population Martinique: 5% of the population Saint Barthélemy Trinidad and Tobago: 1% of the population immigrant family in Hawaii during the 19th century]] ** United States (European American): 72% of the population, including Hispanic and Non-Hispanic Whites. * Oceania (see Europeans in Oceania) Australia (European Australians): 90% of the population New Zealand (European New Zealanders): 78% of the population New Caledonia (Caldoche): 35% of the population French Polynesia: (Zoreilles) 10% of the population Hawaii: 25% of the population Christmas Island: approx. 20% of the population. Guam: 7% of the population Norfolk Island: 9→5% of the population See also * African independence movements * Age of Discovery * Anti-imperialism * Chartered company * Chinese imperialism * Christianity and colonialism * Civilising mission * Client state * Colonial Empire * Colonialism and the Olympic Games * Coloniality of power * Colonial war * Cultural colonialism * Decoloniality * Decolonization of the Americas * Developmentalism * Direct colonial rule * Empire of Liberty * European colonization of Africa * European colonization of the Americas * European colonization of Micronesia * European colonisation of Southeast Asia * French law on colonialism * German eastward expansion * Global Empire * Historiography of the British Empire * Impact of Western European colonialism and colonisation * International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919) * Muslim conquests * Orientalism * Pluricontinental * Protectorate * Right of conquest * Satellite state * Stranger King (Concept) * Western imperialism in Asia References Further reading * Albertini, Rudolf von. European Colonial Rule, 1880–1940: The Impact of the West on India, Southeast Asia, and Africa (Praeger: 1982) 581 pp * Benjamin, Thomas, ed. Encyclopedia of Western Colonialism Since 1450 (Cengage Gale: 2006) * Cooper, Frederick. Colonialism in Question: Theory, Knowledge, History (University of California Press: 2005) * Cotterell, Arthur. Western Power in Asia: Its Slow Rise and Swift Fall, 1415–1999 (Wiley: 2009) popular history; [https://www.amazon.com/Western-Power-Asia-Slow-Swift/dp/0470824891/ excerpt] * Getz, Trevor R. and Heather Streets-Salter, eds.: Modern Imperialism and Colonialism: A Global Perspective (Pearson College Div: 2010) * –2016 \|journalScandinavian Journal of History \|volume41 \|issue4–5 \|pages475–494 \|doi10.1080/03468755.2016.1210880 \|doi-accessfree}} * LeCour Grandmaison, Olivier: Coloniser, Exterminer – Sur la guerre et l'Etat colonial, Fayard, 2005, * Lindqvist, Sven: Exterminate All The Brutes, 1992, New Press; Reprint edition (June 1997), * Morris, Richard B. and Graham W. Irwin, eds. Harper Encyclopedia of the Modern World: A Concise Reference History from 1760 to the Present (1970) [https://archive.org/details/harperencycloped00morr online] * Ness, Immanuel and Zak Cope, eds. The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Imperialism and Anti-Imperialism (2 vol 2015), 1456 pp * Nuzzo, Luigi: [http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-2012041215 Colonial Law], European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2010, retrieved: 17 December 2012. * Osterhammel, Jürgen: Colonialism: A Theoretical Overview, Princeton, NJ: M. Wiener, 1997. * Page, Melvin E. et al. eds. Colonialism: An International Social, Cultural, and Political Encyclopedia (3 vol 2003) * Petringa, Maria, Brazza, A Life for Africa (2006), . * Prashad, Vijay: The Darker Nations: A People's History of the Third World, The New Press, 2007. * * Rönnbäck, K. & Broberg, O. (2019) Capital and Colonialism. The Return on British Investments in Africa 1869–1969 (Palgrave Studies in Economic History) * Schill, Pierre: Réveiller l'archive d'une guerre coloniale. Photographies et écrits de Gaston Chérau, correspondant de guerre lors du conflit italo-turc pour la Libye (1911–1912), Créaphis, 480 p., 2018 (). Awaken the archive of a colonial war. Photographs and writings of a French war correspondent during the Italo-Turkish war in Libya (1911–1912). With contributions from art historian Caroline Recher, critic Smaranda Olcèse, writer Mathieu Larnaudie and historian Quentin Deluermoz. * Stuchtey, Benedikt: [http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-20101025319 Colonialism and Imperialism, 1450–1950], European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: 13 July 2011. * Townsend, Mary Evelyn. European colonial expansion since 1871 (1941). * U.S. Tariff Commission. Colonial tariff policies (1922), worldwide; 922pp [https://archive.org/details/colonialtariffpo00unit survey online] * Wendt, Reinhard: [http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-20100921437 European Overseas Rule], European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: 13 June 2012. Primary sources * Conrad, Joseph, Heart of Darkness, 1899 * Fanon, Frantz, The Wretched of the Earth, Preface by Jean-Paul Sartre. Translated by Constance Farrington. London: Penguin Book, 2001 * Las Casas, Bartolomé de, A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies'' (1542, published in 1552). External links * * Category:Cultural geography Category:International relations theory Category:Articles containing video clips	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonialism	2025-04-05T18:28:07.000378
7300	Colonial	Colonial or The Colonial may refer to: Colonial, of, relating to, or characteristic of a colony or colony (biology) Architecture American colonial architecture French colonial architecture Spanish colonial architecture Automobiles Colonial (1920 automobile), the first American automobile with four-wheel brakes Colonial (Shaw automobile), a rebranded Shaw sold from 1921 until 1922 Colonial (1921 automobile), a car from Boston which was sold from 1921 until 1922 Commerce Colonial Pipeline, the largest oil pipeline network in the U.S. Inmobiliaria Colonial, a Spanish corporation, which includes companies in the domains of real estate Places The Colonial (Indianapolis, Indiana) The Colonial (Mansfield, Ohio), a National Register of Historic Places listing in Richland County, Ohio Ciudad Colonial (Santo Domingo), a historic central neighborhood of Santo Domingo Colonial Country Club (Memphis), a golf course in Tennessee Colonial Country Club (Fort Worth), a golf course in Texas Fort Worth Invitational or The Colonial, a PGA golf tournament Trains Colonial (PRR train), a Pennsylvania Railroad run between Washington, DC and New York City, last operated in 1973 by Amtrak Colonial (Amtrak train), an Amtrak train that ran between Newport News, Virginia and Boston from 1976 to 1992, and between Richmond, Virginia and New York City from 1997 to 1999 See also Colonial history of the United States, the period of American history from the 17th century to 1776, under the rule of Great Britain, France and Spain Colonial Hotel (disambiguation) Colonial Revival architecture Colonial Theatre (disambiguation) Colonial troops, any of various military units recruited from, or used as garrison troops in, colonial territories Colonialism, the extension of political control to new areas Colonials (disambiguation) Colonist, a person who has migrated to an area and established a permanent residence there to colonize the area History of Australia Spanish colonization of the Americas, the period of history of Spanish rule over most of the Americas, from the 15th century through the late 19th century	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonial	2025-04-05T18:28:07.003984
7301	Casablanca	Casablanca (film)\|other uses}} <br>}} \| nickname = Casa \| settlement_type = City \| motto = <!-- images and maps -----------> \| image_skyline = \| image_caption \| image_seal Casablanca.svg \| seal_size = 100px \| image_shield \| shield_size \| image_blank_emblem = Casablanca wordmark.svg \| blank_emblem_type = Wordmark \| image_map \| mapsize \| map_caption \| pushpin_map Morocco#Africa \| pushpin_label_position = left \| pushpin_relief = yes \| pushpin_mapsize \| pushpin_map_caption Location of Casablanca within Morocco <!-- Location ------------------>\| subdivision_type = Country \| subdivision_name = \| subdivision_type1 = Region \| subdivision_name1 = Casablanca-Settat \| subdivision_type2 \| subdivision_name2 \| government_type \| leader_title \| leader_name \| leader_title1 Mayor \| leader_name1 = Nabila Rmili \| leader_title2 \| leader_name2 \| established_title = First settled \| established_date = 7th century BC \| established_title2 = Reconstructed \| established_date2 = 1756 \| established_title3 = <!-- Incorporated (city) --> \| established_date3 \| area_magnitude \| area_footnotes \| area_total_km2 \| area_land_km2 \| area_water_km2 \| area_total_sq_mi = 148 \| area_land_sq_mi \| area_water_sq_mi \| area_water_percent \| area_urban_km2 \| area_urban_sq_mi \| area_metro_km2 \| area_metro_sq_mi \| population_as_of 2024 \| population_footnotes \| population_note \| population_total 3218036 \| population_density_km2 \| population_density_sq_mi 22700 \| population_metro 4,270,750 \| population_rank = 1st in Morocco \| population_density_metro_km2 \| population_density_metro_sq_mi \| population_urban \| population_density_urban_km2 \| population_demonyms \| timezone CET \| utc_offset = +1 \| coordinates \| elevation_footnotes = <!--for references: use tags--> \| elevation_m = 0 to 150 \| elevation_ft = 0 to 492 \| postal_code_type = Postal code \| postal_code = 20000-20200 \| area_code \| website \| footnotes \| region \| demographics2_title1 \| official_name \| founder = Mohammed III \| population_demonym = Casablancan<br>Kazāwi ()<br> Biḍāwi ()<br> }} Casablanca (, ) is the largest city in Morocco and the country's economic and business centre. Located on the Atlantic coast of the Chaouia plain in the central-western part of Morocco, the city has a population of about 3.22 million in the urban area, and over 4.27 million in Greater Casablanca, making it the most populous city in the Maghreb region, and the eighth-largest in the Arab world. Casablanca is Morocco's chief port, with the Port of Casablanca being one of the largest artificial ports in Africa, and the third-largest port in North Africa, after Tanger-Med ( east of Tangier) and Port Said. Casablanca also hosts the primary naval base for the Royal Moroccan Navy. Casablanca is a significant financial centre, ranking 54th globally in the September 2023 Global Financial Centres Index rankings, between Brussels and Rome. The Casablanca Stock Exchange is Africa's third-largest in terms of market capitalization, as of December 2022. Major Moroccan companies and many of the largest American and European companies operating in the country have their headquarters and main industrial facilities in Casablanca. Recent industrial statistics show that Casablanca is the main industrial zone in the country. Etymology Anfa Before the 15th century, the settlement at what is now Casablanca had been called Anfa, rendered in European sources variously as El-Anfa, Anafa or Anaffa, Anafe, Anife, Anafee, Nafe, and Nafee. Ibn Khaldun ascribed the name to the Anfaça, a branch of the tribe of the Maghreb, though the sociologist André Adam refuted this claim due to the absence of the third syllable. Casablanca , which local legend associates with the naming of Casablanca. The Portuguese cartographer Duarte Pacheco wrote in the early 16th century that the city could easily be identified by a tower, and nautical guides from the late 19th century still mentioned a "white tower" as a point of reference. History Early history The area that is today Casablanca was founded and settled by Berbers by the seventh century BC. It was used as a port by the Phoenicians, then the Romans. In his book Description of Africa, Leo Africanus refers to ancient Casablanca as "Anfa", a great city founded in the Berber kingdom of Barghawata in 744 AD. He believed Anfa was the most "prosperous city on the Atlantic Coast because of its fertile land." Barghawata rose as an independent state around this time, and continued until it was conquered by the Almoravids in 1068. After the defeat of the Barghawata in the 12th century, Arab tribes of Hilal and Sulaym descent settled in the region, mixing with the local Berbers, which led to widespread Arabization. During the 14th century, under the Merinids, Anfa rose in importance as a port. The last of the Merinids were ousted by a popular revolt in 1465. Portuguese conquest and Spanish influence In the early 15th century, the town became an independent state once again, and emerged as a safe harbour for pirates and privateers. The Portuguese consequently bombarded the town into ruins in 1468. The town that grew up around it was called Casa Branca, meaning "white house" in Portuguese. The town was finally rebuilt between 1756 and 1790 by Sultan Mohammed ben Abdallah, the grandson of Moulay Ismail and an ally of George Washington, with the help of Spaniards from the nearby emporium. The town was called ad-Dār al-Bayḍāʼ (الدار البيضاء), the Arabic translation of the Portuguese Casa Branca. Colonial struggle In the 19th century, the area's population began to grow as it became a major supplier of wool to the booming textile industry in Britain and shipping traffic increased (the British, in return, began importing gunpowder tea, used in Morocco's national drink, mint tea). By the 1860s, around 5,000 residents were there, and the population grew to around 10,000 by the late 1880s. Casablanca remained a modestly sized port, with a population reaching around 12,000 within a few years of the French conquest and arrival of French colonialists in 1906. By 1921, this rose to 110,000, largely through the development of shanty towns. Bombardment of Casablanca The Treaty of Algeciras of 1906 formalized French preeminence in Morocco and included three measures that directly impacted Casablanca: that French officers would control operations at the customs office and seize revenue as collateral for loans given by France, that the French holding company La Compagnie Marocaine would develop the port of Casablanca, and that a French-and-Spanish-trained police force would be assembled to patrol the port. To build the port's breakwater, narrow-gauge track was laid in June 1907 for a small Decauville locomotive to connect the port to a quarry in Roches Noires, passing through the sacred Sidi Belyout graveyard. In resistance to this and the measures of the 1906 Treaty of Algeciras, tribesmen of the Chaouia attacked the locomotive, killing 9 Compagnie Marocaine laborers—3 French, 3 Italians, and 3 Spanish. In response, the French bombarded the city in August 1907 with multiple gunboats and landed troops inside the town, causing severe damage and killing between 600 and 3,000 Moroccans. Estimates for the total casualties are as high as 15,000 dead and wounded. In the immediate aftermath of the bombardment and the deployment of French troops, the European homes and the Mellah, or Jewish quarter, were sacked, and the latter was also set ablaze. As Oujda had already been occupied, the bombardment and military invasion of the city opened a western front to the French military conquest of Morocco. <gallery mode="packed"> File:Derailed locomotive in Casablanca 1907.jpg\|A man inspects the derailed Decauville locomotive at the scene of the attack that served as the pretext for the French bombardment of Casablanca in 1907.]] ) in 1917. With its landmark Clock Tower, this space became a contact point between what the colonists called the ville indigène to the left—comprising the Mellah and the Medina—and the European nouvelle ville to the right.]] 's plans to extend 4éme Zouaves Street (now Félix Houphouët-Boigny Street) from the port to the Place de France (now United Nations Square), part of his redesigns of Casablanca's urban landscape.\|alt=]] French control of Casablanca was formalized March 1912 when the Treaty of Fes established the French Protectorat. Under French imperial control, Casablanca became a port of colonial extraction. Right at the beginning of the twentieth century when Morocco was officially declared a French protectorate, the French decided to shift power to Morocco's coastal areas (i.e. Rabat and Casablanca) at the expense of its interior areas (i.e. Fez and Marrakech). Rabat was made the administrative capital of the country and Casablanca its economic capital. General Hubert Lyautey assigned the planning of the new colonial port city to Henri Prost. As he did in other Moroccan cities, Prost designed a European ville nouvelle outside the walls of the medina. In Casablanca, he also designed a new "ville indigène" to house Moroccans arriving from other cities. Europeans formed almost half the population of Casablanca. A 1937-1938 typhoid fever outbreak was exploited by colonial authorities to justify the appropriation of urban spaces in Casablanca. Moroccans residing in informal housing were cleared out of the center and displaced, notably to . French colonists in Morocco generally supported Pétain, while Moroccans tended to favour de Gaulle and the Allies. Operation Torch, which started on 8 November 1942, was the British-American invasion of French North Africa during the North African campaign of World War II. The Western Task Force, composed of American units led by Major General George S. Patton and Rear Admiral Henry Kent Hewitt, carried out the invasions of Mehdia, Fedhala, and Asfi. American forces captured Casablanca from Vichy control when France surrendered 11 November 1942, but the Naval Battle of Casablanca continued until American forces sank German submarine U-173 on 16 November. Casablanca was the site of the Berrechid Airfield, a large American air base used as the staging area for all American aircraft for the European Theatre of Operations during World War II. The airfield has since become Mohammed V International Airport. Anfa Conference Casablanca hosted the Anfa Conference (also called the Casablanca Conference) in January 1943. Prime Minister Winston Churchill and President Franklin D. Roosevelt discussed the progress of the war. Also in attendance were the Free France generals Charles de Gaulle and Henri Giraud, though they played minor roles and didn't participate in the military planning. It was at this conference that the Allies adopted the doctrine of "unconditional surrender", meaning that the Axis powers would be fought until their defeat. Roosevelt also met privately with Sultan Muhammad V and expressed his support for Moroccan independence after the war. This became a turning point, as Moroccan nationalists were emboldened to openly seek complete independence. Riots in Casablanca took place from 7–8 December 1952, in response to the assassination of the Tunisian labor unionist Farhat Hached by La Main Rouge—the clandestine militant wing of French intelligence. Then, on 25 December 1953 (Christmas Day), Muhammad Zarqtuni orchestrated a bombing of Casablanca's Central Market in response to the forced exile of Sultan Muhammad V and the royal family on 20 August (Eid al-Adha) of that year. Since independence Morocco gained independence from France in 1956. The post-independence era witnessed significant urban transformations and socio-economic shifts, particularly in neighborhoods like Hay Mohammadi, which were deeply impacted by neoliberal policies and state-led urban redevelopment projects. Casablanca Group On 4–7 January 1961, the city hosted an ensemble of progressive African leaders during the Casablanca Conference of 1961. Among those received by King Muhammad V were Gamal Abd An-Nasser, Kwame Nkrumah, Modibo Keïta, and Ahmed Sékou Touré, Ferhat Abbas. Jewish emigration Casablanca was a major departure point for Jews leaving Morocco through Operation Yachin, an operation conducted by Mossad to secretly migrate Moroccan Jews to Israel between November 1961 and spring 1964. 1965 riots The 1965 student protests organized by the National Union of Popular Forces-affiliated National Union of Moroccan Students, which spread to cities around the country and devolved into riots, started on 22 March 1965, in front of Lycée Mohammed V in Casablanca. The protests started as a peaceful march to demand the right to public higher education for Morocco, but expanded to include concerns of labourers, the unemployed, and other marginalized segments of society, and devolved into vandalism and rioting. The riots were violently repressed by security forces with tanks and armoured vehicles; Moroccan authorities reported a dozen deaths while the UNFP reported more than 1,000. 1981 riots On 6 June 1981, the Casablanca Bread Riots took place, Hassan II appointed the French-trained interior minister Driss Basri as hardliner, who would later become a symbol of the Years of Lead, with quelling the protests. The government stated that 66 people were killed and 100 were injured, while opposition leaders put the number of dead at 637, saying that many of these were killed by police and army gunfire. Mudawana In March 2000, more than 60 women's groups organized demonstrations in Casablanca proposing reforms to the legal status of women in the country. About 40,000 women attended, calling for a ban on polygamy and the introduction of divorce law (divorce being a purely religious procedure at that time). Although the counter-demonstration attracted half a million participants, the movement for change started in 2000 was influential on King Mohammed VI, and he enacted a new mudawana, or family law, in early 2004, meeting some of the demands of women's rights activists.Further historyOn 16 May 2003, 33 civilians were killed and more than 100 people were injured when Casablanca was hit by a multiple suicide bomb attack carried out by Moroccans and claimed by some to have been linked to al-Qaeda. Twelve suicide bombers struck five locations in the city. Another series of suicide bombings struck the city in early 2007. These events illustrated some of the persistent challenges the city faces in addressing poverty and integrating disadvantaged neighborhoods and populations. One initiative to improve conditions in the city's disadvantaged neighborhoods was the creation of the Sidi Moumen Cultural Center. Geography Casablanca is located on the Atlantic coast of the Chaouia Plains, which have historically been the breadbasket of Morocco. Apart from the Atlantic coast, the Bouskoura forest is the only natural attraction in the city. The forest was planted in the 20th century and consists mostly of eucalyptus, palm, and pine trees. It is located halfway to the city's international airport. The only watercourse in Casablanca is oued Bouskoura, a small seasonal creek that until 1912 reached the Atlantic Ocean near the actual port. Most of oued Bouskoura's bed has been covered due to urbanization and only the part south of El Jadida road can now be seen. The closest permanent river to Casablanca is Oum Rabia, to the south-east. Neighborhood The list of neighborhoods is indicative and not complete: * 2 Mars * Ain Chock * Ain Diab * Ain Sebaa * Attacharouk * Belvédère * Beauséjour * Bouchentouf * Bouskoura * Bourgogne * Californie * Centre Ville * C.I.L. * La Colline * Derb Ghallef * Derb Sultan * Derb Tazi * Gauthier * Ghandi * Habous * El Hank * Hay Dakhla * Hay El Baraka * Hay El Hanaa * Hay El Hassani * Hay El Mohammadi * Hay Farah * Hay Moulay Rachid * Hay Salama * Hubous * Inara * Laimoun (Hay Hassani) * Lamkansa * Lissasfa * Maârif * Mers Sultan * Nassim * Oasis * Old Madina * Oulfa * Palmiers * Polo * Racine * Riviera * Roches Noires * Salmia 2 * Sbata * Sidi Bernoussi * Sidi Maârouf * Sidi Moumen * Sidi Othmane Climate Casablanca has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification Csa). The cool Canary Current off the Atlantic coast moderates temperature variation, which results in a climate remarkably similar to that of coastal Los Angeles, with similar temperature ranges. The city has an annual average of 72 days with significant precipitation, which amounts to per year. The highest and lowest temperatures ever recorded in the city are and , respectively. The highest amount of rainfall recorded in a single day is on 30 November 2010. {\|class="wikitable" \|+Casablanca mean sea temperature \|- !Jan !Feb !Mar !Apr !May !Jun !Jul !Aug !Sep !Oct !Nov !Dec \|- \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|} Climate change A 2019 paper published in PLOS One estimated that under Representative Concentration Pathway 4.5, a "moderate" scenario of climate change where global warming reaches ~ by 2100, the climate of Casablanca in the year 2050 would most closely resemble the current climate of Tripoli, Libya. The annual temperature would increase by , and the temperature of the warmest month by , while the temperature of the coldest month would actually decrease by . Moreover, according to the 2022 IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, Casablanca is one of 12 major African cities (Abidjan, Alexandria, Algiers, Cape Town, Casablanca, Dakar, Dar es Salaam, Durban, Lagos, Lomé, Luanda and Maputo) which would be the most severely affected by future sea level rise. It estimates that they would collectively sustain cumulative damages of US$65 billion under RCP 4.5 and US$86.5 billion for the high-emission scenario RCP 8.5 by the year 2050. Additionally, RCP 8.5 combined with the hypothetical impact from marine ice sheet instability at high levels of warming would involve up to US$137.5 billion in damages, while the additional accounting for the "low-probability, high-damage events" may increase aggregate risks to US$187 billion for the "moderate" RCP4.5, US$206 billion for RCP8.5 and US$397 billion under the high-end ice sheet instability scenario. Since sea level rise would continue for about 10,000 years under every scenario of climate change, future costs of sea level rise would only increase, especially without adaptation measures. Economy ]] The Grand Casablanca region is considered the locomotive of the development of the Moroccan economy. It attracts 32% of the country's production units and 56% of industrial labor. The region uses 30% of the national electricity production. With MAD 93 billion, the region contributes to 44% of the industrial production of the kingdom. About 33% of national industrial exports, MAD 27 billion, comes from the Grand Casablanca; 30% of the Moroccan banking network is concentrated in Casablanca. One of the most important exports of Casablanca is phosphate. Other industries include fishing, fish canning, sawmills, furniture production, building materials, glass, textiles, electronics, leather work, processed food, spirits, soft drinks, and cigarettes. The Casablanca and Mohammedia seaports activity represent 50% of the international commercial flows of Morocco. Almost the entire Casablanca waterfront is under development, mainly the construction of huge entertainment centres between the port and Hassan II Mosque, the Anfa Resort project near the business, entertainment and living centre of Megarama, the shopping and entertainment complex of Morocco Mall, as well as a complete renovation of the coastal walkway. The Sindbad park was also renewed with rides, games and entertainment services. Casablanca is a significant financial centre, ranking 54th globally in the September 2023 Global Financial Centres Index rankings, between Brussels and Rome. In 2004, it announced that it was moving its head office from Casablanca to a location in Province of Nouaceur, close to Mohammed V International Airport. The agreement to build the head office in Nouaceur was signed in 2009 but was never implemented. Administration and Politics Casablanca is a munipality that is part of the Casablanca-Settat region. The municipality is divided into 16 districts (arrondissements). Municipality The responsibilities of the Casablanca municipality include : * Economic and social development * Traffic, Roads, Sidewalks, Bike Lanes * Parking * Public Transit * The environment * Parks * Beaches * Public Safety * Hygiene * Libraries * Museums * Cultural Events * Kindergartens * Cemeteries Mayor The Mayor of Casablanca is the head of the Casablanca municipality. He controls the Casablanca municipality administration. The Mayor : * Represents the city * Sits on the board of public development societies (SDL) About 98% live in urban areas. Around 25% of the population are under 15 years old, and 9% are over 60 years old. The population of the city is about 11% of the total population of Morocco. Grand Casablanca is the largest urban area in the Maghreb. 99.9% of the population of Morocco are Arab and Berber Muslims. During the French protectorate in Morocco, European Christians formed almost half the population of Casablanca. Judaism in Casablanca in Casablanca]] Jews have a long history in Casablanca. A Sephardic Jewish community was in Anfa up to the destruction of the city by the Portuguese in 1468. Jews were slow to return to the town, but by 1750, the Rabbi Elijah synagogue was built as the first Jewish synagogue in Casablanca. It was destroyed along with much of the town in the 1755 Lisbon earthquake. Moroccan Jews started migrating from the interior to coastal cities such as Essaouira, Mazagan, Asfi, and later Casablanca for economic opportunity, participating in trade with Europeans and the development of those cities. Casablanca's mellah was ravaged in the bombardment of Casablanca of 1907, the beginning of the French invasion of Morocco from the West. Jean-Louis Cohen highlights the role of Jewish patrons in the architecture and urban development of Casablanca, particularly in construction of the overwhelming majority of the city's tallest buildings during the interwar period. One notable example of this trend is the Lévy-Bendayan Building designed by Marius Boyer. Casablanca then became a departure point in Operation Yachin, the covert Mossad-organized migration operation from 1961 to 1964. In 2018 it was estimated that there were only 2,500 Moroccan Jews living in Casablanca, Today, the Jewish cemetery of Casablanca is one of the major cemeteries of the city, and many synagogues remain in service, but the city's Jewish community has dwindled. The Moroccan Jewish Museum is a museum established in the city in 1997. Education Colleges and universities Public: École Centrale Casablanca University of Hassan II Casablanca Private: HEM Business School Université Mundiapolis Université Internationale de Casablanca Primary and secondary schools International schools: Belgium: École Belge de Casablanca * French: Collège Anatole France Lycée Lyautey Groupe Scolaire Louis Massignon Lycée La Résidence Lycée Maïmonide Lycée Léon l'Africain École Normale Hébraïque École Al Jabr * Italian: Scuola "Enrico Mattei" * Spanish: Instituto Español Juan Ramón Jiménez * American: Casablanca American School American Academy Casablanca *George Washington Academy Montessori: *École Montessori Casablanca Libraries * King Abdul Aziz Foundation for Human Sciences and Islamic Studies * Dar America * Institut Français * Instituto Cervantes Places of worship Most of the city's places of worship are Muslim mosques. Some of the city's synagogues, such as Ettedgui Synagogue, also remain. There are also Christian churches; some remain in use — particularly by the West African migrant community — while many of the churches built during the colonial period have been repurposed, such as Church of the Sacred Heart. Sports Association football (left) and Wydad (right) during a Casablanca derby match in 2010]] Casablanca is home to two popular football clubs: Wydad Casablanca and Raja Casablanca—which are rivals. Raja's symbol is an eagle and Wydad's symbol is a star and crescent, a symbol of Islam. These two popular clubs have produced some of Morocco's best players, such as: Salaheddine Bassir, Abdelmajid Dolmy, Baddou Zaki, Aziz Bouderbala, and Noureddine Naybet. Other football teams on top of these two major teams based in the city of Casablanca include Rachad Bernoussi, TAS de Casablanca, Majd Al Madina, and Racing Casablanca. Raja CA, founded in 1949, compete in Botola and play their home games at the Stade Mohammed V. The club is known for their supporters and is one of the most supported teams in Africa. Wydad AC, founded in 1937, also compete in Botola and play their home games at the Stade Mohammed V. Both have a strong reputation on continental competitions, having both won the CAF Champions League three times. Casablanca hosted eight African Champions League finals, all eight at the Stade Mohammed V. The Stade also hosted the 2018 CHAN Final (which Morocco won) and 1988 African Cup of Nations final. It could potentially host matches for the 2030 FIFA World Cup including the final. Tennis Casablanca hosts The Grand Prix Hassan II, a professional men's tennis tournament of the ATP tour. It first began in 1986, and is played on clay courts type at Complexe Al Amal. Notable winners of the Hassan II Grand-Prix are Thomas Muster in 1990, Hicham Arazi in 1997, Younes El Aynaoui in 2002, and Stanislas Wawrinka in 2010. Hosting Casablanca staged the 1961 Pan Arab Games, the 1983 Mediterranean Games, and games during the 1988 Africa Cup of Nations. Morocco was scheduled to host the 2015 African Nations Cup, but decided to decline due to Ebola fears. Morocco was expelled and the tournament was held in Equatorial Guinea. However, Morocco will host the 2025 edition after original host Guinea was stripped from hosting rights due to lack of readiness and preparation delays. Venues Stade Larbi Zaouli Stade Mohamed V Stade Sidi Bernoussi Complexe Al Amal de Casablanca The Hassan II Stadium is the planned football stadium to be built in the city. Once completed in 2025, it will be used mostly for football matches and will serve as the home of Raja Casablanca, Wydad Casablanca, and the Morocco national football team. The stadium was designed with a capacity of 93,000 spectators, making it one of the highest-capacity stadiums in Africa. Once completed, it will replace the Stade Mohamed V. The initial idea of the stadium was for the 2010 FIFA World Cup, for which Morocco lost their bid to South Africa. Nevertheless, the Moroccan government supported the decision to go ahead with the plans. It will be completed in 2025. The idea of the stadium was also for the 2026 FIFA World Cup, for which Morocco lost their bid to Canada, Mexico and United States. It will now host the 2030 FIFA World Cup which Morocco will co-host with two European nations Spain and Portugal. It is expected to be complete by 2028. Road Racing The city is host to the International Casablanca Marathon, a 26.2-mile road race that draws international competition. The race was founded in 2008 and is a member of the [https://aims-worldrunning.org/races/859.html Association of International Marathons and Distance Races] . Culture Music Haja El Hamdaouia, one of the most iconic figures in aita music, was born in Casablanca. Nass El Ghiwane, led by Larbi Batma, came out of Hay Mohammadi in Casablanca. Naima Samih of Derb Sultan gained prominence through the program Mawahib (). Abdelhadi Belkhayat and Abdelwahab Doukkali are musicians specializing in traditional Moroccan Arabic popular music. Zina Daoudia, Abdelaziz Stati, Abdellah Daoudi, and Said Senhaji are notable Moroccan chaabi musicians. Abdelakabir Faradjallah founded Attarazat Addahabia, a Moroccan funk band, in 1968. Fadoul, another funk band, formed in the 1970s. Hoba Hoba Spirit also formed in Casablanca, and is still based there. Casablanca has a thriving hiphop scene, with artists such as El Grande Toto, Don Big, 7liwa, and Issam Harris. Casablanca hosts numerous music festivals, such as Jazzablanca and L'Boulevard, as well as a museum dedicated to Andalusi music, Dar ul-Aala. Literature Francesco Cavalli's ''L'Ormindo'' is a 17th-century Venetian opera set between Anfa and Fes. The French writer Antoine de Saint-Exupéry is associated with Casablanca. Driss Chraïbi's novel The Simple Past takes place in Casablanca. Mohamed Zafzaf lived in Maarif while writing and teaching at a high school. Lamalif, a radical leftist political and cultural magazine, was based in Casablanca. Casablanca's International Book Fair is held at the fair grounds opposite Hassan II Mosque annually in February. Theater Tayeb Saddiki, described as the father of Moroccan theater, grew up in Casablanca and made his career there. Hanane el-Fadili and Hassan El Fad are popular comedians from Casablanca. Gad Elmaleh is another comedian from Casablanca, though he has made his career abroad. Visual art The École des Beaux-Arts of Casablanca was founded in 1919 by a French Orientalist painter named Édouard Brindeau de Jarny, who started his career teaching drawing at Lycée Lyautey. The Casablanca School—a Modernist art movement and collective including artists such as Farid Belkahia, Mohamed Melehi, and Mohammed Chabâa—developed out of the École des Beaux-Arts of Casablanca in the late 1960s. The Academy of Traditional Arts, part of the Hassan II Mosque complex, was founded 31 October 2012. L'Uzine is a community-based art and culture space in Casablanca. Rebel Spirit published The Casablanca Guide (, ) a comic book about life in Casablanca. Sbagha Bagha is a street art festival during which murals are created on the sides of apartment buildings. Photography Postcard companies such as Léon & Lévy were active in Casablanca. Gabriel Veyre also worked and eventually died in Casablanca. Marcelin Flandrin (1889–1957), a French military photographer, settled in Casablanca and recorded much of the early colonial period in Morocco with his photography. With his staged nude postcard photos taken in Casablanca's colonial brothel quarter, Flandrin was also responsible for disseminating the orientalist image of Moroccan women as sexual objects. Casablanca has a thriving street photography scene. Yoriyas is prominent among photographers capturing the economic capital's street scenes, and has attracted international attention. Film in Mers Sultan.]] In the first half of the 20th century, Casablanca had many movie theaters, such as Cinema Rialto, Cinema Lynx and Cinema Vox, the largest in Africa when it was built. The 1942 American film Casablanca is set in Casablanca and has had a lasting impact on the city's image although it was filmed in the United States. Salut Casa! was a propaganda film brandishing France's purported colonial triumph in its mission civilisatrice in the city. Mostafa Derkaoui's revolutionary independent film About Some Meaningless Events (1974) took place in Casablanca. It was the main subject of Ali Essafi's documentary Before the Dying of the Light. The films Ali Zaoua (2000), Horses of God (2012), and Razzia (2017) of Nabil Ayouch, a French director of Moroccan heritage, deal with street crime, terrorism and social issues in Casablanca, respectively. The events in Meryem Benm'Barek-Aloïsi's 2018 film Sofia revolve around an illegitimate pregnancy in Casablanca. Ahmed El Maanouni, Hicham Lasri and Said Naciri are also from Casablanca. Architecture of Carrières Centrales on the December 1954 cover of L'Architecture d'Aujourd'hui''.]] Casablanca's architecture and urban development are historically significant. The city is home to many notable buildings in a variety of styles, including traditional Moroccan architecture, various colonial architectural styles, Art Nouveau, Art Deco, Neo-Mauresque, Streamline Moderne, Modernism, Brutalism, and more. During the French Protectorate, the French government described Casablanca as a "laboratory of urbanism". The work of the Groupe des Architectes Modernes Marocains (GAMMA) on public housing projects—such as Carrières Centrales in Hay Mohammadi—in a style described as vernacular modernism influenced modernist architecture around the world. Casamémoire and MAMMA. are two organizations dedicated to the preservation and appreciation of the city's architectural heritage. Transport ]] ]] Rapid transit The Casablanca Tramway is the rapid transit tram system in Casablanca. As of 2019, the network consists of two lines covering , with 71 stops; further lines (T3 and T4) are under construction. Casablanca is also planning to introduce a rapid bus network called the Casablanca Busway. The network will consist of two lines, BW1 and BW2. As of October 2023, the system was operating in a testing phase and its public opening, initially planned for July 2023, was delayed due to technical problems. Since the 1970s, Casablanca had planned to build a metro system to offer some relief to the problems of traffic congestion and poor air quality. However, the city council voted to abandon the metro project in 2014 due to high costs, and decided to continue expanding the already operating tram system instead. Air is the hub of the national airline of Morocco, Royal Air Maroc.]] Casablanca's main airport is Mohammed V International Airport, Morocco's busiest airport. Regular domestic flights serve Marrakech, Rabat, Agadir, Oujda, Tangier, Al Hoceima, and Laayoune, as well as other cities. Casablanca is well-served by international flights to Europe, especially French and Spanish airports, and has regular connections to North American, Middle Eastern and sub-Saharan African destinations. New York City, Montreal, Paris, Washington D.C., London and Dubai are important primary destinations. The older, smaller Casablanca-Anfa Airport to the west of the city, served certain destinations including Damascus and Tunis, and was largely closed to international civilian traffic in 2006. It was eventually demolished to make way for construction of the "Casablanca Finance City", the new heart of the city of Casablanca. Casablanca Tit Mellil Airport is located in the nearby community of Tit Mellil. Coach buses Compagnie de Transports au Maroc (CTM) offers private intercity coach buses on various lines run servicing most notable Moroccan towns, as well as a number of European cities. These run from the CTM Bus Station on Leo Africanus Street near the Central Market in downtown Casablanca. Supratours, an affiliate of ONCF, also offers coach bus service at a slightly lower cost, departing from a station on Wilad Zian Street. There is another bus station farther down on the same street called the Wilad Zian Bus Station; this station is the country's largest bus station, serving over 800 buses daily, catering more to Morocco's lower income population. Taxis Registered taxis in Casablanca are coloured red and known as petits taxis (small taxis), or coloured white and known as grands taxis (big taxis). As is standard Moroccan practice, petits taxis, typically small-four door Dacia Logan, Peugeot 207, or similar cars, provide metered cab service in the central metropolitan areas. Grands taxis, generally older Mercedes-Benz sedans, provide shared mini-bus like service within the city on predefined routes, or shared intercity service. Grands taxis may also be hired for private service by the hour or day. Trains Casablanca is served by three main railway stations run by the national rail service, the ONCF. ]] is the main intercity station, from which trains run south to Marrakech or El Jadida and north to Mohammedia and Rabat, and then on either to Tangier or Meknes, Fes, Taza and Oujda/Nador. It also serves as the southern terminus of the Al-Boraq high speed line from Tangier. A dedicated airport shuttle service to Mohammed V International Airport also has its primary in-city stop at this station, for connections on to further destinations. serves primarily commuter trains such as the Train Navette Rapide (TNR or Aouita) operating on the Casablanca – Kenitra rail corridor, with some connecting trains running on to Gare de Casa-Voyageurs. The station provides a direct interchange between train and shipping services, and is located near several port-area hotels. It is the nearest station to the old town of Casablanca, and to the modern city centre, around the landmark Casablanca Twin Center. Casa-Port station is being rebuilt in a modern and enlarged configuration. During the construction, the station is still operational. From 2013, it will provide a close connection from the rail network to the city's new tram network. Casa-Oasis was originally a suburban commuter station which was fully redesigned and rebuilt in the early 21st century, and officially reopened in 2005 as a primary city rail station. Owing to its new status, all southern intercity train services to and from Casa-Voyageurs now call at Casa-Oasis. ONCF stated in 2005 that the refurbishment and upgrading of Casa-Oasis to intercity standards was intended to relieve passenger congestion at Casa-Voyageurs station. Tourism Although Mohammed V International Airport receives most international flights into Morocco, international tourism in Casablanca is not as developed as it is in cities such as Fes and Marrakech. The Hassan II Mosque, which is the second largest mosque in Africa and the seventh-largest in the world, is the city's main tourist attraction. Visitors also come to see the city's rich architectural heritage. Popular sites for national tourism include shopping centers such as Morocco Mall, Anfa Place, the Marina Shopping Center, and the Tachfine Center. Additional sites include the Corniche and the beach of Ain Diab, and parks such as the Arab League Park or the Sindibad theme park. <gallery mode="packed"> غسق الليل في رمضان من على شاطئ عين الذئاب في مدينة الدار البيضاء المغربية.jpg\|Sunset at Ain Diab Касабланка - panoramio (3).jpg\|Casablanca Beach مبنى بأسلوب استعماري فرنسي شارع الحسن الثان.jpeg\|Colonial architecture near UN Square Hassan 2 Mosque (cropped).jpeg\|Hassan II Mosque Parc de la Ligue Arabe Avenue.JPG\|Arab League Park </gallery> Notable people led an international scientific program to install a major astronomical observatory in Antarctica.]] Lahcen Abrami – former Moroccan footballer Amine Atouchi – Moroccan footballer Khalil Azmi – former Moroccan goalkeeper Amal Ayouch – Moroccan stage and film actress * Wissam Baraka – Moroccan footballer * Salaheddine Bassir – Moroccan footballer * Laarbi Batma – Moroccan musician and artist, founding member of Nas El Ghiwan * Larbi Benbarek – Moroccan footballer Badr Benoun – Moroccan footballer Miriem Bensalah-Chaqroun – Moroccan businesswoman * Jean-Paul Bertrand-Demanes – French footballer * Frida Boccara – French singer, winner of the Eurovision Song Contest 1969 * Aziz Bouderbala – former Moroccan footballer * Merieme Chadid – Moroccan astronomer Mustapha Chadili – former goalkeeper Achraf Dari – Moroccan footballer * Jean-Charles de Castelbajac – Moroccan/French fashion designer * Nabil Dirar – Moroccan footballer Abdelmajid Dolmy – former Moroccan footballer Dizzy DROS – Moroccan rapper Issam El Adoua – Moroccan footballer Badr El Kaddouri – former Moroccan footballer Talal El Karkouri – former Moroccan footballer Gad Elmaleh – French/Canadian/Moroccan comedian * Bouchaib El Moubarki – former Moroccan footballer * Youssef Fertout – Moroccan manager * La Fouine – Moroccan/French rapper Khalid Fouhami – former Moroccan goalkeeper Mohamed Fouzair – Moroccan footballer * Divina Frau-Meigs – Moroccan sociologist and professor * El Haqed – Moroccan rapper * Serge Haroche – French physicist, awarded the 2012 Nobel Prize for Physics * Shatha Hassoun – Moroccan/Iraqi singer and actress * Lydia Hatuel-Czuckermann – Israeli Olympic fencer * Mouhcine Iajour – Moroccan footballer * Driss Joumad – former Morocco international footballer * Nadir Lamyaghri – former Moroccan goalkeeper Hamza Mendyl – Moroccan footballer Hicham Mesbahi – Moroccan boxer * French Montana – Moroccan/American rapper * Nawal El Moutawakel – Moroccan Olympic champion * Hakim Mouzaki – Moroccan footballer * Abderrahim Najah – Moroccan international basketball player * Noureddine Naybet – Moroccan footballer * Mostafa Nissaboury – Moroccan poet * Hakim Noury – Moroccan film director * Maurice Ohana – French composer * Faouzia Ouihya – Moroccan-Canadian singer * Azzedine Ounahi- Moroccan footballer * Jean Reno – Hollywood actor * Youssef Rossi – former Moroccan footballer * Abdelilah Saber – Moroccan former footballer * Youssef Safri – Moroccan football manager * Jamal Sellami – Moroccan football manager * Daniel Sivan – Israeli professor * Alain Souchon – French songwriter * Frank Stephenson – Moroccan/British/American award-winning automobile designer * Hassan Saada – Moroccan boxer arrested for alleged rape before Olympic match * Tagne – rapper * Sidney Taurel – naturalized American CEO of Eli Lilly and Company from 1998 to 2008 * Richard Virenque – French cyclist * Muhammad Zarqtuni – Moroccan nationalist and resistance leader * Abdallah Zrika – Moroccan poet In popular culture ]] * The 1942 film Casablanca (starring Ingrid Bergman and Humphrey Bogart) is supposed to have been set in Casablanca, although it was filmed entirely in Los Angeles and does not feature a single Arab or North African character with a speaking role. The film depicts Casablanca as the scene of power struggle between various foreign powers, which had much more to do with the Tangier of the time. The film has achieved worldwide popularity since its release. Nominated for eight Academy Awards, it won three, including Best Picture. A Night in Casablanca (1946) was the 12th Marx Brothers' movie. The film stars Groucho Marx, Chico Marx, and Harpo Marx. It was directed by Archie Mayo and written by Joseph Fields and Roland Kibbee. The film contains the song "Who's Sorry Now?", with music by Ted Snyder and lyrics by Bert Kalmar and Harry Ruby. It is sung in French by Lisette Verea playing the part of Beatrice Rheiner, and then later sung in English. Liszt's "Hungarian Rhapsody No. 2" is played twice, once by Chico on piano as an introduction to the "Beer Barrel Polka", and again by Harpo on the harp. The city is featured in The Mysterious Caravan (1975), volume 54 in the original Hardy Boys series. * Casablanca is the setting for several chapters in Doubleshot, a 2000 James Bond novel by Raymond Benson. In the novel, one of the characters mentions that the 1942 film was shot in Hollywood and not on location. * Casablanca is one of the key locations in the 2006 video game Dreamfall, as it is where the primary protagonist of the game, Zoë Castillo, lives. Although the city is imagined in the year 2219, much of the present-day architecture is used for inspiration. * Casablanca is the setting for the first act of the 2016 World War II romantic thriller film Allied starring Brad Pitt and Marion Cotillard. Twin towns – sister cities Casablanca is twinned with: * Bordeaux, France * Busan, South Korea * Chicago, United States * Dakar, Senegal * Dubai, United Arab Emirates * Jakarta, Indonesia * Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia * Muscat, Oman * Nouadhibou, Mauritania * Shanghai, China Casablanca also has cooperation agreements with: * Madrid, Spain * London, United Kingdom * San Sebastián, Spain * Bucharest, Romania See also * Royal Palace of Casablanca * Rabat Zoo References Citations External links * [http://www.casablanca.ma/ Official web site of Casablanca] * * [http://www.casamemoire.org/index.php?id=29 Casablanca photo gallery (buildings and other landmarks with a history dating back to the French Protectorate)] * [http://www.sun-trails.com/morocco-travel-blog/casablanca-more-than-a-movie/ Open Air Museum of 20th century architecture] * <!--please leave the empty space as standard--> Category:Prefectural capitals in Morocco Category:Regional capitals in Morocco Category:Municipalities of Morocco Category:Populated places established in the 7th century BC	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casablanca	2025-04-05T18:28:07.099913
7303	Cross	thumb\|150px\|A Greek cross (all arms of equal length) above a saltire, a cross whose limbs are slanted A cross is a compound geometrical figure consisting of two intersecting lines, usually perpendicular to each other. The lines usually run vertically and horizontally. A cross of oblique lines, in the shape of the Latin letter X, is termed a saltire in heraldic terminology. The cross has been widely recognized as an absolute symbol of Christianity exclusively from an early period in that religion's history. Before then, it was used as a religious or cultural symbol throughout Europe, in western and south Asia (the latter, in the form of the original Swastika); and in Egypt, where the Ankh was a hieroglyph that represented "life" and was used in the worship of the god Aten. The effigy of a man hanging on a cross was set up in the fields to protect the crops. It often appeared in conjunction with the female-genital circle or oval, to signify the sacred marriage, as in Egyptian amulet Nefer with male cross and female orb, considered as an amulet of blessedness, a charm of sexual harmony. Name The word cross is recorded in 11th-century Old English as cros, exclusively for the instrument of Christ's crucifixion, replacing the native Old English word rood. The word's history is complicated; it appears to have entered English from Old Irish, possibly via Old Norse, ultimately from the Latin (or its accusative and its genitive ), "stake, cross". The English verb to cross arises from the noun , first in the sense "to make the sign of the cross"; the generic meaning "to intersect" develops in the 15th century. The Latin word was influenced by popular etymology by a native Germanic word reconstructed as *krukjo (English crook, Old English , Old Norse , Old High German ). This word, by conflation with Latin , gave rise to Old French (modern French ), the term for a shepherd's crook, adopted in English as crosier. Latin referred to the gibbet where criminals were executed, a stake or pole, with or without , on which the condemned were impaled or hanged, but more particularly a cross or the pole of a carriage. The derived verb means "to put to death on the cross" or, more frequently, "to put to the rack, to torture, torment", especially in reference to mental troubles. In the Roman world, replaced as the name of some cross-like instruments for lethal and temporary punishment, ranging from a forked cross to a gibbet or gallows. The field of etymology is of no help in any effort to trace a supposed original meaning of crux. A crux can be of various shapes: from a single beam used for impaling or suspending () to the various composite kinds of cross () made from more beams than one. The latter shapes include not only the traditional †-shaped cross (the ), but also the T-shaped cross (the or tau cross), which the descriptions in antiquity of the execution cross indicate as the normal form in use at that time, and the X-shaped cross (the crux decussata or saltire). The Greek equivalent of Latin crux "stake, gibbet" is , found in texts of four centuries or more before the gospels and always in the plural number to indicate a stake or pole. From the first century BC, it is used to indicate an instrument used in executions. The Greek word is used in descriptions in antiquity of the execution cross, which indicate that its normal shape was similar to the Greek letter tau (Τ). History Pre-Christian thumb\|Bronze Age "wheel pendants" in the shape of the "sun cross" (Urnfield culture, 2nd millennium BC). Due to the simplicity of the design (two intersecting lines), cross-shaped incisions make their appearance from deep prehistory; as petroglyphs in European cult caves, dating back to the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic, and throughout prehistory to the Iron Age. Also of prehistoric age are numerous variants of the simple cross mark, including the crux gammata with curving or angular lines, and the Egyptian crux ansata with a loop. Speculation has associated the cross symbol – even in the prehistoric period – with astronomical or cosmological symbology involving "four elements" (Chevalier, 1997) or the cardinal points, or the unity of a vertical axis mundi or celestial pole with the horizontal world (Koch, 1955). Speculation of this kind became especially popular in the mid- to late-19th century in the context of comparative mythology seeking to tie Christian mythology to ancient cosmological myths. Influential works in this vein included G. de Mortillet (1866), L. Müller (1865), W. W. Blake (1888), Ansault (1891), etc. thumb\|Archaic cuneiform character LAK-617 (𒔁): a cruciform arrangement of five boxes; scribes could use the central, larger box as container for other characters. In the European Bronze Age the cross symbol appeared to carry a religious meaning, perhaps as a symbol of consecration, especially pertaining to burial. The cross sign occurs trivially in tally marks, and develops into a number symbol independently in the Roman numerals (X "ten"), the Chinese rod numerals (十 "ten") and the Brahmi numerals ("four", whence the numeral 4). In the Phoenician alphabet and derived scripts, the cross symbol represented the phoneme /t/, i.e. the letter taw, which is the historical predecessor of Latin T. The letter name taw means "mark", presumably continuing the Egyptian hieroglyph "two crossed sticks" (Gardiner Z9). Post-Christian thumb\|Early use of a globus cruciger on a solidus minted by Leontios (r. 695–698); on the obverse, a stepped cross in the shape of an Iota Eta monogram. The shape of the cross (crux, stauros "stake, gibbet"), as represented by the Latin letter T, came to be used as a new symbol (seal) or emblem of Christianity since the 2nd century AD to succeeding Ichthys in aftermaths of that new religion's separation from Judaism. Clement of Alexandria in the early 3rd century calls it ("the Lord's sign") he repeats the idea, current as early as the Epistle of Barnabas, that the number 318 (in Greek numerals, ΤΙΗ) in Genesis 14:14 was a foreshadowing (a "type") of the cross (the letter Tau) and of Jesus (the letters Iota Eta). Clement's contemporary Tertullian rejects the accusation that Christians are crucis religiosi (i.e. "adorers of the gibbet"), and returns the accusation by likening the worship of pagan idols to the worship of poles or stakes. In his book De Corona, written in 204, Tertullian tells how it was already a tradition for Christians to trace repeatedly on their foreheads the sign of the cross. While early Christians used the T-shape to represent the cross in writing and gesture, the use of the Greek cross and Latin cross, i.e. crosses with intersecting beams, appears in Christian art towards the end of Late Antiquity. An early example of the cruciform halo, used to identify Christ in paintings, is found in the Miracles of the Loaves and Fishes mosaic of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna (6th century). The Patriarchal cross, a Latin cross with an additional horizontal bar, first appears in the 10th century. A wide variation of cross symbols is introduced for the purposes of heraldry beginning in the age of the Crusades. Marks and graphemes The cross mark is used to mark a position, or as a check mark, but also to mark deletion. Derived from Greek Chi are the Latin letter X, Cyrillic Kha and possibly runic Gyfu. Egyptian hieroglyphs involving cross shapes include ankh "life", ndj "protect" and nfr "good; pleasant, beautiful". Sumerian cuneiform had a simple cross-shaped character, consisting of a horizontal and a vertical wedge (𒈦), read as maš "tax, yield, interest"; the superposition of two diagonal wedges results in a decussate cross (𒉽), read as pap "first, pre-eminent" (the superposition of these two types of crosses results in the eight-pointed star used as the sign for "sky" or "deity" (𒀭), DINGIR). The cuneiform script has other, more complex, cruciform characters, consisting of an arrangement of boxes or the fourfold arrangement of other characters, including the archaic cuneiform characters LAK-210, LAK-276, LAK-278, LAK-617 and the classical sign EZEN (𒂡). Phoenician tāw is still cross-shaped in Paleo-Hebrew alphabet and in some Old Italic scripts (Raetic and Lepontic), and its descendant T becomes again cross-shaped in the Latin minuscule t. The plus sign (+) is derived from Latin t via a simplification of a ligature for et "and" (introduced by Johannes Widmann in the late 15th century). The letter Aleph is cross-shaped in Aramaic and paleo-Hebrew. Egyptian hieroglyphs with cross-shapes include Gardiner Z9 – Z11 ("crossed sticks", "crossed planks"). Other, unrelated cross-shaped letters include Brahmi ka (predecessor of the Devanagari letter क) and Old Turkic (Orkhon) d² and Old Hungarian b, and Katakana ナ na and メme. The multiplication sign (×), often attributed to William Oughtred (who first used it in an appendix to the 1618 edition of John Napier's Descriptio) apparently had been in occasional use since the mid 16th century. Other typographical symbols resembling crosses include the dagger or obelus (†), the Chinese (十, Kangxi radical 24) and Roman (X ten). Unicode has a variety of cross symbols in the "Dingbat" block (U+2700–U+27BF): ✕ ✖ ✗ ✘ ✙ ✚ ✛ ✜ ✝ ✞ ✟ ✠ ✢ ✣ ✤ ✥ The Miscellaneous Symbols block (U+2626 to U+262F) adds three specific Christian cross variants, viz. the Patriarchal cross (☦), Cross of Lorraine (☨) and Cross potent (☩, mistakenly labeled a "Cross of Jerusalem"). Emblems The following is a list of cross symbols, except for variants of the Christian cross and Heraldic crosses, for which see the dedicated lists at Christian cross variants and Crosses in heraldry, respectively. +Crosses as emblems and symbols Picture Cross name Description 25px Ankh The ankh or crux ansata, an Egyptian hieroglyph representing "life". 30px Basque cross The Basque cross or lauburu.30px the Sun cross The "sun cross" or "wheel cross" appears with some regularity in prehistoric European artefacts, usually interpreted as a solar symbol, perhaps representing the spoked wheel of the Sun chariot.30px SwastikaThe swastika or crux gammata (in heraldry fylfot), historically used as a symbol in Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism, and widely popular in the early 20th century as a symbol of good luck or prosperity before adopted as a symbol of Nazism in the 1920s and 30s. As a design element Picture Cross name Description75px Crossed keysSymbol of the Papacy used in various emblems representing the keys to heaven.50px Crossed swordsThe crossed swords symbol (⚔ at Unicode U+2694) is used to represent battlegrounds on maps. It is also used to show that person died in battle or that a war machine was lost in action. Two crossed swords also look like a Christian cross and the mixed symbolism has been used in military decorations. It is also a popular way to display swords on a wall often with a shield in the center75px Four-leaf cloverUsed as a symbol for luck as well as a stand in for a cross in various works.100px Skull and crossbonesTraditionally used to mark Spanish cemeteries; the symbol evolved to represent death/danger, poison, and pirates. Physical gestures Cross shapes are made by a variety of physical gestures. Crossing the fingers of one hand is a common invocation of the symbol. The sign of the cross associated with Christian genuflection is made with one hand: in Eastern Orthodox tradition the sequence is head-heart-right shoulder-left shoulder, while in Oriental Orthodox, Catholic and Anglican tradition the sequence is head-heart-left-right. Crossing the index fingers of both hands represents and a charm against evil in European folklore. Other gestures involving more than one hand include the "cross my heart" movement associated with making a promise and the Tau shape of the referee's "time out" hand signal. Crossed index fingers represent the number 10 (十) in Chinese number gestures. Unicode Unicode provides various cross symbols: Symbol Name Code point ✚ Heavy Greek Cross U+271A ✠ Maltese Cross U+2720 ♱ East Syriac Cross U+2671 ♰ West Syriac Cross U+2670 ☨ Cross of Lorraine U+2628 ☩ Cross of Jerusalem U+2629 ✟ Latin Cross outline U+271F ✞ Shadowed White Latin Cross U+271E ✝ Latin Roman Cross U+271D † Cross U+2020 ✛ Open Centre Cross U+271B ✙ Outlined Greek Cross U+2719 ✘ Heavy Ballot X U+2718 ✜ Heavy Open Centre Cross U+271C ✖ Heavy Multiplication X U+2716 ❌ Cross Mark U+274C ✗ Ballot X U+2717 ✢ Four Teardrop-Spoked Asterisk U+2722 ✤ Heavy Four Balloon-Spoked Asterisk U+2724 References Chevalier, Jean (1997). The Penguin Dictionary of Symbols. Penguin. . Drury, Nevill (1985). Dictionary of Mysticism and the Occult. Harper & Row. . Koch, Rudolf (1955). The Book of Signs. Dover, NY. . Webber, F. R. (1927, rev. 1938). Church Symbolism: An Explanation of the More Important Symbols of the Old and New Testament, the Primitive, the Mediaeval and the Modern Church . Cleveland, OH. . External links Seiyaku.com, all Crosses—probably the largest collection on the Internet Variations of Crosses – Images and Meanings Cross & Crucifix—Glossary: Forms and Topics Nasrani.net, Indian Cross The Christian Cross of Jesus Christ: Symbols of Christianity, Images, Designs and representations of it as objects of devotion Category:Petroglyphs Category:Religious symbols Category:Christian symbols Category:Religious terminology Category:Christian terminology Category:Geometric shapes	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross	2025-04-05T18:28:07.131644
7304	Coordination complex	, PtCl<sub>2</sub>(NH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>, is a coordination complex of platinum(II) with two chloride and two ammonia ligands. It is one of the most successful anticancer drugs.]] A coordination complex is a chemical compound consisting of a central atom or ion, which is usually metallic and is called the coordination centre, and a surrounding array of bound molecules or ions, that are in turn known as ligands or complexing agents. Many metal-containing compounds, especially those that include transition metals (elements like titanium that belong to the periodic table's d-block), are coordination complexes.Nomenclature and terminology Coordination complexes are so pervasive that their structures and reactions are described in many ways, sometimes confusingly. The atom within a ligand that is bonded to the central metal atom or ion is called the donor atom. In a typical complex, a metal ion is bonded to several donor atoms, which can be the same or different. A polydentate (multiple bonded) ligand is a molecule or ion that bonds to the central atom through several of the ligand's atoms; ligands with 2, 3, 4 or even 6 bonds to the central atom are common. These complexes are called chelate complexes; the formation of such complexes is called chelation, complexation, and coordination. The central atom or ion, together with all ligands, comprise the coordination sphere. The central atoms or ion and the donor atoms comprise the first coordination sphere. Coordination refers to the "coordinate covalent bonds" (dipolar bonds) between the ligands and the central atom. Originally, a complex implied a reversible association of molecules, atoms, or ions through such weak chemical bonds. As applied to coordination chemistry, this meaning has evolved. Some metal complexes are formed virtually irreversibly and many are bound together by bonds that are quite strong. The number of donor atoms attached to the central atom or ion is called the coordination number. The most common coordination numbers are 2, 4, and especially 6. A hydrated ion is one kind of a complex ion (or simply a complex), a species formed between a central metal ion and one or more surrounding ligands, molecules or ions that contain at least one lone pair of electrons. If all the ligands are monodentate, then the number of donor atoms equals the number of ligands. For example, the cobalt(II) hexahydrate ion or the hexaaquacobalt(II) ion [Co(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>6</sub>]<sup>2+</sup> is a hydrated-complex ion that consists of six water molecules attached to a metal ion Co. The oxidation state and the coordination number reflect the number of bonds formed between the metal ion and the ligands in the complex ion. However, the coordination number of Pt(en) is 4 (rather than 2) since it has two bidentate ligands, which contain four donor atoms in total. Any donor atom will give a pair of electrons. There are some donor atoms or groups which can offer more than one pair of electrons. Such are called bidentate (offers two pairs of electrons) or polydentate (offers more than two pairs of electrons). In some cases an atom or a group offers a pair of electrons to two similar or different central metal atoms or acceptors—by division of the electron pair—into a three-center two-electron bond. These are called bridging ligands. History ]] Coordination complexes have been known since the beginning of modern chemistry. Early well-known coordination complexes include dyes such as Prussian blue. Their properties were first well understood in the late 1800s, following the 1869 work of Christian Wilhelm Blomstrand. Blomstrand developed what has come to be known as the complex ion chain theory. In considering metal amine complexes, he theorized that the ammonia molecules compensated for the charge of the ion by forming chains of the type [(NH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>X</sub>]<sup>X+</sup>, where X is the coordination number of the metal ion. He compared his theoretical ammonia chains to hydrocarbons of the form (CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>X</sub>. Following this theory, Danish scientist Sophus Mads Jørgensen made improvements to it. In his version of the theory, Jørgensen claimed that when a molecule dissociates in a solution there were two possible outcomes: the ions would bind via the ammonia chains Blomstrand had described or the ions would bind directly to the metal. It was not until 1893 that the most widely accepted version of the theory today was published by Alfred Werner. Werner's work included two important changes to the Blomstrand theory. The first was that Werner described the two possibilities in terms of location in the coordination sphere. He claimed that if the ions were to form a chain, this would occur outside of the coordination sphere while the ions that bound directly to the metal would do so within the coordination sphere. In one of his most important discoveries however Werner disproved the majority of the chain theory. Werner discovered the spatial arrangements of the ligands that were involved in the formation of the complex hexacoordinate cobalt. His theory allows one to understand the difference between a coordinated ligand and a charge balancing ion in a compound, for example the chloride ion in the cobaltammine chlorides and to explain many of the previously inexplicable isomers. In 1911, Werner first resolved the coordination complex hexol into optical isomers, overthrowing the theory that only carbon compounds could possess chirality.StructuresThe ions or molecules surrounding the central atom are called ligands. Ligands are classified as L or X (or a combination thereof), depending on how many electrons they provide for the bond between ligand and central atom. L ligands provide two electrons from a lone electron pair, resulting in a coordinate covalent bond. X ligands provide one electron, with the central atom providing the other electron, thus forming a regular covalent bond. The ligands are said to be coordinated to the atom. For alkenes, the pi bonds can coordinate to metal atoms. An example is ethylene in the complex (Zeise's salt).Geometry In coordination chemistry, a structure is first described by its coordination number, the number of ligands attached to the metal (more specifically, the number of donor atoms). Usually one can count the ligands attached, but sometimes even the counting can become ambiguous. Coordination numbers are normally between two and nine, but large numbers of ligands are not uncommon for the lanthanides and actinides. The number of bonds depends on the size, charge, and electron configuration of the metal ion and the ligands. Metal ions may have more than one coordination number. Typically the chemistry of transition metal complexes is dominated by interactions between s and p molecular orbitals of the donor-atoms in the ligands and the d orbitals of the metal ions. The s, p, and d orbitals of the metal can accommodate 18 electrons (see 18-Electron rule). The maximum coordination number for a certain metal is thus related to the electronic configuration of the metal ion (to be more specific, the number of empty orbitals) and to the ratio of the size of the ligands and the metal ion. Large metals and small ligands lead to high coordination numbers, e.g. . Small metals with large ligands lead to low coordination numbers, e.g. . Due to their large size, lanthanides, actinides, and early transition metals tend to have high coordination numbers. Most structures follow the points-on-a-sphere pattern (or, as if the central atom were in the middle of a polyhedron where the corners of that shape are the locations of the ligands), where orbital overlap (between ligand and metal orbitals) and ligand-ligand repulsions tend to lead to certain regular geometries. The most observed geometries are listed below, but there are many cases that deviate from a regular geometry, e.g. due to the use of ligands of diverse types (which results in irregular bond lengths; the coordination atoms do not follow a points-on-a-sphere pattern), due to the size of ligands, or due to electronic effects (see, e.g., Jahn–Teller distortion): Linear for two-coordination Trigonal planar for three-coordination Tetrahedral or square planar for four-coordination Trigonal bipyramidal for five-coordination Octahedral for six-coordination Pentagonal bipyramidal for seven-coordination Square antiprismatic for eight-coordination Tricapped trigonal prismatic for nine-coordination The idealized descriptions of 5-, 7-, 8-, and 9- coordination are often indistinct geometrically from alternative structures with slightly differing L-M-L (ligand-metal-ligand) angles, e.g. the difference between square pyramidal and trigonal bipyramidal structures. Square pyramidal for five-coordination Capped octahedral or capped trigonal prismatic for seven-coordination * Dodecahedral or bicapped trigonal prismatic for eight-coordination Capped square antiprismatic for nine-coordination To distinguish between the alternative coordinations for five-coordinated complexes, the τ geometry index was invented by Addison et al. This index depends on angles by the coordination center and changes between 0 for the square pyramidal to 1 for trigonal bipyramidal structures, allowing to classify the cases in between. This system was later extended to four-coordinated complexes by Houser et al. and also Okuniewski et al. In systems with low d electron count, due to special electronic effects such as (second-order) Jahn–Teller stabilization, certain geometries (in which the coordination atoms do not follow a points-on-a-sphere pattern) are stabilized relative to the other possibilities, e.g. for some compounds the trigonal prismatic geometry is stabilized relative to octahedral structures for six-coordination. Bent for two-coordination Trigonal pyramidal for three-coordination Trigonal prismatic for six-coordination Isomerism The arrangement of the ligands is fixed for a given complex, but in some cases it is mutable by a reaction that forms another stable isomer. There exist many kinds of isomerism in coordination complexes, just as in many other compounds. Stereoisomerism Stereoisomerism occurs with the same bonds in distinct orientations. Stereoisomerism can be further classified into: Cis–trans isomerism and facial–meridional isomerism Cis–trans isomerism occurs in octahedral and square planar complexes (but not tetrahedral). When two ligands are adjacent they are said to be cis, when opposite each other, trans. When three identical ligands occupy one face of an octahedron, the isomer is said to be facial, or fac. In a fac isomer, any two identical ligands are adjacent or cis to each other. If these three ligands and the metal ion are in one plane, the isomer is said to be meridional, or mer. A mer isomer can be considered as a combination of a trans and a cis, since it contains both trans and cis pairs of identical ligands. <div align="center"> <gallery> Image:Cis-dichlorotetraamminecobalt(III).png\| Image:Trans-dichlorotetraamminecobalt(III).png\| Image:Fac-trichlorotriamminecobalt(III).png\| Image:Mer-trichlorotriamminecobalt(III).png\| </gallery> </div> Optical isomerism Optical isomerism occurs when a complex is not superimposable with its mirror image. It is so called because the two isomers are each optically active, that is, they rotate the plane of polarized light in opposite directions. In the first molecule shown, the symbol Λ (lambda) is used as a prefix to describe the left-handed propeller twist formed by three bidentate ligands. The second molecule is the mirror image of the first, with the symbol Δ (delta) as a prefix for the right-handed propeller twist. The third and fourth molecules are a similar pair of Λ and Δ isomers, in this case with two bidentate ligands and two identical monodentate ligands. <div align="center"> <gallery> Image:Delta-tris(oxalato)ferrate(III)-3D-balls.png\|Potassium ferrioxalate\| Image:Lambda-tris(oxalato)ferrate(III)-3D-balls.png\| Image:Delta-cis-dichlorobis(ethylenediamine)cobalt(III).png\|cis-Dichlorobis(ethylenediamine)cobalt(III) chloride\| Image:Lambda-cis-dichlorobis(ethylenediamine)cobalt(III).png\| </gallery> </div> Structural isomerism Structural isomerism occurs when the bonds are themselves different. Four types of structural isomerism are recognized: ionisation isomerism, solvate or hydrate isomerism, linkage isomerism and coordination isomerism. # Ionisation isomerism – the isomers give different ions in solution although they have the same composition. This type of isomerism occurs when the counter ion of the complex is also a potential ligand. For example, pentaamminebromocobalt(III) sulphate is red violet and in solution gives a precipitate with barium chloride, confirming the presence of sulphate ion, while pentaamminesulphatecobalt(III) bromide is red and tests negative for sulphate ion in solution, but instead gives a precipitate of AgBr with silver nitrate. # Solvate or hydrate isomerism – the isomers have the same composition but differ with respect to the number of molecules of solvent that serve as ligand vs simply occupying sites in the crystal. Examples: is violet colored, is blue-green, and is dark green. See water of crystallization. For example, nitrite can coordinate through O or N. One pair of nitrite linkage isomers have structures (nitro isomer) and (nitrito isomer). For simple compounds with high symmetry, the d–d transitions can be assigned using Tanabe–Sugano diagrams. These assignments are gaining increased support with computational chemistry. {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Colours of Various Example Coordination Complexes \|- ! ! Fe<sup>2+</sup> ! Fe<sup>3+</sup> ! Co<sup>2+</sup> ! Cu<sup>2+</sup> ! Al<sup>3+</sup> ! Cr<sup>3+</sup> \|- ! Hydrated Ion \| style"background: #CBE9AD;" \| <br/>Pale green<br/> \| style"background: #EAD558;" \| <br/>Yellow/brown<br/> \| style"background: #FF99CB;" \| <br/>Pink<br/> \| style"background: #C7D9F1;" \| <br/>Blue<br/> \| style"background: #F2F2F2;" \| <br/>Colourless<br/> \| style"background: #D7E3BD;" \| <br/>Green<br/> \|- ! (OH)<sup>−</sup>, dilute \| style"background: #92D14F;" \| <br/>Dark green<br/> \| style"background: #9B752A;" \| <br/>Brown<br/> \| style"background: #8AE5D6;" \| <br/>Blue/green<br/> \| style"background: #8EB2E2;" \| <br/>Blue<br/> \| style"background: #FFFFFF;" \| <br/>White<br/> \| style"background: #76923D;" \| <br/>Green<br/> \|- ! (OH)<sup>−</sup>, concentrated \| style"background: #92D14F;" \| <br/>Dark green<br/> \| style"background: #9B752A;" \| <br/>Brown<br/> \| style"background: #8AE5D6;" \| <br/>Blue/green<br/> \| style"background: #8EB2E2;" \| <br/>Blue<br/> \| style"background: #FFFFFF;" \| <br/>Colourless<br/>Solution \| style"background: #C3D59B;" \| <br/>Green<br/> \|- ! NH<sub>3</sub>, dilute \| style"background: #92D14F;" \| <br/>Dark green<br/> \| style"background: #9B752A;" \| <br/>Brown<br/> \| style"background: #D3D359;" \| <br/>Straw coloured<br/> \| style"background: #548DD4;" \| <br/>Deep blue<br/> \| style"background: #FFFFFF;" \| <br/>White<br/> \| style"background: #CC0099;" \| <br/>Purple<br/> \|- ! NH<sub>3</sub>, concentrated \| style"background: #92D14F;" \| <br/>Dark green<br/> \| style"background: #9B752A;" \| <br/>Brown<br/> \| style"background: #D3D359;" \| <br/>Straw coloured<br/> \| style"background: #548DD4;" \| <br/>Deep blue<br/> \| style"background: #FFFFFF;" \| <br/>White<br/> \| style"background: #CC0099;" \| <br/>Purple<br/> \|- ! (CO<sub>3</sub>)<sup>2-</sup> \| style"background: #92D14F;" \| <br/>Dark green<br /> \| style"background: #9B752A;" \| <br/>Brown<br /> \| style"background: #FF99CB;"\| <br/>Pink<br/> \| style"background: #8AE5D6;" \| <br/>Blue/green<br/> \|} Colors of lanthanide complexes Superficially lanthanide complexes are similar to those of the transition metals in that some are colored. However, for the common Ln<sup>3+</sup> ions (Ln lanthanide) the colors are all pale, and hardly influenced by the nature of the ligand. The colors are due to 4f electron transitions. As the 4f orbitals in lanthanides are "buried" in the xenon core and shielded from the ligand by the 5s and 5p orbitals they are therefore not influenced by the ligands to any great extent leading to a much smaller crystal field splitting than in the transition metals. The absorption spectra of an Ln<sup>3+</sup> ion approximates to that of the free ion where the electronic states are described by spin-orbit coupling. This contrasts to the transition metals where the ground state is split by the crystal field. Absorptions for Ln<sup>3+</sup> are weak as electric dipole transitions are parity forbidden (Laporte forbidden) but can gain intensity due to the effect of a low-symmetry ligand field or mixing with higher electronic states (e.g. d orbitals). f-f absorption bands are extremely sharp which contrasts with those observed for transition metals which generally have broad bands. This can lead to extremely unusual effects, such as significant color changes under different forms of lighting. Magnetism Metal complexes that have unpaired electrons are paramagnetic. This can be due to an odd number of electrons overall, or to incomplete electron-pairing. Thus, monomeric Ti(III) species have one "d-electron" and must be (para)magnetic, regardless of the geometry or the nature of the ligands. Ti(II), with two d-electrons, forms some complexes that have two unpaired electrons and others with none. This effect is illustrated by the compounds TiX<sub>2</sub>[(CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>PCH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>P(CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>]<sub>2</sub>: when X Cl, the complex is paramagnetic (high-spin configuration), whereas when X CH<sub>3</sub>, it is diamagnetic (low-spin configuration). Ligands provide an important means of adjusting the ground state properties. In bi- and polymetallic complexes, in which the individual centres have an odd number of electrons or that are high-spin, the situation is more complicated. If there is interaction (either direct or through ligand) between the two (or more) metal centres, the electrons may couple (antiferromagnetic coupling, resulting in a diamagnetic compound), or they may enhance each other (ferromagnetic coupling). When there is no interaction, the two (or more) individual metal centers behave as if in two separate molecules. Reactivity Complexes show a variety of possible reactivities: * Electron transfers : Electron transfer (ET) between metal ions can occur via two distinct mechanisms, inner and outer sphere electron transfers. In an inner sphere reaction, a bridging ligand serves as a conduit for ET. (Degenerate) ligand exchange : One important indicator of reactivity is the rate of degenerate exchange of ligands. For example, the rate of interchange of coordinate water in [M(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>6</sub>]<sup>n+</sup> complexes varies over 20 orders of magnitude. Complexes where the ligands are released and rebound rapidly are classified as labile. Such labile complexes can be quite stable thermodynamically. Typical labile metal complexes either have low-charge (Na<sup>+</sup>), electrons in d-orbitals that are antibonding with respect to the ligands (Zn<sup>2+</sup>), or lack covalency (Ln<sup>3+</sup>, where Ln is any lanthanide). The lability of a metal complex also depends on the high-spin vs. low-spin configurations when such is possible. Thus, high-spin Fe(II) and Co(III) form labile complexes, whereas low-spin analogues are inert. Cr(III) can exist only in the low-spin state (quartet), which is inert because of its high formal oxidation state, absence of electrons in orbitals that are M–L antibonding, plus some "ligand field stabilization" associated with the d<sup>3</sup> configuration. Associative processes : Complexes that have unfilled or half-filled orbitals are often capable of reacting with substrates. Most substrates have a singlet ground-state; that is, they have lone electron pairs (e.g., water, amines, ethers), so these substrates need an empty orbital to be able to react with a metal centre. Some substrates (e.g., molecular oxygen) have a triplet ground state, which results that metals with half-filled orbitals have a tendency to react with such substrates (it must be said that the dioxygen molecule also has lone pairs, so it is also capable to react as a 'normal' Lewis base). If the ligands around the metal are carefully chosen, the metal can aid in (stoichiometric or catalytic) transformations of molecules or be used as a sensor. Classification Metal complexes, also known as coordination compounds, include virtually all metal compounds. The study of "coordination chemistry" is the study of "inorganic chemistry" of all alkali and alkaline earth metals, transition metals, lanthanides, actinides, and metalloids. Thus, coordination chemistry is the chemistry of the majority of the periodic table. Metals and metal ions exist, in the condensed phases at least, only surrounded by ligands. The areas of coordination chemistry can be classified according to the nature of the ligands, in broad terms: Classical (or "Werner Complexes"): Ligands in classical coordination chemistry bind to metals, almost exclusively, via their lone pairs of electrons residing on the main-group atoms of the ligand. Typical ligands are H<sub>2</sub>O, NH<sub>3</sub>, Cl<sup>−</sup>, CN<sup>−</sup>, en. Some of the simplest members of such complexes are described in metal aquo complexes, metal ammine complexes, : Examples: [Co(EDTA)]<sup>−</sup>, [[Cobalt(III) hexammine chloride\|[Co(NH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>6</sub>]<sup>3+</sup>]], [[Potassium ferrioxalate\|[Fe(C<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub>]<sup>3-</sup>]] * Organometallic chemistry: Ligands are organic (alkenes, alkynes, alkyls) as well as "organic-like" ligands such as phosphines, hydride, and CO. : Example: (C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>5</sub>)Fe(CO)<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>3</sub> * Bioinorganic chemistry: Ligands are those provided by nature, especially including the side chains of amino acids, and many cofactors such as porphyrins. : Example: hemoglobin contains heme, a porphyrin complex of iron : Example: chlorophyll contains a porphyrin complex of magnesium : Many natural ligands are "classical" especially including water. * Cluster chemistry: Ligands include all of the above as well as other metal ions or atoms as well. : Example Ru<sub>3</sub>(CO)<sub>12</sub> * In some cases there are combinations of different fields: :Example: [[Iron–sulfur protein\|[Fe<sub>4</sub>S<sub>4</sub>(Scysteinyl)<sub>4</sub>]<sup>2−</sup>]], in which a cluster is embedded in a biologically active species. Mineralogy, materials science, and solid state chemistry – as they apply to metal ions – are subsets of coordination chemistry in the sense that the metals are surrounded by ligands. In many cases these ligands are oxides or sulfides, but the metals are coordinated nonetheless, and the principles and guidelines discussed below apply. In hydrates, at least some of the ligands are water molecules. It is true that the focus of mineralogy, materials science, and solid state chemistry differs from the usual focus of coordination or inorganic chemistry. The former are concerned primarily with polymeric structures, properties arising from a collective effects of many highly interconnected metals. In contrast, coordination chemistry focuses on reactivity and properties of complexes containing individual metal atoms or small ensembles of metal atoms. Nomenclature of coordination complexes The basic procedure for naming a complex is: # When naming a complex ion, the ligands are named before the metal ion. # The ligands' names are given in alphabetical order. Numerical prefixes do not affect the order. #* Multiple occurring monodentate ligands receive a prefix according to the number of occurrences: di-, tri-, tetra-, penta-, or hexa-. #* Multiple occurring polydentate ligands (e.g., ethylenediamine, oxalate) receive bis-, tris-, tetrakis-, etc. #* Anions end in o. This replaces the final 'e' when the anion ends with '-ide', '-ate' or '-ite', e.g. chloride becomes chlorido and sulfate becomes sulfato. Formerly, '-ide' was changed to '-o' (e.g. chloro and cyano), but this rule has been modified in the 2005 IUPAC recommendations and the correct forms for these ligands are now chlorido and cyanido. #* Neutral ligands are given their usual name, with some exceptions: NH<sub>3</sub> becomes ammine; H<sub>2</sub>O becomes aqua or aquo; CO becomes carbonyl; NO becomes nitrosyl. # Write the name of the central atom/ion. If the complex is an anion, the central atom's name will end in -ate, and its Latin name will be used if available (except for mercury). # The oxidation state of the central atom is to be specified (when it is one of several possible, or zero), and should be written as a Roman numeral (or 0) enclosed in parentheses. # Name of the cation should be preceded by the name of anion. (if applicable, as in last example) Examples: {\|class="wikitable" !metal !changed to \|- \|cobalt \|cobaltate \|- \|aluminium \|aluminate \|- \|chromium \|chromate \|- \|vanadium \|vanadate \|- \|copper \|cuprate \|- \|iron \|ferrate \|} : [Cd(CN)<sub>2</sub>(en)<sub>2</sub>] → dicyanidobis(ethylenediamine)cadmium(II) : [CoCl(NH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>5</sub>]SO<sub>4</sub> → pentaamminechloridocobalt(III) sulfate : [Cu(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>6</sub>] <sup>2+</sup> → hexaaquacopper(II) ion : [CuCl<sub>5</sub>NH<sub>3</sub>]<sup>3−</sup> → amminepentachloridocuprate(II) ion : K<sub>4</sub>[Fe(CN)<sub>6</sub>] → potassium hexacyanidoferrate(II) : [NiCl<sub>4</sub>]<sup>2−</sup> → tetrachloridonickelate(II) ion (The use of chloro- was removed from IUPAC naming convention) Sometimes the stability constant will be in a different form known as the constant of destability. This constant is expressed as the inverse of the constant of formation and is denoted as K<sub>d</sub> 1/K<sub>f</sub> . This constant represents the reverse reaction for the decomposition of a complex ion into its individual metal and ligand components. When comparing the values for K<sub>d</sub>, the larger the value, the more unstable the complex ion is. As a result of these complex ions forming in solutions they also can play a key role in solubility of other compounds. When a complex ion is formed it can alter the concentrations of its components in the solution. For example: :Ag + 2NH<sub>3</sub> Ag(NH<sub>3</sub>) :AgCl<sub>(s)</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>(l)</sub> Ag + Cl If these reactions both occurred in the same reaction vessel, the solubility of the silver chloride would be increased by the presence of NH<sub>4</sub>OH because formation of the Diammine argentum(I) complex consumes a significant portion of the free silver ions from the solution. By Le Chatelier's principle, this causes the equilibrium reaction for the dissolving of the silver chloride, which has silver ion as a product, to shift to the right. This new solubility can be calculated given the values of K<sub>f</sub> and K<sub>sp</sub> for the original reactions. The solubility is found essentially by combining the two separate equilibria into one combined equilibrium reaction and this combined reaction is the one that determines the new solubility. So K<sub>c</sub>, the new solubility constant, is denoted by: :<math>K_c = K_{sp} K_f</math> <!--Specific metal complexes Mercury The speciation, solubility, mobility, and toxicity of mercury within aquatic environments are strongly influenced by its complexation with inorganic and organic ligands; most notable is mercury’s interaction with dissolved organic matter (DOM). As a result, the speciation of mercury depends on the concentration of each ligand and the stability constants of mercury complexes they form. For mercury, important inorganic ligands include hydroxide, chloride, and sulfide. However, complexation by natural organic compounds often controls the biogeochemical cycling of mercury. For example, complexation with DOM may limit the availability of Hg<sup>2+</sup> for conversion to methylmercury or enhance the formation of elemental mercury (Hg<sup>0</sup>) from Hg<sup>2+</sup>, further lowering the availability of Hg<sup>2+</sup> for conversion to methylmercury. Mercury binding to dissolved organic matter is evaluated in terms of the stability constants of Hg-DOM complexes. This study showed that lower concentrations of binding sites with higher stability constants are more important for Hg speciation than higher concentrations of weaker binding sites. Conditional stability constants vary with pH due to competition with protons for binding sites.<ref name"Han et al" /> They also vary with salinity and, contrary to what may be expected, are generally lower in freshwater than seawater.<ref name"Lamborg et al" /> In seawater, organic complexes must have very high K values in order to compete with chloride for mercury complexation. In freshwater systems, hydroxide is the most common inorganic ligand, yet its concentration is low enough that organic ligands do not need to have a high K value to compete for mercury complexation. In both environments, organic compounds dominate mercury complexation.<ref name"Lamborg et al" /><ref name"Han et al" /> In examining the role of DOM in mercury speciation under sulfidic environments, we see that inorganic sulfide also plays an important role within anoxic environments due to the very strong binding of sulfide with mercury. HgS, Hg(S<sub>2</sub>H)<sup>−</sup>, Hg(SH), and HgS<sub>(s)</sub> are likely to be the most important species. Recent studies however, have shown that stability constants of Hg-DOM complexation are higher than those for mercury sulfide complexation. These results then imply that organic matter can out complete sulfide for the complexation of mercury within anoxic environments.<ref name="Ravichandran et al" /> DOM has been shown to affect the bioaccumulation of mercury via photochemical reduction and methylation. Reduction of Hg<sup>2+</sup> to Hg<sup>0</sup> by sunlight is a commonly occurring process, yet is enhanced in the presence of DOM. Conversely, photolysis of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) can produce radical oxygen species including hydroxyl radicals (<sup>−</sup>OH), which in turn have been shown to oxidize Hg<sup>0</sup> to Hg<sup>2+</sup>.<ref name"Ravichandran et al" /> Conversion of ionic mercury (especially Hg<sup>2+</sup>) to methyl mercury is an important process, as methyl mercury is a neurotoxin and has been show to bioaccumulate within the food chain. Mercury methylation is a microbially mediated process wherein bacteria assimilate neutrally charged mercury species through passive diffusion. Complexation with DOC limits this uptake mechanism as the DOC molecules are too large to pass through cell membranes; however, at low pH, DOC is less negatively charged and therefore less likely to complex mercury, thereby making mercury more available for methylation. Additionally, DOM-mediated reduction of Hg<sup>2+</sup> to Hg<sup>0</sup> would further limit the availability of mercury for methylation by leading to the mercury volatilization. Direct methylation of mercury can also occur by reaction with humic and fulvic acids in DOM.<ref name"Ravichandran et al" />--> Application of coordination compounds As metals only exist in solution as coordination complexes, it follows then that this class of compounds is useful in a wide variety of ways. Bioinorganic chemistry In bioinorganic chemistry and bioorganometallic chemistry, coordination complexes serve either structural or catalytic functions. An estimated 30% of proteins contain metal ions. Examples include the intensely colored vitamin B<sub>12</sub>, the heme group in hemoglobin, the cytochromes, the chlorin group in chlorophyll, and carboxypeptidase, a hydrolytic enzyme important in digestion. Another complex ion enzyme is catalase, which decomposes the cell's waste hydrogen peroxide. Synthetic coordination compounds are also used to bind to proteins and especially nucleic acids (e.g. anticancer drug cisplatin). Industry Homogeneous catalysis is a major application of coordination compounds for the production of organic substances. Processes include hydrogenation, hydroformylation, oxidation. In one example, a combination of titanium trichloride and triethylaluminium gives rise to Ziegler–Natta catalysts, used for the polymerization of ethylene and propylene to give polymers of great commercial importance as fibers, films, and plastics. Nickel, cobalt, and copper can be extracted using hydrometallurgical processes involving complex ions. They are extracted from their ores as ammine complexes. Metals can also be separated using the selective precipitation and solubility of complex ions. Cyanide is used chiefly for extraction of gold and silver from their ores. Phthalocyanine complexes are an important class of pigments. Analysis At one time, coordination compounds were used to identify the presence of metals in a sample. Qualitative inorganic analysis has largely been superseded by instrumental methods of analysis such as atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS), inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). See also Activated complex IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry Coordination cage Coordination geometry Coordination isomerism Coordination polymers, in which coordination complexes are the repeating units. Inclusion compounds Organometallic chemistry deals with a special class of coordination compounds where organic fragments are bonded to a metal at least through one C atom. References Further reading * De Vito, D.; Weber, J. ; Merbach, A. E. “Calculated Volume and Energy Profiles for Water Exchange on t<sub>2g</sub> <sup>6</sup> Rhodium(III) and Iridium(III) Hexaaquaions: Conclusive Evidence for an I<sub>a</sub> Mechanism” Inorganic Chemistry, 2004, Volume 43, pages 858–863. * Zumdahl, Steven S. Chemical Principles, Fifth Edition. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2005. 943–946, 957. * Harris, D., Bertolucci, M., Symmetry and Spectroscopy. 1989 New York, Dover Publications External links [http://www.chemistry.wustl.edu/~edudev/LabTutorials/naming_coord_comp.html Naming Coordination Compounds] [http://www.wou.edu/las/physci/ch462/tmcolors.htm Transition Metal Complex Colors] Category:Inorganic chemistry Category:Transition metals Category:Coordination chemistry	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordination_complex	2025-04-05T18:28:07.166514
7305	Coleco	\| defunct = \| location = West Hartford, Connecticut, U.S. \| founder = Maurice Greenberg \| key_people \| industry = \| products }} Coleco Industries, Inc. ( ) was an American company founded in 1932 by Maurice Greenberg as The Connecticut Leather Company. The name "COLECO" is an abbreviation derived from the company's original name which combines the first two letters of "Connecticut," "Leather," and "Company." It was a successful toy company in the 1980s, mass-producing versions of Cabbage Patch Kids dolls and its video game consoles, the Coleco Telstar dedicated consoles and ColecoVision. While the company ceased operations in 1988 as a result of bankruptcy, the Coleco brand was revived in 2005, and remains active to this day. Overview 1932: origins as The Connecticut Leather Company Coleco Industries, Inc. began in 1932 as The Connecticut Leather Company. The business supplied leather and "shoe findings" (the supplies and paraphernalia of a shoe repair shop) to shoe repairers. In 1938, the company began selling rubber footwear. During World War II demand for the company's supplies increased and by the end of the war, the company was larger and had expanded into new and used shoe machinery, hat cleaning equipment and marble shoeshine stands. 1950s: leather diversification By the early 1950s, and thanks to Maurice Greenberg's son, Leonard Greenberg, the company had diversified further and was making leather lacing and leathercraft kits. In 1954, at the New York Toy Fair, their leather moccasin kit was selected as a Child Guidance Prestige Toy, and Connecticut Leather Company decided to commit to the toy business. In 1956, Leonard read about the emerging technology of vacuum formed plastic; the company adopted this and it became increasingly successful, producing a wide variety of plastic toys and wading pools. 1961: Coleco Industries, Inc. In 1961, the leather and shoe findings portion of the business was sold, and Connecticut Leather Company became Coleco Industries, Inc, An abbreviation of "Connecticut Leather Company". On January 9, 1962, Coleco went public, offering 120,000 shares of stock at $5.00 a share. 1960s: acquisitions In 1963, the company acquired the Kestral Corporation of Springfield, Massachusetts, a manufacturer of inflatable vinyl pools and toys. This led to Coleco becoming the largest manufacturer of above-ground swimming pools in the world. In 1966, Leonard persuaded his brother Arnold Greenberg to join the company. Further acquisitions included Playtime Products (1966) and Eagle Toys of Canada (1968). By the end of the 1960s, Coleco operated ten manufacturing facilities and occupied a new corporate headquarters in Hartford, Connecticut. 1970s: financial difficulties and further diversification Coleco experienced financial difficulty during the 1970s, even though sales had grown to $48.6 million in 1971. In 1972, Coleco entered the snowmobile market through acquisition. Lower than expected snowfall that year and market conditions led to very reduced sales and poor profits. Dozens of companies rushed to introduce game systems after the release of Atari's successful Pong console and the company entered the video game console business with the Telstar. Nearly all of the new game systems were based on General Instrument's "Pong-on-a-chip". General Instrument had underestimated demand, resulting in severe shortages. However, Coleco was one of the first to place an order and therefore one of the few companies to receive the full order. Though dedicated game consoles did not last long on the market, their early order enabled Coleco to break even. Late 1970s: handheld electronic games Coleco continued to perform well in electronics. The company transitioned into handheld electronic games, a market popularized by Mattel. An early success was Electronic Quarterback. Coleco produced two popular lines of games, the "head to head" series of two player sports games (Football, Baseball, Basketball, Soccer, Hockey, Boxing) and the Mini-Arcade series of licensed video arcade titles such as Donkey Kong and Ms. Pac-Man. A third line of educational handhelds was also produced and included the Electronic Learning Machine, Lil Genius, Digits, and a trivia game called Quiz Wiz. Launched in 1982, their first four tabletop Mini-Arcades, for Pac-Man, Galaxian, Donkey Kong, and Frogger, sold approximately three million units within a year. Among these, 1.5 million units were sold for Pac-Man alone. In 1983, it released three more Mini-Arcades: Ms. Pac-Man, Donkey Kong Junior, and Zaxxon. The system was quite popular and more powerful than the Atari 2600, and came bundled with a copy of Donkey Kong. The console sold 560,000 units in 1982. Coleco also hedged its bet on video games by introducing a line of ROM cartridges for the Atari 2600 and Intellivision, selling six million cartridges for both systems, along with two million sold for the ColecoVision for a total of eight million cartridges sold in 1982. It also introduced the Coleco Gemini, a clone of the popular Atari 2600, which came bundled with a copy of Donkey Kong. When the video game business began to implode in 1983, it seemed clear that video game consoles were being supplanted by home computers. Bob Greenberg, son of Leonard Greenberg and nephew of Arnold Greenberg, left Microsoft where he had been working as a program developer at the time to assist in Coleco's entry into this market. Coleco's strategy was to introduce the Coleco Adam home computer, both as a stand-alone system and as an expansion module to the ColecoVision. The effort failed, in part because Adams were often unreliable due to being released with critical bugs, and in part because the computer's release coincided with the home computer industry crashing. In the same year, Dr. Seuss signed a deal with Coleco to design a line of toys, including home video games based on his characters. Flush with success, Coleco purchased Leisure Dynamics (manufacturer of the board games Aggravation and Perfection) and beleaguered Selchow and Righter, manufacturers of Scrabble, Parcheesi, and Trivial Pursuit, in 1986. Sales of Selchow & Righter games had plummeted, leaving them with warehouses full of unsold games. The purchase price for Selchow & Righter was $75 million. That same year, Coleco introduced an ALF plush, based on the furry alien character who had his own television series at the time, as well as a talking version and a cassette-playing "Storytelling ALF" doll. 1988: bankruptcy and sale The combination of the purchase of Selchow & Righter, the disastrous Adam computer, and the public's waning infatuation with Cabbage Patch Dolls all contributed to Coleco's financial decline. In 1988, the company filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy. The reorganized Coleco sold off all of its North American assets and outsourced thousands of jobs to foreign countries, closing plants in Amsterdam, New York and other cities. In 1988, Canada-based SLM Action Sports Inc. purchased Coleco's swimming pool and snow goods divisions. In 1989, Hasbro purchased most of Coleco's remaining product lines. In 1990, Playskool purchased Coleco's power Cycle product line. Brand Coleco as a brand name has been owned by several entities since it was created in 1961 by Coleco Industries, Inc. In 2005, River West Brands, now Dormitus Brands, a Chicago-based brand revitalization company, re-introduced the Coleco brand to the marketplace. In late 2006, the company introduced the Coleco Sonic, a handheld system containing twenty Master System and Game Gear games, including two from the Sonic the Hedgehog series. In 2014, River West Brands established the subsidiary Coleco Holdings for their Coleco-branded projects. In December 2015, Coleco Holdings announced the development of the Coleco Chameleon, a new cartridge-based video game system; in actuality, a re-branding of the controversial Retro VGS console, whose Indiegogo campaign failed to secure funding when it ended in early November 2015, with only $63,546 raised of its $1.95 million goal. In the press release, it was established that the system would be able to play new and classic games in the 8, 16, and 32-bit styles. The release for the system was announced to be sometime in early 2016, with a demonstration at Toy Fair New York in February. However, some critics suggested that the prototype fell short of its developmental goals and was nothing more than the motherboard of a Super NES model SNS-101 inside an Atari Jaguar case. Later mock images of a prototype posted by AtariAge showed the device utilizing a CCTV capture card in place of a motherboard. After Retro VGS failed to produce a fully working prototype, Coleco Holdings pulled out of involvement with Retro VGS, terminating the project.See also * Sectaurs * Starcom: The U.S. Space Force References External links * [http://thedoteaters.com/?bitstory=colecovision Article at The Dot Eaters] - A history of Coleco and the ColecoVision products. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170915033704/http://colecomuseum.com/ www.colecomuseum.com] - Dedicated to Coleco collectibles. * [http://www.colecovisionzone.com/ ColecoVision Zone] - Comprehensive archive of photos and documents. Category:Toy companies established in 1932 Category:Video game companies disestablished in 1988 Category:Companies that have filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy Category:Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 1988 Category:Former Hasbro subsidiaries Category:West Hartford, Connecticut Category:Toy companies of the United States Category:Defunct video game companies of the United States Category:Defunct companies based in Connecticut Category:Defunct leather manufacturers Category:1932 establishments in Connecticut Category:1988 disestablishments in Connecticut	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coleco	2025-04-05T18:28:07.178463
7306	ColecoVision	\| discontinued = 1985 \| CPU = Zilog Z80 \| GPU = TMS9928A (NTSC)<br>TMS9929A (PAL) \| sound = SN76489 \| memory = \| media = ROM cartridge \| storage = 8/16/24/32 KB \| controllers = \| units sold > 2 million (1982–83) \| units shipped \| top game Donkey Kong (pack-in) \| S.R.P. \| predecessor Coleco Telstar series (1978) \| }} ColecoVision is a second-generation home video-game console developed by Coleco and launched in North America in August 1982. It was released a year later in Europe by CBS Electronics as the CBS ColecoVision. The console offered a closer experience to more powerful arcade video games compared to competitors such as the Atari 2600 and Intellivision. The initial catalog of twelve games on ROM cartridge included the first home version of Nintendo's Donkey Kong as the pack-in game. Approximately 136 games were published between 1982 and 1984, including Sega's Zaxxon and some ports of lesser known arcade games that found a larger audience on the console, such as Lady Bug, Cosmic Avenger, and Venture. Coleco released a series of hardware add-ons and special controllers to expand the capabilities of the console. "Expansion Module #1" allowed the system to play Atari 2600 cartridges. A later module converted ColecoVision into the Adam home computer. ColecoVision was discontinued in 1985 when Coleco withdrew from the video game market. Coleco had already contemplated shifting focus to their Cabbage Patch Kids success after the costly failure of their Adam computer. Development Coleco entered the video game market in 1976 during the dedicated-game home console period with their line of Telstar consoles. When that market became oversaturated over the next few years, the company nearly went bankrupt, but found a successful product through handheld electronic games, with products that beat out those of the current market leader, Mattel. The company also developed a line of miniaturized tabletop arcade video games with licensed rights from arcade game makers including Sega, Bally, Midway, and Nintendo. Coleco was able to survive on sales of their electronic games through to 1982, but that market itself began to wane, and Coleco president Arnold Greenberg was still interested in producing a home video game console. According to Eric Bromley, who led the engineering for the ColecoVision, Greenberg had wanted to get into the programmable home console market with arcade-quality games, but the cost of components had been a limiting factor. As early as 1979, Bromley had drawn out specifications for a system using a Texas Instruments video and a General Instrument audio chip, but could not get the go-ahead due to the cost of RAM. Around 1981, Bromley saw an article in The Wall Street Journal that asserted the price of RAM had fallen and, after working the cost numbers, Bromley found the system cost fell within their cost margins. Within ten minutes of reporting this to Greenberg, they had established the working name "ColecoVision" for the console as they began a more thorough design, which the marketing department never was able to surpass. Coleco recognized that licensed conversion of arcade games had worked for Atari in selling the Atari VCS, so they had approached Nintendo around 1981 for potential access to their arcade titles. Bromley described a tense set of meetings with Nintendo's president Hiroshi Yamauchi under typical Japanese customs where he sought to negotiate for game rights, though Yamauchi only offered seemingly obscure titles. After a meal with Yamauchi during one day, Bromley excused himself to the restroom and happened upon one of the first Donkey Kong cabinets, which had yet to be released to Western countries. Knowing this game would likely be a hit, Bromley arranged a meeting the following day with Yamauchi and requested the exclusive rights to Donkey Kong; Yamauchi offered them if only they could provide upfront by that day and gave them per unit sold. Greenberg agreed, though as in Japanese custom, Bromley did not have a formal contract from Nintendo on his return. By the time of that year's Consumer Electronics Show, which Yamauchi was attending, Bromley found out from Yamauchi's daughter and translator that he had apparently given the rights to Atari. With Yamauchi's daughter's help, Bromley was able to commit Yamauchi to sign a formal contract to affirm the rights to Coleco. Release ]] The ColecoVision was released in August 1982. By Christmas 1982, Coleco had sold more than 500,000 units, in part on the strength of Donkey Kong as the bundled game. ColecoVision's main competitor was the less commercially successful Atari 5200. Sales quickly passed 1 million in early 1983. The ColecoVision was distributed by CBS Electronics outside of North America and was branded the CBS ColecoVision. In Europe, the console was released in July 1983, nearly one year after the North American release. Sega Enterprises attempted a Japanese version of the console, but it was retooled into the SG-1000 before release. By the beginning of 1984, quarterly sales of the ColecoVision had dramatically decreased. In January 1985, Coleco discontinued the Adam, which was a home computer expansion for ColecoVision. By mid-1985, Coleco planned to withdraw from the video game market, and the ColecoVision was officially discontinued by October. Total sales are uncertain, but were ultimately in excess of 2 million consoles, with the console continuing to sell modestly up until its discontinuation. In 1983, Spectravideo announced the SV-603 ColecoVision Video Game Adapter for its SV-318 computer. The company stated that the $70 product allowed users to "enjoy the entire library of exciting ColecoVision video-game cartridges". Hardware ColecoVision is based around the Zilog Z80 CPU and a variant of the Texas Instruments TMS9918 video chip that was introduced in 1979. On NTSC ColecoVision consoles, all first-party cartridges and most third-party software titles feature a 12.7 second pause before presenting the game select screen. CBS Electronics reduced this pause in the BIOS to 3.3 seconds for their PAL and SECAM ColecoVision consoles. Expansion Modules and accessories From its introduction, Coleco touted the ColecoVision's hardware expandability by highlighting the Expansion Module Interface on the front of the unit. These hardware expansion modules and accessories were sold separately. Atari 2600 expansion Expansion Module #1 made the ColecoVision compatible with Atari 2600 cartridges and controllers. Driving controller Expansion Module #2 is a driving controller (steering wheel / gas pedal) that comes packaged with the cartridge Turbo. The gas pedal is merely a simple on/off switch. Although Coleco called the driving controller an expansion module, it actually plugs into the controller port, not the Expansion Module Interface. The driving controller is also compatible with the cartridges Destructor, ''Bump 'n' Jump, Pitstop, and The Dukes of Hazzard. Adam computer expansion Expansion Module #3 converts the ColecoVision into the Adam computer, complete with keyboard, digital data pack (DDP) cassette drive, 64 KB RAM, and printer. Roller Controller The Roller Controller is a trackball that comes packaged with the cartridge Slither, a conversion of the arcade game. The roller controller uses a special power connector that is not compatible with Expansion Module #3 (the Adam computer). Coleco mailed an adapter to owners of both units who complained. The other cartridge programmed to use the roller controller is Victory. A joystick mode switch on the roller controller allows it to be used with all cartridges including WarGames, Omega Race'', and Atarisoft's Centipede. Super Action Controller The Super Action Controller Set, available in September 1983, is a set of two handheld joystick controllers that comes packaged with the cartridge Super Action Baseball. Each controller has a ball-top joystick, four finger triggered action buttons, a 12-button numeric keypad, and a "speed roller". The cartridges Super Action Football, Rocky Super Action Boxing, and a conversion of the arcade game Front Line are also designed to be used with the Super Action Controller. Unreleased Expansion Module #3 was originally the Super Game Module. It was advertised for an August 1983 release but was ultimately cancelled and replaced with the Adam computer expansion. The Super Game Module added a tape drive known as the Exatron Stringy Floppy with 128 KB capacity, and the additional RAM, said to be 30 KB, to load and execute programs from tape. Games could be distributed on tiny tapes, called wafers, and be much larger than the 16 KB or 32 KB ROM cartridges of the day. Super Donkey Kong, with all screens and animations, Super Donkey Kong Jr, and Super Smurf Rescue were demonstrated with the Super Game Module. The Adam computer expansion with its 256 KB tape drive and 64 KB RAM fulfilled the specifications promised by the Super Game Module. Games Legacy Masayuki Uemura, head of Famicom development, stated that the ColecoVision set the bar that influenced how he approached the creation of the Famicom. During the creation of the Nintendo Entertainment System, Takao Sawano, chief manager of the project, brought a ColecoVision home to his family, who were impressed by the system's capability to produce smooth graphics, which contrasted with the flickering commonly seen on Atari 2600 games. In 1986, Bit Corporation produced a ColecoVision clone called the Dina, which was sold in the United States by Telegames as the Telegames Personal Arcade. IGN named the ColecoVision their 12th-best video-game console out of their list of 25, citing "its incredible accuracy in bringing current-generation arcade hits home". In 1996, the first homebrew ColecoVision game was released: a Tetris clone titled Kevtris. In 1997, Telegames released Personal Arcade Vol. 1, a collection of ColecoVision games for Microsoft Windows, and a 1998 follow-up, Colecovision Hits Volume One. In 2012, Opcode Games released their own Super Game Module expansion, which increases RAM from 1 KB to 32 KB and adds four additional sound channels. This expansion brings the ColecoVision close to the MSX architecture standard, allowing MSX software to be more easily ported. In 2014, AtGames began producing the ColecoVision Flashback console that includes 60 games, but not the original pack-in game, Donkey Kong. References External links * [https://www.lifewire.com/history-of-colecovision-729731 The History of ColecoVision Game System] * [http://www.colecovisionzone.com/ ColecoVision Zone] - comprehensive archive of photos and documents. Vision Category:Computer-related introductions in 1982 Category:Discontinued video game consoles Category:Home video game consoles Category:Second-generation video game consoles Category:1980s toys Category:Z80-based video game consoles	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ColecoVision	2025-04-05T18:28:07.192057
7309	Coleco Telstar series	The Coleco Telstar brand is a series of dedicated first-generation home video game consoles produced, released and marketed by Coleco from 1976 to 1978. Starting with Coleco Telstar Pong clone based video game console on General Instrument's AY-3-8500 chip in 1976, there were 14 consoles released in the Coleco Telstar series. About one million units of the first model called Coleco Telstar were sold. Coleco sold over 1 million units at the price of $50 in 1976. Coleco was unaffected by a chip shortage that year as their early orders meant it was entirely supplied. The large product lineup and the impending fading out of the Pong machines led Coleco to face near-bankruptcy in 1980. Model comparison + Telstar modelsConsoleModel and chipRelease dateIntegrated gamesDescriptionSize (height x wide x depth)CitePictureColeco Telstar No.6040,AY-3-8500 1976 hockey handball tennis Two fixed paddles. Games are Pong variants.Unknown 200pxColeco Telstar Classic No.6045,AY-3-8500 1976 hockey handball tennis Two fixed paddles. Deluxe wood case.Unknown 200pxColeco Telstar Deluxe(a.k.a. "Video World of Sports") model number unknown, AY-3-85001977 hockey handballs tennis ball Two fixed paddles. Brown stand case with wood panel. Made for Canadian market with French and English text.Unknown No picture availableColeco Telstar Ranger No.6046,AY-3-8500 1977 hockey handball tennis jai alai target skeet Black and white plastic case, includes Colt 45-style light gun and separate paddle controllers. Four ball games, two target games. Special features of the four ball games include automatic serve and variable paddle and speed control for three experience levels (beginner, intermediate, and professional). Uses six C batteries or an optional AC adapter, light gun requires one nine-volt battery. 4 lb.17.5×6×8 in. 200pxColeco Telstar Alpha No.6030,AY-3-8500 1977 hockey handball tennis squash Black and white plastic case, fixed paddles. The games feature an automatic serve function and variable settings for three skill levels (beginner, intermediate, and pro). Uses six C batteries or optional 9 volt AC adapter. 2.5 lb.13.5×3.5×7.5 in. 200pxColeco Telstar Colormatic No.6130,AY-3-8500Texas Instruments SN76499N (color) 1977 hockey handball tennis jai alai Black and white plastic case, detached wired paddles. Color graphics - each game is a different color. The games feature an automatic serve function and variable settings for three skill levels (beginner, intermediate, and professional). Uses six C batteries. 2.5 lb.13×6.5×7.5 in. 200pxColeco Telstar Regent No.6036,AY-3-8500 1977 hockey handball tennis jai alai Black and white plastic case, detached wired paddles. The games feature an automatic serve function and variable settings for three skill levels (beginner, intermediate, and professional). Uses six C batteries. 2.5 lb.13.5×4×8 in. 200pxColeco Telstar Sportsman model number unknown, AY-3-8500 1978 Black and white plastic case, detached wired paddles, and light gun.Unknown No picture availableColeco Telstar Combat! No.6065,General Instrument AY-3-8700 Tank chip 1977 Combat Night Battle Robot Battle Camouflage Combat Four fixed joysticks (two per player). Games are variations on Kee Games' Tank. Uses six C batteries or an optional AC adapter. 5.5 lb.15×8×10.5 in. 200pxColeco Telstar Colortron No.6135,AY-3-8510 1978 Tennis Hockey Handball Jai-alai In color, built in sound, fixed paddles. Games are Pong variants and feature variable settings for three skill levels (beginner, intermediate, and pro). Uses two nine-volt batteries or an optional AC adapter. 1 lb.2×11.25×4 in. 200px Coleco Telstar Marksman No.6136,AY-3-8512 1978 Tennis Hockey Handball Jai-alai Skeet Target In color, larger light gun with removable stock, fixed paddles. Four Pong variants and two gun games. Uses two nine-volt batteries or an optional AC adapter. 1 lb.2×11.25×5 in. 200pxColeco Telstar Galaxy model number unknown, AY-3-8600 (games)AY-3-8615 (color encoder) 197748 variations of: Tennis Hockey Handball Soccer Basketball Foosball Separate joysticks and fixed paddlesUnknown No picture availableColeco Telstar Gemini model number unknown, MOS Technology MPS 7600-004 1977 Four pinball games Two light-gun games In color, light gun, two flipper buttons on left and right sides of case, pinball launch button and field adjustment sliders on top, light gun.Unknown No picture availableColeco Telstar Arcade model number 6175, MOS Technology MPS-7600 (each cart) 1977 Pack-in game (Tennis, road racing, quick draw) Eight-game ball and target cartridge Five-game pinball and shooting cartridge Battle game cartridge Twenty-five game driving maze cartridge Fifteen game action cartridge (including Break Thru) Cartridge-based, triangular case includes light gun, steering wheel with gear shift, and paddles, one on each side. 4 lb.7.5×18×16 in. 200px References Works cited External links The ColecoVision, with 1982 TV commercial Pong-Story: All Coleco Telstar systems, with photos Telstar and other systems The Dot Eaters entry on the history of Telstar and Coleco The COLECO Story by Ralph H. Baer Feature titled "THE MOST BIZARRE CONSOLE FLOPS IN GAMING HISTORY" by ADAM JAMES at SVG.com Category:Coleco consoles Category:Dedicated consoles Category:First-generation video game consoles Category:Home video game consoles Category:Light guns Category:Monochrome video game consoles Category:Pong variations Category:Products introduced in 1976 Category:1970s toys Category:1976 in video gaming	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coleco_Telstar_series	2025-04-05T18:28:07.213304
7310	Conventional warfare	thumb\|300px\|Soviet soldiers and tanks during the 1943 Battle of Kursk, one of the largest battles of World War II Conventional warfare is a form of warfare conducted by using conventional weapons and battlefield tactics between two or more states in open confrontation. The forces on each side are well-defined and fight by using weapons that target primarily the opponent's military. It is normally fought by using conventional weapons, not chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear weapons. The general purpose of conventional warfare is to weaken or destroy the opponent's military, which negates its ability to engage in conventional warfare. In forcing capitulation, however, one or both sides may eventually resort to unconventional warfare tactics. Within the statist paradigm, only the state and its appointed representatives may bear arms and enter into war. In fact, war then became understood only as a conflict between sovereign states. Monarchs strengthened that idea and gave it the force of law. Any noble had been allowed to start a war, but European monarchs had to consolidate military power in response to the Napoleonic Wars. Clausewitzian paradigm Prussia was one of the countries that tried to amass military power. Carl von Clausewitz, one of Prussia's officers, wrote On War, a work rooted solely in the world of the state. All other forms of intrastate conflict, such as rebellion, are not accounted for because in theoretical terms, he could not account for warfare before the state. However, near the end of his life, he grew increasingly aware of the importance of non-state military actors, as is revealed in his conceptions of "the people in arms", which he noted arose from the same social and political sources as traditional interstate warfare. Practices such as raiding or blood feuds were then labeled criminal activities and stripped of legitimacy. That war paradigm reflected the view of most of the modernized world in the early 21st century, as is verified by examination of the conventional armies of the time: large, high-maintenance, and technologically advanced armies designed to compete against similarly designed forces. Clausewitz also forwarded the issue of casus belli. Wars had been fought for social, religious, or even cultural reasons, and Clausewitz taught that war is merely "a continuation of politics by other means." It is a rational calculation in which states fight for their interests (whether they are economic, security-related, or otherwise) once normal discourse has broken down. Prevalence Most modern wars have been conducted using conventional means. Confirmed use of biological warfare by a nation state has not occurred since 1945, and chemical warfare has been used only a few times (the latest known confrontation in which it was utilized being the Syrian Civil War). Nuclear warfare has only occurred once: the American bombing of the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945. Since World War II The state and Clausewitzian principles peaked in the World Wars, during the 20th century, but they also laid the groundwork for their dilapidation from nuclear proliferation. During the Cold War, the superpowers sought to avoid open conflict between their respective forces, as both sides recognized that such a clash could very easily escalate and quickly involve nuclear weapons. Instead, the superpowers fought each other through their involvement in proxy wars, military buildups, and diplomatic standoffs. Thus, no two nuclear powers have yet fought a conventional war directly except for two brief skirmishes between China and Soviet Union in the 1969 Sino-Soviet conflict and between India and Pakistan in the 1999 Kargil War. However, conventional wars have been fought since 1945 between countries without nuclear weapons, such as the Iran–Iraq War and Eritrean–Ethiopian War, or between a nuclear state and a weaker non-nuclear state, like the Gulf War and Russo-Ukrainian War. See also Asymmetric warfare Guerrilla warfare Low-intensity operations Psychological warfare Unconventional warfare References External links Category:Warfare by type Category:Military strategy Category:Military science Category:Military doctrines	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conventional_warfare	2025-04-05T18:28:07.221198
7312	Chauvinism	Chauvinism ( ) is the belief in the superiority or dominance of one's own group or people, who are seen as strong and virtuous, while others are considered weak, unworthy, or inferior. The Encyclopaedia Britannica describes it as a form of "excessive and unreasonable" patriotism and nationalism, a fervent faith in national excellence and glory. In American English, the word, since 1940s, has also come to be used in as a shorthand for male chauvinism, a trend reflected in ''Merriam-Webster's Dictionary, which, as of 2018, began its first example of use of the term chauvinism'' with "an attitude of superiority toward members of the opposite sex". As nationalism According to legend, French soldier Nicolas Chauvin was badly wounded in the Napoleonic Wars and received a meager pension for his injuries. After Napoleon abdicated, Chauvin maintained his fanatical Bonapartist belief in the messianic mission of Imperial France, despite the unpopularity of this view under the Bourbon Restoration. His single-minded devotion to his cause, despite neglect by his faction and harassment by its enemies, started the use of the term. This French quality finds its parallel in the English-language term jingoism, which has retained the meaning of chauvinism strictly in its original sense; that is, an attitude of belligerent nationalism. In 1945, political theorist Hannah Arendt described the concept thus: In this sense, chauvinism is irrational, in that no one can claim their nation or ethnic group to be inherently superior to another. As David Aberbach remarks, "There is nothing in modern Hebrew literature, however devoted to the cause of Jewish sovereignty, remotely comparable to the super-chauvinistic Hassgesang ('Hate Song for England')..." Despite chauvinism's irrational roots, at the time, it was explicitly seen as almost obligatory for any German patriot. As Walter Rarthenau commented just prior to the outbreak of the war, "Whoever loves his Fatherland may and should be something of a chauvinist." Lissauer's poem was exceedingly popular, to the extent that it was praised by the Kaiser himself, and Lissauer's slogan "" was used as a daily greeting. However, whilst some German Jews did take the opportunity of the war to demonstrate their patriotism, Lissauer was an extremist, and in contrast many other German Jews disagreed with Lissauer and the way that mainstream opinion had shifted. The Christianity-centric imagery used to document the by authors such as Walter Flex alienated Jewish soldiers. Whereas Lissauer attempted to sign up as a soldier (but was rejected as unfit) as soon as war broke out, then penned the poem, and in the words of Stefan Zweig considered everything published by the German newspapers and army to be "gospel truth" and Edward Grey to be "the worst criminal". The last lines of the poem read: <blockquote><poem> We love as one, we hate as one, We have one foe and one alone — ENGLAND! </poem></blockquote> Male chauvinism Male chauvinism is the belief that men are superior to women. The closely related terms are male supremacy, male oppression, and patriarchy. It becomes an insult in the male chauvinist pig variation. History While the first variation of the English term chauvinism, "literary chauvinism", appeared in 1888, the growing popularity of variations is attributed to the American Communist Party that stressed the "white chauvinism" and "male chauvinism" in the early 1930s ("white chauvinism" dates back to the "Resolution on the Negro Question" of 1930). At this time the brief term "chauvinism" frequently was used to designate the white chauvinism. The term "male sex chauvinism" appeared in the New York Times (NYT) in 1934, while the form "male chauvinism" is first documented in the 1935 Clifford Odets play Till the Day I Die to reflect a pattern of patronizingly claiming the superiority of males, "You and your male chauvinism!". Outside the Communist party, the term was very rarely used for the next 30 years (about one mention in NYT every three years). At the same time, the "male chauvinism" term was regularly used in the Communist press in the US, where the "chauvinism" now standing for both white chauvinism and male chauvinism. The party sanctions against male chauvinists were employed, but were less severe than the ones against white chauvinists. The second coming of the male chauvinist term in 1969 is associated with the women's liberation movement. This time it became widespread (130 articles in NYT used the term in 1972 alone). "Male chauvinist pig" quickly followed in 1970 and, useful for teasing and impossible for the target to interpret is as a joke, it turned out easier for activists to adopt, becoming a vogue word or even an early meme (the rate of its spread can be compared to that of "groovy"). By the early 1990s 63% of Chicago women acknowledged calling someone a "male chauvinist pig". 58% of the women who did not self-identify as feminists, and did 56% of conservatives among them, 60% of non-voters, and 51% of African Americans. For comparison, much fewer women at the time used the word "sexist". The phrase was spreading through both everyday talk and the mass media. In the workplace The balance of the workforce changed during World War II. As men entered or were conscripted into the military to fight in the war, women started replacing them. After the war ended, men returned home to find jobs in the workplace now occupied by women, which "threatened the self-esteem many men derive from their dominance over women in the family, the economy, and society at large." Consequently, male chauvinism was on the rise, according to Cynthia B. Lloyd. Lloyd and Michael Korda have argued that as they integrated back into the workforce, men returned to predominate, holding positions of power while women worked as their secretaries, usually typing dictations and answering telephone calls. This division of labor was understood and expected, and women typically felt unable to challenge their position or male superiors, argue Korda and Lloyd. Causes Chauvinist assumptions are seen by some as a bias in the TAT psychological personality test. Through cross-examinations, the TAT exhibits a tendency toward chauvinistic stimuli for its questions and has the "potential for unfavorable clinical evaluation" for women. An often cited study done in 1976 by Sherwyn Woods, "Some Dynamics of Male Chauvinism", attempts to find the underlying causes of male chauvinism. Adam Jukes argues that a reason for male chauvinism is masculinity itself:<blockquote>For the vast majority of people all over the world, the mother is a primary carer...There's an asymmetry in the development of boys and girls. Infant boys have to learn how to be masculine. Girls don't. Masculinity is not in a state of crisis. Masculinity is a crisis. I don't believe misogyny is innate, but I believe it's inescapable because of the development of masculinity.</blockquote> Female chauvinism Female chauvinism is the belief that women are superior to men. Second-wave feminist Betty Friedan observed that "...the assumption that women have any moral or spiritual superiority as a class is [...] female chauvinism." Ariel Levy used the term in her book Female Chauvinist Pigs, in which she argues that many young women in the United States and beyond are replicating male chauvinism and older misogynist stereotypes.See also * American exceptionalism * Blind nationalism * Carbon chauvinism * Great Russian chauvinism * Han chauvinism * Identity politics * Moral hazard * Planetary chauvinism * Sexism * Social chauvinism * Supremacism * Welfare chauvinism * White nationalism * White supremacy References Sources * * * * * Further reading * Huddy, Leonie; Del Ponte, Alessandro. (2019). [https://academic.oup.com/book/40547/chapter-abstract/347911349?redirectedFrom=fulltext National Identity, Pride, and Chauvinism—their Origins and Consequences for Globalization Attitudes.] In [https://academic.oup.com/book/40547 Liberal Nationalism and Its Critics: Normative and Empirical Questions] (eds) Gina Gustavsson, David Miller. Oxford: Oxford Academic, pp. 38–56. * Tuchowski, Andrzej. (2017). Nationalism, Chauvinism and Racism as Reflected in European Musical Thought and in Compositions from the Interwar Period. Bern: Peter Lang. . External links * [https://asen.ac.uk/ The Association for the Study of Ethnicity and Nationalism] (ASEN) * [https://portal.research.lu.se/en/publications/nostalgic-nationalism-welfare-chauvinism-and-migration-anxieties- Nostalgic Nationalism, Welfare Chauvinism, and Migration Anxieties in Central and Eastern Europe] at the [https://portal.research.lu.se/en/ Lund University Research Portal]. Category:Prejudices Category:Political ideologies Category:Political spectrum Category:Political theories Category:Ethnic supremacy Category:Extremism Category:Anti-intellectualism Category:Barriers to critical thinking	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chauvinism	2025-04-05T18:28:07.253389
7316	Hypothetical types of biochemistry	thumb\|upright=1.5\|False-color Cassini radar mosaic of Titan's north polar region; the blue areas are lakes of liquid hydrocarbons."The existence of lakes of liquid hydrocarbons on Titan opens up the possibility for solvents and energy sources that are alternatives to those in our biosphere and that might support novel life forms altogether different from those on Earth."—NASA Astrobiology Roadmap 2008 Several forms of biochemistry are agreed to be scientifically viable but are not proven to exist at this time. The kinds of living organisms currently known on Earth all use carbon compounds for basic structural and metabolic functions, water as a solvent, and DNA or RNA to define and control their form. If life exists on other planets or moons it may be chemically similar, though it is also possible that there are organisms with quite different chemistries for instance, involving other classes of carbon compounds, compounds of another element, or another solvent in place of water. The possibility of life-forms being based on "alternative" biochemistries is the topic of an ongoing scientific discussion, informed by what is known about extraterrestrial environments and about the chemical behaviour of various elements and compounds. It is of interest in synthetic biology and is also a common subject in science fiction. The element silicon has been much discussed as a hypothetical alternative to carbon. Silicon is in the same group as carbon on the periodic table and, like carbon, it is tetravalent. Hypothetical alternatives to water include ammonia, which, like water, is a polar molecule, and cosmically abundant; and non-polar hydrocarbon solvents such as methane and ethane, which are known to exist in liquid form on the surface of Titan. Overview of hypothetical types of biochemistry + Overview of hypothetical types of biochemistry Type Basis Brief descriptionDetails Alternative-chirality biomolecules Alternative biochemistry Mirror image biochemistry Perhaps the least unusual alternative biochemistry would be one with differing chirality of its biomolecules. In known Earth-based life, amino acids are almost universally of the form and sugars are of the form. Molecules using amino acids or sugars are possible, though they would be incompatible with organisms using the opposing chirality molecules. Gram-positive bacteria incorporate -alanine into their peptidoglycan layer, created through the actions of racemases. Alternative nucleic acids Alternative biochemistry Different genetic storage Xeno nucleic acids (XNA) may possibly be used in place of RNA or DNA. XNA is the general term for a nucleic acid with an altered sugar backbone. Examples of XNA are: TNA, which uses threose; HNA, which uses 1,5-anhydrohexitol; GNA, which uses glycol; CeNA, which uses cyclohexene; LNA, which utilizes a form of ribose that contains an extra linkage between its 4' carbon and 2' oxygen; FANA, which uses arabinose but with a single fluorine atom attached to its 2' carbon; PNA, which uses, in place of sugar and phosphate, N-(2-aminoethyl)-glycine units connected by peptide bonds. In comparison, Hachimoji DNA changes the base pairs instead of the backbone. These new base pairs are P (2-Aminoimidazo[1,2a][1,3,5]triazin-4(1H)-one), Z (6-Amino-5-nitropyridin-2-one), B (Isoguanine), and S (rS Isocytosine for RNA, dS 1-Methylcytosine for DNA). Ammonia biochemistry Non-water solvents Ammonia-based life Ammonia is relatively abundant in the universe and has chemical similarities to water. The possible role of liquid ammonia as an alternative solvent for life is an idea that goes back at least to 1954, when J. B. S. Haldane raised the topic at a symposium about life's origin. Arsenic biochemistry Alternative biochemistry Arsenic-based life Arsenic, which is chemically similar to phosphorus, while poisonous for most life forms on Earth, is incorporated into the biochemistry of some organisms. Borane biochemistry (Organoboron chemistry) Alternative biochemistry Boranes-based life Boranes are dangerously explosive in Earth's atmosphere, but would be more stable in a reducing environment (an atmosphere without oxygen or other oxidizing gases, and which may contain actively reductant gases such as hydrogen, carbon monoxide, methane and hydrogen sulfide). Boron, however, is exceedingly rare in the universe in comparison to its neighbours carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen. On the other hand, structures containing alternating boron and nitrogen atoms share some properties with hydrocarbons.Cosmic necklace-based biologyNonplanetary lifeNon-chemical lifeIn 2020, Luis A. Anchordoqu and Eugene M. Chudnovsky hypothesized that life composed of magnetic semipoles connected by cosmic strings could evolve inside stars. Extremophiles Alternative environment Life in variable environments It would be biochemically possible to sustain life in environments that are only periodically consistent with life as we know it, such as extremely high or low temperatures, pressures, or pH; or the present of high levels of salt or nuclear radiation. Heteropoly acid biochemistry Alternative biochemistry Heteropoly acid-based life Various metals can form complex structures with oxygen, such as heteropoly acids. Hydrogen fluoride biochemistry Non-water solvents Hydrogen fluoride-based life Hydrogen fluoride has been considered as a possible solvent for life by scientists such as Peter Sneath. Hydrogen sulfide biochemistry Non-water solvents Hydrogen sulfide-based life Hydrogen sulfide is a chemical analog of water, but is less polar and a weaker inorganic solvent. Methane biochemistry (Azotosome) Non-water solvents Methane-based life Methane is relatively abundant in the Solar System and the Universe, and is known to exist in liquid form on Titan, the largest moon of Saturn. Though highly unlikely, it is considered to be possible for Titan to harbor life. If so, it will most likely be methane-based life. Non-green photosynthesizers Other speculations Alternate plant life Physicists have noted that, although photosynthesis on Earth generally involves green plants, a variety of other-colored plants could also support photosynthesis, essential for most life on Earth, and that other colors might be preferred in places that receive a different mix of stellar radiation than Earth. In particular, retinal is capable of, and has been observed to, perform photosynthesis. Bacteria capable of photosynthesis are known as microbial rhodopsins. A plant or creature that uses retinal photosynthesis is always purple. Shadow biosphere Alternative environment A hidden life biosphere on Earth A shadow biosphere is a hypothetical microbial biosphere of Earth that uses radically different biochemical and molecular processes than currently known life. It could exist, for example, deep in the crust or sealed in ancient rocks. Silicon biochemistry (Organosilicon) Alternative biochemistry Silicon-based life Like carbon, silicon can create molecules that are sufficiently large to carry biological information; however, the scope of possible silicon chemistry is far more limited than that of carbon. Silicon dioxide biochemistry Non-water solvents Silicon dioxide-based life Gerald Feinberg and Robert Shapiro have suggested that molten silicate rock could serve as a liquid medium for organisms with a chemistry based on silicon, oxygen, and other elements such as aluminium. Sulfur biochemistry Alternative biochemistry Sulfur-based life The biological use of sulfur as an alternative to carbon is purely hypothetical, especially because sulfur usually forms only linear chains rather than branched ones. Shadow biosphere upright\|thumb\|The Arecibo message (1974) sent information into space about basic chemistry of Earth life. A shadow biosphere is a hypothetical microbial biosphere of Earth that uses radically different biochemical and molecular processes than currently known life. Although life on Earth is relatively well-studied, the shadow biosphere may still remain unnoticed because the exploration of the microbial world targets primarily the biochemistry of the macro-organisms. Alternative-chirality biomolecules Perhaps the least unusual alternative biochemistry would be one with differing chirality of its biomolecules. In known Earth-based life, amino acids are almost universally of the form and sugars are of the form. Molecules using amino acids or sugars may be possible; molecules of such a chirality, however, would be incompatible with organisms using the opposing chirality molecules. Amino acids whose chirality is opposite to the norm are found on Earth, and these substances are generally thought to result from decay of organisms of normal chirality. However, physicist Paul Davies speculates that some of them might be products of "anti-chiral" life. It is questionable, however, whether such a biochemistry would be truly alien. Although it would certainly be an alternative stereochemistry, molecules that are overwhelmingly found in one enantiomer throughout the vast majority of organisms can nonetheless often be found in another enantiomer in different (often basal) organisms such as in comparisons between members of Archaea and other domains, making it an open topic whether an alternative stereochemistry is truly novel. Non-carbon-based biochemistries On Earth, all known living things have a carbon-based structure and system. Scientists have speculated about the pros and cons of using elements other than carbon to form the molecular structures necessary for life, but no one has proposed a theory employing such atoms to form all the necessary structures. However, as Carl Sagan argued, it is very difficult to be certain whether a statement that applies to all life on Earth will turn out to apply to all life throughout the universe. Sagan used the term "carbon chauvinism" for such an assumption. He regarded silicon and germanium as conceivable alternatives to carbon Norman Horowitz devised the experiments to determine whether life might exist on Mars that were carried out by the Viking Lander of 1976, the first U.S. mission to successfully land a probe on the surface of Mars. Horowitz argued that the great versatility of the carbon atom makes it the element most likely to provide solutions, even exotic solutions, to the problems of survival on other planets. He considered that there was only a remote possibility that non-carbon life forms could exist with genetic information systems capable of self-replication and the ability to evolve and adapt. Silicon biochemistry thumb\|right\|120px\|Structure of silane, analog of methane thumb\|right\|Structure of the silicone polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) thumb\|right\|upright=1.2\|Marine diatoms carbon-based organisms that extract silicon from sea water, in the form of its oxide (silica) and incorporate it into their cell walls The silicon atom has been much discussed as the basis for an alternative biochemical system, because silicon has many chemical similarities to carbon and is in the same group of the periodic table. Like carbon, silicon can create molecules that are sufficiently large to carry biological information. However, silicon has several drawbacks as a carbon alternative. Carbon is ten times more cosmically abundant than silicon, and its chemistry appears naturally more complex. Even though Earth and other terrestrial planets are exceptionally silicon-rich and carbon-poor (silicon is roughly 925 times more abundant in Earth's crust than carbon), terrestrial life bases itself on carbon. It may eschew silicon because silicon compounds are less varied, unstable in the presence of water, or block the flow of heat. Relative to carbon, silicon has a much larger atomic radius, and forms much weaker covalent bonds to atoms — except oxygen and fluorine, with which it forms very strong bonds. Alternatively, the weak bonds in silicon compounds may help maintain a rapid pace of life at cryogenic temperatures. Polysilanols, the silicon homologues to sugars, are among the few compounds soluble in liquid nitrogen. All known silicon macromolecules are artificial polymers, and so "monotonous compared with the combinatorial universe of organic macromolecules". Although not observed in nature, carbon–silicon bonds have been added to biochemistry under directed evolution (artificial selection): a cytochrome c protein from Rhodothermus marinus has been engineered to catalyze new carbon–silicon bonds between hydrosilanes and diazo compounds. Other exotic element-based biochemistries Boranes are dangerously explosive in Earth's atmosphere, but would be more stable in a reducing atmosphere. However, boron's low cosmic abundance makes it less likely as a base for life than carbon. Various metals, together with oxygen, can form very complex and thermally stable structures rivaling those of organic compounds; the heteropoly acids are one such family. Some metal oxides are also similar to carbon in their ability to form both nanotube structures and diamond-like crystals (such as cubic zirconia). Titanium, aluminium, magnesium, and iron are all more abundant in the Earth's crust than carbon. Metal-oxide-based life could therefore be a possibility under certain conditions, including those (such as high temperatures) at which carbon-based life would be unlikely. The Cronin group at Glasgow University reported self-assembly of tungsten polyoxometalates into cell-like spheres. By modifying their metal oxide content, the spheres can acquire holes that act as porous membrane, selectively allowing chemicals in and out of the sphere according to size. Sulfur-reducing bacteria can utilize elemental sulfur instead of oxygen, reducing sulfur to hydrogen sulfide.) Arsenic as an alternative to phosphorus Arsenic, which is chemically similar to phosphorus, while poisonous for most life forms on Earth, is incorporated into the biochemistry of some organisms. Some marine algae incorporate arsenic into complex organic molecules such as arsenosugars and arsenobetaines. Fungi and bacteria can produce volatile methylated arsenic compounds. Arsenate reduction and arsenite oxidation have been observed in microbes (Chrysiogenes arsenatis). Additionally, some prokaryotes can use arsenate as a terminal electron acceptor during anaerobic growth and some can utilize arsenite as an electron donor to generate energy. It has been speculated that the earliest life forms on Earth may have used arsenic biochemistry in place of phosphorus in the structure of their DNA. A common objection to this scenario is that arsenate esters are so much less stable to hydrolysis than corresponding phosphate esters that arsenic is poorly suited for this function. The authors of a 2010 geomicrobiology study, supported in part by NASA, have postulated that a bacterium, named GFAJ-1, collected in the sediments of Mono Lake in eastern California, can employ such 'arsenic DNA' when cultured without phosphorus. They proposed that the bacterium may employ high levels of poly-β-hydroxybutyrate or other means to reduce the effective concentration of water and stabilize its arsenate esters. Science writer Carl Zimmer contacted several scientists for an assessment: "I reached out to a dozen experts ... Almost unanimously, they think the NASA scientists have failed to make their case". Other authors were unable to reproduce their results and showed that the study had issues with phosphate contamination, suggesting that the low amounts present could sustain extremophile lifeforms. Alternatively, it was suggested that GFAJ-1 cells grow by recycling phosphate from degraded ribosomes, rather than by replacing it with arsenate. Non-water solvents In addition to carbon compounds, all currently known terrestrial life also requires water as a solvent. This has led to discussions about whether water is the only liquid capable of filling that role. The idea that an extraterrestrial life-form might be based on a solvent other than water has been taken seriously in recent scientific literature by the biochemist Steven Benner, and by the astrobiological committee chaired by John A. Baross. Solvents discussed by the Baross committee include ammonia, sulfuric acid, formamide, hydrocarbons, Water as a solvent limits the forms biochemistry can take. For example, Steven Benner, proposes the polyelectrolyte theory of the gene that claims that for a genetic biopolymer such as, DNA, to function in water, it requires repeated ionic charges. If water is not required for life, these limits on genetic biopolymers are removed. Carl Sagan once described himself as both a carbon chauvinist and a water chauvinist; however, on another occasion he said that he was a carbon chauvinist but "not that much of a water chauvinist". He speculated on hydrocarbons, and ammonia For instance, water ice has a high albedo, Numerous chemical reactions are possible in an ammonia solution, and liquid ammonia has chemical similarities with water. Ammonia can dissolve most organic molecules at least as well as water does and, in addition, it is capable of dissolving many elemental metals. Haldane made the point that various common water-related organic compounds have ammonia-related analogs; for instance the ammonia-related amine group (−NH2) is analogous to the water-related hydroxyl group (−OH). Ammonia is also flammable in oxygen and could not exist sustainably in an environment suitable for aerobic metabolism. thumb\|right\|upright=1.5\|Titan's theorized internal structure, subsurface ocean shown in blue A biosphere based on ammonia would likely exist at temperatures or air pressures that are extremely unusual in relation to life on Earth. Life on Earth usually exists between the melting point and boiling point of water, at a pressure designated as normal pressure, between . When also held to normal pressure, ammonia's melting and boiling points are and respectively. Because chemical reactions generally proceed more slowly at lower temperatures, ammonia-based life existing in this set of conditions might metabolize more slowly and evolve more slowly than life on Earth. Methane and other hydrocarbons Methane (CH4) is a simple hydrocarbon: that is, a compound of two of the most common elements in the cosmos: hydrogen and carbon. It has a cosmic abundance comparable with ammonia. Water is a stronger solvent than the hydrocarbons, enabling easier transport of substances in a cell. However, water is also more chemically reactive and can break down large organic molecules through hydrolysis. Possible evidence for this form of life on Titan was identified in 2010 by Darrell Strobel of Johns Hopkins University; a greater abundance of molecular hydrogen in the upper atmospheric layers of Titan compared to the lower layers, arguing for a downward diffusion at a rate of roughly 1025 molecules per second and disappearance of hydrogen near Titan's surface. As Strobel noted, his findings were in line with the effects Chris McKay had predicted if methanogenic life-forms were present. The same year, another study showed low levels of acetylene on Titan's surface, which were interpreted by Chris McKay as consistent with the hypothesis of organisms reducing acetylene to methane. He noted that even a non-biological catalyst effective at 95 K would in itself be a startling discovery. An analysis of data obtained using the Atacama Large Millimeter / submillimeter Array (ALMA), completed in 2017, confirmed substantial amounts of acrylonitrile in Titan's atmosphere. Later studies questioned whether acrylonitrile would be able to self-assemble into azotosomes. Hydrogen fluoride Hydrogen fluoride (HF), like water, is a polar molecule, and due to its polarity it can dissolve many ionic compounds. At atmospheric pressure, its melting point is , and its boiling point is ; the difference between the two is a little more than 100 K. HF also makes hydrogen bonds with its neighbor molecules, as do water and ammonia. It has been considered as a possible solvent for life by scientists such as Peter Sneath and Carl Sagan. However, hydrogen fluoride is cosmically rare, unlike water, ammonia, and methane. Hydrogen sulfide Hydrogen sulfide is the closest chemical analog to water, but is less polar and is a weaker inorganic solvent. Hydrogen sulfide is quite plentiful on Jupiter's moon Io and may be in liquid form a short distance below the surface; astrobiologist Dirk Schulze-Makuch has suggested it as a possible solvent for life there. On a planet with hydrogen sulfide oceans, the source of the hydrogen sulfide could come from volcanoes, in which case it could be mixed in with a bit of hydrogen fluoride, which could help dissolve minerals. Hydrogen sulfide life might use a mixture of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide as their carbon source. They might produce and live on sulfur monoxide, which is analogous to oxygen (O2). Hydrogen sulfide, like hydrogen cyanide and ammonia, suffers from the small temperature range where it is liquid, though that, like that of hydrogen cyanide and ammonia, increases with increasing pressure. Silicon dioxide and silicates Silicon dioxide, also known as silica and quartz, is very abundant in the universe and has a large temperature range where it is liquid. However, its melting point is , so it would be impossible to make organic compounds in that temperature, because all of them would decompose. Silicates are similar to silicon dioxide and some have lower melting points than silica. Feinberg and Shapiro have suggested that molten silicate rock could serve as a liquid medium for organisms with a chemistry based on silicon, oxygen, and other elements such as aluminium. Other solvents or cosolvents thumb\|Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) Other solvents sometimes proposed: Supercritical fluids: supercritical carbon dioxide and supercritical hydrogen. Simple hydrogen compounds: hydrogen chloride. More complex compounds: sulfuric acid, Sulfuric acid in liquid form is strongly polar. It remains liquid at higher temperatures than water, its liquid range being 10 °C to 337 °C at a pressure of 1 atm, although above 300 °C it slowly decomposes. Sulfuric acid is known to be abundant in the clouds of Venus, in the form of aerosol droplets. In a biochemistry that used sulfuric acid as a solvent, the alkene group (CC), with two carbon atoms joined by a double bond, could function analogously to the carbonyl group (CO) in water-based biochemistry. A 61.2% (by mass) mix of water and hydrogen peroxide has a freezing point of −56.5 °C and tends to super-cool rather than crystallize. It is also hygroscopic, an advantage in a water-scarce environment. Supercritical carbon dioxide has been proposed as a candidate for alternative biochemistry due to its ability to selectively dissolve organic compounds and assist the functioning of enzymes and because "super-Earth"- or "super-Venus"-type planets with dense high-pressure atmospheres may be common. These studies indicate that blue plants would be unlikely; however yellow or red plants may be relatively common. Thus, it would be biochemically possible to sustain life in environments that are only periodically consistent with life as we know it. For example, frogs in cold climates can survive for extended periods of time with most of their body water in a frozen state, Either type of frog would appear biochemically inactive (i.e. not living) during dormant periods to anyone lacking a sensitive means of detecting low levels of metabolism. Alanine world and hypothetical alternatives thumb\|Early stage of the genetic code (GC-Code) with "alanine world" and its possible alternatives. The genetic code may have evolved during the transition from the RNA world to a protein world. The Alanine World Hypothesis postulates that the evolution of the genetic code (the so-called GC phase) started with only four basic amino acids: alanine, glycine, proline and ornithine (now arginine). The evolution of the genetic code ended with 20 proteinogenic amino acids. From a chemical point of view, most of them are Alanine-derivatives particularly suitable for the construction of α-helices and β-sheets basic secondary structural elements of modern proteins. Direct evidence of this is an experimental procedure in molecular biology known as alanine scanning. A hypothetical "Proline World" would create a possible alternative life with the genetic code based on the proline chemical scaffold as the protein backbone. Similarly, a "Glycine World" and "Ornithine World" are also conceivable, but nature has chosen none of them. Evolution of life with Proline, Glycine, or Ornithine as the basic structure for protein-like polymers (foldamers) would lead to parallel biological worlds. They would have morphologically radically different body plans and genetics from the living organisms of the known biosphere. Nonplanetary life Dusty plasma-based In 2007, Vadim N. Tsytovich and colleagues proposed that lifelike behaviors could be exhibited by dust particles suspended in a plasma, under conditions that might exist in space. Computer models showed that, when the dust became charged, the particles could self-organize into microscopic helical structures, and the authors offer "a rough sketch of a possible model of...helical grain structure reproduction". Cosmic necklace-based In 2020, Luis A. Anchordoqu and Eugene M. Chudnovsky of the City University of New York hypothesized that cosmic necklace-based life composed of magnetic monopoles connected by cosmic strings could evolve inside stars. This would be achieved by a stretching of cosmic strings due to the star's intense gravity, thus allowing it to take on more complex forms and potentially form structures similar to the RNA and DNA structures found within carbon-based life. As such, it is theoretically possible that such beings could eventually become intelligent and construct a civilization using the power generated by the star's nuclear fusion. Because such use would use up part of the star's energy output, the luminosity would also fall. For this reason, it is thought that such life might exist inside stars observed to be cooling faster or dimmer than current cosmological models predict. Life on a neutron star Frank Drake suggested in 1973 that intelligent life could inhabit neutron stars. Physical models in 1973 implied that Drake's creatures would be microscopic. Scientists who have published on this topic Scientists who have considered possible alternatives to carbon-water biochemistry include: J. B. S. Haldane (1892–1964), a geneticist noted for his work on abiogenesis. Isaac Asimov (1920–1992), biochemist and science fiction writer. Fred Hoyle (1915–2001), astronomer and science fiction writer. Norman Horowitz (1915–2005), Caltech geneticist who devised the first experiments carried out to detect life on Mars. Peter Sneath (1923–2011), microbiologist, author of the book Planets and Life. Carl Sagan (1934–1996), astronomer, John Baross (born 1940), oceanographer and astrobiologist, who chaired a committee of scientists under the United States National Research Council that published a report on life's limiting conditions in 2007. See also Abiogenesis Astrobiology Carbon chauvinism Carbon-based life Earliest known life forms Extraterrestrial life Hachimoji DNA Iron–sulfur world hypothesis Life origination beyond planets Mirror life Nexus for Exoplanet System Science Non-cellular life Non-proteinogenic amino acids Nucleic acid analogues Planetary habitability Shadow biosphere References Further reading External links Astronomy FAQ Ammonia-based life Silicon-based life Category:Astrobiology Category:Science fiction themes Category:Biological hypotheses Category:Scientific speculation	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry	2025-04-05T18:28:07.401362
7322	Creation myth	Creation Stories (film)}} ]] A creation myth or cosmogonic myth is a type of cosmogony, a symbolic narrative of how the world began and how people first came to inhabit it. While in popular usage the term myth often refers to false or fanciful stories, members of cultures often ascribe varying degrees of truth to their creation myths. In the society in which it is told, a creation myth is usually regarded as conveying profound truthsmetaphorically, symbolically, historically, or literally. They are commonly, although not always, considered cosmogonical mythsthat is, they describe the ordering of the cosmos from a state of chaos or amorphousness. Creation myths often share several features. They often are considered sacred accounts and can be found in nearly all known religious traditions. They are all stories with a plot and characters who are either deities, human-like figures, or animals, who often speak and transform easily. They are often set in a dim and nonspecific past that historian of religion Mircea Eliade termed in illo tempore ('at that time'). Creation myths address questions deeply meaningful to the society that shares them, revealing their central worldview and the framework for the self-identity of the culture and individual in a universal context. Creation myths develop in oral traditions and therefore typically have multiple versions;Definitions ]] Creation myth definitions from modern references: * A "symbolic narrative of the beginning of the world as understood in a particular tradition and community. Creation myths are of central importance for the valuation of the world, for the orientation of humans in the universe, and for the basic patterns of life and culture." * "Creation myths tell us how things began. All cultures have creation myths; they are our primary myths, the first stage in what might be called the psychic life of the species. As cultures, we identify ourselves through the collective dreams we call creation myths, or cosmogonies. ... Creation myths explain in metaphorical terms our sense of who we are in the context of the world, and in so doing they reveal our real priorities, as well as our real prejudices. Our images of creation say a great deal about who we are." * A "philosophical and theological elaboration of the primal myth of creation within a religious community. The term myth here refers to the imaginative expression in narrative form of what is experienced or apprehended as basic reality ... The term creation refers to the beginning of things, whether by the will and act of a transcendent being, by emanation from some ultimate source, or in any other way." Religion professor Mircea Eliade defined the word myth in terms of creation: <blockquote> Myth narrates a sacred history; it relates an event that took place in primordial Time, the fabled time of the "beginnings." In other words, myth tells how, through the deeds of Supernatural Beings, a reality came into existence, be it the whole of reality, the Cosmos, or only a fragment of reality – an island, a species of plant, a particular kind of human behavior, an institution. </blockquote> Meaning and function , "The Way gave birth to unity; unity gave birth to duality; duality gave birth to trinity; trinity gave birth to the myriad creatures." (Daodejing, 4th century BCE)]] Creation myths have been around since ancient history and have served important societal roles. Over 100 "distinct" ones have been discovered. All creation myths are in one sense etiological because they attempt to explain how the world formed and where humanity came from. Ethnologists and anthropologists who study origin myths say that in the modern context theologians try to discern humanity's meaning from revealed truths and scientists investigate cosmology with the tools of empiricism and rationality, but creation myths define human reality in very different terms. In the past, historians of religion and other students of myth thought of such stories as forms of primitive or early-stage science or religion and analyzed them in a literal or logical sense. Today, however, they are seen as symbolic narratives which must be understood in terms of their own cultural context. Charles Long writes: "The beings referred to in the myth – gods, animals, plants – are forms of power grasped existentially. The myths should not be understood as attempts to work out a rational explanation of deity." While creation myths are not literal explications, they do serve to define an orientation of humanity in the world in terms of a birth story. They provide the basis of a worldview that reaffirms and guides how people relate to the natural world, to any assumed spiritual world, and to each other. A creation myth acts as a cornerstone for distinguishing primary reality from relative reality, the origin and nature of being from non-being. In this sense cosmogonic myths serve as a philosophy of life – but one expressed and conveyed through symbol rather than through systematic reason. And in this sense they go beyond etiological myths (which explain specific features in religious rites, natural phenomena, or cultural life). Creation myths also help to orient human beings in the world, giving them a sense of their place in the world and the regard that they must have for humans and nature.}}Classification , the dwarf was an embodiment of the Maize God's helpers at creation.]] Mythologists have applied various schemes to classify creation myths found throughout human cultures. Eliade and his colleague Charles Long developed a classification based on some common motifs that reappear in stories the world over. The classification identifies five basic types: , the Hindu deva of creation, emerges from a lotus risen from the navel of Viṣņu, who lies with Lakshmi on the serpent Ananta Shesha.]] * Creation ex nihilo in which the creation is through the thought, word, dream, or bodily secretions of a divine being. * Earth-diver creation in which a diver, usually a bird or amphibian sent by a creator, plunges to the seabed through a primordial ocean to bring up sand or mud which develops into a terrestrial world. * Emergence myths in which progenitors pass through a series of worlds and metamorphoses until reaching the present world. * Creation by the dismemberment of a primordial being. * Creation by the splitting or ordering of a primordial unity such as the cracking of a cosmic egg or a bringing order from chaos. Marta Weigle further developed and refined this typology to highlight nine themes, adding elements such as deus faber, a creation crafted by a deity, creation from the work of two creators working together or against each other, creation from sacrifice and creation from division/conjugation, accretion/conjunction, or secretion. In most of these stories, the world is brought into being by the speech, dream, breath, or pure thought of a creator but creation ex nihilo may also take place through a creator's bodily secretions. The literal translation of the phrase ex nihilo is "from nothing" but in many creation myths the line is blurred whether the creative act would be better classified as a creation ex nihilo or creation from chaos. In ex nihilo creation myths, the potential and the substance of creation springs from within the creator. Such a creator may or may not be existing in physical surroundings such as darkness or water, but does not create the world from them, whereas in creation from chaos the substance used for creation is pre-existing within the unformed void.Creation from chaos In creation from chaos myths, there is nothing initially but a formless, shapeless expanse. In these stories the word "chaos" means "disorder", and this formless expanse, which is also sometimes called a void or an abyss, contains the material with which the created world will be made. Chaos may be described as having the consistency of vapor or water, dimensionless, and sometimes salty or muddy. These myths associate chaos with evil and oblivion, in contrast to "order" (cosmos) which is the good. The act of creation is the bringing of order from disorder, and in many of these cultures it is believed that at some point the forces preserving order and form will weaken and the world will once again be engulfed into the abyss. One example is the Genesis creation narrative from the first chapter of the Book of Genesis. World parent , the primal couple are Rangi and Papa, depicted holding each other in a tight embrace.]] There are two types of world parent myths, both describing a separation or splitting of a primeval entity, the world parent or parents. One form describes the primeval state as an eternal union of two parents, and the creation takes place when the two are pulled apart. The two parents are commonly identified as Sky (usually male) and Earth (usually female), who were so tightly bound to each other in the primeval state that no offspring could emerge. These myths often depict creation as the result of a sexual union and serve as genealogical record of the deities born from it. In the second form of world parent myths, creation itself springs from dismembered parts of the body of the primeval being. Often, in these stories, the limbs, hair, blood, bones, or organs of the primeval being are somehow severed or sacrificed to transform into sky, earth, animal or plant life, and other worldly features. These myths tend to emphasize creative forces as animistic in nature rather than sexual, and depict the sacred as the elemental and integral component of the natural world. One example of this is the Norse creation myth described in "Völuspá", the first poem in the Poetic Edda, and in Gylfaginning. Emergence In emergence myths, humanity emerges from another world into the one they currently inhabit. The previous world is often considered the womb of the earth mother, and the process of emergence is likened to the act of giving birth. The role of midwife is usually played by a female deity, like the spider woman of several mythologies of Indigenous peoples in the Americas. Male characters rarely figure into these stories, and scholars often consider them in counterpoint to male-oriented creation myths, like those of the ex nihilo variety. of both ancient and present-day Pueblo peoples, the sipapu is a small round hole in the floor that represents the portal through which the ancestors first emerged. (The larger hole is a fire pit, here in a ruin from the Mesa Verde National Park.)]] Emergence myths commonly describe the creation of people and/or supernatural beings as a staged ascent or metamorphosis from nascent forms through a series of subterranean worlds to arrive at their current place and form. Often the passage from one world or stage to the next is impelled by inner forces, a process of germination or gestation from earlier, embryonic forms. The genre is most commonly found in Native American cultures where the myths frequently link the final emergence of people from a hole opening to the underworld to stories about their subsequent migrations and eventual settlement in their current homelands. Earth-diver Earthdivers}} The earth-diver is a common character in various traditional creation myths. In these stories a supreme being usually sends an animal (most often a type of bird, but also crustaceans, insects, and fish in some narratives) into the primal waters to find bits of sand or mud with which to build habitable land. Some scholars interpret these myths psychologically while others interpret them cosmogonically. In both cases emphasis is placed on beginnings emanating from the depths.Motif distributionAccording to Gudmund Hatt and Tristram P. Coffin, Earth-diver myths are common in Native American folklore, among the following populations: Shoshone, Meskwaki, Blackfoot, Chipewyan, Newettee, Yokuts of California, Mandan, Hidatsa, Cheyenne, Arapaho, Ojibwe, Yuchi, and Cherokee. American anthropologist Gladys Reichard located the distribution of the motif across "all parts of North America", save for "the extreme north, northeast, and southwest". In a 1977 study, anthropologist Victor Barnouw surmised that the earth-diver motif appeared in "hunting-gathering societies", mainly among northerly groups such as the Hare, Dogrib, Kaska, Beaver, Carrier, Chipewyan, Sarsi, Cree, and Montagnais. Similar tales are also found among the Chukchi and Yukaghir, the Tatars, and many Finno-Ugric traditions, as well as among the Buryat and the Samoyed. In addition, the earth-diver motif also exists in narratives from Eastern Europe, namely Romani, Romanian, Slavic (namely, Bulgarian, Polish, Ukrainian, and Belarusian), and Lithuanian mythological traditions. The pattern of distribution of these stories suggest they have a common origin in the eastern Asiatic coastal region, spreading as peoples migrated west into Siberia and east to the North American continent. However, there are examples of this mytheme found well outside of this boreal distribution pattern, for example the West African Yoruba creation myth of Ọbatala and Oduduwa.Native American narrativeCharacteristic of many Native American myths, earth-diver creation stories begin as beings and potential forms linger asleep or suspended in the primordial realm. The earth-diver is among the first of them to awaken and lay the necessary groundwork by building suitable lands where the coming creation will be able to live. In many cases, these stories will describe a series of failed attempts to make land before the solution is found. Among the indigenous peoples of the Americas, the earth-diver cosmogony is attested in Iroquois mythology: a female sky deity falls from the heavens, and certain animals, the beaver, the otter, the duck, and the muskrat dive in the waters to fetch mud to construct an island. In a similar story from the Seneca, people lived in a sky realm. One day, the chief's daughter was afflicted with a mysterious illness, and the only cure recommended for her (revealed in a dream) was to lie beside a tree and to have it be dug up. The people do so, but a man complains that the tree was their livelihood, and kicks the girl through the hole. She ends up falling from the sky to a world of only water, but is rescued by waterfowl. A turtle offers to bear her on its shell, but asked where would be a definitive dwelling place for her. They decide to create land, and the toad dives into the depths of the primal sea to get pieces of soil. The toad puts it on the turtle's back, which grows larger with every deposit of soil. In another version from the Wyandot, the Wyandot lived in heaven. The daughter of the Big Chief (or Mighty Ruler) was sick, so the medicine man recommends that they dig up the wild apple tree that stands next to the Lodge of the Mighty Ruler, because the remedy is to be found on its roots. However, as the tree has been dug out, the ground begins to sink away, and the treetops catch and carry down the sick daughter with it. As the girl falls from the skies, two swans rescue her on their backs. The birds decide to summon all the Swimmers and the Water Tribes. Many volunteer to dive into the Great Water to fetch bits of earth from the bottom of the sea, but only the toad (female, in the story) is the one successful. See also * Abiogenesis * Anthropology of religion * Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology * Big Bang * Ceremonial pole * Chinese creation myths * Creationism ** Young Earth creationism * Creator deity * Evolutionary origin of religion * Mother goddess * Origin myth * Origin of death * Religious cosmology * Theism * Xirang References Bibliography * * * * * * * * \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/isbn_9780877790440}} * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * }} * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * External links * * Category:Comparative mythology Category:Cosmogony Category:Religious cosmologies Category:Traditional stories	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_myth	2025-04-05T18:28:07.425143
7324	Crucifix	in Vienna, Austria. Woodcarvings by an anonymous master; polychromy by Jan van Wavere, Mechelen, signed 1520. This altarpiece was originally made for St. Mary's Church, Gdańsk, and came to Vienna in 1864.]] A crucifix (from the Latin meaning '(one) fixed to a cross') is a cross with an image of Jesus on it, as distinct from a bare cross. The representation of Jesus himself on the cross is referred to in English as the (Latin for 'body'). The crucifix emphasizes Jesus' sacrifice, including his death by crucifixion, which Christians believe brought about the redemption of mankind. Most crucifixes portray Jesus on a Latin cross, rather than a Tau cross or a Coptic cross. The crucifix is a principal symbol for many groups of Christians, and one of the most common forms of the Crucifixion in the arts. It is especially important in the Catholic Church, and is also used in the Lutheran Churches, Anglican Churches, Eastern Orthodox Church, and in most Oriental Orthodox Churches (except the Armenian Church and Syriac Church). The symbol is less common in churches of other Protestant denominations, and in the Assyrian Church of the East and Armenian Apostolic Church, which prefer to use a cross without the figure of Jesus (the ). Roman Catholics and Lutherans see the crucifix as the perfect fulfillment of that inferred by the serpent created by Moses in Numbers 21:8—9, called the Nehushtan. It was promised that those sinners who looked upon the Nehushtan would be healed. The section of Numbers about the Nehushtan is one of the readings on Exaltation of the Cross that occurs on September 14 in the Roman Catholic Church. It is paired with John 3:14–15 as the gospel reading. Taken together, these readings explain the striking front and center position of a large crucifix normally fixed above or behind a Catholic altar. Western crucifixes usually have a three-dimensional , but in Eastern Orthodoxy Jesus' body is normally painted on the cross, or in low relief. Strictly speaking, to be a crucifix, the cross must be three-dimensional, but this distinction is not always observed. An entire painting of the crucifixion of Jesus including a landscape background and other figures is not a crucifix either. Large crucifixes high across the central axis of a church are known by the Old English term rood. By the Late Middle Ages these were a near-universal feature of Western churches, but they are now very rare. Modern Roman Catholic churches and many Lutheran churches often have a crucifix above the altar on the wall; for the celebration of Mass, the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church requires that "on or close to the altar there is to be a cross with a figure of Christ crucified". Description of a Lutheran church]] The standard, four-pointed Latin crucifix (used in the Catholic and Lutheran traditions) consists of an upright post or and a single crosspiece to which the sufferer's arms were nailed. There may also be a short projecting nameplate, showing the letters INRI (Greek: INBI). The Russian Orthodox crucifix usually has an additional third crossbar, to which the feet are nailed, and which is angled upward toward the penitent thief Saint Dismas (to the viewer's left) and downward toward the impenitent thief Gestas (to the viewer's right). The corpus of Eastern crucifixes is normally a two-dimensional or low relief icon that shows Jesus as already dead, his face peaceful and somber. They are rarely three-dimensional figures as in the Western tradition, although these may be found where Western influences are strong, but are more typically icons painted on a piece of wood shaped to include the double-barred cross and perhaps the edge of Christ's hips and halo, and no background. More sculptural small crucifixes in metal relief are also used in Orthodoxy (see gallery examples), including as pectoral crosses and blessing crosses. also uses the crucifix; this one is in the church of St Mary-le-Bow in London]] Western crucifixes may show Christ dead or alive, the presence of the spear wound in his ribs traditionally indicating that he is dead. In either case his face very often shows his suffering. In the Eastern Orthodox tradition he has normally been shown as dead since around the end of the period of Byzantine Iconoclasm. Eastern crucifixes have Jesus' two feet nailed side by side, rather than crossed one above the other, as Western crucifixes have shown them since around the 13th century. The crown of thorns is also generally absent in Eastern crucifixes, since the emphasis is not on Christ's suffering, but on his triumph over sin and death. The S-shaped position of Jesus' body on the cross is a Byzantine innovation of the late 10th century, though also found in the German Gero Cross of the same date. Probably more from Byzantine influence, it spread elsewhere in the West, especially to Italy, by the Romanesque period, though it was more usual in painting than sculpted crucifixes. It was in Italy that the emphasis was put on Jesus' suffering and realistic details, during a process of general humanization of Christ favored by the Franciscan order. During the 13th century the suffering Italian model () triumphed over the traditional Byzantine one () anywhere in Europe also due to the works of artists such as Giunta Pisano and Cimabue. Since the Renaissance the "S"-shape is generally much less pronounced. Eastern Christian blessing crosses will often have the Crucifixion depicted on one side, and the Resurrection on the other, illustrating Eastern Orthodox theology's understanding of the Crucifixion and Resurrection as two intimately related aspects of the same act of salvation. Another, symbolic, depiction shows a triumphant Christ (), clothed in robes, rather than stripped as for his execution, with arms raised, appearing to rise up from the cross, sometimes accompanied by "rays of light", or an aureole encircling his body. He may be robed as a prophet, crowned as a king, and vested in a stole as Great High Priest. On some crucifixes a skull and crossbones are shown below the corpus, referring to Golgotha (Calvary), the site at which Jesus was crucified, which the Gospels say means in Hebrew "the place of the skull." is the Aramaic for 'skull'. The name appears in all of the gospels except Luke, which calls the place simply Kranion, 'the Skull', with no Aramaic. See Aramaic of Jesus}} Medieval tradition held that it was the burial-place of Adam and Eve, and that the cross of Christ was raised directly over Adam's skull, so many crucifixes manufactured in Catholic countries still show the skull and crossbones below the corpus. Very large crucifixes have been built, the largest being the Cross in the Woods in Michigan, with a high statue. Usage In the early Church, many Christians hung a cross on the eastern wall of their house in order to indicate the eastward direction of prayer. Prayer in front of a crucifix, which is seen as a sacramental, is often part of devotion for Christians, especially those worshipping in a church, also privately. The person may sit, stand, or kneel in front of the crucifix, sometimes looking at it in contemplation, or merely in front of it with head bowed or eyes closed. During the Middle Ages small crucifixes, generally hung on a wall, became normal in the personal cells or living quarters first of monks, then all clergy, followed by the homes of the laity, spreading down from the top of society as these became cheap enough for the average person to afford. Most towns had a large crucifix erected as a monument, or some other shrine at the crossroads of the town. Building on the ancient custom, many Catholics, Lutherans and Anglicans hang a crucifix inside their homes and also use the crucifix as a focal point of a home altar. The wealthy erected proprietary chapels as they could afford to do this. , Prime Minister of Brazil lying in repose in 1856. In the background, candles and a metal crucifix.]] Catholic (both Eastern and Western), Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Lutheran, and Anglican Christians generally use the crucifix in public religious services. They believe use of the crucifix is in keeping with the statement by Paul the Apostle in 1 Corinthians: "we preach Christ crucified, a stumbling block to Jews and folly to Gentiles, but to those who are called, both Jews and Greeks, Christ the power of God and the wisdom of God". In the West, altar crosses and processional crosses began to be crucifixes in the 11th century, which became general around the 14th century, as they became cheaper. The Roman Rite requires that "either on the altar or near it, there is to be a cross, with the figure of Christ crucified upon it, a cross clearly visible to the assembled people. It is desirable that such a cross should remain near the altar even outside of liturgical celebrations, so as to call to mind for the faithful the saving Passion of the Lord." The requirement of the altar cross was also mentioned in pre-1970 editions of the Roman Missal, though not in the original 1570 Roman Missal of Pope Pius V. The Rite of Funerals says that the Gospel Book, the Bible, or a cross (which will generally be in crucifix form) may be placed on the coffin for a Requiem Mass, but a second standing cross is not to be placed near the coffin if the altar cross can be easily seen from the body of the church. Eastern Christian liturgical processions called crucessions include a cross or crucifix at their head. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the crucifix is often placed above the iconostasis in the church. In the Russian Orthodox Church a large crucifix ("Golgotha") is placed behind the Holy Table (altar). During Matins of Good Friday, a large crucifix is taken in procession to the center of the church, where it is venerated by the faithful. Sometimes the soma () is removable and is taken off the crucifix at Vespers that evening during the Gospel lesson describing the Descent from the Cross. The empty cross may then remain in the centre of the church until the Paschal vigil (local practices vary). The blessing cross which the priest uses to bless the faithful at the dismissal will often have the crucifix on one side and an icon of the Resurrection of Jesus on the other, the side with the Resurrection being used on Sundays and during Paschaltide, and the crucifix on other days. Modern anti-Christians have used an inverted (upside-down) crucifix when showing disdain for Jesus Christ or the Catholic Church which believes in his divinity. According to Christian tradition, Saint Peter was martyred by being crucified upside-down. Controversies s retained the use of the crucifix; depicted is Martin Luther Church in Oberwiesenthal, Germany. ]] Protestant Reformation of Thesis Door at the Castle Church in Wittenberg depicts Martin Luther and Philip Melanchthon kneeling in prayer, facing the crucified Christ.]] In the Moravian Church, Nicolaus Zinzendorf had an experience in which he believed he encountered Jesus. The Lutheran Churches retained the use of the crucifix, "justifying their continued use of medieval crucifixes with the same arguments employed since the Middle Ages, as is evident from the example of the altar of the Holy Cross in the Cistercian church of Doberan." Martin Luther did not object to them, and this was among his differences with Andreas Karlstadt as early as 1525. At the time of the Reformation, Luther retained the crucifix in the Lutheran Church and they remain the center of worship in Lutheran parishes across Europe. In the United States, however, Lutheranism came under the influence of Calvinism, and the plain cross came to be used in some churches, though many Lutheran churches continue to use the crucifix. In contrast to the practice of the Catholic Church, Moravian Church and Lutheran Churches, the early Reformed Churches rejected the use of the crucifix, and indeed the unadorned cross, along with other traditional religious imagery, as idolatrous. Calvin, considered to be the father of the Reformed Church, was strongly opposed to both cross and crucifix. In England (where Anglican Christianity is the dominant faith), the Royal Chapels of Elizabeth I were most unusual among local churches in retaining crucifixes, following the Queen's conservative tastes. These disappeared under her successor, James I, and their brief re-appearance in the early 1620s when James' heir was seeking a Spanish marriage was the subject of rumour and close observation by both Catholics and Protestants; when the match fell through they disappeared. Modern from 1936 until It was removed on July 9, 2019.]] In 2005, a mother accused her daughter's school in Derby, England, of discriminating against Christians after the teenager was suspended for refusing to take off a crucifix necklace. In 2008, a chapel in a prison in England replaced its crucifix and static altar with a cross and portable altar when it was renovated as a multi-faith chapel. Right-wing media reported that the crucifix had been removed "in case it offends Muslims". In 2008 in Spain, a local judge ordered crucifixes removed from public schools to settle a decades-old dispute over whether crucifixes should be displayed in public buildings in a non-confessional state. On 18 March 2011, the European Court of Human Rights ruled in the Lautsi v. Italy case, that the requirement in Italian law that crucifixes be displayed in classrooms of state schools does not violate the European Convention on Human Rights. Crucifixes are common in most other Italian official buildings, including courts of law. On 24 March 2011, the Constitutional Court of Peru ruled that the presence of crucifixes in courts of law does not violate the secular nature of the state. Gallery <gallery> Image:Gerokreuz full 20050903.jpg\|The Gero Cross. Image:Small crucifix.jpg\|A handheld crucifix Image:Baux-de-provence-eglise-st-vincent-crucifix.jpg\|A crucifix in a church, with votive candles. File:Orth Kreuz.gif\|Russian Orthodox crucifix, brass File:Распятие 01.jpg\|Russian Orthodox crucifix, 19th - early 20th century File:Crucifixion icon orthodox cathedral vilnius.JPG\|Orthodox crucifix with the Virgin Mary on the left and the Apostle John on the right in Vilnius, Lithuania File:Crucifix, ca. 1795-1862, 02.257.2427.jpg\|Crucifix, –1862, Brooklyn Museum File:Immeldorf Kirche 2467.jpg\|Processional crucifix with the portrait of Martin Luther at Saint George's Lutheran church in Immeldorf, Lichtenau File:Naantalin kirkko sisältä, Naantali, 25.7.2010.JPG\|A triumph crucifix at Naantali Church in Naantali, Finland File:Gereja Santa, Jakarta.jpg\|A large crucifix at Gereja Santa, Jakarta, Indonesia File:S95CrucifixCourtroomNuremberg.jpg\|A post–World War II crucifix in a courtroom in Nuremberg, Germany File:Garden of the Anglican Shrine - geograph.org.uk - 791188.jpg\|A crucifix overlooks a fountain at the Anglican Shrine of Our Lady of Walsingham File:Pulpit of Canterbury Cathedral 08.JPG\|Pulpit crucifix at Canterbury Cathedral File:Christ Church Cathedral altar.jpg\|Altar of Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford File:2022 Herderkirche Innen 6.jpg\|Altar panel of the Church of St. Peter and Paul in Weimar depicts the Crucifixion of Jesus with Lucas Cranach the Elder and Martin Luther standing on the right File:21-26-082-church.jpg\|Crucifix at the Cathedral of St. John the Baptist File:Montafon 037 Gortipohl Kirche fcm.jpg\|Crucifixion group at Catholic parish church of St. Nikolaus in Montafon, Austria File:Galluzzo, Certosa di Firenze, Chiesa di San Lorenzo 002.JPG\|Crucifix at the Carthusian monastery in Galluzzo, Italy File:Catedral de Petrópolis (3783874460).jpg\|Tomb with effigies of Emperor Pedro II of Brazil and his wife Teresa Cristina in front of an altar crucifix in the Cathedral of Petrópolis, Brazil. The cross is made of black granite from Tijuca forest. </gallery> See also Cloisters Cross Christian symbolism Cross necklace Crucifer Crucifix Decrees Crucifixion in the arts Feast of the Cross Holy Face of Lucca Jesus, King of the Jews Master of the Blue Crucifixes Papal ferula Rood Rosary Tripalium Notes References External links [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04517a.htm Archæology of the Cross and Crucifix] [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04533a.htm The Cross and Crucifix in Liturgy] Category:Christian iconography Category:Iconography of Jesus Category:Sacramentals Category:Christian religious objects Category:Crosses by form Category:Christian symbols Category:Christian terminology Category:Anglican liturgy Category:Lutheran liturgy and worship Category:Objects believed to protect from evil	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crucifix	2025-04-05T18:28:07.438984
7327	Copernican principle	thumb\|upright=1.2\|Figure 'M' (for Latin Mundus) from Johannes Kepler's 1617–1621 Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae, showing the Earth as belonging to just one of any number of similar stars In physical cosmology, the Copernican principle states that humans are not privileged observers of the universe, that observations from the Earth are representative of observations from the average position in the universe. Named for Copernican heliocentrism, it is a working assumption that arises from a modified cosmological extension of Copernicus' argument of a moving Earth. Origin and implications Hermann Bondi named the principle after Copernicus in the mid-20th century, although the principle itself dates back to the 16th–17th century paradigm shift away from the Ptolemaic system, which placed Earth at the center of the universe. Copernicus proposed that the motion of the planets could be explained by reference to an assumption that the Sun is centrally located and stationary in contrast to the geocentrism. He argued that the apparent retrograde motion of the planets is an illusion caused by Earth's movement around the Sun, which the Copernican model placed at the centre of the universe. Copernicus himself was mainly motivated by technical dissatisfaction with the earlier system and not by support for any mediocrity principle. Although the Copernican heliocentric model is often described as "demoting" Earth from its central role it had in the Ptolemaic geocentric model, it was successors to Copernicus, notably the 16th century Giordano Bruno, who adopted this new perspective. The Earth's central position had been interpreted as being in the "lowest and filthiest parts". Instead, as Galileo said, the Earth is part of the "dance of the stars" rather than the "sump where the universe's filth and ephemera collect". In the late 20th Century, Carl Sagan asked, "Who are we? We find that we live on an insignificant planet of a humdrum star lost in a galaxy tucked away in some forgotten corner of a universe in which there are far more galaxies than people." While the Copernican principle is derived from the negation of past assumptions, such as geocentrism, heliocentrism, or galactocentrism which state that humans are at the center of the universe, the Copernican principle is stronger than acentrism, which merely states that humans are not at the center of the universe. The Copernican principle assumes acentrism and also states that human observers or observations from Earth are representative of observations from the average position in the universe. Michael Rowan-Robinson emphasizes the Copernican principle as the threshold test for modern thought, asserting that: "It is evident that in the post-Copernican era of human history, no well-informed and rational person can imagine that the Earth occupies a unique position in the universe." Most modern cosmology is based on the assumption that the cosmological principle is almost, but not exactly, true on the largest scales. The Copernican principle represents the irreducible philosophical assumption needed to justify this, when combined with the observations. If one assumes the Copernican principle and observes that the universe appears isotropic or the same in all directions from the vantage point of Earth, then one can infer that the universe is generally homogeneous or the same everywhere (at any given time) and is also isotropic about any given point. These two conditions make up the cosmological principle. However, recent evidence from galaxy clusters, quasars, and type Ia supernovae suggests that isotropy is violated on large scales. Furthermore, various large-scale structures have been discovered, such as the Clowes–Campusano LQG, the Sloan Great Wall, U1.11, the Huge-LQG, the Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall, and the Giant Arc, all of which indicate that homogeneity might be violated. On scales comparable to the radius of the observable universe, we see systematic changes with distance from Earth. For instance, at greater distances, galaxies contain more young stars and are less clustered, and quasars appear more numerous. If the Copernican principle is assumed, then it follows that this is evidence for the evolution of the universe with time: this distant light has taken most of the age of the universe to reach Earth and shows the universe when it was young. The most distant light of all, cosmic microwave background radiation, is isotropic to at least one part in a thousand. Bondi and Thomas Gold used the Copernican principle to argue for the perfect cosmological principle which maintains that the universe is also homogeneous in time, and is the basis for the steady-state cosmology. However, this strongly conflicts with the evidence for cosmological evolution mentioned earlier: the universe has progressed from extremely different conditions at the Big Bang, and will continue to progress toward extremely different conditions, particularly under the rising influence of dark energy, apparently toward the Big Freeze or Big Rip. Since the 1990s the term has been used (interchangeably with "the Copernicus method") for J. Richard Gott's Bayesian-inference-based prediction of duration of ongoing events, a generalized version of the Doomsday argument. Tests of the principle The Copernican principle has never been proven, and in the most general sense cannot be proven, but it is implicit in many modern theories of physics. Cosmological models are often derived with reference to the cosmological principle, slightly more general than the Copernican principle, and many tests of these models can be considered tests of the Copernican principle. Historical Before the term Copernican principle was even coined, past assumptions, such as geocentrism, heliocentrism, and galactocentrism, which state that Earth, the Solar System, or the Milky Way respectively were located at the center of the universe, were shown to be false. The Copernican Revolution dethroned Earth to just one of many planets orbiting the Sun. Proper motion was mentioned by Halley. William Herschel found that the Solar System is moving through space within our disk-shaped Milky Way galaxy. Edwin Hubble showed that the Milky Way galaxy is just one of many galaxies in the universe. Examination of the galaxy's position and motion in the universe led to the Big Bang theory and the whole of modern cosmology. Modern tests Recent and planned tests relevant to the cosmological and Copernican principles include: time drift of cosmological redshifts; modelling the local gravitational potential using reflection of cosmic microwave background (CMB) photons; the redshift dependence of the luminosity of supernovae; the kinetic Sunyaev–Zeldovich effect in relation to dark energy; cosmic neutrino background; the integrated Sachs–Wolfe effect; testing the isotropy and homogeneity of the CMB; observation of the KBC Void – some authors claim it violates the cosmological principle and thus the Copernican principle, while others claim that it is consistent with them. Physics without the principle The standard model of cosmology, the Lambda-CDM model, assumes the Copernican principle and the more general cosmological principle. Some cosmologists and theoretical physicists have created models without the cosmological or Copernican principles to constrain the values of observational results, to address specific known issues in the Lambda-CDM model, and to propose tests to distinguish between current models and other possible models. A prominent example in this context is inhomogeneous cosmology, to model the observed accelerating universe and cosmological constant. Instead of using the current accepted idea of dark energy, inhomogeneous-cosmology models propose that the universe is much more inhomogeneous than currently assumed — for example, that we are in an extremely large low-density void. To match observations we would have to be very close to the centre of this void, immediately contradicting the Copernican principle. While the Big Bang model in cosmology is sometimes said to derive from the Copernican principle in conjunction with redshift observations, the Big Bang model can still be assumed to be valid in absence of the Copernican principle, because the cosmic microwave background, primordial gas clouds, and the structure, evolution, and distribution of galaxies all provide evidence, independent of the Copernican principle, in favor of the Big Bang. However, the key tenets of the Big Bang model, such as the expansion of the universe, become assumptions themselves akin to the Copernican principle, rather than derived from the Copernican principle and observations. See also Absolute time and space Anthropic principle Axis of evil (cosmology) Hubble Bubble (astronomy) Mediocrity principle Particle chauvinism P symmetry Rare Earth hypothesis The Principle (2014 film) Cosmological principle References Category:Physical cosmology Category:Principles Principle Category:Razors (philosophy) Category:Concepts in astronomy	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copernican_principle	2025-04-05T18:28:07.456885
7329	Cyprinidae	\| image = Caprinus_carpio_Prague_Vltava_1.jpg \| image_caption = The common carp, Cyprinus carpio \| taxon = Cyprinidae \| authority Rafinesque, 1815 \| type_genus = Cyprinus \| type_genus_authority = Linnaeus, 1758 \| subdivision_ranks = Subfamilies \| subdivision = see text }} Cyprinidae is a family of freshwater fish commonly called the carp or minnow family, including the carps, the true minnows, and their relatives the barbs and barbels, among others. Cyprinidae is the largest and most diverse fish family, and the largest vertebrate animal family overall, with about 1,780 species divided into 166 valid genera. Cyprinids range from about in size to the giant barb (Catlocarpio siamensis). By genus and species count, the family makes up more than two-thirds of the ostariophysian order Cypriniformes. The family name is derived from the Greek word ( 'carp'). Biology and ecology Cyprinids are stomachless, or agastric, fish with toothless jaws. Even so, food can be effectively chewed by the gill rakers of the specialized last gill bow. These pharyngeal teeth allow the fish to make chewing motions against a chewing plate formed by a bony process of the skull. The pharyngeal teeth are unique to each species and are used to identify species. Strong pharyngeal teeth allow fish such as the common carp and ide to eat hard baits such as snails and bivalves. Hearing is a well-developed sense in the cyprinids since they have the Weberian organ, three specialized vertebral processes that transfer motion of the gas bladder to the inner ear. The vertebral processes of the Weberian organ also permit a cyprinid to detect changes in motion of the gas bladder due to atmospheric conditions or depth changes. The cyprinids are considered physostomes because the pneumatic duct is retained in adult stages and the fish are able to gulp air to fill the gas bladder, or they can dispose of excess gas to the gut. s (Catlocarpio siamensis) are the largest members of this family.]] Cyprinids are native to North America, Africa, and Eurasia. The largest known cyprinid is the giant barb (Catlocarpio siamensis), which may grow up to in length and in weight. The largest North American species is the Colorado pikeminnow (Ptychocheilus lucius), which can reach up to in length. Conversely, many species are smaller than . The smallest known fish is Paedocypris progenetica, reaching at the longest. All fish in this family are egg-layers and most do not guard their eggs; however, a few species build nests and/or guard the eggs. The bitterlings of subfamily Acheilognathinae are notable for depositing their eggs in bivalve molluscs, where the young develop until able to fend for themselves. Cyprinids contain the first and only known example of androgenesis in a vertebrate, in the Squalius alburnoides allopolyploid complex. Most cyprinids feed mainly on invertebrates and vegetation, probably due to the lack of teeth and stomach; however, some species, like the asp, are predators that specialize in fish. Many species, such as the ide and the common rudd, prey on small fish when individuals become large enough. Even small species, such as the moderlieschen, are opportunistic predators that will eat larvae of the common frog in artificial circumstances. Some cyprinids, such as the grass carp, are specialized herbivores; others, such as the common nase, eat algae and biofilms, while others, such as the black carp, specialize in snails, and some, such as the silver carp, are specialized filter feeders. For this reason, cyprinids are often introduced as a management tool to control various factors in the aquatic environment, such as aquatic vegetation and diseases transmitted by snails. Unlike most fish species, cyprinids generally increase in abundance in eutrophic lakes. Here, they contribute towards positive feedback as they are efficient at eating the zooplankton that would otherwise graze on the algae, reducing its abundance. Relationship with humans Food Cyprinids are highly important food fish; they are fished and farmed across Eurasia. In land-locked countries in particular, cyprinids are often the major species of fish eaten because they make the largest part of biomass in most water types except for fast-flowing rivers. In Eastern Europe, they are often prepared with traditional methods such as drying and salting. The prevalence of inexpensive frozen fish products made this less important now than it was in earlier times. Nonetheless, in certain places, they remain popular for food, as well as recreational fishing, for ornamental use, and have been deliberately stocked in ponds and lakes for centuries for this reason. Sport Cyprinids are popular for angling especially for match fishing (due to their dominance in biomass and numbers) and fishing for common carp because of its size and strength. As pest control Several cyprinids have been introduced to waters outside their natural ranges to provide food, sport, or biological control for some pest species. The common carp (Cyprinus carpio) and the grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) are the most important of these, for example in Florida. As a pest species Carp in particular can stir up sediment, reducing the clarity of the water and making plant growth difficult. In America and Australia, such as the Asian carp in the Mississippi Basin, they have become invasive species that compete with native fishes or disrupt the environment. Cyprinus carpio is a major pest species in Australia impacting freshwater environments, amenity, and the agricultural economy, devastating biodiversity by decimating native fish populations where they first became established as a major pest in the wild in the 1960s. In the major river system of eastern Australia, the Murray-Darling Basin, they constitute 80–90 per cent of fish biomass. In 2016 the federal government announced A$15.2 million to fund the National Carp Control Plan to investigate using Cyprinid herpesvirus 3 (carp virus) as a biological control agent while minimising impacts on industry and environment should a carp virus release go ahead. Despite initial, favourable assessment, in 2020 this plan was found to be unlikely to work due to the high fecundity of the fish. Aquarium fish Numerous cyprinids have become popular and important within the aquarium and fishpond hobbies, most famously the goldfish, which was bred in China from the Prussian carp (Carassius (auratus) gibelio). First imported into Europe around 1728, it was originally much-fancied by the Chinese nobility as early as 1150AD and, after it arrived there in 1502, also in Japan. In addition to the goldfish, the common carp was bred in Japan into the colorful ornamental variety known as koi — or more accurately , as simply means "common carp" in Japanese — from the 18th century until today. Other popular aquarium cyprinids include danionins, rasborines and true barbs. Larger species are bred by the thousands in outdoor ponds, particularly in Southeast Asia, and trade in these aquarium fishes is of considerable commercial importance. The small rasborines and danionines are perhaps only rivalled by characids (tetras) and poecilid livebearers in their popularity for community aquaria. Some of the most popular cyprinids among aquarists, other than goldfish and koi, include the cherry barb, Harlequin rasbora, pearl danios, rainbow sharks, tiger barbs, and the White Cloud Mountain minnow. One particular species of these small and undemanding danionines is the zebrafish (Danio rerio). It has become the standard model species for studying developmental genetics of vertebrates, in particular fish. Threatened families Habitat destruction and other causes have reduced the wild stocks of several cyprinids to dangerously low levels; some are already entirely extinct. In particular, the cyprinids of the subfamily Leuciscinae from southwestern North America have been severely affected by pollution and unsustainable water use in the early to mid-20th century. The majority of globally extinct cypriniform species in fact belong to the leuciscinid cyprinids from the southwestern United States and northern Mexico.SystematicsThe massive diversity of cyprinids has so far made it difficult to resolve their phylogeny in sufficient detail to make assignment to subfamilies more than tentative in many cases. Some distinct lineages obviously exist – for example, the Cultrinae and Leuciscinae, regardless of their exact delimitation, are rather close relatives and stand apart from Cyprininaebut the overall systematics and taxonomy of the Cyprinidae remain a subject of considerable debate. A large number of genera are incertae sedis, too equivocal in their traits and/or too little-studied to permit assignment to a particular subfamily with any certainty. Part of the solution seems that the delicate rasborines are the core group, consisting of minor lineages that have not shifted far from their evolutionary niche, or have coevolved for millions of years. These are among the most basal lineages of living cyprinids. Other "rasborines" are apparently distributed across the diverse lineages of the family. The tench (Tinca tinca), a significant food species farmed in western Eurasia in large numbers, is unusual. It is most often grouped with the Leuciscinae, but even when these were rather loosely circumscribed, it always stood apart. A cladistic analysis of DNA sequence data of the S7 ribosomal protein intron1 supports the view that it is distinct enough to constitute a monotypic subfamily. It also suggests it may be closer to the small East Asian Aphyocypris, Hemigrammocypris, and Yaoshanicus. They would have diverged roughly at the same time from cyprinids of east-central Asia, perhaps as a result of the Alpide orogeny that vastly changed the topography of that region in the late Paleogene, when their divergence presumably occurred. The subfamilies Acheilognathinae, Gobioninae, and Leuciscinae are monophyletic.Subfamilies and genera , Epalzeorhynchos frenatum, a somewhat aggressive aquarium fish]] : Acheilognathinae]] , Gobioninae]] , Hypophthalmichthys molitrix: Xenocyprinae, alternatively Hypophthalmichthyinae]] , Labeo rohita, of the disputed Labeoninae]] , Tinca tinca, is of unclear affiliations and often placed in a subfamily or family of its own.]] ''Eschmeyer's Catalog of Fishes'' sets out the subfamilies and genera within the family Cyprinidae as follows: * Subfamily Acrossocheilinae <small>L. Yang et al, 2015</small> Acrossocheilus <small>Oshima, 1919</small> Folifer <small>H. W. Wu, 1977</small> ** Onychostoma <small>Günther, 1896</small> * Subfamily Barbinae <small>Bleeker, 1859</small> Aulopyge <small>Heckel, 1841</small> Barbus <small>Daudin, 1805</small> Caecocypris <small>Banister & Bunni, 1980</small> Capoeta <small>Valenciennes, 1842</small> Cyprinion <small>Heckel, 1843</small> Kantaka <small>Hora, 1942</small> Luciobarbus <small>Heckel, 1843</small> Paracapoeta <small>Turan, Kaya, Aksu, Bektaş, 2022</small> Scaphiodonichthys <small>Vinciguerra, 1890</small> Schizocypris <small>Regan, 1914</small> ** Semiplotus <small>Bleeker, 1860</small> * Subfamily Cyprininae <small>Rafinesque, 1815</small> Aaptosyax <small>Rainboth, 1991</small> Albulichthys <small>Bleeker, 1860</small> Amblyrhynchichthys <small>Bleeker, 1860</small> Balantiocheilos <small>Bleeker, 1860</small> Carassioides <small>Oshima, 1926</small> Carassius <small>Jarocki, 1822</small> Cosmochilus <small>Sauvage, 1878</small> Cyclocheilichthys <small>Bleeker, 1859</small> Cyclocheilos <small>Bleeker, 1859</small> Cyprinus <small>Linnaeus, 1758</small> Discherodontus <small>Rainboth, 1989</small> Eirmotus <small>Schultz, 1959</small> Hypsibarbus <small>Rainboth, 1996</small> Kalimantania <small>Bănărescu, 1980</small> Laocypris <small>Kottelat, 2000</small> Luciocyprinus <small>Vaillant, 1904</small> Mystacoleucus <small>Günther, 1868</small> Neobarynotus <small>Bănărescu, 1980</small> Parasikukia <small>Doi, 2000</small> Paraspinibarbus <small>X.-L. Chu & Kottelat, 1989</small> Parator <small>H. W. Wu, G. R. Yang, P. Q. Yue & H. J. Huang, 1963</small> Poropuntius <small>H. M. Smith, 1931</small> Procypris <small>S.-Y. Lin, 1933</small> Pseudosinocyclocheilus <small>C.-G. Zhang & Y.-H. Zhao, 2016</small> Puntioplites <small>H. M. Smith, 1929</small> Rohteichthys <small>Bleeker, 1860</small> Sawbwa <small>Annandale, 1918</small> Scaphognathops <small>H.M. Smith, 1945</small> Sikukia <small>H. M. Smith, 1931</small> Sinocyclocheilus <small>P.-W. Fang, 1936</small> Troglocyclocheilus <small>Kottelat & Bréhier, 1999</small> Typhlobarbus <small>X.-L. Chu & W.-R. Chen, 1982</small> * Subfamily Labeoninae <small>Bleeker, 1859</small> Ageneiogarra <small>Garman, 1912</small> Altigena <small>Burton, 1934</small> Bangana <small>Hamilton, 1822</small> Barbichthys <small>Bleeker, 1860</small> Ceratogarra <small>Kottelat, 2020</small> Cirrhinus <small>Oken, 1817</small> Cophecheilus <small>Y. Zhu, E. Zhang, M. Zhang & Y. Q. Han, 2011</small> Crossocheilus <small>Kuhl & van Hasselt, 1823</small> Decorus <small>Zheng, Chen & Yang, 2019</small> Diplocheilichthys <small>Bleeker, 1859</small> Discocheilus <small>E. Zhang, 1997</small> Discogobio <small>S. Y. Lin, 1931</small> Epalzeorhynchos <small>Bleeker, 1855</small> Fivepearlus <small>C.-Q. Li, H. Yang, W. Li & H. Chen 2017</small> Garra <small>Hamilton, 1822</small> Garroides <small>V. H. Nguyễn & T.H. N. Vu, 2014</small> Guigarra <small>Z.-B. Wang, X.-Y. Chen & L.-P. Zheng 2022</small> Gymnostomus <small>Heckel, 1843</small> Henicorhynchus <small>H. M. Smith, 1945</small> Hongshuia <small>E. Zhang, X. Qiang & J. H. Lan, 2008</small> Incisilabeo <small>Fowler, 1937</small> Labeo <small>Cuvier, 1816</small> Labiobarbus <small>van Hasselt, 1823</small> Lanlabeo <small>M. Yao, Y. He & Z.-G. Peng, 2018</small> Linichthys <small>E. Zhang & Fang, 2005</small> Lobocheilos <small>Bleeker, 1854</small> Longanalus <small>W. X. Li, 2006</small> Mekongina <small>Fowler, 1937</small> Osteochilus <small>Günther, 1868</small> Paracrossochilus <small>Popta, 1904</small> Parapsilorhynchus <small>Hora, 1921</small> Paraqianlabeo <small>H.-T. Zhao, Sullivan, Y.-G. Zhang & Z.-G. Peng 2014</small> Parasinilabeo <small>H. W. Wu, 1939</small> Placocheilus <small>H.-W. Wu, 1977</small> Prolixicheilus <small>L.-P. Zheng, X.-Y. Chen & J.-X. Yang, 2016</small> Protolabeo <small>L. An, B. S. Liu, Y. H. Zhao & C. G. Zhang, 2010</small> Pseudocrossocheilus <small>E. Zhang & J.-X. Chen, 1997</small> Pseudogyrinocheilus <small>P.-W. Fang, 1933</small> Pseudoplacocheilus <small>X. Li, W. Zhou, C. Sun & X. Yun, 2024</small> Ptychidio <small>Myers, 1930</small> Qianlabeo <small>E. Zhang & Yi-Yu Chen, 2004</small> Rectoris <small>S.-Y. Lin, 1935</small> Schismatorhynchos <small>Bleeker, 1855</small> Semilabeo <small>Peters, 1881</small> Sinigarra <small>E. Zhang & W. Zhou, 2012</small> Sinilabeo <small>Rendahl, 1933</small> Sinocrossocheilus <small>H.-W. Wu, 1977</small> Speolabeo <small>Kottelat, 2017</small> Stenorynchoacrum <small>Y. F. Huang, J. X. Yang & X. Y. Chen, 2014</small> Supradiscus <small>X. Li, W. Zhou, C. Sun & X. Yun, 2024</small> Tariqilabeo <small>Mirza & Saboohi, 1990</small> Thynnichthys <small>Bleeker, 1859</small> Vinagarra <small>V. H. Nguyễn & T. A. Bùi, 2009</small> Zuojiangia <small>L.-P. Zheng, Y. He, J. X. Yang & L.B. Wu 2018</small> * Subfamily Probarbinae <small>L. Yang et al, 2015</small> Catlocarpio <small>Boulenger, 1898</small> Probarbus <small>Sauvage, 1880</small> * Subfamily Schizopygopsinae <small>Mirza, 1991</small> Oxygymnocypris <small>W. H. Tsao, 1964</small> Ptychobarbus <small>Steindachner, 1866</small> ** Schizopygopsis <small>Steindachner, 1866</small> * Subfamily Schizothoracinae <small>McClelland, 1842</small> Aspiorhynchus <small>Kessler, 1879</small> Diptychus <small>Steindachner, 1866</small> Percocypris <small>Y. T. Chu, 1935</small> Schizopyge <small>Heckel, 1847</small> ** Schizothorax <small>Heckel, 1838</small> * Subfamily Smiliogastrinae <small>Bleeker, 1863</small> Amatolacypris <small>Skelton, Swartz & Vreven, 2018</small> Barbodes <small>Bleeker, 1859</small> Barboides <small>Brüning, 1929</small> Bhava <small>Sudasinghe, Rüber & Meegaskumbura, 2023</small> Caecobarbus <small>Boulenger, 1921</small> Chagunius <small>H.M. Smith, 1938</small> Cheilobarbus <small>A. Smith 1841</small> Clypeobarbus <small>Fowler, 1936</small> Coptostomabarbus <small>David & Poll 1937</small> Dawkinsia <small>Pethiyagoda, Meegaskumbura & Maduwage, 2012</small> Desmopuntius <small>Kottelat, 2013</small> Eechathalakenda <small>Menon, 1999</small> Enteromius <small>Cope, 1867</small> Gymnodiptychus <small>Herzenstein, 1892</small> Haludaria <small>Pethiyagoda, 2013</small> Hampala <small>Kuhl & van Hasselt, 1823</small> Namaquacypris <small>Skelton, Swartz & Vreven, 2018</small> Oliotius <small>Kottelat, 2013</small> Oreichthys <small>H. M. Smith, 1933</small> Osteobrama <small>Heckel, 1843</small> Pethia <small>Pethiyagoda, Meegaskumbura & Maduwage, 2012</small> Plesiopuntius <small>Sudasinghe, Rüber & Meegaskumbura, 2023</small> Prolabeo <small>Norman, 1932</small> Prolabeops <small>Schultz, 1941</small> Pseudobarbus <small>A. Smith, 1841</small> Puntigrus <small>Kottelat, 2013</small> Puntius <small>Hamilton, 1822</small> Rohanella <small>Sudasinghe, Rüber & Meegaskumbura, 2023</small> Rohtee <small>Sykes 1839</small> Sedercypris <small>Skelton, Swartz & Vreven, 2018</small> Striuntius <small>Kottelat, 2013</small> Systomus <small>McClelland, 1838</small> Waikhomia <small>Katwate, Kumkar, Raghavan & Dahanukar, 2020</small> Xenobarbus <small>Norman, 1923</small> * Subfamily Spinibarbinae <small>Yang et al, 2015</small> Spinibarbichthys <small>Oshima, 1926</small> Spinibarbus <small>Oshima, 1919</small> * Subfamily Torinae <small>Karaman, 1971</small> Acapoeta <small>Cockerell, 1910</small> Arabibarbus <small>Borkenhagen, 2014</small> Atlantor <small>Borkenhagen & Freyhof, 2023</small> Carasobarbus <small>Karaman, 1971</small> Hypselobarbus <small>Bleeker, 1860</small> Labeobarbus <small>Rüppell, 1835</small> Lepidopygopsis <small>B. S. Raj 1941</small> Mesopotamichthys <small>Karaman, 1971</small> Naziritor <small>Mirza & Javed, 1985</small> Neolissochilus <small>Rainboth, 1985</small> Osteochilichthys <small>Hora, 1942</small> Pterocapoeta <small>Günther, 1902</small> Sanagia <small>Holly, 1926</small> Tor <small>Gray, 1834</small> With such a large and diverse family the taxonomy and phylogenies are always being worked on so alternative classifications are being created as new information is discovered, for example: \| \|2= \|2= \|1= }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} \|label2=Leuciscidae \|2= \|2= \|2= }} \|2= }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} <br> <br /> See also *List of fish families References External links Category:Cypriniformes families Category:Fish of North America Category:Fish of Asia Category:Fish of Europe Category:Fish of Africa Category:Extant Eocene first appearances	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprinidae	2025-04-05T18:28:07.512629
7330	Complementary DNA	used in testing]] In genetics, complementary DNA (cDNA) is DNA that was reverse transcribed (via reverse transcriptase) from an RNA (e.g., messenger RNA or microRNA). cDNA exists in both single-stranded and double-stranded forms and in both natural and engineered forms. In engineered forms, it often is a copy (replicate) of the naturally occurring DNA from any particular organism's natural genome; the organism's own mRNA was naturally transcribed from its DNA, and the cDNA is reverse transcribed from the mRNA, yielding a duplicate of the original DNA. Engineered cDNA is often used to express a specific protein in a cell that does not normally express that protein (i.e., heterologous expression), or to sequence or quantify mRNA molecules using DNA based methods (qPCR, RNA-seq). cDNA that codes for a specific protein can be transferred to a recipient cell for expression as part of recombinant DNA, often bacterial or yeast expression systems. cDNA is also generated to analyze transcriptomic profiles in bulk tissue, single cells, or single nuclei in assays such as microarrays, qPCR, and RNA-seq. In natural forms, cDNA is produced by retroviruses (such as HIV-1, HIV-2, simian immunodeficiency virus, etc.) and then integrated into the host's genome, where it creates a provirus. The term cDNA is also used, typically in a bioinformatics context, to refer to an mRNA transcript's sequence, expressed as DNA bases (deoxy-GCAT) rather than RNA bases (GCAU). Patentability of cDNA was a subject of a 2013 US Supreme Court decision in Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics, Inc. As a compromise, the Court declared, that exons-only cDNA is patent-eligible, whereas isolated sequences of naturally occurring DNA comprising introns are not. Synthesis RNA serves as a template for cDNA synthesis. In cellular life, cDNA is generated by viruses and retrotransposons for integration of RNA into target genomic DNA. In molecular biology, RNA is purified from source material after genomic DNA, proteins and other cellular components are removed. cDNA is then synthesized through in vitro reverse transcription. RNA purification RNA is transcribed from genomic DNA in host cells and is extracted by first lysing cells then purifying RNA utilizing widely used methods such as phenol-chloroform, silica column, and bead-based RNA extraction methods. Extraction methods vary depending on the source material. For example, extracting RNA from plant tissue requires additional reagents, such as polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), to remove phenolic compounds, carbohydrates, and other compounds that will otherwise render RNA unusable. To remove DNA and proteins, enzymes such as DNase and Proteinase K are used for degradation. Importantly, RNA integrity is maintained by inactivating RNases with chaotropic agents such as guanidinium isothiocyanate, sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS), phenol or chloroform. Total RNA is then separated from other cellular components and precipitated with alcohol. Various commercial kits exist for simple and rapid RNA extractions for specific applications. Additional bead-based methods can be used to isolate specific sub-types of RNA (e.g. mRNA and microRNA) based on size or unique RNA regions. Reverse transcription First-strand synthesis Using a reverse transcriptase enzyme and purified RNA templates, one strand of cDNA is produced (first-strand cDNA synthesis). The M-MLV reverse transcriptase from the Moloney murine leukemia virus is commonly used due to its reduced RNase H activity suited for transcription of longer RNAs. The AMV reverse transcriptase from the avian myeloblastosis virus may also be used for RNA templates with strong secondary structures (i.e. high melting temperature). cDNA is commonly generated from mRNA for gene expression analyses such as RT-qPCR and RNA-seq. mRNA is selectively reverse transcribed using oligo-dT primers that are the reverse complement of the poly-adenylated tail on the 3' end of all mRNA. The oligo-dT primer anneals to the poly-adenylated tail of the mRNA to serve as a binding site for the reverse transcriptase to begin reverse transcription. An optimized mixture of oligo-dT and random hexamer primers increases the chance of obtaining full-length cDNA while reducing 5' or 3' bias. Ribosomal RNA may also be depleted to enrich both mRNA and non-poly-adenylated transcripts such as some non-coding RNA. Second-strand synthesis The result of first-strand syntheses, RNA-DNA hybrids, can be processed through multiple second-strand synthesis methods or processed directly in downstream assays. An early method known as hairpin-primed synthesis relied on hairpin formation on the 3' end of the first-strand cDNA to prime second-strand synthesis. However, priming is random and hairpin hydrolysis leads to loss of information. The Gubler and Hoffman Procedure uses E. Coli RNase H to nick mRNA that is replaced with E. Coli DNA Polymerase I and sealed with E. Coli DNA Ligase. An optimization of this procedure relies on low RNase H activity of M-MLV to nick mRNA with remaining RNA later removed by adding RNase H after DNA Polymerase translation of the second-strand cDNA. This prevents lost sequence information at the 5' end of the mRNA. Applications Complementary DNA is often used in gene cloning or as gene probes or in the creation of a cDNA library. When scientists transfer a gene from one cell into another cell in order to express the new genetic material as a protein in the recipient cell, the cDNA will be added to the recipient (rather than the entire gene), because the DNA for an entire gene may include DNA that does not code for the protein or that interrupts the coding sequence of the protein (e.g., introns). Partial sequences of cDNAs are often obtained as expressed sequence tags. With amplification of DNA sequences via polymerase chain reaction (PCR) now commonplace, one will typically conduct reverse transcription as an initial step, followed by PCR to obtain an exact sequence of cDNA for intra-cellular expression. This is achieved by designing sequence-specific DNA primers that hybridize to the 5' and 3' ends of a cDNA region coding for a protein. Once amplified, the sequence can be cut at each end with nucleases and inserted into one of many small circular DNA sequences known as expression vectors. Such vectors allow for self-replication, inside the cells, and potentially integration in the host DNA. They typically also contain a strong promoter to drive transcription of the target cDNA into mRNA, which is then translated into protein. cDNA is also used to study gene expression via methods such as RNA-seq or RT-qPCR. For sequencing, RNA must be fragmented due to sequencing platform size limitations. Additionally, second-strand synthesized cDNA must be ligated with adapters that allow cDNA fragments to be PCR amplified and bind to sequencing flow cells. Gene-specific analysis methods commonly use microarrays and RT-qPCR to quantify cDNA levels via fluorometric and other methods. On 13 June 2013, the United States Supreme Court ruled in the case of Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics that while naturally occurring genes cannot be patented, cDNA is patent-eligible because it does not occur naturally. Viruses and retrotransposons Some viruses also use cDNA to turn their viral RNA into mRNA (viral RNA → cDNA → mRNA). The mRNA is used to make viral proteins to take over the host cell. An example of this first step from viral RNA to cDNA can be seen in the HIV cycle of infection. Here, the host cell membrane becomes attached to the virus' lipid envelope which allows the viral capsid with two copies of viral genome RNA to enter the host. The cDNA copy is then made through reverse transcription of the viral RNA, a process facilitated by the chaperone CypA and a viral capsid associated reverse transcriptase. cDNA is also generated by retrotransposons in eukaryotic genomes. Retrotransposons are mobile genetic elements that move themselves within, and sometimes between, genomes via RNA intermediates. This mechanism is shared with viruses with the exclusion of the generation of infectious particles. See also * * * * (RT-qPCR) References Mark D. Adams et al. "Complementary DNA Sequencing: Expressed Sequence Tags and Human Genome Project." Science (American Association for the Advancement of Science) 252.5013 (1991): 1651–1656. Web. Philip M. Murphy, and H. Lee Tiffany. "Cloning of Complementary DNA Encoding a Functional Human Interleukin-8 Receptor." Science (American Association for the Advancement of Science) 253.5025 (1991): 1280–1283. Web. External links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100527204607/http://www.h-invitational.jp/ H-Invitational Database] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20181102155217/http://fantom.gsc.riken.jp/ Functional Annotation of the Mouse database] * [http://www.bugaco.com/calculators/dna_reverse_complement.php Complementary DNA tool] * http://news.icecric.com/today-match-prediction/ Category:DNA	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complementary_DNA	2025-04-05T18:28:07.524558
7331	Cellular digital packet data	Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD) is an obsolete wide-area mobile data service which used unused bandwidth normally used by Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) mobile phones between 800 and 900 MHz to transfer data. Speeds up to 19.2 kbit/s were possible, though real world speeds seldom reached higher than 9.6 kbit/s. The service was discontinued in conjunction with the retirement of the parent AMPS service; it has been functionally replaced by faster services such as 1xRTT, Evolution-Data Optimized, and UMTS/High Speed Packet Access (HSPA). Developed in the early 1990s, CDPD was large on the horizon as a future technology. However, it had difficulty competing against existing slower but less expensive Mobitex and DataTAC systems, and never quite gained widespread acceptance before newer, faster standards such as General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) became dominant. CDPD had very limited consumer products. AT&T Wireless first sold the technology in the United States under the PocketNet brand. It was one of the first products of wireless web service. Digital Ocean, Inc. an original equipment manufacturer licensee of the Apple Newton, sold the Seahorse product, which integrated the Newton handheld computer, an AMPS/CDPD handset/modem along with a web browser in 1996, winning the CTIA's hardware product of the year award as a smartphone, arguably the world's first. A company named OmniSky provided service for Palm V devices. OmniSky then filed for bankruptcy in 2001 then was picked up by EarthLink Wireless. The technician that developed the tech support for all of the wireless technology was a man by the name of Myron Feasel he was brought from company to company ending up at Palm. Sierra Wireless sold PCMCIA devices and Airlink sold a serial modem. Both of these were used by police and fire departments for dispatch. Wireless later sold CDPD under the Wireless Internet brand (not to be confused with Wireless Internet Express, their brand for GPRS/EDGE data). PocketNet was generally considered a failure with competition from 2G services such as Sprint's Wireless Web. AT&T Wireless sold four PocketNet Phone models to the public: the Samsung Duette and the Mitsubishi MobileAccess-120 were AMPS/CDPD PocketNet phones introduced in October 1997; and two IS-136/CDPD Digital PocketNet phones, the Mitsubishi T-250 and the Ericsson R289LX. Despite its limited success as a consumer offering, CDPD was adopted in a number of enterprise and government networks. It was particularly popular as a first-generation wireless data solution for telemetry devices (machine to machine communications) and for public safety mobile data terminals. In 2004, major carriers in the United States announced plans to shut down CDPD service. In July 2005, the AT&T Wireless and Cingular Wireless CDPD networks were shut down. CDPD Network and system Primary elements of a CDPD network are: 1. End systems: physical & logical end systems that exchange information 2. Intermediate systems: CDPD infrastructure elements that store, forward & route the information There are 2 kinds of End systems 1. Mobile end system: subscriber unit to access CDPD network over a wireless interface 2. Fixed end system: common host/server that is connected to the CDPD backbone and providing access to specific application and data There are 2 kinds of Intermediate systems 1. Generic intermediate system: simple router with no knowledge of mobility issues 2. mobile data intermediate system: specialized intermediate system that routes data based on its knowledge of the current location of Mobile end system. It is a set of hardware and software functions that provide switching, accounting, registration, authentication, encryption, and so on. The design of CDPD was based on several design objectives that are often repeated in designing overlay networks or new networks. A lot of emphasis was laid on open architectures and reusing as much of the existing RF infrastructure as possible. The design goal of CDPD included location independence and independence fro, service provider, so that coverage could be maximized; application transparency and multiprotocol support, interoperability between products from multiple vendors. External links CIO CDPD article History and Development Detailed Description About CDPD Category:First generation mobile telecommunications	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_digital_packet_data	2025-04-05T18:28:07.526911
7333	Chimera	Chimera, Chimaera, or Chimaira (Greek for "she-goat") originally referred to: Chimera (mythology), a fire-breathing monster of ancient Lycia said to combine parts from multiple animals Mount Chimaera, a fire-spewing region of Lycia or Cilicia typically considered the inspiration for the myth Chimera, chimera, chimère, Chimaira, etc. may also refer to: Biology Chimaera, various cartilaginous fishes of the order Chimaeriformes Chimaera (genus), the eponymous genus of the order Chimaeriformes Chimera (EST), a single cDNA sequence originating from two transcripts Chimera (genetics), a single organism with cells from two different zygotes Chimera (virus), with genetic material from other organisms Chimeric protein or fusion protein Chimera (paleontology), a fossil made with parts from different animals Chimera Project, a Soviet biological weapons program Media Fictional entities Chimera (Fullmetal Alchemist), characters Chimera (Marvel Comics), the name of different characters from Marvel Comics Chimera (DC Comics), the name of different characters from DC Comics Chimera (Dungeons & Dragons), a magical beast Chimera Anima, a name grouping of animals in the anime Tokyo Mew Mew The Chimera, an alien race in Resistance Chimera ants, a group of deadly and invasive mutant bugs in the anime and manga series Hunter × Hunter Films Chimera (1968 film), Italian musicarello Chimera (2001 film), Italian romance Chimère (film), France, 1989 Chimères (film), 2013 Chimera Strain, a 2018 Indian-American film La Chimera, a 2023 romantic drama Gaming Chimaera (magazine), a British zine dedicated to postal board games, 1975–1983 Chimera (video game), a 1985 adventure Chimera (larp convention), Auckland, New Zealand Chimera Entertainment, a game developer, Munich, Germany Literature The Chimeras, 1854 sonnets by Gérard de Nerval Chimaira, a 2001 novel by Valerio Massimo Manfredi Chimera (Barth novel) (1972) Chimera (CrossGen), a 2003 comic book series Chimaera (novel), by Ian Irvine, 2004 Chimera (novel series), by Baku Yumemakura, Japan Chimera (short story), by Lee Youngdo Chimera (2015), novel in Mira Grant's Parasitology trilogy Music Groups or artists Chimaira, an American heavy metal band from Cleveland, Ohio Chimera (Irish band), a musical group Chimera (Russian band), an underground musical band Mike Dred or Chimera (born 1967), techno musician Albums Chimaira (album), 2005 Chimera (Andromeda album) (2006) Chimera (Aria album) (2001) Chimera (Delerium album), 2003, by Delerium Chimera (Erik Friedlander album) (1995) Chimera (Mayhem album) (2004) Chimeras (album), 2003, by John Zorn Chimera, by The Cost, 2002 Chimera, by Duncan Mackay, 1974 Chimera, by Bill Nelson, 1983 鵺-chimera-, a 2016 EP by Girugamesh Chimera, a 2009 EP by Chris Pureka Chimera, a 2014 EP by Marié Digby Songs "Chimeres I, II and III", 2007 compositions by Fred Momotenko "Chimera", by Duncan Sheik, Daylight (Duncan Sheik album) "Chimaera", by Bad Religion from Generator,1992 "Chimera", by the Tea Party from Triptych, 1999 "Chimeras", by Tim Hecker from Harmony in Ultraviolet "Chimera", by Bonham from Mad Hatter "The Chimera", by the Smashing Pumpkins from Oceania, 2012 "Chimera", by Polyphia from album Remember That You Will Die, 2022 Television Chimera (British TV series), 1991 "Chimera" (NCIS), an episode "Chimera" Star Trek: Deep Space Nine), 1999 "Chimera" (Stargate SG-1), an episode "Chimera" (The X-Files), an episode Chimera (South Korean TV series), 2021 People Jason Chimera (born 1979), NHL ice hockey player Chimaera, a ring name of Ricardo Rodriguez (wrestler) (b. 1986), wrestler Computing Chimera (software library) Camino (web browser) or Chimera UCSF Chimera, software to visualize molecules Chimera Linux, a Linux distribution Other uses Chimaera (town), ancient Himarë, Albania Chimaera Mountains, an ancient Ceraunian Range, Albania Chimera (spacecraft), a space exploration mission proposal Chimera (architecture), or grotesque TVR Chimaera, a car Chimera (roller coaster), La Feria Chapultepec Mágico, Mexico City 623 Chimaera, a main-belt asteroid See also Quimera International Festival, Metepec, Toluca, Mexico	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimera	2025-04-05T18:28:07.533811
7335	Creature of statute	A creature of statute (also known as creature of the state) is a legal entity, such as a corporation, created by statute. Creatures of statute may include municipalities and other artificial legal entities or relationships. Thus, when a statute in some fashion requires the formation of a corporate body—often for governmental purposes—such bodies when formed are known as "creatures of statute." The same concept is also expressed with the phrase "creature of the state." The importance of a corporate body, regardless of its exact function, when such a body is a creature of statute is that its active functions can only be within the scope detailed by the statute which created that corporation. Thereby, the creature of statute is the tangible manifestation of the functions or work described by a given statute. The jurisdiction of a body that is a creature of statute is also therefore limited to the functional scope written into the laws that created that body. Unlike most (private) corporate bodies, creatures of statute cannot expand their business interests into other diverse areas. See also Competition regulator Statutory authority Regulatory agency Independent agencies of the United States government Public Authority Quango Notes Category:Administrative law Category:Corporate law Category:Statutory law Category:Legal fictions	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creature_of_statute	2025-04-05T18:28:07.536283
7339	General Conference on Weights and Measures	<!-- parked currently unused anchors --> The General Conference on Weights and Measures (abbreviated CGPM from the ) The CGPM meets in Paris, usually once every four years. The 25th meeting of the CGPM took place from 18 to 20 November 2014, the 26th meeting of the CGPM took place in Versailles from 13 to 16 November 2018, and the 27th meeting of the CGPM took place from 15 to 18 November 2022. Establishment On 20 May 1875 an international treaty known as the Convention du Mètre (Metre Convention) was signed by 17 states. This treaty established an international organisation, the Bureau international des poids et mesures (BIPM), which has two governing organs: * Conférence générale des poids et mesures (CGPM), a plenary meeting of official delegates of member states which is the supreme authority for all actions; * Comité international des poids et mesures (CIPM), consisting of elected scientists and metrologists, which prepares and executes the decisions of the CGPM and is responsible for the supervision of the organisation. The organization has a permanent laboratory and secretariat function (sometimes referred to as the Headquarters), the activities of which include the establishment of the basic standards and scales of the principal physical quantities and maintenance of the international prototype standards. The CGPM acts on behalf of the governments of its members. In so doing, it elects members to the CIPM, receives reports from the CIPM which it passes on to the governments and national laboratories on member states, examines and where appropriate approves proposals from the CIPM in respect of changes to the International System of Units (SI), approves the budget for the BIPM (over €13 million in 2018) and it decides all major issues concerning the organization and development of the BIPM. The structure is analogous to that of a stock corporation. The BIPM is the organisation, the CGPM is the general meeting of the shareholders, the CIPM is the board of directors appointed by the CGPM, and the staff at the site in Saint-Cloud perform the day-to-day work. Membership criteria The CGPM recognises two classes of membership – full membership for those states that wish to participate in the activities of the BIPM and associate membership for those countries or economies that only wish to participate in the CIPM MRA program. Associate members have observer status at the CGPM. Since all formal liaison between the convention organisations and national governments is handled by the member state's ambassador to France, it is implicit that member states must have diplomatic relations with France, though during both world wars, nations that were at war with France retained their membership of the CGPM. CGPM meetings are chaired by the Président de l'Académie des Sciences de Paris. Of the twenty countries that attended the Conference of the Metre in 1875, representatives of seventeen signed the convention on 20 May 1875. In April 1884, H. J. Chaney, Warden of Standards in London unofficially contacted the BIPM inquiring whether the BIPM would calibrate some metre standards that had been manufactured in the United Kingdom. Broch, director of the BIPM replied that he was not authorised to perform any such calibrations for non-member states. On 17 September 1884, the British Government signed the convention on behalf of the United Kingdom. This number grew to 21 in 1900, 32 in 1950, and 49 in 2001. , there are 64 Member States and 37 Associate States and Economies of the General Conference (with year of partnership in parentheses): Member states Argentina (1877)<br> Australia (1947)<br> Austria (1875)<br> Belarus (2020)<br> Belgium (1875)<br> Brazil (1921)<br> Bulgaria (1911)<br> Canada (1907)<br> Chile (1908)<br> China (1977)<br> Colombia (2012)<br> Costa Rica (2022)<br> Croatia (2008)<br> Czech Republic (1922)<br> Denmark (1875)<br> Ecuador (2019)<br> Egypt (1962)<br> Estonia (2021)<br> Finland (1913)<br> France (1875)<br> Germany (1875)<br> Greece (2001)<br> Hungary (1925)<br> India (1880)<br> Indonesia (1960)<br> Iran (1975)<br> Iraq (2013)<br> Ireland (1925)<br> Israel (1985)<br> Italy (1875)<br> Japan (1885)<br> Kazakhstan (2008)<br> Kenya (2010)<br> Lithuania (2015)<br> Malaysia (2001)<br> Mexico (1890)<br> Montenegro (2018)<br> Morocco (2019)<br> Netherlands (1929)<br> New Zealand (1991)<br> Norway (1875)<br> Pakistan (1973)<br> Poland (1925)<br> Portugal (1876)<br> Romania (1884)<br> Russia (1875)<br> Saudi Arabia (2011)<br> Serbia (2001)<br> Singapore (1994)<br> Slovakia (1922)<br> Ukraine (2018)<br> United Arab Emirates (2015)<br> United Kingdom (1884)<br> United States (1878)<br> Uruguay (1908)<br> Former members Cameroon (1970–2012)<br> Dominican Republic (1954–2015)<br> North Korea (1982–2012)<br> Peru (1875–1956)<br> Venezuela (1879–1907, 1960–2018) Notes Associates At the 21st meeting of the CGPM in October 1999, the category of "associate" was created for states not yet BIPM members and for economic unions. Albania (2007)<br> Azerbaijan (2015)<br> Bangladesh (2010)<br> Bolivia (2008)<br> Bosnia and Herzegovina (2011)<br> Botswana (2012)<br> Cambodia (2021)<br> Caribbean Community (2005)<br> Chinese Taipei (2002)<br> Cuba (2000)<br> Ethiopia (2018)<br> Georgia (2008)<br> Ghana (2009)<br> Hong Kong (2000)<br> Jamaica (2003)<br> Kuwait (2018)<br> Latvia (2001)<br> Luxembourg (2014)<br> Malta (2001)<br> Mauritius (2010)<br> Moldova (2007)<br> Mongolia (2013)<br> Namibia (2012)<br> North Macedonia (2006)<br> Oman (2012)<br> Panama (2003)<br> Paraguay (2009)<br> Peru (2009)<br> Philippines (2002)<br> Qatar (2016)<br> Sri Lanka (2007)<br> Syria (2012)<br> Tanzania (2018)<br> Uzbekistan (2018)<br> Vietnam (2003)<br> Zambia (2010)<br> Zimbabwe (2010–2020, 2022)<br> Former Associates Seychelles (2010–2021)<br> Sudan (2014–2021)<br> CGPM meetings {\| class"wikitable" style"width:100%;" \|- <!-- --> \| style="width:11%; vertical-align:top;"\|1st (1889) \| style="width:90%;"\|The international prototype of the kilogram (IPK), a cylinder made of platinum–iridium, and the international prototype of the metre, an X-cross-section bar also made from platinum–iridium, were selected from batches manufactured by the British firm Johnson Matthey. Working copies of both artifacts were also selected by lot and other copies distributed to member nations, again by lot. The prototypes and working copies were deposited at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (Bureau international des poids et mesures), Saint-Cloud, France. \|- \| valign="top"\|2nd (1895) \|No resolutions were passed by the 2nd CGPM. \|- \| valign="top"\|3rd (1901) \|The litre was redefined as volume of 1 kg of water. Clarified that kilograms are units of mass, "standard weight" defined, standard acceleration of gravity defined endorsing use of grams force and making them well-defined. \|- \| valign="top"\|4th (1907) \|The carat was defined as 200 mg. \|- \| valign="top"\|5th (1913) \|The International Temperature Scale was proposed. The General Conference recommended that the International Committee authorize the Bureau to organise, between establishments possessing a calibration base, the circulation, in groups, of well-defined invar threads, with a view to enabling agreement to be reached on the method of determining these bases, as well as the method of using the threads. \|- \| valign="top"\|6th (1921) \|The Metre Convention revised. \|- \| valign="top"\|7th (1927) \|The Consultative Committee for Electricity (CCE) created. \|- \| valign="top"\|8th (1933) \|The need for absolute electrical unit identified. \|- \| valign="top"\|9th (1948) \|The ampere, bar, coulomb, farad, henry, joule, newton, ohm, volt, watt, weber were defined. The degree Celsius was selected from three names in use as the name of the unit of temperature. The symbol l (lowercase L) <!--symbols for units of measure never italic--> was adopted as symbol for litre. Both the comma and dot on a line are accepted as decimal marker symbols. Symbols for the stere and second changed. The universal return to the Long Scale numbering system was proposed but not adopted. \|- \| valign="top"\|10th (1954) \|The kelvin, standard atmosphere defined. Work on the International System of Units (metre, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, candela) began. \|- <!-- --> \| valign="top"\|11th (1960) \|The metre was redefined in terms of wavelengths of light. The units hertz, lumen, lux, tesla were adopted. The new MKSA-based metric system given the official symbol SI for '''''Système International d'Unités' and launched as the "modernized metric system". The prefixes pico-, nano-, micro-, mega-, giga- and tera- were confirmed. \|- \| valign="top"\|12th (1964) \|The original definition of litre = 1 dm<sup>3</sup> restored. The prefixes atto- and femto- were adopted. \|- \| valign="top"\|13th (1967) \|The second was redefined as duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom at a temperature of 0 K. The Degree Kelvin renamed kelvin and the candela redefined. \|- \| valign="top"\|14th (1971) \|A new SI base unit, the mole defined. The names pascal and siemens as units of pressure and electrical conductance were approved. \|- \| valign="top"\|15th (1975) \|The prefixes peta- and exa- were adopted. The units gray and becquerel were adopted as radiological units within SI. \|- \| valign="top"\|16th (1979) \|The candela and sievert were defined. Both l and L <!--symbols for units of measure never italic--> provisionally allowed as symbols for litre. \|- \| valign="top"\|17th (1983) \|The metre was redefined in terms of the speed of light, i.e. The metre is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299,792,458 of a second. \|- \| valign="top"\|18th (1987) \|Conventional values were adopted for Josephson constant, K<sub>J</sub>, and von Klitzing constant, R<sub>K</sub>, preparing the way for alternative definitions of the ampere and kilogram. \|- \| valign="top"\|19th (1991) \|New prefixes yocto-, zepto-, zetta- and yotta- were adopted. \|- \| valign="top"\|20th (1995) \|The SI supplementary units (radian and steradian) become derived units. \|- \| valign="top"\|21st (1999) \|A new SI derived unit, the katal = mole per second, was adopted as the SI unit of catalytic activity. \|- \| valign="top"\|22nd (2003) \|A comma or a dot on a line are reaffirmed as decimal marker symbols, and not as grouping symbols in order to facilitate reading; "numbers may be divided in groups of three in order to facilitate reading; neither dots nor commas are ever inserted in the spaces between groups". \|- \| valign="top"\|23rd (2007) \|The definition of the kelvin was clarified and thoughts about possible revision of certain base units discussed. \|- \| valign="top"\|24th (2011) \|Proposal to revise the definitions of the SI units, including redefining the kilogram in relation to the Planck constant were accepted in principle, subject to certain technical criteria having been met. \|- <!-- --> \| valign="top"\|25th (2014) \|Redefining the kilogram in relation to the Planck constant was discussed but not decided on. Progress towards realising the redefinition has been noted. However, it was concluded that the data did not yet appear to be sufficiently robust. Continued effort on improving the data has been encouraged, such that a resolution that would replace the current definition with the revised definition can be adopted at the 26th meeting. \|- <!-- --> \| valign="top"\|26th (2018) \|The kilogram, ampere, kelvin, and mole were redefined at this meeting, in terms new permanently fixed values of the Planck constant, elementary charge, Boltzmann constant and Avogadro constant, respectively. \|- <!-- --> \| valign="top"\|27th (2022) \|New prefixes quecto-, ronto-, ronna-, and quetta- were adopted. Planning was begun to eliminate the leap second and stabilize DUT1 by 2035. \|} <span class"anchor" id"ICWM"></span><span class"anchor" id"CIPM"></span> International Committee for Weights and Measures The International Committee for Weights and Measures consists of eighteen persons, each of a different nationality. elected by the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) whose principal task is to promote worldwide uniformity in units of measurement by taking direct action or by submitting proposals to the CGPM. The CIPM meets every year (since 2011 in two sessions per year) at the Pavillon de Breteuil where, among other matters, it discusses reports presented to it by its Consultative Committees. Reports of the meetings of the CGPM, the CIPM, and all the Consultative Committees, are published by the BIPM. Mission The secretariat is based in Saint-Cloud, Hauts-de-Seine, France. In 1999, the CIPM has established the CIPM Arrangement de reconnaissance mutuelle (Mutual Recognition Arrangement, MRA), which serves as the framework for the mutual acceptance of national measurement standards and for recognition of the validity of calibration and measurement certificates issued by national metrology institutes. A recent focus area of the CIPM has been the revision of the SI. <span class"anchor" id"CC"></span><span class"anchor" id"CCAUV"></span><span class"anchor" id"CCEM"></span><span class"anchor" id"CCL"></span><span class"anchor" id"CCM"></span><span class"anchor" id"CCPR"></span><span class"anchor" id"CCQM"></span><span class"anchor" id"CCRI"></span><span class"anchor" id"CCT"></span><span class"anchor" id"CCTF"></span><span class"anchor" id"CCU"></span> Consultative committees The CIPM has set up a number of consultative committees (CC) to assist it in its work. These committees are under the authority of the CIPM. The president of each committee, who is expected to take the chair at CC meetings, is usually a member of the CIPM. Apart from the CCU, membership of a CC is open to National Metrology Institutes (NMIs) of Member States that are recognized internationally as most expert in the field. NMIs from Member States that are active in the field, but lack the expertise to become Members, are able to attend CC meetings as observers. These committees are: The CCU's role is to advise on matters related to the development of the SI and the preparation of the SI brochure. Major reports Official reports of the CIPM include: * Reports of CIPM meetings (Procès-Verbaux) (CIPM Minutes) * Annual Report to Governments on the financial and administrative situation of the BIPM * Notification of the contributive parts of the Contracting States * Convocation to meetings of the CGPM * Report of the President of the CIPM to the CGPM From time to time the CIPM has been charged by the CGPM to undertake major investigations related to activities affecting the CGPM or the BIPM. Reports produced include: The Blevin Report The Blevin Report, published in 1998, examined the state of worldwide metrology. The report originated from a resolution passed at the 20th CGPM (October 1995) which committed the CIPM to The report identified, amongst other things, a need for closer cooperation between the BIPM and other organisations such as International Organization of Legal Metrology (OIML) and International Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation (ILAC) with clearly defined boundaries and interfaces between the organisations. Another major finding was the need for cooperation between accreditation laboratories and the need to involve developing countries in the world of metrology. The Kaarls Report The Kaarls Report published in 2003 examined the role of the BIPM in the evolving needs for metrology in trade, industry and society. SI Brochure The CIPM has responsibility for commissioning the SI brochure, which is the formal definition of the International system of units. The brochure is produced by the CCU in conjunction with a number of other international organisations. Initially the brochure was only in French – the official language of the metre convention, but recent versions have been published simultaneously in both English and French, with the French text being the official text. The 6th edition was published in 1991, the 7th edition was published in 1998, and the 8th, in 2006. The most recent edition is the 9th edition, originally published as version 1 in 2019 to include the 2019 revision of the SI (a.k.a. "new SI"); it was updated to version 2 in December 2022 to include the new SI prefixes ronna-, quetta-, ronto- and quecto- introduced in November 2022. See also * History of the metre * Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements (IRMM) * National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) * National Conference on Weights and Measures (NCWM) United States * Outline of the metric system * Seconds pendulum Notes References Conference generale des poids et mesures Conference generale des poids et mesures Category:Metric system Category:Hauts-de-Seine Category:Organizations based in Paris Category:International organizations based in France Category:IUPAP	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Conference_on_Weights_and_Measures	2025-04-05T18:28:07.599929
7341	Cowboy Bebop	Cowboy Bebop (2021 TV series)\|other uses}} \|Space Western}}<!-- Note: Use and cite reliable sources to identify genre/s, not personal interpretation. Please don't include more than three genres (per MOS:A&M). --> \| creator = Hajime Yatate }} \| demographic = Shōjo<!-- Demographic is based on magazine, not on content --> \| magazine = Monthly Asuka Fantasy DX \| first = September 18, 1997 \| last = June 18, 1998 \| volumes = 2 \| volume_list = List of Cowboy Bebop chapters#Cowboy Bebop: Shooting Star }} \| writer = Keiko Nobumoto \| music = Yoko Kanno \| studio = Sunrise \| licensee Crunchyroll LLC<br /> \| network = TXN (TV Tokyo), Wowow \| network_en = }} \| first = TV Tokyo broadcast<br />April 3, 1998 – June 26, 1998<br />Wowow broadcast<br />October 23, 1998 \| last = April 24, 1999 \| episodes = 26 \| episode_list = List of Cowboy Bebop episodes }} \| demographic = Seinen<!-- Demographic is based on magazine, not on content --> \| magazine = Monthly Asuka Fantasy DX \| first = October 18, 1998 \| last = February 18, 2000 \| volumes = 3 \| volume_list = List of Cowboy Bebop chapters#Cowboy_Bebop }} is a 1998 Japanese neo-noir space Western anime television series that aired on TV Tokyo and Wowow from 1998 to 1999. It was created and animated by Sunrise, led by a production team of director Shinichirō Watanabe, screenwriter Keiko Nobumoto, character designer Toshihiro Kawamoto, mechanical designer Kimitoshi Yamane, and composer Yoko Kanno, who are collectively billed as Hajime Yatate. The series, which ran for twenty-six episodes (dubbed "sessions"), is set in the year 2071, and follows the lives of a traveling bounty-hunting crew aboard a spaceship, the Bebop. Although it incorporates a wide variety of genres, the series draws most heavily from science fiction, Western, and noir films. Its most prominent themes are existential boredom, loneliness, and the inability to escape one's past. The series was dubbed into English by Animaze and ZRO Limit Productions, and was originally licensed in North America by Bandai Entertainment (and is now licensed by Crunchyroll) and in Britain by Beez Entertainment (now by Anime Limited); Madman Entertainment owns the license in Australia and New Zealand. In 2001, it became the first anime title to be broadcast on Adult Swim. Cowboy Bebop has been hailed as one of the best animated television series of all time. It was a critical and commercial success both in Japanese and international markets, most notably in the United States. It garnered several major anime and science-fiction awards upon its release, and received acclaim from critics and audiences for its style, characters, story, voice acting, animation, and soundtrack. The English dub was particularly lauded and is regarded as one of the best anime English dubs. Credited with helping to introduce anime to a new wave of Western viewers in the early 2000s, Cowboy Bebop has also been called a gateway series.Plot List of Cowboy Bebop episodes}} In the year 2071, roughly fifty years after an accident with a hyperspace gateway that made Earth almost uninhabitable, humanity has colonized most of the rocky planets and moons of the Solar System. Amid a rising crime rate, the Inter Solar System Police (ISSP) set up a legalized contract system, in which registered bounty hunters (also referred to as "Cowboys") chase criminals and bring them in alive in return for a reward. The series' protagonists are bounty hunters working from the spaceship Bebop. The original crew is Spike Spiegel, an exiled former hitman of the criminal Red Dragon Syndicate, and Jet Black, a former ISSP officer. They are later joined by Faye Valentine, an amnesiac con artist; Edward Wong, an eccentric child, skilled in hacking; and Ein, a genetically engineered Pembroke Welsh Corgi with human-like intelligence. Throughout the series, the team gets involved in disastrous mishaps leaving them without money, while often confronting faces and events from their pasts: One reviewer described it as "space opera meets noir, meets comedy, meets cyberpunk". It has also been called a "genre-busting space Western". The musical style was emphasized in many of the episode titles. Multiple philosophical themes are explored using the characters, including existentialism, existential boredom, loneliness, and the effect of the past on the protagonists. Other concepts referenced include environmentalism and capitalism. The series also makes specific references to or pastiches multiple films, including the works of John Woo and Bruce Lee, Midnight Run, 2001: A Space Odyssey, and Alien. The series also includes extensive references and elements from science fiction, bearing strong similarities to the cyberpunk fiction of William Gibson. Each character, from the main cast to supporting characters, were designed to be outlaws unable to fit into society. Kawamoto designed the characters so they were easily distinguished from one another. From the perspective of Brian Camp and Julie Davis, the main characters resemble the main characters of the anime series Lupin III, if only superficially, given their more troubled pasts and more complex personalities.<!--THE RESEMBLANCE IS SOMETHING THESE TWO WRITERS MAY CLAIM; IF OTHERS DO ALSO, CITE THEM—BUT UNTIL OTHERS CLEARLY SAY THIS, IT IS THE OPINION OF JUST ONE SOURCE, NOT A GENERAL PERSPECTIVE AMONG ANIME EXPERTS OR FOLLOWERS OF THIS WRITER-DIRECTOR TEAM'S WORK.--> The show focuses on the character of Spike Spiegel (voiced by Kōichi Yamadera), an iconic space cowboy with green hair and often seen wearing a blue suit, with the overall theme of the series being Spike's past and its karmic effect on him. Spike and Jet were designed to be opposites, with Spike being thin and wearing smart attire, while Jet was bulky and wore more casual clothing.Production at the 2009 Japan Expo]] Cowboy Bebop was developed by animation studio Sunrise and created by Hajime Yatate, the well-known pseudonym for the collective contributions of Sunrise's animation staff. The leader of the series' creative team was director Shinichirō Watanabe, most notable at the time for directing Macross Plus and Mobile Suit Gundam 0083: Stardust Memory. Other leading members of Sunrise's creative team were screenwriter Keiko Nobumoto, character designer Toshihiro Kawamoto, mechanical art designer Kimitoshi Yamane, composer Yoko Kanno, and producers Masahiko Minami and Yoshiyuki Takei. Most of them had previously worked together, in addition to having credits on other popular anime titles. Nobumoto had scripted Macross Plus, Kawamoto had designed the characters for Gundam, and Kanno had composed the music for Macross Plus and The Vision of Escaflowne. Yamane had not worked with Watanabe yet, but his credits in anime included Bubblegum Crisis and The Vision of Escaflowne. Minami joined the project as he wanted to do something different from his previous work on mecha anime.ConceptCowboy Bebop was Watanabe's first project as solo director, as he had been co-director in his previous works. His main inspiration for Cowboy Bebop was the first series of the anime Lupin III, a crime drama focusing on the exploits of the series' titular character. While the original dialogue of the series was kept clean to avoid any profanities, its level of sophistication was made appropriate to adults in a criminal environment. The comical episodes were harder for the team to write than the serious ones, and though several events in them seemed random, they were carefully planned in advance. The atmospheres of the planets and the ethnic groups in Cowboy Bebop mostly originated from Watanabe's ideas, with some collaboration from set designers Isamu Imakake, Shoji Kawamori, and Dai Satō. The animation staff established the particular planet atmospheres early in the production of the series before working on the ethnic groups. It was Watanabe who wanted to have several groups of ethnic diversity appear in the series. Mars was the planet most often used in Cowboy Bebop storylines, with Satoshi Toba, the cultural and setting producer, explaining that the other planets "were unexpectedly difficult to use". He stated that each planet in the series had unique features, and the producers had to take into account the characteristics of each planet in the story. For the final episode, Toba explained that it was not possible for the staff to have the dramatic rooftop scene occur on Venus, so the staff "ended up normally falling back to Mars". In creating the backstory, Watanabe envisioned a world that was "multinational rather than stateless". In spite of certain American influences in the series, he stipulated that the country had been destroyed decades prior to the story, later saying the notion of the United States as the center of the world repelled him. The guns on the show were chosen by Watanabe, and in discussion with set designer Isamu Imakake and mechanical designer Kimitoshi Yamane. Setting producer Satoshi Toba said, "They talked about how they didn't want common guns, because that wouldn't be very interesting, and so they decided on these guns." Music Music of Cowboy Bebop}} in 1999]] The music for Cowboy Bebop was composed by Yoko Kanno and comprises genres including jazz, western and jazz. According to Kanno, the music was one of the first aspects to begin production, before most of the characters, story, or animation had been finalized. The Cowboy Bebop music has been released across seven soundtrack albums, two singles and EPs, and two compilations through label Victor Entertainment. Distribution Broadcast List of Cowboy Bebop episodes}} Cowboy Bebop debuted on TV Tokyo, one of the main broadcasters of anime in Japan, airing from April 3 until June 26, 1998. Due to its 6:00 p.m. timeslot and depictions of graphic violence, the show's first run only included episodes 2, 3, 7 to 15, 18 and a special. Later that year, the series was shown in its entirety from October 23 until April 24, 1999, on satellite network Wowow. The full series has also been broadcast across Japan by anime television network Animax, which has also aired the series via its respective networks across Southeast Asia, South Asia and East Asia. The first non-Asian country to air Cowboy Bebop was Italy. There, it was first aired on October 21, 1999, on MTV, where it inaugurated the 9:00–10:30 p.m. Anime Night programming block. In the United States, Cowboy Bebop was one of the programs shown when Cartoon Network's late night block Adult Swim debuted on September 2, 2001, being the first anime shown on the block that night at midnight ET. During its original run on Adult Swim, episodes 6, 8, and 22 were skipped due to their violent themes in wake of the September 11 attacks. By the third run of the series, all these episodes had premiered for the first time. Cowboy Bebop was successful enough to be broadcast repeatedly for four years. It has been run at least once every year since 2007, and HD remasters of the show began broadcasting in 2015. In the United Kingdom, it was first broadcast in 2002 on the adult-oriented channel CNX. From November 6, 2007, it was repeated on AnimeCentral until the channel's closure in August 2008. In Australia, Cowboy Bebop was first broadcast on pay television in 2002 on Adult Swim, and on free-to-air-TV on ABC2 (the national digital public television channel) on January 2, 2007. It has been repeated several times, most recently starting in 2008. Cowboy Bebop: The Movie also aired on February 23, 2009, on SBS (a hybrid-funded Australian public broadcasting television network). In Canada, Cowboy Bebop was first broadcast on December 24, 2006, on Razer. In Latin America, the series was first broadcast on pay-TV in 2001 on Locomotion. It aired again on January 9, 2016, on I.Sat. Home media <div style="font-size: 100%;float:right;margin-left: 6px;"> {\| class="wikitable" \|- !DVD name!!Content!!Release date \|- \|Session One\|\| style="text-align:center;"\| Episodes 1–5 \|\|April 4, 2000 \|- \|Session Two\|\| style="text-align:center;"\| Episodes 6–10 \|\|May 2, 2000 \|- \|Session Three\|\| style="text-align:center;"\| Episodes 11–14 \|\|July 13, 2000 \|- \|Session Four\|\| style="text-align:center;"\| Episodes 15–18 \|\|April 4, 2001 \|- \|Session Five\|\| style="text-align:center;"\| Episodes 19–22 \|\|May 2, 2001 \|- \|Session Six\|\| style="text-align:center;"\| Episodes 23–26 \|\|July 13, 2001 \|- \|The Perfect Sessions\|\| style="text-align:center;"\| * Episodes 1–26 * Cowboy Bebop OST 1 * Collector's Art Box \|\|November 6, 2001 \|- \|Best Sessions\|\| style="text-align:center;"\| Various \|\|November 19, 2002 \|} </div> Cowboy Bebop has been released in four separate editions in North America. The first release was sold in VHS format either as a box set or as seven individual tapes. The tapes were sold through Anime Village, a division of Bandai. In the late 1990s, Manga Entertainment purchased the rights to Cowboy Bebop with plans to release the English-dubbed PAL version on VHS; however, this was never realized. The second release was sold in 2000 individually, and featured uncut versions of the original 26 episodes. In 2001, these DVDs were collected in the special edition Perfect Sessions which included the first 6 DVDs, the first Cowboy Bebop soundtrack, and a collector's box. At the time of release, the art box from the Perfect Sessions was made available for purchase on The Right Stuff International as a solo item for collectors who already owned the series. The third release, The Best Sessions, was sold in 2002 and featured what Bandai considered to be the best 6 episodes of the series remastered in Dolby Digital 5.1 and DTS surround sound. The fourth release, Cowboy Bebop Remix, was also distributed on 6 discs and included the original 26 uncut episodes, with sound remastered in Dolby Digital 5.1 and video remastered under the supervision of Shinichirō Watanabe. This release also included various extras that were not present in the original release. Cowboy Bebop Remix was itself collected as the Cowboy Bebop Remix: The Complete Collection in 2008. In December 2012, newly founded distributor Anime Limited announced via Facebook and Twitter that they had acquired the home video license for the United Kingdom. Part 1 of the Blu-ray collection was released on July 29, 2013, while Part 2 was released on October 14. The standard DVD Complete Collection was originally meant to be released on September 23, 2013, with Part 2 of the Blu-ray release but due to mastering and manufacturing errors, the Complete Collection was delayed until November 27. Following the closure of Bandai Entertainment in 2012, Funimation and Sunrise had announced that they rescued Cowboy Bebop, along with a handful of other former Bandai Entertainment properties, for home video and digital release. Funimation released the series on Blu-ray and DVD on December 16, 2014. The series was released in four separate editions: standard DVD, standard Blu-ray, an Amazon.com exclusive Blu-ray/DVD combo, and a Funimation.com exclusive Blu-ray/DVD combo. Crunchyroll released a limited edition Blu-ray box set on April 4, 2023, for its 25th anniversary. Streaming Netflix acquired the streaming rights to the original anime, with all 26 episodes available worldwide as of October 21, 2021. The series is also available on Hulu and Funimation in the United States. On March 1, 2022, the anime became available on Crunchyroll to consolidate both Funimation and Wakanim into the service.Related mediaManga List of Cowboy Bebop chapters}} Two Cowboy Bebop manga series adaptations have been released, both published by Kadokawa Shoten and serialized in Asuka Fantasy DX. The first manga series, titled Cowboy Bebop: Shooting Star and illustrated by Cain Kuga, was serialized from October issue 1997, before the anime series' release, to July issue 1998. It was collected into two volumes in 1998, the first one in May and the second one in September. The second manga series, simply titled Cowboy Bebop and illustrated by , was serialized from November issue 1998 to March issue 2000. Both manga series were licensed by Tokyopop for release in North America.Video games Cowboy Bebop (PlayStation game)\|Cowboy Bebop: Tsuioku no SerenadeCowboy Bebop: Tsuioku no Serenade}} A Cowboy Bebop video game, developed and published by Bandai, was released in Japan for the PlayStation on May 14, 1998. A PlayStation 2 video game, Cowboy Bebop: Tsuioku no Serenade, was released in Japan on August 25, 2005, and an English version had been set for release in North America. However, in January 2007, IGN reported that the release had likely been cancelled, speculating that it did not survive Bandai's merger with Namco to Bandai Namco Games. Super Robot Wars T}} In 2022, Cowboy Bebop made its debut in the Bandai Namco crossover game Super Robot Wars T, which is traditionally focused on turn-based mecha combat. In 2024, skins based on Cowboy Bebop characters were added to Blizzard Entertainment's first-person shooter Overwatch 2. In 2025, skins based on Cowboy Bebop characters Spike Spiegel and Faye Valentine were added to Epic Games' Fortnite Battle Royale. Film Cowboy Bebop: Knockin' on Heaven's Door}} An anime film titled , known in English as Cowboy Bebop: The Movie, was released in Japan in September 2001 and in the United States in August 2002. On July 22, 2008, If published an article on its website regarding a rumor of a live-action Cowboy Bebop'' movie in development by 20th Century Fox. Producer Erwin Stoff said that the film's development was in the early stages, and that they had "just signed it". Keanu Reeves was to play the role of Spike Spiegel. Variety confirmed on January 15, 2009, that production company Sunrise Animation would be "closely involved with the development of the English-language project". The site also confirmed Kenji Uchida, Shinichirō Watanabe and series writer Keiko Nobumoto as associate producers, series producer Masahiko Minami as a production consultant, and Peter Craig as screenwriter. This was lauded by various sources as a promising move for the potential quality of the film. At the time it was slated to release in 2011, but problems with the budget delayed its production. The submitted script was sent back for rewrite to reduce the cost and little has been heard about it since an interview with producer Joshua Long on October 15, 2010; the project currently languishes in development hell. On October 25, 2014, series director Watanabe was asked about the live-action film at the MCM London Comic Con. He stated: "I'm afraid I don't know what they're thinking in Hollywood. Apparently the project hasn't come to a stop but I don't know how it's going to progress from here on. I hear that there are a lot of 'Hollywood' problems." Live-action series Cowboy Bebop (2021 TV series)}} In 2017, it was announced that an American live-action adaptation of the series was being developed by Tomorrow Studios, a partnership between Marty Adelstein and ITV Studios, with executive production by Sunrise Inc. Christopher Yost was to write the series, and Netflix announced that it would distribute it. On April 4, 2019, Variety reported that John Cho, Mustafa Shakir, Daniella Pineda and Alex Hassell had been cast. Production was shut down in October 2019 due to a knee injury sustained by Cho, setting production back by more than six months. On April 17, 2020, it was revealed that the episodes would be an hour long. On May 19, 2020, Adelstein revealed that there were three finished episodes and that they had shot at least six episodes before Cho's knee injury. In the same interview it was revealed that the director of the anime series, Shinichirō Watanabe, had been hired as a creative consultant. Production in New Zealand resumed on September 30, 2020, following a COVID-19 lockdown in the country. The series was released on November 19, 2021, to mixed reviews. On December 9, 2021, it was announced that it would not be renewed for a second season, with Netflix cancelling it entirely.Other mediaAn official side story titled Cowboy Bebop: UT tells the story of Ural and Victoria Terpsichore (V.T. from the session "Heavy Metal Queen") when they were bounty-hunters. The story was available in its own official site, however the website was closed and is currently available at the site mirror. A deck-building board game, Cowboy Bebop: Space Serenade, was released in 2019. Reception Critical reception Cowboy Bebop received unanimous acclaim, beginning at the time of its initial broadcast. Beginning in 1998, Japanese critic Keith Rhee highlighted the series as a standout in an otherwise "run-of-the-mill" season, praising its overall production values, and singling out Kanno's soundtrack as "a much-welcome change from all the sugary J-pop tunes of most anime features". Rhee also highlighted the show's Japanese "all-star cast", In 1999, Australian magazine Hyper reviewed the anime and rated it 9.5 out of 10. Anime News Networks Mike Crandol gave the series an 'A+' rating for the dubbed version, and an 'A' rating for the subbed version. He characterized the series as "one of the most popular and respected anime titles in history", before adding that it was "a unique television show which skillfully transcends all kinds of genres". Crandol praised its characters as "some of the most endearing characters to ever grace an anime", and commended the voice acting, especially the "flawless English cast". He also complimented the series' "movie-quality" animation, "sophisticated" writing, and its "incredible" musical score. Crandol hailed Cowboy Bebop as a "landmark" anime "that will be remembered long after many others have been forgotten", and went on to call it "one of the greatest anime titles ever". Additionally, Michael Toole of Anime News Network named Cowboy Bebop as one of the most important anime of the 1990s. T.H.E.M. Anime Reviews gave the entire series a perfect score of 5 out of 5 stars, with reviewer Christina Carpenter believing Cowboy Bebop as "one of the best [anime]" and touting it as a masterpiece that "puts most anime...and Hollywood, to shame". She described it as a "very stylish, beautifully crafted series that deserves much more attention than it gets". Carpenter praised the animation as "a rarity and a marvel to behold" and that it was "beyond superb", and the plot and characterization as having "a sophistication and subtlety that is practically one-of-a-kind". She also praised the soundtrack, and hailed the opening theme as one of the best intro pieces she had ever heard. Carpenter went to say that Bebop was a "must-have for any serious collector of Japanese animation". In his article "Asteroid Blues: The Lasting Legacy of Cowboy Bebop", The Atlantic writer Alex Suskind states, "On paper, Cowboy Bebop, the legendary cult anime series from Shinichirō Watanabe, reads like something John Wayne, Elmore Leonard, and Philip K. Dick came up with during a wild, all-night whiskey bender." He goes on to write, "The response from critics and fans may have sounded hyperbolic—the word 'masterpiece' was thrown around a great deal—but the praise was justified. First-time solo director Watanabe had created a gorgeous tale of morality, romance, and violence–a dark look at the lives of outlaws that's shot like an independent film." In January 2015, television writer Kyle Mills of DVD Talk awarded the series five stars upon review. He stated, "Regardless of the medium, be it live action television, film, or animation, Cowboy Bebop is simply one of the finest examples of storytelling ever created." In his review, he describes the finale as "one of the best in television history", referring to it as a "widely revered" ending that "still sparks fan conversation, resonating with viewers 15 years on". He closes by writing, "Cowboy Bebop ends with a bang." In his 2018 review of the series, Paste critic John Maher wrote, "It feels like a magnum opus produced at the pinnacle of a long career despite being, almost unbelievably, Watanabe's first series as a director. It is a masterwork that should justly rank among the best works of television of all time." It was also placed at #1 on the publication's list of the "50 Best Anime Series of All Time". On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the series has an approval rating of 100% based on 23 reviews, with an average rating of 8/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Blending a head-spinning array of genres and references, Cowboy Bebop is an anime television classic that must be experienced." In an April 2019 interview with Diego Molano, creator of Victor & Valentino, he said that Cowboy Bebop was the first anime he "obsessed over", as he spent time tracking down VHS tapes of the show in high school. He also argued that this series showed him "how cinematic and emotional animation can be". Accolades In the 1999 Anime Grand Prix awards for the anime of 1998, Cowboy Bebop won two first place awards: Spike Spiegel was awarded the best male character; and Megumi Hayashibara was awarded the best voice actor for her role as Faye Valentine. Cowboy Bebop also received rankings in other categories: the series itself was awarded the second best anime series; Faye Valentine and Ed were ranked the fifth and ninth best female characters respectively; "Tank!" and "The Real Folk Blues" were ranked the third and fifteenth best songs respectively; and "Ballad of Fallen Angels", "Speak Like a Child", "Jamming with Edward" and "Mish-Mash Blues" were ranked the second, eighth, eighteenth and 20th best episodes respectively. In the 2000 Anime Grand Prix awards for the anime of 1999, Cowboy Bebop won the same two first place awards again: best male character for Spike Spiegel; and best voice actor for Megumi Hayashibara. Other rankings the series received are: second best anime series; sixth best female character for Faye Valentine; seventh and twelfth best song for "Tank!" and "Blue" respectively; and third and seventeenth best episode for "The Real Folk Blues (Part 2)" and "Hard Luck Woman" respectively. In the 2000 Seiun Awards, Cowboy Bebop was awarded for Best Media of the Year. A 2004 poll in Newtype USA, the US edition of the Japanese magazine Newtype, asked its readers to vote the "Top 25 Anime Titles of All Time"; Cowboy Bebop ranked second on the list (after Neon Genesis Evangelion), placing it as one of the most socially relevant and influential anime series ever created. During that same year, Cinefantastique listed the anime as one of the "10 Essential Animations", citing the series' "gleeful mix of noir-style, culture-hopping inclusiveness and music". In 2007, the American Anime magazine Anime Insider listed the "50 Best Anime Ever" by compiling lists of industry regulars and magazine staff, and ranked Cowboy Bebop as the #1 anime of all time. In 2012, Madman Entertainment compiled the votes of fans online for "The Top 20 Madman Anime Titles" and ranked Cowboy Bebop at seventh. Cowboy Bebop has been featured in several lists published by IGN. In the 2009 "Top 100 Animated TV Series" list, Cowboy Bebop, labelled as "a very original – and arguably one of the best – anime", was placed fourteenth, making it the second highest ranking anime on the list (after Evangelion) and one of the most influential series of the 1990s. In 2011, Bebop was ranked 29th in the "Top 50 Sci-Fi TV Shows" list, once again being the second highest ranking anime on the list (after Evangelion). In 2006, Cowboy Bebops soundtrack was ranked first in "Top Ten Anime Themes and Soundtracks of All-Time" list, with the series being commented as "one of the best anime ever and certainly is tops when it comes to music." Spike Spiegel was ranked fourth place in the "Top 25 Anime Characters of All Time" article. IGN Movies also placed Cowboy Bebop in their list of "10 Cartoon Adaptations We'd Like to See". Analysis The series has been subject to study and analysis since its debut, with the main focus being on its style and mixture of genres. Miguel Douglas, describing the series style in a review, said that "the series distinctly establishes itself outside the realm of conventional Japanese animation and instead chooses to forge its own path. With a setting within the realm of science fiction, the series wisely offers a world that seems entirely realistic considering our present time. Free from many of the elements that accompany science fiction in general—whether that be space aliens, giant robots, or laser guns—the series delegates itself towards presenting a world that is quite similar to our own albeit showcasing some technological advances." Daryl Surat of Otaku USA, commenting on the series' appeal, said that it was "that rare breed of science-fiction: 'accessible'. Unlike many anime titles, viewers weren't expected to have knowledge of Japanese culture—character names, signs, and the like were primarily in English to begin with—or have seen any other anime series prior." Michelle Onley Pirkle, in her book Science Fiction Film, Television, and Adaptation: Across the Screens, said that "Cowboy Bebop is taking a new take on genre, not by creating unique images and sounds, but by playing 'freely' with, 'remixing', or adapting the images and sounds of other familiar genres in a dynamic way." Robert Baigent, writing for the Graduate Journal of Asia-Pacific Studies, said that the series' appeal likely stemmed from the trend in anime to emulate Western fiction. American film director, screenwriter, and producer Rian Johnson has cited Cowboy Bebop as a visual influence on his films, most notably Brick. ''Ender's Game writer Orson Scott Card also praised the series. He states that the series is "better than most sci-fi films out there". He goes on to say that he "found this series brilliant, but what held me was a combination of strong relationship-based storytelling, a moody visual style that never got old and really smart dialogue". In a more recent interview from 2006 with The Daily Texan, Watanabe was asked if there would ever be more Cowboy Bebop. Watanabe's answer was "someday...maybe, someday". In May 2020, composer Mason Lieberman partnered with Sunrise and Funimation to produce an official Cowboy Bebop charity track for COVID-19 relief. This track was released on vinyl and featured the return of original series composer Yōko Kanno, original recording band The Seatbelts, and a collection of forty other special musical guests.Explanatory notesReferences * * External links * (CowboyBebop.org) * (Cowboy-Bebop.net) (repost of official website) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170106134929/http://www.b-ch.com/ttl/index.php?ttl_c=130 Official Bandai Channel website] * [https://www.adultswim.com/videos/cowboy-bebop Official Adult Swim website] * [http://www.funimation.com/shows/cowboy-bebop Official Funimation website] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170106173520/https://www.madman.com.au/series/home/3110/cowboy-bebop Official Madman Entertainment website] * * [http://www.sf-encyclopedia.com/entry/cowboy_bebop Cowboy Bebop] in The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction * }} Category:1998 anime television series debuts Category:1990s Western (genre) television series Category:1999 Japanese television series endings Category:Action anime and manga Category:Anime and manga about organized crime Category:Anime series Category:Anime with original screenplays Category:Bandai Entertainment anime titles Category:Bandai Namco franchises Category:Bandai Visual Category:Crunchyroll anime Category:Cyberpunk anime and manga Category:Cyberpunk television series Category:Cyborgs in anime and manga Category:Existentialist anime and manga Category:Fiction about amnesia Category:Fiction about suspended animation Category:Fiction set on Ganymede (moon) Category:Funimation Category:Impact of the September 11 attacks on television Category:Japanese adult animated action television series Category:Japanese adult animated science fiction television series Category:Japanese adult animated space adventure television series Category:Kadokawa Shoten manga Category:Madman Entertainment anime Category:Madman Entertainment manga Category:Manga series Category:Mars in television Category:Neo-noir anime and manga Category:Odex Category:Philosophical anime and manga Category:Post-apocalyptic animated television series Category:Post-apocalyptic anime and manga Category:Space opera anime and manga Category:Space Western anime and manga Category:Sunrise (company) Category:TV Tokyo original programming Category:Television series set in the 2070s Category:Tokyopop titles Category:Transgender-related anime and manga Category:Wowow original programming	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cowboy_Bebop	2025-04-05T18:28:07.650452
7342	Clement of Alexandria	\| death_date = \| birth_place = Athens, Achaia, Roman Empire \| death_place = Jerusalem, Syria Palaestina, Roman Empire \| titles=Church Father, Theologian \| beatified_date\| beatified_place \| canonized_date= Pre-congregation \| canonized_place\| canonized_by \| attributes\|patronage \| major_shrine\| suppressed_datec. 1605 \| suppressed_by=Pope Clement VIII \| issues=Regarded as a heretic by Photius. \| module = \| era = \| region = Western philosophy \| school_tradition = \| other_names = Clement Alexandrine \| main_interests = Christian theology \| institutions = Catechetical School of Alexandria \| notable_students = Origen and Alexander \| notable_ideas = Thrones Fallen Nephilim Barnabas authorship Limbo of the Fathers Baptism by fire \| influences = Stoics, Musonius Rufus, Philo, Pythagoras, Plato, Heraclitus, Pantaenus, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Tatian, Celsus, Xenophanes, Plutarch and Homer \| influenced = Virtually all of subsequent Christian philosophy and Catholic theology, Including Benedict XVI and Eusebius }}}} Titus Flavius Clemens, also known as Clement of Alexandria (; – ), was a Christian theologian and philosopher who taught at the Catechetical School of Alexandria. Among his pupils were Origen and Alexander of Jerusalem. A convert to Christianity, he was an educated man who was familiar with classical Greek philosophy and literature. As his three major works demonstrate, Clement was influenced by Hellenistic philosophy to a greater extent than any other Christian thinker of his time, and in particular, by Plato and the Stoics. His secret works, which exist only in fragments, suggest that he was familiar with pre-Christian Jewish esotericism and Gnosticism as well. In one of his works he argued that Greek philosophy had its origin among non-Greeks, claiming that both Plato and Pythagoras were taught by Egyptian scholars. Clement is usually regarded as a Church Father. He is venerated as a saint in Coptic Christianity, Eastern Catholicism, Ethiopian Christianity, and Anglicanism. He was revered in Western Catholicism until 1586, when his name was removed from the Roman Martyrology by Pope Sixtus V on the advice of Baronius. The Eastern Orthodox Church officially stopped any veneration of Clement of Alexandria in the 10th century. Nonetheless, he is still sometimes referred to as "Saint Clement of Alexandria" by both Eastern Orthodox and Catholic authors. Biography Neither Clement's birthdate or birthplace is known with any degree of certainty. It is speculated that he was born sometime around 150 AD. According to Epiphanius of Salamis, he was born in Athens, but there is also a tradition of an Alexandrian birth. His parents were pagans and Clement was a convert to Christianity. In the Protrepticus he displays an extensive knowledge of Greek religion and mystery religions, which could have arisen only from the practice of his family's religion. In around 180 AD, Clement reached Alexandria, where he met Pantaenus, who taught at the Catechetical School of Alexandria. Eusebius suggests that Pantaenus was the head of the school, but controversy exists about whether the institutions of the school were formalized in this way before the time of Origen.}} Clement studied under Pantaenus, and was ordained to the priesthood by Pope Julian before 189. Otherwise, virtually nothing is known of Clement's personal life in Alexandria. He may have been married, a conjecture supported by his writings. During the Severian persecution of 202–203, Clement left Alexandria. In 211, Alexander of Jerusalem wrote a letter commending him to the Church of Antioch, which may imply that Clement was living in Cappadocia or Jerusalem at that time. He died at an unknown location. Theological works Trilogy Three of Clement's major works have survived in full and they are collectively referred to as a trilogy: The Protrepticus (Exhortation) – written The Paedagogus (Tutor) – written After a short philosophical discussion, it opens with a history of Greek religion in seven stages. Clement suggests that at first, humans mistakenly believed the Sun, the Moon, and other heavenly bodies to be deities. The next developmental stage was the worship of the products of agriculture, from which he contends the cults of Demeter and Dionysus arose. Following Plato, Clement is critical of all forms of visual art, suggesting that artworks are but illusions and "deadly toys". Clement is supportive of women playing an active role in the leadership of the church and he provides a list of women he considers inspirational, which includes both Biblical and Classical Greek figures. It has been suggested that Clement's progressive views on gender as set out in the Paedagogus were influenced by Gnosticism, While prohibiting drunkenness, he promotes the drinking of alcohol in moderation following 1 Timothy 5:23. contending that Jesus would not have contradicted the precept to "Honour thy Father and thy Mother", one of the Ten Commandments. Clement concludes that asceticism will only be rewarded if the motivation is Christian in nature, and thus the asceticism of non-Christians such as the gymnosophists is pointless. Clement begins the fourth book with a belated explanation of the disorganized nature of the work, and gives a brief description of his aims for the remaining three or four books. The fourth book focuses on martyrdom. While all good Christians should be unafraid of death, Clement condemns those who actively seek out a martyr's death, arguing that they do not have sufficient respect for God's gift of life. He is ambivalent about whether any believing Christians can become martyrs by virtue of the manner of their death, or whether martyrdom is reserved for those who have lived exceptional lives. Marcionites cannot become martyrs, because they do not believe in the divinity of God the Father, so their sufferings are in vain. There is then a digression to the subject of theological epistemology. According to Clement, there is no way of empirically testing the existence of God the Father, because the Logos has revelatory, not analysable meaning, although Christ was an object of the senses. God had no beginning, and is the universal first principle. The fifth book returns to the subject of faith. Clement argues that truth, justice, and goodness can be seen only by the mind, not the eye; faith is a way of accessing the unseeable. He stresses that knowledge of God can only be achieved through faith once one's moral faults have been corrected. This parallels Clement's earlier insistence that martyrdom can only be achieved by those who practice their faith in Christ through good deeds, not those who simply profess their faith. God transcends matter entirely, and thus the materialist cannot truly come to know God. Although Christ was God incarnate, it is spiritual, not physical comprehension of him that is important.) is the true religion and states they should be an example of what a true Christian is, even saying they are "holy and pious" and "worships the true God in a manner worthy of him". Clement then gives a description of the nature of Christ, and that of the true Christian, who aims to be as similar as possible to both the Father and the Son. Clement then criticizes the simplistic anthropomorphism of most ancient religions, quoting Xenophanes' famous description of African, Thracian, and Egyptian deities. He indicates that the Greek deities may also have had their origins in the personification of material objects: Ares representing iron, and Dionysus wine. Prayer, and the relationship between love and knowledge are then discussed. Corinthians 13:8 seems to contradict the characterization of the true Christian as one who knows; but to Clement knowledge vanishes only in that it is subsumed by the universal love expressed by the Christian in reverence for the Creator. Following Socrates, he argues that vice arises from a state of ignorance, not from intention. The Christian is a "laborer in God's vineyard", responsible both for one's own path to salvation and that of one's neighbor. The work ends with an extended passage against the contemporary divisions and heresies within the church. Other works Besides the great trilogy, Clement's only other extant work is the treatise Salvation for the Rich, also known as Who is the Rich Man who is Saved? written c. 203 AD Having begun with a scathing criticism of the corrupting effects of money and misguided servile attitudes toward the wealthy, Clement discusses the implications of Mark 10:25. According to the Eclogae Propheticae, every thousand years every member of each order moves up a degree, and thus humans can become angels. Even the protoctists can be elevated, although their new position in the hierarchy is not clearly defined. In the same work, Eusebius cites Alexander of Jerusalem (180–251) lauding “the holy Clement, who was both my master and benefactor,” describing him as one of the “blessed fathers who have trod the path before us,” while Eusebius himself is quoted as calling him “an incomparable master of Christian philosophy.” Jerome (342–420) calls Clement “the most learned of men,” recording that his writings are “full of eloquence and learning, both in sacred Scripture and in secular literature.” The aforementioned Alexander of Jerusalem is quoted by Jerome praising “the blessed presbyter Clement, a man illustrious and approved.” According to Theodoret (393–450), “he surpassed all others, and was a holy man.” Likewise, Cyril of Alexandria (376–444) says Clement was “a man admirably learned and skillful, and one that searched to the depths all the learning of the Greeks, with an exactness rarely attained before.” Maximus the Confessor (580–662) refers to him reverentially as “the great Clement.” More recently, scholars have acknowledged Clement's primacy and importance in various respects. He has been called “the first Christian scholar” (Shelley), “the first systematic teacher of Christian doctrine” (Patrick), “the first great teacher of philosophical Christianity” (Hatch), “the first self-conscious theologian and ethicist” (Backhouse), “the first great Christian teacher in Alexandria” (Needham), “the founder of Christian philosophical theology” (Bray), “the true creator of ecclesiastical theology” (DeFaye), “the first major commentator on the Bible” (Bray), “the founder of Christian literature” (ANF), “the great founder of the Alexandrian School” (Coxe), a “pioneer of Christian scholarship” (ACCS), “an intellectual giant in the early church” (Kruger), “that man of genius who introduced Christianity to itself, as reflected in the burnished mirror of his intellect” (Coxe), and “the most inquisitive and independent spirit that has perhaps ever appeared in the Church” (DeFaye). Stylistically, it has been noted that “his writings shine with a happy, peaceful, optimistic spirit; reading them can be a remarkably uplifting experience” (Needham). “He loves God’s creation and sees it as good; he gives us a warm, joyous picture of life; he is richly human, sane, and moderate” (Ferguson). Additionally, Clement's works “are a storehouse of curious ancient lore—a museum of the fossil remains of the beauties and monstrosities of the world of pagan antiquity, during all the epochs and phases of its history” (Wilson). “His prodigious erudition was unsurpassed even by that of Origen” (Cayre). “I do not know where we shall look for a purer or a truer man than this Clemens of Alexandria; he seems to me one of the old fathers whom we should all have reverenced most as a teacher, and loved best as a friend” (Maurice). Nonetheless, there have been a few detracting voices. Photios I of Constantinople writes polemically against Clement's theology in the Bibliotheca, although he also is appreciative of Clement's learning and the literary merits of his work. In particular, he is highly critical of the Hypotyposes, a work of biblical exegesis of which only a few fragments have survived. Photios compared Clement's treatise, which, like his other works, was highly syncretic, featuring ideas of Hellenistic, Jewish, and Gnostic origin, unfavorably against the prevailing orthodoxy of the 9th century. Amongst the particular ideas Photios deemed heretical were: The belief that matter and thought are eternal, and thus did not originate from God, contradicting the doctrine of Creatio ex nihilo. The belief in cosmic cycles predating the creation of the world, following Heraclitus, which is extra-Biblical in origin. The belief that Christ, as Logos, was in some sense created, contrary to John 1, but following Philo. Ambivalence toward docetism, the heretical doctrine that Christ's earthly body was an illusion. The belief that Eve was created from Adam's sperm after he ejaculated during the night The belief that Genesis 6:2 implies that angels indulged in sexual intercourse with human women. The belief in reincarnation, i.e., the transmigration of souls. However, it is not clear that these are accurate representations of Clement's actual beliefs, since his extant writings appear to be mostly in line with what would come to be considered orthodox Christian theology. It has been suggested that Photios may have misunderstood Clement to be speaking for himself when he was often quoting from Gnostics and other sects without agreeing with their teachings. As one of the earliest of the Church fathers whose works have survived, he is the subject of a significant amount of recent academic work, focusing on, among other things, his exegesis of scripture, his Logos-theology and pneumatology, his belief in apokatastasis, the relationship between his thought and non-Christian philosophy, and his influence on Origen. Veneration Up until the 17th century Clement was venerated as a saint in the Catholic Church. His name was to be found in the martyrologies, and his feast fell on the fourth of December, but when the Roman Martyrology was revised by Pope Clement VIII his name was dropped from the calendar on the advice of Cardinal Baronius. Benedict XIV maintained this decision of his predecessor on the grounds that Clement's life was little known, that he had never obtained public cultus in the Church, and that some of his doctrines were, if not erroneous, at least suspect. Although Clement is not widely venerated in Eastern Christianity, the Prologue of Ohrid repeatedly refers to him as a saint, as do various Orthodox authorities including the Greek Metropolitan Kallinikos of Edessa. The Coptic tradition considers Clement a saint. Saint Clement Coptic Orthodox Christian Academy in Nashville, Tennessee, is specifically named after him. Clement is commemorated in Anglicanism. Theology Gnosis Clement taught that faith was the basis of salvation; he also believed that faith was the basis of gnosiswhich to him meant spiritual and mystical knowledge. Clement of Alexandria appropriated the word gnosis from the Gnostics (whom he opposed) but reinterpreted the word in a more Christian manner. He distinguished between two kinds of Christians: the pistic Christian who lives according to God's law, and the Christian gnostic who lives on the level of the gospel and responds by discipline and love. Clement's views of gnosis can be considered a forerunner of the Christian monastic movement that began in Egypt after his death. Philosophy Clement suggested that philosophy was a preparatory discipline to the Greek world preceding its wide acceptance of Christianity and often sought to harmonize insights of Greek philosophy with biblical teaching. He defined philosophy as "the desire for true being and the studies which lead to it." Clement has been described as "the founder of what was to become the great tradition of Christian philosophical theology." He was a forerunner to some of the later views of Augustine, such as just war theory and the theory of the two cities. as one of the first Christian universalists; he espoused a belief in the eventual salvation of every person (though not with the level of systematic clarity of his disciple Origen). Clement believed divine punishment to be corrective and remedial rather than merely retributive or destructive. He writes, "[God] destroys no one but gives salvation to all." "He bestows salvation on all mankind." "He indeed saves all universally—some as converted by punishments, others by voluntary submission with dignity of honor—that to Him every knee shall bow, both of beings in heaven, and on earth, and under the earth; that is, angels, and men, and souls departed this life." "God's punishments are saving and disciplinary, leading to conversion; choosing rather the repentance than the death of a sinner." "I will grant that He punishes the disobedient, for punishment is for the good and advantage of him who is punished, for it is the correction of a refractory subject." "For all things are arranged with a view to the salvation of the universe by the Lord of the universe, both generally and particularly." Education For Clement, disciplining the body would help the Christian discipline the soul; he gave detailed instructions on proper Christian conduct, decorum, and relationships in the second and third books of The Instructor. According to Clement, once the passions are subject to the authority of the Word (or reason), the Christian can embark on an advanced course of philosophical study and contemplation. Clement adopted a position that gave rise to a whole stream of later Christian thought: true philosophy and authentic human knowledge have their origin in the Logos, which is the unique source of all truth. He accepts the conception of παιδεία as he conducts the wisdom taught by the Logos through education in the sacred letters: on the one hand, the Greek παιδεία prepares the mind of the Christian to distinguish and defend the truth, and, on the other, the liberal arts help the new Christian to direct all his efforts towards the truly useful of each particular discipline, geometry, music, grammar and philosophy. Notably (considering the time period), Clement seemed to advocate for the equality of women and men in the area of education, at least within the context of Christian spirituality and ethics. He wrote, "Let us recognize, too, that both men and women practice the same sort of virtue; surely, if there is but one God for both, then there is but one Educator for both." Economics Clement opposed a literal interpretation of the command "sell what you have and give to the poor," and argued that the Bible does not command every person to renounce all property, and that wealth can be used either for good or evil. Clement assumed a double creation, one of an invisible world and the second being material creation. He believed that formless matter existed before the creation of the world, being influenced by Plato. Clement tried to interpret Genesis 6 in harmony with the Book of Enoch. Others The first person in church history to introduce a view of an invisible and a visible church is Clement of Alexandria. Because Clement saw the Protoevangelium of James as canonical, it could imply he believed in the perpetual virginity of Mary, though some have argued that he does not seem to believe in the sinlessness of Mary. Clement of Alexandria interprets "Fire of Wisdom" which prevades the soul as by a baptism. Clement of Alexandria used the word "symbol" to define the Eucharist, and interpreted John 6 to be an allegory about faith, however his views on real presence are disputed. Clement of Alexandria was apparently an amillennialist. Works Editions Sylburg, Friedrich (ed.) (1592). [https://books.google.com/books?id5GyKqmKb_hEC&pgPP9 Clementis Alexandrini Opera Quae Extant.] Heidelberg: ex typographeio Hieronymi Commelini. Heinsius, Daniel (ed.) (1616). [https://books.google.com/books?idzUJkAAAAcAAJ&pgPP5 Clementis Alexandrini Opera Graece et Latine Quae Extant.] Leiden: excudit Ioannes Patius academiae typographus. Potter, John (ed.) (1715). Clementis Alexandrini Opera, 2 vols. Oxonii: e theatro Sheldoniano. [https://books.google.com/books?idqWVZAAAAYAAJ&pgPP7 Vol. 1. Cohortatio ad gentes. Paedagogus. Stromatum I-IV.] [https://books.google.com/books?id-iBZAAAAcAAJ&pgPA641 Vol. 2. Stromatum V-VIII. Quis dives salvetur. Excerpta Theodoti. Prophetarum ecologiae. Fragmenta.] Klotz, Reinhold (ed.) (1831–34). Titi Flaui Clementis Alexandrini Opera Omnia, 4 vols. Leipzig: E. B. Schwickert. [https://books.google.com/books?idqCoQAAAAYAAJ&pgPR2 Vol. 1. Ρrotrepticus. Paedagogus.] [https://books.google.com/books?idJSsQAAAAYAAJ&pgPR2 Vol. 2. Stromatorum I-IV.] [https://books.google.com/books?idRSsQAAAAYAAJ&pgPP10 Vol. 3. Stromatourm V-VIII. Quis dives salvetur.] [https://books.google.com/books?idYEROAAAAYAAJ&pgPP8 Vol. 4. Fragmenta. Scholia. Annotationes. Indices.] * Migne, J.-P. (ed.) (1857). Clementis Alexandrini Opera Quae Exstant Omnia, 2 toms. (PG 8, 9) Paris: J.-P. Migne. [https://books.google.com/books?idFvsUAAAAQAAJ&pgPA9 Tom. 1. Cohortatio ad gentes. Paedagogus. Stromata I-IV.] [https://archive.org/details/patrologiaecurs59hopfgoog Tom. 2. Stromata V-VIII. Quis dives salvetur. Fragmenta.] Dindorf, Wilhelm (ed.) (1869). Clementis Alexandrini Opera, 4 vols. Oxonni: e typographeo Clarendoniano. [https://books.google.com/books?idyVk5cJhGjP4C&pgPR3 Vol. 1. Ρrotrepticus. Paedagogus.] [https://books.google.com/books?id82I9AAAAIAAJ&pgPP9 Vol. 2. Stromatum I-IV.] [https://books.google.com/books?idvVmWgVRRBoYC&pgPP7 Vol. 3. Stromatum V-VIII.] [https://books.google.com/books?idTdf_fyBznz0C&pgPP9 Vol. 4. Annotationes. Interpretum.] Barnard, P. Mourdant (ed.) (1897). [https://archive.org/stream/clementofalexan00clem#page/n7/mode/2up Clement of Alexandria, Quis dives salvetur.] Texts and Studies 5/2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. :de:Otto Stählin (ed.) (1905–36). Clemens Alexandrinus, 4 bds. (GCS 12, 15, 17, 39) Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs. [https://books.google.com/books?idDTYYAAAAYAAJ&pgPR1 Bd. 1. Ρrotrepticus und Paedagogus.] [https://books.google.com/books?idn1wPAAAAYAAJ&pgPP5 Bd. 2. Stromata I-VI.] [https://archive.org/stream/clemensalexandri17clemuoft#page/n7/mode/2up Bd. 3. Stromata VII-VIII. Excerpta ex Theodoto. Eclogae prophetica. Quis dives salvetur. Fragmente.] [https://archive.org/stream/clemensalexandri04clemuoft#page/n9/mode/2up Bd. 4. Register.] Marcovich, Miroslav and Jacobus C. M. van Winden (eds.) (2002). [https://books.google.com/books?idh-35iALtOD0C&pgPR3 Clementis Alexandrini Paedagogus.] Leiden: Brill. Translations Wilson, William (trans.) (1867). [https://books.google.com/books?idxuxYAAAAYAAJ&pgPA163 "The Writings of Clement of Alexandria".] In Ante-Nicene Fathers, ed. A. Roberts, et al., 2:163–629. (Reprint 1905) New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Barnard, P. Mourdant (trans.) (1901). [https://books.google.com/books?idW9sPAAAAYAAJ&pgPR1 A Homily of Clement of Alexandria, Entitled: Who is the Rich Man that is being Saved?] London: SPCK. Hort, F. J. A. and Joseph B. Mayor (eds. & trans.) (1902). [https://books.google.com/books?idZMX0ykRov6YC&pgPR1 Clement of Alexandria, Miscellanies Book VII.] London: Macmillan. Patrick, John (1914). [https://archive.org/stream/clementofalexand00patrrich#page/182/mode/2up Clement of Alexandria, 183-85.] Edinburgh: Wm. Blackwood. (Exhortation to Endurance, or, To the Newly Baptized; cf. Butterworth 1919, 371 ff.) Butterworth, G. W. (ed. & trans.) (1919). [https://archive.org/stream/clementofalexand00clem#page/n7/mode/2up Clement of Alexandria, ''Exhortation to the Greeks, Rich Man's Salvation, etc.] (= LCL 92) Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Casey, Robert Pierce (ed. & trans.) (1936). The Excerpta ex Theodoto of Clement of Alexandria. Studies and Documents 1. London: Christophers. Oulton, J. E. L. and Henry Chadwick (trans.) (1954). [https://archive.org/stream/alexandrianchris012826mbp#page/n43/mode/2up Alexandrian Christianity, 40–165.] Philadelphia: Westminster Press. (Miscellanies, Books III, VII) Wood, Simon P. (trans.) (1954). [https://books.google.com/books?idh63vsOCHAGIC&pgPP1 Clement of Alexandria, Christ the Educator.] Fathers of the Church 23. Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press. Ferguson, John (trans.) (1991). [https://books.google.com/books?idXWpL1zz5cmoC&pgPP1 Clement of Alexandria, Stromateis, Books 1–3.''] Fathers of the Church 85. Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press. See also Buddhism and the Roman world * Alexandrian school Notes References Citations Sources * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Further reading * External links * * * "Clement of Alexandria" by Francis P. Havey, in the Catholic Encyclopedia, 1908. Charles Bigg and James Donaldson (1911). "Clement of Alexandria". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.) Encyclopædia Britannica. 6. (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 487–490. [http://www.piney.com/MuClement.html#P2694_785619 Clement's Protrepticus] * [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-02/anf02-50.htm#TopOfPage Clement's Stromateis] * [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-02/anf02-52.htm Clement's Paedagogus] * [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers2/ANF-02/anf02-77.htm#P10196_2863283 Hypotyposes] * [http://www.bennozuiddam.com/The%20role%20and%20view%20of%20Scripture%20in%20Clemens%20of%20Alexandria.pdf The role and view of Scripture in Clement of Alexandria] Category:150 births Category:215 deaths Category:2nd-century Christian theologians Category:2nd-century Romans Category:2nd-century Greek philosophers Category:3rd-century Christian saints Category:3rd-century Romans Category:3rd-century Greek philosophers Category:Amillennialism Category:Catholic philosophers Category:Christian anti-Gnosticism Category:Christianity and Hellenistic philosophy Category:Christian universalist theologians Category:Church Fathers Category:Converts to Christianity from ancient Roman religions Category:Deans of the Catechetical School of Alexandria Category:Egyptian people of Greek descent Category:Egyptian theologians Category:Flavii Category:Saints from Roman Egypt Category:Philosophers in ancient Alexandria Category:Middle Platonists	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria	2025-04-05T18:28:07.705621
7344	Cogito, ergo sum	I Think, Therefore I Am\|the Billie Eilish song referencing Descartes' principle\|Therefore I Am (song)}} , who published the phrase in Discourse on the Method, in 1637]] The Latin , usually translated into English as "I think, therefore I am", is the "first principle" of René Descartes's philosophy. He originally published it in French as }}, }} in his 1637 Discourse on the Method, so as to reach a wider audience than Latin would have allowed. It later appeared in Latin in his Principles of Philosophy, and a similar phrase also featured prominently in his Meditations on First Philosophy. The dictum is also sometimes referred to as the cogito. As Descartes explained in a margin note, "we cannot doubt of our existence while we doubt." In the posthumously published The Search for Truth by Natural Light, he expressed this insight as ("I doubt, therefore I am — or what is the same — I think, therefore I am"). Antoine Léonard Thomas, in a 1765 essay in honor of Descartes presented it as ("I doubt, therefore I think, therefore I am"). Descartes's statement became a fundamental element of Western philosophy, as it purported to provide a certain foundation for knowledge in the face of radical doubt. While other knowledge could be a figment of imagination, deception, or mistake, Descartes asserted that the very act of doubting one's own existence served—at minimum—as proof of the reality of one's own mind; there must be a thinking entity—in this case the self—for there to be a thought. One critique of the dictum, first suggested by Pierre Gassendi, is that it presupposes that there is an "I" which must be doing the thinking. According to this line of criticism, the most that Descartes was entitled to say was that "thinking is occurring", not that "I am thinking". In Descartes's writings Descartes first wrote the phrase in French in his 1637 Discourse on the Method. He referred to it in Latin without explicitly stating the familiar form of the phrase in his 1641 Meditations on First Philosophy. The earliest written record of the phrase in Latin is in his 1644 Principles of Philosophy, where, in a margin note (see below), he provides a clear explanation of his intent: "[W]e cannot doubt of our existence while we doubt". Fuller forms of the phrase are attributable to other authors. Discourse on the Method The phrase first appeared (in French) in Descartes's 1637 Discourse on the Method in the first paragraph of its fourth part: , était si ferme et si assurée, que toutes les plus extravagantes suppositions des Sceptiques n'étaient pas capables de l'ébranler, je jugeai que je pouvais la recevoir sans scrupule pour le premier principe de la Philosophie que je cherchais.\|italicunset}}\|Accordingly, seeing that our senses sometimes deceive us, I was willing to suppose that there existed nothing really such as they presented to us; And because some men err in reasoning, and fall into Paralogisms, even on the simplest matters of Geometry, I, convinced that I was as open to error as any other, rejected as false all the reasonings I had hitherto taken for Demonstrations; And finally, when I considered that the very same thoughts (presentations) which we experience when awake may also be experienced when we are asleep, while there is at that time not one of them true, I supposed that all the objects (presentations) that had ever entered into my mind when awake, had in them no more truth than the illusions of my dreams. But immediately upon this I observed that, whilst I thus wished to think that all was false, it was absolutely necessary that I, who thus thought, should be something; And as I observed that this truth, , was so certain and of such evidence that no ground of doubt, however extravagant, could be alleged by the Sceptics capable of shaking it, I concluded that I might, without scruple, accept it as the first principle of the philosophy of which I was in search. and as an isolated attributed phrase previously, e.g., in Sullivan (1794); in the preceding line, Veitch's "I, who thus thought, should be somewhat" is given here as "… should be something" for clarity (in accord with other translations, e.g., that of Cress but this is not referenced here because of issues raised regarding translation quality.}}}} Meditations on First Philosophy In 1641, Descartes published (in Latin) Meditations on first philosophy in which he referred to the proposition, though not explicitly as "cogito, ergo sum" in Meditation II: quoties a me profertur, vel mente concipitur, necessario esse verum.\|italicunset}}\|this proposition: I am, I exist, whenever it is uttered by me, or conceived by the mind, necessarily is true. translations.}} Principles of Philosophy In 1644, Descartes published (in Latin) his Principles of Philosophy which begins (That in order to seek truth, it is necessary once in the course of our life, to doubt, as far as possible, of all things.) The phrase "ego cogito, ergo sum" appears in Part 1, article 7: est omnium prima & certissima, quae cuilibet ordine philosophanti occurrat.\|italicunset}}\|While we thus reject all of which we can entertain the smallest doubt, and even imagine that it is false, we easily indeed suppose that there is neither God, nor sky, nor bodies, and that we ourselves even have neither hands nor feet, nor, finally, a body; but we cannot in the same way suppose that we are not while we doubt of the truth of these things; for there is a repugnance in conceiving that what thinks does not exist at the very time when it thinks. Accordingly, the knowledge, I think, therefore I am, is the first and most certain that occurs to one who philosophizes orderly.}} Descartes's margin note for the above paragraph is: \|That we cannot doubt of our existence while we doubt, and that this is the first knowledge we acquire when we philosophize in order.}} The Search for Truth by Natural Light Descartes, in a lesser-known posthumously published work written ca. 1647, originally in French with the title (The Search for Truth by Natural Light) provides his only known phrasing of the cogito as and admits that his insight is also expressible as dubito, ergo sum: with additions for completeness.}}}} "" or ""? Peter J. Markie notes: "Descartes stresses the first person in his premise twice in the Principles and once in his Reply to Mersenne. . . . . (AT VIII, 7; AT VIII, 8; AT VII, 140)" and adds "It is unlikely that Descartes would stress the first person in his premise, if he wanted us to read the premise as 'Thought is taking place' rather than 'I think.'" Gary Hatfield writes: "[I]n Latin the first-person voice need not be expressed through a separate pronoun, but may be included in the verb form; nonetheless, Descartes used the Latin first-person pronoun more than thirty times in the six Meditations." Other forms The proposition is sometimes given as . This form was penned by the French literary critic, Antoine Léonard Thomas, in an award-winning 1765 essay in praise of Descartes, where it appeared as "" ('Since I doubt, I think; since I think, I exist'). With rearrangement and compaction, the passage translates to "I doubt, therefore I think, therefore I am," or in Latin, "dubito, ergo cogito, ergo sum." This has been referred to as "the expanded cogito." He wrote cogito, ergo sum, res cogitans and cogito, inquiro, dubito ergo sum as well as cogito, ergo sum (multiple times) in his 1652 De Scepticismo.}} Translation "I am thinking" vs. "I think" While the Latin cōgitō may be translated rather easily as "I think/ponder/visualize", }} does not indicate whether the verb form corresponds to the English simple present or progressive aspect. Following John Lyons (1982), Vladimir Žegarac notes, "The temptation to use the simple present is said to arise from the lack of progressive forms in Latin and French, and from a misinterpretation of the meaning of cogito as habitual or generic" (cf. gnomic aspect). Also following Lyons, Ann Banfield writes, "In order for the statement on which Descartes's argument depends to represent certain knowledge,… its tense must be a true present—in English, a progressive,… not as 'I think' but as 'I am thinking, in conformity with the general translation of the Latin or French present tense in such nongeneric, nonstative contexts." Or in the words of Simon Blackburn, "Descartes's premise is not 'I think' in the sense of 'I ski', which can be true even if you are not at the moment skiing. It is supposed to be parallel to 'I am skiing'." The similar translation "I am thinking, therefore I exist" of Descartes's correspondence in French ("}}, }}") appears in The Philosophical Writings of Descartes by Cottingham et al. (1988). Fumitaka Suzuki writes "Taking consideration of Cartesian theory of continuous creation, which theory was developed especially in the Meditations and in the Principles, we would assure that 'I am thinking, therefore I am/exist' is the most appropriate English translation of 'ego cogito, ergo sum'." "I exist" vs. "I am" Alexis Deodato S. Itao notes that is "literally 'I think, therefore I am'." Others differ: 1) "[A] precise English translation will read as 'I am thinking, therefore I exist'; and 2) "[S]ince Descartes ... emphasized that existence is such an important 'notion,' a better translation is 'I am thinking, therefore I exist.'" Punctuation Descartes wrote this phrase as such only once, in the posthumously published lesser-known work noted above, The Search for Truth by Natural Light.}} but were a regular feature of scholastic Latin, the Latin Descartes "had learned in a Jesuit college at La Flèche.") Most modern reference works show it with a comma, but it is often presented without a comma in academic work and in popular usage. In Descartes's Principia Philosophiae, the proposition appears as ego cogito, ergo sum. Interpretation As put succinctly by Krauth (1872), "That cannot doubt which does not think, and that cannot think which does not exist. I doubt, I think, I exist." At the beginning of the second meditation, having reached what he considers to be the ultimate level of doubt—his argument from the existence of a deceiving god—Descartes examines his beliefs to see if any have survived the doubt. In his belief in his own existence, he finds that it is impossible to doubt that he exists. Even if there were a deceiving god (or an evil demon), one's belief in their own existence would be secure, for there is no way one could be deceived unless one existed in order to be deceived. }} There are three important notes to keep in mind here. First, he claims only the certainty of his own existence from the first-person point of view — he has not proved the existence of other minds at this point. This is something that has to be thought through by each of us for ourselves, as we follow the course of the meditations. Second, he does not say that his existence is necessary; he says that if he thinks, then necessarily he exists (see the instantiation principle). Third, this proposition "I am, I exist" is held true not based on a deduction (as mentioned above) or on empirical induction but on the clarity and self-evidence of the proposition. Descartes does not use this first certainty, the cogito, as a foundation upon which to build further knowledge; rather, it is the firm ground upon which he can stand as he works to discover further truths. As he puts it: }} According to many Descartes specialists, including Étienne Gilson, the goal of Descartes in establishing this first truth is to demonstrate the capacity of his criterion — the immediate clarity and distinctiveness of self-evident propositions — to establish true and justified propositions despite having adopted a method of generalized doubt. As a consequence of this demonstration, Descartes considers science and mathematics to be justified to the extent that their proposals are established on a similarly immediate clarity, distinctiveness, and self-evidence that presents itself to the mind. The originality of Descartes's thinking, therefore, is not so much in expressing the cogito—a feat accomplished by other predecessors, as we shall see—but on using the cogito as demonstrating the most fundamental epistemological principle, that science and mathematics are justified by relying on clarity, distinctiveness, and self-evidence. Baruch Spinoza in "Principia philosophiae cartesianae" at its Prolegomenon identified "cogito ergo sum" the "ego sum cogitans" (I am a thinking being) as the thinking substance with his ontological interpretation. Predecessors Although the idea expressed in cogito, ergo sum is widely attributed to Descartes, he was not the first to mention it. In the late sixth or early fifth century BC, Parmenides is quoted as saying "For to be aware and to be are the same". (Fragment B3) Plato spoke about the "knowledge of knowledge" (Greek: νόησις νοήσεως, nóesis noéseos) and Aristotle explains the idea in full length: The Cartesian statement was interpreted to be an Aristotelian syllogism where the premise that all thinkers are also beings is not made explicit. In the early fifth century AD, Augustine of Hippo in De Civitate Dei (book XI, 26) affirmed his certain knowledge of his own existence, and added: "So far as these truths are concerned, I do not at all fear the arguments of the Academics when they say, What if you are mistaken? For if I am mistaken, I exist." This formulation () is sometimes called the Augustinian . In 1640, Descartes wrote to thank Andreas Colvius (a friend of Descartes's mentor, Isaac Beeckman) for drawing his attention to Augustine: As Kierkegaard argues, the proper logical flow of argument is that existence is already assumed or presupposed in order for thinking to occur, not that existence is concluded from that thinking. Bernard Williams Williams himself claimed that what we are dealing with when we talk of thought, or when we say "I am thinking," is something conceivable from a third-person perspective—namely objective "thought-events" in the former case, and an objective thinker in the latter. He argues, first, that it is impossible to make sense of "there is thinking" without relativizing it to something. However, this something cannot be Cartesian egos, because it is impossible to differentiate objectively between things just on the basis of the pure content of consciousness. The obvious problem is that, through introspection, or our experience of consciousness, we have no way of moving to conclude the existence of any third-personal fact, to conceive of which would require something above and beyond just the purely subjective contents of the mind. Martin Heidegger As a critic of Cartesian subjectivity, German philosopher Martin Heidegger sought to ground human subjectivity in death as that certainty which individualizes and authenticates our Being (Dasein). As he wrote in 1925 in History of the Concept of Time: John Macmurray The Scottish philosopher John Macmurray rejected the cogito outright in order to place action at the center of a philosophical system he entitled the Form of the Personal. "We must reject this, both as standpoint and as method. If this be philosophy, then philosophy is a bubble floating in an atmosphere of unreality." The reliance on thought creates an irreconcilable dualism between thought and action in which the unity of experience is lost, thus dissolving the integrity of our selves and destroying any connection with reality. In order to formulate a more adequate cogito, Macmurray proposes the substitution of "I do" for "I think," ultimately leading to a belief in God as an agent to whom all persons stand in relation. Alfred North Whitehead In Process and Reality, Whitehead wrote "Descartes in his own philosophy conceives the thinker as creating the occasional thought. The philosophy of organism inverts the order, and conceives the thought as a constituent operation in the creation of the occasional thinker. The thinker is the final end whereby there is the thought. In this inversion we have the final contrast between a philosophy of substance and a philosophy of organism." In popular culture <!--'s 2020 single Therefore I Am: "You think that you're the man / I think, therefore I am"]]--> In the short story, I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream, by Harlan Ellison, Gorrister, when asked what 'AM' means, says "At first it meant Allied Mastercomputer, and then it meant Adaptive Manipulator, and later on it developed sentience and linked itself up and they called it an Aggressive Menace, but by then it was too late, and finally called itself AM, emerging intelligence, and what it meant was I am ... cogito ergo sum ... I think, therefore I am." In the Japanese animated television series, Ergo Proxy, a computer virus that effects the autoreivs, the series' version of robots, known as the Cogito virus begins infecting the autoreivs, which is named such due to the fact that it makes the infected conscious, and experience emotions as a human would. In Monty Python's Bruces' Philosophers Song, one of the lyrics jokingly quotes Descarte's axiom as "I drink therefore I am." In the episode "Work Experience" of The Office, David Brent says, "We are the most efficient branch, cogito ergo sum, we'll be fine." In the video game Honkai: Star Rail, Dr. Ratio (real name Veritas Ratio), a playable character and, according to in-game lore, a philosopher, has a skill, named "Cogito, Ergo Sum".<!-- The lyrics and title of singer-songwriter Billie Eilish's 2020 single Therefore I Am references Descartes' dictum. --> See also * Cartesian doubt * Floating man * Apperception * Academic skepticism * Be, and it is * Brain in a vat * I Am that I Am * Tat Tvam Asi, "You are that" * The Animal That Therefore I Am * Vertiginous question Notes .}} }} References Further reading * Abraham, W. E. 1974. "Disentangling the Cogito." Mind 83:329. * Baird, Forrest E., and Walter Kaufmann. 2008. From Plato to Derrida. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. . * Boufoy-Bastick, Z. 2005. "Introducing 'Applicable Knowledge' as a Challenge to the Attainment of Absolute Knowledge." Sophia Journal of Philosophy 8:39–52. * Christofidou, A. 2013. ''Self, Reason, and Freedom: A New Light on Descartes' Metaphysics. Routledge. * Hatfield, G. 2003. Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Descartes and the Meditations. Routledge. . * Kierkegaard, Søren. [1844] 1985. Philosophical Fragments. Princeton. . * — [1846] 1985. Concluding Unscientific Postscript''. Princeton. . External links * Category:Arguments in philosophy of mind Category:Cartesianism Category:Concepts in epistemology Category:Concepts in the philosophy of mind Category:Latin philosophical phrases Category:Psychological concepts Category:17th-century neologisms Category:17th-century quotations	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cogito,_ergo_sum	2025-04-05T18:28:07.734798
7345	Carl Barks	Duckman}} \| birth_place = Near Merrill, Oregon, U.S. \| death_date \| death_place = Grants Pass, Oregon, U.S. \| art = y \| write = y \| pencil = y \| ink = y \| notable works = Scrooge McDuck, Huey, Dewey, and Louie, Daisy Duck, Gyro Gearloose, Gladstone Gander, The Junior Woodchucks, Beagle Boys, Flintheart Glomgold, Magica De Spell, Neighbor J. Jones, Glittering Goldie, Cornelius Coot, John D. Rockerduck<br/><br/>Oil paintings of his duck characters \| spouse = * * }} \| children = 2 \| signature = Carl barks signature.svg }} Carl Barks (March 27, 1901 – August 25, 2000) was an American cartoonist, author, and painter. He is best known for his work in Disney comic books, as the writer and artist of the first Donald Duck stories and as the creator of Scrooge McDuck. He worked anonymously until late in his career; fans dubbed him "The Duck Man" and "The Good Duck Artist". In 1987, Barks was one of the three inaugural inductees of the Will Eisner Comic Book Hall of Fame. Barks worked for the Disney Studio and Western Publishing where he created Duckburg and many of its inhabitants, such as Scrooge McDuck (1947), Gladstone Gander (1948), the Beagle Boys (1951), The Junior Woodchucks (1951), Gyro Gearloose (1952), Cornelius Coot (1952), Flintheart Glomgold (1956), John D. Rockerduck (1961) and Magica De Spell (1961). He has been named by animation historian Leonard Maltin as "the most popular and widely read artist-writer in the world". Will Eisner called him "the Hans Christian Andersen of comic books." Beginning especially in the 1980s, Barks' artistic contributions would be a primary source for animated adaptations such as DuckTales and its 2017 remake. Biography Barks was born near Merrill, Oregon, to William Barks and his wife, Arminta Johnson. He had an older brother named Clyde. His paternal grandparents were David Barks and his wife Ruth Shrum. Barks' maternal grandparents were Carl Johnson and his wife, Suzanna Massey, but little else is known about his ancestors. Barks was the descendant of Jacob Barks, who came to Missouri from North Carolina 1800. They lived in Marble Hill in Bollinger County. Jacob Barks' son Isaac was the father of the David Barks noted above. Childhood According to Barks's description of his childhood, he was a rather lonely child. His parents owned of land that served as their farm. The nearest neighbor lived away, but he was more an acquaintance to Barks's parents than a friend. The closest school was about away and Barks had to walk that distance every day. The rural area had few children, though, and Barks later remembered that his school had only about eight or ten students including him. He had high praise for the quality of the education he received in that small school. "Schools were good in those days," he used to say. The lessons lasted from nine o'clock in the morning to four o'clock in the afternoon and then he had to return to the farm. There he remembered not having anybody to talk to, as his parents were busy, and he had little in common with his brother. In 1908, William Barks (in an attempt to increase the family income) moved with his family to Midland, Oregon, some miles north of Merrill, to be closer to the new railway lines. He established a new stock-breeding farm and sold his produce to the local slaughterhouses. Nine-year-old Clyde and seven-year-old Carl worked long hours there. But Carl later remembered that the crowd which gathered at Midland's market place made a strong impression on him. This was expected, as he was not used to crowds up until then. According to Barks, his attention was mostly drawn to the cowboys that frequented the market with their revolvers, strange nicknames for each other and sense of humor. By 1911, they had been successful enough to move to Santa Rosa, California. There they started cultivating vegetables and set up some orchards. Unfortunately, the profits were not as high as William expected and they started having financial difficulties. William's anxiety over them was probably what caused his first nervous breakdown. As soon as William recovered, he made the decision to move back to Merrill. The year was 1913, and Barks was already 12 years old; but, due to the constant moving, he had not yet managed to complete grade school. He resumed his education at this point and finally managed to graduate in 1916. 1916 served as a turning point in Barks's life for various reasons. First, Arminta, his mother, died in this year. Second, his hearing problems, which had already appeared earlier, had at the time become severe enough for him to have difficulties listening to his teachers talking. His hearing would continue to get worse later, but at that point he had not yet acquired a hearing aid. Later in life, he couldn't do without one. Third, the closest high school to their farm was away and even if he did enroll in it, his bad hearing was likely to contribute to his learning problems. He had to decide to stop his school education, much to his disappointment.From job to jobBarks started taking various jobs but had little success in such occupations as a farmer, woodcutter, turner, mule driver, cowboy and printer. From his jobs he learned, he later averred, how eccentric, stubborn and unpredictable men, animals and machines can be. At the same time he interacted with colleagues, fellow breadwinners who had satirical disposition towards even their worst troubles. Barks later declared that he was sure that if not for a little humor in their troubled lives, they would certainly go insane. It was an attitude towards life that Barks would adopt. Later he would say it was natural for him to satirize the secret yearnings and desires, the pompous style and the disappointments of his characters. According to Barks, this period of his life would later influence his best known fictional characters: Walt Disney's Donald Duck and his own Scrooge McDuck. Donald's drifting from job to job was reportedly inspired by Barks's own experiences. So was his usual lack of success. And even in those that he was successful this would be temporary, just until a mistake or chance event caused another failure, another disappointment for the frustrated duck. Barks also reported that this was another thing he was familiar with. Scrooge's main difference to Donald, according to Barks, was that he too had faced the same difficulties in his past but through intelligence, determination and hard work, he was able to overcome them. Or, as Scrooge himself would say to Huey, Dewey, and Louie: by being "tougher than the toughies and smarter than the smarties." In Barks's stories Scrooge would work to solve his many problems, even though the stories would often point out that his constant efforts seemed futile at the end. Through both characters Barks would often exhibit his rather sarcastic sense of humor. It seems that this difficult period for the artist helped shape many of his later views in life that were expressed through his characters.Professional artist At the same time Barks had started thinking about turning a hobby that he always enjoyed into a profession: that of drawing. Since his early childhood he spent his free time by drawing on any material he could find. He had attempted to improve his style by copying the drawings of his favorite comic strip artists from the newspapers where he could find them. As he later said, he wanted to create his own facial expressions, figures and comical situations in his drawings but wanted to study the master comic artists' use of the pen and their use of color and shading. Among his early favorites were Winsor McCay (mostly known for Little Nemo) and Frederick Burr Opper (mostly known for Happy Hooligan) but he would later study any style that managed to draw his attention. At age 16, he was mostly self-taught but at this point he decided to take some lessons through correspondence. He only followed the first four lessons and then had to stop because his working left him with little free time. But as he later said, the lessons proved very useful in improving his style. By December 1918, he left his father's home to attempt to find a job in San Francisco, California. He worked for a while in a small publishing house while attempting to sell his drawings to newspapers and other printed material with little success. First and second marriages While he continued drifting through various jobs, he met Pearl Turner (1904–1987). In 1921 they married and had two daughters: * Peggy Barks (1923–1963) * Dorothy Barks (1924–2014) In 1923 he returned to his paternal farm in Merrill in an attempt to return to the life of a farmer, but that ended soon. He continued searching for a job while attempting to sell his drawings. He soon managed to sell some of them to Judge magazine and then started having success submitting to the Minneapolis-based Calgary Eye-Opener, a racy men's cartoon magazine of the era. He was eventually hired as editor and scripted and drew most of the contents while continuing to sell occasional work to other magazines. His salary of $90 per month was considered respectable enough for the time. A facsimile of one of the racy magazines he did cartoons for in this period, Coo Coo #1, was published by Hamilton Comics in 1997. Meanwhile, he had his first divorce. He and Pearl were separated in 1929 and divorced in 1930. After he moved to Minneapolis, Minnesota, where Calgary-Eye-Opener had its offices, he met Clara Balken, who in 1938 became his second wife. Disney In November 1935, when he learned that Walt Disney was seeking more artists for his studio, Barks decided to apply. He was approved for a try-out which entailed a move to Los Angeles, California. He was one of two in his class of trainees who was hired. His starting salary was 20 dollars a week. He started at Disney Studios in 1935, more than a year after the debut of Donald Duck on June 9, 1934, in the short animated film The Wise Little Hen. Barks initially worked as an inbetweener. This involved being teamed and supervised by one of the head animators who did the key poses of character action (often known as extremes) for which the inbetweeners did the drawings between the extremes to create the illusion of movement. While an inbetweener, Barks submitted gag ideas for cartoon story lines being developed and showed such a knack for creating comical situations that by 1937 he was transferred to the story department. His first story sale was the climax of Modern Inventions, for a sequence where a robot barber chair gives Donald Duck a haircut on his bottom. In 1937, when Donald Duck became the star of his own series of cartoons instead of co-starring with Mickey Mouse and Goofy as previously, a new unit of storymen and animators was created devoted solely to this series. Though he originally just contributed gag ideas to some duck cartoons, by 1937 Barks was (principally with partner Jack Hannah) originating story ideas that were storyboarded and (if approved by Walt) put into production. He collaborated on such cartoons as ''Donald's Nephews (1938), Donald's Cousin Gus (1939), Mr. Duck Steps Out (1940), Timber (1941), The Vanishing Private (1942) and The Plastics Inventor'' (1944). The Good Duck Artist Unhappy at the emerging wartime working conditions at Disney, and bothered by ongoing sinus problems caused by the studio's air conditioning, Barks quit in 1942. Shortly before quitting, he moonlighted as a comic book artist, contributing half the artwork for a one-shot comic book (the other half of the art being done by story partner Jack Hannah) titled Donald Duck Finds Pirate Gold. This 64-page story was adapted by Donald Duck comic strip writer Bob Karp from an unproduced feature, and published in October 1942 in Dell Comics Four Color Comics #9. It was the first Donald Duck story originally produced for an American comic book and also the first involving Donald and his nephews in a treasure hunting expedition, in this case for the treasure of Henry Morgan. Barks would later use the treasure hunting theme in many of his stories. This actually was not his first work in comics, as earlier the same year Barks along with Hannah and fellow storyman Nick George scripted Pluto Saves the Ship, which was among the first original Disney comic book stories published in the United States. After quitting the Disney Studio, Barks relocated to the Hemet/San Jacinto area in the semi-desert Inland Empire region east of Los Angeles where he hoped to start a chicken farm. When asked which of his stories was a favorite in several interviews Barks cited the ten-pager in ''Walt Disney's Comics and Stories'' #146 (Nov. 1952) in which Donald tells the story of the chain of unfortunate events that took place when he owned a chicken farm in a town which subsequently was renamed Omelet. Likely one reason it was a favorite is that it was inspired by Barks' own experiences in the poultry business. But to earn a living in the meantime he inquired whether Western Publishing, which had published Pirate Gold, had any need for artists for Donald Duck comic book stories. He was immediately assigned to illustrate the script for a ten-page Donald Duck story for the monthly ''Walt Disney's Comics and Stories''. At the publisher's invitation he revised the storyline and the improvements impressed the editor sufficiently to invite Barks to try his hand at contributing both the script and the artwork of his follow-up story. This set the pattern for Barks' career in that (with rare exceptions) he provided art (pencil, inking, solid blacks and lettering) and scripting for his stories. The Victory Garden, that initial ten-page story published in April, 1943 was the first of about 500 stories featuring the Disney ducks Barks would produce for Western Publishing over the next three decades, well into his purported retirement. These can be mostly divided into three categories: * One-page gag stories like "Coffee for Two" and "Sorry to be Safe". These one-pagers were usually printed in black and white (or black and white and red) on the inside front, inside back, and outside back covers. These stories focused on one joke. * Ten-pagers, comedic Donald Duck stories that were the lead for the monthly flagship title ''Walt Disney's Comics and Stories, whose circulation peaked in the mid-1950s at 3 million copies sold a month. * Humorous adventure stories, usually 24-32 pages in length. In the 1940s these were one-shots in the Four Color'' series (issued 4–6 times a year) that starred Donald and his nephews. Starting in the early 1950s (and through his retirement) Barks' longer stories were almost exclusively published in Uncle Scrooge's own quarterly title. Barks' artistic growth during his first decade in comics saw a transformation from rather rudimentary storytelling derived from his years as an animation artist and storyman into a virtuoso creator of complex narratives, notably in his longer adventure tales. According to critic Geoffrey Blum, the process that saw its beginnings in 1942's Pirate Gold first bore its full fruit in 1950's "Vacation Time", which he describes as "a visual primer for reading comics and understanding ... the form". He surrounded Donald Duck and nephews Huey, Dewey, and Louie with a cast of eccentric and colorful characters, such as the aforementioned Scrooge McDuck, the wealthiest duck in the world; Gladstone Gander, Donald's obscenely lucky cousin; inventor Gyro Gearloose; the persistent Beagle Boys; the sorceress Magica De Spell; Scrooge's rivals Flintheart Glomgold and John D. Rockerduck; Daisy's nieces April, May and June; Donald's neighbor Jones, and The Junior Woodchucks organization. Barks's stories (whether humorous adventures or domestic comedies) often exhibited a wry, dark irony born of hard experience. The ten-pagers showcased Donald as everyman, struggling against the cruel bumps and bruises of everyday life with the nephews often acting as a Greek chorus commenting on the unfolding disasters Donald wrought upon himself. Yet while seemingly defeatist in tone, the humanity of the characters shines through in their persistence despite the obstacles. These stories found popularity not only among young children but adults as well. Despite the fact that Barks had done little traveling, his adventure stories often had the duck clan globe-trotting to the most remote or spectacular of places. This allowed Barks to indulge his penchant for elaborate backgrounds that hinted at his thwarted ambitions of doing realistic stories in the vein of Hal Foster's Prince Valiant. Third marriage As Barks blossomed creatively, his marriage to Clara deteriorated. This is the period referred to in Barks' famed quip that he could feel his creative juices flowing while the whiskey bottles hurled at him by a tipsy Clara flew by his head. They were divorced in 1951, his second and last divorce. In this period Barks dabbled in fine art, exhibiting paintings at local art shows. It was at one of these in 1952 he became acquainted with fellow exhibitor Margaret Wynnfred Williams (1917 – March 10, 1993), nicknamed Garé. She was an accomplished landscape artist, some of whose paintings are in the collection of the Leanin' Tree Museum of Western Art. During her lifetime, and to this day, note cards of her paintings are available from Leanin' Tree. Her nickname appears as a store name in the story "Christmas in Duckburg", featured on page 1 of ''Walt Disney's Christmas Parade'' #9, published in 1958. Soon after they met, she started assisting Barks, handling the solid blacks and lettering, both of which he had found onerous. They married in 1954 and the union lasted until her death. No longer anonymous People who worked for Disney (and its comic book licensees) generally did so in relative anonymity; stories would only carry Walt Disney's name and (sometimes) a short identification number. Prior to 1960 Barks' identity remained a mystery to his readers. However, many readers recognized Barks' work and drawing style and began to call him the Good Duck Artist, a label that stuck even after his true identity was discovered by fans in the late 1950s. Malcolm Willits was the first person to learn Barks's name and address, but two brothers named John and Bill Spicer became the first fans to contact Barks after independently discovering the same information. After Barks received a 1960 visit from the Spicer brothers and Ron Leonard, he was no longer anonymous, as word of his identity spread through the emerging network of comic book fandom fanzines and conventions.Later life Carl Barks retired in 1966, but was persuaded by editor Chase Craig to continue to script stories for Western. The last new comic book story drawn by Carl Barks was a Daisy Duck tale ("The Dainty Daredevil") published in Walt Disney Comics Digest issue 5 (Nov. 1968). When bibliographer Michael Barrier asked Barks why he drew it, Barks' vague recollection was no one was available and he was asked to do it as a favor by Craig. He wrote one Uncle Scrooge story, and three Donald Duck stories. From 1970 to 1974, Barks was the main writer for the Junior Woodchucks comic book (issues 6 through 25). The latter included environmental themes that Barks first explored in 1957 ["Land of the Pygmy Indians", Uncle Scrooge #18]. Barks also sold a few sketches to Western that were redrawn as covers. For a time the Barkses lived in Goleta, California, before returning to the Inland Empire by moving to Temecula. To make a little extra money beyond what his pension and scripting earnings brought in, Barks started doing oil paintings to sell at the local art shows where he and Garé exhibited. Subjects included humorous depictions of life on the farm and portraits of Native American princesses. These skillfully rendered paintings encouraged fan Glenn Bray to ask Barks if he could commission a painting of the ducks ("A Tall Ship and a Star to Steer Her By", taken from the cover of ''Walt Disney's Comics and Stories'' #108 by Barks). This prompted Barks to contact George Sherman at Disney's Publications Department to request permission to produce and sell oil paintings of scenes from his stories. In July 1971 Barks was granted a royalty-free license by Disney. When word spread that Barks was taking commissions from those interested in purchasing an oil of the ducks, much to his astonishment the response quickly outstripped what he reasonably could produce in the next few years. \|width270px \|fontsize80% \|bgcolor#eeffff \|quote=<poem>They ride tall ships to the far away, and see the long ago. They walk where fabled people trod, and Yetis trod the snow. They meet the folks who live on stars, and find them much like us, With food and love and happiness the things they most discuss. The world is full of clans and cults abuzz as angry bees, And Junior Woodchucks snapping jeers at Littlest Chickadees. The ducks show us that part of life is to forgive a slight. That black eyes given in revenge keep hatred burning bright. So when our walks in sun or shade pass graveyards filled by wars, It's nice to stop and read of ducks whose battles leave no scars. To read of ducks who parody our vain attempts at glory, They don't exist, but somehow leave us glad we bought their story.</poem> }} When Barks expressed dismay at coping with the backlog of orders he faced, fan/dealers Bruce Hamilton and Russ Cochran suggested Barks instead auction his paintings at conventions and via Cochran's catalog Graphic Gallery. By September 1974 Barks had discontinued taking commissions. At Boston's NewCon convention, in October 1975, the first Carl Barks oil painting auctioned at a comic book convention ("She Was Spangled and Flashy") sold for $2,500. Subsequent offerings saw an escalation in the prices realized. In 1976, Barks and Garé went to Boston for the NewCon show, their first comic convention appearance. Among the other attendees was famed Little Lulu comic book scripter John Stanley; despite both having worked for Western Publishing this was the first time they met. The highlight of the convention was the auctioning of what was to that time the largest duck oil painting Barks had done, "July Fourth in Duckburg", which included depictions of several prominent Barks fans and collectors. It sold for a then record high amount: $6,400. Soon thereafter a fan sold unauthorized prints of some of the Scrooge McDuck paintings, leading Disney to withdraw permission for further paintings. To meet demand for new work Barks embarked on a series of paintings of non-Disney ducks and fantasy subjects such as Beowulf and Xerxes. These were eventually collected in the limited-edition book Animal Quackers. As the result of efforts by Star Wars producer Gary Kurtz and screenwriter Edward Summer, Disney relented and, in 1981, allowed Barks to produce an oil painting called Wanderers of Wonderlands for a limited edition book entitled Uncle Scrooge McDuck: His Life and Times. The book collected 11 classic Barks stories of Uncle Scrooge colored by artist Peter Ledger along with a new Scrooge story by Barks done storybook style with watercolor illustrations, "Go Slowly, Sands of Time". After being turned down by every major publisher in New York City, Kurtz and Summer published the book through Celestial Arts, which Kurtz acquired partly for this purpose. The book went on to become the model for virtually every important collection of comic book stories. It was the first book of its kind ever reviewed in Time magazine and subsequently in Newsweek, and the first book review in Time with large color illustrations. In 1977 and 1982, Barks attended San Diego Comic-Con. As with his appearance in Boston, the response to his presence was overwhelming, with long lines of fans waiting to meet Barks and get his autograph. In 1981, Bruce Hamilton and Russ Cochran, two long-time Disney comics fans, decided to combine forces to bring greater recognition to the works of Carl Barks. Their first efforts went into establishing Another Rainbow Publishing, the banner under which they produced and issued the award-winning book ''The Fine Art of Walt Disney's Donald Duck by Carl Barks, a comprehensive collection of the Disney duck paintings of this artist and storyteller. Not long after, the company began producing fine art lithographs of many of these paintings, in strictly limited editions, all signed by Barks, who eventually produced many original works for the series. In 1983, Barks relocated one last time to Grants Pass, Oregon, near where he grew up, partly at the urging of friend and Broom Hilda artist Russell Myers, who lived in the area. The move also was motivated, Barks stated in another famous quip, by Temecula being too close to Disneyland and thus facilitating a growing torrent of drop-in visits by vacationing fans. In this period Barks made only one public appearance, at a comic book shop near Grants Pass. In 1983, Another Rainbow took up the daunting task of collecting the entire Disney comic book oeuvre of Barks—over 500 stories in all—in the ten-set, thirty-volume Carl Barks Library''. These oversized hardbound volumes reproduced Barks' pages in pristine black and white line art, as close as possible to the way he would originally draw them, and included mountains of special features, articles, reminiscences, interviews, storyboards, critiques, and more than a few surprises. This monumental project was finally completed in mid-1990. In 1985, a new division was founded, Gladstone Publishing, which took up the then-dormant Disney comic book license. Gladstone introduced a new generation of Disney comic book readers to the storytelling of Barks, Paul Murry, and Floyd Gottfredson, as well as presenting the first works of modern Disney comics artists Don Rosa and William Van Horn. Seven years after Gladstone's founding, the Carl Barks Library was revived as the Carl Barks Library in Color, as full-color, high-quality squarebound comic albums (including the first-ever Carl Barks trading cards). From 1993 to 1998, Barks' career was managed by the "Carl Barks Studio" (Bill Grandey and Kathy Morby—they had sold Barks original art since 1979). This involved numerous art projects and activities, including a tour of 11 European countries in 1994, Iceland being the first foreign country he ever visited. Barks appeared at the first of many Disneyana conventions in 1993. Silk screen prints of paintings along with high-end art objects (such as original water colors, bronze figurines and ceramic tiles) were produced based on designs by Barks. During the summer of 1994 and until his death, Barks and his studio personally assigned Peter Reichelt, a museum exhibition producer from Mannheim, Germany, as his agent for Europe. Publisher "Edition 313" put out numerous lithographs. In 1997, tensions between Barks and the Studio eventually resulted in a lawsuit that was settled with an agreement that included the disbanding of the Studio. Barks never traveled to make another Disney appearance. He was represented by Ed Bergen, as he completed a final project. Gerry Tank and Jim Mitchell were to assist Barks in his final years. During his Carl Barks Studio years, Barks created two more stories: the script for the final Uncle Scrooge story "Horsing Around with History", which was first published in Denmark in 1994 with Bill Van Horn art. The outlines for Barks' final Donald Duck story "Somewhere in Nowhere", were first published in 1997, in Italy, with art by Pat Block. Austrian artist Gottfried Helnwein curated and organized the first solo museum-exhibition of Barks. Between 1994 and 1998 the retrospective was shown in ten European museums and seen by more than 400,000 visitors. At the same time in spring 1994, Reichelt and Ina Brockmann designed a special museum exhibition tour about Barks' life and work. Also represented for the first time at this exhibition were Disney artists Al Taliaferro and Floyd Gottfredson. Since 1995, more than 500,000 visitors have attended the shows in Europe. Reichelt also translated Michael Barrier's biography of Barks into German and published it in 1994. Final days and death Barks spent his final years in a new home in Grants Pass, Oregon, which he and Garé, who died in 1993, had built next door to their original home. In July 1999, he was diagnosed with chronic lymphocytic leukemia, a form of cancer arising from the white blood cells in the bone marrow, for which he received oral chemotherapy. However, as the disease progressed, causing him great discomfort, the ailing Barks decided to stop receiving treatment in June 2000. In spite of his terminal condition, Barks remained, according to caregiver Serene Hunicke, "funny up to the end". The year before, Barks had told the university professor Donald Ault: <blockquote>I have no apprehension, no fear of death. I do not believe in an afterlife. ... I think of death as total peace. You're beyond the clutches of all those who would crush you.</blockquote> On August 25, 2000, shortly after midnight, Carl Barks died quietly in his sleep at the age of 99. He was interred in Hillcrest Memorial Cemetery in Grants Pass, beside Garé's grave.Influence "(A)n asteroid was named after the Duck Man in 1983 --- 2730 Barks, a carbonaceous C-type asteroid with a diameter of between 10 and 16 kilometers, an ordital period of six years and four months, and a rotation period of just over six hours." In a 1983 interview, Barks says that "Island in the Sky", a story about the Ducks traveling to the asteroid belt to find a place Uncle Scrooge can store his money, was his favorite story. Barks' Donald Duck stories were rated #7 on The Comics Journal list of 100 top comics; his Uncle Scrooge stories were rated #20. Steven Spielberg and George Lucas have acknowledged that the rolling-boulder booby trap in the opening scene of Raiders of the Lost Ark was inspired by the 1954 Carl Barks Uncle Scrooge adventure "The Seven Cities of Cibola" (Uncle Scrooge #7). Lucas and Spielberg have also said that some of Barks' stories about space travel and the depiction of aliens had an influence on them. Lucas wrote the foreword to the 1982 Uncle Scrooge McDuck: His Life and Times. In it he calls Barks' stories "cinematic" and "a priceless part of our literary heritage". The Walt Disney Treasures DVD set Chronological Donald, Volume 2 includes a salute to Barks. In Almere, Netherlands, a street was named after him: Carl Barksweg. The same neighborhood also includes a Donald Ducklaan and a Goofystraat. Japanese animator and cartoonist Osamu Tezuka, who created manga such as Astro Boy and Black Jack, was a fan of Barks' work. New Treasure Island, one of Tezuka's first works, was partly influenced by "Donald Duck Finds Pirate Gold". A 1949 Donald Duck ten-pager features Donald raising a yacht from the ocean floor by filling it with ping pong balls. In December 1965 Karl Krøyer, a Dane, lifted the sunken freight vessel Al Kuwait in the Kuwait Harbor by filling the hull with 27 million tiny inflatable balls of polystyrene. Krøyer denies having been inspired by this Barks story. Some sources claim Krøyer was denied a Dutch patent registration (application number NL 6514306) for his invention on the grounds that the Barks story was a prior publication of the invention. Krøyer later successfully raised another ship off Greenland using the same method, and several other sunken vessels worldwide have since been raised by modified versions of this concept. The television show MythBusters also tested this method and was able to raise a small boat. Don Rosa, one of the most popular living Disney artists, and possibly the one who has been most keen on connecting the various stories into a coherent universe and chronology, considers (with few exceptions) all Barks' duck stories as canon, and all others as apocryphal. Rosa has said that a number of novelists and movie-makers cite Carl Barks as their 'major influence and inspiration'. Don Rosa created The Complete Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck based on Carl Barks references in Scrooge McDuck stories. When the news of Barks' passing was hardly covered by the press in America, "in Europe the sad news was flashed instantly across the airwaves and every newspaper — they realized the world had lost one of the most beloved, influential and well-known creators in international culture." Carl Barks drew an early Andy Panda comic book story published in New Funnies #76, 1943. It is one of his few stories to feature humans interacting with talking animal characters (another is Dangerous Disguise, Four Color'' #308, 1951. See List of fictional pandas.) The first image ever to be displayed on an Apple Macintosh was a scan of Carl Barks' Scrooge McDuck. The life story of Carl Barks, largely drawing upon his relationship with Disney and the phonetic similarity of his name to Karl Marx, serves as a loose inspiration to one of the subplots in The Last Song of Manuel Sendero by Ariel Dorfman. Bibliography * Coo Coo #1, Hamilton Comics, 1997 (a facsimile of one of the racy magazines Barks did cartoons for in the thirties). * The Unexpurgated Carl Barks, Hamilton Comics, 1997 (contains cartoons drawn between 1928 and 1936 for Calgary Eye-Opener) * ''The Carl Barks' Big Book of Barney Bear'' (), 2011 collection edited by Craig Yoe and published by IDW of the Barney Bear and Benny Burro stories that originally appeared in Our Gang Comics #11–36 (May/June 1944 – June 1947); Barks' one substantial non-Disney series. * Carl Barks Library, 1984–1990, 30 hardback volumes in black and white published by Another Rainbow Publishing. * Carl Barks Library (graphic album format, in color) 1992–1998 * O Melhor da Disney: As Obras Completas de Carl Barks 2004–2008, 41 volume limited edition published by Abril Jovem in Brazil, compiling all the stories written by Barks, with his oil paintings as the cover art. * The Carl Barks Collection 2005–2009, 30 volume limited edition published by Egmont in Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and Germany, and by Sanoma in Finland. Edited by Barks expert Geoffrey Blum. * The Complete Carl Barks Disney Library 2011–present, hardback volumes with separate Uncle Scrooge and Donald Duck volumes from Fantagraphics Books. * Uack! and Uack! presenta April 2014-2018, 40-volume incomplete edition with the collected stories written by Barks, including a few drawn by other artists, and previously unpublished stories, enriched with sketches and photographs. After the 23rd volume, the series got the name of "Uack! presenta, and includes stories by other artists, such as Al Taliaferro and Don Rosa. Published by Panini Comics in Italy. Filmography Films where Barks served as storyman or story director include: Modern Inventions (May 29, 1937). Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film. ''Donald's Ostrich (December 10, 1937). Self Control (February 11, 1938). Barks served as the story director. Donald's Better Self (March 11, 1938). Barks served as the story director. Donald's Nephews (April 15, 1938). Good Scouts (July 8, 1938). Barks served as the story director. Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film. Donald's Golf Game (November 4, 1938). Barks served as the story director. Donald's Lucky Day (January 13, 1939). Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film. The Hockey Champ (April 28, 1939). Barks served as the story director. Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film. Donald's Cousin Gus (May 19, 1939). Barks served as the story director. Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film. Sea Scouts (June 30, 1939). Barks served as the story director. Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film. Donald's Penguin (August 11, 1939). Barks served as the story director. The Autograph Hound (September 1, 1939). Mr. Duck Steps Out (June 7, 1940). Barks served as the story director. Put-Put Troubles (June 19, 1940). Bone Trouble (June 28, 1940). Donald's Vacation (August 9, 1940). Window Cleaners (September 20, 1940). Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film. Fire Chief (December 13, 1940). Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film. Timber (January 10, 1941). Barks served as the story director. Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film. Golden Eggs (March 7, 1941). Early to Bed (July 11, 1941). Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film. Truant Officer Donald (August 1, 1941). Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film. Old MacDonald Duck (September 12, 1941). Barks served as the story director. Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film. Chef Donald (December 5, 1941). Barks served as the story director. Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film. The Village Smithy (January 16, 1942). Donald's Snow Fight (April 10, 1942). Barks served as the story director. Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film. Donald Gets Drafted (May 1, 1942). Barks served as the story director. * (May 22, 1942). The Vanishing Private (September 25, 1942). Barks served as the story director. Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film. Sky Trooper (November 6, 1942). Bellboy Donald (December 18, 1942). Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film. The Spirit of '43 (January 7, 1943). The Old Army Game (November 5, 1943). Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film. Home Defense (November 26, 1943). Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film. Trombone Trouble (February 18, 1944). Barks served as the story director. Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film. The Plastics Inventor (September 1, 1944). Notable stories * "Donald Duck Finds Pirate Gold", Four Color'' #9, October 1942 * "Donald Duck and the Mummy's Ring", Four Color #29, September 1943 * "Christmas on Bear Mountain", Four Color #178, December 1947, first appearance of Scrooge McDuck. * "The Old Castle's Secret", Four Color #189 June 1948 * "Sheriff of Bullet Valley", Four Color #199, October 1948 * "Lost in the Andes!", Four Color #223, April 1949 * "Vacation Time", Vacation Parade #1, July 1950 * "A Financial Fable", ''Walt Disney's Comics and Stories #126, March 1951 * "Donald Duck in Old California!", Four Color #328, May 1951 * "A Christmas for Shacktown", Four Color #367, January 1952 * "Only a Poor Old Man", Four Color #386 (Uncle Scrooge #1), March 1952 * "Flip Decision", Walt Disney's Comics and Stories #149, June 1952 * "The Golden Helmet", Four Color #408, July 1952 * "Back to the Klondike", Four Color #456 (Uncle Scrooge #2), March 1953 * "Tralla La", Uncle Scrooge'' #6, June 1954 * "The Fabulous Philosopher's Stone", Uncle Scrooge #10, June 1955 * "The Golden Fleecing", Uncle Scrooge #12, December 1955 * "Land Beneath the Ground!", Uncle Scrooge #13, March 1956 * "The Money Well", Uncle Scrooge #21, March 1958 * "The Golden River", Uncle Scrooge #22, 1958 * "Island in the Sky", Uncle Scrooge #29, March 1960 * "North of the Yukon", Uncle Scrooge #59, September 1965 Awards * The Shazam Award for Best Writer (Humor Division) in 1970 * The Academy of Comic Book Arts Hall of Fame Award in 1973 * The Inkpot in 1977 from San Diego Comic-Con * Inducted into the Eisner Awards Hall of Fame in 1987 * Inducted into the Jack Kirby Hall of Fame in 1987 * Inducted into the William Randolph Hearst Cartoon Hall of Fame. * The Walt Disney Company bestowed a Duckster award in 1971 and their Disney Legends award in 1991 * The Comics Buyer's Guide Fan Award for Favorite Writer in 1996. * The series Carl Barks Library received the Comics Buyer's Guide Fan Award for Favorite Reprint Graphic Novel/Album for 1996. Art materials Barks was an enthusiastic user of Esterbrook pens, and used a Nº 356 model to ink and letter his Donald Duck comic-book pages. }} See also * Scrooge McDuck / The Junior Woodchucks / Disney comics * The Carl Barks Library / The Carl Barks Library in Color (Gladstone Publishing) * The Carl Barks Collection (Egmont; non-English) / The Complete Carl Barks Disney Library (Fantagraphics) * List of Disney comics by Carl Barks / List of non-Disney comics by Carl Barks * Inducks – Disney comics database / Donaldism – Disney comics fandom * Flipism – Theory from one of Barks' stories References Citations Sources * * <small>[The book contains some of the most important interviews Barks made between 1962 and 2000 (Thomas Andrae, Michael Barrier, Bill Blackbeard, E. B. Boatner, Glenn Bray, Paul Ciotti, Sébastien Durand, Bob Foster, Didier Ghez, Stephen Gong, Leonardo Gori, Bruce Hamilton, Gottfried Helnwein, Markku Kivekäs, Michael Naiman, Bill Spicer, Francesco Stajano, Klaus Strzyz, Edward Summer, Erik Svane, Don Thompson, Maggie Thompson, Malcolm Willits, Nicky Wright, and Lynda Ault).]</small> * Further reading * * Barks, Carl & Summer, Edward: ''Walt Disney's Uncle Scrooge McDuck: His Life and Times''. Berkeley (Ca.): Celestial Arts, 1981 (first trade edition 1987). * * Helnwein, Gottfried (ed.): [https://archive.today/20130103065410/http://helnweincomic.homestead.com/carlbarks.html 'Wer ist Carl Barks' (Who is Carl Barks?)], texts by Roy Disney, Gottfried Helnwein, Carsten Laqua, Andreas Platthaus und Ulrich Schröder. * Immerwahr, D. (2020). [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-american-history/article/tencent-ideology-donald-duck-comic-books-and-the-us-challenge-to-modernization/6C00D3B5CC8A662F1BE502D3B96404C0 "Ten-Cent Ideology: Donald Duck Comic Books and the U.S. Challenge to Modernization"]. Modern American History. * Moliné, Alfons (2007). Carl Barks, un viento ácrata. Madrid: Ediciones Sinsentido, Colección Sin palabras, serie A, núm. 16. * * * Summer, Edward. [http://www.michaelspornanimation.com/splog/?p=2232 "Of Ducks and Men: Cark Barks Interviewed"]. Panels #2 (1981). * Note: Barks-themed/comics-related fanzines have been published in numerous countries, featuring articles and interviews. External links * * * [http://www.lambiek.net/artists/b/barks.htm Carl Barks] at the Lambiek Comiclopedia * * * [https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/c8pg1tg4/entire_text/?query=Barks%20(Carl)%20Correspondence%20Collection Carl Barks Correspondence Collection] * * [http://www.barksbase.de/english/ The HTML Barks base] * [http://www.cbarks.dk/ Carl Barks site] edited by Peter Barks Kylling * [http://www.iusmentis.com/patents/priorart/donaldduck/ The "Donald Duck as prior art" patent case] at Ius mentis * / [https://www.cbarks.dk/THEFAREWELL.htm Barks' memorial service] Category:1901 births Category:2000 deaths Category:20th-century American painters Category:20th-century American non-fiction writers Category:20th-century American screenwriters Category:American comics artists Category:American male screenwriters Category:American comics writers Category:Disney comics writers Category:Disney comics artists Category:American satirists Category:American satirical comics writers Category:American satirical comics artists Category:Deaths from leukemia in Oregon Category:Deaths from chronic lymphocytic leukemia Category:People from Grants Pass, Oregon Category:People from Klamath County, Oregon Category:Will Eisner Award Hall of Fame inductees Category:People from Temecula, California Category:People from Riverside County, California Category:American storyboard artists Category:American male non-fiction writers Category:Screenwriters from California Category:Walt Disney Animation Studios people Category:20th-century American male writers Category:Inkpot Award winners Category:Artists from Oregon Category:Screenwriters from Oregon Category:Animation screenwriters Category:American painters of animals	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Barks	2025-04-05T18:28:07.757500
7346	Centimetre–gram–second system of units	The centimetre–gram–second system of units (CGS or cgs) is a variant of the metric system based on the centimetre as the unit of length, the gram as the unit of mass, and the second as the unit of time. All CGS mechanical units are unambiguously derived from these three base units, but there are several different ways in which the CGS system was extended to cover electromagnetism. The CGS system has been largely supplanted by the MKS system based on the metre, kilogram, and second, which was in turn extended and replaced by the International System of Units (SI). In many fields of science and engineering, SI is the only system of units in use, but CGS is still prevalent in certain subfields. In measurements of purely mechanical systems (involving units of length, mass, force, energy, pressure, and so on), the differences between CGS and SI are straightforward: the unit-conversion factors are all powers of 10 as and . For example, the CGS unit of force is the dyne, which is defined as , so the SI unit of force, the newton (), is equal to . On the other hand, in measurements of electromagnetic phenomena (involving units of charge, electric and magnetic fields, voltage, and so on), converting between CGS and SI is less straightforward. Formulas for physical laws of electromagnetism (such as Maxwell's equations) take a form that depends on which system of units is being used, because the electromagnetic quantities are defined differently in SI and in CGS. Furthermore, within CGS, there are several plausible ways to define electromagnetic quantities, leading to different "sub-systems", including Gaussian units, "ESU", "EMU", and Heaviside–Lorentz units. Among these choices, Gaussian units are the most common today, and "CGS units" is often intended to refer to CGS-Gaussian units. History The CGS system goes back to a proposal in 1832 by the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss to base a system of absolute units on the three fundamental units of length, mass and time. Gauss chose the units of millimetre, milligram and second. In 1873, a committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, including physicists James Clerk Maxwell and William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin recommended the general adoption of centimetre, gram and second as fundamental units, and to express all derived electromagnetic units in these fundamental units, using the prefix "C.G.S. unit of ...". The sizes of many CGS units turned out to be inconvenient for practical purposes. For example, many everyday objects are hundreds or thousands of centimetres long, such as humans, rooms and buildings. Thus the CGS system never gained wide use outside the field of science. Starting in the 1880s, and more significantly by the mid-20th century, CGS was gradually superseded internationally for scientific purposes by the MKS (metre–kilogram–second) system, which in turn developed into the modern SI standard. Since the international adoption of the MKS standard in the 1940s and the SI standard in the 1960s, the technical use of CGS units has gradually declined worldwide. CGS units have been deprecated in favor of SI units by NIST, as well as organizations such as the American Physical Society and the International Astronomical Union. SI units are predominantly used in engineering applications and physics education, while Gaussian CGS units are still commonly used in theoretical physics, describing microscopic systems, relativistic electrodynamics, and astrophysics. The units gram and centimetre remain useful as noncoherent units within the SI system, as with any other prefixed SI units. Definition of CGS units in mechanics In mechanics, the quantities in the CGS and SI systems are defined identically. The two systems differ only in the scale of the three base units (centimetre versus metre and gram versus kilogram, respectively), with the third unit (second) being the same in both systems. There is a direct correspondence between the base units of mechanics in CGS and SI. Since the formulae expressing the laws of mechanics are the same in both systems and since both systems are coherent, the definitions of all coherent derived units in terms of the base units are the same in both systems, and there is an unambiguous relationship between derived units: * <math>v = \frac{dx}{dt}</math> (definition of velocity) * <math>F = m\frac{d^2x}{dt^2}</math> (Newton's second law of motion) * <math>E = \int \vec{F}\cdot d\vec{x}</math> (energy defined in terms of work) * <math>p = \frac{F}{L^2} </math> (pressure defined as force per unit area) * <math>\eta = \tau/\frac{dv}{dx}</math> (dynamic viscosity defined as shear stress per unit velocity gradient). Thus, for example, the CGS unit of pressure, barye, is related to the CGS base units of length, mass, and time in the same way as the SI unit of pressure, pascal, is related to the SI base units of length, mass, and time: : 1 unit of pressure 1 unit of force / (1 unit of length)<sup>2</sup> 1 unit of mass / (1 unit of length × (1 unit of time)<sup>2</sup>) : 1 Ba = 1 g/(cm⋅s<sup>2</sup>) : 1 Pa = 1 kg/(m⋅s<sup>2</sup>). Expressing a CGS derived unit in terms of the SI base units, or vice versa, requires combining the scale factors that relate the two systems: : 1 Ba 1 g/(cm⋅s<sup>2</sup>) 10<sup>−3</sup> kg / (10<sup>−2 </sup>m⋅s<sup>2</sup>) 10<sup>−1</sup> kg/(m⋅s<sup>2</sup>) 10<sup>−1</sup> Pa. Definitions and conversion factors of CGS units in mechanics {\|class"wikitable" style"text-align: left;" \|- ! Quantity ! Quantity symbol !! CGS unit name !! Unit symbol !! Unit definition !! In SI units \|- ! length, position \| style"text-align:center;"\| L, x\|\| centimetre \|\| style"text-align:center;"\| cm \|\| 1/100 of metre \|\| 10<sup>−2</sup> m \|- ! mass \| style"text-align:center;"\| m\|\| gram \|\| style"text-align:center;"\|g \|\| 1/1000 of kilogram \|\| 10<sup>−3</sup> kg \|- ! time \| style"text-align:center;"\| t\|\| second\|\| style"text-align:center;"\|s\|\| 1 second \|\| 1 s \|- ! velocity \| style"text-align:center;"\| v\|\| centimetre per second \|\| style"text-align:center;"\|cm/s \|\| cm/s \|\| 10<sup>−2</sup> m/s \|- ! acceleration \| style"text-align:center;"\| a\|\| gal \|\| style"text-align:center;"\|Gal \|\| cm/s<sup>2</sup> \|\| 10<sup>−2</sup> m/s<sup>2</sup> \|- ! force \| style"text-align:center;"\| F\|\| dyne \|\| style"text-align:center;"\|dyn \|\| g⋅cm/s<sup>2</sup> \|\| 10<sup>−5</sup> N \|- ! energy \| style"text-align:center;"\| E\|\| erg \|\| style"text-align:center;"\|erg \|\| g⋅cm<sup>2</sup>/s<sup>2</sup> \|\| 10<sup>−7</sup> J \|- ! power \| style"text-align:center;"\| P\|\| erg per second\|\| style"text-align:center;"\|erg/s \|\| g⋅cm<sup>2</sup>/s<sup>3</sup> \|\| 10<sup>−7</sup> W \|- ! pressure \| style"text-align:center;"\| p\|\| barye \|\| style"text-align:center;"\| Ba\|\| g/(cm⋅s<sup>2</sup>) \|\| 10<sup>−1</sup> Pa \|- ! dynamic viscosity \| style"text-align:center;"\| μ\|\| poise \|\| style"text-align:center;"\|P\|\| g/(cm⋅s) \|\| 10<sup>−1</sup> Pa⋅s \|- ! kinematic viscosity \| style"text-align:center;"\| ν\|\| stokes \|\| style"text-align:center;"\|St\|\| cm<sup>2</sup>/s \|\| 10<sup>−4</sup> m<sup>2</sup>/s \|- ! wavenumber \| style"text-align:center;"\| k \|\| kayser \|\| style"text-align:center;"\|cm<sup>−1</sup> or K\|\| cm<sup>−1</sup> \|\| 100 m<sup>−1</sup> \|} Derivation of CGS units in electromagnetism CGS approach to electromagnetic units The conversion factors relating electromagnetic units in the CGS and SI systems are made more complex by the differences in the formulas expressing physical laws of electromagnetism as assumed by each system of units, specifically in the nature of the constants that appear in these formulas. This illustrates the fundamental difference in the ways the two systems are built: * In SI, the unit of electric current, the ampere (A), was historically defined such that the magnetic force exerted by two infinitely long, thin, parallel wires 1 metre apart and carrying a current of 1 ampere is exactly . This definition results in all SI electromagnetic units being numerically consistent (subject to factors of some integer powers of 10) with those of the CGS-EMU system described in further sections. The ampere is a base unit of the SI system, with the same status as the metre, kilogram, and second. Thus the relationship in the definition of the ampere with the metre and newton is disregarded, and the ampere is not treated as dimensionally equivalent to any combination of other base units. As a result, electromagnetic laws in SI require an additional constant of proportionality (see Vacuum permeability) to relate electromagnetic units to kinematic units. (This constant of proportionality is derivable directly from the above definition of the ampere.) All other electric and magnetic units are derived from these four base units using the most basic common definitions: for example, electric charge q is defined as current I multiplied by time t, <math display"block">q I \, t,</math> resulting in the unit of electric charge, the coulomb (C), being defined as 1 C = 1 A⋅s. * The CGS system variant avoids introducing new base quantities and units, and instead defines all electromagnetic quantities by expressing the physical laws that relate electromagnetic phenomena to mechanics with only dimensionless constants, and hence all units for these quantities are directly derived from the centimetre, gram, and second. In each of these systems the quantities called "charge" etc. may be a different quantity; they are distinguished here by a superscript. The corresponding quantities of each system are related through a proportionality constant. Maxwell's equations can be written in each of these systems as: {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center;" \|- ! System ! width=175 \| Gauss's law ! width=175 \| Ampère–Maxwell law ! width=175 \| Gauss's law for magnetism ! width=175 \| Faraday's law \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| CGS-ESU \| <math> \nabla \cdot \mathbf E^\text{ESU} = 4 \pi \rho^\text{ESU} </math> \| <math> \nabla \times \mathbf B^\text{ESU} - c^{-2} \dot \mathbf E^\text{ESU} = 4 \pi c^{-2} \mathbf J^\text{ESU} </math> \| <math> \nabla \cdot \mathbf B^\text{ESU} = 0 </math> \| <math> \nabla \times \mathbf E^\text{ESU} + \dot \mathbf B^\text{ESU} = 0 </math> \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| CGS-EMU \| <math> \nabla \cdot \mathbf E^\text{EMU} = 4 \pi c^2 \rho^\text{EMU} </math> \| <math> \nabla \times \mathbf B^\text{EMU} - c^{-2} \dot \mathbf E^\text{EMU} = 4 \pi \mathbf J^\text{EMU} </math> \| <math> \nabla \cdot \mathbf B^\text{EMU} = 0 </math> \| <math> \nabla \times \mathbf E^\text{EMU} + \dot \mathbf B^\text{EMU} = 0 </math> \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| CGS-Gaussian \| <math> \nabla \cdot \mathbf E^\text{G} = 4 \pi \rho^\text{G} </math> \| <math> \nabla \times \mathbf B^\text{G} - c^{-1} \dot \mathbf E^\text{G} = 4 \pi c^{-1} \mathbf J^\text{G} </math> \| <math> \nabla \cdot \mathbf B^\text{G} = 0 </math> \| <math> \nabla \times \mathbf E^\text{G} + c^{-1} \dot \mathbf B^\text{G} = 0 </math> \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| CGS-Heaviside–Lorentz \| <math> \nabla \cdot \mathbf E^\text{LH} = \rho^\text{LH} </math> \| <math> \nabla \times \mathbf B^\text{LH} - c^{-1} \dot \mathbf E^\text{LH} = c^{-1} \mathbf J^\text{LH} </math> \| <math> \nabla \cdot \mathbf B^\text{LH} = 0 </math> \| <math> \nabla \times \mathbf E^\text{LH} + c^{-1} \dot \mathbf B^\text{LH} = 0 </math> \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| SI \| <math> \nabla \cdot \mathbf E^\text{SI} = \rho^\text{SI} / \epsilon_0 </math> \| <math> \nabla \times \mathbf B^\text{SI} - \mu_0\epsilon_0\dot \mathbf E^\text{SI} = \mu_0 \mathbf J^\text{SI} </math> \| <math> \nabla \cdot \mathbf B^\text{SI} = 0 </math> \| <math> \nabla \times \mathbf E^\text{SI} + \dot \mathbf B^\text{SI} = 0 </math> \|} Electrostatic units (ESU) <span class"anchor" id"ESU"></span> In the electrostatic units variant of the CGS system, (CGS-ESU), charge is defined as the quantity that obeys a form of Coulomb's law without a multiplying constant (and current is then defined as charge per unit time): : <math>F={q^\text{ESU}_1 q^\text{ESU}_2 \over r^2} .</math> The ESU unit of charge, franklin (Fr), also known as statcoulomb or esu charge, is therefore defined as follows: Therefore, in CGS-ESU, a franklin is equal to a centimetre times square root of dyne: : <math>\mathrm{1\,Fr 1\,statcoulomb 1\,esu\; charge 1\,dyne^{1/2}{\cdot}cm1\,g^{1/2}{\cdot}cm^{3/2}{\cdot}s^{-1}} .</math> The unit of current is defined as: : <math>\mathrm{1\,Fr/s 1\,statampere 1\,esu\; current 1\,dyne^{1/2}{\cdot}cm{\cdot}s^{-1}1\,g^{1/2}{\cdot}cm^{3/2}{\cdot}s^{-2}} .</math> In the CGS-ESU system, charge q is therefore has the dimension to M<sup>1/2</sup>L<sup>3/2</sup>T<sup>−1</sup>. Other units in the CGS-ESU system include the statampere (1 statC/s) and statvolt (1 erg/statC). In CGS-ESU, all electric and magnetic quantities are dimensionally expressible in terms of length, mass, and time, and none has an independent dimension. Such a system of units of electromagnetism, in which the dimensions of all electric and magnetic quantities are expressible in terms of the mechanical dimensions of mass, length, and time, is traditionally called an 'absolute system'.<sup>:[https://books.google.com/books?iduBk9DAAAQBAJ&dq%22absolute%20system%20electromagnetics%22&pgPT49 3]</sup> Unit symbols All electromagnetic units in the CGS-ESU system that have not been given names of their own are named as the corresponding SI name with an attached prefix "stat" or with a separate abbreviation "esu", and similarly with the corresponding symbols. As well as the volt and ampere, the farad (capacitance), ohm (resistance), coulomb (electric charge), and henry (inductance) are consequently also used in the practical system and are the same as the SI units. The magnetic units are those of the emu system. The electrical units, other than the volt and ampere, are determined by the requirement that any equation involving only electrical and kinematical quantities that is valid in SI should also be valid in the system. For example, since electric field strength is voltage per unit length, its unit is the volt per centimetre, which is one hundred times the SI unit. The system is electrically rationalized and magnetically unrationalized; i.e., 1}} and ′ 4}}, but the above formula for is invalid. A closely related system is the International System of Electric and Magnetic Units, which has a different unit of mass so that the formula for ′ is invalid. The unit of mass was chosen to remove powers of ten from contexts in which they were considered to be objectionable (e.g., and ). Inevitably, the powers of ten reappeared in other contexts, but the effect was to make the familiar joule and watt the units of work and power respectively. The ampere-turn system is constructed in a similar way by considering magnetomotive force and magnetic field strength to be electrical quantities and rationalizing the system by dividing the units of magnetic pole strength and magnetization by 4. The units of the first two quantities are the ampere and the ampere per centimetre respectively. The unit of magnetic permeability is that of the emu system, and the magnetic constitutive equations are /10)μH}} and /10)μ<sub>0</sub>H + μ<sub>0</sub>M}}. Magnetic reluctance is given a hybrid unit to ensure the validity of Ohm's law for magnetic circuits. In all the practical systems ε<sub>0</sub> 8.8542 × 10<sup>−14</sup> A⋅s/(V⋅cm), μ<sub>0</sub> 1 V⋅s/(A⋅cm), and c<sup>2</sup> 1/(4π × 10<sup>−9</sup> ε<sub>0</sub>μ<sub>0</sub>). Other variants There were at various points in time about half a dozen systems of electromagnetic units in use, most based on the CGS system. These include the Gaussian units and the Heaviside–Lorentz units. Electromagnetic units in various CGS systems {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Conversion of SI units in electromagnetism to ESU, EMU, and Gaussian subsystems of CGS ! Constant ! Symbol ! Value \|- \| atomic mass constant \| style="text-align:center;"\| m \| \|- \| rowspan="2"\|Bohr magneton \| style"text-align:center;" rowspan"2"\|μ<sub>B</sub> \| (EMU, Gaussian) \|- \| (ESU) \|- \| Bohr radius \| style="text-align:center;"\| a<sub>0</sub> \| \|- \| Boltzmann constant \| style="text-align:center;"\| k \| \|- \| electron mass \| style="text-align:center;"\| m<sub>e</sub> \| \|- \| rowspan="2"\|elementary charge \| style"text-align:center;" rowspan"2"\|e \| (ESU, Gaussian) \|- \| (EMU) \|- \| fine-structure constant \| style="text-align:center;"\| α \| \|- \| Newtonian constant of gravitation \| style="text-align:center;"\| G \| \|- \| Planck constant \| style="text-align:center;"\| h \| \|- \| reduced Planck constant \| style="text-align:center;"\| ħ \| \|- \| speed of light \| style="text-align:center;"\| c \| \|- \|} Advantages and disadvantages Lack of unique unit names leads to potential confusion: "15 emu" may mean either 15 abvolts, or 15 emu units of electric dipole moment, or 15 emu units of magnetic susceptibility, sometimes (but not always) per gram, or per mole. With its system of uniquely named units, the SI removes any confusion in usage: 1 ampere is a fixed value of a specified quantity, and so are 1 henry, 1 ohm, and 1 volt. In the CGS-Gaussian system, electric and magnetic fields have the same units, 4<sub>0</sub> is replaced by 1, and the only dimensional constant appearing in the Maxwell equations is c, the speed of light. The Heaviside–Lorentz system has these properties as well (with ε<sub>0</sub> equaling 1). In SI, and other rationalized systems (for example, Heaviside–Lorentz), the unit of current was chosen such that electromagnetic equations concerning charged spheres contain 4, those concerning coils of current and straight wires contain 2 and those dealing with charged surfaces lack entirely, which was the most convenient choice for applications in electrical engineering and relates directly to the geometric symmetry of the system being described by the equation. Specialized unit systems are used to simplify formulas further than either SI or CGS do, by eliminating constants through a convention of normalizing quantities with respect to some system of natural units. For example, in particle physics a system is in use where every quantity is expressed by only one unit of energy, the electronvolt, with lengths, times, and so on all converted into units of energy by inserting factors of speed of light c and the reduced Planck constant ħ. This unit system is convenient for calculations in particle physics, but is impractical in other contexts. See also * Outline of metrology and measurement * International System of Units * International System of Electrical and Magnetic Units * List of metric units * List of scientific units named after people * Metre–tonne–second system of units * United States customary units * Foot–pound–second system of units References and notes <div class="references"> <references/> </div> General literature * * * * Category:Metrology Category:Systems of units Category:Metric system Category:British Science Association	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centimetre–gram–second_system_of_units	2025-04-05T18:28:07.792204
7355	Christology	In Christianity, Christology and ), translated from Greek as 'the study of Christ'}} is a branch of theology that concerns Jesus. Different denominations have different opinions on questions such as whether Jesus was human, divine, or both, and as a messiah what his role would be in the freeing of the Jewish people from foreign rulers or in the prophesied Kingdom of God, and in the salvation from what would otherwise be the consequences of sin. The earliest Christian writings gave several titles to Jesus, such as Son of Man, Son of God, Messiah, and , which were all derived from Hebrew scripture. These terms centered around two opposing themes, namely "Jesus as a preexistent figure who becomes human and then returns to God", versus adoptionism – that Jesus was human who was "adopted" by God at his baptism, crucifixion, or resurrection. though most scholars now argue that a high Christology existed prior to Paul. From the second to the fifth centuries, the relation of the human and divine nature of Christ was a major focus of debates in the early church and at the first seven ecumenical councils. The Council of Chalcedon in 451 issued a formulation of the hypostatic union of the two natures of Christ, one human and one divine, "united with neither confusion nor division". Most of the major branches of Western Christianity and Eastern Orthodoxy subscribe to this formulation, "Present work of Christ: work as mediator and Lord"; "Future work of Christ: work as coming judge and reigning king" "the nature of Christthe question of Christology" * Bird, Evans & Gathercole (2014): "New Testament scholars often speak about "Christology", which is the study of the career, person, nature, and identity of Jesus Christ." * Raymond Brown (1994): "[C]hristology discusses any evaluation of Jesus in respect to who he was and the role he played in the divine plan." * Bernard L. Ramm (1993): "Christology is the reflective and systematic study of the person and work of Jesus Christ." * Matt Stefon, Hans J. Hillerbrand (Encyclopedia Britannica): "Christology, Christian reflection, teaching, and doctrine concerning Jesus of Nazareth. Christology is the part of theology that is concerned with the nature and work of Jesus, including such matters as the Incarnation, the Resurrection, and his human and divine natures and their relationship." of Jesus Christ. Functional Christology analyzes the works of Jesus Christ, while soteriological Christology analyzes the "salvific" standpoints of Christology. Theologians may take several different approaches to Christology.}} For example: * Christology from above or high Christology emphasizes approaches that include aspects of divinity (such as titles like "Lord" and "Son of God") and the idea of the pre-existence of Christ as the Logos ('the Word'), (as expressed in the prologue to the Gospel of John.}}) These approaches interpret the works of Christ in terms of his divinity. According to Pannenberg, Christology from above "was far more common in the ancient Church, beginning with Ignatius of Antioch and the second century Apologists". * Christology from below or low Christology takes as its starting point the human aspects and the ministry of Jesus (including the miracles, parables, etc.) and moves towards his divinity and the mystery of incarnation. Person of Christ , Holy Trinity's monastery, Meteora, Greece]] A basic Christological teaching portrays the person of Jesus Christ as both human and divine. The human and divine natures of Jesus Christ apparently (prosopic) form a duality, as they coexist within one person (hypostasis). There are no direct discussions in the New Testament regarding the dual nature of the Person of Christ as both divine and human, Atonement is the forgiving or pardoning of sin in general and original sin in particular through the suffering, death and resurrection of Jesus, enabling the reconciliation between God and his creation. Due to the influence of Gustaf Aulén (1879–1978), whose book came out in English translation in 1931, the various theories or of atonement are often grouped under the headings of the "classical paradigm", the "objective paradigm", and the "subjective paradigm": * Classical paradigm: Ransom theory of atonement, which teaches that the death of Christ was a ransom sacrifice, usually said to have been paid to Satan or to death itself, in some views paid to God the Father, in satisfaction for the bondage and debt on the souls of humanity as a result of inherited sin. Gustaf Aulén reinterpreted the ransom theory, calling it the doctrine, arguing that Christ's death was not a payment to the Devil, but defeated the powers of evil, which had held humankind in their dominion.; way of seeing the cross."}} Recapitulation theory, which says that Christ succeeded where Adam failed. Theosis ('divinization') is a "corollary" of the recapitulation. * Objective paradigm: Satisfaction theory of atonement, developed by Anselm of Canterbury (1033/4–1109), which teaches that Jesus Christ suffered crucifixion as a substitute for human sin, satisfying God's just wrath against humankind's transgression due to Christ's infinite merit. Penal substitution, also called "forensic theory" and "vicarious punishment", which was a development by the Reformers of Anselm's satisfaction theory.[...] It held sway for a thousand years[...] The Forensic Theory is that of the Reformers and their successors." * Packer (1973): "Luther, Calvin, Zwingli, Melanchthon and their reforming contemporaries were the pioneers in stating it [i.e. the penal substitutionary theory][...] What the Reformers did was to redefine (satisfaction), the main mediaeval category for thought about the cross. Anselm's , which largely determined the mediaeval development, saw Christ's for our sins as the offering of compensation or damages for dishonour done, but the Reformers saw it as the undergoing of vicarious punishment (poena) to meet the claims on us of God's holy law and wrath (i.e. his punitive justice)."}}}} Instead of considering sin as an affront to God's honour, it sees sin as the breaking of God's moral law. Penal substitution sees sinful man as being subject to God's wrath, with the essence of Jesus' saving work being his substitution in the sinner's place, bearing the curse in the place of man. ** Governmental theory of atonement, "which views God as both the loving creator and moral Governor of the universe." * Subjective paradigm: Moral influence theory of atonement, developed, or most notably propagated, by Abelard (1079–1142), who argued that "Jesus died as the demonstration of God's love", a demonstration which can change the hearts and minds of the sinners, turning back to God. Moral example theory, developed by Faustus Socinus (1539–1604) in his work (1578), who rejected the idea of "vicarious satisfaction". According to Socinus, Jesus' death offers humanity a perfect example of self-sacrificial dedication to God. Other theories are the "embracement theory" and the "shared atonement" theory. Early Christologies (1st century) Early notions of ChristThe earliest christological reflections were shaped by both the Jewish background of the earliest Christians, and by the Greek world of the eastern Mediterranean in which they operated. where Paul is portrayed as attempting to convey the underlying concepts about Christ to a Greek audience. The sermon illustrates some key elements of future christological discourses that were first brought forward by Paul.}} The earliest Christian writings give several titles to Jesus, such as Son of Man, Son of God, Messiah, and Kyrios, which were all derived from Hebrew scripture. In contrast, the Antiochian school viewed Christ as a single, unified human person apart from his relationship to the divine. * Alexandria: Logos assumes a general human nature; * Antioch: Logos'' assumes a specific human being.}} Pre-existence The notion of pre-existence is deeply rooted in Jewish thought, and can be found in apocalyptic thought and among the rabbis of Paul's time, but Paul was most influenced by Jewish-Hellenistic wisdom literature, where Wisdom' is extolled as something existing before the world and already working in creation. According to Witherington, Paul "subscribed to the christological notion that Christ existed prior to taking on human flesh[,] founding the story of Christ[...] on the story of divine Wisdom". founding the story of Christ on the archetypal story of Israel, but rather on the story of divine Wisdom, which helped Israel in the wilderness."}} Kyrios The title Kyrios for Jesus is central to the development of New Testament Christology. Kyrios is also conjectured to be the Greek translation of Aramaic , which in everyday Aramaic usage was a very respectful form of polite address, which means more than just 'teacher' and was somewhat similar to 'rabbi'. While the term expressed the relationship between Jesus and his disciples during his life, the Greek Kyrios came to represent his lordship over the world. The early Christians placed Kyrios at the center of their understanding, and from that center attempted to understand the other issues related to the Christian mysteries. The question of the deity of Christ in the New Testament is inherently related to the Kyrios title of Jesus used in the early Christian writings and its implications for the absolute lordship of Jesus. In early Christian belief, the concept of Kyrios included the pre-existence of Christ, for they believed if Christ is one with God, he must have been united with God from the very beginning.Development of "low Christology" and "high Christology" Two fundamentally different Christologies developed in the early Church, namely a "low" or adoptionist Christology, and a "high" or "incarnation" Christology. The chronology of the development of these early Christologies is a matter of debate within contemporary scholarship. According to the "evolutionary model" or evolutionary theories, the Christological understanding of Jesus developed over time, as witnessed in the Gospels, with the earliest Christians believing that Jesus was a human who was exalted, or else adopted as God's Son, when he was resurrected. Later beliefs shifted the exaltation to his baptism, birth, and subsequently to the idea of his pre-existence, as witnessed in the Gospel of John.}} The other early Christology is "high Christology", which is "the view that Jesus was a pre-existent divine being who became a human, did the Father's will on earth, and then was taken back up into heaven whence he had originally come", Acts 9:26–28, 15:2). "What was common to the whole Christian movement derived from Jerusalem, not from Paul, and Paul himself derived the central message he preached from the Jerusalem apostles."}} According to the "New ", or the Early High Christology Club, John Hick, writing in 1993, mentioned changes in New Testament studies, citing "broad agreement" that scholars do not today support the view that Jesus claimed to be God, quoting as examples Michael Ramsey (1980), C. F. D. Moule (1977), James Dunn (1980), Brian Hebblethwaite (1985) and David Brown (1985). Larry Hurtado, who argues that the followers of Jesus within a very short period developed an exceedingly high level of devotional reverence to Jesus, at the same time rejects the view that Jesus made a claim to messiahship or divinity to his disciples during his life as "naive and ahistorical." According to Gerd Lüdemann, the broad consensus among modern New Testament scholars is that the proclamation of the divinity of Jesus was a development within the earliest Christian communities. Loke argues that if Jesus did not claim and show himself to be truly divine and risen from the dead, the earliest Christian leaders who were devout ancient monotheistic Jews would have regarded Jesus as merely a teacher or a prophet; they would not have come to the widespread agreement that he was truly divine, which they did; on which Larry Hurtado commented "I don’t find Loke’s case persuasive." Brant Pitre also argues that the Historical Jesus claimed to be divine and was the origin of high Christology.}}New Testament writingsThe study of the various Christologies of the Apostolic Age is based on early Christian documents. Paul delivering the Areopagus sermon in Athens, by Raphael, 1515]] The oldest Christian sources are the writings of Paul. The central Christology of Paul conveys the notion of Christ's pre-existence and the identification of Christ as Kyrios. Both notions already existed before him in the early Christian communities, and Paul deepened them and used them for preaching in the Hellenistic communities. What exactly Paul believed about the nature of Jesus cannot be determined decisively. In Philippians 2, Paul states that Jesus was preexistent and came to Earth "by taking the form of a servant, being made in human likeness". This sounds like an incarnation Christology. In Romans 1:4, however, Paul states that Jesus "was declared with power to be the Son of God by his resurrection from the dead", which sounds like an adoptionistic Christology, where Jesus was a human being who was "adopted" after his death. Different views would be debated for centuries by Christians and finally settled on the idea that he was both fully human and fully divine by the middle of the 5th century in the Council of Ephesus. Paul's thoughts on Jesus' teachings, versus his nature and being, are more defined, in that Paul believed Jesus was sent as an atonement for the sins of everyone. The Pauline epistles use Kyrios to identify Jesus almost 230 times, and express the theme that the true mark of a Christian is the confession of Jesus as the true Lord. Paul viewed the superiority of the Christian revelation over all other divine manifestations as a consequence of the fact that Christ is the Son of God.}} later developed in the Gospel of John, elaborating the cosmic implications of Jesus' existence as the Son of God: "Therefore, if anyone is in Christ, he is a new creation. The old has passed away; behold, the new has come." In the Epistle to the Colossians, which purports to be written by Paul (though this is disputed), relevant clams are made: "Through him God was pleased to reconcile to himself all things, whether on earth or in heaven"; "He is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn of all creation". and as in John 21:25, the Gospels do not claim to be an exhaustive list of his works. Christologies that can be gleaned from the three synoptic Gospels generally emphasize the humanity of Jesus, his sayings, his parables, and his miracles. The Gospel of John provides a different perspective that focuses on his divinity. In the context of these verses, the Word made flesh is identical with the Word who was in the beginning with God, being exegetically equated with Jesus. First Council of Nicaea (325) and First Council of Constantinople (381) In 325, the First Council of Nicaea defined the persons of the Godhead and their relationship with one another, decisions which were ratified at the First Council of Constantinople in 381. The language used was that the one God exists in three persons (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit); in particular, it was affirmed that the Son was homoousios (of the same being) as the Father. The Nicene Creed declared the full divinity and full humanity of Jesus. After the First Council of Nicaea in 325 the Logos and the second Person of the Trinity were being used interchangeably. First Council of Ephesus (431) In 431, the First Council of Ephesus was initially called to address the views of Nestorius on Mariology, but the problems soon extended to Christology, and schisms followed. The 431 council was called because in defense of his loyal priest Anastasius, Nestorius had denied the Theotokos title for Mary and later contradicted Proclus during a sermon in Constantinople. Pope Celestine I (who was already upset with Nestorius due to other matters) wrote about this to Cyril of Alexandria, who orchestrated the council. During the council, Nestorius defended his position by arguing there must be two persons of Christ, one human, the other divine, and Mary had given birth only to a human, hence could not be called the Theotokos, i.e. "the one who gives birth to God". The debate about the single or dual nature of Christ ensued in Ephesus. The First Council of Ephesus debated miaphysitism (two natures united as one after the hypostatic union) versus dyophysitism (coexisting natures after the hypostatic union) versus monophysitism (only one nature) versus Nestorianism (two hypostases). From the Christological viewpoint, the council adopted ('but being made one', ) – Council of Ephesus, Epistle of Cyril to Nestorius, i.e. 'one nature of the Word of God incarnate' (, ). In 451, the Council of Chalcedon affirmed dyophysitism. The Oriental Orthodox rejected this and subsequent councils and continued to consider themselves as miaphysite according to the faith put forth at the Councils of Nicaea and Ephesus. The council also confirmed the Theotokos title and excommunicated Nestorius.Council of Chalcedon (451) (pink)]] The 451 Council of Chalcedon was highly influential, and marked a key turning point in the christological debates. It is the last council which many Lutherans, Anglicans and other Protestants consider ecumenical. The Council of Chalcedon fully promulgated the Western dyophysite understanding put forth by Pope Leo I of Rome of the hypostatic union, the proposition that Christ has one human nature (physis) and one divine nature (physis), each distinct and complete, and united with neither confusion nor division. Most of the major branches of Western Christianity (Roman Catholicism, Anglicanism, Lutheranism, and Reformed), Church of the East, Eastern Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy subscribe to the Chalcedonian Christological formulation, while many branches of Oriental Orthodox Churches (Syrian Orthodoxy, Coptic Orthodoxy, Ethiopian Orthodoxy, and Armenian Apostolicism) reject it. Although the Chalcedonian Creed did not put an end to all christological debate, it did clarify the terms used and became a point of reference for many future Christologies. But it also broke apart the church of the Eastern Roman Empire in the fifth century, and unquestionably established the primacy of Rome in the East over those who accepted the Council of Chalcedon. This was reaffirmed in 519, when the Eastern Chalcedonians accepted the Formula of Hormisdas, anathematizing all of their own Eastern Chalcedonian hierarchy, who died out of communion with Rome from 482 to 519. Fifth–Seventh Ecumenical Council (553, 681, 787) The Second Council of Constantinople in 553 interpreted the decrees of Chalcedon, and further explained the relationship of the two natures of Jesus. It also condemned the alleged teachings of Origen on the pre-existence of the soul, and other topics. The Third Council of Constantinople in 681 declared that Christ has two wills of his two natures, human and divine, contrary to the teachings of the Monothelites, with the divine will having precedence, leading and guiding the human will. The Second Council of Nicaea was called under the Empress Regent Irene of Athens in 787. It affirmed the veneration of icons while forbidding their worship. It is often referred to as "The Triumph of Orthodoxy".9th–11th century Eastern Christianity Western medieval ChristologyThe Franciscan piety of the 12th and 13th centuries led to "popular Christology". Systematic approaches by theologians, such as Thomas Aquinas, are called "scholastic Christology". In the 13th century, Thomas Aquinas provided the first systematic Christology that consistently resolved a number of the existing issues. In his Christology from above, Aquinas also championed the principle of perfection of Christ's human attributes. The Middle Ages also witnessed the emergence of the "tender image of Jesus" as a friend and a living source of love and comfort, rather than just the Kyrios image.ReformationArticle 10 of the Belgic Confession, a confessional standard of the Reformed faith, subscribes to Nicene orthodoxy regarding the deity of Christ. The article places emphasis on the eternal generation of the Son and the eternal divine nature of Christ as Creator.<blockquote>We believe that Jesus Christ, according to his divine nature, is the only begotten Son of God, begotten from eternity, not made nor created (for then He should be a creature), but co-essential and co-eternal with the Father, "the express image of His person, and the brightness of His glory" (), equal unto him in all things. He is the Son of God, not only from the time that He assumed our nature, but from all eternity, as these testimonies, when compared together, teach us. Moses says that God created the world; and John saith that "all things were made by that Word" (), which he calls God. And the apostle says that God made the worlds by His Son (); likewise, that "God created all things by Jesus Christ" (). Therefore, it must needs follow, that he who is called God, the Word, the Son, and Jesus Christ did exist at that time, when all things were created by him. Therefore, the prophet Micah says, "His goings forth have been from of old, from everlasting" (). And the apostle: "He has neither beginning of days, nor end of life" (). He therefore is that true, eternal, and almighty God, whom we invoke, worship and serve.</blockquote>John Calvin maintained there was no human element in the Person of Christ which could be separated from the Person of the Word. Calvin also emphasized the importance of the "Work of Christ" in any attempt at understanding the Person of Christ and cautioned against ignoring the works of Jesus during his ministry.Modern developmentsLiberal Protestant theologyThe 19th century saw the rise of Liberal Protestant theology, which questioned the dogmatic foundations of Christianity, and approached the Bible with critical-historical tools. The divinity of Jesus became of less emphasis or importance, and was replaced with an focus on the ethical aspects of his teachings.}}Roman CatholicismCatholic theologian Karl Rahner sees the purpose of modern Christology as to formulate the Christian belief that "God became man and that God-made-man is the individual Jesus Christ" in a manner that this statement can be understood consistently, without the confusions of past debates and mythologies.}} Rahner pointed out the coincidence between the Person of Christ and the Word of God, referring to Mark 8:38 and Luke 9:26 which state whoever is ashamed of the words of Jesus is ashamed of the Lord himself. Hans von Balthasar argued the union of the human and divine natures of Christ was achieved not by the "absorption" of human attributes, but by their "assumption". Thus, in his view, the divine nature of Christ was not affected by the human attributes and remained forever divine. The same distinction is recorded in the Second Vatican Council's pastoral constitution, Gaudium et spes: "in Him, human nature was assumed, not absorbed". Pope Francis, in his 2024 encyclical letter Dilexit nos, refers to the "divinity and plenary humanity" of Jesus. Topics Nativity and the Holy Name The Nativity of Jesus impacted the Christological issues about his person from the earliest days of Christianity. Luke's Christology centers on the dialectics of the dual natures of the earthly and heavenly manifestations of existence of the Christ, while Matthew's Christology focuses on the mission of Jesus and his role as the savior. The salvific emphasis of Matthew 1:21 later impacted the theological issues and the devotions to Holy Name of Jesus. Matthew 1:23 provides a key to the "Emmanuel Christology" of Matthew. Beginning with 1:23, the Gospel of Matthew shows a clear interest in identifying Jesus as "God with us" and in later developing the Emmanuel characterization of Jesus at key points throughout the rest of the Gospel. The name 'Emmanuel' does not appear elsewhere in the New Testament, but Matthew builds on it in Matthew 28:20 ("I am with you always, even unto the end of the world") to indicate Jesus will be with the faithful to the end of the age. According to Ulrich Luz, the Emmanuel motif brackets the entire Gospel of Matthew between 1:23 and 28:20, appearing explicitly and implicitly in several other passages.Crucifixion and resurrection The accounts of the crucifixion and subsequent resurrection of Jesus provides a rich background for christological analysis, from the canonical Gospels to the Pauline Epistles. A central element in the christology presented in the Acts of the Apostles is the affirmation of the belief that the death of Jesus by crucifixion happened "with the foreknowledge of God, according to a definite plan". In this view, as in Acts 2:23, the cross is not viewed as a scandal, for the crucifixion of Jesus "at the hands of the lawless" is viewed as the fulfilment of the plan of God. Paul's Christology has a specific focus on the death and resurrection of Jesus. For Paul, the crucifixion of Jesus is directly related to his resurrection and the term "the cross of Christ" used in Galatians 6:12 may be viewed as his abbreviation of the message of the Gospels. For Paul, the crucifixion of Jesus was not an isolated event in history, but a cosmic event with significant eschatological consequences, as in 1 Corinthians 2:8. In this view, not only is Mariology a logical and necessary consequence of Christology, but without it, Christology is incomplete, since the figure of Mary contributes to a fuller understanding of who Christ is and what he did. Protestants have criticized Mariology because many of its assertions lack any Biblical foundation. Strong Protestant reaction against Roman Catholic Marian devotion and teaching has been a significant issue for ecumenical dialogue. Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI) expressed this sentiment about Roman Catholic Mariology when in two separate occasions he stated, "The appearance of a truly Marian awareness serves as the touchstone indicating whether or not the christological substance is fully present" and "It is necessary to go back to Mary, if we want to return to the truth about Jesus Christ." See also * Catholic spirituality * Christian messianic prophecies * Christian views of Jesus * Christological argument * Crucifixion of Jesus * Doubting Thomas * Eucharist * Eutychianism * Five Holy Wounds * Genealogy of Jesus * Great Church * Great Tribulation * Harrowing of Hell * Kingship and Kingdom of God * Last Judgement * Life of Jesus in the New Testament * Miracles of Jesus * Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament * Religious perspectives on Jesus * Paterology * Pneumatology * Rapture * Scholastic Lutheran Christology * Second Coming of Christ * Transfiguration of Jesus * Universal resurrection Notes considered a more accurate term than the term "theophany" due to the belief that all the visible manifestations of God are in fact the preincarnate Christ. Many argue that the appearances of "the Angel of the Lord" in the Old Testament were the preincarnate Christ. "Many understand the angel of the Lord as a true theophany. From the time of Justin on, the figure has been regarded as the preincarnate Logos."}} }} References Sources ;Printed sources <!-- A --> * <!-- B --> * * * * * * * * <!-- C --> Chilton, Bruce. "The Son of Man: Who Was He?" Bible Review. August 1996, 35+. Cullmann, Oscar (1980). [https://archive.org/details/christologyofnew0000unse_t0v7 The Christology of the New Testament]. trans. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press. <!-- D --> * * <!-- E --> * * * * <!-- F --> * Fuller, Reginald H. (1965). The Foundations of New Testament Christology. New York: Scribners. <!-- G --> Greene, Colin J.D. (2004). Christology in Cultural Perspective: Marking Out the Horizons. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing. * * <!-- H --> * Hodgson, Peter C. (1994). Winds of the Spirit: A Constructive Christian Theology. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press. * <!-- K --> * Kingsbury, Jack Dean (1989). ''The Christology of Mark's Gospel. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. <!-- L --> Letham, Robert. The Work of Christ. Contours of Christian Theology. Downer Grove: IVP, 1993, * <!-- M --> * * MacLeod, Donald (1998). The Person of Christ: Contours of Christian Theology''. Downer Grove: IVP, * <!-- N --> * <!-- O --> * * <!-- P --> * * * Wolfhart Pannenberg, Systematic Theology, T & T Clark, 1994 Vol.2. * * <!-- R --> * * * <!-- S --> * Schwarz, Hans (1998). Christology. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing. <!-- T --> * * <!-- W --> * * ;Web-sources Further reading ;Overview * * ;Early high Christology * * * * * * * * * ;Atonement * External links *[https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9399699/Christology Encyclopædia Britannica, Christology – full access article] Category:Ancient Christian controversies Category:Catholic theology and doctrine Category:Christian terminology Category:Systematic theology	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christology	2025-04-05T18:28:07.862531
7357	Complaint	In legal terminology, a complaint is any formal legal document that sets out the facts and legal reasons (see: cause of action) that the filing party or parties (the plaintiff(s)) believes are sufficient to support a claim against the party or parties against whom the claim is brought (the defendant(s)) that entitles the plaintiff(s) to a remedy (either money damages or injunctive relief). For example, the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure (FRCP) that govern civil litigation in United States courts provide that a civil action is commenced with the filing or service of a pleading called a complaint. Civil court rules in states that have incorporated the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure use the same term for the same pleading. In Civil Law, a "complaint" is the first formal action taken to officially begin a lawsuit. This written document contains the allegations against the defense, the specific laws violated, the facts that led to the dispute, and any demands made by the plaintiff to restore justice. In some jurisdictions, specific types of criminal cases may also be commenced by the filing of a complaint, also sometimes called a criminal complaint or felony complaint. Most criminal cases are prosecuted in the name of the governmental authority that promulgates criminal statutes and enforces the police power of the state with the goal of seeking criminal sanctions, such as the State (also sometimes called the People) or Crown (in Commonwealth realms). In the United States, the complaint is often associated with misdemeanor criminal charges presented by the prosecutor without the grand jury process. In most U.S. jurisdictions, the charging instrument presented to and authorized by a grand jury is referred to as an indictment. United States Every U.S. state has some forms available on the web for most common complaints for lawyers and self-representing litigants; if a petitioner cannot find an appropriate form in their state, they often can modify a form from another state to fit his or her request. Several United States federal courts publish general guidelines for the petitioners and Civil Rights complaint forms. After the complaint has been filed with the court, it has to be properly served to the opposite parties, but usually petitioners are not allowed to serve the complaint personally. The court also can issue a summons – an official summary document which the plaintiff needs to have served together with the complaint. The defendants have limited time to respond, depending on the State or Federal rules. A defendant's failure to answer a complaint can result in a default judgment in favor of the petitioner. For example, in United States federal courts, any person who is at least 18 years old and not a party may serve a summons and complaint in a civil case. After the civil complaint has been served to the defendants, the plaintiff must, as soon as practicable initiate a conference between the parties to plan for the rest of the discovery process and then the parties should submit a proposed discovery plan to the judge within 14 days after the conference. In many U.S. jurisdictions, a complaint submitted to a court must be accompanied by a Case Information Statement, which sets forth specific key information about the case and the lawyers representing the parties. This allows the judge to make determinations about which deadlines to set for different phases of the case, as it moves through the court system. There are also freely accessible web search engines to assist parties in finding court decisions that can be cited in the complaint as an example or analogy to resolve similar questions of law. Google Scholar is the biggest database of full text state and federal courts decisions that can be accessed without charge. These web search engines often allow one to select specific state courts to search. Federal courts created the Public Access to Court Electronic Records (PACER) system to obtain case and docket information from the United States district courts, United States courts of appeals, and United States bankruptcy courts. Filing and privacy thumb\|200px\|left\|Example page from Complaint in Anderson v. Cryovac landmark case. In addition to Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, many of the U.S. district courts have developed their own requirements included in Local Rules for filing with the Court. Local Rules can set up a limit on the number of pages, establish deadlines for motions and responses, explain whether it is acceptable to combine a motion petition with a response, specify if a judge needs an additional copy of the documents (called "judge's copy"), etc. If the filed motion does not comply with the Local Rules then the judge can choose to strike the motion completely, or order the party to re-file its motion, or grant a special exception to the Local Rules. According to Federal Rules of Civil Procedure (FRCP) , sensitive text like Social Security number, Taxpayer Identification Number, birthday, bank accounts and children's names, should be redacted from the filings made with the court and accompanying exhibits, (exhibits normally do not need to be attached to the original complaint, but should be presented to Court after the discovery). The redacted text can be erased with black-out or white-out, and the page should have an indication that it was redacted - most often by stamping word "redacted" on the bottom. Alternately, the filing party may ask the court's permission to file some exhibits completely under seal. A minor's name of the petitions should be replaced with initials. In the case of Fox v. Vice, the U.S. Supreme Court held that reasonable attorneys' fees could be awarded to the defendant under 42 U.S.C. Sec. 1988, but only for costs that the defendant would not have incurred "but for the frivolous claims." Even when there is no actual trial or judgment, if there is only pre-trial motion practice such as motions to dismiss, attorney fee shifting still can be awarded under FRCP Rule 11 when the opposing party files a Motion for Sanctions and the court issue an order identifying the sanctioned conduct and the basis for the sanction. The losing party has a right to appeal any order for sanctions in the higher court. In the state courts, each party is generally responsible only for its own attorney fees, with certain exceptions. England and Wales In 1883, the Rules of the Supreme Court replaced the term complaint with statement of claim. This was then replaced in 1998 with particulars of claim by the Civil Procedure Rules, which also replaced the word plaintiff with claimant as part of a drastic reform of English legal terminology. Thus, in England and Wales, a claimant now initiates a claim by filing a claim form (instead of a writ of summons), and either pleads particulars of claim on the claim form itself or as a separate document. See also Cause of action Petition Pleading Service of process References External links Example of a Complaint Second Amended Complaint in Anderson v. Cryovac landmark case Category:Legal documents Category:Civil procedure Category:Civil procedure legal terminology	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complaint	2025-04-05T18:28:07.873110
7362	Casimir III the Great	\| death_place = Kraków, Poland \| burial_place = Wawel Cathedral, Kraków \| religion = Catholic Church \| signature = Pieczec Kazimierz Wielki.jpg }} Casimir III the Great (; 30 April 1310 – 5 November 1370) reigned as the King of Poland from 1333 to 1370. He also later became King of Ruthenia in 1340, retaining the title throughout the Galicia–Volhynia Wars. He was the last Polish king from the Piast dynasty. Casimir inherited a kingdom weakened by war and under his rule it became relatively prosperous and wealthy. He reformed the Polish army and doubled the size of the kingdom. He reformed the judicial system and introduced several undying codified statutes, gaining the title "the Polish Justinian". Casimir built extensively and founded the Jagiellonian University (back then simply called the University of Krakow), the oldest Polish university and one of the oldest in the world. He also confirmed privileges and protections previously granted to Jews and encouraged them to settle in Poland in great numbers. Casimir left no legitimate sons. When he died in 1370 from an injury received while hunting, his nephew, King Louis I of Hungary, succeeded him as king of Poland in personal union with Hungary. The Great King (yellow) had been lost, but the kingdom was expanding to the east]] Casimir was born on 30 April 1310 in Kowal, Kuyavia, the third son of Ladislaus the Short and Jadwiga of Kalisz. He had two brothers who died in infancy and three sisters: Kunegunda, Elżbieta, and Jadwiga. He organized a meeting of kings in Kraków in 1364 at which he exhibited the wealth of the Polish kingdom. Casimir is the only king in Polish history to both receive and retain the title of "Great", as Bolesław I is more commonly known as "the Brave". Reforms Casimir ensured stability and great prospects for the future of the country. He established the Corona Regni Poloniae – the Crown of the Polish Kingdom, It was regarded as a rare distinction, since it was only the second university founded in Central Europe, after the Charles University in Prague.SuccessionIn 1355, in Buda, Casimir designated his nephew Louis I of Hungary as his successor should he produce no male heir, just as his father had with Charles I of Hungary to gain help against Bohemia. In exchange Casimir gained a favourable Hungarian attitude, needed in disputes with the hostile Teutonic Order and the Kingdom of Bohemia. At the time Casimir was 45 years old, and so producing a son did not seem unreasonable. Casimir left no legal son, however, begetting five daughters instead. He tried to adopt his grandson, Casimir IV, Duke of Pomerania, in his last will. The child had been born to his eldest daughter, Elisabeth, Duchess of Pomerania, in 1351. This part of the testament was invalidated by Louis I of Hungary, however, who had traveled to Kraków quickly after Casimir died (in 1370) and bribed the nobles with future privileges. Casimir III also had a son-in-law, Louis VI of Bavaria, Margrave and Prince-elector of Brandenburg, who was considered a possible successor, but he was deemed ineligible as his wife, Casimir's daughter Cunigunde, had died in 1357 without issue. Thus King Louis I of Hungary became successor in Poland. Louis was proclaimed king upon Casimir's death in 1370, though Casimir's sister Elisabeth (Louis's mother) held much of the real power until her death in 1380. Society under the reign of Casimir '' in reign of Casimir the Great]] Casimir was facetiously named "the Peasants' King". He introduced the codes of law of Greater and Lesser Poland as an attempt to end the overwhelming superiority of the nobility. During his reign all three major classes — the nobility, priesthood, and bourgeoisie — were more or less counterbalanced, allowing Casimir to strengthen his monarchic position. He was known for siding with the weak when the law did not protect them from nobles and clergymen. He reportedly even supported a peasant whose house had been demolished by his own mistress, after she had ordered it to be pulled down because it disturbed her enjoyment of the beautiful landscape. His popularity with the peasants helped to rebuild the country, as part of the reconstruction program was funded by a land tax paid by the lower social class. Casimir's legendary Jewish mistress Esterka remains unconfirmed by direct historical evidence.Relationships and childrenCasimir III was married four times:Aldona of LithuaniaOn 30 April or 16 October 1325, Casimir married Aldona of Lithuania,}} daughter of Grand Duke Gediminas of Lithuania and Jewna. They had: Elisabeth of Poland (ca. 1326–1361); married Duke Bogislaus V of Pomerania Cunigunde of Poland (1334–1357), married Louis VI the Roman, the son of Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor Anna Aldona died on 26 May 1339. Casimir remained a widower for two years. Adelaide of Hesse On 29 September 1341, Casimir married his second wife, Adelaide of Hesse. She was a daughter of Henry II, Landgrave of Hesse, and Elizabeth of Meissen. They had no children. Casimir started living separately from Adelaide soon after the marriage. Their loveless marriage lasted until 1356, when he declared himself divorced.Christina RokiczanaAfter Casimir "divorced" Adelaide he married his mistress Christina Rokiczana, the widow of Miklusz Rokiczani, a wealthy merchant. Her own origins are unknown. Following the death of her first husband she had entered the court of Bohemia in Prague as a lady-in-waiting. Casimir brought her with him from Prague and convinced the abbot of the Benedictine abbey of Tyniec to marry them. The marriage was held in a secret ceremony but soon became known. Queen Adelaide renounced it as bigamous and returned to Hesse. Casimir continued living with Christine despite complaints by Pope Innocent VI on behalf of Queen Adelaide. This marriage lasted until 1363–64 when Casimir again declared himself divorced. They had no children. Hedwig of Żagań In about 1365, Casimir married his fourth wife Hedwig of Żagań. She was a daughter of Henry V of Iron, Duke of Żagań and Anna of Mazovia. They had three children: Anna of Poland, Countess of Celje (1366 – 9 June 1422); married firstly William of Celje; their only daughter was Anne of Celje, who married Jogaila of Lithuania when he was king of Poland (as Władysław II Jagiełło). Anna married secondly Ulrich, Duke of Teck; they had no children. Kunigunde of Poland (1367 – 1370) Jadwiga of Poland (1368 – ca. 1382) As Adelheid was still alive (and possibly Christina as well), the marriage to Hedwig was also considered bigamous. Because of this, the legitimacy of his three young daughters was disputed. Casimir managed to have Anna and Kunigunde legitimated by Pope Urban V on 5 December 1369. Jadwiga the younger was legitimated by Pope Gregory XI on 11 October 1371 (after Casimir's death).Title and styleCasimir's full title was: ''Casimir by the grace of God king of Poland and Rus' (Ruthenia), lord and heir of the land of Kraków, Sandomierz, Sieradz, Łęczyca, Kuyavia, Pomerania (Pomerelia). The title in Latin was: Kazimirus, Dei gratia rex Polonie et Russie, nec non Cracovie, Sandomirie, Siradie, Lancicie, Cuiavie, et Pomeranieque Terrarum et Ducatuum Dominus et Heres.Popular culture Film * Casimir III the Great is one of the main characters in Polish historical drama series Korona królów (The Crown of the Kings). He is played by Mateusz Król (season 1) and Andrzej Hausner (season 2). Casimir III the Great is mentioned in a speech by Amon Göth in the film Schindler's List''. Video games Casimir features as a playable leader in the 2010 strategy game Civilization V, having been added in its 2013 expansion, Brave New World. * Casimir also features as a ruler in the strategy game Crusader Kings II. Currency * Casimir is featured on the obverse of the 50 Polish złoty banknote, with his regalia on the reverse. Gallery <gallery widths"160px" heights"160px" perrow="5"> File:Kazimierz III Wielki (275138).jpg\|Casimir III the Great by Jan Matejko File:Löffler Casimir the Great.jpg\|Casimir the Great by Leopold Loeffler File:Krakow nagrobek Kazimierza W.jpg\|Casimir III's tomb at Wawel Cathedral File:AGAD Kazimierz Wielki, krol polski, zezwala Grzegorzowi, biskupowi ormianskiemu, na przebywanie we Lwowie.jpg\|Document issued by Casimir the Great granting the Armenian bishop Gregory (Գրիգոր) the right to stay and preach in Lviv, 1367 File:Pieczec panstwa polskiego (1334).jpg\|Royal seal, 1334 </gallery> See also History of Poland (966–1385) Jagiellonian University Kazimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz Congress of Kraków Kazimierz Kazimierz Dolny List of Poles and Poulaines Esterka Notes References Source * * * External links Category:1310 births Category:1370 deaths Category:14th-century Polish monarchs Category:Kings of Poland Category:Piast dynasty Category:Polish Roman Catholics Category:Burials at Wawel Cathedral Category:Kings of Ruthenia	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casimir_III_the_Great	2025-04-05T18:28:07.884554
7363	Complexity	Complexity characterizes the behavior of a system or model whose components interact in multiple ways and follow local rules, leading to non-linearity, randomness, collective dynamics, hierarchy, and emergence. The term is generally used to characterize something with many parts where those parts interact with each other in multiple ways, culminating in a higher order of emergence greater than the sum of its parts. The study of these complex linkages at various scales is the main goal of complex systems theory. The intuitive criterion of complexity can be formulated as follows: a system would be more complex if more parts could be distinguished, and if more connections between them existed. , a number of approaches to characterizing complexity have been used in science; Zayed et al. reflect many of these. Neil Johnson states that "even among scientists, there is no unique definition of complexity – and the scientific notion has traditionally been conveyed using particular examples..." Ultimately Johnson adopts the definition of "complexity science" as "the study of the phenomena which emerge from a collection of interacting objects". Overview Definitions of complexity often depend on the concept of a "system" – a set of parts or elements that have relationships among them differentiated from relationships with other elements outside the relational regime. Many definitions tend to postulate or assume that complexity expresses a condition of numerous elements in a system and numerous forms of relationships among the elements. However, what one sees as complex and what one sees as simple is relative and changes with time. Warren Weaver posited in 1948 two forms of complexity: disorganized complexity, and organized complexity. Phenomena of 'disorganized complexity' are treated using probability theory and statistical mechanics, while 'organized complexity' deals with phenomena that escape such approaches and confront "dealing simultaneously with a sizable number of factors which are interrelated into an organic whole". The approaches that embody concepts of systems, multiple elements, multiple relational regimes, and state spaces might be summarized as implying that complexity arises from the number of distinguishable relational regimes (and their associated state spaces) in a defined system. Some definitions relate to the algorithmic basis for the expression of a complex phenomenon or model or mathematical expression, as later set out herein. Disorganized vs. organized One of the problems in addressing complexity issues has been formalizing the intuitive conceptual distinction between the large number of variances in relationships extant in random collections, and the sometimes large, but smaller, number of relationships between elements in systems where constraints (related to correlation of otherwise independent elements) simultaneously reduce the variations from element independence and create distinguishable regimes of more-uniform, or correlated, relationships, or interactions. Weaver perceived and addressed this problem, in at least a preliminary way, in drawing a distinction between "disorganized complexity" and "organized complexity". In Weaver's view, disorganized complexity results from the particular system having a very large number of parts, say millions of parts, or many more. Though the interactions of the parts in a "disorganized complexity" situation can be seen as largely random, the properties of the system as a whole can be understood by using probability and statistical methods. A prime example of disorganized complexity is a gas in a container, with the gas molecules as the parts. Some would suggest that a system of disorganized complexity may be compared with the (relative) simplicity of planetary orbits – the latter can be predicted by applying Newton's laws of motion. Of course, most real-world systems, including planetary orbits, eventually become theoretically unpredictable even using Newtonian dynamics; as discovered by modern chaos theory. Organized complexity, in Weaver's view, resides in nothing else than the non-random, or correlated, interaction between the parts. These correlated relationships create a differentiated structure that can, as a system, interact with other systems. The coordinated system manifests properties not carried or dictated by individual parts. The organized aspect of this form of complexity with regard to other systems, rather than the subject system, can be said to "emerge," without any "guiding hand". The number of parts does not have to be very large for a particular system to have emergent properties. A system of organized complexity may be understood in its properties (behavior among the properties) through modeling and simulation, particularly modeling and simulation with computers. An example of organized complexity is a city neighborhood as a living mechanism, with the neighborhood people among the system's parts. Sources and factors There are generally rules which can be invoked to explain the origin of complexity in a given system. The source of disorganized complexity is the large number of parts in the system of interest, and the lack of correlation between elements in the system. In the case of self-organizing living systems, usefully organized complexity comes from beneficially mutated organisms being selected to survive by their environment for their differential reproductive ability or at least success over inanimate matter or less organized complex organisms. See e.g. Robert Ulanowicz's treatment of ecosystems. Complexity of an object or system is a relative property. For instance, for many functions (problems), such a computational complexity as time of computation is smaller when multitape Turing machines are used than when Turing machines with one tape are used. Random Access Machines allow one to even more decrease time complexity (Greenlaw and Hoover 1998: 226), while inductive Turing machines can decrease even the complexity class of a function, language or set (Burgin 2005). This shows that tools of activity can be an important factor of complexity. Varied meanings In several scientific fields, "complexity" has a precise meaning: * In computational complexity theory, the amounts of resources required for the execution of algorithms is studied. The most popular types of computational complexity are the time complexity of a problem equal to the number of steps that it takes to solve an instance of the problem as a function of the size of the input (usually measured in bits), using the most efficient algorithm, and the space complexity of a problem equal to the volume of the memory used by the algorithm (e.g., cells of the tape) that it takes to solve an instance of the problem as a function of the size of the input (usually measured in bits), using the most efficient algorithm. This allows classification of computational problems by complexity class (such as P, NP, etc.). An axiomatic approach to computational complexity was developed by Manuel Blum. It allows one to deduce many properties of concrete computational complexity measures, such as time complexity or space complexity, from properties of axiomatically defined measures. * In algorithmic information theory, the Kolmogorov complexity (also called descriptive complexity, algorithmic complexity or algorithmic entropy) of a string is the length of the shortest binary program that outputs that string. Minimum message length is a practical application of this approach. Different kinds of Kolmogorov complexity are studied: the uniform complexity, prefix complexity, monotone complexity, time-bounded Kolmogorov complexity, and space-bounded Kolmogorov complexity. An axiomatic approach to Kolmogorov complexity based on Blum axioms (Blum 1967) was introduced by Mark Burgin in the paper presented for publication by Andrey Kolmogorov. The axiomatic approach encompasses other approaches to Kolmogorov complexity. It is possible to treat different kinds of Kolmogorov complexity as particular cases of axiomatically defined generalized Kolmogorov complexity. Instead of proving similar theorems, such as the basic invariance theorem, for each particular measure, it is possible to easily deduce all such results from one corresponding theorem proved in the axiomatic setting. This is a general advantage of the axiomatic approach in mathematics. The axiomatic approach to Kolmogorov complexity was further developed in the book (Burgin 2005) and applied to software metrics (Burgin and Debnath, 2003; Debnath and Burgin, 2003). In information theory, information fluctuation complexity is the fluctuation of information about information entropy. It is derivable from fluctuations in the predominance of order and chaos in a dynamic system and has been used as a measure of complexity in many diverse fields. In information processing, complexity is a measure of the total number of properties transmitted by an object and detected by an observer. Such a collection of properties is often referred to as a state. * In physical systems, complexity is a measure of the probability of the state vector of the system. This should not be confused with entropy; it is a distinct mathematical measure, one in which two distinct states are never conflated and considered equal, as is done for the notion of entropy in statistical mechanics. * In dynamical systems, statistical complexity measures the size of the minimum program able to statistically reproduce the patterns (configurations) contained in the data set (sequence). While the algorithmic complexity implies a deterministic description of an object (it measures the information content of an individual sequence), the statistical complexity, like forecasting complexity, implies a statistical description, and refers to an ensemble of sequences generated by a certain source. Formally, the statistical complexity reconstructs a minimal model comprising the collection of all histories sharing a similar probabilistic future and measures the entropy of the probability distribution of the states within this model. It is a computable and observer-independent measure based only on the internal dynamics of the system and has been used in studies of emergence and self-organization. * In mathematics, Krohn–Rhodes complexity is an important topic in the study of finite semigroups and automata. * In network theory, complexity is the product of richness in the connections between components of a system, and defined by a very unequal distribution of certain measures (some elements being highly connected and some very few, see complex network). * In software engineering, programming complexity is a measure of the interactions of the various elements of the software. This differs from the computational complexity described above in that it is a measure of the design of the software. Halstead complexity measures, cyclomatic complexity, time complexity, and parameterized complexity are closely linked concepts. * In model theory, U-rank is a measure of the complexity of a complete type in the context of stable theories. * In bioinformatics, linguistic sequence complexity is a measure of the vocabulary richness of a genetic text in gene sequences * In statistical learning theory, the Vapnik–Chervonenkis dimension is a measure of the size (capacity, complexity, expressive power, richness, or flexibility) of a class of sets. * In computational learning theory, Rademacher complexity is a measure of richness of a class of sets with respect to a probability distribution. * In sociology, social complexity is a conceptual framework used in the analysis of society. * In combinatorial game theory, measures of game complexity involve understanding game positions, possible outcomes, and computation required for various game scenarios. Other fields introduce less precisely defined notions of complexity: * A complex adaptive system has some or all of the following attributes: This means that complex is the opposite of independent, while complicated is the opposite of simple. While this has led some fields to come up with specific definitions of complexity, there is a more recent movement to regroup observations from different fields to study complexity in itself, whether it appears in anthills, human brains or social systems. One such interdisciplinary group of fields is relational order theories. Topics Behaviour The behavior of a complex system is often said to be due to emergence and self-organization. Chaos theory has investigated the sensitivity of systems to variations in initial conditions as one cause of complex behaviour. Mechanisms Recent developments in artificial life, evolutionary computation and genetic algorithms have led to an increasing emphasis on complexity and complex adaptive systems. Simulations In social science, the study on the emergence of macro-properties from the micro-properties, also known as macro-micro view in sociology. The topic is commonly recognized as social complexity that is often related to the use of computer simulation in social science, i.e. computational sociology. Systems Systems theory has long been concerned with the study of complex systems (in recent times, complexity theory and complex systems have also been used as names of the field). These systems are present in the research of a variety of disciplines, including biology, economics, social studies and technology. Recently, complexity has become a natural domain of interest of real-world socio-cognitive systems and emerging systemics research. Complex systems tend to be high-dimensional, non-linear, and difficult to model. In specific circumstances, they may exhibit low-dimensional behaviour. Data In information theory, algorithmic information theory is concerned with the complexity of strings of data. Complex strings are harder to compress. While intuition tells us that this may depend on the codec used to compress a string (a codec could be theoretically created in any arbitrary language, including one in which the very small command "X" could cause the computer to output a very complicated string like "18995316"), any two Turing-complete languages can be implemented in each other, meaning that the length of two encodings in different languages will vary by at most the length of the "translation" language – which will end up being negligible for sufficiently large data strings. These algorithmic measures of complexity tend to assign high values to random noise. However, under a certain understanding of complexity, arguably the most intuitive one, random noise is meaningless and so not complex at all. Information entropy is also sometimes used in information theory as indicative of complexity, but entropy is also high for randomness. In the case of complex systems, information fluctuation complexity was designed so as not to measure randomness as complex and has been useful in many applications. More recently, a complexity metric was developed for images that can avoid measuring noise as complex by using the minimum description length principle. Classification Problems There has also been interest in measuring the complexity of classification problems in supervised machine learning. This can be useful in meta-learning to determine for which data sets filtering (or removing suspected noisy instances from the training set) is the most beneficial and could be expanded to other areas. For binary classification, such measures can consider the overlaps in feature values from differing classes, the separability of the classes, and measures of geometry, topology, and density of manifolds. For non-binary classification problems, instance hardness is a bottom-up approach that first seeks to identify instances that are likely to be misclassified (assumed to be the most complex). The characteristics of such instances are then measured using supervised measures such as the number of disagreeing neighbors or the likelihood of the assigned class label given the input features. In molecular recognition A recent study based on molecular simulations and compliance constants describes molecular recognition as a phenomenon of organisation. Even for small molecules like carbohydrates, the recognition process can not be predicted or designed even assuming that each individual hydrogen bond's strength is exactly known. The law of requisite complexity Deriving from the law of requisite variety, Boisot and McKelvey formulated the ‘Law of Requisite Complexity’, that holds that, in order to be efficaciously adaptive, the internal complexity of a system must match the external complexity it confronts. Positive, appropriate and negative complexity The application in project management of the Law of Requisite Complexity, as proposed by Stefan Morcov, is the analysis of positive, appropriate and negative complexity. In project management Project complexity is the property of a project which makes it difficult to understand, foresee, and keep under control its overall behavior, even when given reasonably complete information about the project system. In systems engineering Maik Maurer considers complexity as a reality in engineering. He proposed a methodology for managing complexity in systems engineering : 1. Define the system. 2. Identify the type of complexity. 3. Determine the strategy. 4. Determine the method. 5. Model the system. 6. Implement the method. Applications Computational complexity theory is the study of the complexity of problems – that is, the difficulty of solving them. Problems can be classified by complexity class according to the time it takes for an algorithm – usually a computer program – to solve them as a function of the problem size. Some problems are difficult to solve, while others are easy. For example, some difficult problems need algorithms that take an exponential amount of time in terms of the size of the problem to solve. Take the travelling salesman problem, for example. It can be solved, as denoted in Big O notation, in time <math>O(n^2 2^n)</math> (where n is the size of the network to visit – the number of cities the travelling salesman must visit exactly once). As the size of the network of cities grows, the time needed to find the route grows (more than) exponentially. Even though a problem may be computationally solvable in principle, in actual practice it may not be that simple. These problems might require large amounts of time or an inordinate amount of space. Computational complexity may be approached from many different aspects. Computational complexity can be investigated on the basis of time, memory or other resources used to solve the problem. Time and space are two of the most important and popular considerations when problems of complexity are analyzed. There exist a certain class of problems that although they are solvable in principle they require so much time or space that it is not practical to attempt to solve them. These problems are called intractable. There is another form of complexity called hierarchical complexity. It is orthogonal to the forms of complexity discussed so far, which are called horizontal complexity. Emerging applications in other fields The concept of complexity is being increasingly used in the study of cosmology, big history, and cultural evolution with increasing granularity, as well as increasing quantification. Application in cosmology Eric Chaisson has advanced a cosmological complexity metric which he terms Energy Rate Density. This approach has been expanded in various works, most recently applied to measuring evolving complexity of nation-states and their growing cities. See also * Assembly theory * Chaos theory * Complexity theory (disambiguation page) Complex network Complex system * Cyclomatic complexity * Digital morphogenesis * Dual-phase evolution * Emergence * Evolution of complexity Fractal Game complexity * Holism in science * Law of Complexity/Consciousness * Model of hierarchical complexity * Names of large numbers * Network science * Network theory * Novelty theory * Occam's razor Percolation theory Process architecture * Programming Complexity * Sociology and complexity science * Systems theory * Thorngate's postulate of commensurate complexity * Variety (cybernetics) * Volatility, uncertainty, complexity and ambiguity * Arthur Winfree * Computational irreducibility * Zero-Force Evolutionary Law * Project complexity References Further reading * * * * * * Burgin, M. (1982) Generalized Kolmogorov complexity and duality in theory of computations, Notices of the Russian Academy of Sciences, v.25, No. 3, pp. 19–23 * Grishakova, M. (2024). Complexity, Entropy, and Noise in Sciences and Art: Lotman, Prigogine, Serres. In: A. Duprat and A. James (Ed.). Figures of Chance II. Chance in Theory and Practice. (67−77). London: Routledge https://www.routledge.com/Figures-of-Chance-II-Chance-in-Theory-and-Practice/Duprat-James/p/book/9781032358659 * Meyers, R.A., (2009) "Encyclopedia of Complexity and Systems Science", * Mitchell, M. (2009). Complexity: A Guided Tour. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. * Gershenson, C., Ed. (2008). Complexity: 5 Questions. Automatic Peess / VIP. * Chapouthier G. (2024) Complexity in Mosaic Form: from living beings to ethics, EPJ Web Conf., v.300, n° 01006, doi10.1051/epjconf/202430001006 External links * [http://bactra.org/notebooks/complexity-measures.html Complexity Measures] – an article about the abundance of not-that-useful complexity measures. * [http://web.cecs.pdx.edu/~mm/ExploringComplexityFall2009/index.html Exploring Complexity in Science and Technology] – Introductory complex system course by Melanie Mitchell * [http://www.santafe.edu/ Santa Fe Institute] focusing on the study of complexity science: [https://web.archive.org/web/20110304121331/http://www.santafe.edu/research/videos/catalog/ Lecture Videos] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20061009004757/http://eclectic.ss.uci.edu/~drwhite/center/cac.html UC Four Campus Complexity Videoconferences] – Human Sciences and Complexity Category:Abstraction Category:Chaos theory Category:Complex systems theory Category:Holism Category:Systems Category:Transdisciplinarity	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complexity	2025-04-05T18:28:07.899227
7366	Chastity	of chastity by Hans Memling]] Chastity, also known as purity, is a virtue related to temperance. Someone who is chaste refrains from sexual activity that is considered immoral or from any sexual activity, according to their state of life. In some contexts, for example when making a vow of chastity, chastity means celibacy.EtymologyThe words chaste and chastity stem from the Latin adjective ("cut off", "separated", "pure"). The words entered the English language around the middle of the 13th century. Chaste meant "virtuous", "pure from unlawful sexual intercourse" or (from the early 14th century on) as a noun, a virgin, while chastity meant "(sexual) purity". Thomas Aquinas links (chastity) to the Latin verb ("chastise, reprimand, correct"), with a reference to Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics: "Chastity takes its name from the fact that reason 'chastises' concupiscence, which, like a child, needs curbing, as the Philosopher states". In Abrahamic religions For many Jews, Christians, and Muslims, people should restrict their acts of a sexual nature to the context of marriage. For unmarried people, chastity is equivalent to sexual abstinence. Sexual acts outside of or apart from marriage, such as adultery, fornication, masturbation, and prostitution, are considered immoral due to lust. ChristianityTraditionsIn many Christian traditions, chastity is synonymous with purity. The Catholic Church teaches that chastity involves, in the words of cardinal bishop Alfonso López Trujillo, "the successful integration of sexuality within the person and thus the inner unity of man in his bodily and spiritual being", which according to one's marital status requires either having no sexual relationship, or only having sexual relations with one's spouse. In Western Christian morality, chastity is placed opposite the deadly sin of lust, and is classified as one of seven virtues. The moderation of sexual desires is also required to be virtuous. Reason, will, and desire can harmoniously work together to do what is good. As an emblem of inward chastity, some Christians choose to wear a cord, girdle or a cincture of one of the several Confraternities of the Cord or a purity ring. The cord is worn as a symbol of chastity in honour of a chaste saint whom the bearer asks for intercession. The purity ring is worn before holy matrimony by those who marry or for the rest of their lives by those who stay single. Marital chastity In marriage, the spouses commit to a lifelong relationship that excludes sexual intimacy with other persons. A third form of chastity, often called "vidual chastity", is expected by the society for a period after the woman's husband dies. For example, Anglican Bishop Jeremy Taylor defined five rules in Holy Living (1650), including abstaining from marrying "so long as she is with child by her former husband" and "within the year of mourning".Celibacy In the Roman Catholic Church, members of the consecrated life vow or promise celibacy as one of the evangelical counsels. In 306, the Synod of Elvira proscribed clergy from marrying. This was unevenly enforced until the Second Lateran Council in 1139 when it found its way into canon law. Unmarried deacons promise celibacy to their local bishop when ordained. Eastern Catholic priests are permitted to marry, provided they do so before ordination and outside monastic life. Vows of chastity Vows of chastity can be taken either as part of an organised religious life (such as Roman Catholic Beguines and Beghards in the past) or on an individual basis: as a voluntary act of devotion, or as part of an ascetic lifestyle (often devoted to contemplation), or both. Some Protestant religious communities, such as the Bruderhof, take vows of chastity as part of the church membership process. Teaching by denomination Catholicism Chastity is a central and pivotal concept in Roman Catholic praxis. Roman Catholic teaching regards chastity as essential in maintaining and cultivating the unity of body with spirit and thus the integrity of the human being. It is also fundamental to the practise of the Catholic life because it involves an apprenticeship in self-mastery. By attaining mastery over one's passions, reason, will, and desire can harmoniously work together to do what is good. Lutheranism The theology of the body of the Lutheran Churches emphasizes the role of the Holy Spirit, who sanctified the bodies of Christians to be God's temple. Many Lutheran monks and Lutheran nuns practice celibacy, though in some Lutheran religious orders it is not compulsory. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints In the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints chastity is very important: <blockquote>Physical intimacy between husband and wife is a beautiful and sacred part of God's plan for His children. It is an expression of love within marriage and allows husband and wife to participate in the creation of life. God has commanded that this sacred power be expressed only between a man and a woman who are legally married. The law of chastity applies to both men and women. It includes strict abstinence from sexual relations before marriage and complete fidelity and loyalty to one's spouse after marriage. The law of chastity requires that sexual relations be reserved for marriage between a man and a woman. In addition to reserving sexual intimacy for marriage, we obey the law of chastity by controlling our thoughts, words, and actions. Jesus Christ taught, "Ye have heard that it was said by them of old time, Thou shalt not commit adultery: but I say unto you, That whosoever looketh on a woman to lust after her hath committed adultery with her already in his heart" ()."</blockquote> Teachings of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints also include that sexual expression within marriage is an important dimension of spousal bonding apart from, but not necessarily avoiding, its procreative result. Islam Quran The most famous personal example of chastity in the Quran is the Virgin Mary (Mariam): }} }} Extramarital sex is forbidden. The Quran says: }} }} In a list of commendable deeds the Quran says: }} Because the sex desire is usually attained before a man is financially capable of marriage, the love to God and mindfulness of Him should be sufficient motive for chastity: }}Sharia (Law)Chastity is mandatory in Islam. Sex outside legitimacy is prohibited, for both men and women, whether married or unmarried. The injunctions and forbiddings in Islam apply equally to men and women. The legal punishment for adultery is equal for men and women. The prophet's prescription to the youth was: }} Chastity is an attitude and a way of life. In Islam it is both a personal and a social value. A Muslim society should not condone relations entailing or conducive to sexual license. Social patterns and practices calculated to inflame sexual desire are frowned upon by Islam, such incitements to immorality including permissive ideologies, titillating works of art, and the failure to inculcate sound moral principles in the young. At the heart of such a view of human sexuality lies the conviction that the notion of personal freedom should never be misconstrued as the freedom to flout God's laws by overstepping the bounds which, in his infinite wisdom, he has set upon the relations of the sexes. Baháʼí Faith Chastity is highly prized in the Baháʼí Faith. Similar to other Abrahamic religions, Baháʼí teachings call for the restriction of sexual activity to that between a wife and husband in Baháʼí marriage, and discourage members from using pornography or engaging in sexually explicit recreational activities. The concept of chastity is extended to include avoidance of alcohol and mind-altering drugs, profanity, and gaudy or immodest attire. In Eastern religions HinduismHinduism's view on premarital sex is rooted in its concept of or the stages of life. The first of these stages, known as , roughly translates as chastity. Celibacy and chastity are considered the appropriate behavior for both male and female students during this stage, which precedes the stage of the married householder (). and Hindu monks or are also celibate as part of their ascetic discipline. Sikhism In Sikhism, premarital or extramarital sex is strictly forbidden. However, it is encouraged to marry and live as a family unit to provide and nurture children for the perpetual benefit of creation (as opposed to or living as a monk, which was, and remains, a common spiritual practice in India). A Sikh is encouraged not to live as a recluse, beggar, monk, nun, celibate, or in any similar vein. Jainism The Jain ethical code contains the vow of (meaning "pure conduct"), which prescribes the expectations for Jains concerning sexual activity. is one of the five major and minor vows of Jainism, prescribing slightly different expectations for ascetics and laypeople, respectively. Complete celibacy is expected only of Jain ascetics (who are also referred to as monks and nuns). For laypeople, chastity is expected, with extramarital sex and adultery being prohibited.Buddhism The teachings of Buddhism include the Noble Eightfold Path, comprising a division called right action. Under the Five Precepts ethical code, and lay followers should abstain from sexual misconduct, while and monastics should practice strict chastity. Taoism The Five Precepts of the Taoist religion include "no sexual misconduct", which is interpreted as prohibiting extramarital sex for lay practitioners and marriage or sexual intercourse for monks and nuns.GovernmentIn Iran, women are required to wear hijabs as part of that society's efforts to enforce chastity. In 2023 the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance announced a new bill titled the Protection of the Culture of Chastity and Hijab Law, expanding its former sections from 15 to 70. See also * * Purity culture – Christian sexual abstinence movement * * References External links * * * * Category:Fruit of the Holy Spirit Category:Philosophy of love Category:Seven virtues Category:Sexual abstinence Category:Virtue	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chastity	2025-04-05T18:28:07.910885
7376	Cosmic microwave background	heat map of temperature fluctuations in the cosmic microwave background]] The cosmic microwave background (CMB, CMBR), or relic radiation, is microwave radiation that fills all space in the observable universe. With a standard optical telescope, the background space between stars and galaxies is almost completely dark. However, a sufficiently sensitive radio telescope detects a faint background glow that is almost uniform and is not associated with any star, galaxy, or other object. This glow is strongest in the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The accidental discovery of the CMB in 1965 by American radio astronomers Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson was the culmination of work initiated in the 1940s. The CMB is landmark evidence of the Big Bang theory for the origin of the universe. In the Big Bang cosmological models, during the earliest periods, the universe was filled with an opaque fog of dense, hot plasma of sub-atomic particles. As the universe expanded, this plasma cooled to the point where protons and electrons combined to form neutral atoms of mostly hydrogen. Unlike the plasma, these atoms could not scatter thermal radiation by Thomson scattering, and so the universe became transparent. Known as the recombination epoch, this decoupling event released photons to travel freely through space. However, the photons have grown less energetic due to the cosmological redshift associated with the expansion of the universe. The surface of last scattering refers to a shell at the right distance in space so photons are now received that were originally emitted at the time of decoupling. The CMB is not completely smooth and uniform, showing a faint anisotropy that can be mapped by sensitive detectors. Ground and space-based experiments such as COBE, WMAP and Planck have been used to measure these temperature inhomogeneities. The anisotropy structure is determined by various interactions of matter and photons up to the point of decoupling, which results in a characteristic lumpy pattern that varies with angular scale. The distribution of the anisotropy across the sky has frequency components that can be represented by a power spectrum displaying a sequence of peaks and valleys. The peak values of this spectrum hold important information about the physical properties of the early universe: the first peak determines the overall curvature of the universe, while the second and third peak detail the density of normal matter and so-called dark matter, respectively. Extracting fine details from the CMB data can be challenging, since the emission has undergone modification by foreground features such as galaxy clusters. Features frequency range, While vastly exaggerated "error bars" were included here to show the measured data points, the true error bars are too small to be seen even in an enlarged image, and it is impossible to distinguish the observed data from the blackbody spectrum for 2.725 K.]] The cosmic microwave background radiation is an emission of uniform black body thermal energy coming from all directions. Intensity of the CMB is expressed in kelvin (K), the SI unit of temperature. The CMB has a thermal black body spectrum at a temperature of . Variations in intensity are expressed as variations in temperature. The blackbody temperature uniquely characterizes the intensity of the radiation at all wavelengths; a measured brightness temperature at any wavelength can be converted to a blackbody temperature. The radiation is isotropic to roughly one part in 25,000: the root mean square variations are just over 100 μK, after subtracting a dipole anisotropy from the Doppler shift of the background radiation. The latter is caused by the peculiar velocity of the Sun relative to the comoving cosmic rest frame as it moves at 369.82 ± 0.11 km/s towards the constellation Crater near its boundary with the constellation Leo The CMB dipole and aberration at higher multipoles have been measured, consistent with galactic motion. Despite the very small degree of anisotropy in the CMB, many aspects can be measured with high precision and such measurements are critical for cosmological theories. Other than the temperature and polarization anisotropy, the CMB frequency spectrum is expected to feature tiny departures from the black-body law known as spectral distortions. These are also at the focus of an active research effort with the hope of a first measurement within the forthcoming decades, as they contain a wealth of information about the primordial universe and the formation of structures at late time. The CMB contains the vast majority of photons in the universe by a factor of 400 to 1; the number density of photons in the CMB is one billion times (10<sup>9</sup>) the number density of matter in the universe. Without the expansion of the universe to cause the cooling of the CMB, the night sky would shine as brightly as the Sun. The energy density of the CMB is , about 411 photons/cm<sup>3</sup>.HistoryEarly speculationsIn 1931, Georges Lemaître speculated that remnants of the early universe may be observable as radiation, but his candidate was cosmic rays. they prepared for a paper by Alpher's PhD advisor George Gamow. Alpher and Herman were able to estimate the temperature of the cosmic microwave background to be 5 K. Discovery on which Penzias and Wilson discovered the cosmic microwave background. In 1964, David Todd Wilkinson and Peter Roll, Robert H. Dicke's colleagues at Princeton University, began constructing a Dicke radiometer to measure the cosmic microwave background. In 1964, Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson at the Crawford Hill location of Bell Telephone Laboratories in nearby Holmdel Township, New Jersey had built a Dicke radiometer that they intended to use for radio astronomy and satellite communication experiments. The antenna was constructed in 1959 to support Project Echo—the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's passive communications satellites, which used large Earth orbiting aluminized plastic balloons as reflectors to bounce radio signals from one point on the Earth to another. On 20 May 1964 they made their first measurement clearly showing the presence of the microwave background, with their instrument having an excess 4.2K antenna temperature which they could not account for. After receiving a telephone call from Crawford Hill, Dicke said "Boys, we've been scooped." A meeting between the Princeton and Crawford Hill groups determined that the antenna temperature was indeed due to the microwave background. Penzias and Wilson received the 1978 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery.Cosmic originThe interpretation of the cosmic microwave background was a controversial issue in the late 1960s. Alternative explanations included energy from within the Solar System, from galaxies, from intergalactic plasma and from multiple extragalactic radio sources. Two requirements would show that the microwave radiation was truly "cosmic". First, the intensity vs frequency or spectrum needed to be shown to match a thermal or blackbody source. This was accomplished by 1968 in a series of measurements of the radiation temperature at higher and lower wavelengths. Second, the radiation needed be shown to be isotropic, the same from all directions. This was also accomplished by 1970, demonstrating that this radiation was truly cosmic in origin. Progress on theory In the 1970s numerous studies showed that tiny deviations from isotropy in the CMB could result from events in the early universe. Peebles and Yu, and Zel'dovich realized that the early universe would require quantum inhomogeneities that would result in temperature anisotropy at the level of 10<sup>−4</sup> or 10<sup>−5</sup>.COBEAfter a lull in the 1970s caused in part by the many experimental difficulties in measuring CMB at high precision, The team received the Nobel Prize in physics for 2006 for this discovery. Precision cosmology Inspired by the COBE results, a series of ground and balloon-based experiments measured cosmic microwave background anisotropies on smaller angular scales over the two decades. The sensitivity of the new experiments improved dramatically, with a reduction in internal noise by three orders of magnitude. The primary goal of these experiments was to measure the scale of the first acoustic peak, which COBE did not have sufficient resolution to resolve. This peak corresponds to large scale density variations in the early universe that are created by gravitational instabilities, resulting in acoustical oscillations in the plasma. The first peak in the anisotropy was tentatively detected by the MAT/TOCO experiment and the result was confirmed by the BOOMERanG and MAXIMA experiments. These measurements demonstrated that the geometry of the universe is approximately flat, rather than curved. They ruled out cosmic strings as a major component of cosmic structure formation and suggested cosmic inflation was the right theory of structure formation.Observations after COBE results from COBE, WMAP and Planck<br />(March 21, 2013)]] Inspired by the initial COBE results of an extremely isotropic and homogeneous background, a series of ground- and balloon-based experiments quantified CMB anisotropies on smaller angular scales over the next decade. The primary goal of these experiments was to measure the angular scale of the first acoustic peak, for which COBE did not have sufficient resolution. These measurements were able to rule out cosmic strings as the leading theory of cosmic structure formation, and suggested cosmic inflation was the right theory. During the 1990s, the first peak was measured with increasing sensitivity and by 2000 the BOOMERanG experiment reported that the highest power fluctuations occur at scales of approximately one degree. Together with other cosmological data, these results implied that the geometry of the universe is flat. A number of ground-based interferometers provided measurements of the fluctuations with higher accuracy over the next three years, including the Very Small Array, Degree Angular Scale Interferometer (DASI), and the Cosmic Background Imager (CBI). DASI made the first detection of the polarization of the CMB and the CBI provided the first E-mode polarization spectrum with compelling evidence that it is out of phase with the T-mode spectrum. Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe In June 2001, NASA launched a second CMB space mission, WMAP, to make much more precise measurements of the large-scale anisotropies over the full sky. WMAP used symmetric, rapid-multi-modulated scanning, rapid switching radiometers at five frequencies to minimize non-sky signal noise. Degree Angular Scale Interferometer Atacama Cosmology Telescope Planck Surveyor A third space mission, the ESA (European Space Agency) Planck Surveyor, was launched in May 2009 and performed an even more detailed investigation until it was shut down in October 2013. Planck employed both HEMT radiometers and bolometer technology and measured the CMB at a smaller scale than WMAP. Its detectors were trialled in the Antarctic Viper telescope as ACBAR (Arcminute Cosmology Bolometer Array Receiver) experiment—which has produced the most precise measurements at small angular scales to date—and in the Archeops balloon telescope. On 21 March 2013, the European-led research team behind the Planck cosmology probe released the mission's all-sky map ([https://web.archive.org/web/20131202233029/http://esacmt.esac.esa.int/science-e-media/img/61/51553_Planck_CMB_Mollweide_565.jpg 565x318 jpeg], [https://web.archive.org/web/20170215024745/https://www.nasa.gov/images/content/735683main_pia16873-full_full.jpg 3600x1800 jpeg]) of the cosmic microwave background. The map suggests the universe is slightly older than researchers expected. According to the map, subtle fluctuations in temperature were imprinted on the deep sky when the cosmos was about years old. The imprint reflects ripples that arose as early, in the existence of the universe, as the first nonillionth (10<sup>−30</sup>) of a second. Apparently, these ripples gave rise to the present vast cosmic web of galaxy clusters and dark matter. Based on the 2013 data, the universe contains 4.9% ordinary matter, 26.8% dark matter and 68.3% dark energy. On 5 February 2015, new data was released by the Planck mission, according to which the age of the universe is billion years old and the Hubble constant was measured to be . South Pole Telescope Theoretical models The cosmic microwave background radiation and the cosmological redshift-distance relation are together regarded as the best available evidence for the Big Bang event. Measurements of the CMB have made the inflationary Big Bang model the Standard Cosmological Model. The discovery of the CMB in the mid-1960s curtailed interest in alternatives such as the steady state theory. In the Big Bang model for the formation of the universe, inflationary cosmology predicts that after about 10<sup>−37</sup> seconds the nascent universe underwent exponential growth that smoothed out nearly all irregularities. The remaining irregularities were caused by quantum fluctuations in the inflaton field that caused the inflation event. Long before the formation of stars and planets, the early universe was more compact, much hotter and, starting 10<sup>−6</sup> seconds after the Big Bang, filled with a uniform glow from its white-hot fog of interacting plasma of photons, electrons, and baryons. As the universe expanded, adiabatic cooling caused the energy density of the plasma to decrease until it became favorable for electrons to combine with protons, forming hydrogen atoms. This recombination event happened when the temperature was around 3000 K or when the universe was approximately 379,000 years old. As photons did not interact with these electrically neutral atoms, the former began to travel freely through space, resulting in the decoupling of matter and radiation. The color temperature of the ensemble of decoupled photons has continued to diminish ever since; now down to , and at a point in time such that the photons from that distance have just reached observers. Most of the radiation energy in the universe is in the cosmic microwave background, making up a fraction of roughly of the total density of the universe. Two of the greatest successes of the Big Bang theory are its prediction of the almost perfect black body spectrum and its detailed prediction of the anisotropies in the cosmic microwave background. The CMB spectrum has become the most precisely measured black body spectrum in nature. Predictions based on the Big Bang model In the late 1940s Alpher and Herman reasoned that if there was a Big Bang, the expansion of the universe would have stretched the high-energy radiation of the very early universe into the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum, and down to a temperature of about 5 K. They were slightly off with their estimate, but they had the right idea. They predicted the CMB. It took another 15 years for Penzias and Wilson to discover that the microwave background was actually there. When this occurred some 380,000 years after the Big Bang, the temperature of the universe was about 3,000 K. This corresponds to an ambient energy of about , which is much less than the ionization energy of hydrogen. This epoch is generally known as the "time of last scattering" or the period of recombination or decoupling. Since decoupling, the color temperature of the background radiation has dropped by an average factor of 1,089 :T<sub>r</sub> = 2.725 K × (1 + z) The high degree of uniformity throughout the observable universe and its faint but measured anisotropy lend strong support for the Big Bang model in general and the ΛCDM ("Lambda Cold Dark Matter") model in particular. Moreover, the fluctuations are coherent on angular scales that are larger than the apparent cosmological horizon at recombination. Either such coherence is acausally fine-tuned, or cosmic inflation occurred.Primary anisotropy ). The data shown comes from the WMAP (2006), Acbar (2004) Boomerang (2005), CBI (2004), and VSA (2004) instruments. Also shown is a theoretical model (solid line).]] The anisotropy, or directional dependency, of the cosmic microwave background is divided into two types: primary anisotropy, due to effects that occur at the surface of last scattering and before; and secondary anisotropy, due to effects such as interactions of the background radiation with intervening hot gas or gravitational potentials, which occur between the last scattering surface and the observer. The structure of the cosmic microwave background anisotropies is principally determined by two effects: acoustic oscillations and diffusion damping (also called collisionless damping or Silk damping). The acoustic oscillations arise because of a conflict in the photon–baryon plasma in the early universe. The pressure of the photons tends to erase anisotropies, whereas the gravitational attraction of the baryons, moving at speeds much slower than light, makes them tend to collapse to form overdensities. These two effects compete to create acoustic oscillations, which give the microwave background its characteristic peak structure. The peaks correspond, roughly, to resonances in which the photons decouple when a particular mode is at its peak amplitude. The peaks contain interesting physical signatures. The angular scale of the first peak determines the curvature of the universe (but not the topology of the universe). The next peak—ratio of the odd peaks to the even peaks—determines the reduced baryon density. The third peak can be used to get information about the dark-matter density. The locations of the peaks give important information about the nature of the primordial density perturbations. There are two fundamental types of density perturbations called adiabatic and isocurvature. A general density perturbation is a mixture of both, and different theories that purport to explain the primordial density perturbation spectrum predict different mixtures. ; Adiabatic density perturbations:In an adiabatic density perturbation, the fractional additional number density of each type of particle (baryons, photons, etc.) is the same. That is, if at one place there is a 1% higher number density of baryons than average, then at that place there is a 1% higher number density of photons (and a 1% higher number density in neutrinos) than average. Cosmic inflation predicts that the primordial perturbations are adiabatic. ; Isocurvature density perturbations:In an isocurvature density perturbation, the sum (over different types of particle) of the fractional additional densities is zero. That is, a perturbation where at some spot there is 1% more energy in baryons than average, 1% more energy in photons than average, and 2% energy in neutrinos than average, would be a pure isocurvature perturbation. Hypothetical cosmic strings would produce mostly isocurvature primordial perturbations. The CMB spectrum can distinguish between these two because these two types of perturbations produce different peak locations. Isocurvature density perturbations produce a series of peaks whose angular scales (ℓ values of the peaks) are roughly in the ratio 1 : 3 : 5 : ..., while adiabatic density perturbations produce peaks whose locations are in the ratio 1 : 2 : 3 : ... Observations are consistent with the primordial density perturbations being entirely adiabatic, providing key support for inflation, and ruling out many models of structure formation involving, for example, cosmic strings. Collisionless damping is caused by two effects, when the treatment of the primordial plasma as fluid begins to break down: * the increasing mean free path of the photons as the primordial plasma becomes increasingly rarefied in an expanding universe, * the finite depth of the last scattering surface (LSS), which causes the mean free path to increase rapidly during decoupling, even while some Compton scattering is still occurring. These effects contribute about equally to the suppression of anisotropies at small scales and give rise to the characteristic exponential damping tail seen in the very small angular scale anisotropies. The depth of the LSS refers to the fact that the decoupling of the photons and baryons does not happen instantaneously, but instead requires an appreciable fraction of the age of the universe up to that era. One method of quantifying how long this process took uses the photon visibility function (PVF). This function is defined so that, denoting the PVF by P(t), the probability that a CMB photon last scattered between time t and is given by P(t)dt. The maximum of the PVF (the time when it is most likely that a given CMB photon last scattered) is known quite precisely. The first-year WMAP results put the time at which P(t) has a maximum as 372,000 years. This is often taken as the "time" at which the CMB formed. However, to figure out how it took the photons and baryons to decouple, we need a measure of the width of the PVF. The WMAP team finds that the PVF is greater than half of its maximal value (the "full width at half maximum", or FWHM) over an interval of 115,000 years. However, there are challenges to the standard big bang framework for explaining CMB data. In particular standard cosmology requires fine-tuning of some free parameters, with different values supported by different experimental data. E-modes were first seen in 2002 by the Degree Angular Scale Interferometer (DASI). B-modes B-modes are expected to be an order of magnitude weaker than the E-modes. The former are not produced by standard scalar type perturbations, but are generated by gravitational waves during cosmic inflation shortly after the big bang. However, gravitational lensing of the stronger E-modes can also produce B-mode polarization. Detecting the original B-modes signal requires analysis of the contamination caused by lensing of the relatively strong E-mode signal. Primordial gravitational waves Models of "slow-roll" cosmic inflation in the early universe predicts primordial gravitational waves that would impact the polarisation of the cosmic microwave background, creating a specific pattern of B-mode polarization. Detection of this pattern would support the theory of inflation and their strength can confirm and exclude different models of inflation. Claims that this characteristic pattern of B-mode polarization had been measured by BICEP2 instrument In October 2014, a measurement of the B-mode polarization at 150 GHz was published by the POLARBEAR experiment. The map of temperature across the sky, <math>T(\theta,\varphi),</math> is written as coefficients of spherical harmonics, <math display"block">T(\theta,\varphi) \sum_{\ell m} a_{\ell m} Y_{\ell m}(\theta,\varphi)</math> where the <math>a_{\ell m}</math> term measures the strength of the angular oscillation in <math>Y_{\ell m}(\theta,\varphi)</math>, and ℓ is the multipole number while m is the azimuthal number. The azimuthal variation is not significant and is removed by applying the angular correlation function, giving power spectrum term <math>C_{\ell}\equiv \langle \|a_{\ell m}\|^2 \rangle.</math> Increasing values of ℓ correspond to higher multipole moments of CMB, meaning more rapid variation with angle. CMBR monopole term (ℓ 0)The monopole term, , is the constant isotropic mean temperature of the CMB, }} which fits the observation done by COBE FIRAS. The dipole moment does not encode any primordial information. From the CMB data, it is seen that the Sun appears to be moving at relative to the reference frame of the CMB (also called the CMB rest frame, or the frame of reference in which there is no motion through the CMB). The Local Group — the galaxy group that includes our own Milky Way galaxy — appears to be moving at in the direction of galactic longitude }}, }}. The most longstanding of these is the low-ℓ multipole controversy. Even in the COBE map, it was observed that the quadrupole (, spherical harmonic) has a low amplitude compared to the predictions of the Big Bang. In particular, the quadrupole and octupole () modes appear to have an unexplained alignment with each other and with both the ecliptic plane and equinoxes. A number of groups have suggested that this could be the signature of quantum corrections or new physics at the greatest observable scales; other groups suspect systematic errors in the data. Ultimately, due to the foregrounds and the cosmic variance problem, the greatest modes will never be as well measured as the small angular scale modes. The analyses were performed on two maps that have had the foregrounds removed as far as possible: the "internal linear combination" map of the WMAP collaboration and a similar map prepared by Max Tegmark and others. Later analyses have pointed out that these are the modes most susceptible to foreground contamination from synchrotron, dust, and bremsstrahlung emission, and from experimental uncertainty in the monopole and dipole. A full Bayesian analysis of the WMAP power spectrum demonstrates that the quadrupole prediction of Lambda-CDM cosmology is consistent with the data at the 10% level and that the observed octupole is not remarkable. Carefully accounting for the procedure used to remove the foregrounds from the full sky map further reduces the significance of the alignment by ~5%. Recent observations with the Planck telescope, which is very much more sensitive than WMAP and has a larger angular resolution, record the same anomaly, and so instrumental error (but not foreground contamination) appears to be ruled out. Coincidence is a possible explanation, chief scientist from WMAP, Charles L. Bennett suggested coincidence and human psychology were involved, "I do think there is a bit of a psychological effect; people want to find unusual things." Measurements of the density of quasars based on Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer data finds a dipole significantly different from the one extracted from the CMB anisotropy. This difference is conflict with the cosmological principle. Future evolution Assuming the universe keeps expanding and it does not suffer a Big Crunch, a Big Rip, or another similar fate, the cosmic microwave background will continue redshifting until it will no longer be detectable, and will be superseded first by the one produced by starlight, and perhaps, later by the background radiation fields of processes that may take place in the far future of the universe such as proton decay, evaporation of black holes, and positronium decay. Timeline of prediction, discovery and interpretation Thermal (non-microwave background) temperature predictions * 1896 – Charles Édouard Guillaume estimates the "radiation of the stars" to be 5–6 K. * 1926 – Sir Arthur Eddington estimates the non-thermal radiation of starlight in the galaxy "... by the formula the effective temperature corresponding to this density is 3.18° absolute ... black body". * 1930s – Cosmologist Erich Regener calculates that the non-thermal spectrum of cosmic rays in the galaxy has an effective temperature of 2.8 K. * 1946 – George Gamow calculates a temperature of 50 K (assuming a 3-billion year old universe), commenting it "... is in reasonable agreement with the actual temperature of interstellar space", but does not mention background radiation. * 1953 – Erwin Finlay-Freundlich in support of his tired light theory, derives a blackbody temperature for intergalactic space of 2.3 K and in the following year values of 1.9K and 6.0K. Microwave background radiation predictions and measurements * 1941 – Andrew McKellar detected a "rotational" temperature of 2.3 K for the interstellar medium by comparing the population of CN doublet lines measured by W. S. Adams in a B star. * 1948 – Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman estimate "the temperature in the universe" at 5 K. Although they do not specifically mention microwave background radiation, it may be inferred. * 1953 – George Gamow estimates 7 K based on a model that does not rely on a free parameter * 1955 – Émile Le Roux of the Nançay Radio Observatory, in a sky survey at λ 33 cm, initially reported a near-isotropic background radiation of 3 kelvins, plus or minus 2; he did not recognize the cosmological significance * 1957 – Tigran Shmaonov reports that "the absolute effective temperature of the radioemission background ... is 4±3 K". with radiation intensity was independent of either time or direction of observation. Although Shamonov did not recognize it at the time, it is now clear that Shmaonov did observe the cosmic microwave background at a wavelength of 3.2 cm * 1964 – A. G. Doroshkevich and Igor Dmitrievich Novikov publish a brief paper suggesting microwave searches for the black-body radiation predicted by Gamow, Alpher, and Herman, where they name the CMB radiation phenomenon as detectable. * 1964–65 – Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson measure the temperature to be approximately 3 K. Robert Dicke, James Peebles, P. G. Roll, and D. T. Wilkinson interpret this radiation as a signature of the Big Bang. * 1966 – Rainer K. Sachs and Arthur M. Wolfe theoretically predict microwave background fluctuation amplitudes created by gravitational potential variations between observers and the last scattering surface (see Sachs–Wolfe effect). * 1968 – Martin Rees and Dennis Sciama theoretically predict microwave background fluctuation amplitudes created by photons traversing time-dependent wells of potential. * 1969 – R. A. Sunyaev and Yakov Zel'dovich study the inverse Compton scattering of microwave background photons by hot electrons (see ''Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect''). * 1983 – Researchers from the Cambridge Radio Astronomy Group and the Owens Valley Radio Observatory first detect the Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect from clusters of galaxies. * 1983 – RELIKT-1 Soviet CMB anisotropy experiment was launched. * 1990 – FIRAS on the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) satellite measures the black body form of the CMB spectrum with exquisite precision, and shows that the microwave background has a nearly perfect black-body spectrum with T = 2.73 K and thereby strongly constrains the density of the intergalactic medium. * January 1992 – Scientists that analysed data from the RELIKT-1 report the discovery of anisotropy in the cosmic microwave background at the Moscow astrophysical seminar. * 1992 – Scientists that analysed data from COBE DMR report the discovery of anisotropy in the cosmic microwave background. * 1995 – The Cosmic Anisotropy Telescope performs the first high resolution observations of the cosmic microwave background. * 1999 – First measurements of acoustic oscillations in the CMB anisotropy angular power spectrum from the MAT/TOCO, BOOMERANG, and Maxima Experiments. The BOOMERanG experiment makes higher quality maps at intermediate resolution, and confirms that the universe is "flat". * 2002 – Polarization discovered by DASI. * 2003 – E-mode polarization spectrum obtained by the CBI. The CBI and the Very Small Array produces yet higher quality maps at high resolution (covering small areas of the sky). * 2003 – The Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe spacecraft produces an even higher quality map at low and intermediate resolution of the whole sky (WMAP provides high-resolution data, but improves on the intermediate resolution maps from BOOMERanG). * 2004 – E-mode polarization spectrum obtained by the CBI. * 2004 – The Arcminute Cosmology Bolometer Array Receiver produces a higher quality map of the high resolution structure not mapped by WMAP. * 2005 – The Arcminute Microkelvin Imager and the Sunyaev–Zel'dovich Array begin the first surveys for very high redshift clusters of galaxies using the Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect. * 2005 – Ralph A. Alpher is awarded the National Medal of Science for his groundbreaking work in nucleosynthesis and prediction that the universe expansion leaves behind background radiation, thus providing a model for the Big Bang theory. * 2006 – The long-awaited three-year WMAP results are released, confirming previous analysis, correcting several points, and including polarization data. * 2006 – Two of COBE's principal investigators, George Smoot and John Mather, received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2006 for their work on precision measurement of the CMBR. * 2006–2011 – Improved measurements from WMAP, new supernova surveys ESSENCE and SNLS, and baryon acoustic oscillations from SDSS and WiggleZ, continue to be consistent with the standard Lambda-CDM model. * 2010 – The first all-sky map from the Planck telescope is released. * 2013 – An improved all-sky map from the Planck telescope is released, improving the measurements of WMAP and extending them to much smaller scales. * 2014 – On March 17, 2014, astrophysicists of the BICEP2 collaboration announced the detection of inflationary gravitational waves in the B-mode power spectrum, which if confirmed, would provide clear experimental evidence for the theory of inflation. However, on 19 June 2014, lowered confidence in confirming the cosmic inflation findings was reported. * 2015 – On January 30, 2015, the same team of astronomers from BICEP2 withdrew the claim made on the previous year. Based on the combined data of BICEP2 and Planck, the European Space Agency announced that the signal can be entirely attributed to dust in the Milky Way. * 2018 – The final data and maps from the Planck telescope is released, with improved measurements of the polarization on large scales. * 2019 – Planck telescope analyses of their final 2018 data continue to be released.In popular culture* In the Stargate Universe TV series (2009–2011), an ancient spaceship, Destiny, was built to study patterns in the CMBR which is a sentient message left over from the beginning of time. * In Wheelers, a novel (2000) by Ian Stewart & Jack Cohen, CMBR is explained as the encrypted transmissions of an ancient civilization. This allows the Jovian "blimps" to have a society older than the currently-observed age of the universe. * In The Three-Body Problem, a 2008 novel by Liu Cixin, a probe from an alien civilization compromises instruments monitoring the CMBR in order to deceive a character into believing the civilization has the power to manipulate the CMBR itself. * The 2017 issue of the Swiss 20 francs bill lists several astronomical objects with their distances – the CMB is mentioned with 430 · 10<sup>15</sup> light-seconds. * In the 2021 Marvel series WandaVision, a mysterious television broadcast is discovered within the Cosmic Microwave Background. See also * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Notes References Further reading * * * External links * [http://www.quantumfieldtheory.info/cmb.pdf Student Friendly Intro to the CMB] A pedagogic, step-by-step introduction to the cosmic microwave background power spectrum analysis suitable for those with an undergraduate physics background. More in depth than typical online sites. Less dense than cosmology texts. * [http://xstructure.inr.ac.ru/x-bin/theme3.py?level3&index187807 CMBR Theme on arxiv.org] * [http://www.astronomycast.com/cosmology/the-big-bang-and-cosmic-microwave-background/ Audio: Fraser Cain and Dr. Pamela Gay – Astronomy Cast. The Big Bang and Cosmic Microwave Background – October 2006] * [http://thecmb.org Visualization of the CMB data from the Planck mission] * Category:Astronomical radio sources Category:Astrophysics Category:Cosmic background radiation *B-modes Category:Inflation (cosmology) Category:Observational astronomy Category:Physical cosmological concepts Category:Radio astronomy	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background	2025-04-05T18:28:08.036441
7378	Comparative law	thumb\|Legal Systems of the World Comparative law is the study of differences and similarities between the law and legal systems of different countries. More specifically, it involves the study of the different legal systems (or "families") in existence around the world, including common law, civil law, socialist law, Canon law, Jewish Law, Islamic law, Hindu law, and Chinese law. It includes the description and analysis of foreign legal systems, even where no explicit comparison is undertaken. The importance of comparative law has increased enormously in the present age of internationalism and economic globalization. History The origins of modern comparative law can be traced back to Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in 1667 in his Latin-language book (New Methods of Studying and Teaching Jurisprudence). Chapter 7 (Presentation of Law as the Project for all Nations, Lands and Times) introduces the idea of classifying Legal Systems into several families. A few years later, Leibniz introduced an idea of Language families. Although every legal system is unique, comparative law through studies of their similarities and differences allows for classification of legal systems, wherein law families is the basic level of the classification. The main differences between law families are found in the source(s) of law, the role of court precedents, the origin and development of the legal system. Montesquieu is generally regarded as an early founding figure of comparative law. His comparative approach is obvious in the following excerpt from Chapter III of Book I of his masterpiece, De l'esprit des lois (1748; first translated by Thomas Nugent, 1750): Also, in Chapter XI (entitled 'How to compare two different Systems of Laws') of Book XXIX, discussing the French and English systems for punishment of false witnesses, he advises that "to determine which of those systems is most agreeable to reason, we must take them each as a whole and compare them in their entirety." Yet another place where Montesquieu's comparative approach is evident is the following, from Chapter XIII of Book XXIX: thumbnail\|150px\|right\|Sir Henry James Sumner Maine, British jurist and first professor of comparative law at Oxford The modern founding figure of comparative and anthropological jurisprudence was Sir Henry Maine, a British jurist and legal historian. In his 1861 work Ancient Law: Its Connection with the Early History of Society, and Its Relation to Modern Ideas, he set out his views on the development of legal institutions in primitive societies and engaged in a comparative discussion of Eastern and Western legal traditions. This work placed comparative law in its historical context and was widely read and influential. The first university course on the subject was established at the University of Oxford in 1869, with Maine taking up the position of professor. Comparative law in the US was brought by a legal scholar fleeing persecution in Germany, Rudolf Schlesinger. Schlesinger eventually became professor of comparative law at Cornell Law School helping to spread the discipline throughout the US. Purpose Comparative law is an academic discipline that involves the study of legal systems, including their constitutive elements and how they differ, and how their elements combine into a system. Several disciplines have developed as separate branches of comparative law, including comparative constitutional law, comparative administrative law, comparative civil law (in the sense of the law of torts, contracts, property and obligations), comparative commercial law (in the sense of business organisations and trade), and comparative criminal law. Studies of these specific areas may be viewed as micro- or macro-comparative legal analysis, i.e. detailed comparisons of two countries, or broad-ranging studies of several countries. Comparative civil law studies, for instance, show how the law of private relations is organised, interpreted and used in different systems or countries. The purposes of comparative law are: To attain a deeper knowledge of the legal systems in effect To perfect the legal systems in effect Possibly, to contribute to a unification of legal systems, of a smaller or larger scale (cf. for instance, the UNIDROIT initiative) Relationship with other legal subjects Comparative law is different from general jurisprudence (i.e. legal theory) and from public and private international law. However, it helps inform all of these areas of normativity. For example, comparative law can help international legal institutions, such as those of the United Nations System, in analyzing the laws of different countries regarding their treaty obligations. Comparative law would be applicable to private international law when developing an approach to interpretation in a conflicts analysis. Comparative law may contribute to legal theory by creating categories and concepts of general application. Comparative law may also provide insights into the question of legal transplants, i.e. the transplanting of law and legal institutions from one system to another. The notion of legal transplants was coined by Alan Watson, one of the world's renowned legal scholars specializing in comparative law. Gunther Teubner expanded the notion of legal transplantation to include legal irritation: Rather than smoothly integrating into domestic legal systems, a foreign rule disrupts established norms and societal arrangements. This disruption sparks an evolution where the external rule's meaning is redefined and where significant transformations within the internal context are triggered. Lasse Schuldt added that irritation is not spontaneous, but requires institutional drivers. Also, the usefulness of comparative law for sociology of law and law and economics (and vice versa) is very large. The comparative study of the various legal systems may show how different legal regulations for the same problem function in practice. Conversely, sociology of law and law & economics may help comparative law answer questions, such as: How do regulations in different legal systems really function in the respective societies? Are legal rules comparable? How do the similarities and differences between legal systems get explained? Classifications of legal systems David René David proposed the classification of legal systems, according to the different ideology inspiring each one, into five groups or families: Western laws, a group subdivided into the: Civil law subgroup (whose jurisprudence is based on post-classical Roman Law) Common law subgroup (originating in English law) Soviet Law Muslim Law Hindu Law Chinese Law Jewish Law Especially with respect to the aggregating by David of the Civil and Common laws into a single family, David argued that the antithesis between the Common law and Civil law systems, is of a technical rather than of an ideological nature. Of a different kind is, for instance, the antithesis between, say, Italian and American laws, and of a different kind than between the Soviet, Muslim, Hindu, or Chinese laws. According to David, the Civil law legal systems included those countries where legal science was formulated according to Roman law, whereas Common law countries are those dominated by judge-made law. The characteristics that he believed uniquely differentiate the Western legal family from the other four are: liberal democracy capitalist economy Christian religion Arminjon, Nolde, and Wolff Arminjon, Nolde, and Wolff believed that, for purposes of classifying the (then) contemporary legal systems of the world, it was required that those systems per se get studied, irrespective of external factors, such as geographical ones. They proposed the classification of legal system into seven groups, or so-called 'families', in particular the: French group, under which they also included the countries that codified their law either in 19th or in the first half of the 20th century, using the Napoleonic code civil of year 1804 as a model; this includes countries and jurisdictions such as Italy, Portugal, Spain, Romania, Louisiana, various South American states such as Brazil, Quebec, Saint Lucia, the Ionian Islands, Egypt, and Lebanon German group Scandinavian group, comprising the laws of Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Iceland English group, including, inter alia, England, the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand Russian group Islamic group (used in the Muslim world) Hindu group Zweigert and Kötz Konrad Zweigert and Hein Kötz propose a different, multidimensional methodology for categorizing laws, i.e. for ordering families of laws. They maintain that, to determine such families, five criteria should be taken into account, in particular: the historical background, the characteristic way of thought, the different institutions, the recognized sources of law, and the dominant ideology. Using the aforementioned criteria, they classify the legal systems of the world into six families: Roman family German family Common law family Nordic family Family of the laws of the Far East (China and Japan) Religious family (Jewish, Muslim, and Hindu law) Up to the second German edition of their introduction to comparative law, Zweigert and Kötz also used to mention Soviet or socialist law as another family of laws. Glenn H. Patrick Glenn proposed the classification of legal systems places national laws in the broader context of major legal tradition: Chthonic (or indigenous) law Talmudic law Islamic law Hindu law Confucianism law Civil law Common law Professional associations American Association of Law Libraries American Society of Comparative Law International Association of Judicial Independence and World Peace International Association of Procedural Law International Law Association Comparative law periodicals American Journal of Comparative Law German Law Journal Journal of Comparative Legislation and International Law The Journal of Comparative Law See also Annual Bulletin of the Comparative Law Bureau (American Bar Association: 1908–1914, 1933), the first comparative law journal in the U.S. Comparative criminal justice Comparative law wiki, online wikis where jurists can complete questionnaires regarding their home legal system Friedrich Carl von Savigny (1779–1861) – a German legal scholar who wrote on comparative law List of national legal systems Rule according to higher law Rule of law References Notes Citations Sources Billis, Emmanouil. 'On the methodology of comparative criminal law research: Paradigmatic approaches to the research method of functional comparison and the heuristic device of ideal types', Maastricht Journal of European and Comparative Law 6 (2017): 864–881. H Collins, 'Methods and Aims of Comparative Contract Law' (1989) 11 OJLS 396. Cotterrell, Roger (2006). Law, Culture and Society: Legal Ideas in the Mirror of Social Theory. Aldershot: Ashgate. De Cruz, Peter (2007) Comparative Law in a Changing World, 3rd edn (1st edn 1995). London: Routledge-Cavendish. Donahue, Charles (2008) 'Comparative Law before the "Code Napoléon"' in The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Law. Eds. Mathias Reimann & Reinhard Zimmermann. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Glanert, Simone (2008) 'Speaking Language to Law: The Case of Europe', Legal Studies 28: 161–171. Hamza, Gabor (1991). Comparative Law and Antiquity. Budapest: Akademiai Kiado. Husa, Jaakko. A New Introduction to Comparative Law. Oxford–Portland (Oregon): Hart, 2015. O Kahn-Freund, 'Comparative Law as an Academic Subject' (1966) 82 LQR 40. Kischel, Uwe. Comparative Law. Trans. Andrew Hammel. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019. Legrand, Pierre (1996). 'European Legal Systems Are Not Converging', International and Comparative Law Quarterly 45: 52–81. Legrand, Pierre (1997). 'Against a European Civil Code', Modern Law Review 60: 44–63. Legrand, Pierre and Roderick Munday, eds. (2003). Comparative Legal Studies: Traditions and Transitions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Legrand, Pierre (2003). 'The Same and the Different', in Comparative Legal Studies: Traditions and Transitions. Eds. Pierre Legrand & Roderick Munday. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Leibniz, Gottffried Wilhelm (2017) The New Method of Learning and Teaching Jurisprudence... Translation of the 1667 Frankfurt Edition. Clark, NJ: Talbot Publishing. Lundmark, Thomas, Charting the divide between common and civil law, Oxford University Press, 2012. MacDougal, M.S. 'The Comparative Study of Law for Policy Purposes: Value Clarification as an Instrument of Democratic World Order' (1952) 61 Yale Law Journal 915 (difficulties and requirements of good comparative law). . Menski Werner (2006) Comparative Law in a Global Context: the Legal Traditions of Asia and Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Orucu, Esin and David Nelken, eds. Comparative Law: A Handbook. Oxford: Hart, 2007. Reimann, Mathias & Reinhard Zimmermann, eds. The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Law, 2nd edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019 (1st edn. 2008). Samuel, Geoffrey. An Introduction to Comparative Law Theory and Method. Oxford: Hart, 2014. Siems, Mathias. Comparative Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014. Watson, Alan. Legal Transplants: An Approach to Comparative Law, 2nd edn. University of Georgia Press, 1993. Zweigert, Konrad & Hein Kötz. An Introduction to Comparative Law, 3rd edn. Trans. Tony Weir. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998. Legal systems . Glendon, Mary Ann, Paolo G. Carozza, & Colin B. Picker. Comparative Legal Traditions in a Nutshell, 4th edn. West Academic Publishing, 2015. Glendon, Mary Ann, Paolo G. Carozza, & Colin B. Picker (2014). Comparative Legal Traditions: Text, Materials and Cases on Western Law, 4th edn. West Academic Publishing. Glenn, H. Patrick. Legal Traditions of the World, 5th edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014 (1st edn 2000). Fields Bignami, Fracesca & David Zaring, eds. Comparative Law and Regulation: Understanding the Global Regulatory Process. Edward Elgar, 2018. Graziano, Thomas Kadner. Comparative Contract Law: Cases, Materials and Exercises, 2nd edn. Edward Elgar, 2019. Kozolchyk, Boris. Comparative Commercial Contracts: Law, Culture and Economic Development, 2nd edn. West Academic Publishing, 2018. Nelken, David, ed. Contrasting Criminal Justice: Getting from Here to There. Aldershot: Ashgate/Dartmouth, 2000. Roberts, Anthea et al., eds. Comparative International Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018. External links Alan Watson Foundation Eason Weinmann Center for International and Comparative Law at Tulane University Law School European Union national law portal Global-Regulation search engine International Academy of Comparative Law International Association of Constitutional Law International Constitutional Law JuriGlobe Max Planck Institute for Comparative Public Law and International Law Oxford University Comparative Law Forum US Library of Congress Guide to Law Online: Nations US Library of Congress Global Law blog Category:Academic disciplines Category:Jurisprudence	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_law	2025-04-05T18:28:08.052749
7380	CD (disambiguation)	A CD or compact disc is a thin plastic silvery disc for audio recordings. CD or cd may also refer to: Science and technology Astronomy and cosmology Cordoba Durchmusterung, a star catalog of the southern sky Cosmological decade or CÐ, a unit of time Type-cD galaxy, a galaxy morphology classification Biology, ecology, and medicine Coeliac disease, long term autoimmune disorder causing intolerance to gluten Conduct disorder, a psychological disorder Conservation Dependent or LR/cd, an IUCN category Cluster of differentiation, a protocol used for the identification of cell surface molecules on white blood cells Crohn's disease Chlordane Communicable disease Computing CD-ROM, compact disc technology applied for use in computer data cd (command), a command line command to change the current working directory in operating systems continuous delivery, a software development design practice continuous deployment, a software development design practice collision detection, CSMA/CD Mathematics cd (elliptic function), one of Jacobi's elliptic functions Other uses in science and technology Cadmium, symbol Cd, a chemical element Candela or cd, a unit of light intensity -CD, the North American call sign suffix for Class A low-power television stations operating with digital signals Circular dichroism, a form of spectroscopy Critical Dimension, the minimum feature size that a projection system can print in photolithography Drag coefficient or cd, a dimensionless quantity used to quantify the drag of an object in a fluid Cluster decay, a rare mode of nuclear decay Businesses and organizations Government, military, and political Canadian Forces' Decoration, by post-nominal letters Centre Democrats (Denmark), a Danish former political party Centre Democrats (Netherlands), a former political party of the Netherlands Centro Democratico, a political party in Italy Christian democracy, a political ideology Civil defense, an effort to protect the citizens of a state from military attack and natural disasters Community of Democracies, an intergovernmental organization of democracies and democratizing countries Conference on Disarmament, an international forum that negotiates multilateral arms control and disarmament agreements Corps Diplomatique, the collective body of foreign diplomats accredited to a particular country or body FBI Counterintelligence Division, the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation's division responsible for investigating espionage Other business and organizations Certificate of deposit, a bank account in the United States with a fixed maturity date České dráhy or ČD, a railway operator of the Czech Republic Commander of the Order of Distinction, a rank in the Jamaican Orders of Societies of Honour Places Central District, Seattle, a district in Seattle Democratic Republic of the Congo, by ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code .cd, the Internet domain of the Democratic Republic of the Congo cd., abbreviation for caddesi, street, in Turkish Other uses 400 (number), written CD in Roman numerals 205 (number), written CD in hexadecimal AD 400 (CD), a year of the Common Era C.D (Criminal or Devil), a psychological thriller movie "CD", a song by T2 (band) cd, for cord (unit) of volume of wood Geely CD, a coupe automobile made by Geely Automobile Cairo Damascus or Damascus Document, a text found among the Dead Sea Scrolls Committee Draft, a status in the International Organization for Standardization Companion dog (title), a title offered to dogs by the American Kennel Club for dog obedience Cross-dressing, the act of wearing clothing associated with the opposite sex Corendon Dutch Airlines (IATA code) Sega CD, also known as the Sega Mega-CD, a CD-ROM accessory and format for the Sega Genesis produced by Sega as part of the fourth generation of video game consoles Sonic CD, a 1993 platform game developed and published by Sega for the Sega CD Bitter CD, a luxury hatchback coupé Cúcuta Deportivo, a Colombian football club See also CDS (disambiguation) CeeDee (disambiguation) C&D (disambiguation)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD_(disambiguation)	2025-04-05T18:28:08.057051
7381	Cyberspace	}} , China. Artificial landscapes and "city lights at night" were some of the first metaphors used by the genre for cyberspace (in Neuromancer, by William Gibson).]] Cyberspace is an interconnected digital environment. It is a type of virtual world popularized with the rise of the Internet. The term entered popular culture from science fiction and the arts but is now used by technology strategists, security professionals, governments, military and industry leaders and entrepreneurs to describe the domain of the global technology environment, commonly defined as standing for the global network of interdependent information technology infrastructures, telecommunications networks and computer processing systems. Others consider cyberspace to be just a notional environment in which communication over computer networks occurs. The word became popular in the 1990s when the use of the Internet, networking, and digital communication were all growing dramatically; the term cyberspace was able to represent the many new ideas and phenomena that were emerging. As a social experience, individuals can interact, exchange ideas, share information, provide social support, conduct business, direct actions, create artistic media, play games, engage in political discussion, and so on, using this global network. Cyberspace users are sometimes referred to as cybernauts. The term cyberspace has become a conventional means to describe anything associated with general computing, the Internet and the diverse Internet culture. The U.S. government recognizes the interdependent network of information technology infrastructures and cyber-physical systems operating across this medium as part of the US national critical infrastructure. Amongst individuals on cyberspace, there is believed to be a code of shared rules and ethics mutually beneficial for all to follow, referred to as cyberethics. Many view the right to privacy as most important to a functional code of cyberethics. Such moral responsibilities go hand in hand when working online with global networks, specifically when opinions are involved with online social experiences. According to Chip Morningstar and F. Randall Farmer, cyberspace is defined more by the social interactions involved rather than its technical implementation. In their view, the computational medium in cyberspace is an augmentation of the communication channel between real people; the core characteristic of cyberspace is that it offers an environment that consists of many participants with the ability to affect and influence each other. They derive this concept from the observation that people seek richness, complexity, and depth within a virtual world. Etymology The term cyberspace first appeared in the visual arts in the late 1960s, when Danish artist Susanne Ussing (1940–1998) and her partner architect Carsten Hoff (b. 1934) constituted themselves as Atelier Cyberspace. Under this name the two made a series of installations and images entitled "sensory spaces" that were based on the principle of open systems adaptable to various influences, such as human movement and the behaviour of new materials. Atelier Cyberspace worked at a time when the Internet did not exist and computers were more or less off-limit to artists and creative engagement. In a 2015 interview with Scandinavian art magazine Kunstkritikk, Carsten Hoff recollects that although Atelier Cyberspace did try to implement computers, they had no interest in the virtual space as such: The term cyberspace first appeared in fiction in the 1980s in the work of cyberpunk science fiction author William Gibson, first in his 1982 short story "Burning Chrome" and later in his 1984 novel Neuromancer. In the next few years, the word became prominently identified with online computer networks. The portion of Neuromancer cited in this respect is usually the following: Now widely used, the term has since been criticized by Gibson, who commented on the origin of the term in the 2000 documentary No Maps for These Territories: Metaphorical Don Slater uses a metaphor to define cyberspace, describing the "sense of a social setting that exists purely within a space of representation and communication ... it exists entirely within a computer space, distributed across increasingly complex and fluid networks." The term cyberspace started to become a de facto synonym for the Internet, and later the World Wide Web, during the 1990s, especially in academic circles and activist communities. Author Bruce Sterling, who popularized this meaning, credits John Perry Barlow as the first to use it to refer to "the present-day nexus of computer and telecommunications networks". Barlow describes it thus in his essay to announce the formation of the Electronic Frontier Foundation (note the spatial metaphor) in June 1990: As Barlow and the EFF continued public education efforts to promote the idea of "digital rights", the term was increasingly used during the Internet boom of the late 1990s. Virtual environments Although in the present-day, loose use of the term cyberspace no longer implies or suggests immersion in a virtual reality, current technology allows the integration of a number of capabilities (sensors, signals, connections, transmissions, processors, and controllers) sufficient to generate a virtual interactive experience that is accessible regardless of a geographic location. It is for these reasons cyberspace has been described as the ultimate tax haven. In 1989, Autodesk, an American multinational corporation that focuses on 2D and 3D design software, developed a virtual design system called Cyberspace. Recent definitions of Cyberspace Although several definitions of cyberspace can be found both in scientific literature and in official governmental sources, there is no fully agreed official definition yet. According to F. D. Kramer ,there are 28 different definitions of the term cyberspace. The most recent draft definition is the following: The Joint Chiefs of Staff of the United States Department of Defense define cyberspace as one of five interdependent domains, the remaining four being land, air, maritime, and space. See United States Cyber CommandCyberspace as an Internet metaphor While cyberspace should not be confused with the Internet, the term is often used to refer to objects and identities that exist largely within the communication network itself, so that a website, for example, might be metaphorically said to "exist in cyberspace". According to this interpretation, events taking place on the Internet are not happening in the locations where participants or servers are physically located, but "in cyberspace". The philosopher Michel Foucault used the term heterotopias to describe such spaces which are simultaneously physical and mental. Firstly, cyberspace describes the flow of digital data through the network of interconnected computers: it is at once not "real"since one could not spatially locate it as a tangible objectand clearly "real" in its effects. There have been several attempts to create a concise model about how cyberspace works since it is not a physical thing that can be looked at. Secondly, cyberspace is the site of computer-mediated communication (CMC), in which online relationships and alternative forms of online identity are enacted, raising important questions about the social psychology of Internet use, the relationship between "online" and "offline" forms of life and interaction, and the relationship between the "real" and the virtual. Cyberspace draws attention to remediation of culture through new media technologies: it is not just a communication tool, but a social destination, and is culturally significant in its own right. Finally, cyberspace can be seen as providing new opportunities to reshape society and culture through "hidden" identities, or it can be seen as borderless communication and culture. The "space" in cyberspace has more in common with the abstract, mathematical meanings of the term (see space) than physical space. It does not have the duality of positive and negative volume (while in physical space, for example, a room has the negative volume of usable space delineated by positive volume of walls, Internet users cannot enter the screen and explore the unknown part of the Internet as an extension of the space they are in), but spatial meaning can be attributed to the relationship between different pages (of books as well as web servers), considering the unturned pages to be somewhere "out there." The concept of cyberspace, therefore, refers not to the content being presented to the surfer, but rather to the possibility of surfing among different sites, with feedback loops between the user and the rest of the system creating the potential to always encounter something unknown or unexpected. Video games differ from text-based communication in that on-screen images are meant to be figures that actually occupy a space and the animation shows the movement of those figures. Images are supposed to form the positive volume that delineates the empty space. A game adopts the cyberspace metaphor by engaging more players in the game, and then figuratively representing them on the screen as avatars. Games do not have to stop at the avatar-player level, but current implementations aiming for more immersive playing space (i.e. Laser tag) take the form of augmented reality rather than cyberspace, fully immersive virtual realities remaining impractical. Although the more radical consequences of the global communication network predicted by some cyberspace proponents (i.e. the diminishing of state influence envisioned by John Perry Barlow) failed to materialize and the word lost some of its novelty appeal, it remains current . Some virtual communities explicitly refer to the concept of cyberspacefor example, Linden Lab calling their customers "Residents" of Second Lifewhile all such communities can be positioned "in cyberspace" for explanatory and comparative purposes (as did Sterling in The Hacker Crackdown, followed by many journalists), integrating the metaphor into a wider cyber-culture. The metaphor has been useful in helping a new generation of thought leaders to reason through new military strategies around the world, led largely by the US Department of Defense (DoD). The use of cyberspace as a metaphor has had its limits, however, especially in areas where the metaphor becomes confused with physical infrastructure. It has also been critiqued as being unhelpful for falsely employing a spatial metaphor to describe what is inherently a network. to distrust art as deceiving people into entering a world which was not real (see Aniconism). The artistic challenge was resurrected with increasing ambition as art became more and more realistic with the invention of photography, film (see Arrival of a Train at La Ciotat), and immersive computer simulations. Influenced by computers Philosophy American counterculture exponents like William S. Burroughs (whose literary influence on Gibson and cyberpunk in general is widely acknowledged) and Timothy Leary were among the first to extol the potential of computers and computer networks for individual empowerment. Some contemporary philosophers and scientists (e.g. David Deutsch in The Fabric of Reality) employ virtual reality in various thought experiments. For example, Philip Zhai in Get Real: A Philosophical Adventure in Virtual Reality connects cyberspace to the Platonic tradition: Note that this brain-in-a-vat argument conflates cyberspace with reality, while the more common descriptions of cyberspace contrast it with the "real world". Cyber-Geography The “Geography of Notopia” (Papadimitriou, 2006) theorizes about the complex interplay of cyber-cultures and the geographical space. This interplay has several philosophical and psychological facets (Papadimitriou, 2009). A New Communication Model The technological convergence of the mass media is the result of a long adaptation process of their communicative resources to the evolutionary changes of each historical moment. Thus, the new media became (plurally) an extension of the traditional media in cyberspace, allowing to the public access information in a wide range of digital devices. In other words, it is a cultural virtualization of human reality as a result of the migration from physical to virtual space (mediated by the ICTs), ruled by codes, signs and particular social relationships. Forwards, arise instant ways of communication, interaction and possible quick access to information, in which we are no longer mere senders, but also producers, reproducers, co-workers and providers. New technologies also help to "connect" people from different cultures outside the virtual space, which was unthinkable fifty years ago. In this giant relationships web, we mutually absorb each other's beliefs, customs, values, laws and habits, cultural legacies perpetuated by a physical-virtual dynamics in constant metamorphosis (ibidem). In this sense, Professor Doctor Marcelo Mendonça Teixeira created, in 2013, a new model of communication to the virtual universe, based in Claude Elwood Shannon (1948) article "A Mathematical Theory of Communication". Art Having originated among writers, the concept of cyberspace remains most popular in literature and film. Although artists working with other media have expressed interest in the concept, such as Roy Ascott, "cyberspace" in digital art is mostly used as a synonym for immersive virtual reality and remains more discussed than enacted. Computer crime Cyberspace also brings together every service and facility imaginable to expedite money laundering. One can purchase anonymous credit cards, bank accounts, encrypted global mobile telephones, and false passports. From there one can pay professional advisors to set up IBCs (International Business Corporations, or corporations with anonymous ownership) or similar structures in OFCs (Offshore Financial Centers). Such advisors are loath to ask any penetrating questions about the wealth and activities of their clients, since the average fees criminals pay them to launder their money can be as much as 20 percent. 5-level model In 2010, a five-level model was designed in France. According to this model, cyberspace is composed of five layers based on information discoveries: 1) language, 2) writing, 3) printing, 4) Internet, 5) Etc., i.e. the rest, e.g. noosphere, artificial life, artificial intelligence, etc., etc. This original model links the world of information to telecommunication technologies.See also * * * * * * * * * * Further reading * Branch, J. (2020). "[https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-organization/article/whats-in-a-name-metaphors-and-cybersecurity/563998100A2FAF1E5DFDB5C52EC68569 What's in a Name? Metaphors and Cybersecurity.]" International Organization. References Sources <!-- see WP:GTL#Standard appendices --> Cyberculture, The key Concepts, edited by David Bell, Brian D.Loader, Nicholas Pleace and Douglas Schuler Christine Buci-Glucksmann, "L’art à l’époque virtuel", in Frontières esthétiques de l’art, Arts 8, Paris: L’Harmattan, 2004 William Gibson. Neuromancer:20th Anniversary Edition. New York:Ace Books, 2004. Oliver Grau: Virtual Art. From Illusion to Immersion, MIT-Press, Cambridge 2003. (4 Auflagen). David Koepsell, The Ontology of Cyberspace, Chicago: Open Court, 2000. Irvine, Martin. [https://web.archive.org/web/20061019064013/http://www.georgetown.edu/faculty/irvinem/technoculture/pomosf.html "Postmodern Science Fiction and Cyberpunk"], retrieved 2006-07-19. Slater, Don 2002, 'Social Relationships and Identity Online and Offline', in L.Lievrouw and S.Livingston (eds), The Handbook of New Media, Sage, London, pp533–46. * Sterling, Bruce. The Hacker Crackdown: Law and Disorder On the Electronic Frontier. Spectra Books, 1992. Zhai, Philip. Get Real: A Philosophical Adventure in Virtual Reality. New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 1998. Teixeira, Marcelo Mendonça (2012). Cyberculture: From Plato To The Virtual Universe. The Architecture of Collective Intelligence. Munich: Grin Verlag. External links [https://web.archive.org/web/20041128084523/http://www.eff.org/~barlow/Declaration-Final.html A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace] by John Perry Barlow * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060408081239/http://www.sociosite.org/index_en.php Peculiarities of Cyberspace] by Albert Benschop * [https://web.archive.org/web/20040406025300/http://www.thiemeworks.com/islands/aug/sexrnc.html Sex, Religion and Cyberspace] by Richard Thieme * [https://web.archive.org/web/20020919045219/http://www.uwichill.edu.bb/bnccde/ph29a/putnam.html Brains in a vat] philosophical argument against the idea that we could be in cyberspace and not know it by Hilary Putnam * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071213152514/http://www.af.mil/library/speeches/speech.asp?id=283 Cyberspace as a Domain] In which the Air Force Flies and Fights, Speech by Secretary of the Air Force Michael Wynne Category:Cyberpunk themes Category:History of the Internet Category:Hyperreality Category:Information Age Category:Virtual reality Category:William Gibson Category:1980s neologisms	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyberspace	2025-04-05T18:28:08.070092
7382	The Maritimes	\| other_name \| settlement_type <!-- images, nickname, motto --> \| image_flag \| image_shield \| motto \| nickname \| etymology = <!-- location --> \| subdivision_type \| subdivision_name \| subdivision_type1 = Composition \| subdivision_name1 \| subdivision_type2 = Largest metro \| subdivision_name2 = Halifax \| subdivision_type3 \| subdivision_name3 \| subdivision_type4 \| subdivision_name4 <!-- maps and coordinates --> \| image_map = The Maritimes in Canada.svg \| map_caption = The Maritime provinces (red) within the rest of Canada \| pushpin_map \| pushpin_relief \| pushpin_map_caption \| coordinates \| coordinates_footnotes = <!-- established --> \| established_title \| established_date <!-- area --> \| area_footnotes \| area_total_km2 130017.11 \| area_total_sq_mi \| area_land_sq_mi \| area_water_sq_mi = <!-- elevation --> \| elevation_footnotes \| elevation_m \| elevation_ft = <!-- population --> \| population_as_of = 2021 \| population_footnotes \| population_total 1899324 \| population_density_km2 = auto \| population_density_sq_mi\| population_demonym Maritimer <!-- time zone(s) --> \| timezone1 = AST \| utc_offset1 = −4:00 \| timezone1_DST = ADT \| utc_offset1_DST = −3:00 <!-- postal codes, area code --> \| postal_code_type \| postal_code \| area_code_type \| area_code \| geocode \| iso_code <!-- website, footnotes --> \| website \| footnotes }} The Maritimes, also called the Maritime provinces, is a region of Eastern Canada consisting of three provinces: New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island. The Maritimes had a population of 1,899,324 in 2021, which makes up 5.1% of Canada's population. Together with Canada's easternmost province, Newfoundland and Labrador, the Maritime provinces make up the region of Atlantic Canada. Located along the Atlantic coast, various aquatic sub-basins are located in the Maritimes, such as the Gulf of Maine and Gulf of St. Lawrence. The region is located northeast of New England in the United States, south and southeast of Quebec's Gaspé Peninsula, and southwest of the island of Newfoundland. The notion of a Maritime Union has been proposed at various times in Canada's history; the first discussions in 1864 at the Charlottetown Conference contributed to Canadian Confederation. This movement formed the larger Dominion of Canada. The Mi'kmaq, Maliseet and Passamaquoddy people are indigenous to the Maritimes, while Acadian and British settlements date to the 17th century. Name The word maritime is an adjective that means of the sea; from Latin "of the sea, near the sea", from "sea". Thus any land adjacent to the sea can be considered maritime. But the term Maritimes has historically been collectively applied to New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island, all of which border the Atlantic Ocean. History The pre-history of the Canadian Maritimes begins after the northerly retreat of glaciers at the end of the Wisconsin glaciation over 10,000 years ago; human settlement by First Nations began in the Maritimes with Paleo-Indians during the Early Period, ending around 6,000 years ago. The Middle Period, starting 6,000 years ago, and ending 3,000 years ago, was dominated by rising sea levels from the melting glaciers in polar regions. This is when what is called the Laurentian tradition started among Archaic Indians, the term used for First Nations peoples of the time. Evidence of Archaic Indian burial mounds and other ceremonial sites existing in the Saint John River valley has been uncovered. The Late Period extended from 3,000 years ago until first contact with European settlers. This period was dominated by the organization of First Nations peoples into the Algonquian-speaking Abenaki Nation, which occupied territory largely in present-day interior Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine, and the Mi'kmaq Nation, which inhabited all of Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, eastern New Brunswick and the southern Gaspé. The primarily agrarian Maliseet Nation settled throughout the Saint John River and Allagash River valleys of present-day New Brunswick and Maine. The Passamaquoddy Nation inhabited the northwestern coastal regions of the present-day Bay of Fundy. The Mi'kmaq Nation is also believed to have crossed the present-day Cabot Strait at around this time to settle on the south coast of Newfoundland, but they were a minority compared to the Beothuk Nation. European contact After Newfoundland, the Maritimes were the second area in Canada to be settled by Europeans. There is evidence that Viking explorers discovered and settled in the Vinland region around 1000 AD, which is when the L'Anse aux Meadows settlement in Newfoundland and Labrador has been dated. They may have made further exploration into the present-day Maritimes and northeastern United States. Both Giovanni Caboto (John Cabot) and Giovanni da Verrazzano are reported to have sailed in or near Maritime waters during their voyages of discovery for England and France, respectively. Several Portuguese explorers / cartographers have also documented various parts of the Maritimes, namely Diogo Homem. However, it was French explorer Jacques Cartier who made the first detailed reconnaissance of the region for a European power and, in so doing, claimed the region for the King of France. Cartier was followed by nobleman Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons, who was accompanied by explorer / cartographer Samuel de Champlain in a 1604 expedition. During this they established the second permanent European settlement in what is now the United States and Canada, following Spain's settlement at St. Augustine in present-day Florida in the American South. Champlain's settlement at Saint Croix Island, later moved to Port Royal (Annapolis Royal), survived. By contrast, the ill-fated English settlement at Roanoke Colony off the southern American coast did not. The French settlement pre-dated the more successful English settlement at Jamestown in present-day Virginia by three years. Champlain was considered the founder of New France's province of Canada, which comprises much of the present-day lower St. Lawrence River valley in the province of Quebec.Acadia Champlain's success in the region, which came to be called , led to the fertile tidal marshes surrounding the southeastern and northeastern reaches of the Bay of Fundy being populated by French immigrants who called themselves . The Acadians eventually built small settlements throughout what is today mainland Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, as well as Île-Saint-Jean (Prince Edward Island), Île-Royale (Cape Breton Island), and other shorelines of the Gulf of St. Lawrence in present-day Newfoundland and Labrador, and Quebec. Acadian settlements had primarily agrarian economies. Early examples of Acadian fishing settlements developed in southwestern Nova Scotia and in Île-Royale, as well as along the south and west coasts of Newfoundland, the Gaspé Peninsula, and the present-day Côte-Nord region of Quebec. Most Acadian fishing activities were overshadowed by the much larger seasonal European fishing fleets that were based out of Newfoundland and took advantage of proximity to the Grand Banks. The growing English colonies along the American seaboard to the south and various European wars between England and France during the 17th and 18th centuries brought Acadia to the centre of world-scale geopolitical forces. In 1613, Virginian raiders captured Port-Royal, and in 1621 France ceded Acadia to Scotland's Sir William Alexander, who renamed it Nova Scotia. By 1632, Acadia was returned from Scotland to France under the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye. The Port Royale settlement was moved to the site of nearby present-day Annapolis Royal. More French immigrant settlers, primarily from the Brittany, Normandie, and Vienne regions of France, continued to populate the colony of Acadia during the latter part of the 17th and early part of the 18th centuries. Important settlements also began in the Beaubassin region of the present-day Isthmus of Chignecto, and in the Saint John River valley, as well as smaller communities on Île-Saint-Jean and Île-Royale. In 1654, raiders from New England attacked Acadian settlements on the Annapolis Basin. Acadians lived with uncertainty throughout the English constitutional crises under Oliver Cromwell, and it was not until the Treaty of Breda in 1667 that France's claim to the region was reaffirmed. Colonial administration by France throughout the history of Acadia was of low priority. France's priorities were in settling and strengthening its claim on the larger territory of New France and the exploration and settlement of interior North America and the Mississippi River valley. Colonial wars Over 74 years (1689–1763) there were six colonial wars, which involved continuous warfare between New England and Acadia (see the French and Indian Wars reflecting English and French tensions in Europe, as well as Father Rale's War (Dummer's War) and Father Le Loutre's War). Throughout these wars, New England was allied with the Iroquois Confederacy based around the southern Great Lakes and west of the Hudson River. Acadian settlers were allied with the Wabanaki Confederacy. In the first war, King William's War (the North American theatre of the Nine Years' War), natives from the Maritime region participated in numerous attacks with the French on the Acadia / New England border in southern Maine (e.g., Raid on Salmon Falls). New England retaliatory raids on Acadia, such as the Raid on Chignecto, were conducted by Benjamin Church. In the second war, Queen Anne's War (the North American theatre of the War of the Spanish Succession), the British conducted the Conquest of Acadia, while the region remained primarily in control of Maliseet militia, Acadia militia and Mi'kmaw militia. In 1719, to further protect strategic interests in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and St. Lawrence River, France began the 20-year construction of a large fortress at Louisbourg on Île-Royale. Massachusetts was increasingly concerned over reports of the capabilities of this fortress, and of privateers staging out of its harbour to raid New England fishermen on the Grand Banks. In the fourth war, King George's War (the North American theatre of the War of the Austrian Succession), the British engaged successfully in the Siege of Louisbourg. The British returned control of Île-Royale to France with the fortress virtually intact three years later under the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle and the French reestablished their forces there. In 1749, to counter the rising threat of Louisbourg, Halifax was founded and the Royal Navy established a major naval base and citadel. The founding of Halifax sparked Father Le Loutre's War. : A View of the Plundering and Burning of the City of Grimross (present day Arcadia, New Brunswick) by Thomas Davies in 1758. This is the only contemporaneous image of the Expulsion of the Acadians.]] During the sixth and final colonial war, the French and Indian War (the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War), the military conflicts in Nova Scotia continued. The British Conquest of Acadia happened in 1710. Over the next forty-five years, the Acadians refused to sign an unconditional oath of allegiance to Britain. During this time period Acadians participated in various militia operations against the British and maintained vital supply lines to the French Fortress of Louisbourg and Fort Beausejour. The British sought to neutralize any military threat Acadians posed and to interrupt the vital supply lines Acadians provided to Louisbourg by deporting Acadians from Acadia. The British began the Expulsion of the Acadians with the Bay of Fundy campaign in 1755. Over the next nine years over 12,000 Acadians of 15,000 were removed from Nova Scotia. ]] In 1758, the fortress of Louisbourg was laid siege for a second time within 15 years, this time by more than 27,000 British soldiers and sailors with over 150 warships. After the French surrender, Louisbourg was thoroughly destroyed by British engineers to ensure it would never be reclaimed. With the fall of Louisbourg, French and Mi'kmaw resistance in the region crumbled. British forces seized remaining French control over Acadia in the coming months, with Île-Saint-Jean falling in 1759 to British forces on their way to Quebec City for the first siege of Quebec and the ensuing Battle of the Plains of Abraham. The war ended and Britain had gained control over the entire Maritime region and the Indigenous people signed the Halifax Treaties. American Revolution Following the Seven Years' War, empty Acadian lands were settled first by 8,000 New England Planters and then by immigrants brought from Yorkshire. Île-Royale was renamed Cape Breton Island and incorporated into the Colony of Nova Scotia. Some of the Acadians who had been deported came back but went to the eastern coasts of New Brunswick. Both the colonies of Nova Scotia (present-day Nova Scotia and New Brunswick) and St. John's Island (Prince Edward Island) were affected by the American Revolutionary War, largely by privateering against American shipping, but several coastal communities were also the targets of American raiders. Charlottetown, the capital of the new colony of St. John's Island, was ransacked in 1775 with the provincial secretary kidnapped and the Great Seal stolen. The largest military action in the Maritimes during the revolutionary war was the attack on Fort Cumberland (the renamed Fort Beauséjour) in 1776 by a force of American sympathizers led by Jonathan Eddy. The fort was partially overrun after a month-long siege, but the attackers were ultimately repelled after the arrival of British reinforcements from Halifax. The most significant impact from this war was the settling of large numbers of Loyalist refugees in the region (34,000 to the 17,000 settlers already there), especially in Shelburne and Parrtown (Saint John). Following the Treaty of Paris in 1783, Loyalist settlers in what would become New Brunswick persuaded British administrators to split the Colony of Nova Scotia to create the new colony of New Brunswick in 1784. At the same time, another part of the Colony of Nova Scotia, Cape Breton Island, was split off to become the Colony of Cape Breton Island. The Colony of St. John's Island was renamed Prince Edward Island on November 29, 1798. The War of 1812 had some effect on the shipping industry in the Maritime colonies of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Cape Breton Island; however, the significant Royal Navy presence in Halifax and other ports in the region prevented any serious attempts by American raiders. Maritime and American privateers targeted unprotected shipping of both the United States and Britain respectively, further reducing trade. New Brunswick's section of the Canada–US border did not have any significant action during this conflict, although British forces did occupy a portion of coastal Maine at one point. The most significant incident from this war which occurred in the Maritimes was the British capture and detention of USS Chesapeake, an American frigate in Halifax. 19th century In 1820, the Colony of Cape Breton Island was merged back into the Colony of Nova Scotia for the second time by the British government. British settlement of the Maritimes, as the colonies of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island came to be known, accelerated throughout the late 18th century and into the 19th century with significant immigration to the region as a result of Scottish migrants displaced by the Highland Clearances and Irish escaping the Great Irish Famine (1845–1849). As a result, significant portions of the three provinces are influenced by Celtic heritages, with Scottish Gaelic (and to a lesser degree, Irish Gaelic) having been widely spoken, particularly in Cape Breton, although it is less prevalent today. During the American Civil War, a significant number of Maritimers volunteered to fight for the armies of the Union, while a small handful joined the Confederate Army. However, the majority of the conflict's impact was felt in the shipping industry. Maritime shipping boomed during the war due to large-scale Northern imports of war supplies which were often carried by Maritime ships as Union ships were vulnerable to Confederate naval raiders. Diplomatic tensions between Britain and the Unionist North had deteriorated after some interests in Britain expressed support for the secessionist Confederate South. The Union Navy, although much smaller than the British Royal Navy and no threat to the Maritimes, did posture off Maritime coasts at times chasing Confederate naval ships which sought repairs and reprovisioning in Maritime ports, especially Halifax. The immense size of the Union Army (the largest on the planet toward the end of the Civil War), however, was viewed with increasing concern by Maritimers throughout the early 1860s. Another concern was the rising threat of Fenian raids on border communities in New Brunswick by the Fenian Brotherhood seeking to end British rule in Ireland. This combination of events, coupled with an ongoing decline in British military and economic support to the region as the Home Office favoured newer colonial endeavours in Africa and elsewhere, led to a call among Maritime politicians for a conference on Maritime Union, to be held in early September 1864 in Charlottetown – chosen in part because of Prince Edward Island's reluctance to give up its jurisdictional sovereignty in favour of uniting with New Brunswick and Nova Scotia into a single colony. New Brunswick and Nova Scotia felt that if the union conference were held in Charlottetown, they might be able to convince Island politicians to support the proposal. The Charlottetown Conference, as it came to be called, was also attended by a slew of visiting delegates from the neighbouring Crown colony, the Province of Canada, who had largely arrived at their own invitation with their own agenda. This agenda saw the conference dominated by discussions of creating an even larger union of the entire territory of British North America into a united colony. The Charlottetown Conference ended with an agreement to meet the following month in Quebec City, where more formal discussions ensued, culminating with meetings in London and the signing of the British North America Act, 1867 (BNA Act). Of the Maritime provinces, only Nova Scotia and New Brunswick were initially party to the BNA Act: Prince Edward Island's reluctance, combined with a booming agricultural and fishing export economy having led to that colony opting not to sign on. Major population centres The major communities of the region include Halifax and Cape Breton in Nova Scotia, Moncton, Saint John, and Fredericton in New Brunswick, and Charlottetown in Prince Edward Island. Climate of the Maritimes]] In spite of its name, The Maritimes has a humid continental climate of the warm-summer subtype. Especially in coastal Nova Scotia, differences between summers and winters are narrow compared to the rest of Canada. The inland climate of New Brunswick is in stark contrast during winter, resembling more continental areas. Summers are somewhat tempered by the marine influence throughout the provinces, but due to the southerly parallels still remain similar to more continental areas further west. Yarmouth in Nova Scotia has significant marine influence to have a borderline oceanic microclimate, but winter nights are still cold even in all coastal areas. The northernmost areas of New Brunswick are only just above subarctic with very cold continental winters. {\| class"wikitable sortable" style"margin:auto;" \|+Average daily maximum and minimum temperatures for selected locations in The Maritimes \|- !Location !Province !July (°C) !July (°F) !January (°C) !January (°F) \|- \|Halifax \|\| Nova Scotia \|\| \|\| \|- \|Sydney \|\| Nova Scotia \|\| \|\| \|- \|Fredericton \|\| New Brunswick \|\| \|\| \|- \|Saint John \|\| New Brunswick \|\| \|\| \|- \|Moncton \|\| New Brunswick \|\| \|\| \|- \|Charlottetown \|\| Prince Edward Island \|\| \|\| \|- \|Yarmouth \|\| Nova Scotia \|\| \|\| \|- \|Campbellton \|\| New Brunswick \|\| \|\| \|- \| Greenwood \|\| Nova Scotia \|\| \|\| \|} Demographics The Maritimes were predominantly rural until recent decades, having resource-based economies of fishing, agriculture, forestry, and coal mining. Maritimers are predominantly of west European origin: Scottish Canadians, Irish Canadians, English Canadians, and Acadians. New Brunswick, in general, differs from the other two Maritime provinces in that it has a much higher Francophone population. There was once a significant Canadian Gaelic speaking population. Helen Creighton recorded Celtic traditions of rural Nova Scotia in the mid-1900s. There are Black Canadians who are mostly descendants of Black Loyalists or black refugees from the War of 1812. This Maritime population is mainly among Black Nova Scotians. There are Mi'kmaw nations in all Atlantic regions. There are also Wolastoqey nations along the Saint John River, also along parts of the Saint Lawrence River, and in Quebec toward Montreal. There are also Passamaquoddy nations along the Fundy Bay, along the edge of the US border, and across the border into Maine. Together these nations form the Wabanaki Confederacy. means 'the dawn land'. Economy Present status Given the small population of the region (compared with the Central Canadian provinces or the New England states), the regional economy is a net exporter of natural resources, manufactured goods, and services. The regional economy has long been tied to natural resources such as fishing, logging, farming, and mining activities. Significant industrialization in the second half of the 19th century brought steel to Trenton, Nova Scotia, and subsequent creation of a widespread industrial base to take advantage of the region's large underground coal deposits. After Confederation, however, this industrial base withered with technological change, and trading links to Europe and the U.S. were reduced in favour of those with Ontario and Quebec. In recent years, however, the Maritime regional economy has begun increased contributions from manufacturing again and the steady transition to a service economy. Important manufacturing centres in the region include Pictou County, Truro, the Annapolis Valley and the South Shore, and the Strait of Canso area in Nova Scotia, as well as Summerside in Prince Edward Island, and the Miramichi area, the North Shore and the upper Saint John River valley of New Brunswick. Some predominantly coastal areas have become major tourist centres, such as parts of Prince Edward Island, Cape Breton Island, the South Shore of Nova Scotia and the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Bay of Fundy coasts of New Brunswick. Additional service-related industries in information technology, pharmaceuticals, insurance and financial sectors—as well as research-related spin-offs from the region's numerous universities and colleges—are significant economic contributors. Another important contribution to Nova Scotia's provincial economy is through spin-offs and royalties relating to off-shore petroleum exploration and development. Mostly concentrated on the continental shelf of the province's Atlantic coast in the vicinity of Sable Island, exploration activities began in the 1960s and resulted in the first commercial production field for oil beginning in the 1980s. Natural gas was also discovered in the 1980s during exploration work, and this is being commercially recovered, beginning in the late 1990s. Initial optimism in Nova Scotia about the potential of off-shore resources appears to have diminished with the lack of new discoveries, although exploration work continues and is moving farther off-shore into waters on the continental margin. waterfront]] Regional transportation networks have also changed significantly in recent decades with port modernizations, with new freeway and ongoing arterial highway construction, the abandonment of various low-capacity railway branch lines (including the entire railway system of Prince Edward Island and southwestern Nova Scotia), and the construction of the Canso Causeway and the Confederation Bridge. There have been airport improvements at various centres providing improved connections to markets and destinations in the rest of North America and overseas. Improvements in infrastructure and the regional economy notwithstanding, the three provinces remain one of the poorer regions of Canada. While urban areas are growing and thriving, economic adjustments have been harsh in rural and resource-dependent communities, and emigration has been an ongoing phenomenon for some parts of the region. Another problem is seen in the lower average wages and family incomes within the region. Property values are depressed, resulting in a smaller tax base for these three provinces, particularly when compared with the national average which benefits from central and western Canadian economic growth. This has been particularly problematic with the growth of the welfare state in Canada since the 1950s, resulting in the need to draw upon equalization payments to provide nationally mandated social services. Since the 1990s the region has experienced an exceptionally tumultuous period in its regional economy with the collapse of large portions of the ground fishery throughout Atlantic Canada, the closing of coal mines and a steel mill on Cape Breton Island, and the closure of military bases in all three provinces. That being said, New Brunswick has one of the largest military bases in the Commonwealth of Nations (CFB Gagetown), which plays a significant role in the cultural and economic spheres of Fredericton, the province's capital city. Historical Growth on the steps of Government House]] ]] While the economic underperformance of the Maritime economy has been long lasting, it has not always been present. The mid-19th century, especially the 1850s and 1860s, has long been seen as a "Golden Age" in the Maritimes. Growth was strong, and the region had one of British North America's most extensive manufacturing sectors as well as a large international shipping industry. The question of why the Maritimes fell from being a centre of Canadian manufacturing to being an economic hinterland is thus a central one to the study of the region's pecuniary difficulties. The period in which the decline occurred had a great many potential culprits. In 1867 Nova Scotia and New Brunswick merged with the Canadas in Confederation, with Prince Edward Island joining them six years later in 1873. Canada was formed only a year after free trade with the United States (in the form of the Reciprocity Treaty) had ended. In the 1870s John A. Macdonald's National Policy was implemented, creating a system of protective tariffs around the new nation. Throughout the period there was also significant technological change both in the production and transportation of goods. Reputed Golden Age Several scholars have explored the so-called "Golden Age" of the Maritimes in the years just before Confederation. In Nova Scotia, the population grew steadily from 277,000 in 1851 to 388,000 in 1871, mostly from natural increase since immigration was slight. The era has been called a Golden Age, but that was a myth created in the 1930s to lure tourists to a romantic era of tall ships and antiques. Recent historians using census data have shown that is a fallacy. In 1851–1871 there was an overall increase in per capita wealth holding. However most of the gains went to the urban elite class, especially businessmen and financiers living in Halifax. The wealth held by the top 10% rose considerably over the two decades, but there was little improvement in the wealth levels in rural areas, which comprised the great majority of the population. Likewise Gwyn reports that gentlemen, merchants, bankers, colliery owners, shipowners, shipbuilders, and master mariners flourished. However the great majority of families were headed by farmers, fishermen, craftsmen and labourer. Most of them—and many widows as well—lived in poverty. Out migration became an increasingly necessary option. Thus the era was indeed a golden age but only for a small but powerful and highly visible elite. Economic decline The cause of economic malaise in the Maritimes is an issue of great debate and controversy among historians, economists, and geographers. The differing opinions can approximately be divided into the "structuralists", who argue that poor policy decisions are to blame, and the others, who argue that unavoidable technological and geographical factors caused the decline. The exact date that the Maritimes began to fall behind the rest of Canada is difficult to determine. Historian Kris Inwood places the date very early, at least in Nova Scotia, finding clear signs that the Maritimes "Golden Age" of the mid-19th century was over by 1870, before Confederation or the National Policy could have had any significant impact. Richard Caves places the date closer to 1885. T.W. Acheson takes a similar view and provides considerable evidence that the early 1880s were in fact a booming period in Nova Scotia and this growth was only undermined towards the end of that decade. David Alexander argues that any earlier declines were simply part of the global Long Depression, and that the Maritimes first fell behind the rest of Canada when the great boom period of the early 20th century had little effect on the region. E.R. Forbes, however, emphasizes that the precipitous decline did not occur until after the First World War during the 1920s when new railway policies were implemented. Forbes also contends that significant Canadian defence spending during the Second World War favoured powerful political interests in Central Canada such as C. D. Howe, when major Maritime shipyards and factories, as well as Canada's largest steel mill, located in Cape Breton Island, fared poorly. in 1910]] One of the most important changes, and one that almost certainly had an effect, was the revolution in transportation that occurred at this time. The Maritimes were connected to central Canada by the Intercolonial Railway in the 1870s, removing a longstanding barrier to trade. For the first time this placed the Maritime manufacturers in direct competition with those of Central Canada. Maritime trading patterns shifted considerably from mainly trading with New England, Britain, and the Caribbean, to being focused on commerce with the Canadian interior, enforced by the federal government's tariff policies. Coincident with the construction of railways in the region, the age of the wooden sailing ship began to come to an end, being replaced by larger and faster steel steamships. The Maritimes had long been a centre for shipbuilding, and this industry was hurt by the change. The larger ships were also less likely to call on the smaller population centres such as Saint John and Halifax, preferring to travel to cities like New York and Montreal. Even the Cunard Line, founded by Maritime-born Samuel Cunard, stopped making more than a single ceremonial voyage to Halifax each year. More controversial than the role of technology is the argument over the role of politics in the origins of the region's decline. Confederation and the tariff and railway freight policies that followed have often been blamed for having a deleterious effect on the Maritime economies. Arguments have been made that the Maritimes' poverty was caused by control over policy by Central Canada which used the national structures for its own enrichment. This was the central view of the Maritime Rights Movement of the 1920s, which advocated greater local control over the region's finances. T.W. Acheson is one of the main proponents of this theory. He notes the growth that was occurring during the early years of the National Policy in Nova Scotia demonstrates how the effects of railway fares and the tariff structure helped undermine this growth. Capitalists from Central Canada purchased the factories and industries of the Maritimes from their bankrupt local owners and proceeded to close down many of them, consolidating the industry in Central Canada. The policies in the early years of Confederation were designed by Central Canadian interests, and they reflected the needs of that region. The unified Canadian market and the introduction of railroads created a relative weakness in the Maritime economies. Central to this concept, according to Acheson, was the lack of metropolises in the Maritimes. Montreal and Toronto were well-suited to benefit from the development of large-scale manufacturing and extensive railway systems in Quebec and Ontario, these being the goals of the Macdonald and Laurier governments. In the Maritimes the situation was very different. Today New Brunswick has several mid-sized centres in Saint John, Moncton, and Fredericton but no significant population centre. Nova Scotia has a growing metropolitan area surrounding Halifax, but a contracting population in industrial Cape Breton County, and several smaller centres in Bridgewater, Kentville, Yarmouth, and Pictou County. Prince Edward Island's only significant population centres are in Charlottetown and Summerside. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, just the opposite was the case with little to no population concentration in major industrial centres as the predominantly rural resource-dependent Maritime economy continued on the same path as it had since European settlement on the region's shores. Despite the region's absence of economic growth on the same scale as other parts of the nation, the Maritimes has changed markedly throughout the 20th century, partly as a result of global and national economic trends, and partly as a result of government intervention. Each sub-region within the Maritimes has developed over time to exploit different resources and expertise. Saint John became a centre of the timber trade and shipbuilding and is currently a centre for oil refining and some manufacturing. The northern New Brunswick communities of Edmundston, Campbellton, Dalhousie, Bathurst, and Miramichi are focused on the pulp and paper industry and some mining activity. Moncton was a centre for railways and has changed its focus to becoming a multi-modal transportation centre with associated manufacturing and retail interests. The Halifax metropolitan area has come to dominate peninsular Nova Scotia as a retail and service centre, but that province's industries were spread out from the coal and steel industries of industrial Cape Breton and Pictou counties, the mixed farming of the North Shore and Annapolis Valley, and the fishing industry was primarily focused on the South Shore and Eastern Shore. Prince Edward Island is largely dominated by farming, fishing, and tourism. Given the geographic diversity of the various sub-regions within the Maritimes, policies to centralize the population and economy were not initially successful, thus Maritime factories closed while those in Ontario and Quebec prospered. The traditional staples thesis, advocated by scholars such as S.A. Saunders, looks at the resource endowments of the Maritimes and argues that it was the decline of the traditional industries of shipbuilding and fishing that led to Maritime poverty, since these processes were rooted in geography, and thus all but inevitable. Kris Inwood has revived the staples approach and looks at a number of geographic weaknesses relative to Central Canada. He repeats Acheson's argument that the region lacks major urban centres, but adds that the Maritimes were also lacking the great rivers that led to the cheap and abundant hydro-electric power, key to Quebec and Ontario's urban and manufacturing development, that the extraction costs of Maritime resources were higher (particularly in the case of Cape Breton coal), and that the soils of the region were poorer and thus the agricultural sector weaker. The Maritimes are the only provinces in Canada which entered Confederation in the 19th century and have kept their original colonial boundaries. All three provinces have the smallest land base in the country and have been forced to make do with resources within. By comparison, the former colony of the Province of Canada (divided into the District of Canada East, and the District of Canada West) and the western provinces were dozens of times larger and in some cases were expanded to take in territory formerly held in British Crown grants to companies such as the Hudson's Bay Company; in particular the November 19, 1869 sale of Rupert's Land to the Government of Canada under the ''Rupert's Land Act 1868'' was facilitated in part by Maritime taxpayers. The economic riches of energy and natural resources held within this larger land base were only realized by other provinces during the 20th century. Industries The maritime provinces' main industry is fishing. Fishing can be found in any maritime province. This includes fishing for lobster, mackerel, tuna, salmon and many more kinds of fish. Oysters and salmonoid aquaculture is also increasingly important economically. Nova Scotia Nova Scotia is very strong in agriculture, forestry and fishing. Prince Edward Island Tourism is important to the economy of PEI. Anne of Green Gables was written in PEI, and this attracts tourists to PEI. PEI is also known for its agriculture, mainly the potato, and fishing industries. New Brunswick ]] Agriculture and forestry are two prominent industries found in New Brunswick. Despite having an extensive coastline, New Brunswick's industrial sector has never been entirely reliant on the success of the fisheries. Likewise, the strong shipbuilding heritage of the province directly relates to its forest resources. Because of this, New Brunswickers tend to attribute their cultural heritage less with the sea and more with their forests and rivers. Politics Maritime conservatism since the Second World War has been very much part of the Red Tory tradition, key influences being former Premier of Nova Scotia and federal Progressive Conservative Party leader Robert Stanfield and New Brunswick Tory strategist Dalton Camp. In recent years, the social democratic New Democratic Party (NDP) has made significant inroads both federally and provincially in the region. The NDP has elected members of parliament (MPs) from New Brunswick, but most of the focus of the party at the federal and provincial levels is currently in the Halifax area of Nova Scotia. Industrial Cape Breton has historically been a region of labour activism, electing Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (and later NDP) MPs, and even produced many early members of the Communist Party of Canada in the pre-Second World War era. In the 2004 federal election, the NDP captured 28.45% of the vote in Nova Scotia, more than any other province. In the 2009 provincial election the NDP formed a majority government, the first in the region. In the 2004 federal election, the Conservatives had one of the worst showings in the region for a right-wing party, going back to Confederation, with the exception of the 1993 election. The Conservative party improved its seat count in the 2008 and elected 13 MPs in the 2011 election. However, in the 2015 election the Liberal Party won every seat in the region, defeating all of the Conservative (and NDP) challengers. The Liberal Party of Canada has done well in the Maritimes in the past because of its interventionist policies. The Acadian Peninsula region of New Brunswick tends to vote for the Liberals or NDP for social political reasons, as well as treatment of the French by various parties. In the 1997 federal election, Prime Minister Jean Chrétien's Liberals endured a bitter defeat to the PCs and NDP in many ridings as a result of unpopular cuts to unemployment benefits for seasonal workers, as well as closures of several Canadian Forces bases, the refusal to honour a promise to rescind the Goods and Services Tax, cutbacks to provincial equalization payments, health care, post-secondary education and regional transportation infrastructure such as airports, fishing harbours, seaports, and railways . The Liberals held onto seats in Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick, while being shut out of Nova Scotia entirely, the second time in history (the only other time being the Diefenbaker sweep). In 2015 the Liberals won every seat in The Maritimes, defeating Conservative and NDP incumbents. The Maritimes is currently represented in the Canadian Parliament by 25 Members of the House of Commons (Nova Scotia – 11, New Brunswick – 10, Prince Edward Island – 4) and 24 Senators (Nova Scotia and New Brunswick – 10 each, Prince Edward Island – 4). This level of representation was established at the time of Confederation when the Maritimes had a much larger proportion of the national population. The comparatively large population growth of western and central Canada during the immigration boom of the 20th century has reduced the Maritimes' proportion of the national population to less than 10%, resulting in an over-representation in Parliament, with some federal ridings having fewer than 35,000 people, compared to central and western Canada where ridings typically contain 100,000–120,000 people. The Senate of Canada is structured along regional lines, giving an equal number of seats (24) to the Maritimes, Ontario, Quebec, and western Canada, in addition to the later entry of Newfoundland and Labrador, as well as the three territories. Enshrined in the Constitution, this model was developed to ensure that no area of the country is able to exert undue influence in the Senate. The Maritimes, with its much smaller proportion of the national population (compared to the time of Confederation) also have an over-representation in the Senate, particularly compared to the population growth of Ontario and the western provinces. This has led to calls to reform the Senate; however, such a move would entail constitutional changes. Another factor related to the number of Senate seats is that a constitutional amendment in the early 20th century mandated that no province can have fewer Members of Parliament than it has senators. This court decision resulted from a complaint by the Government of Prince Edward Island after that province's number of MPs was proposed to change from 4 to 3, accounting for its declining proportion of the national population at that time. When PEI entered Confederation in 1873, it was accorded 6 MPs and 4 Senators; however this was reduced to 4 MPs by the early 20th century. Senators being appointed for life at this time, these coveted seats rarely went unfilled for a long period of time anywhere in Canada. As a result, PEI's challenge was accepted by the federal government, and its level of federal representation was secured. In the aftermath of the 1989 budget, which saw a filibuster by Liberal Senators in attempt to kill legislation creating the Goods and Services Tax, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney "stacked" the Senate by creating additional seats in several provinces across Canada, including New Brunswick; however, there was no attempt by these provinces to increase the number of MPs to reflect this change in Senate representation. See also * Acadiensis, scholarly history journal covering Atlantic Canada Maritime Film Classification Board Maritime Quebec Maritime Archaic References External links [http://www.apec-econ.ca Atlantic Provinces Economic Council] [http://www.aims.ca Atlantic Institute of Market Studies] [http://www.gpiatlantic.org Genuine Progress Indicator Atlantic] *[http://atlanticportal.hil.unb.ca/ Atlantic Canada Portal/Portail du Canada Atlantique] Category:Eastern Canada Category:Regions of Canada Category:Atlantic Canada	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Maritimes	2025-04-05T18:28:08.086854
7383	Cyril of Alexandria	\| birth_place = Didouseya, Province of Egypt, Byzantine Empire \| death_date = \| title = Patriarch of Alexandria \| death_place = Alexandria, Province of Egypt, Byzantine Empire \| venerated = \| feast_day = 28 January (Western Rite Orthodoxy) \| image = Chora-Kirche 2013-03-21zh (cropped).jpg \| caption = Fresco in the Chora, 14th century \| saint_title = The Pillar of Faith; Seal of all the Fathers; Bishop, Confessor, Bishop of Alexandria, Teacher of the Faith and also (in the Catholic Church) Doctor of the Church \| beatified_date \| beatified_place \| beatified_by \| canonized_date \| canonized_place \| canonized_by \| attributes = Vested as a bishop with phelonion and omophorion, and usually with his head covered in the manner of Egyptian monastics (sometimes the head covering has a polystavrion pattern), he usually is depicted holding a Gospel Book or a scroll, with his right hand raised in blessing. \| patronage = Alexandria \| prayer \| prayer_attrib \| archdiocese = Alexandria \| see = Alexandria \| predecessor = Theophilus of Alexandria \| successor = Pope Dioscorus I of Alexandria }} Cyril of Alexandria (; or ⲡⲓ̀ⲁⲅⲓⲟⲥ Ⲕⲓⲣⲓⲗⲗⲟⲥ; 376–444) was the Patriarch of Alexandria from 412 to 444. He was enthroned when the city was at the height of its influence and power within the Roman Empire. Cyril wrote extensively and was a major player in the Christological controversies of the late-4th and 5th centuries. He was a central figure in the Council of Ephesus in 431, which led to the deposition of Nestorius as Patriarch of Constantinople. Cyril is counted among the Church Fathers and also as a Doctor of the Church, and his reputation within the Christian world has resulted in his titles Pillar of Faith and Seal of all the Fathers. The Nestorian bishops at their synod at the Council of Ephesus declared him a heretic, labelling him as a "monster, born and educated for the destruction of the church". Cyril is well known for his dispute with Nestorius and his supporter, Patriarch John of Antioch, whom Cyril excluded from the Council of Ephesus for arriving late. He is also known for his expulsion of Novatians and Jews from Alexandria and for inflaming tensions that led to the murder of the Hellenistic philosopher Hypatia by a Christian mob. Historians disagree over the extent of his responsibility in this. Cyril tried to oblige the pious Christian emperor Theodosius II (AD 408–450) to himself by dedicating his Paschal table to him. Cyril's Paschal table was provided with a Metonic basic structure in the form of a 19-year lunar cycle adopted by him around AD 425, which was very different from the first Metonic 19-year lunar cycle invented around AD 260 by Anatolius, but exactly equal to the lunar cycle which had been introduced around AD 412 by Annianus; the Julian equivalent of this Alexandrian cycle adopted by Cyril and nowadays referred to as the "classical (Alexandrian) 19-year lunar cycle" would emerge a century later in Rome as the basic structure of Dionysius Exiguus’ Paschal table (AD 525). The Catholic Church did not commemorate Saint Cyril in the Tridentine calendar: it added his feast only in 1882, assigning to it the date of 9 February. Yet the 1969 Catholic Calendar revision moved it to 27 June, considered to be the day of the saint's death, as celebrated by the Coptic Orthodox Church. The same date has been chosen for the Lutheran calendar. The Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine Catholic Churches celebrate his feast day on 9 June and also, together with Pope Athanasius I of Alexandria, on 18 January. Cyril is remembered in the Church of England with a commemoration on 27 June. Western Rite Orthodox Christians within the Antiochian Western Rite Vicariate, which is under the auspices of the Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America, celebrate the Feast of Saint Cyril of Alexandria on 28 January, which is when his Feast Day occurs in the Roman Martyrology. Early life Little is known for certain of Cyril's early life. He was born circa 376, in the town of Didouseya, Egypt, modern-day El-Mahalla El-Kubra. A few years after his birth, his maternal uncle Theophilus rose to the powerful position of Patriarch of Alexandria. His mother remained close to her brother and under his guidance, Cyril was well educated. His writings show his knowledge of Christian writers of his day, including Eusebius, Origen, Didymus the Blind, and writers of the Church of Alexandria. He received the formal Christian education standard for his day: he studied grammar from age twelve to fourteen (390–392), rhetoric and humanities from fifteen to twenty (393–397) and finally theology and biblical studies (398–402). which deposed John Chrysostom as Archbishop of Constantinople. The prior year, Theophilus had been summoned by the emperor to Constantinople to apologize before a synod, over which Chrysostom would preside, on account of several charges which were brought against him by certain Egyptian monks. Theophilus had them persecuted as Origenists. Placing himself at the head of soldiers and armed servants, Theophilus had marched against the monks, burned their dwellings, and ill-treated those whom he captured. Theophilus arrived at Constantinople with twenty-nine of his suffragan bishops, and conferring with those opposed to the Archbishop, drafted a long list of largely unfounded accusations against Chrysostom, who refused to recognize the legality of a synod in which his open enemies were judges. Chrysostom was subsequently deposed. Patriarch of Alexandria Theophilus died on 15 October 412, and Cyril was made Pope or Patriarch of Alexandria on 18 October 412, but only after a riot between his supporters and those of his rival Archdeacon Timotheus. According to Socrates Scholasticus, the Alexandrians were always rioting. Thus, Cyril followed his uncle in a position that had become powerful and influential, rivalling that of the prefect in a time of turmoil and frequently violent conflict between the cosmopolitan city's pagan, Jewish, and Christian inhabitants. He began to exert his authority by causing the churches of the Novatianists to be closed and their sacred vessels to be seized.Controversies Dispute with the Prefect Orestes, Praefectus augustalis of the Diocese of Egypt, steadfastly resisted Cyril's ecclesiastical encroachment upon secular prerogatives. Tension between the parties increased when in 415, Orestes published an edict that outlined new regulations regarding mime shows and dancing exhibitions in the city, which attracted large crowds and were commonly prone to civil disorder of varying degrees. Crowds gathered to read the edict shortly after it was posted in the city's theater. Cyril sent the grammaticus Hierax to discover the content of the edict. The edict angered Christians as well as Jews. At one such gathering, Hierax read the edict and applauded the new regulations, prompting a disturbance. Many people felt that Hierax was attempting to incite the crowd—particularly the Jews—into sedition. Orestes had Hierax tortured in public in a theatre. This order had two aims: one to quell the riot, the other to mark Orestes' authority over Cyril. Socrates Scholasticus recounts that upon hearing of Hierex's severe and public punishment, Cyril threatened to retaliate against the Jews of Alexandria with "the utmost severities" if the harassment of Christians did not cease immediately. In response to Cyril's threat, the Jews of Alexandria grew even more furious, eventually resorting to violence against the Christians. They plotted to flush the Christians out at night by running through the streets claiming that the Church of Alexander was on fire. When Christians responded to what they were led to believe was the burning down of their church, "the Jews immediately fell upon and slew them" by using rings to recognize one another in the dark and killing everyone else in sight. When the morning came, Cyril, along with many of his followers, took to the city's synagogues in search of the perpetrators of the massacre. According to Socrates, after Cyril rounded up all the Jews in Alexandria he ordered them to be stripped of all possessions, banished them from Alexandria, and allowed their goods to be pillaged by the remaining citizens of Alexandria. Scholasticus alleges that all the Jews of Alexandria were banished, while John of Nikiû says it was only those involved in the ambush and massacre. Susan Wessel says that, while it is not clear whether Scholasticus was a Novationist (whose churches Cyril had closed), he was apparently sympathetic towards them, and repeatedly accuses Cyril of abusing his episcopal power by infringing on the rights and duties of the secular authorities. Wessel says, however, "...Socrates probably does not provide accurate and unambiguous information about Cyril's relationship to imperial authority". Nonetheless, with Cyril's banishment of the Jews, however many, "Orestes [...] was filled with great indignation at these transactions, and was excessively grieved that a city of such magnitude should have been suddenly bereft of so large a portion of its population." Murder of Hypatia The Prefect Orestes enjoyed the political backing of Hypatia, an astronomer, philosopher and mathematician who had considerable moral authority in the city of Alexandria, and who had extensive influence. Indeed, many students from wealthy and influential families came to Alexandria purposely to study privately with Hypatia, and many of these later attained high posts in government and the Church. Several Christians thought that Hypatia's influence had caused Orestes to reject all conciliatory offerings by Cyril. Modern historians think that Orestes had cultivated his relationship with Hypatia to strengthen a bond with the pagan community of Alexandria, as he had done with the Jewish one, in order to better manage the tumultuous political life of the Egyptian capital. According to Socrates Scholasticus during the Christian season of Lent in March 415, a mob of Christians under the leadership of a lector named Peter, raided Hypatia's carriage as she was travelling home. They dragged her into a building known as the Kaisarion, a former pagan temple and center of the Roman imperial cult in Alexandria that had been converted into a Christian church. There, the mob stripped Hypatia naked and murdered her using ostraka, which can either be translated as "roof tiles" or "oyster shells". Later historian John of Nikiû also tells a similar story. Even later historian Byzantinist Fr. Adrian Fortescue, says that the mob of Christian Parabalanies and Peter, cruelly tore her to pieces on the steps of a church. Damascius adds that they also cut out her eyeballs. They tore her body into pieces and dragged her limbs through the town to a place called Cinarion, where they set them on fire. According to Watts, this was in line with the traditional manner in which Alexandrians carried the bodies of the "vilest criminals" outside the city limits to cremate them as a way of symbolically purifying the city. Cyril's involvement Although Socrates Scholasticus never explicitly identifies Hypatia's murderers, they are commonly assumed to have been members of the parabalani. Christopher Haas disputes this identification, arguing that the murderers were more likely "a crowd of Alexandrian laymen". Socrates Scholasticus unequivocally condemns the actions of the mob, declaring, "Surely nothing can be farther from the spirit of Christianity than the allowance of massacres, fights, and transactions of that sort." Neoplatonist historian Damascius ( 458 – 538) was "anxious to exploit the scandal of Hypatia's death", and attributed responsibility for her murder to Bishop Cyril and his Christian followers. Damascius's account of the Christian murder of Hypatia is the sole historical source naming Bishop Cyril. Some modern studies, as well as the 2009 Hypatia biopic Agora represent Hypatia as falling casualty to a conflict between two Christian factions, one peaceful and moderate and led by Orestes, with the support of Hypatia, and fundamentalist faction enforced by Parabalani and led by Patriarch Cyril. According to lexicographer William Smith, "She was accused of too much familiarity with Orestes, prefect of Alexandria, and the charge spread among the clergy, who took up the notion that she interrupted the friendship of Orestes with their archbishop, Cyril." Scholasticus, alleges that Hypatia fell "victim to the political jealousy which at the time prevailed" and that news of Hypatia's murder, "brought no small disgrace", not only to Patriarch Cyril but to the whole Christian Church in Alexandria, "for murder and slaughter and all such things are altogether opposed to the Christian religion." After the murder, a deputation of citizens went to Constantinople to petition the Emperor for an investigation so as to prevent such horrors in the future and to put down the disorderly Parabalani, however they urged for the Patriarch to be allowed to remain in the city (Orestes wanted him banished). One could deduce from this that there were some who didn't think Cyril responsible for this or that even his own followers thought he went too far. However, according to Damascius, Cyril himself allegedly only managed to escape even more serious punishment by bribing one of Theodosius's officials. Indeed, the investigation resulted in the emperors Honorius and Theodosius II issuing an edict in autumn of 416, which attempted to remove the parabalani from Cyril's power and instead place them under the authority of Orestes. The edict restricted the parabalani from attending "any public spectacle whatever" or entering "the meeting place of a municipal council or a courtroom." It also severely restricted their recruitment by limiting the total number of parabalani to no more than five hundred. Conflict with Nestorius Another major conflict was between the Alexandrian and Antiochian schools of ecclesiastical reflection, piety, and discourse. This long running conflict widened with the third canon of the First Council of Constantinople which granted the see of Constantinople primacy over the older sees of Alexandria and Antioch. Thus, the struggle between the sees of Alexandria and Antioch now included Constantinople. The conflict came to a head in 428 after Nestorius, who originated in Antioch, was made Archbishop of Constantinople. Cyril gained an opportunity to restore Alexandria's pre-eminence over both Antioch and Constantinople when an Antiochine priest who was in Constantinople at Nestorius' behest began to preach against calling Mary the "Mother of God" (Theotokos). As the term "Mother of God" had long been attached to Mary, the laity in Constantinople complained against the priest. Rather than repudiating the priest, Nestorius intervened on his behalf. Nestorius argued that Mary was neither a "Mother of Man" nor "Mother of God" as these referred to Christ's two natures; rather, Mary was the "Mother of Christ" (Greek: Christotokos). Christ, according to Nestorius, was the conjunction of the Godhead with his "temple" (which Nestorius was fond of calling his human nature). The controversy seemed to be centered on the issue of the suffering of Christ. Cyril maintained that the Son of God or the divine Word, truly suffered "in the flesh." However, Nestorius claimed that the Son of God was altogether incapable of suffering, even within his union with the flesh. Eusebius of Dorylaeum went so far as to accuse Nestorius of adoptionism. By this time, news of the controversy in the capital had reached Alexandria. At Easter 429 A.D., Cyril wrote a letter to the Egyptian monks warning them of Nestorius's views. A copy of this letter reached Constantinople where Nestorius preached a sermon against it. This began a series of letters between Cyril and Nestorius which gradually became more strident in tone. Finally, Emperor Theodosius II convoked the Council of Ephesus (in 431) to solve the dispute. Cyril selected Ephesus Theodosius, by now old enough to hold power by himself, annulled the verdict of the Council and arrested Cyril, but Cyril eventually escaped. Having fled to Egypt, Cyril bribed Theodosius's courtiers, and sent a mob led by Dalmatius, a hermit, to besiege Theodosius's palace, and shout abuse; the emperor eventually gave in, sending Nestorius into minor exile (Upper Egypt)." during the First Council of Ephesus (431), establishing the ecclesiastically settled basis for all subsequent mariological developments. Prior to the controversy over the theology of Nestorius, Cyril rarely if ever used the Mariological title, but theo-political circumstances compelled him as Archbishop of one of the Empire's chief sees, to become involved and develop his theology." Beginning in 429 Cyril wrote a series of letters to various ecclesiastical authorities in which he espoused the orthodoxy of "Theotokos". The propriety of the term was justified through appeals to earlier theologians who had used it, like Athanasius, the Cappadocians, and Atticus. Following an epistolary exchange with the increasingly unpopular archbishop of Constantinople, in 430 Cyril wrote his famous 12 Anathemas in which anyone who refused to call Mary Theotokos was condemned. The following year over 100 bishops met in council at Ephesus to rule on the disputes. In between sessions at the Council Cyril delivered a number of sermons; some of those attributed to his hand are of disputed authorship, but 6 are recognised as genuine. Homily IV delivered upon the late arrival of western delegates is a particularly striking example of Cyril's developed Mariology. It is the foremost expression of Cyril's devotion to Mary, and is one of the first historical attestations of the salutation Χαῖρε ("Hail") being used to invoke the Virgin, a practice later standardised in Byzantine homiletics and hymnography such as the sermons of Chrysippus and Basil of Selecucia, and the Akathist hymn. Mary, who is credited with calling the council fathers together, embodies for Cyril the paradoxes of orthodox Christology, "container of the uncontained" and "the place for the infinite", among other lauded descriptions. Cyril's notions of the identity of Christ, therefore, have direct bearing on the identity of Mary. Wessell explains how "Cyril's spatial metaphors construed Mary as a sacred place" and how he "applied metaphors depicting royalty and exaltation to Mary: she was the treasure of the world, the crown of virginity, and the sceptre of orthodoxy." Subsequently, such praise would become normative in Marian theology. In several of his works, Cyril focuses on the love of Jesus to his mother. On the Cross, he overcomes his pain and thinks of his mother. At the wedding in Cana, he bows to her wishes. The conflict with Nestorius was mainly over this issue, and some have argued that it has often been misunderstood. "[T]he debate was not so much about Mary as about Jesus. The question was not what honors were due to Mary, but how one was to speak of the birth of Jesus." The substance of Cyril's arumentation was Christological in orientation. His mature Mariology was chiefly in service to this, and to the end of discrediting Nestorius. Yet Wessel, quoting Homily IV, notes that the enthusiastic praises go beyond the strictly Christological. "She was not only valuable as a vessel storing something sacred but was herself precious and venerated: ‘Is it even possible for people to speak of the celebrated Mary? The virginal womb; O thing of wonder! The marvel strikes me with awe!’" Such sentiments served to further distinguish what Cyril believed to be orthodox theology from that which Nestorius taught, characterising the latter as subversive to both church and empire. As "scepter of orthodoxy", Mary became the standard of Christological fidelity in Cyril's theology; Nestorius's denial of "Theotokos" became the identifiable sign of his impugning of the divinity of Jesus. St. Cyril received an important recognition of his preachings by the Second Council of Constantinople (553 d.C.) which declared; :"St. Cyril who announced the right faith of Christians" (Anathematism XIV, Denzinger et Schoenmetzer 437). Works Cyril was a scholarly archbishop and a prolific writer. In the early years of his active life in the Church he wrote several exegetical documents. Among these were: Commentaries on the Old Testament, Thesaurus, Discourse Against Arians, ''Commentary on St. John's Gospel, and Dialogues on the Trinity. In 429 as the Christological controversies increased, the output of his writings was so extensive that his opponents could not match it. His writings and his theology have remained central to the tradition of the Fathers and to all Orthodox to this day. * [http://www.ellopos.net/elpenor/greek-texts/fathers/cyril-temples.asp Becoming Temples of God] (Ναοὶ θεοῦ χρηματιοῦμεν) (in Greek original and English) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060912150448/http://www.monachos.net/patristics/christology/cyril_to_nestorius_2.shtml Second Epistle of Cyril to Nestorius] * [http://booksfromarmenia.com/item.php?item_id1540&curUSD# Commentary on the Letter to Hebrews] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120112203517/https://www.monachos.net/content/patristics/patristictexts/135-cyril-of-alexandria-third-epistle-to-nestorius-including-the-twelve-anathemas Third Epistle of Cyril to Nestorius (containing the twelve anathemas)] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060910222342/http://www.monachos.net/patristics/christology/cyril_john_union.shtml Formula of Reunion: In Brief (A summation of the reunion between Cyril and John of Antioch)] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20051222065429/http://monachos.net/patristics/christology/cyril_johnantioch.shtml The "Formula of Reunion", between Cyril and John of Antioch] * [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/cyril_against_nestorius_00_intro.htm Five tomes against Nestorius (Adversus Nestorii blasphemias)] * [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/cyril_christ_is_one_01_text.htm That Christ is One (Quod unus sit Christus)] * [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/cyril_scholia_incarnation_01_text.htm Scholia on the incarnation of the Only-Begotten (Scholia de incarnatione Unigeniti)] * [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/cyril_against_diodore_01_text.htm Against Diodore of Tarsus and Theodore of Mopsuestia (fragments)] * [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/cyril_against_synousiasts_01_text.htm Against the synousiasts (fragments)] * [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/cyril_on_luke_00_intro.htm Commentary on the Gospel of Luke] * [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/cyril_on_john_00_eintro.htm Commentary on the Gospel of John] * [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/index.htm#Cyril_Against_Julian Against Julian the Apostate] * [http://roderic.uv.es/uv_ms_0733 Cyrilli Alexandrini liber Thesaurus adversus hereticos a Georgio Trapesuntio traductus] (in Latin and Greek) Translations * Cyril of Alexandria: Select Letters, edited and translated by Lionel R. Wickham (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983). * Letters 1-50, translated by John I. McEnerney (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1987). * Letters 51-110, translated by John I. McEnerney (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1987). * St. Cyril of Alexandria: The Christological Controversy, translated by John A. McGuckin (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1994). * On the Unity of Christ'', translated by John A. McGuckin (New York: St Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1997). * Cyril of Alexandria, by Norman Russell (London: Routledge, 2000) - contains translations of selections from the Commentary on Isaiah, Commentary on John, Against Nestorius, An Explanation of the Twelve Chapters, and Against Julian. * Against Those who are Unwilling to Confess that the Holy Virgin is Theotokos, edited and translated by Protopresbyter George Dion. Dragas (New Hampshire: Orthodox Research Institute, 2004) * Commentary on the Twelve Prophets: Volume 1, translated by Robert C. Hill (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 2007). * Commentary on the Twelve Prophets: Volume 2, translated by Robert C. Hill (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 2008). * Commentary on Isaiah, translated by Robert C. Hill (Massachusetts: Holy Cross Orthodox Press, 2008). * Festal Letters: 1-12, edited with introduction and notes by John J. O'Keefe and translated by Philip R. Amidon, S.J. (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 2009). * Commentary on the Twelve Prophets: Volume 3, translated by Robert C. Hill (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 2012). * Festal Letters: 13-30, edited with introduction and notes by John J. O'Keefe and translated by Philip R. Amidon, S.J. (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 2013). * Commentary on John: Volume 1, edited by Joel C. Elowsky and translated with introduction and notes by David R. Maxwell (Illinois: IVP Academic, 2013). * Three Christological Treatises, translated by Daniel King (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 2014). * Commentary on John: Volume 2, edited by Joel C. Elowsky and translated with introduction and notes by David R. Maxwell (Illinois: IVP Academic, 2015). * Glaphyra on the Pentateuch, Volume 1: Genesis, translated by Nicholas P. Lunn with introduction by Gregory K. Hillis (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 2018). * Glaphyra on the Pentateuch, Volume 2: Exodus through Deuteronomy, translated by Nicholas P. Lunn (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 2019). * Christological Dialogue on the Incarnation of the Only-Begotten, edited by Ramez Mikhail, translated with introduction by Emmanuel Gergis, and foreword by Fr. Michel Najim (Burke, Virginia: Agora University Press, 2020). * Commentary on the Letter to the Hebrews, translated by Khachik Grigoryan (Yerevan: Ankyunacar Publishing, 2021). * Commentaries on Romans, 1-2 Corinthians, and Hebrews, edited by Joel C. Elowsky and translated with introduction and notes by David R. Maxwell (Illinois: IVP Academic, 2022). See also * Catholic Church in Egypt * Dyophysitism * General Roman Calendar * List of early Christian saints * Saint Cyril of Alexandria, patron saint archive * Monophysitism Citations Sources * <!-- C --> * <!-- D --> * <!-- F --> * <!-- H --> * <!-- M --> * <!-- N --> * <!-- O --> * <!-- W --> * * * <!-- Z --> * Further reading * Artemi, Eirini, « The mystery of the incarnation into dialogues "de incarnatione Unigenitii" and "Quod unus sit Christus" of St. Cyril of Alexandria », Ecclesiastic Faros of Alexandria, ΟΕ (2004), 145-277. * Artemi, Eirini, [https://independent.academia.edu/EIRINIARTEMINationalandCapodistrianUniversityofAthens/Papers/1216348/Cyril_Orestes_and_Hypatia «St Cyril of Alexandria and his relations with the ruler Orestes and the philosopher Hypatia »], Ecclesiastic Faros of Alexandria, τ. ΟΗ (2007), 7-15. * Artemi, Eirini, [https://independent.academia.edu/EIRINIARTEMINationalandCapodistrianUniversityofAthens/Papers/1189604/_ « The one entity of the Word Incarnate. α. Apollinarius' explanation, β. Cyril's explanation »], Ecclesiastic Faros of Alexandria, τ. ΟΔ (2003), 293–304. * Artemi, Eirini, [https://independent.academia.edu/EIRINIARTEMINationalandCapodistrianUniversityofAthens/Papers/1189593/The_historical_inaccuracies_of_the_movie_AGORA_by_Alejandro_Amenabar The historical inaccurancies of the film Agora about the murder of Hypatia], Orthodox Press, τεύχ. 1819 (2010), 7. * Artemi, Eirini, [https://independent.academia.edu/EIRINIARTEMINationalandCapodistrianUniversityofAthens/Papers/1189599/_ The use of the ancient Greek texts in Cyril's works, Poreia martyrias], 2010, 114-125. * Artemi, Eirini, [https://independent.academia.edu/EIRINIARTEMINationalandCapodistrianUniversityofAthens/Papers/1721697/The_rejection_of_the_term_Theotokos_by_Nestorius_Constantinople The rejection of the term Theotokos by Nestorius Constantinople more and his refutation by Cyril of Alexandria] * Artemi, Eirini, Свт. Кирилл Александрийский и его отношения с епархом Орестом и философом Ипатией by EIRINI ARTEMI (6 January 2014) Kindle Purchase. ASIN: B00ENJIJ20 * * * * * * Konrad F. Zawadzki, Der Kommentar Cyrills von Alexandrien zum 1. Korintherbrief. Einleitung, kritischer Text, Übersetzung, Einzelanalyse, Traditio Exegetica Graeca 16, Leuven-Paris-Bristol, Connecticut, 2015 * Konrad F. Zawadzki, Syrische Fragmente des Kommentars Cyrills von Alexandrien zum 1. Korintherbrief, Zeitschrift für Antikes Christentum 21 (2017), 304-360 * Konrad F. Zawadzki, "Keiner soll die Lektüre der Schrift durcheinanderbringen!" Ein neues griechisches Fragment aus dem Johanneskommentar des Cyrill von Alexandrien, Biblica 99 (2018), 393–413 * Konrad F. Zawadzki, Der Kommentar Cyrills von Alexandrien zum 2. Korintherbrief. Einleitung, kritischer Text, Übersetzung, Einzelanalyse, Traditio Exegetica Graeca 18, Leuven-Paris-Bristol 2019 External links * [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/index.htm Early Church Fathers] Includes text written by Cyril of Alexandria * [http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/20_30_0370-0444-_Cirillus_Alexandrinus,_Sanctus.html Multilanguage Opera Omnia (Greek Edition by Migne Patrologia Graeca)] * [http://ocafs.oca.org/FeastSaintsViewer.asp?SID4&ID1&FSID=100220 St Cyril the Archbishop of Alexandria] Eastern Orthodox icon and synaxarion * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100524104154/http://earlyfathers.com/cyril-of-alexandria/ Early Church Fathers: Cyril of Alexandria] * [https://www.academia.edu/11541648/THE_MONOPHYSISM_OF_St._CYRIL_OF_ALEXANDRIA/ The Monophysism of St Cyril of Alexandria] paper by Giovanni Costa on academia.edu * * * [https://www.janzuidhoek.net/Reconmeton.htm Five Metonic 19-year lunar cycles] * [https://www.janzuidhoek.net/Recondiony.htm Dionysius Exiguus' Paschal table] Category:376 births Category:444 deaths Category:5th-century Popes and Patriarchs of Alexandria Category:Ancient Christian anti-Judaism Category:5th-century Christian saints Category:5th-century Christian theologians Category:Christologists Category:Church Fathers Category:Doctors of the Church Category:Saints from Roman Egypt Category:Opponents of Nestorianism Category:Catholic Mariology Category:People from El Mahalla El Kubra Category:Hypatia Category:5th-century Byzantine writers Category:Anglican saints Category:Participant in the Council of Ephesus	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyril_of_Alexandria	2025-04-05T18:28:08.108197
7387	Cyril of Jerusalem	\|death_date= AD 386 (aged 73) \|feast_day \|venerated_in= <!-- If you add particular churches in the Catholic Church, please put in Talk. Catholic Church contains these particular churches. If needed, change, "Catholic Church" to the respective eastern Churches and "Latin Church". --> \|image=Saint Cyril of Jerusalem.jpg \|imagesize\|caption \|birth_place=possibly near Caesarea Maritima, Syria Palaestina \|death_place=Jerusalem, Syria Palaestina \|titles=Bishop, Confessor and Doctor of the Church \|beatified_date\|beatified_place \|beatified_by\|canonized_date \|canonized_place\|canonized_by \|attributes\|patronage \|major_shrine\|suppressed_date \|issues\|prayer \|prayer_attrib= }} Cyril of Jerusalem (, Kýrillos A Ierosolýmon; ; 386) was a theologian of the Early Church. About the end of AD 350, he succeeded Maximus as Bishop of Jerusalem, but was exiled on more than one occasion due to the enmity of Acacius of Caesarea, and the policies of various emperors. Cyril left important writings documenting the instruction of catechumens and the order of the Liturgy in his day. Cyril is venerated as a saint within the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodox Church, and the Anglican Communion. In 1883, Cyril was declared a Doctor of the Church by Pope Leo XIII. The Roman Catholic Church maintains an Optional Memorial for Cyril on 18 March. Cyril is remembered in the Church of England with a commemoration on 18 March. He should not be confused with Cyril of Alexandria. Life and character Little is known of his life before he became a bishop; the assignment of his birth to the year 315 rests on conjecture. According to Butler, Cyril was born at or near the city of Jerusalem and was well-read in both the writings of the early Christian theologians and the Greek philosophers. Cyril was ordained a deacon by Bishop Macarius of Jerusalem in about 335 AD and a priest some eight years later by Bishop Maximus. Around the end of 350 AD, he succeeded Maximus in the See of Jerusalem, although the evidence for this relies on the Catecheses written by Cyril where he refers to himself as "bishop". Jerome also suggests Cyril was an Arian at this stage. Cyril is described as a preacher and liturgist by the pilgrim Egeria. Episcopacy Relations between Metropolitan Acacius of Caesarea and Cyril became strained. Acacius is presented as a leading Arian by the orthodox historians, and his opposition to Cyril in the 350s is attributed by these writers to this. Sozomen also suggests that the tension may have been increased by Acacius's jealousy of the importance assigned to Cyril's See by the Council of Nicaea, as well as by the threat posed to Caesarea by the rising influence of the seat of Jerusalem as it developed into the prime Christian holy place and became a centre of pilgrimage. Acacius charged Cyril with selling church property. The city of Jerusalem had suffered drastic food shortages at which point church historians Sozomen and Theodoret report "Cyril secretly sold sacramental ornaments of the church and a valuable holy robe, fashioned with gold thread that the emperor Constantine had once donated for the bishop to wear when he performed the rite of Baptism", possibly to keep people from starving. For two years, Cyril resisted Acacius' summons to account for his actions, but a church council held under Acacius's influence in 357 AD deposed Cyril in his absence, and Cyril took refuge with Silvanus, Bishop of Tarsus. The following year, 359 AD, in an atmosphere more hostile to Acacius, the Council of Seleucia reinstated Cyril and deposed Acacius. In 360 AD, this was reversed by Emperor Constantius again, and Cyril suffered another year's exile from Jerusalem until the Emperor Julian's accession allowed him to return in 361. Cyril was once again banished from Jerusalem by the Arian Emperor Valens in 367 AD but was able to return again after Valens's death in 378 AD, after which he remained undisturbed until his death in 386. In 380 AD, Gregory of Nyssa came to Jerusalem on the recommendation of a council held at Antioch in the preceding year. He seemingly found the faith in good shape, but worried that the city was prey to parties and corrupt in morals. Cyril's jurisdiction over Jerusalem was expressly confirmed by the First Council of Constantinople (381), at which he was present. Theological position Though his theology was at first somewhat indefinite in phraseology, he undoubtedly gave a thorough adhesion to the Nicene Orthodoxy. Even if he did avoid the debatable term homoousios, he expressed its sense in many passages, which exclude equally Patripassianism, Sabellianism, and the formula "there was a time when the Son was not" attributed to Arius. Cyril's writings are filled with the loving and forgiving nature of God which was somewhat uncommon during his time period. Cyril fills his writings with great lines of the healing power of forgiveness and the Holy Spirit, like "The Spirit comes gently and makes himself known by his fragrance. He is not felt as a burden for God is light, very light. Rays of light and knowledge stream before him as the Spirit approaches. The Spirit comes with the tenderness of a true friend to save, to heal, to teach, to counsel, to strengthen and to console". Cyril himself followed God's message of forgiveness many times throughout his life. This is most clearly seen in his two major exiles where Cyril was disgraced and forced to leave his position and his people behind. He never wrote or showed any ill will towards those who wronged him. Cyril stressed the themes of healing and regeneration in his catechesis. Catechetical lectures Cyril's famous twenty-three lectures given to catechumens in Jerusalem being prepared for, and after, baptism are best considered in two parts: the first eighteen lectures are commonly known as the Catechetical Lectures, Catechetical Orations or Catechetical Homilies, while the final five are often called the Mystagogic Catecheses (μυσταγωγικαί), because they deal with the mysteries (μυστήρια) i.e. Sacraments of Baptism, Confirmation and the Eucharist. His catechetical lectures (Greek Κατηχήσεις, Katēchēseis) are generally assumed, on the basis of limited evidence, to have been delivered either in Cyril's early years as a bishop, around 350 AD, or perhaps in 348 AD, while Cyril was still a priest, deputising for his bishop, Maximus. The Catechetical Lectures were given in the Martyrion, the basilica erected by Constantine. <blockquote>It is not only among us, who are marked with the name of Christ, that the dignity of faith is great; all the business of the world, even of those outside the Church, is accomplished by faith. By faith, marriage laws join in union persons who were strangers to one another. By faith, agriculture is sustained; for a man does not endure the toil involved unless he believes he will reap a harvest. By faith, seafaring men, entrusting themselves to a tiny wooden craft, exchange the solid element of the land for the unstable motion of the waves."</blockquote> In the 13th lecture, Cyril of Jerusalem discusses the Crucifixion and burial of Jesus. The main themes that Cyril focuses on in these lectures are Original sin and Jesus' sacrificing himself to save us from our sins. Also, the burial and Resurrection which occurred three days later proving the divinity of Jesus Christ and the loving nature of the Father. Cyril was very adamant about the fact that Jesus went to his death with full knowledge and willingness. Not only did he go willingly but throughout the process he maintained his faith and forgave all those who betrayed him and engaged in his execution. Cyril writes "who did not sin, neither was deceit found in his mouth, who, when he was reviled, did not revile, when he suffered did not threaten". This line by Cyril shows his belief in the selflessness of Jesus especially in this last final act of Love. The lecture also gives a sort of insight to what Jesus may have been feeling during the execution from the whippings and beatings, to the crown of thorns, to the nailing on the cross. Cyril intertwines the story with the messages Jesus told throughout his life before his execution relating to his final act. For example, Cyril writes "I gave my back to those who beat me and my cheeks to blows; and my face I did not shield from the shame of spitting". This clearly reflects the teachings of Jesus to turn the other cheek and not raising your hands against violence because violence just begets violence begets violence. The segment of the Catechesis really reflects the voice Cyril maintained in all of his writing. The writings always have the central message of the Bible; Cyril is not trying to add his own beliefs in reference to religious interpretation and remains grounded in true biblical teachings. Danielou sees the baptism rite as carrying eschatological overtones, in that "to inscribe for baptism is to write one's name in the register of the elect in heaven".EschatologyOded Irshai observed that Cyril lived in a time of intense apocalyptic expectation, when Christians were eager to find apocalyptic meaning in every historical event or natural disaster. Cyril spent a good part of his episcopacy in intermittent exile from Jerusalem. Abraham Malherbe argued that when a leader's control over a community is fragile, directing attention to the imminent arrival of the antichrist effectively diverts attention from that fragility. of 351 AD recorded the appearance of a cross of light in the sky above Golgotha, witnessed by the whole population of Jerusalem. The Greek church commemorates this miracle on 7 May. Though in modern times the authenticity of the Letter has been questioned, on the grounds that the word homoousios occurs in the final blessing, many scholars believe this may be a later interpolation, and accept the letter's authenticity on the grounds of other pieces of internal evidence. Cyril interpreted this as both a sign of support for Constantius, who was soon to face the usurper Magnentius, and as announcing the Second Coming, which was soon to take place in Jerusalem. Not surprisingly, in Cyril's eschatological analysis, Jerusalem holds a central position. Matthew 24:6 speaks of "wars and reports of wars", as a sign of the End Times, and it is within this context that Cyril read Julian's war with the Persians. Matthew 24:7 speaks of "earthquakes from place to place", and Jerusalem experienced an earthquake in 363 at a time when Julian was attempting to rebuild the temple in Jerusalem. Embroiled in a rivalry with Acacius of Caesarea over the relative primacy of their respective sees, Cyril saw even ecclesial discord a sign of the Lord's coming. Catechesis 15 would appear to cast Julian as the antichrist, although Irshai views this as a later interpolation. Many scholars would currently view the Mystagogic Catecheses as being written by Cyril, but in the 370s or 380s, rather than at the same time as the Catechetical Lectures. According to the Spanish pilgrim Egeria, these mystagogical catecheses were given to the newly baptised in the Church of the Anastasis in the course of Easter Week.<ref name"Andrew Louth 2010 p284"/>WorksEditions * W. C. Reischl, J. Rupp (1848; 1860). Cyrilli Hierosolymarum Archiepiscopi opera quae supersunt omnia. München. * Christa Müller-Kessler and Michael Sokoloff (1999). The Catechism of Cyril of Jerusalem in the Christian Palestinian Aramaic Version, A Corpus of Christian Palestinian Aramaic, vol. V. Groningen: STYX-Publications. * Christa Müller-Kessler (2021). Neue Fragmente zu den Katechesen des Cyrill von Jerusalem im Codex Sinaiticus rescriptusi (Georg. NF 19, 71) mit einem zweiten Textzeugen (Syr. NF 11) aus dem Fundus des St. Katherinenklosters, Oriens Christianus 104, pp. 23–66. Modern translations * * McCauley, Leo P. and Anthony A. Stephenson, (1969, 1970). The works of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem. 2 vols. Washington: Catholic University of America Press [contains an introduction, and English translations of: Vol 1: The introductory lecture (Procatechesis). Lenten lectures (Catecheses). Vol 2: Lenten lectures (Katēchēseis). Mystagogical lectures (Katēchēseis mystagōgikai). Sermon on the paralytic (Homilia eis ton paralytikon ton epi tēn Kolymbēthran). Letter to Constantius (Epistolē pros Kōnstantion). Fragments.] * Telfer, W. (1955). Cyril of Jerusalem and Nemesius of Emesa. The Library of Christian classics, v. 4. Philadelphia: Westminster Press. * Yarnold, E. (2000). Cyril of Jerusalem. The early church fathers. London: Routledge. [provides an introduction, and full English translations of the Letter to Constantius, the Homily on the Paralytic, the Procatechesis, and the Mystagogic Catechesis, as well as selections from the Lenten Catecheses.] See also * Liturgy of Saint James * Descriptions in antiquity of the execution cross * Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, patron saint archive References Sources * * * Further reading * The Penguin Dictionary of Saints, 3rd Edition, Donald Attwater and Catherine Rachel John, New York: Peguin Putnam Inc., 1995, * Lives of the Saints, For Every Day of the Year edited by Rev. Hugo Hoever, S.O.Cist., PhD, New York: Catholic Book Publishing Co., 1955 * Omer Englebert, Lives of the Saints New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 1994, * Lane, A. N. S., & Lane, A. N. S. (2006). A concise history of Christian thought. Grand Rapids, Mich: Baker Academic. * Van, N. P. (1 January 2007). 'The Career Of Cyril Of Jerusalem (C.348–87): A Reassessment'. The Journal of Theological Studies, 58, 1, 134–146. * Di Berardino, Angelo. 1992. Encyclopedia of the Early Church. New York: Oxford University Press. * In Cross, F. L., & In Livingstone, E. A. (1974). The Oxford dictionary of the Christian Church. London: Oxford University Press. External links * * [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf207.toc.html Texts by Cyril] (English) * [http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/20_30_0313-0387-_Cyrillus_Hierosolymitanus,_Sanctus.html Collected works by Migne Patrologia Graeca] * Category:313 births Category:386 deaths Category:Church Fathers Category:Doctors of the Church Category:Christian anti-Gnosticism Category:Saints from the Holy Land Category:4th-century bishops of Jerusalem Category:4th-century Christian saints Category:4th-century Romans Category:4th-century Christian theologians Category:Anglican saints Category:Participants in the First Council of Constantinople	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyril_of_Jerusalem	2025-04-05T18:28:08.120701
7388	Hanukkah	or <br /> English translation: 'Establishing' or 'Dedication' (of the Temple in Jerusalem) \| nickname \| observedby Jews \| begins = 25 Kislev \| ends = 2 Tevet or 3 Tevet \| celebrations = Lighting candles each night. Singing special songs, such as Ma'oz Tzur. Reciting the Hallel prayer. Eating food fried in oil, such as latkes and sufganiyot, and dairy foods. Playing the dreidel game, and giving Hanukkah gelt \| type = Jewish \| significance = The Maccabees successfully revolted against Antiochus IV Epiphanes. According to the Talmud, the Temple was purified and the wicks of the menorah miraculously burned for eight days, even though there was only enough sacred oil for one day's lighting. \| relatedto = Purim, as a rabbinically decreed holiday. \| date \| date \| date \| date \| date = }} Hanukkah, pronounced in Modern Hebrew, or in Yiddish; a transliteration also romanized as Chanukah, Ḥanukah, Chanuka, Chanukkah, Hanuka, and other forms}} (, ; Ḥănukkā ) is a Jewish festival commemorating the recovery of Jerusalem and subsequent rededication of the Second Temple at the beginning of the Maccabean Revolt against the Seleucid Empire in the 2nd century BCE. Hanukkah is observed for eight nights and days, starting on the 25th day of Kislev according to the Hebrew calendar, which may occur at any time from November 28 to December 27 in the Gregorian calendar. The festival is observed by lighting the candles of a candelabrum with nine branches, commonly called a menorah or hanukkiah. One branch is placed above or below the others and its candle is used to light the other eight candles. This unique candle is called the shammash (, "attendant"). Each night, one additional candle is lit by the shammash until all eight candles are lit together on the final night of the festival. Other Hanukkah festivities include singing Hanukkah songs, playing the game of dreidel and eating oil-based foods, such as latkes and sufganiyot (similar to jelly donuts), and dairy foods. Since the 1970s, the worldwide Chabad Hasidic movement has initiated public menorah lightings in open public places in many countries. Originally instituted as a feast "in the manner of Sukkot (Booths)", it does not come with the corresponding obligations, and is therefore a relatively minor holiday in strictly religious terms. Nevertheless, Hanukkah has attained major cultural significance in North America and elsewhere, especially among secular Jews, due to often occurring around the same time as Christmas during the festive season. Etymology The name "Hanukkah" derives from the Hebrew verb "", meaning "to dedicate". On Hanukkah, the Maccabean Jews regained control of Jerusalem and rededicated the Temple. Many homiletical explanations have been given for the name: * The name can be broken down into , "[they] rested [on the] twenty-fifth", referring to the fact that the Jews ceased fighting on the 25th day of Kislev, the day on which the holiday begins. * , from the same root, is the name for Jewish education, emphasizing ethical training and discipline. * (Hanukkah) is also the Hebrew acronym for – "Eight candles, and the halakha is according to the House of Hillel". This is a reference to the disagreement between two rabbinical schools of thought – the House of Hillel and the House of Shammai – on the proper order in which to light the Hanukkah flames. Shammai opined that eight candles should be lit on the first night, seven on the second night, and so on down to one on the last night (because the miracle was greatest on the first day). Hillel argued in favor of starting with one candle and lighting an additional one every night, up to eight on the eighth night (because the miracle grew in greatness each day). Jewish law adopted the position of Hillel. * Psalm 30 is called , "the Song of the 'Dedication' of the House", and is traditionally recited on Hanukkah. 25 (of Kislev) + 5 (Books of Torah) 30, which is the number of the song. Alternative spellings In Hebrew, the word Hanukkah is written or (). It is most commonly transliterated to English as Hanukkah or . The spelling Hanukkah, which is based on using characters of the English alphabet as symbols to re-create the word's correct spelling in Hebrew, is the most common and the preferred choice of Merriam–Webster, Collins English Dictionary, the Oxford Style Manual, and the style guides of The New York Times and The Guardian. The sound represented by Ch (, similar to the Scottish pronunciation of loch) is not native to the English language. Furthermore, the letter ḥeth (), which is the first letter in the Hebrew spelling, is pronounced differently in modern Hebrew (voiceless uvular fricative) from in classical Hebrew (voiceless pharyngeal fricative ), and neither of those sounds is unambiguously representable in English spelling. However, its original sound is closer to the English H than to the Scottish Ch, and Hanukkah more accurately represents the spelling in the Hebrew alphabet. Festival of Lights In Modern Hebrew, Hanukkah may also be called the Festival of Lights (, ), based on a comment by Josephus in Antiquities of the Jews, καὶ ἐξ ἐκείνου μέχρι τοῦ δεῦρο τὴν ἑορτὴν ἄγομεν καλοῦντες αὐτὴν φῶτα "And from then on we celebrate this festival, and we call it Lights". The first Hebrew translation of Antiquities (1864) used () "Festival of Lamps", but the translation "Festival of Lights" () appeared by the end of the nineteenth century. Historical sources Books of Maccabees The story of Hanukkah is told in the books of the First and Second Maccabees, which describe in detail the rededication of the Temple in Jerusalem and the lighting of the menorah. These books, however, are not a part of the canonized Masoretic Text version of the Tanakh (Hebrew and Aramaic language Jewish Bible) used and accepted by normative Rabbinical Judaism and therefore modern Jews (as copied, edited and distributed by a group of Jews known as the Masoretes between the 7th and 10th centuries of the Common Era). However, the books of Maccabees were included among the deuterocanonical books added to the Septuagint, a Greek-language translation of the Hebrew Bible originally compiled in the mid-3rd century BCE. The Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches consider the books of Maccabees as a canonical part of the Old Testament. The eight-day rededication of the temple is described in 1 Maccabees, though the miracle of the oil does not appear here. A story similar in character, and older in date, is the one alluded to in 2 Maccabees according to which the relighting of the altar fire by Nehemiah was due to a miracle which occurred on the 25th of Kislev, and which appears to be given as the reason for the selection of the same date for the rededication of the altar by Judah Maccabee. portrays the feast as a delayed observation of the eight-day Feast of Booths (Sukkot); similarly 2 Maccabees explains the length of the feast as "in the manner of the Feast of Booths". Early rabbinic sources Megillat Taanit (1st century) contains a list of festive days on which fasting or eulogizing is forbidden. It specifies, "On the 25th of [Kislev] is Hanukkah of eight days, and one is not to eulogize". The scholion (9th-10th century) then references the story of the rededication of the Temple. The Mishna (late 2nd century) mentions Hanukkah in several places, but never describes its laws in detail and never mentions any aspect of the history behind it. To explain the Mishna's lack of a systematic discussion of Hanukkah, Nissim ben Jacob postulated that information on the holiday was so commonplace that the Mishna felt no need to explain it. Modern scholar Reuvein Margolies suggests that as the Mishnah was redacted after the Bar Kochba revolt, its editors were reluctant to include explicit discussion of a holiday celebrating another relatively recent revolt against a foreign ruler, for fear of antagonizing the Romans. The miracle of the one-day supply of oil miraculously lasting eight days is described in the Talmud, committed to writing about 600 years after the events described in the books of Maccabees. The Talmud says that after the forces of Antiochus IV had been driven from the Temple, the Maccabees discovered that almost all of the ritual olive oil had been profaned. They found only a single container that was still sealed by the High Priest, with enough oil to keep the menorah in the Temple lit for a single day. They used this, yet it burned for eight days (the time it took to have new oil pressed and made ready). The Talmud presents three options: # The law requires only one light each night per household, # A better practice is to light one light each night for each member of the household # The most preferred practice is to vary the number of lights each night. Except in times of danger, the lights were to be placed outside one's door, on the opposite side of the mezuza, or in the window closest to the street. Rashi, in a note to Shabbat 21b, says their purpose is to publicize the miracle. The blessings for Hanukkah lights are discussed in tractate Succah, p. 46a. , with an Arabic translation]] Megillat Antiochus (probably composed in the 2nd century) concludes with the following words: The Al HaNissim prayer is recited on Hanukkah as an addition to the Amidah prayer, which was formalized in the late 1st century. Al HaNissim describes the history of the holiday as follows: :In the days of Mattiyahu ben Yohanan, high priest, the Hasmonean and his sons, when the evil Greek kingdom stood up against Your people Israel, to cause them to forget Your Torah and abandon the ways You desire – You, in Your great mercy, stood up for them in their time of trouble; You fought their fight, You judged their judgment, You took their revenge; You delivered the mighty into the hands of the weak, the many into the hands of the few, the impure into the hands of the pure, the evil into the hands of the righteous, the sinners into the hands of those who engaged in Your Torah; You made yourself a great and holy name in Your world, and for Your people Israel You made great redemption and salvation as this very day. And then Your sons came to the inner chamber of Your house, and cleared Your Temple, and purified Your sanctuary, and lit candles in Your holy courtyards, and established eight days of Hanukkah for thanksgiving and praise to Your holy name. Narrative of Josephus The Jewish historian Titus Flavius Josephus narrates in his book, Jewish Antiquities XII, how the victorious Judas Maccabeus ordered lavish yearly eight-day festivities after rededicating the Temple in Jerusalem that had been profaned by Antiochus IV Epiphanes. Josephus does not say the festival was called Hanukkah but rather the "Festival of Lights": :Now Judas celebrated the festival of the restoration of the sacrifices of the temple for eight days, and omitted no sort of pleasures thereon; but he feasted them upon very rich and splendid sacrifices; and he honored God, and delighted them by hymns and psalms. Nay, they were so very glad at the revival of their customs, when, after a long time of intermission, they unexpectedly had regained the freedom of their worship, that they made it a law for their posterity, that they should keep a festival, on account of the restoration of their temple worship, for eight days. And from that time to this we celebrate this festival, and call it Lights. I suppose the reason was because this liberty beyond our hopes appeared to us; and that thence was the name given to that festival. Judas also rebuilt the walls round about the city, and reared towers of great height against the incursions of enemies, and set guards therein. He also fortified the city Bethsura, that it might serve as a citadel against any distresses that might come from our enemies. Other ancient sources In the New Testament, John 10:22–23 says, "Then came the Festival of Dedication at Jerusalem. It was winter, and Jesus was in the temple courts walking in Solomon's Colonnade" (NIV). The Greek noun used appears in the neuter plural as "the renewals" or "the consecrations" (; ). The same root appears in 2 Esdras 6:16 in the Septuagint to refer specifically to Hanukkah. This Greek word was chosen because the Hebrew word for 'consecration' or 'dedication' is Hanukkah (). The Aramaic New Testament uses the Aramaic word (a close synonym), which literally means 'renewal' or 'to make new'. History Background of Jerusalem during the Second Temple Period]] After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE, Judea became part of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt until 200 BCE, when King Antiochus III the Great of Syria defeated King Ptolemy V Epiphanes of Egypt at the Battle of Panium. Judea then became part of the Seleucid Empire of Syria. King Antiochus III the Great, wanting to conciliate his new Jewish subjects, guaranteed their right to "live according to their ancestral customs" and to continue to practice their religion in the Temple of Jerusalem. The Seleucids, like the Ptolemies before them, held a suzerainty over Judea, where they respected Jewish culture and protected Jewish institutions. This policy was drastically reversed by Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the son of Antiochus III, seemingly after what was either a dispute over leadership of the Temple in Jerusalem and the office of High Priest, or possibly a revolt whose nature was lost to time after being crushed. In 175 BCE, Antiochus IV invaded Judea at the request of the sons of Tobias. The Tobiads, who led the Hellenizing Jewish faction in Jerusalem, were expelled to Syria around 170 BCE when the high priest Onias and his pro-Egyptian faction wrested control from them. The exiled Tobiads lobbied Antiochus IV Epiphanes to recapture Jerusalem. As Flavius Josephus relates: Traditional view When the Second Temple in Jerusalem was looted and services stopped, Judaism was outlawed. In 167 BCE, Antiochus ordered an altar to Zeus erected in the Temple. He banned brit milah (circumcision) and ordered pigs to be sacrificed at the altar of the temple. Antiochus's actions provoked a large-scale revolt. Mattathias (Mattityahu), a Jewish priest, and his five sons Jochanan, Simeon, Eleazar, Jonathan, and Judah led a rebellion against Antiochus. It started with Mattathias killing first a Jew who wanted to comply with Antiochus's order to sacrifice to Zeus, and then a Greek official who was to enforce the government's behest (1 Mac. 2, 24–25). Judah became known as Yehuda HaMakabi ("Judah the Hammer"). By 166 BCE, Mattathias had died, and Judah took his place as leader. By 164 BCE, the Jewish revolt against the Seleucid monarchy was successful. The Temple was liberated and rededicated. The festival of Hanukkah was instituted to celebrate this event. Judah ordered the Temple to be cleansed, a new altar to be built in place of the polluted one and new holy vessels to be made. Maimonides (12th century) described Hanukkah as follows: <blockquote> When, on the twenty-fifth of Kislev, the Jews had emerged victorious over their foes and destroyed them, they re-entered the Temple where they found only one jar of pure oil, enough to be lit for only a single day; yet they used it for lighting the required set of lamps for eight days, until they managed to press olives and produce pure oil. Because of this, the sages of that generation ruled that the eight days beginning with the twenty-fifth of Kislev should be observed as days of rejoicing and praising the Lord. Lamps are lit in the evening over the doors of the homes, on each of the eight nights, so as to display the miracle. These days are called Hanukkah, when it is forbidden to lament or to fast, just as it is on the days of Purim. Lighting the lamps during the eight days of Hanukkah is a religious duty imposed by the sages. </blockquote> Academic sources Some modern scholars, following the account in 2 Maccabees, observe that the king was intervening in an internal civil war between the Maccabean Jews and the Hellenized Jews in Jerusalem. These competed violently over who would be the High Priest, with traditionalists with Hebrew/Aramaic names like Onias contesting with Hellenizing High Priests with Greek names like Jason and Menelaus. In particular, Jason's Hellenistic reforms would prove to be a decisive factor leading to eventual conflict within the ranks of Judaism. Other authors point to possible socioeconomic reasons in addition to the religious reasons behind the civil war. ]] What began in many respects as a civil war escalated when the Hellenistic kingdom of Syria sided with the Hellenizing Jews in their conflict with the traditionalists. As the conflict escalated, Antiochus took the side of the Hellenizers by prohibiting the religious practices the traditionalists had rallied around. This may explain why the king, in a total departure from Seleucid practice in all other places and times, banned a traditional religion. The miracle of the oil is widely regarded as a legend and its authenticity has been questioned since the Middle Ages. However, given the famous question Joseph Karo (1488–1575) posed concerning why Hanukkah is celebrated for eight days when the miracle was only for seven days (since there was enough oil for one day), it was clear that writing in the 16th century CE, he believed it to be a historical event. This belief has been adopted by most of Orthodox Judaism, in as much as Karo's Shulchan Aruch is a main code of Jewish Law. Timeline , 143 BCE]] , Israel]] * 198 BCE: Armies of the Seleucid King Antiochus III (Antiochus the Great) oust Ptolemy V from Judea and Samaria. * 168 BCE: Under the reign of Antiochus IV, the second Temple is looted, Jews are massacred, and Judaism is outlawed. * 167 BCE: Antiochus orders an altar to Zeus erected in the Temple. Mattathias and his five sons John, Simon, Eleazar, Jonathan, and Judah lead a rebellion against Antiochus. Judah becomes known as Judah Maccabee ("Judah the Hammer"). * 166 BCE: Mattathias dies, and Judah takes his place as leader. The Hasmonean Jewish Kingdom begins; It lasts until 63 BCE. * 164 BCE: The Jewish revolt against the Seleucid monarchy is successful in recapturing the Temple, which is liberated and rededicated (Hanukkah). * 142 BCE: Re-establishment of the Second Jewish Commonwealth. The Seleucids recognize Jewish autonomy. The Seleucid kings have a formal overlordship, which the Hasmoneans acknowledge. This inaugurates a period of population growth and religious, cultural and social development. This includes the conquest of the areas now covered by Transjordan, Samaria, Galilee, and Idumea (also known as Edom), and the forced conversion of Idumeans to the Jewish religion, including circumcision. * 139 BCE: The Roman Senate recognizes Jewish autonomy. * 134 BCE: Antiochus VII Sidetes besieges Jerusalem. The Jews under John Hyrcanus become Seleucid vassals but retain religious autonomy. * 129 BCE: Antiochus VII dies. The Hasmonean Jewish Kingdom throws off Syrian rule completely. * 96 BCE: Beginning of an eight-year civil war between Sadducee king Alexander Yanai and the Pharisees. * 85–82 BCE: Consolidation of the Kingdom in territory east of the Jordan River. * 63 BCE: The Hasmonean Jewish Kingdom comes to an end because of a rivalry between the brothers Aristobulus II and Hyrcanus II, both of whom appeal to the Roman Republic to intervene and settle the power struggle on their behalf. The Roman general Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey the Great) is dispatched to the area. Twelve thousand Jews are massacred in the Roman Siege of Jerusalem. The Priests of the Temple are struck down at the Altar. Rome annexes Judea. Battles of the Maccabean Revolt on the Knesset Menorah]] Selected battles between the Maccabees and the Seleucid Syrian-Greeks: * Battle with Apollonius and Battle with Seron: Judas Maccabeus defeats two smaller Seleucid detachments. * Battle of Emmaus: Judas Maccabeus performs a daring night march to make a surprise attack on the Seleucid camp while the Seleucid forces are split. * Battle of Beth Zur: Judas Maccabeus defeats the army of Lysias, and captures Jerusalem soon after. Lysias relents and repeals Antiochus IV's anti-Jewish decrees. * Battle of Beth Zechariah: The Seleucids defeat the Maccabees. Eleazar Avaran, another of Mattathias's sons, is killed in battle by a war elephant. * Battle of Adasa: Judas defeats the forces of Nicanor after killing him early in the battle. * Battle of Elasa: Judas dies in battle against the army of Bacchides. He is succeeded by his brother Jonathan Apphus, and eventually their other brother Simon Thassi, as leader of the rebellion. The Seleucids re-establish control of the cities for 8 years, but eventually make deals with the Maccabees and appoint their leaders as official Seleucid governors and generals in a vassal-like status before eventual independence. Characters and heroes '', Rubens, 1634–1636]] * Matityahu the Priest, also referred to as Mattathias and Mattathias ben Johanan. Matityahu was a Jewish priest who, together with his five sons, played a central role in the story of Hanukkah. * Judah the Maccabee, also referred to as Judas Maccabeus and Y'hudhah HaMakabi. Judah was the eldest son of Matityahu and is acclaimed as one of the greatest warriors in Jewish history alongside Joshua, Gideon, and David. * Eleazar the Maccabee, also referred to as Eleazar Avaran, Eleazar Maccabeus and Eleazar Hachorani/Choran. * Simon the Maccabee, also referred to as Simon Maccabeus and Simon Thassi. * Johanan the Maccabee, also referred to as Johanan Maccabeus and John Gaddi. * Jonathan the Maccabee, also referred to as Jonathan Apphus. * Antiochus IV Epiphanes. Seleucid king controlling the region during this period. * Judith. Acclaimed for her heroism in the assassination of Holofernes. * Hannah and her seven sons. Arrested, tortured and killed one by one, by Antiochus IV Epiphanes for refusing to bow to an idol. Rituals Hanukkah is celebrated with a series of rituals that are performed every day throughout the eight-day holiday, some are family-based and others communal. There are special additions to the daily prayer service, and a section is added to the blessing after meals. Hanukkah is not a "Sabbath-like" holiday, and there is no obligation to refrain from activities that are forbidden on the Sabbath, as specified in the Shulkhan Arukh. Adherents go to work as usual but may leave early in order to be home to kindle the lights at nightfall. There is no religious reason for schools to be closed, although in Israel schools close from the second day for the whole week of Hanukkah. Many families exchange gifts each night, such as books or games, and "Hanukkah Gelt" is often given to children. Fried foods—such as latkes (potato pancakes), jelly doughnuts (sufganiyot) and Sephardic bimuelos—are eaten to commemorate the importance of oil during the celebration of Hanukkah. Some also have a custom of eating dairy products to remember Judith and how she overcame Holofernes by feeding him cheese, which made him thirsty, and giving him wine to drink. When Holofernes became very drunk, Judith cut off his head. Kindling the Hanukkah lights in Berlin, December 2019]] , the headquarters of the European Commission, 2020]] Each night throughout the eight-day holiday, a candle or oil-based light is lit. As a universally practiced "beautification" ([https://bethelbalto.shulcloud.com/blog/hiddur-mitzvah-torah-breastplate-choshen#:~:textHiddur%20Mitzvah%20is%20the%20Jewish,textures%2C%20colors%2C%20and%20artistry. hiddur mitzvah]) of the mitzvah, the number of lights lit is increased by one each night. An extra light called a shammash, meaning "attendant" or "sexton", is also lit each night, and is given a distinct location, usually higher, lower, or to the side of the others. while among Sephardim the prevalent custom is to have one set of lights for the entire household. The purpose of the shammash is to adhere to the prohibition, specified in the Talmud, against using the Hanukkah lights for anything other than publicizing and meditating on the Hanukkah miracle. This differs from Sabbath candles which are meant to be used for illumination and lighting. Hence, if one were to need extra illumination on Hanukkah, the shammash candle would be available, and one would avoid using the prohibited lights. Some, especially Ashkenazim, light the shammash candle first and then use it to light the others. So altogether, including the shammash, two lights are lit on the first night, three on the second and so on, ending with nine on the last night, for a total of 44 (36, excluding the shammash). It is Sephardic custom not to light the shammash first and use it to light the rest. Instead, the shammash candle is the last to be lit, and a different candle or a match is used to light all the candles. Some Hasidic Jews follow this Sephardic custom as well. The lights can be candles or oil lamps. In the United States, Hanukkah became a more visible festival in the public sphere from the 1970s when Rabbi Menachem M. Schneerson called for public awareness and observance of the festival and encouraged the lighting of public menorahs. The reason for the Hanukkah lights is not for the "lighting of the house within", but rather for the "illumination of the house without", so that passersby should see it and be reminded of the holiday's miracle (i.e. that the sole cruse of pure oil found which held enough oil to burn for one night actually burned for eight nights). Accordingly, lamps are set up at a prominent window or near the door leading to the street. It is customary amongst some Ashkenazi Jews to have a separate menorah for each family member (customs vary), whereas most Sephardi Jews light one for the whole household. Only when there was danger of antisemitic persecution were lamps supposed to be hidden from public view, as was the case in Persia under the rule of the Zoroastrians, Generally, women are exempt in Jewish law from time-bound positive commandments, although the Talmud requires that women engage in the mitzvah of lighting Hanukkah candles "for they too were involved in the miracle." Some Jews in North America and Israel have taken up environmental concerns in relation to Hanukkah's "miracle of the oil", emphasizing reflection on energy conservation and energy independence. An example of this is the Coalition on the Environment and Jewish Life's renewable energy campaign. Candle-lighting time Rebbe lights the menorah]] Hanukkah lights should usually burn for at least half an hour after it gets dark. Many light at sundown, while most Hasidim and many other communities light later, generally around nightfall. Many Hasidic Rebbes light much later to fulfill the obligation of publicizing the miracle by the presence of their Hasidim when they kindle the lights. Inexpensive small wax candles sold for Hanukkah burn for approximately half an hour so should be lit no earlier than nightfall. If for whatever reason one didn't light at sunset or nightfall, the lights should be kindled later, as long as there are people in the streets. Blessings over the candles Typically two blessings (brachot; singular: brachah) are recited during this eight-day festival when lighting the candles. On the first night only, the shehecheyanu blessing is added, making a total of three blessings. The first blessing is recited before the candles are lit, and while most recite the other blessing(s) beforehand as well, some have the custom to recite them after. On the first night of Hanukkah one light (candle or oil) is lit on the right side of the menorah, on the following night a second light is placed to the left of the first but it is lit first, and so on, proceeding from placing candles right to left but lighting them from left to right over the eight nights. Blessing for lighting the candles Transliteration: Translation: "Blessed are You, our God, King of the universe, Who has sanctified us with His commandments and commanded us to kindle the Hanukkah light[s]." Blessing for the miracles of Hanukkah {{Hebrew paragraph\| בָּרוּךְ אַתָּה ה' אֱ-לֹהֵינוּ מֶלֶךְ הָעוֹלָם, שֶׁעָשָׂה נִסִּים לַאֲבוֹתֵֽינוּ בַּיָּמִים הָהֵם בַּזְּמַן הַזֶּה. {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Ashkenazi version: ! scope-"col" \| Hebrew ! scope="col" \| Transliteration ! scope="col" \| English \|- \|lang"he" dir"rtl"\|הַנֵּרוֹת הַלָּלוּ שֶׁאָנוּ מַדְלִיקִין, עַל הַנִּסִּים וְעַל הַנִּפְלָאוֹת וְעַל הַתְּשׁוּעוֹת וְעַל הַמִּלְחָמוֹת, שֶׁעָשִׂיתָ לַאֲבוֹתֵינוּ בַּיָּמִים הָהֵם בַּזְּמַן הַזֶּה, עַל יְדֵי כֹּהֲנֶיךָ הַקְּדוֹשִׁים. וְכָל שְׁמוֹנַת יְמֵי הַחֲנֻכָּה הַנֵּרוֹת הַלָּלוּ קֹדֶשׁ הֵם וְאֵין לָנוּ רְשׁוּת לְהִשְׁתַּמֵּשׁ בָּהֶם, אֶלָּא לִרְאוֹתָם בִּלְבָד, כְּדֵי לְהוֹדוֹת וּלְהַלֵּל לְשִׁמְךָ הַגָּדוֹל עַל נִסֶּיךָ וְעַל נִפְלְאוֹתֶיךָ וְעַל יְשׁוּעָתֶךָ. \|lang"he-Latn" style"font-style:italic;"\|Hanneirot hallalu anu madlikin 'al hannissim ve'al hanniflaot 'al hatteshu'ot ve'al hammilchamot she'asita laavoteinu bayyamim haheim, (u)bazzeman hazeh 'al yedei kohanekha hakkedoshim. Vekhol-shemonat yemei Hanukkah hanneirot hallalu kodesh heim, ve-ein lanu reshut lehishtammesh baheim ella lir'otam bilvad kedei lehodot ul'halleil leshimcha haggadol 'al nissekha ve'al nifleotekha ve'al yeshu'otekha. \| We kindle these lights for the miracles and the wonders, for the redemption and the battles that you made for our forefathers, in those days at this season, through your holy priests. During all eight days of Hanukkah these lights are sacred, and we are not permitted to make ordinary use of them except for to look at them in order to express thanks and praise to Your great Name for Your miracles, Your wonders and Your salvations. \|} Maoz Tzur In the Ashkenazi tradition, each night after the lighting of the candles, the hymn Ma'oz Tzur is sung. The song contains six stanzas. The first and last deal with general themes of divine salvation, and the middle four deal with events of persecution in Jewish history, praising God for survival despite these tragedies (the exodus from Egypt, the Babylonian captivity, the miracle of the holiday of Purim, the Hasmonean victory) and expressing a longing for the days when Judea will finally triumph over Rome. The song was composed in the thirteenth century by a poet only known through the acrostic found in the first letters of the original five stanzas of the song: Mordechai. The familiar tune is most probably a derivation of a German Protestant church hymn or a popular folk song. Other customs After lighting the candles and Ma'oz Tzur, singing other Hanukkah songs is customary in many Jewish homes. Some Hasidic and Sephardi Jews recite Psalms, such as Psalm 30, Psalm 67, and Psalm 91. In North America and in Israel it is common to exchange presents or give children presents at this time. In addition, many families encourage their children to give tzedakah (charity) in lieu of presents for themselves. Special additions to daily prayers An addition is made to the "''hoda'ah" (thanksgiving) benediction in the Amidah (thrice-daily prayers), called Al HaNissim ("On/about the Miracles"). This addition refers to the victory achieved over the Syrians by the Hasmonean Mattathias and his sons. The same prayer is added to the grace after meals. In addition, the Hallel (praise) Psalms are sung during each morning service and the Tachanun penitential prayers are omitted. The Torah is read every day in the shacharit morning services in synagogue, on the first day beginning from Numbers 6:22 (according to some customs, Numbers 7:1), and the last day ending with Numbers 8:4. Since Hanukkah lasts eight days it includes at least one, and sometimes two, Jewish Sabbaths (Saturdays). The weekly Torah portion for the first Sabbath is almost always Miketz'', telling of Joseph's dream and his enslavement in Egypt. The Haftarah reading for the first Sabbath Hanukkah is Zechariah 2:14 – Zechariah 4:7. When there is a second Sabbath on Hanukkah, the Haftarah reading is from 1 Kings 7:40–50. The Hanukkah menorah is also kindled daily in the synagogue, at night with the blessings and in the morning without the blessings. The menorah is not lit during Shabbat, but rather prior to the beginning of Shabbat as described above and not at all during the day. During the Middle Ages "Megillat Antiochus" was read in the Italian synagogues on Hanukkah just as the Book of Esther is read on Purim. It still forms part of the liturgy of the Yemenite Jews. Zot Hanukkah: Hanukkah as the end of the High Holy Days The last day of Hanukkah is known by some as Zot Hanukkah and by others as Chanukat HaMizbeach, from the verse read on this day in the synagogue Numbers 7:84, ''Zot Hanukkat Hamizbe'ach: "This was the dedication of the altar". According to the teachings of Kabbalah and Hasidism, this day is the final "seal" of the High Holiday season of Yom Kippur and is considered a time to repent out of love for God. In this spirit, many Hasidic Jews wish each other Gmar chatimah tovah'' ("may you be sealed totally for good"), a traditional greeting for the Yom Kippur season. It is taught in Hasidic and Kabbalistic literature that this day is particularly auspicious for the fulfillment of prayers. Some Hasidic scholars teach that the Hanukkah is in fact the final conclusion of God's judgment extending High Holy Days of Rosh Hashana when humanity is judged and Yom Kippur when the judgment is sealed: :Hassidic masters quote from Kabbalistic sources that the God's mercy extends even further, giving the Children of Israel till the final day of Chanukah (known as "Zot Chanukah" based on words which appear in the Torah reading of that day), to return to Him and receive a favorable judgment. They see several hints to this in different verses. One is Isaiah 27:9: "Through this (zot) will Jacob's sin be forgiven" – i.e., on account of the holiness of Zot Chanukah. Other related laws and customs It is customary for women not to work for at least the first half-hour of the candles' burning, and some have the custom not to work for the entire time of burning. It is also forbidden to fast or to eulogize during Hanukkah. and "Oh Chanukah". In the Nadvorna Hasidic dynasty, it is customary for the rebbes to play violin after the menorah is lit. Penina Moise's Hannukah Hymn published in the 1842 Hymns Written for the Use of Hebrew Congregations was instrumental in the beginning of Americanization of Hanukkah. Foods /doughnuts filled with strawberry jelly]] There is a custom of eating foods fried or baked in oil (preferably olive oil) to commemorate the miracle of a small flask of oil keeping the Second Temple's Menorah alight for eight days. Traditional foods include potato pancakes, known as latkes in Yiddish, especially among Ashkenazi families. Sephardi, Polish, and Israeli families eat jam-filled doughnuts ( pontshkes), bimuelos (fritters) and sufganiyot which are deep-fried in oil. Italkim and Hungarian Jews traditionally eat cheese pancakes known as "cassola" or "cheese latkes". Latkes are not popular in Israel, having been largely replaced by sufganiyot due to local economic factors, convenience and the influence of trade unions. Bakeries in Israel have popularized many new types of fillings for sufganiyot besides the traditional strawberry jelly filling, including chocolate cream, vanilla cream, caramel, cappuccino and others. In recent years, downsized, "mini" sufganiyot containing half the calories of the regular, 400-to-600-calorie version, have become popular. frying in hot olive oil.]] Rabbinic literature also records a tradition of eating cheese and other dairy products during Hanukkah. This custom, as mentioned above, commemorates the heroism of Judith during the Babylonian captivity of the Jews and reminds us that women also played an important role in the events of Hanukkah. The deuterocanonical book of Judith (Yehudit or Yehudis in Hebrew), which is not part of the Tanakh, records that Holofernes, an Assyrian general, had surrounded the village of Bethulia as part of his campaign to conquer Judea. After intense fighting, the water supply of the Jews was cut off and the situation became desperate. Judith, a pious widow, told the city leaders that she had a plan to save the city. Judith went to the Assyrian camps and pretended to surrender. She met Holofernes, who was smitten by her beauty. She went back to his tent with him, where she plied him with cheese and wine. When he fell into a drunken sleep, Judith beheaded him and escaped from the camp, taking the severed head with her (the beheading of Holofernes by Judith has historically been a popular theme in art). When Holofernes' soldiers found his corpse, they were overcome with fear; the Jews, on the other hand, were emboldened and launched a successful counterattack. The town was saved, and the Assyrians defeated. Roast goose has historically been a traditional Hanukkah food among Eastern European and American Jews, although the custom has declined in recent decades. Indian Jews traditionally consume gulab jamun, fried dough balls soaked in a sweet syrup, similar to teiglach or bimuelos, as part of their Hanukkah celebrations. Italian Jews eat fried chicken, cassola (a ricotta cheese latke almost similar to a cheesecake), and fritelle de riso par Hanukkah (a fried sweet rice pancake). Romanian Jews eat pasta latkes as a traditional Hanukkah dish. Syrian Jews consume Kibbet Yatkeen, a dish made with pumpkin and bulgur wheat similar to latkes, as well as their own version of keftes de prasa spiced with allspice and cinnamon. Dreidel s in a Jerusalem market]] After lighting the candles, it is customary to play (or spin) the dreidel. The dreidel, or sevivon in Hebrew, is a four-sided spinning top that children play with during Hanukkah. Each side is imprinted with a Hebrew letter which is an abbreviation for the Hebrew words (, "A great miracle happened there"), referring to the miracle of the oil that took place in the Beit Hamikdash. The fourth side of some dreidels sold in Israel are inscribed with the letter (Pe), rendering the acronym (, "A great miracle happened here"), referring to the fact that the miracle occurred in the land of Israel, although this is a relatively recent innovation. Stores in Haredi neighborhoods sell the traditional Shin dreidels as well, because they understand "there" to refer to the Temple and not the entire Land of Israel, and because the Hasidic Masters ascribe significance to the traditional letters. Hanukkah gelt ]] Chanukkah gelt (Yiddish for "Chanukkah money"), known in Israel by the Hebrew translation , is often distributed to children during the festival of Hanukkah. The giving of Hanukkah gelt also adds to the holiday excitement. The amount is usually in small coins, although grandparents or relatives may give larger sums. The tradition of giving Chanukah gelt dates back to a long-standing East European custom of children presenting their teachers with a small sum of money at this time of year as a token of gratitude. One minhag favors the fifth night of Hanukkah for giving Hanukkah gelt. Unlike the other nights of Hanukkah, the fifth does not ever fall on the Shabbat, hence never conflicting with the Halachic injunction against handling money on the Shabbat. Hanukkah in the White House (center) gives President Truman (left) a Hanukkah menorah as ambassador Abba Eban watches in the Oval Office]] The earliest Hanukkah link with the White House occurred in 1951 when Israeli Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion presented United States President Harry Truman with a Hanukkah menorah. In 1979 President Jimmy Carter took part in the first public Hanukkah candle-lighting ceremony of the National Menorah held across the White House lawn. In 1989, President George H. W. Bush displayed a menorah in the White House. In 1993, President Bill Clinton invited a group of schoolchildren to the Oval Office for a small ceremony. In 2004, after eight years of reissuing the menorah design, the USPS issued a dreidel design for the Hanukkah stamp. The dreidel design was used through 2008. In 2009 a Hanukkah stamp was issued with a design featured a photograph of a menorah with nine lit candles. In 2008, President George W. Bush held an official Hanukkah reception in the White House where he linked the occasion to the 1951 gift by using that menorah for the ceremony, with a grandson of Ben-Gurion and a grandson of Truman lighting the candles. In December 2014, two Hanukkah celebrations were held at the White House. The White House commissioned a menorah made by students at the Max Rayne school in Israel and invited two of its students to join U.S. President Barack Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama as they welcomed over 500 guests to the celebration. The students' school in Israel had been subjected to arson by extremists. President Obama said these "students teach us an important lesson for this time in our history. The light of hope must outlast the fires of hate. That's what the Hanukkah story teaches us. It's what our young people can teach us – that one act of faith can make a miracle, that love is stronger than hate, that peace can triumph over conflict." Rabbi Angela Warnick Buchdahl, in leading prayers at the ceremony commented on the how special the scene was, asking the President if he believed America's founding fathers could possibly have pictured that a female Asian-American rabbi would one day be at the White House leading Jewish prayers in front of the African-American president. Dates The dates of Hanukkah are determined by the Hebrew calendar. Hanukkah begins at the 25th day of Kislev and concludes on the second or third day of Tevet (Kislev can have 29 or 30 days). The Jewish day begins at sunset. Hanukkah dates for recent and upcoming: * \|cite=}} * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} In 2013, on 28 November, the American holiday of Thanksgiving fell during Hanukkah for only the third time since Thanksgiving was declared a national holiday by President Abraham Lincoln. The last time was 1899, and due to the nature of the Gregorian and Jewish calendars being slightly out of sync with each other, it will not happen again in the foreseeable future. This rare convergence prompted the creation of the neologism Thanksgivukkah. Symbolic importance ]] Major Jewish holidays are those when all forms of work are forbidden, and that feature traditional holiday meals, kiddush, holiday candle-lighting, etc. Only biblical holidays fit these criteria, and Chanukah was instituted some two centuries after the Hebrew Bible was completed. Nevertheless, though Chanukah is of rabbinic origin, it is traditionally celebrated in a major and very public fashion. The requirement to position the menorah, or Chanukiah, at the door or window, symbolizes the desire to give the Chanukah miracle a high-profile. Moreover, Hallel (a set of Psalms expressing praise that is recited on significant Jewish holidays) is recited on all eight days of Hanukkah, which signifies Hanukkah's importance on the Jewish calendar. While not considered the most significant holiday, the recitation of Hallel on Hanukkah highlights its importance in Jewish tradition. Some Jewish historians suggest a different explanation for the rabbinic reluctance to laud the militarism. First, the rabbis wrote after Hasmonean leaders had led Judea into Rome's grip and so may not have wanted to offer the family much praise. Second, they clearly wanted to promote a sense of dependence on God, urging Jews to look toward the divine for protection. They likely feared inciting Jews to another revolt that might end in disaster, as the Bar Kochba revolt did. Modern history Zionism }} The emergence of Jewish nationalism and the Zionist movement in the late 19th and early 20th centuries had a profound impact on the celebration and reinterpretation of Jewish holidays. These developments resulted in increased emphasis on certain Jewish celebrations, of which Hanukkah and Tu BiShvat are prominent examples. Hanukkah took on renewed meaning following the rise of Jewish nationalism as a nationalist holiday, symbolizing the struggle of the Jewish people against foreign oppression and their desire for national re-creation (although the struggle of Jews against foreign oppression has always been a core component of Hanukkah, as shown by the Al HaNissim, which has been part of Jewish liturgy since at least 700 CE). Hanukkah served as a common ground where both religious and secular Zionists could unite around their nationalist agenda. Rabbi Shmuel Mohilever, an early religious Zionist, proposed making Hanukkah the official holiday of the proto-Zionist organization Hovevei Zion in Russia in 1881. Public celebrations of Hanukkah gained prominence in the early 20th century, with parades and public events becoming common. Schools in Mandate Palestine played an early role in promoting these celebrations. With the advent of Zionism and the state of Israel, the themes of militarism were reconsidered. In modern Israel, the national and military aspects of Hanukkah became, once again, more dominant.North America attends Menorah Lighting, Lafayette Park, Washington, D.C., 1979]] In North America, Hanukkah in the 21st century has taken a place equal to Passover as a symbol of Jewish identity. Both the Israeli and North American versions of Hanukkah emphasize resistance, focusing on some combination of national liberation and religious freedom as the defining meaning of the holiday. Diane Ashton argues that Jewish immigrants to America raised the profile of Hanukkah as a kid-centered alternative to Christmas as early as the 1800s. This in parts mirrors the ascendancy of Christmas, which like Hanukkah increased in importance in the 1800s. During this time period, Jewish leaders (especially Reform) such as Max Lilienthal and Isaac Mayer Wise made an effort to rebrand Hanukkah and started creating Hanukkah celebration for kids at their synagogues, which included candy and singing songs. By the 1900s, it started to become a commercial holiday like Christmas, with Hanukkah gifts and decorations appearing in stores and Jewish Women's magazines printing articles on holiday decorations, children's celebrations, and gift giving. Children play a big role in Hanukkah, and Jewish families with children are more likely to celebrate it than childless Jewish families, and sociologists hypothesize that this is because Jewish parents do not want their kids to be alienated from their non-Jewish peers who celebrate Christmas. Relationship to Kwanzaa In December 2022, New York City Mayor Eric Adams, Reverends Al Sharpton and Conrad Tillard, businessman Robert F. Smith, Rabbi Shmuley Boteach, and Elisha Wiesel joined to celebrate Hanukkah and Kwanzaa together, and combat racism and antisemitism, at Carnegie Hall. See also * Miracle of the cruse of oil * Jewish greetings * Jewish holidays Footnotes References Further reading * * * External links <!--Please be cautious adding more external links. Wikipedia is not a collection of links and should not be used for advertising. Excessive or inappropriate links will be removed. See Wikipedia:External links and Wikipedia:Spam for details. If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at DMOZ (dmoz.org) and link there using . --> * [https://www.poeticmind.co.uk/sages/hanukah-story-and-art-activities-for-kids-age-7-12/ Hanukah – Story and Art Activities.] * [http://judaism.about.com/od/holidays/a/hanukkah.htm Hanukkah] at About.com * [http://www.history.com/topics/holidays/hanukkah Hanukkah] at the History channel * [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/7233-hanukkah Hanukkah] at the Jewish Encyclopedia * [http://www.jewishagency.org/hanukkah/content/23838 Hanukkah] at the Jewish Agency for Israel * [http://www.chabad.org/holidays/chanukah/default_cdo/jewish/Hanukkah.htm Hanukkah] at Chabad.org * [http://www.aish.com/h/c/ Hanukkah] at Aish HaTorah <!--- Hanukkah is a day when, if not Saturday, work is permitted; it is not a US Holiday, like July 4th --> Category:Cultural depictions of the Maccabees Category:Kislev observances Category:Tevet observances Category:Traditions involving fire	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanukkah	2025-04-05T18:28:08.191667
7390	Christian views on marriage	in Amalfi, Italy]] Christian terminology and theological views of marriage vary by time period, by country, and by the different Christian denominations. Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Christians consider marriage as a holy sacrament or sacred mystery, while Protestants consider marriage to be a sacred institution or "holy ordinance" of God. However, there have been differing attitudes among denominations and individual Christians towards not only the concept of Christian marriage, but also concerning divorce, remarriage, gender roles, family authority (the "headship" of the husband), the legal status of married women, birth control, marriageable age, cousin marriage, marriage of in-laws, interfaith marriage, same-sex marriage, and polygamy, among other topics, so that in the 21st century there cannot be said to be a single, uniform, worldwide view of marriage among all who profess to be Christians. Christian teaching has never held that marriage is necessary for everyone; for many centuries in Western Europe, priestly or monastic celibacy was valued as highly as, if not higher than, marriage. Christians who did not marry were expected to refrain from all sexual activity, as were those who took holy orders or monastic vows. In some Western countries, a separate and secular civil wedding ceremony is required for recognition by the state, while in other Western countries, couples must merely obtain a marriage license from a local government authority and can be married by Christian or other clergy if they are authorized by law to conduct weddings. In this case, the state recognizes the religious marriage as a civil marriage as well; and Christian couples married in this way have all the rights of civil marriage, including, for example, divorce, even if their church forbids divorce. Biblical foundations and history Old Testament Polygyny, or men having multiple wives at once, is one of the most common marital arrangements represented in the Old Testament, yet scholars doubt that it was common among average Israelites because of the wealth needed to practice it. Both the biblical patriarchs and kings of Israel are described as engaged in polygamous relationships. Despite the various polygynous relationships in the Bible, Old Testament scholar Peter Gentry has said that it does not mean that God condones polygyny. He also made note of the various problems that polygynous relationships present with the examples of Abraham, Jacob, David, and Solomon in the Bible. Alternatively, this could be a case of graded absolutism. Betrothal (), which is merely a binding promise to get married, is distinct from marriage itself (), with the time between these events varying substantially. Since a wife was regarded as property in biblical times, the betrothal () was effected simply by purchasing her from her father (or guardian) (i.e. paying the bride price to the woman and her father); Additionally, according to French anthropologist Philippe Rospabé, the payment of the bride price does not entail the purchase of a woman, as was thought in the early twentieth century. Instead, it is a purely symbolic gesture acknowledging (but never paying off) the husband's permanent debt to the wife's parents. Like the adjacent Arabic culture (in the pre-Islamic period), the act of marriage appears mainly to have consisted of the groom fetching the bride, although among the Israelites the procession was a festive occasion, accompanied by music, dancing, and lights. William Barclay (1907–1978) has written: Theologian Frank Stagg says that manuscripts disagree as to the presence in the original text of the phrase "except for fornication". Stagg writes: "Divorce always represents failure...a deviation from God's will.... There is grace and redemption where there is contrition and repentance.... There is no clear authorization in the New Testament for remarriage after divorce." Stagg interprets the chief concern of Matthew 5 as being "to condemn the criminal act of the man who divorces an innocent wife.... Jesus was rebuking the husband who victimizes an innocent wife and thinks that he makes it right with her by giving her a divorce". He points out that Jesus refused to be trapped by the Pharisees into choosing between the strict and liberal positions on divorce as held at the time in Judaism. When they asked him, "Is it lawful for a man to divorce his wife for any cause?" he answered by reaffirming God's will as stated in Genesis, that in marriage husband and wife are made "one flesh", and what God has united man must not separate. he taught that there is a place for voluntary singleness in Christian service. He believed marriage could be a distraction from an urgent mission, that he was living in a time of crisis and urgency where the Kingdom of God would be established where there would be no marriage nor giving in marriage: New Testament beyond the Gospels The Apostle Paul quoted passages from Genesis almost verbatim in two of his New Testament books. He used marriage not only to describe the kingdom of God, as Jesus had done, but to define also the nature of the 1st-century Christian church. His theological view was a Christian development of the Old Testament parallel between marriage and the relationship between God and Israel. He analogized the church as a bride and Christ as the bridegroom─drawing parallels between Christian marriage and the relationship between Christ and the Church. There is no hint in the New Testament that Jesus was ever married, and no clear evidence that Paul was ever married. However, both Jesus and Paul seem to view marriage as a legitimate calling from God for Christians. Paul elevates singleness to that of the preferable position, but does offer a caveat suggesting this is "because of the impending crisis"—which could itself extend to present times (see also Pauline privilege). Paul's primary issue was that marriage adds concerns to one's life that detract from their ability to serve God without distraction. Some scholars have speculated that Paul may have been a widower since prior to his conversion to Christianity he was a Pharisee and member of the Sanhedrin, positions in which the social norm of the day required the men to be married. But it is just as likely that he never married at all. Marriage and early Church Fathers Building on what they saw the example of Jesus and Paul advocating, some early Church Fathers placed less value on the family and saw celibacy and freedom from family ties as a preferable state. Nicene Fathers such as Augustine believed that marriage was a sacrament because it was a symbol used by Paul to express Christ's love of the Church. However, there was also an apocalyptic dimension in his teaching, and he was clear that if everybody stopped marrying and having children that would be an admirable thing; it would mean that the Kingdom of God would return all the sooner and the world would come to an end. Such a view reflects the Manichaean past of Augustine and the influence of Neoplatonism. While upholding the New Testament teaching that marriage is "honourable in all and the bed undefiled," Augustine believed that "yet, whenever it comes to the actual process of generation, the very embrace which is lawful and honourable cannot be effected without the ardour of lust...This is the carnal concupiscence, which, while it is no longer accounted sin in the regenerate, yet in no case happens to nature except from sin." Both Tertullian and Gregory of Nyssa were church fathers who were married. They each stressed that the happiness of marriage was ultimately rooted in misery. They saw marriage as a state of bondage that could only be cured by celibacy. They wrote that at the very least, the virgin woman could expect release from the "governance of a husband and the chains of children." Tertullian argued that second marriage, having been freed from the first by death,"will have to be termed no other than a species of fornication," partly based on the reasoning that this involves desiring to marry a woman out of sexual ardor, which a Christian convert is to avoid. Also advocating celibacy and virginity as preferable alternatives to marriage, Jerome wrote: "It is not disparaging wedlock to prefer virginity. No one can make a comparison between two things if one is good and the other evil." On First Corinthians 7:1 he reasons, "It is good, he says, for a man not to touch a woman. If it is good not to touch a woman, it is bad to touch one: for there is no opposite to goodness but badness. But if it be bad and the evil is pardoned, the reason for the concession is to prevent worse evil." St. John Chrysostom wrote: "...virginity is better than marriage, however good.... Celibacy is...an imitation of the angels. Therefore, virginity is as much more honorable than marriage, as the angel is higher than man. But why do I say angel? Christ, Himself, is the glory of virginity." Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage, said that the first commandment given to men was to increase and multiply, but now that the earth was full there was no need to continue this process of multiplication. This view of marriage was reflected in the lack of any formal liturgy formulated for marriage in the early Church. No special ceremonial was devised to celebrate Christian marriage—despite the fact that the Church had produced liturgies to celebrate the Eucharist, Baptism and Confirmation. It was not important for a couple to have their nuptials blessed by a priest. People could marry by mutual agreement in the presence of witnesses. Marriage was officially recognized as a sacrament at the 1184 Council of Verona. In the decrees on marriage of the Council of Trent (twenty-fourth session from 1563), the validity of marriage was made dependent upon the wedding taking place before a priest and two witnesses, The Catholic Church allowed marriages to take place inside churches only starting with the 16th century, beforehand religious marriages happened on the porch of the church. The Roman Catholic Church teaches that God himself is the author of the sacred institution of marriage, which is His way of showing love for those He created. Marriage is a divine institution that can never be broken, even if the husband or wife legally divorce in the civil courts; as long as they are both alive, the Church considers them bound together by God. Holy Matrimony is another name for sacramental marriage. Marriage is intended to be a faithful, exclusive, lifelong union of a man and a woman. Committing themselves completely to each other, a Catholic husband and wife strive to sanctify each other, bring children into the world, and educate them in the Catholic way of life. Man and woman, although created differently from each other, complement each other. This complementarity draws them together in a mutually loving union. The valid marriage of baptized Christians is one of the seven Roman Catholic sacraments. The sacrament of marriage is the only sacrament that a priest does not administer directly; a priest, however, is the chief witness of the husband and wife's administration of the sacrament to each other at the wedding ceremony in a Catholic church. The Roman Catholic Church views that Christ himself established the sacrament of marriage at the wedding feast of Cana; therefore, since it is a divine institution, neither the Church nor state can alter the basic meaning and structure of marriage. Husband and wife give themselves totally to each other in a union that lasts until death. Albanian couple during marriage in an Italo-Greek Catholic Church rite.]] Priests are instructed that marriage is part of God's natural law and to support the couple if they do choose to marry. Today it is common for Roman Catholics to enter into a "mixed marriage" between a Catholic and a baptized non-Catholic. Couples entering into a mixed marriage are usually allowed to marry in a Catholic church provided their decision is of their own accord and they intend to remain together for life, to be faithful to each other, and to have children which are brought up in the Catholic faith. (1944), a Polish couple, members of an Armia Krajowa resistance group, are married in a secret Catholic chapel in a street in Warsaw.]] In Roman Catholic teaching, marriage has two objectives: the good of the spouses themselves, and the procreation and education of children (1983 code of canon law, c.1055; 1994 catechism, par.2363). Hence "entering marriage with the intention of never having children is a grave wrong and more than likely grounds for an annulment." It is normal procedure for a priest to ask the prospective bride and groom about their plans to have children before officiating at their wedding. The Roman Catholic Church may refuse to marry anyone unwilling to have children, since procreation by "the marriage act" is a fundamental part of marriage. Thus usage of any form of contraception, in vitro fertilization, or birth control besides natural family planning is a grave offense against the sanctity of marriage and ultimately against God. Protestant Christian denominations consider marital sexual pleasure to be a gift of God, though they vary on their position on birth control, ranging from the acceptance of the use of contraception to only allowing natural family planning to teaching Quiverfull doctrine—that birth control is sinful and Christians should have large families. Conservative Protestants consider marriage a solemn covenant between wife, husband and God. Most view sexual relations as appropriate only within a marriage. Protestant Churches discourage divorce though the way it is addressed varies by denomination; for example, the Reformed Church in America permits divorce and remarriage, while other denominations such as the Evangelical Methodist Church Conference forbid divorce except in the case of fornication and do not allow for remarriage in any circumstance. Many Methodist Christians teach that marriage is "God's gift and covenant intended to imitate God's covenant with humankind" that "Christians enter in their baptism." For example, the rite used in the Free Methodist Church proclaims that marriage is "more than a legal contract, being a bond of union made in heaven, into which you enter discreetly and reverently." of the woman and the man. There is considerable debate among many Christians today—not just Protestants—whether equality of husband and wife or male headship is the biblically ordained view, and even if it is biblically permissible. The divergent opinions fall into two main groups: Complementarians (who call for husband-headship and wife-submission) and Christian Egalitarians (who believe in full partnership equality in which couples can discover and negotiate roles and responsibilities in marriage). There is no debate that Ephesians 5 presents a historically benevolent husband-headship/wife-submission model for marriage. The questions are (a) how these New Testament household codes are to be reconciled with the calls earlier in Chapter 5 (cf. verses 1, 18, 21) for mutual submission among all believers, and (b) the meaning of "head" in v.23. It is important to note that verse 22 contains no verb in the original manuscripts, which were also not divided into verses: It refers to the 1st centuries of the church, where spiritual union of spouses in the first sacramental marriage was eternal. Therefore, it is considered a martyrdom as each spouse learns to die to self for the sake of the other. Like all Mysteries, Orthodox marriage is more than just a celebration of something which already exists: it is the creation of something new, the imparting to the couple of the grace which transforms them from a 'couple' into husband and wife within the Body of Christ. "On the basis of the ideal of the first marriage as an image of the glory of God the question is which significance such a second marriage has and whether it can be regarded as Mysterion. Even though there are opinions (particularly in the west) which deny the sacramental character to the second marriage, in the orthodox literature almost consistently either a reduced or even a full sacramentality is attributed to it. The investigation of the second marriage rite shows that both positions affirming the sacramentality to a second marriage can be justified." , Thessaloniki.)]] Early church texts forbid marriage between an Orthodox Christian and a heretic or schismatic (which would include all non-Orthodox Christians). Traditional Orthodox Christians forbid mixed marriages with other denominations. More liberal ones perform them, provided that the couple formally commit themselves to rearing their children in the Orthodox faith. All people are called to celibacy—human beings are all born into virginity, and Orthodox Christians are expected by Sacred Tradition to remain in that state unless they are called into marriage and that call is sanctified. The church blesses two paths on the journey to salvation: monasticism and marriage. Mere celibacy, without the sanctification of monasticism, can fall into selfishness and tends to be regarded with disfavour by the Church. Non-Trinitarian denominations must be performed in an LDS temple.]] The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints In the teachings of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), celestial (or eternal) marriage is a covenant between a man, a woman, and God performed by a priesthood authority in a temple of the church. Thus, eternally married couples are often referred to as being "sealed" to each other. Sealed couples who keep their covenants are also promised to have their posterity sealed to them in the afterlife. (The church will no longer perform a celestial marriage for a couple unless they are first or simultaneously legally married.) The church encourages its members to be in good standing with it so that they may marry or be sealed in the temple. A celestial marriage is not annulled by a civil divorce: a "cancellation of a sealing" may be granted, but only by the First Presidency, the highest authority in the church. Civil divorce and marriage outside the temple carries somewhat of a stigma in the Mormon culture; the church teaches that the "gospel of Jesus Christ—including repentance, forgiveness, integrity, and love—provides the remedy for conflict in marriage." Regarding marriage and divorce, the church instructs its leaders: "No priesthood officer is to counsel a person whom to marry. Nor should he counsel a person to divorce his or her spouse. Those decisions must originate and remain with the individual. When a marriage ends in divorce, or if a husband and wife separate, they should always receive counseling from Church leaders." In church temples, members of the LDS Church perform vicarious celestial marriages for deceased couples who were legally married. New Church (or Swedenborgian Church) The New Church teaches that marital love (or "conjugial love") is "the precious jewel of human life and the repository of the Christian religion" because the love shared between a husband and a wife is the source of all peace and joy. Emanuel Swedenborg coined the term "conjugial" (rather than the more usual adjective in reference to marital union, "conjugal") to describe the special love experienced by married partners. Those who never married in the natural world will, if they wish, find a spouse in heaven.<!-- please insert other denominational views here --> Jehovah's Witnesses The Jehovah's Witnesses view marriage to be a permanent arrangement with the only possible exception being adultery. Divorce is strongly discouraged even when adultery is committed since the wronged spouse is free to forgive the unfaithful one. There are provisions for a domestic separation in the event of "failure to provide for one's household" and domestic violence, or spiritual resistance on the part of a partner. Even in such situations though divorce would be considered grounds for loss of privileges in the congregation. Remarrying after death or a proper divorce is permitted. Marriage is the only situation where any type of sexual interaction is acceptable, and even then certain restrictions apply to acts such as oral and anal sex. Married persons who are known to commit such acts may in fact lose privileges in the congregation as they are supposed to be setting a good example to the congregation. Interdenominational marriage In Christianity, an interdenominational marriage (also known as an ecumenical marriage) is a marriage between two baptized Christians who belong to different Christian denominations, e.g. a wedding between a Lutheran man and a Catholic woman. Nearly all denominations permit interdenominational marriages. In Methodism, ¶81 of the 2014 Discipline of the Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection, states with regard to interdenominational marriages: "We do not prohibit our people from marrying persons who are not of our connection, provided such persons have the form and are seeking the power of godliness; but we are determined to discourage their marrying persons who do not come up to this description." The Catholic Church recognizes as sacramental, (1) the marriages between two baptized Protestants or between two baptized Orthodox Christians, as well as (2) marriages between baptized non-Catholics and Catholics, although in the latter case, consent from the diocesan bishop must be obtained, with this being termed "permission to enter into a mixed marriage". To illustrate (1), for example, "if two Lutherans marry in the Lutheran Church in the presence of a Lutheran minister, the Catholic Church recognizes this as a valid sacrament of marriage." Interreligious marriage In Christianity, an interfaith marriage is a marriage between a baptized Christian and a non-baptized person, e.g. a wedding between a Christian man and Jewish woman. Although the Catholic Church recognizes as natural marriages weddings between two non-Christians or those between a Catholic and a non-Christian, these are not considered to be sacramental, and in the latter case, the Catholic must seek permission from the local bishop for the marriage to occur; this permission is known as "dispensation from disparity of cult". In Methodist Christianity, the 2014 Discipline of the Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection discourages interfaith marriages, stating "Many Christians have married unconverted persons. This has produced bad effects; they have either been hindered for life, or have turned back to perdition." Same-sex marriage Anglican denominations such as the Episcopal Church in United States the Anglican Church of Canada, the Anglican Church in Aotearoa, New Zealand and Polynesia, the Anglican Episcopal Church of Brazil, the Scottish Episcopal Church in Scotland and mainline Protestant denominations such as the United Church of Christ, the United Church of Canada, the Metropolitan Community Church, the Presbyterian Church (USA), the Quakers, the United Reformed Church in United Kingdom, the Church of Scotland, the Methodist Church of Great Britain, the Church of Iceland, the Church of Sweden, the Church of Denmark, the Church of Norway, the United Protestant Church in Belgium, the Protestant Church in Baden, the Evangelical Church in Berlin, Brandenburg and Silesian Upper Lusatia, the Evangelical Church of Bremen, the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Brunswick, the Evangelical Church of Hesse Electorate-Waldeck, the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Oldenburg, the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Hanover, the Church of Lippe, the Evangelical Reformed Church in Bavaria and Northwestern Germany, the Evangelical Church in the Rhineland, the Protestant Church in Hesse and Nassau, the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Northern Germany the Protestant Church of the Palatinate, the Evangelical Church of Westphalia, the Mennonite Church in the Netherlands the United Protestant Church of France, the Catholic Diocese of the Old Catholics in Germany, the Christian Catholic Church of Switzerland, some Reformed churches in Federation of Swiss Protestant Churches for example the Reformed Church of Aargau, the Protestant Church of Geneva or the Evangelical Reformed Church of the Canton of Zürich and some non-trinitarian denominations such as the Unity Church and the Unitarians, and Affirming Pentecostal Church International perform weddings between same-sex couples. The Evangelical Lutheran Church of America, the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada, some Lutheran and united churches in Evangelical Church in Germany, some Reformed churches in Federation of Swiss Protestant Churches, and the Protestant Church in the Netherlands do not administer sacramental marriage to same-sex couples, but blesses same-sex unions through the use of a specific liturgy. The Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, and other more conservative Protestant denominations do not perform or recognize same-sex marriage because they do not consider it as marriage at all, and considering any homosexual sexual activity to be sinful. The Global Anglican Future Conference (GAFCON) consisting of the Church of Nigeria, Anglican Church of Kenya, Anglican Church of Tanzania, Rwanda and Uganda; Anglican Church of South America, Australia, parts of England, Canada, USA and Church of India through the Jerusalem Conference clearly asserted "the unchangeable standard of Christian marriage between one man and one woman as the proper place for sexual intimacy." Location of the wedding With respect to religion, historic Christian belief emphasizes that Christian weddings should occur in a church as Christian marriage should begin where one also starts their faith journey (Christians receive the sacrament of baptism in church in the presence of their congregation). Catholic weddings must "take place in a church building" as holy matrimony is a sacrament; sacraments normatively occur in the presence of Christ in the house of God, and "members of the faith community [should be] present to witness the event and provide support and encouragement for those celebrating the sacrament". While the voice of God had said, "I hate divorce", some authorities believe the divorce rate in the church is nearly comparable to that of the culture at large. The Catholic Church official doctrine is that divorce is immoral with the exception of its use to protect one or more spouses with the understanding that civil divorce is not an actual divorce in the eyes of God. Christians today hold three competing views as to what is the biblically ordained relationship between husband and wife. These views range from Christian egalitarianism that interprets the New Testament as teaching complete equality of authority and responsibility between the man and woman in marriage, all the way to Patriarchy that calls for a "return to complete patriarchy" in which relationships are based on male-dominant power and authority in marriage: According to this principle, there can be no moral or theological justification for permanently granting or denying status, privilege, or prerogative solely on the basis of a person's race, class, or gender. This proof text is typically used for the egalitarian view but misses the Greek text is addressing “you,” second person plural, so application to individuals is a common whole-part fallacy when reading Galatians. 2. Christian Complementarians prescribe husband-headship—a male-led hierarchy. This view's core beliefs call for a husband's "loving, humble headship" and the wife's "intelligent, willing submission" to his headship. They believe women have "different but complementary roles and responsibilities in marriage". This view holds to Genesis 1 that men and women are made in equal dignity yet also emphasizes relational distinctions via St. Paul’s teaching that marriage signifies the unity between Christ and his bride the Church, which entails the man is to be like Christ and the woman is to be like the Church. 3. Biblical patriarchy prescribes a strict male-dominant hierarchy. A very strong view makes the husband the ruler over his wife and his household. Their organization's first tenet is that "God reveals Himself as masculine, not feminine. God is the eternal Father and the eternal Son, the Holy Spirit is also addressed as He, and Jesus Christ is a male". They consider the husband-father to be sovereign over his household—the family leader, provider, and protector. They call for a wife to be obedient to her head (her husband) as described in Ephesians 6. One view of this perspective leads to a domination of head over body, male over female. If it is accompanied with equal revelation of the earth described as mother in Wisdom literature, the Church as a she (ecclesia), etc then a second version of this view is the patriarchal-matriarchal view which emphasizes equal dignity, asymmetrical complimentary, each aiming at virtue cultivation, but maintaining the essential head-body metaphor St Paul uses. Some Christian authorities permit the practice polygamy (specifically polygyny), but this practice, besides being illegal in Western cultures, is now considered to be out of the Christian mainstream in most parts of the globe; the Lutheran World Federation hosted a regional conference in Africa, in which the acceptance of polygamists and their wives into full membership by the Lutheran Church in Liberia was defended as being permissible. While the Lutheran Church in Liberia permits men to retain their wives if they married them prior to being received into the Church, it does not permit polygamists who have become Christians to marry more wives after they have received the sacrament of Holy Baptism. Family authority and responsibilities , 1862.]] Much of the dispute hinges on how one interprets the New Testament household code (Haustafel), a term coined by Martin Luther, which has as its main focus hierarchical relationships between three pairs of social classes that were controlled by Roman law: husbands/wives, parents/children, and masters/slaves. The apostolic teachings, with variations, that constitute what has been termed the "household code" occurs in four epistles (letters) by the Apostle Paul and in 1 Peter. In the early Roman Republic, long before the time of Christ, the law of manus along with the concept of patria potestas (rule of the fathers), gave the husband nearly absolute autocratic power over his wife, children, and slaves, including the power of life and death. In practice, the extreme form of this right was seldom exercised, and it was eventually limited by law. Theologian Frank Stagg finds the basic tenets of the code in Aristotle's discussion of the household in Book 1 of Politics and in Philo's Hypothetica 7.14. Serious study of the New Testament Household Code (Haustafel) began with Martin Dilbelius in 1913, with a wide range of studies since then. In a Tübingen dissertation, by James E. Crouch concludes that the early Christians found in Hellenistic Judaism a code which they adapted and Christianized. The Staggs believe the several occurrences of the New Testament household code in the Bible were intended to meet the needs for order within the churches and in the society of the day. They maintain that the New Testament household code is an attempt by Paul and Peter to Christianize the concept of family relationships for Roman citizens who had become followers of Christ. The Staggs write that there is some suggestion in scripture that because Paul had taught that they had newly found freedom "in Christ", wives, children, and slaves were taking improper advantage of the Haustafel both in the home and the church. "The form of the code stressing reciprocal social duties is traced to Judaism's own Oriental background, with its strong moral/ethical demand but also with a low view of woman.... At bottom is probably to be seen the perennial tension between freedom and order.... What mattered to (Paul) was 'a new creation' and 'in Christ' there is 'not any Jew not Greek, not any slave nor free, not any male and female'. Other Egalitarian authors such as Margaret Howe agree with Kroeger, writing that "The word 'head' must be understood not as 'ruler' but as 'source. Wayne Grudem criticizes commonly rendering kephalē in those same passages only to mean "source", and argues that it denotes "authoritative head" in such texts as Corinthians 11. They interpret that verse to mean that God the Father is the authoritative head over the Son, and in turn Jesus is the authoritative head over the church, not simply its source. By extension, they then conclude that in marriage and in the church, the man is the authoritative head over the woman. Another potential way to define the word "head", and hence the relationship between husband and wife as found in the Bible, is through the example given in the surrounding context in which the word is found. In that context the husband and wife are compared to Christ and his church. The context seems to imply an authority structure based on a man sacrificing himself for his wife, as Christ did for the church; a love-based authority structure, where submission is not required but freely given based on the care given to the wife. Some biblical references on this subject are debated depending on one's school of theology. The historical grammatical method is a hermeneutic technique that strives to uncover the meaning of the text by taking into account not just the grammatical words, but also the syntactical aspects, the cultural and historical background, and the literary genre. Thus references to a patriarchal Biblical culture may or may not be relevant to other societies. What is believed to be a timeless truth to one person or denomination may be considered a cultural norm or minor opinion to another. Egalitarian view Christian Egalitarians (from the French word "égal" meaning "equal") believe that Christian marriage is intended to be a marriage without any hierarchy—a full and equal partnership between the wife and husband. They emphasize that nowhere in the New Testament is there a requirement for a wife to obey her husband. While "obey" was introduced into marriage vows for much of the church during the Middle Ages, its only New Testament support is found in Peter 3, with that only being by implication from Sarah's obedience to Abraham. Christian Egalitarians interpret scripture to mean that God intended spouses to practice mutual submission, each in equality with the other. The phrase "mutual submission" comes from a verse in Ephesians 5 which precedes advice for the three domestic relationships of the day, including slavery. It reads, "Submit to one another ('mutual submission') out of reverence for Christ", wives to husbands, children to parents, and slaves to their master. Christian Egalitarians believe that full partnership in marriage is the most biblical view, producing the most intimate, wholesome, and reciprocally fulfilling marriages. The Christian Egalitarian view of marriage asserts that gender, in and of itself, neither privileges nor curtails a believer's gifting or calling to any ministry in the church or home. It does not imply that women and men are identical or undifferentiated, but affirms that God designed men and women to complement and benefit one another. A foundational belief of Christian Egalitarians is that the husband and wife are created equally and are ordained of God to "become one", a biblical principle first ordained by God in Genesis 2, reaffirmed by Jesus in Matthew 19 and Mark 10, and by the Apostle Paul in Ephesians 5. Therefore, they see that "oneness" as pointing to gender equality in marriage. They believe the biblical model for Christian marriages is therefore for the spouses to share equal responsibility within the family—not one over the other nor one under the other. David Dykes, theologian, author, and pastor of a 15,000-member Baptist church, sermonized that "When you are in Christ, you have full equality with all other believers". In a sermon he entitled "The Ground Is Level at the Foot of the Cross", he said that some theologians have called one particular Bible verse the Christian Magna Carta. The Bible verse reads: "There is neither Jew nor Gentile, neither slave nor free, nor is there male and female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus." Acknowledging the differences between men and women, Dykes writes that "in Christ, these differences don't define who we are. The only category that really matters in the world is whether you are in Christ. At the cross, Jesus destroyed all the made-made barriers of hostility:" ethnicity, social status, and gender. Those of the egalitarian persuasion point to the biblical instruction that all Christian believers, irrespective of gender, are to submit or be subject "to one another in the fear of God" or "out of reverence for Christ". Gilbert Bilezikian writes that in the highly debated Ephesians 5 passage, the verb "to be subject" or "to be submitted" appears in verse 21 which he describes as serving as a "hinge" between two different sections. The first section consists of verses 18–20, verse 21 is the connection between the two, and the second section consists of verses 22–33. When discussion begins at verse 22 in Ephesians 5, Paul appears to be reaffirming a chain of command principle within the family. However, Advocates of Christian egalitarianism believe that this model has firm biblical support: The word translated "help" or "helper" in Genesis 2 until quite recently was generally understood to subordinate a wife to her husband. The KJV translates it as God saying, "I will make a help meet for him". The first distortion was extrabiblical: the noun "help" and the adjective "meet" traditionally have been combined into a new noun, "helpmate". Thus, wives were often referred to as her husband's "helpmate". Next, from the word "help" were drawn inferences of authority/subjection distinctions between men and women. "Helper" was taken to mean that husband was boss and wife his domestic. It is now realized that of the 21 times the Hebrew word 'ezer is used in the Old Testament, in eight of those instances the term clearly means "savior"—another word for Jehovah God. For example, Psalm 33 says "the Lord...is our help ('ezer) and shield". Psalm 121 reads "I lift up my eyes to the mountains—where does my help ('ezer) come from? My help ('ezer) comes from the Lord, the Maker of heaven and earth." That Hebrew word is not used in the Bible with reference to any subordinate person such a servant. The "two becoming one" concept, first cited in Genesis 2, was quoted by Jesus in his teachings on marriage and recorded almost identically in the gospels of both Matthew and Mark. In those passages Jesus reemphasized the concept by adding a divine postscript to the Genesis passage: "So, they are no longer two, but one" (NIV). The Apostle Paul also quoted the Genesis 2:24 passage in Ephesians 5 Then Paul states that every husband must love his wife as he loves himself. Jesus actually forbids any hierarchy of relationships in Christian relationships. All three synoptic gospels record virtually the same teaching of Jesus, adding to its apparent significance: The Apostle Paul calls on husbands and wives to be subject to each other out of reverence for Christ—mutual submission. As persons, husband and wife are of equal value. There is no priority of one spouse over the other. In truth, they are one. and recorded in Galatians 3, applies to all Christian relationships, including Christian marriage: "There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither bond nor free, there is neither male nor female: for you are all one in Christ Jesus." The Apostle Peter calls husbands and wives "joint heirs of the grace of life" and cautions a husband who is not considerate to his wife and does not treat her with respect that his prayers will be hindered. Each of the six times Aquila and his wife Priscilla are mentioned by name in the New Testament, they are listed together. Their order of appearance alternates, with Aquila mentioned first in the first, third and fifth mentions, and Priscilla (Prisca) first in the other three. Some revisions of the Bible put Priscilla first, instead of Aquila, in Acts 18:26, following the Vulgate and a few Greek texts. Some scholars suggest that Priscilla was the head of the family unit. Among spouses, it is possible to submit without love, but it is impossible to love without submitting mutually to each other. The egalitarian paradigm leaves it up to the couple to decide who is responsible for what task or function in the home. Such decisions should be made rationally and wisely, not based on gender or tradition. Examples of a couple's decision logic might include: which spouse is more competent for a particular task or function; which has better access to it; or if they decide both are similarly competent and have comparable access, they might make the decision based on who prefers that function or task, or conversely, which of them dislikes it less than the other. The egalitarian view holds that decisions about managing family responsibilities are made rationally through cooperation and negotiation, not on the basis of tradition (e.g., "man's work" or "woman's" work), nor any other irrelevant or irrational basis. Complementarian view Complementarians hold to a hierarchical structure between husband and wife. They believe men and women have different gender-specific roles that allow each to complement the other, hence the designation "Complementarians". The Complementarian view of marriage holds that while the husband and wife are of equal worth before God, husbands and wives are given different functions and responsibilities by God that are based on gender, and that male leadership is biblically ordained so that the husband is always the senior authority figure. They state they "observe with deep concern" "accompanying distortions or neglect of the glad harmony portrayed in Scripture between the intelligent, humble leadership of redeemed husbands and the loving, willing support of that leadership by redeemed wives". They believe "the Bible presents a clear chain of authority—above all authority and power is God; God is the head of Christ. Then in descending order, Christ is the head of man, man is the head of woman, and parents are the head of their children." Complementarians teach that God intended men to lead their wives as "heads" of the family. Wayne Grudem, in an article that interprets the "mutual submission" of Ephesians 5 as being hierarchical, writes that it means "being considerate of one another, and caring for one another’s needs, and being thoughtful of one another, and sacrificing for one another." Scriptures such as 1 Corinthians 11:3: "But I would have you know, that the head of every man is Christ; and the head of the woman is the man; and the head of Christ is God", (KJV) is understood as meaning the wife is to be subject to her husband, if not unconditionally. According to Complementarian authors John Piper, Wayne Grudem, and others, historically, but to a significantly lesser extent in most of Christianity today, the predominant position in both Catholicism and conservative Protestantism places the male as the "head" in the home and in the church. They hold that women are commanded to be in subjection to male leadership, with a wife being obedient to her head (husband), based upon Old Testament precepts and principles. This view holds that, "God has created men and women equal in their essential dignity and human personhood, but different and complementary in function with male headship in the home and in the Church." Grudem also acknowledges exceptions to the submission of wives to husbands where moral issues are involved. Rather than unconditional obedience, Complementarian authors such as Piper and Grudem are careful to caution that a wife's submission should never cause her to "follow her husband into sin." Roman Catholic Church teaching on the role of women includes that of Pope Leo XIII in his 1880 encyclical Arcanum which states: Though each of their churches is autonomous and self-governed, the official position of the Southern Baptist Convention (the largest Protestant denomination in the United States) is: Biblical patriarchy The patriarchal model of marriage is clearly the oldest one. It characterized the theological understanding of most Old Testament writers. It mandates the supremacy, at times the ultimate domination, of the husband-father in the family. In the first century Roman Empire, in the time of Jesus, Paul, and Peter, it was the law of the land and gave the husband absolute authority over his wife, children, and slaves—even the power of life or death. It subordinates all women. Biblical patriarchy is similar to Complementarianism but with differences of degree and emphasis. Biblical patriarchists carry the husband-headship model considerably further and with more militancy. While Complementarians also hold to exclusively male leadership in both the home and the church, Biblical patriarchy extends that exclusion to the civic sphere as well, so that women should not be civil leaders and indeed should not have careers outside the home. Patriarchy is based on authoritarianism—complete obedience or subjection to male authority as opposed to individual freedom. Patriarchy gives preeminence to the male in essentially all matters of religion and culture. It explicitly deprives all women of social, political, and economic rights. The marriage relationship simply reinforced this dominance of women by men, providing religious, cultural, and legal structures that clearly favor patriarchy to the exclusion of even basic human dignity for wives. Historically in classical patriarchy, the wives and children were always legally dependent upon the father, as were the slaves and other servants. It was the way of life throughout most of the Old Testament, religiously, legally, and culturally. However, it was not unique to Hebrew thought. With only minor variations, it characterized virtually every pagan culture of that day—including all Pre-Christian doctrine and practice. Biblical patriarchists see what they describe as a crisis of this era being what they term to be a systematic attack on the "timeless truths of biblical patriarchy". They believe such an attack includes the movement to "subvert the biblical model of the family, and redefine the very meaning of fatherhood and motherhood, masculinity, femininity, and the parent and child relationship." The patriarchists teach that "the woman was created as a helper to her husband, as the bearer of children, and as a "keeper at home", concluding that the God-ordained and proper sphere of dominion for a wife is the household. Biblical patriarchists consider that "faithfulness to Christ requires that (Biblical patriarchy) be believed, taught, and lived". They claim that the "man is...the image and glory of God in terms of authority, while the woman is the glory of man". They teach that a wife is to be obedient to her "head" (husband), based upon Old Testament teachings and models. Other views See Christian feminism See also * Biblical patriarchy * Buddhist view of marriage * Christian egalitarianism * Christian views of women * Christian views on divorce * Complementarianism * Christian views on birth control * Gender roles in Christianity * Interfaith marriage * Marriage in the Catholic Church * Monogamy in Christianity * New Testament household codes * Paul the Apostle and women * Polygamy in Christianity * Quaker wedding * Quiverfull * Wedding References Further reading * Andreas J. Köstenberger, David W. Jones (2010). God, Marriage, and Family: Rebuilding the Biblical Foundation. Crossway Books. . . External links * [https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p2s2c3a7.htm The Sacrament of Matrimony] * [https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p3s2c2a6.htm Offenses Against the Dignity of Marriage] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060702174006/http://www.sdnewsnotes.com/ed/articles/1998/0698tb.htm Catholic divorce mills?] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20011216191521/http://www.saveoursacrament.org/home.html Annulments, Information on Roman Catholic] * [http://www.marriagedivorce.com Free eBooks related to Views on Christian Marriage] Marriage in Christianity Category:Point of view	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_views_on_marriage	2025-04-05T18:28:08.235634
7392	Class (computer programming)	In object-oriented programming, a class defines the shared aspects of objects created from the class. The capabilities of a class differ between programming languages, but generally the shared aspects consist of state (variables) and behavior (methods) that are each either associated with a particular object or with all objects of that class.}} Object state can differ between each instance of the class whereas the class state is shared by all of them. The object methods include access to the object state (via an implicit or explicit parameter that references the object) whereas class methods do not. If the language supports inheritance, a class can be defined based on another class with all of its state and behavior plus additional state and behavior that further specializes the class. The specialized class is a sub-class, and the class it is based on is its superclass. Attributes Object lifecycle As an instance of a class, an object is constructed from a class via instantiation. Memory is allocated and initialized for the object state and a reference to the object is provided to consuming code. The object is usable until it is destroyed its state memory is de-allocated. Most languages allow for custom logic at lifecycle events via a constructor and a destructor. Type An object expresses data type as an interface the type of each member variable and the signature of each member function (method). A class defines an implementation of an interface, and instantiating the class results in an object that exposes the implementation via the interface. In the terms of type theory, a class is an implementationa concrete data structure and collection of subroutineswhile a type is an interface. Different (concrete) classes can produce objects of the same (abstract) type (depending on type system). For example, the type (interface) might be implemented by that is fast for small stacks but scales poorly and that scales well but has high overhead for small stacks. <span class"anchor" id"PROPERTY"></span>Structure notation for classes]] A class contains data field descriptions (or properties, fields, data members, or attributes). These are usually field types and names that will be associated with state variables at program run time; these state variables either belong to the class or specific instances of the class. In most languages, the structure defined by the class determines the layout of the memory used by its instances. Other implementations are possible: for example, objects in Python use associative key-value containers. Some programming languages such as Eiffel support specification of invariants as part of the definition of the class, and enforce them through the type system. Encapsulation of state is necessary for being able to enforce the invariants of the class. Behavior <!-- This section used to contain info on Java interfaces. If you wish to view it (to, say, move to another page), the last revision before the removal of this info is http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?titleClass_(computer_science)&oldid165562113 --> The behavior of a class or its instances is defined using methods. Methods are subroutines with the ability to operate on objects or classes. These operations may alter the state of an object or simply provide ways of accessing it.<!-- (Note: Some languages allow direct access to instance variables (C++)). --> Many kinds of methods exist, but support for them varies across languages. Some types of methods are created and called by programmer code, while other special methods—such as constructors, destructors, and conversion operators—are created and called by compiler-generated code. A language may also allow the programmer to define and call these special methods. Class interface Every class implements (or realizes) an interface by providing structure and behavior. Structure consists of data and state, and behavior consists of code that specifies how methods are implemented. There is a distinction between the definition of an interface and the implementation of that interface; however, this line is blurred in many programming languages because class declarations both define and implement an interface. Some languages, however, provide features that separate interface and implementation. For example, an abstract class can define an interface without providing an implementation. Languages that support class inheritance also allow classes to inherit interfaces from the classes that they are derived from. For example, if "class A" inherits from "class B" and if "class B" implements the interface "interface B" then "class A" also inherits the functionality(constants and methods declaration) provided by "interface B". In languages that support access specifiers, the interface of a class is considered to be the set of public members of the class, including both methods and attributes (via implicit getter and setter methods); any private members or internal data structures are not intended to be depended on by external<!--client--> code and thus are not part of the interface. Object-oriented programming methodology<!--is designed in such a way--> dictates that the operations of any interface of a class are to be independent of each other. It results in a layered design where clients of an interface use the methods declared in the interface. An interface places no requirements for clients to invoke the operations of one interface in any particular order. This approach has the benefit that client code can assume that the operations of an interface are available for use whenever the client<!--holds a valid reference--> has access to the object. ; Class interface example The buttons on the front of your television set are the interface between you and the electrical wiring on the other side of its plastic casing. You press the "power" button to toggle the television on and off. In this example, your particular television is the instance, each method is represented by a button, and all the buttons together compose the interface (other television sets that are the same model as yours would have the same interface). In its most common form, an interface is a specification of a group of related methods without any associated implementation of the methods. A television set also has a myriad of attributes, such as size and whether it supports color, which together comprise its structure. A class represents the full description of a television, including its attributes (structure) and buttons (interface). Getting the total number of televisions manufactured could be a static method of the television class. This method is associated with the class, yet is outside the domain of each instance of the class. A static method that finds a particular instance out of the set of all television objects is another example. Member accessibility The following is a common set of access specifiers: * Private (or class-private) restricts access to the class itself. Only methods that are part of the same class can access private members. * Protected (or class-protected) allows the class itself and all its subclasses to access the member. * Public means that any code can access the member by its name. Although many object-oriented languages support the above access specifiers,<!-- -->their semantics may differ. Object-oriented design uses the access specifiers in conjunction with careful design of public method implementations to enforce class invariants—constraints on the state of the objects. A common usage of access specifiers is to separate the internal data of a class from its interface: the internal structure is made private, while public accessor methods can be used to inspect or alter such private data. Access specifiers do not necessarily control visibility, in that even private members may be visible to client external code. In some languages, an inaccessible but visible member may be referred to at runtime (for example, by a pointer returned from a member function), but an attempt to use it by referring to the name of the member from the client code will be prevented by the type checker. The various object-oriented programming languages enforce member accessibility and visibility to various degrees, and depending on the language's type system and compilation policies, enforced at either compile time or runtime. For example, the Java language does not allow client code that accesses the private data of a class to compile.<!-- whereas in languages like Objective-C or Perl client code is not restricted.--> In the C++ language, private methods are visible, but not accessible in the interface; however, they may be made invisible by explicitly declaring fully abstract classes that represent the interfaces of the class. Some languages feature other accessibility schemes: * Instance vs. class accessibility: Ruby supports instance-private and instance-protected access specifiers in lieu of class-private and class-protected, respectively. They differ in that they restrict access based on the instance itself, rather than the instance's class. * Friend: C++ supports a mechanism where a function explicitly declared as a friend function of the class may access the members designated as private or protected. * Path-based: Java supports restricting access to a member within a Java package, which is the logical path of the file. However, it is a common practice when extending a Java framework to implement classes in the same package as a framework class to access protected members. The source file may exist in a completely different location, and may be deployed to a different .jar file, yet still be in the same logical path as far as the JVM is concerned. One important question when modeling and implementing a system of object classes is whether a class can have one or more superclasses. In the real world with actual sets, it would be rare to find sets that did not intersect with more than one other set. However, while some systems such as Flavors and CLOS provide a capability for more than one parent to do so at run time introduces complexity that many in the object-oriented community consider antithetical to the goals of using object classes in the first place. Understanding which class will be responsible for handling a message can get complex when dealing with more than one superclass. If used carelessly this feature can introduce some of the same system complexity and ambiguity classes were designed to avoid. Most modern object-oriented languages such as Smalltalk and Java require single inheritance at run time. For these languages, multiple inheritance may be useful for modeling but not for an implementation. However, semantic web application objects do have multiple superclasses. The volatility of the Internet requires this level of flexibility and the technology standards such as the Web Ontology Language (OWL) are designed to support it. A similar issue is whether or not the class hierarchy can be modified at run time. Languages such as Flavors, CLOS, and Smalltalk all support this feature as part of their meta-object protocols. Since classes are themselves first-class objects, it is possible to have them dynamically alter their structure by sending them the appropriate messages. Other languages that focus more on strong typing such as Java and C++ do not allow the class hierarchy to be modified at run time. Semantic web objects have the capability for run time changes to classes. The rationale is similar to the justification for allowing multiple superclasses, that the Internet is so dynamic and flexible that dynamic changes to the hierarchy are required to manage this volatility. Although many class-based languages support inheritance, inheritance is not an intrinsic aspect of classes. An object-based language (i.e. Classic Visual Basic) supports classes yet does not support inheritance.<!-- do not provide the structural benefits of statically type-checked interfaces for objects. This is because, in object-based languages, it is possible to use and extend data structures and attach methods to them at runtime. This precludes the compiler or interpreter from being able to check the type information specified in the source code as the type is built dynamically and not defined statically. Most of these languages allow for instance behavior and complex operational polymorphism (see dynamic dispatch and polymorphism). --> Inter-class relationships A programming language may support various class relationship features. Compositional Classes can be composed of other classes, thereby establishing a compositional relationship between the enclosing class and its embedded classes. Compositional relationship between classes is also commonly known as a has-a relationship. For example, a class "Car" could be composed of and contain a class "Engine". Therefore, a Car has an Engine. One aspect of composition is containment, which is the enclosure of component instances by the instance that has them. If an enclosing object contains component instances by value, the components and their enclosing object have a similar lifetime. If the components are contained by reference, they may not have a similar lifetime. For example, in Objective-C 2.0: <syntaxhighlight lang="objc"> @interface Car : NSObject @property NSString name; @property Engine engine @property NSArray tires; @end </syntaxhighlight> This class has an instance of (a string object), , and (an array object). Hierarchical Classes can be derived from one or more existing classes, thereby establishing a hierarchical relationship between the derived-from classes (base classes, parent classes or ) and the derived class (child class or subclass) . The relationship of the derived class to the derived-from classes is commonly known as an is-a relationship. For example, a class 'Button' could be derived from a class 'Control'. Therefore, a Button is a Control. Structural and behavioral members of the parent classes are inherited by the child class. Derived classes can define additional structural members (data fields) and behavioral members (methods) in addition to those that they inherit and are therefore specializations of their superclasses. Also, derived classes can override inherited methods if the language allows. Not all languages support multiple inheritance. For example, Java allows a class to implement multiple interfaces, but only inherit from one class. If multiple inheritance is allowed, the hierarchy is a directed acyclic graph (or DAG for short), otherwise it is a tree. The hierarchy has classes as nodes and inheritance relationships as links. Classes in the same level are more likely to be associated than classes in different levels. The levels of this hierarchy are called layers or levels of abstraction. Example (Simplified Objective-C 2.0 code, from iPhone SDK): <syntaxhighlight lang="objc"> @interface UIResponder : NSObject //... @interface UIView : UIResponder //... @interface UIScrollView : UIView //... @interface UITableView : UIScrollView //... </syntaxhighlight> In this example, a UITableView is a UIScrollView is a UIView is a UIResponder is an NSObject. Modeling In object-oriented analysis and in Unified Modelling Language (UML), an association between two classes represents a collaboration between the classes or their corresponding instances. Associations have direction; for example, a bi-directional association between two classes indicates that both of the classes are aware of their relationship. Associations may be labeled according to their name or purpose. An association role is given end of an association and describes the role of the corresponding class. For example, a "subscriber" role describes the way instances of the class "Person" participate in a "subscribes-to" association with the class "Magazine". Also, a "Magazine" has the "subscribed magazine" role in the same association. Association role multiplicity describes how many instances correspond to each instance of the other class of the association. Common multiplicities are "0..1", "1..1", "1.." and "0..", where the "" specifies any number of instances. Most object-oriented programming languages allow the programmer to specify which classes are considered abstract and will not allow these to be instantiated. For example, in Java, C# and PHP, the keyword abstract is used. In C++, an abstract class is a class having at least one abstract method given by the appropriate syntax in that language (a pure virtual function in C++ parlance). <!--Abstract classes defined as interfaces are a much more specific use of the more general meaning of the term interface, even as used in computer science, and the concept of interfaces has seen much use and popularity within the realm of languages that support object-orientation.--> Local and inner In some languages, classes can be declared in scopes other than the global scope. There are various types of such classes. An inner class is a class defined within another class. The relationship between an inner class and its containing class can also be treated as another type of class association. An inner class is typically neither associated with instances of the enclosing class nor instantiated along with its enclosing class. Depending on the language, it may or may not be possible to refer to the class from outside the enclosing class. A related concept is inner types, also known as inner data type or nested type, which is a generalization of the concept of inner classes. C++ is an example of a language that supports both inner classes and inner types (via typedef declarations). A local class is a class defined within a procedure or function. Such structure limits references to the class name to within the scope where the class is declared. Depending on the semantic rules of the language, there may be additional restrictions on local classes compared to non-local ones. One common restriction is to disallow local class methods to access local variables of the enclosing function. For example, in C++, a local class may refer to static variables declared within its enclosing function, but may not access the function's automatic variables. Metaclass A metaclass is a class where instances are classes. A metaclass describes a common structure of a collection of classes and can implement a design pattern or describe particular kinds of classes. Metaclasses are often used to describe frameworks. In some languages, such as Python, Ruby or Smalltalk, a class is also an object; thus each class is an instance of a unique metaclass that is built into the language. The Common Lisp Object System (CLOS) provides metaobject protocols (MOPs) to implement those classes and metaclasses. Sealed <span class"anchor" id"Non-subclassable"></span><span class"anchor" id"Sealed"></span> A sealed class cannot be subclassed. It is basically the opposite of an abstract class, which must be derived to be used. A sealed class is implicitly concrete. A class declared as sealed via the keyword in C# or in Java or PHP. For example, Java's class is marked as final. Sealed classes may allow a compiler to perform optimizations that are not available for classes that can be subclassed. <!-- The following goes without saying, i.e., it says nothing but to hint that "abstract" and "concrete" are an "either but not both" concept. 'abstract' and 'concrete' are defined already above.--> <!-- While it is impossible in any object-oriented language to have a class that is both abstract and concrete, it may be possible to have an abstract partial class --> <!-- The following seemingly belongs in the 'method' article --> <!-- It is also possible not to declare the whole class as such, but only the override as sealed. This classes are used because of efficiency concerns (can be called like static classes) and security (avoids inadvertent modification of the class semantics). --> Open<span class"anchor" id"Open class"></span> An open class can be changed. Typically, an executable program cannot be changed by customers. Developers can often change some classes, but typically cannot change standard or built-in ones. In Ruby, all classes are open. In Python, classes can be created at runtime, and all can be modified afterward. Objective-C categories permit the programmer to add methods to an existing class without the need to recompile that class or even have access to its source code. Mixin Some languages have special support for mixins, though, in any language with multiple inheritance, a mixin is simply a class that does not represent an is-a-type-of relationship. Mixins are typically used to add the same methods to multiple classes; for example, a class might provide a method called when included in classes and that do not share a common parent. Partial In languages supporting the feature, a partial class is a class whose definition may be split into multiple pieces, within a single source-code file or across multiple files. The pieces are merged at compile time, making compiler output the same as for a non-partial class. The primary motivation for the introduction of partial classes is to facilitate the implementation of code generators, such as visual designers. Other benefits and effects of the partial class feature include: * Enables separation of a class's interface and implementation code in a unique way. * Eases navigation through large classes within an editor. * Enables separation of concerns, in a way similar to aspect-oriented programming but without using any extra tools. * Enables multiple developers to work on a single class concurrently without the need to merge individual code into one file at a later time.<!-- (This enabling may be considered by some or most to be a detriment rather than a benefit for SoC can apply to programmers also).--> Partial classes have existed in Smalltalk under the name of Class Extensions for considerable time. With the arrival of the .NET framework 2, Microsoft introduced partial classes, supported in both C# 2.0 and Visual Basic 2005. WinRT also supports partial classes. Uninstantiable Uninstantiable classes allow programmers to group together per-class fields and methods that are accessible at runtime without an instance of the class. Indeed, instantiation is prohibited for this kind of class. For example, in C#, a class marked "static" can not be instantiated, can only have static members (fields, methods, other), may not have instance constructors, and is sealed. Unnamed An unnamed class or anonymous class is not bound to a name or identifier upon definition. This is analogous to named versus unnamed functions. Benefits The benefits of organizing software into object classes fall into three categories: * Rapid development * Ease of maintenance * Reuse of code and designs Object classes facilitate rapid development because they lessen the semantic gap between the code and the users. System analysts can talk to both developers and users using essentially the same vocabulary, talking about accounts, customers, bills, etc. Object classes often facilitate rapid development because most object-oriented environments come with powerful debugging and testing tools. Instances of classes can be inspected at run time to verify that the system is performing as expected. Also, rather than get dumps of core memory, most object-oriented environments have interpreted debugging capabilities so that the developer can analyze exactly where in the program the error occurred and can see which methods were called to which arguments and with what arguments. Object classes facilitate ease of maintenance via encapsulation. When developers need to change the behavior of an object they can localize the change to just that object and its component parts. This reduces the potential for unwanted side effects from maintenance enhancements. Software reuse is also a major benefit of using Object classes. Classes facilitate re-use via inheritance and interfaces. When a new behavior is required it can often be achieved by creating a new class and having that class inherit the default behaviors and data of its superclass and then tailoring some aspect of the behavior or data accordingly. Re-use via interfaces (also known as methods) occurs when another object wants to invoke (rather than create a new kind of) some object class. This method for re-use removes many of the common errors that can make their way into software when one program re-uses code from another. Runtime representation As a data type, a class is usually considered as a compile time construct. A language or library may also support prototype or factory metaobjects that represent runtime information about classes, or even represent metadata that provides access to reflective programming (reflection) facilities and ability to manipulate data structure formats at runtime. Many languages distinguish this kind of run-time type information about classes from a class on the basis that the information is not needed at runtime. Some dynamic languages do not make strict distinctions between runtime and compile time constructs, and therefore may not distinguish between metaobjects and classes. For example, if Human is a metaobject representing the class Person, then instances of class Person can be created by using the facilities of the Human metaobject. Prototype-based programming In contrast to creating an object from a class, some programming contexts support object creation by copying (cloning) a prototype object. See also * * * * * Notes References * * * Further reading * [http://lucacardelli.name/TheoryOfObjects.html Abadi; Cardelli: A Theory of Objects] * [http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg21/ ISO/IEC 14882:2003 Programming Language C++, International standard] * [http://www.laputan.org/reflection/warfare.html Class Warfare: Classes vs. Prototypes], by Brian Foote * Meyer, B.: "Object-oriented software construction", 2nd edition, Prentice Hall, 1997, * Rumbaugh et al.: "Object-oriented modeling and design", Prentice Hall, 1991, Category:Programming constructs Category:Programming language topics	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_(computer_programming)	2025-04-05T18:28:08.256895
7394	Canterbury (disambiguation)	Canterbury is a city located in the county of Kent in southeast England. It may also refer to: Places Australia Canterbury, New South Wales, a suburb of Sydney Electoral district of Canterbury, an electoral district in the New South Wales Legislative Assembly City of Canterbury, New South Wales, a local government area of Sydney Canterbury, Queensland, a small settlement Canterbury, Victoria, a suburb of Melbourne Canterbury railway station, Melbourne Canada Canterbury, New Brunswick, a community within the village of Lakeland Ridges Canterbury Parish, New Brunswick Canterbury Falls, Ancaster, Ontario Urbandale, Ottawa, a neighbourhood in Ottawa sometimes called Canterbury. New Zealand Canterbury Region, a region in the South Island of New Zealand Canterbury Province, a former province of New Zealand Canterbury Plains Canterbury Bight, a stretch of coastline United Kingdom Canterbury (UK Parliament constituency) City of Canterbury, the local government district in Kent Province of Canterbury, one of two ecclesiastical provinces which constitute the Church of England Diocese of Canterbury, a Church of England diocese Oriel Square, formerly Canterbury Square, Oxford United States Canterbury, Connecticut, a town Canterbury, Delaware, an unincorporated community Canterbury, New Hampshire, a town Canterbury, West Virginia, an unincorporated community Elsewhere Canterbury, Jamaica, a squatter suburb of Montego Bay Canterbury Spur, Marie Byrd Land, Antarctica 3563 Canterbury, an asteroid Schools Canterbury Christ Church University, Kent, England University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand Canterbury College (disambiguation) Canterbury High School (disambiguation) Canterbury School (disambiguation) Canterbury University (Seychelles), an unaccredited institution Music Canterbury scene, a style of progressive rock that originated in Canterbury, England Canterbury (album), a 1983 album by Diamond Head Canterbury (band), an English alternative rock band Ships Canterbury (ship), the ship which transported William Penn and James Logan from England to Philadelphia in 1699 HMS Canterbury, several ships of the British Royal Navy HMNZS Canterbury (F421), a decommissioned New Zealand Navy frigate HMNZS Canterbury (L421), a multi-role vessel in the New Zealand Navy , a South Eastern and Chatham Railway ferry Sports Canterbury (women's field hockey team), an amateur team in New Zealand Canterbury Golf Club, a golf club in Ohio, US Canterbury Open, a darts tournament in Christchurch, New Zealand Canterbury Park, a horse racing facility in Minnesota, US Canterbury Rugby Football Union, or Canterbury, the governing body for rugby union in a portion of the Canterbury Region of New Zealand Canterbury Stakes, an Australian Thoroughbred horse race Canterbury United Dragons, a men's football team in the New Zealand Football Championship Canterbury United Pride, a football team in the New Zealand National Women's League Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs, an Australian professional rugby league club that plays in the National Rugby League People and fictional characters Chandler Canterbury (born 1998), American child actor and producer Dave Canterbury (born 1963), American survival expert and television personality Mark Canterbury (born 1964), known by the ring name Henry O. Godwinn, American professional wrestler Ray Canterbury (born 1969), American politician Tim Canterbury, a character in the BBC sitcom The Office Other uses Canterbury (furniture), a small piece of furniture made originally to house sheet music Canterbury of New Zealand, or just Canterbury, a UK-based sports clothing company Canterbury Hospital, Campsie, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia Kent and Canterbury Hospital, Canterbury, Kent, England Canterbury Hotel, Indianapolis, Indiana, US, on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) Canterbury Presbyterian Church, Cornwall, New York, US, on the NRHP Canterbury Road, North Oxford, England HM Prison Canterbury, a former prison in Canterbury, Kent, England Viscount Canterbury, an extinct title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom Canterbury power station See also Project Canterbury, an online archive of material related to the history of Anglicanism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canterbury_(disambiguation)	2025-04-05T18:28:08.261190
7397	Color blindness	Effects A color blind person will have decreased (or no) color discrimination along the red–green axis, blue–yellow axis, or both. However, the vast majority of the color blind are only affected on their red–green axis. The first indication of color blindness generally consists of a person using the wrong color for an object, such as when painting, or calling a color by the wrong name. The colors that are confused are very consistent among people with the same type of color blindness. <gallery> File:Вечір на "інтегралі" - річка Південний Буг.jpg\|Normal sight File:Deuteranopia sight.jpg\|Deuteranopic sight File:Protanopia sight.png\|Protanopic sight File:Tritanopia sight.jpg\|Tritanopic sight File:Monochromacy sight.jpg\|Monochromatic sight </gallery> Confusion colors Confusion colors are pairs or groups of colors that will often be mistaken by the color blind. Confusion colors for red–green color blindness include: * cyan and grey * rose-pink and grey * blue and purple * yellow and neon green * red, green, orange, brown Confusion colors for tritan include: * yellow and grey * blue and green * dark blue/violet and black * violet and yellow-green * red and rose-pink These colors of confusion are defined quantitatively by straight confusion lines plotted in CIEXYZ, usually plotted on the corresponding chromaticity diagram. The lines all intersect at a copunctal point, which varies with the type of color blindness. Chromaticities along a confusion line will appear metameric to dichromats of that type. Anomalous trichromats of that type will see the chromaticities as metameric if they are close enough, depending on the strength of their CVD. For two colors on a confusion line to be metameric, the chromaticities first have to be made isoluminant, meaning equal in lightness. Also, colors that may be isoluminant to the standard observer may not be isoluminant to a person with dichromacy. Color tasks Cole describes four color tasks, all of which are impeded to some degree by color blindness: * Comparative – When multiple colors must be compared, such as with mixing paint * Connotative – When colors are given an implicit meaning, such as red = stop * Denotative – When identifying colors, for example by name, such as "where is the yellow ball?" * Aesthetic – When colors look nice – or convey an emotional response – but do not carry explicit meaning The following sections describe specific color tasks with which the color blind typically have difficulty. Food Color blindness causes difficulty with the connotative color tasks associated with selecting or preparing food. Selecting food for ripeness can be difficult; the green–yellow transition of bananas is particularly hard to identify. It can also be difficult to detect bruises, mold, or rot on some foods, to determine when meat is done by color, to distinguish some varietals, such as a Braeburn vs. a Granny Smith apple, or to distinguish colors associated with artificial flavors (e.g. jelly beans, sports drinks). Skin color Changes in skin color due to bruising, sunburn, rashes or even blushing are easily missed by the red–green color blind. Traffic lights The colors of traffic lights can be difficult for the red–green color blindness. This difficulty includes distinguishing red/amber lights from sodium street lamps, distinguishing green lights (closer to cyan) from normal white lights, and distinguishing red from amber lights, especially when there are no positional clues available (see image). The main coping mechanism to overcome these challenges is to memorize the position of lights. The order of the common triplet traffic light is standardized as red–amber–green from top to bottom or left to right. Cases that deviate from this standard are rare. One such case is a traffic light in Tipperary Hill in Syracuse, New York, which is upside-down (green–amber–red top to bottom) due to the sentiments of its Irish American community. However, the light has been criticized due to the potential hazard it poses for color blind drivers. , Canada]] There are other several features of traffic lights available that help accommodate the color blind. British Rail signals use more easily identifiable colors: The red is blood red, the amber is yellow and the green is a bluish color. Most British road traffic lights are mounted vertically on a black rectangle with a white border (forming a "sighting board"), so that drivers can more easily look for the position of the light. In the eastern provinces of Canada, traffic lights are sometimes differentiated by shape in addition to color: square for red, diamond for yellow, and circle for green (see image).Signal lights Navigation lights in marine and aviation settings employ red and green lights to signal the relative position of other ships or aircraft. Railway signal lights also rely heavily on red–green–yellow colors. In both cases, these color combinations can be difficult for the red–green color blind. Lantern Tests are a common means of simulating these light sources to determine not necessarily whether someone is color blind, but whether they can functionally distinguish these specific signal colors. Those who cannot pass this test are generally completely restricted from working on aircraft, ships or rail, for example. Fashion Color analysis is the analysis of color in its use in fashion, to determine personal color combinations that are most aesthetically pleasing. Colors to combine can include clothing, accessories, makeup, hair color, skin color, eye color, etc. Color analysis involves many aesthetic and comparative color task that can be difficult for the color blind.ArtInability to distinguish color does not necessarily preclude the ability to become a celebrated artist. The 20th century expressionist painter Clifton Pugh, three-time winner of Australia's Archibald Prize, on biographical, gene inheritance and other grounds has been identified as a person with protanopia. 19th century French artist Charles Méryon became successful by concentrating on etching rather than painting after he was diagnosed as having a red–green deficiency. Jin Kim's red–green color blindness did not stop him from becoming first an animator and later a character designer with Walt Disney Animation Studios. Advantages <!-- Will need to find a better place to put the information in this section --> Deuteranomals are better at distinguishing shades of khaki, which may be advantageous when looking for predators, food, or camouflaged objects hidden among foliage. Dichromats tend to learn to use texture and shape clues and so may be able to penetrate camouflage that has been designed to deceive individuals with normal color vision. Some tentative evidence finds that the color blind are better at penetrating certain color camouflages. Such findings may give an evolutionary reason for the high rate of red–green color blindness. There is also a study suggesting that people with some types of color blindness can distinguish colors that people with normal color vision are not able to distinguish. In the presence of chromatic noise, the color blind are more capable of seeing a luminous signal, as long as the chromatic noise appears metameric to them. This is the effect behind most "reverse" Pseudoisochromatic plates (e.g. "hidden digit" Ishihara plates) that are discernible to the color blind but unreadable to people with typical color vision.Digital design Color codes are useful tools for designers to convey information. The interpretation of this information requires users to perform a variety of color tasks, usually comparative but also sometimes connotative or denotative. However, these tasks are often problematic for the color blind when design of the color code has not followed best practices for accessibility. For example, one of the most ubiquitous connotative color codes is the "red means bad and green means good" or similar systems, based on the classic signal light colors. However, this color coding will almost always be undifferentiable to deutans or protans, and can instead be supplemented with a parallel connotative system (symbols, smileys, etc.). Good practices to ensure design is accessible to the color blind include: * When possible (e.g. in simple video games or apps), allowing the user to choose their own colors is the most inclusive design practice. * Using other signals that are parallel to the color coding, such as patterns, shapes, size or order. This not only helps the color blind, but also aids understanding by normally sighted people by providing them with multiple reinforcing cues. * Using brightness contrast (different shades) in addition to color contrast (different hues) * To achieve good contrast, conventional wisdom suggests converting a (digital) design to grayscale to ensure there is sufficient brightness contrast between colors. However, this does not account for the different perceptions of brightness to different varieties of color blindness, especially protan CVD, tritan CVD and monochromacy. * Viewing the design through a CVD Simulator to ensure the information carried by color is still sufficiently conveyed. At a minimum, the design should be tested for deutan CVD, the most common kind of color blindness. * Maximizing the area of colors (e.g. increase size, thickness or boldness of colored element) makes the color easier to identify. Color contrast improves as the angle the color subtends on the retina increases. This applies to all types of color vision. * Maximizing brightness (value) and saturation (chroma) of the colors to maximize color contrast. * Converting connotative tasks to comparative tasks by including a legend, even when the meaning is considered obvious (e.g. red means danger). * Avoiding denotative color tasks (color naming) when possible. Some denotative tasks can be converted to comparative tasks by depicting the actual color whenever the color name is mentioned; for example, colored typography in "", or "purple ()". * For denotative tasks (color naming), using the most common shades of colors. For example, green and yellow are colors of confusion in red–green CVD, but it is not common to mix forest green () with bright yellow (). Mistakes by the color blind increase drastically when uncommon shades are used, e.g. neon green () with dark yellow (). * For denotative tasks, using colors that are classically associated with a color name. For example, using "firetruck" red () instead of burgundy () to represent the word "red". Color selection in design pieces must be carefully chosen to be accessible to the color blind.]] A common task for designers is to select a subset of colors (qualitative colormap) that are as mutually differentiable as possible (salient). For example, player pieces in a board game should be as different as possible. Classic advice suggests using Brewer palettes, but several of these are not actually accessible to the color blind. An issue with color selection is that the colors with the greatest contrast to the red–green color blind tend to be colors of confusion to the blue–yellow color blind and vice versa. In 2018, UX designer Allie Ofisher published 3 color palettes with 6 colors each, distinguishable for all variants of color blindness.Sequential colormapsA common task for data visualization is to represent a color scale, or sequential colormap, often in the form of a heat map or choropleth. Several scales are designed with special consideration for the color blind and are widespread in academia, including Cividis, and Parula. These comprise a light-to-dark scale superimposed on a yellow-to-blue scale, making them monotonic and perceptually uniform to all forms of color vision. Classification Much terminology has existed and does exist for the classification of color blindness, but the typical classification for color blindness follows the von Kries classifications, which uses severity and affected cone for naming.Based on severityBased on clinical appearance, color blindness may be described as total or partial. Total color blindness (monochromacy) is much less common than partial color blindness. Partial color blindness includes dichromacy and anomalous trichromacy, but is often clinically defined as mild, moderate or strong. Monochromacy Monochromacy is often called total color blindness since there is no ability to see color. Although the term may refer to acquired disorders such as cerebral achromatopsia, it typically refers to congenital color vision disorders, namely rod monochromacy and blue cone monochromacy). In cerebral achromatopsia, a person cannot perceive colors even though the eyes are capable of distinguishing them. Some sources do not consider these to be true color blindness, because the failure is of perception, not of vision. They are forms of visual agnosia. Visual acuity usually falls to the 20/50 to 20/400 range. Dichromacy Dichromats can match any color they see with some mixture of just two primary colors (in contrast to those with normal sight (trichromats) who can distinguish three primary colors). In fact, many mild anomalous trichromats have very little difficulty carrying out tasks that require normal color vision and some may not even be aware that they have a color vision deficiency. The types of anomalous trichromacy include protanomaly, deuteranomaly and tritanomaly. It is approximately three times more common than dichromacy. Anomalous trichromats exhibit trichromacy, but the color matches they make differ from normal trichromats. In order to match a given spectral yellow light, protanomalous observers need more red light in a red/green mixture than a normal observer, and deuteranomalous observers need more green. This difference can be measured by an instrument called an Anomaloscope, where red and green lights are mixed by a subject to match a yellow light.Based on affected coneThere are two major types of color blindness: difficulty distinguishing between red and green, and difficulty distinguishing between blue and yellow. These definitions are based on the phenotype of the partial color blindness. Clinically, it is more common to use a genotypical definition, which describes which cone/opsin is affected. Red–green color blindness Red–green color blindness includes protan and deutan CVD. Protan CVD is related to the L-cone and includes protanomaly (anomalous trichromacy) and protanopia (dichromacy). Deutan CVD is related to the M-cone and includes deuteranomaly (anomalous trichromacy) and deuteranopia (dichromacy). The phenotype (visual experience) of deutans and protans is quite similar. Common colors of confusion include red/brown/green/yellow as well as blue/purple. Both forms are almost always symptomatic of congenital red–green color blindness, so affects males disproportionately more than females. This form of color blindness is sometimes referred to as daltonism after John Dalton, who had red–green dichromacy. In some languages, daltonism is still used to describe red–green color blindness. of an individual with normal color vision (left), and a color blind (protanopic) retina. The center of the fovea holds very few blue-sensitive cones.]] * Protan (2% of males): Lacking, or possessing anomalous L-opsins for long-wavelength sensitive cone cells. Protans have a neutral point at a cyan-like wavelength around 492 nm (see spectral color for comparison)—that is, they cannot discriminate light of this wavelength from white. For a protanope, the brightness of red is much reduced compared to normal. This dimming can be so pronounced that reds may be confused with black or dark gray, and red traffic lights may appear to be extinguished. They may learn to distinguish reds from yellows primarily on the basis of their apparent brightness or lightness, not on any perceptible hue difference. Violet, lavender, and purple are indistinguishable from various shades of blue. A very few people have been found who have one normal eye and one protanopic eye. These unilateral dichromats report that with only their protanopic eye open, they see wavelengths shorter than neutral point as blue and those longer than it as yellow. * Deutan (6% of males): Lacking, or possessing anomalous M-opsins for medium-wavelength sensitive cone cells. Their neutral point is at a slightly longer wavelength, 498 nm, a more greenish hue of cyan. Deutans have the same hue discrimination problems as protans, but without the dimming of long wavelengths. Deuteranopic unilateral dichromats report that with only their deuteranopic eye open, they see wavelengths shorter than neutral point as blue and longer than it as yellow.Blue–yellow color blindnessBlue–yellow color blindness includes tritan CVD. Tritan CVD is related to the S-cone and includes tritanomaly (anomalous trichromacy) and tritanopia (dichromacy). Blue–yellow color blindness is much less common than red–green color blindness, and more often has acquired causes than genetic. Tritans have difficulty discerning between bluish and greenish hues. Tritans have a neutral point at 571 nm (yellowish). * Tritan (< 0.01% of individuals): Lacking, or possessing anomalous S-opsins or short-wavelength sensitive cone cells. Tritans see short-wavelength colors (blue, indigo and spectral violet) as greenish and drastically dimmed, some of these colors even as black. Yellow and orange are indistinguishable from white and pink respectively, and purple colors are perceived as various shades of red. Unlike protans and deutans, the mutation for this color blindness is carried on chromosome 7. Therefore, it is not sex-linked (equally prevalent in both males and females). The OMIM gene code for this mutation is 304000 "Colorblindness, Partial Tritanomaly". * Tetartan is a hypothetical "fourth type" of color blindness, and a type of blue–yellow color blindness. Given the molecular basis of human color vision, it is unlikely this type could exist. Summary of cone complements The below table shows the cone complements for different types of human color vision, including those considered color blindness, normal color vision and 'superior' color vision. The cone complement contains the types of cones (or their opsins) expressed by an individual. {\|class="wikitable" \|- style="background:#eaecf0;color:#000000;" \|colspan"2" rowspan"2" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:top;"\|Cone system \|colspan"2"\|Red \|\| rowspan"13" style="font-size:1px;" \| \|colspan"2"\|Green\|\| rowspan"13" style="font-size:1px;" \| \|colspan="2"\|Blue \|colspan"3" rowspan"2" style"vertical-align:bottom;"\|N normal<br />A = anomalous \|- style="background:#eaecf0;color:#000000;" \|N\|\|A\|\|N\|\|A\|\|N\|\|A \|- \|style="text-align:right;"\|1\|\|Normal vision \|style"background:#FF0000"\| \|\|style"background:#000000"\| \|style"background:#00FF00"\| \|\|style"background:#000000"\| \|style"background:#0000FF"\| \|\|style"background:#000000"\| \|Trichromacy\|\|colspan="2"\|Normal \|- style="border-top:double #a2a9b1;" \|style="text-align:right;"\|2\|\|Protanomaly \|style"background:#000000"\| \|\|style"background:#FF0000"\| \|style"background:#00FF00"\| \|\|style"background:#000000"\| \|style"background:#0000FF"\| \|\|style"background:#000000"\| \|Anomalous trichromacy \|rowspan"6"\|Partial<br />color<br />blindness\|\|rowspan"4"\|Red–<br />green \|- \|style="text-align:right;"\|3\|\|Protanopia \|style"background:#000000"\| \|\|style"background:#000000"\| \|style"background:#00FF00"\| \|\|style"background:#000000"\| \|style"background:#0000FF"\| \|\|style"background:#000000"\| \|Dichromacy \|- style="border-top:2px solid #a2a9b1;" \|style="text-align:right;"\|4\|\|Deuteranomaly \|style"background:#FF0000"\| \|\|style"background:#000000"\| \|style"background:#000000"\| \|\|style"background:#00FF00"\| \|style"background:#0000FF"\| \|\|style"background:#000000"\| \|Anomalous trichromacy \|- \|style="text-align:right;"\|5\|\|Deuteranopia \|style"background:#FF0000"\| \|\|style"background:#000000"\| \|style"background:#000000"\| \|\|style"background:#000000"\| \|style"background:#0000FF"\| \|\|style"background:#000000"\| \|Dichromacy \|- style="border-top:2px solid #a2a9b1;" \|style="text-align:right;"\|6\|\|Tritanomaly \|style"background:#FF0000"\| \|\|style"background:#000000"\| \|style"background:#00FF00"\| \|\|style"background:#000000"\| \|style"background:#000000"\| \|\|style"background:#0000FF"\| \|Anomalous trichromacy\|\|rowspan="2"\|Blue–<br />yellow \|- \|style="text-align:right;"\|7\|\|Tritanopia \|style"background:#FF0000"\| \|\|style"background:#000000"\| \|style"background:#00FF00"\| \|\|style"background:#000000"\| \|style"background:#000000"\| \|\|style"background:#000000"\| \|Dichromacy \|- style="border-top:double #a2a9b1;" \|style="text-align:right;"\|8\|\|Blue cone monochromacy \|style"background:#000000"\| \|\|style"background:#000000"\| \|style"background:#000000"\| \|\|style"background:#000000"\| \|style"background:#0000FF"\| \|\|style"background:#000000"\| \|rowspan="2"\|Monochromacy \|colspan"2" rowspan"2"\|Total color blindness \|- \|style="text-align:right;"\|9\|\|Achromatopsia \|style"background:#000000"\| \|\|style"background:#000000"\| \|style"background:#000000"\| \|\|style"background:#000000"\| \|style"background:#000000"\| \|\|style"background:#000000"\| \|- style="border-top:double #a2a9b1;" \| style"text-align:right;" \|10\|\| rowspan"2" \|Tetrachromacy<br />(carrier theory) \| style"background:#FF0000" \| \|\| style"background:#FF0000" \| \| style"background:#00FF00" \| \|\| style"background:#000000" \| \| style"background:#0000FF" \| \|\| style"background:#000000" \| \| rowspan="2" \|Tetrachromacy \| colspan"2" rowspan"2" \|'Superior' \|- \| style="text-align:right;" \| 11 \| style"background:#FF0000" \| \|\| style"background:#000000" \| \| style"background:#00FF00" \| \|\| style"background:#00FF00" \| \| style"background:#0000FF" \| \|\| style"background:#000000" \| \|} Causes Color blindness is any deviation of color vision from normal trichromatic color vision (often as defined by the standard observer) that produces a reduced gamut. Mechanisms for color blindness are related to the functionality of cone cells, and often to the expression of photopsins, the photopigments that 'catch' photons and thereby convert light into chemical signals. Color vision deficiencies can be classified as inherited or acquired. * Inherited: inherited or congenital/genetic color vision deficiencies are most commonly caused by mutations of the genes encoding opsin proteins. However, several other genes can also lead to less common and/or more severe forms of color blindness. * Acquired: color blindness that is not present at birth, may be caused by chronic illness, accidents, medication, chemical exposure or simply normal aging processes. Genetics Color blindness is typically an inherited genetic disorder. The most common forms of color blindness are associated with the Photopsin genes, but the mapping of the human genome has shown there are many causative mutations that do not directly affect the opsins. Mutations capable of causing color blindness originate from at least 19 different chromosomes and 56 different genes (as shown online at the Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man [OMIM]). Genetics of red–green color blindness By far the most common form of color blindness is congenital red–green color blindness (Daltonism), which includes protanopia/protanomaly and deuteranopia/deuteranomaly. These conditions are mediated by the OPN1LW and OPN1MW genes, respectively, both on the X chromosome. An 'affected' gene is either missing (as in Protanopia and Deuteranopia - Dichromacy) or is a chimeric gene (as in Protanomaly and Deuteranomaly). Since the OPN1LW and OPN1MW genes are on the X chromosome, they are sex-linked, and therefore affect males and females disproportionately. Because the color blind 'affected' alleles are recessive, color blindness specifically follows X-linked recessive inheritance. Males have only one X chromosome (XY), and females have two (XX); Because the male only has one of each gene, if it is affected, the male will be color blind. Because a female has two alleles of each gene (one on each chromosome), if only one gene is affected, the dominant normal alleles will "override" the affected, recessive allele and the female will have normal color vision. However, if the female has two mutated alleles, she will still be color blind. This is why there is a disproportionate prevalence of color blindness, with ~8% of males exhibiting color blindness and ~0.5% of females. Genetics of blue–yellow color blindness Congenital blue–yellow color blindness is a much rarer form of color blindness including tritanopia/tritanomaly. These conditions are mediated by the OPN1SW gene on Chromosome 7 which encodes the S-opsin protein and follows autosomal dominant inheritance. The OPN1SW gene is almost invariant in the human population. Congenital tritan defects are often progressive, with nearly normal trichromatic vision in childhood (e.g. mild tritanomaly) progressing to dichromacy (tritanopia) as the S-cones slowly die. Other genetic causes Several inherited diseases are known to cause color blindness, including achromatopsia, cone dystrophy, Leber's congenital amaurosis and retinitis pigmentosa. These can be congenital or commence in childhood or adulthood. They can be static/stationary or progressive. Progressive diseases often involve deterioration of the retina and other parts of the eye, so often progress from color blindness to more severe visual impairments, up to and including total blindness. Non-genetic causes Physical trauma can cause color blindness, either neurologically – brain trauma which produces swelling of the brain in the occipital lobe – or retinally, either acute (e.g. from laser exposure) or chronic (e.g. from ultraviolet light exposure). Color blindness may also present itself as a symptom of degenerative diseases of the eye, such as cataract and age-related macular degeneration, and as part of the retinal damage caused by diabetes. Vitamin A deficiency may also cause color blindness. Color blindness may be a side effect of prescription drug use. For example, red–green color blindness can be caused by ethambutol, a drug used in the treatment of tuberculosis. Blue–yellow color blindness can be caused by sildenafil, an active component of Viagra. Hydroxychloroquine can also lead to hydroxychloroquine retinopathy, which includes various color defects. Exposure to chemicals such as styrene or organic solvents can also lead to color vision defects. Simple colored filters can also create mild color vision deficiencies. John Dalton's original hypothesis for his deuteranopia was actually that the vitreous humor of his eye was discolored: An autopsy of his eye after his death in 1844 showed this to be definitively untrue, though other filters are possible. Actual physiological examples usually affect the blue–yellow opponent channel and are named Cyanopsia and Xanthopsia, and are most typically an effect of yellowing or removal of the lens. The opponent channels can also be affected by the prevalence of certain cones in the retinal mosaic. The cones are not equally prevalent and not evenly distributed in the retina. When the number of one of these cone types is significantly reduced, this can also lead to or contribute to a color vision deficiency. This is one of the causes of tritanomaly. Some people are also unable to distinct between blue and green, which appears to be a combination of culture and exposure to UV-light. Diagnosis Color vision test The main method for diagnosing a color vision deficiency is in testing the color vision directly. The Ishihara color test is the test most often used to detect red–green deficiencies and most often recognized by the public. * Pseudoisochromatic plates, a classification which includes the Ishihara color test and HRR test, embed a figure in the plate as a number of spots surrounded by spots of a slightly different color. These colors must appear identical (metameric) to the color blind but distinguishable to color normals. Pseudoisochromatic plates are used as screening tools because they are cheap, fast, and simple, but they do not provide precise diagnosis of CVD. * Lanterns, such as the Farnsworth Lantern Test, project small colored lights to a subject, who is required to identify the color of the lights. The colors are those of typical signal lights, i.e. red, green, and yellow, which also happen to be colors of confusion of red–green CVD. Lanterns do not diagnose color blindness, but they are occupational screening tests to ensure an applicant has sufficient color discrimination to be able to perform a job. * Arrangement tests can be used as screening or diagnostic tools. The Farnsworth–Munsell 100 hue test is very sensitive, but the Farnsworth D-15 is a simplified version used specifically for screening for CVD. In either case, the subject is asked to arrange a set of colored caps or chips to form a gradual transition of color between two anchor caps. * Anomaloscopes are typically designed to detect red–green deficiencies and are based on the Rayleigh match, which compares a mixture of red and green light in variable proportions to a fixed spectral yellow of variable luminosity. The subject must change the two variables until the colors appear to match. They are expensive and require expertise to administer, so they are generally only used in academic settings. Genetic testing While genetic testing cannot directly evaluate a subject's color vision (phenotype), most congenital color vision deficiencies are well-correlated with genotype. Therefore, the genotype can be directly evaluated and used to predict the phenotype. This is especially useful for progressive forms that do not have a strongly color deficient phenotype at a young age. However, it can also be used to sequence the L- and M-Opsins on the X-chromosome, since the most common alleles of these two genes are known and have even been related to exact spectral sensitivities and peak wavelengths. A subject's color vision can therefore be classified through genetic testing, but this is just a prediction of the phenotype, since color vision can be affected by countless non-genetic factors such as your cone mosaic.ManagementDespite much recent improvement in gene therapy for color blindness, there is currently no FDA approved treatment for any form of CVD, and otherwise no cure for CVD currently exists. Management of the condition by using lenses to alleviate symptoms or smartphone apps to aid with daily tasks is possible.Lenses There are three kinds of lenses that an individual can wear that can increase their accuracy in some color related tasks (although none of these will "fix" color blindness or grant the wearer normal color vision): * A red-tint contact lens worn over the non-dominant eye will leverage binocular disparity to improve discrimination of some colors. However, it can make other colors more difficult to distinguish. A 1981 review of various studies to evaluate the effect of the X-chrom (one brand) contact lens concluded that, while the lens may allow the wearer to achieve a better score on certain color vision tests, it did not correct color vision in the natural environment. A case history using the X-Chrom lens for a rod monochromat is reported and an X-Chrom manual is online. * Tinted glasses (e.g. Pilestone/Colorlite glasses) apply a tint (e.g. magenta) to incoming light that can distort colors in a way that makes some color tasks easier to complete. These glasses can circumvent many color vision tests, though this is typically not allowed. * Glasses with a notch filter (e.g. EnChroma glasses) filter a narrow band of light that excites both the L and M cones (yellow–green wavelengths). When combined with an additional stopband in the short wavelength (blue) region, these lenses may constitute a neutral-density filter (have no color tint). They improve on the other lens types by causing less distortion of colors and will essentially increase the saturation of some colors. They will only work on trichromats (anomalous or normal), and unlike the other types, do not have a significant effect on Dichromats. The glasses do not significantly increase one's ability on color blind tests. * Some applications can simulate color blindness by applying a filter to an image or screen that reduces the gamut of an image to that of a specific type of color blindness. While they do not directly help color blind people, they allow those with normal color vision to understand how the color blind see the world. Their use can help improve inclusive design by allowing designers to simulate their own images to ensure they are accessible to the color blind. In 2003, a cybernetic device called eyeborg was developed to allow the wearer to hear sounds representing different colors. Achromatopsic artist Neil Harbisson was the first to use such a device in early 2004; the eyeborg allowed him to start painting in color by memorizing the sound corresponding to each color. In 2012, at a TED Conference, Harbisson explained how he could now perceive colors outside the ability of human vision. Epidemiology {\| class"wikitable" style "float: right; margin-left:15px; text-align:center" \|+ Rates of color blindness<!--study? year? test sample?--> \|- ! !! Males !! Females \|- \| Dichromacy \|\| 2.4% \|\| 0.03% \|- \| Protanopia \|\| 1.3% \|\| 0.02% \|- \| Deuteranopia \|\| 1.2% \|\| 0.01% \|- \| Tritanopia \|\| 0.008% \|\| 0.008% \|- \| Anomalous trichromacy \|\| 6.3% \|\| 0.37% \|- \| Protanomaly \|\| 1.3% \|\| 0.02% \|- \| Deuteranomaly \|\| 5.0% \|\| 0.35% \|- \| Tritanomaly \|\| 0.0001% \|\| 0.0001% \|} Color blindness affects a large number of individuals, with protans and deutans being the most common types. Interestingly, even Dalton's first paper already arrived upon this 8% number: Gordon Lynn Walls claims that the first well-circulated case study of color blindness was published in a 1777 letter from Joseph Huddart to Joseph Priestley, which described "Harris the Shoemaker" and several of his brothers with what would later be described as protanopia. There appear to be no earlier surviving historical mentions of color blindness, despite its prevalence. Genetic analysis of Dalton's preserved eyeball confirmed him as having deuteranopia in 1995, some 150 years after his death. Influenced by Dalton, German writer J. W. von Goethe studied color vision abnormalities in 1798 by asking two young subjects to match pairs of colors. In 1837, August Seebeck first discriminated between protans and deutans (then as class I + II). In 1875, the Lagerlunda train crash in Sweden brought color blindness to the forefront. Following the crash, Professor Alarik Frithiof Holmgren, a physiologist, investigated and concluded that the color blindness of the engineer (who had died) had caused the crash. Professor Holmgren then created the first test for color vision using multicolored skeins of wool to detect color blindness and thereby exclude the color blind from jobs in the transportation industry requiring color vision to interpret safety signals. However, there is a claim that there is no firm evidence that color deficiency did cause the collision, or that it might have not been the sole cause. In 1920, Frederick William Edridge-Green devised an alternative theory of color vision and color blindness based on Newton's classification of 7 fundamental colors (ROYGBIV). Edridge-Green classified color vision based on how many distinct colors a subject could see in the spectrum. Normal subjects were termed hexachromic as they could not discern Indigo. Subjects with superior color vision, who could discern indigo, were heptachromic. The color blind were therefore dichromic (equivalent to dichromacy) or tri-, tetra- or pentachromic (anomalous trichromacy). Rights In the United States, under federal anti-discrimination laws such as the Americans with Disabilities Act, color vision deficiencies have not been found to constitute a disability that triggers protection from workplace discrimination. A Brazilian court ruled that the color blind are protected by the Inter-American Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Person with Disabilities. At trial, it was decided that the carriers of color blindness have a right of access to wider knowledge, or the full enjoyment of their human condition.OccupationsColor blindness may make it difficult or impossible for a person to engage in certain activities. Persons with color blindness may be legally or practically barred from occupations in which color perception is an essential part of the job (e.g., mixing paint colors), or in which color perception is important for safety (e.g., operating vehicles in response to color-coded signals). This occupational safety principle originates from the aftermath of the 1875 Lagerlunda train crash, which Alarik Frithiof Holmgren blamed on the color blindness of the engineer and created the first occupational screening test (Holmgren's wool test) against the color blind. Electronic wiring, transformers, resistors, and capacitors are color-coded as well, using black, brown, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet, gray, white, silver, and gold. Participation, officiating and viewing sporting events can be impacted by color blindness. Professional football players Thomas Delaney and Fabio Carvalho have discussed the difficulties when color clashes occur, and research undertaken by FIFA has shown that enjoyment and player progression can be hampered by issues distinguishing the difference between the pitch and training objects or field markings. Snooker World Champions Mark Williams and Peter Ebdon sometimes need to ask the referee for help distinguishing between the red and brown balls due to their color blindness. Both have played foul shots on notable occasions by the wrong ball. Driving Red–green color blindness can make it difficult to drive, primarily due to the inability to differentiate red–amber–green traffic lights. Protans are further disadvantaged due to the darkened perception of reds, which can make it more difficult to quickly recognize brake lights. In response, some countries have refused to grant driver's licenses to individuals with color blindness: * In April 2003, Romania removed color blindness from its list of disqualifying conditions for learner driver's licenses. It is now qualified as a condition that could potentially compromise driver safety, therefore a driver may have to be evaluated by an authorized ophthalmologist to determine if they can drive safely. As of May 2008, there is an ongoing campaign to remove the legal restrictions that prohibit color blind citizens from getting driver's licenses. * In June 2020, India relaxed its ban on driver's licenses for the color blind to now only apply to those with strong CVD. While previously restricted, those who test as mild or moderate can now pass the medical requirements. * Australia instituted a tiered ban on the color blind from obtaining commercial driver's licenses in 1994. This included a ban for all protans, and a stipulation that deutans must pass the Farnsworth Lantern. The stipulation on deutans was revoked in 1997 citing a lack of available test facilities, and the ban on protans was revoked in 2003. and since 2016 in Russia (2012 for dichromats). Piloting aircraft Although many aspects of aviation depend on color coding, only a few of them are critical enough to be interfered with by some milder types of color blindness. Some examples include color-gun signaling of aircraft that have lost radio communication, color-coded glide-path indications on runways, and the like. Some jurisdictions restrict the issuance of pilot credentials to persons with color blindness for this reason. Restrictions may be partial, allowing color-blind persons to obtain certification but with restrictions, or total, in which case color-blind persons are not permitted to obtain piloting credentials at all. In the United States, the Federal Aviation Administration requires that pilots be tested for normal color vision as part of their medical clearance in order to obtain the required medical certificate, a prerequisite to obtaining a pilot's certification. If testing reveals color blindness, the applicant may be issued a license with restrictions, such as no night flying and no flying by color signals—such a restriction effectively prevents a pilot from holding certain flying occupations, such as that of an airline pilot, although commercial pilot certification is still possible, and there are a few flying occupations that do not require night flight and thus are still available to those with restrictions due to color blindness (e.g., agricultural aviation). The government allows several types of tests, including medical standard tests (e.g., the Ishihara, Dvorine, and others) and specialized tests oriented specifically to the needs of aviation. If an applicant fails the standard tests, they will receive a restriction on their medical certificate that states: "Not valid for night flying or by color signal control". They may apply to the FAA to take a specialized test, administered by the FAA. Typically, this test is the "color vision light gun test". For this test an FAA inspector will meet the pilot at an airport with an operating control tower. The color signal light gun will be shone at the pilot from the tower, and they must identify the color. If they pass they may be issued a waiver, which states that the color vision test is no longer required during medical examinations. They will then receive a new medical certificate with the restriction removed. This was once a Statement of Demonstrated Ability (SODA), but the SODA was dropped, and converted to a simple waiver (letter) early in the 2000s. Research published in 2009 carried out by the City University of London's Applied Vision Research Centre, sponsored by the UK's Civil Aviation Authority and the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration, has established a more accurate assessment of color deficiencies in pilot applicants' red/green and yellow–blue color range which could lead to a 35% reduction in the number of prospective pilots who fail to meet the minimum medical threshold.See also * Color agnosia – Ability to see colors, but inability to recognize colors. * Color anomia – Ability to see colors, but inability to name colors. * List of people with color blindness * Motion blindness * Tetrachromacy References Further reading * * * * * * * * External links * [http://tigger.uic.edu/~hilbert/Glossary.html "A Glossary of Color Science."] \| ICD10 = \| ICD9 = \| ICDO \| OMIM \| MedlinePlus = 001002 \| eMedicineSubj \| MeshID D003117 }} Category:Agnosia Category:Color vision Category:Visual disturbances and blindness Category:X-linked recessive disorders Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate Category:Wikipedia neurology articles ready to translate	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_blindness	2025-04-05T18:28:08.330920
7398	Computer security	Computer security (also cybersecurity, digital security, or information technology (IT) security) is a subdiscipline within the field of information security. It consists of the protection of computer software, systems and networks from threats that can lead to unauthorized information disclosure, theft or damage to hardware, software, or data, as well as from the disruption or misdirection of the services they provide. The significance of the field stems from the expanded reliance on computer systems, the Internet, and wireless network standards. Its importance is further amplified by the growth of smart devices, including smartphones, televisions, and the various devices that constitute the Internet of things (IoT). Cybersecurity has emerged as one of the most significant new challenges facing the contemporary world, due to both the complexity of information systems and the societies they support. Security is particularly crucial for systems that govern large-scale systems with far-reaching physical effects, such as power distribution, elections, and finance. Although many aspects of computer security involve digital security, such as electronic passwords and encryption, physical security measures such as metal locks are still used to prevent unauthorized tampering. IT security is not a perfect subset of information security, therefore does not completely align into the security convergence schema. Vulnerabilities and attacks A vulnerability refers to a flaw in the structure, execution, functioning, or internal oversight of a computer or system that compromises its security. Most of the vulnerabilities that have been discovered are documented in the Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures (CVE) database. An exploitable vulnerability is one for which at least one working attack or exploit exists. Actors maliciously seeking vulnerabilities are known as threats. Vulnerabilities can be researched, reverse-engineered, hunted, or exploited using automated tools or customized scripts. Various people or parties are vulnerable to cyber attacks; however, different groups are likely to experience different types of attacks more than others. In April 2023, the United Kingdom Department for Science, Innovation & Technology released a report on cyber attacks over the previous 12 months. They surveyed 2,263 UK businesses, 1,174 UK registered charities, and 554 education institutions. The research found that "32% of businesses and 24% of charities overall recall any breaches or attacks from the last 12 months." These figures were much higher for "medium businesses (59%), large businesses (69%), and high-income charities with £500,000 or more in annual income (56%)." These are where attackers indiscriminately target as many devices, services, or users as possible. They do this using techniques that take advantage of the openness of the Internet. These strategies mostly include phishing, ransomware, water holing and scanning. Due to the nature of backdoors, they are of greater concern to companies and databases as opposed to individuals. Backdoors may be added by an authorized party to allow some legitimate access or by an attacker for malicious reasons. Criminals often use malware to install backdoors, giving them remote administrative access to a system. Once they have access, cybercriminals can "modify files, steal personal information, install unwanted software, and even take control of the entire computer." Attackers can deny service to individual victims, such as by deliberately entering a wrong password enough consecutive times to cause the victim's account to be locked, or they may overload the capabilities of a machine or network and block all users at once. While a network attack from a single IP address can be blocked by adding a new firewall rule, many forms of distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks are possible, where the attack comes from a large number of points. In this case, defending against these attacks is much more difficult. Such attacks can originate from the zombie computers of a botnet or from a range of other possible techniques, including distributed reflective denial-of-service (DRDoS), where innocent systems are fooled into sending traffic to the victim. Attackers may also compromise security by making operating system modifications, installing software worms, keyloggers, covert listening devices or using wireless microphones. Even when the system is protected by standard security measures, these may be bypassed by booting another operating system or tool from a CD-ROM or other bootable media. Disk encryption and the Trusted Platform Module standard are designed to prevent these attacks. Direct service attackers are related in concept to direct memory attacks which allow an attacker to gain direct access to a computer's memory. The attacks "take advantage of a feature of modern computers that allows certain devices, such as external hard drives, graphics cards, or network cards, to access the computer's memory directly." Data transmitted across an open network allows an attacker to exploit a vulnerability and intercept it via various methods. Unlike malware, direct-access attacks, or other forms of cyber attacks, eavesdropping attacks are unlikely to negatively affect the performance of networks or devices, making them difficult to notice. Using a virtual private network (VPN), which encrypts data between two points, is one of the most common forms of protection against eavesdropping. Using the best form of encryption possible for wireless networks is best practice, as well as using HTTPS instead of an unencrypted HTTP. Programs such as Carnivore and NarusInSight have been used by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and NSA to eavesdrop on the systems of internet service providers. Even machines that operate as a closed system (i.e., with no contact with the outside world) can be eavesdropped upon by monitoring the faint electromagnetic transmissions generated by the hardware. TEMPEST is a specification by the NSA referring to these attacks. Malware Malicious software (malware) is any software code or computer program "intentionally written to harm a computer system or its users." Once present on a computer, it can leak sensitive details such as personal information, business information and passwords, can give control of the system to the attacker, and can corrupt or delete data permanently. Types of malware: * Viruses are a specific type of malware, and are normally a malicious code that hijacks software with the intention to "do damage and spread copies of itself." Copies are made with the aim to spread to other programs on a computer. Multi-vector, polymorphic attacks Surfacing in 2017, a new class of multi-vector, polymorphic cyber threats combine several types of attacks and change form to avoid cybersecurity controls as they spread. Multi-vector polymorphic attacks, as the name describes, are both multi-vectored and polymorphic. Firstly, they are a singular attack that involves multiple methods of attack. In this sense, they are "multi-vectored (i.e. the attack can use multiple means of propagation such as via the Web, email and applications." However, they are also multi-staged, meaning that "they can infiltrate networks and move laterally inside the network." Phishing is typically carried out by email spoofing, instant messaging, text message, or on a phone call. They often direct users to enter details at a fake website whose look and feel are almost identical to the legitimate one. The fake website often asks for personal information, such as login details and passwords. This information can then be used to gain access to the individual's real account on the real website. Preying on a victim's trust, phishing can be classified as a form of social engineering. Attackers can use creative ways to gain access to real accounts. A common scam is for attackers to send fake electronic invoices to individuals showing that they recently purchased music, apps, or others, and instructing them to click on a link if the purchases were not authorized. A more strategic type of phishing is spear-phishing which leverages personal or organization-specific details to make the attacker appear like a trusted source. Spear-phishing attacks target specific individuals, rather than the broad net cast by phishing attempts.Privilege escalationPrivilege escalation describes a situation where an attacker with some level of restricted access is able to, without authorization, elevate their privileges or access level. For example, a standard computer user may be able to exploit a vulnerability in the system to gain access to restricted data; or even become root and have full unrestricted access to a system. The severity of attacks can range from attacks simply sending an unsolicited email to a ransomware attack on large amounts of data. Privilege escalation usually starts with social engineering techniques, often phishing. Social engineering Social engineering, in the context of computer security, aims to convince a user to disclose secrets such as passwords, card numbers, etc. or grant physical access by, for example, impersonating a senior executive, bank, a contractor, or a customer. This generally involves exploiting people's trust, and relying on their cognitive biases. A common scam involves emails sent to accounting and finance department personnel, impersonating their CEO and urgently requesting some action. One of the main techniques of social engineering are phishing attacks. In early 2016, the FBI reported that such business email compromise (BEC) scams had cost US businesses more than $2 billion in about two years. In May 2016, the Milwaukee Bucks NBA team was the victim of this type of cyber scam with a perpetrator impersonating the team's president Peter Feigin, resulting in the handover of all the team's employees' 2015 W-2 tax forms. Spoofing Spoofing is an act of pretending to be a valid entity through the falsification of data (such as an IP address or username), in order to gain access to information or resources that one is otherwise unauthorized to obtain. Spoofing is closely related to phishing. There are several types of spoofing, including: * Email spoofing, is where an attacker forges the sending (From, or source) address of an email. * IP address spoofing, where an attacker alters the source IP address in a network packet to hide their identity or impersonate another computing system. * MAC spoofing, where an attacker modifies the Media Access Control (MAC) address of their network interface controller to obscure their identity, or to pose as another. * Biometric spoofing, where an attacker produces a fake biometric sample to pose as another user. * Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) spoofing, where an attacker sends spoofed address resolution protocol onto a local area network to associate their Media Access Control address with a different host's IP address. This causes data to be sent to the attacker rather than the intended host. In 2018, the cybersecurity firm Trellix published research on the life-threatening risk of spoofing in the healthcare industry.TamperingTampering describes a malicious modification or alteration of data. It is an intentional but unauthorized act resulting in the modification of a system, components of systems, its intended behavior, or data. So-called Evil Maid attacks and security services planting of surveillance capability into routers are examples.HTML smugglingHTML smuggling allows an attacker to smuggle a malicious code inside a particular HTML or web page. HTML files can carry payloads concealed as benign, inert data in order to defeat content filters. These payloads can be reconstructed on the other side of the filter. When a target user opens the HTML, the malicious code is activated; the web browser then decodes the script, which then unleashes the malware onto the target's device. Andersson and Reimers (2014) found that employees often do not see themselves as part of their organization's information security effort and often take actions that impede organizational changes. Indeed, the Verizon Data Breach Investigations Report 2020, which examined 3,950 security breaches, discovered 30% of cybersecurity incidents involved internal actors within a company. Research shows information security culture needs to be improved continuously. In "Information Security Culture from Analysis to Change", authors commented, "It's a never-ending process, a cycle of evaluation and change or maintenance." To manage the information security culture, five steps should be taken: pre-evaluation, strategic planning, operative planning, implementation, and post-evaluation. * Pre-evaluation: To identify the awareness of information security within employees and to analyze the current security policies. * Strategic planning: To come up with a better awareness program, clear targets need to be set. Assembling a team of skilled professionals is helpful to achieve it. * Operative planning: A good security culture can be established based on internal communication, management buy-in, security awareness and a training program. Some common countermeasures are listed in the following sections: Security by design Security by design, or alternately secure by design, means that the software has been designed from the ground up to be secure. In this case, security is considered a main feature. The UK government's National Cyber Security Centre separates secure cyber design principles into five sections: # Before a secure system is created or updated, companies should ensure they understand the fundamentals and the context around the system they are trying to create and identify any weaknesses in the system. # Companies should design and centre their security around techniques and defences which make attacking their data or systems inherently more challenging for attackers. # Companies should ensure that their core services that rely on technology are protected so that the systems are essentially never down. # Although systems can be created which are safe against a multitude of attacks, that does not mean that attacks will not be attempted. Despite one's security, all companies' systems should aim to be able to detect and spot attacks as soon as they occur to ensure the most effective response to them. # Companies should create secure systems designed so that any attack that is successful has minimal severity. These design principles of security by design can include some of the following techniques: * The principle of least privilege, where each part of the system has only the privileges that are needed for its function. That way, even if an attacker gains access to that part, they only have limited access to the whole system. * Automated theorem proving to prove the correctness of crucial software subsystems. * Code reviews and unit testing, approaches to make modules more secure where formal correctness proofs are not possible. * Defense in depth, where the design is such that more than one subsystem needs to be violated to compromise the integrity of the system and the information it holds. * Default secure settings, and design to fail secure rather than fail insecure (see fail-safe for the equivalent in safety engineering). Ideally, a secure system should require a deliberate, conscious, knowledgeable and free decision on the part of legitimate authorities in order to make it insecure. * Audit trails track system activity so that when a security breach occurs, the mechanism and extent of the breach can be determined. Storing audit trails remotely, where they can only be appended to, can keep intruders from covering their tracks. * Full disclosure of all vulnerabilities, to ensure that the window of vulnerability is kept as short as possible when bugs are discovered. Security architecture Security architecture can be defined as the "practice of designing computer systems to achieve security goals." These goals have overlap with the principles of "security by design" explored above, including to "make initial compromise of the system difficult," and to "limit the impact of any compromise." Similarly, Techopedia defines security architecture as "a unified security design that addresses the necessities and potential risks involved in a certain scenario or environment. It also specifies when and where to apply security controls. The design process is generally reproducible." The key attributes of security architecture are: * the relationship of different components and how they depend on each other. * determination of controls based on risk assessment, good practices, finances, and legal matters. * the standardization of controls. Practicing security architecture provides the right foundation to systematically address business, IT and security concerns in an organization. Security measures A state of computer security is the conceptual ideal, attained by the use of three processes: threat prevention, detection, and response. These processes are based on various policies and system components, which include the following: * Limiting the access of individuals using user account access controls and using cryptography can protect systems files and data, respectively. * Firewalls are by far the most common prevention systems from a network security perspective as they can (if properly configured) shield access to internal network services and block certain kinds of attacks through packet filtering. Firewalls can be both hardware and software-based. Firewalls monitor and control incoming and outgoing traffic of a computer network and establish a barrier between a trusted network and an untrusted network. * Intrusion Detection System (IDS) products are designed to detect network attacks in-progress and assist in post-attack forensics, while audit trails and logs serve a similar function for individual systems. * Response is necessarily defined by the assessed security requirements of an individual system and may cover the range from simple upgrade of protections to notification of legal authorities, counter-attacks, and the like. In some special cases, the complete destruction of the compromised system is favored, as it may happen that not all the compromised resources are detected. * Cyber security awareness training to cope with cyber threats and attacks. * Forward web proxy solutions can prevent the client to visit malicious web pages and inspect the content before downloading to the client machines. Today, computer security consists mainly of preventive measures, like firewalls or an exit procedure. A firewall can be defined as a way of filtering network data between a host or a network and another network, such as the Internet. They can be implemented as software running on the machine, hooking into the network stack (or, in the case of most UNIX-based operating systems such as Linux, built into the operating system kernel) to provide real-time filtering and blocking. In order to ensure adequate security, the confidentiality, integrity and availability of a network, better known as the CIA triad, must be protected and is considered the foundation to information security. To achieve those objectives, administrative, physical and technical security measures should be employed. The amount of security afforded to an asset can only be determined when its value is known.Vulnerability management Vulnerability management is the cycle of identifying, fixing or mitigating vulnerabilities, especially in software and firmware. Vulnerability management is integral to computer security and network security. Vulnerabilities can be discovered with a vulnerability scanner, which analyzes a computer system in search of known vulnerabilities, such as open ports, insecure software configuration, and susceptibility to malware. In order for these tools to be effective, they must be kept up to date with every new update the vendor release. Typically, these updates will scan for the new vulnerabilities that were introduced recently. Beyond vulnerability scanning, many organizations contract outside security auditors to run regular penetration tests against their systems to identify vulnerabilities. In some sectors, this is a contractual requirement. Reducing vulnerabilities The act of assessing and reducing vulnerabilities to cyber attacks is commonly referred to as information technology security assessments. They aim to assess systems for risk and to predict and test for their vulnerabilities. While formal verification of the correctness of computer systems is possible, it is not yet common. Operating systems formally verified include seL4, and SYSGO's PikeOS – but these make up a very small percentage of the market. It is possible to reduce an attacker's chances by keeping systems up to date with security patches and updates and by hiring people with expertise in security. Large companies with significant threats can hire Security Operations Centre (SOC) Analysts. These are specialists in cyber defences, with their role ranging from "conducting threat analysis to investigating reports of any new issues and preparing and testing disaster recovery plans." Whilst no measures can completely guarantee the prevention of an attack, these measures can help mitigate the damage of possible attacks. The effects of data loss/damage can be also reduced by careful backing up and insurance. Outside of formal assessments, there are various methods of reducing vulnerabilities. Two factor authentication is a method for mitigating unauthorized access to a system or sensitive information. It requires something you know: a password or PIN, and something you have: a card, dongle, cellphone, or another piece of hardware. This increases security as an unauthorized person needs both of these to gain access. Protecting against social engineering and direct computer access (physical) attacks can only happen by non-computer means, which can be difficult to enforce, relative to the sensitivity of the information. Training is often involved to help mitigate this risk by improving people's knowledge of how to protect themselves and by increasing people's awareness of threats. However, even in highly disciplined environments (e.g. military organizations), social engineering attacks can still be difficult to foresee and prevent. Inoculation, derived from inoculation theory, seeks to prevent social engineering and other fraudulent tricks and traps by instilling a resistance to persuasion attempts through exposure to similar or related attempts.Hardware protection mechanisms Hardware-based or assisted computer security also offers an alternative to software-only computer security. Using devices and methods such as dongles, trusted platform modules, intrusion-aware cases, drive locks, disabling USB ports, and mobile-enabled access may be considered more secure due to the physical access (or sophisticated backdoor access) required in order to be compromised. Each of these is covered in more detail below. * USB dongles are typically used in software licensing schemes to unlock software capabilities, but they can also be seen as a way to prevent unauthorized access to a computer or other device's software. The dongle, or key, essentially creates a secure encrypted tunnel between the software application and the key. The principle is that an encryption scheme on the dongle, such as Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) provides a stronger measure of security since it is harder to hack and replicate the dongle than to simply copy the native software to another machine and use it. Another security application for dongles is to use them for accessing web-based content such as cloud software or Virtual Private Networks (VPNs). In addition, a USB dongle can be configured to lock or unlock a computer. * Trusted platform modules (TPMs) secure devices by integrating cryptographic capabilities onto access devices, through the use of microprocessors, or so-called computers-on-a-chip. TPMs used in conjunction with server-side software offer a way to detect and authenticate hardware devices, preventing unauthorized network and data access. * Computer case intrusion detection refers to a device, typically a push-button switch, which detects when a computer case is opened. The firmware or BIOS is programmed to show an alert to the operator when the computer is booted up the next time. * Drive locks are essentially software tools to encrypt hard drives, making them inaccessible to thieves. Tools exist specifically for encrypting external drives as well. * Disabling USB ports is a security option for preventing unauthorized and malicious access to an otherwise secure computer. Infected USB dongles connected to a network from a computer inside the firewall are considered by the magazine Network World as the most common hardware threat facing computer networks. * Disconnecting or disabling peripheral devices (like camera, GPS, removable storage, etc.), that are not in use. * Mobile-enabled access devices are growing in popularity due to the ubiquitous nature of cell phones. Built-in capabilities such as Bluetooth, the newer Bluetooth low energy (LE), near-field communication (NFC) on non-iOS devices and biometric validation such as thumbprint readers, as well as QR code reader software designed for mobile devices, offer new, secure ways for mobile phones to connect to access control systems. These control systems provide computer security and can also be used for controlling access to secure buildings. * IOMMUs allow for hardware-based sandboxing of components in mobile and desktop computers by utilizing direct memory access protections. * Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) can be used as a digital fingerprint or a unique identifier to integrated circuits and hardware, providing users the ability to secure the hardware supply chains going into their systems. Secure operating systems One use of the term computer security refers to technology that is used to implement secure operating systems. Using secure operating systems is a good way of ensuring computer security. These are systems that have achieved certification from an external security-auditing organization, the most popular evaluations are Common Criteria (CC).Secure coding In software engineering, secure coding aims to guard against the accidental introduction of security vulnerabilities. It is also possible to create software designed from the ground up to be secure. Such systems are secure by design. Beyond this, formal verification aims to prove the correctness of the algorithms underlying a system; important for cryptographic protocols for example. Capabilities and access control lists Within computer systems, two of the main security models capable of enforcing privilege separation are access control lists (ACLs) and role-based access control (RBAC). An access-control list (ACL), with respect to a computer file system, is a list of permissions associated with an object. An ACL specifies which users or system processes are granted access to objects, as well as what operations are allowed on given objects. Role-based access control is an approach to restricting system access to authorized users, used by the majority of enterprises with more than 500 employees, and can implement mandatory access control (MAC) or discretionary access control (DAC). A further approach, capability-based security has been mostly restricted to research operating systems. Capabilities can, however, also be implemented at the language level, leading to a style of programming that is essentially a refinement of standard object-oriented design. An open-source project in the area is the E language. User security training The end-user is widely recognized as the weakest link in the security chain and it is estimated that more than 90% of security incidents and breaches involve some kind of human error. Among the most commonly recorded forms of errors and misjudgment are poor password management, sending emails containing sensitive data and attachments to the wrong recipient, the inability to recognize misleading URLs and to identify fake websites and dangerous email attachments. A common mistake that users make is saving their user id/password in their browsers to make it easier to log in to banking sites. This is a gift to attackers who have obtained access to a machine by some means. The risk may be mitigated by the use of two-factor authentication. As the human component of cyber risk is particularly relevant in determining the global cyber risk an organization is facing, security awareness training, at all levels, not only provides formal compliance with regulatory and industry mandates but is considered essential in reducing cyber risk and protecting individuals and companies from the great majority of cyber threats. The focus on the end-user represents a profound cultural change for many security practitioners, who have traditionally approached cybersecurity exclusively from a technical perspective, and moves along the lines suggested by major security centers to develop a culture of cyber awareness within the organization, recognizing that a security-aware user provides an important line of defense against cyber attacks.Digital hygieneRelated to end-user training, digital hygiene or cyber hygiene is a fundamental principle relating to information security and, as the analogy with personal hygiene shows, is the equivalent of establishing simple routine measures to minimize the risks from cyber threats. The assumption is that good cyber hygiene practices can give networked users another layer of protection, reducing the risk that one vulnerable node will be used to either mount attacks or compromise another node or network, especially from common cyberattacks. Cyber hygiene should also not be mistaken for proactive cyber defence, a military term. The most common acts of digital hygiene can include updating malware protection, cloud back-ups, passwords, and ensuring restricted admin rights and network firewalls. As opposed to a purely technology-based defense against threats, cyber hygiene mostly regards routine measures that are technically simple to implement and mostly dependent on discipline or education. It can be thought of as an abstract list of tips or measures that have been demonstrated as having a positive effect on personal or collective digital security. As such, these measures can be performed by laypeople, not just security experts. Cyber hygiene relates to personal hygiene as computer viruses relate to biological viruses (or pathogens). However, while the term computer virus was coined almost simultaneously with the creation of the first working computer viruses, the term cyber hygiene is a much later invention, perhaps as late as 2000 by Internet pioneer Vint Cerf. It has since been adopted by the Congress and Senate of the United States, the FBI, EU institutions Websites and apps that accept or store credit card numbers, brokerage accounts, and bank account information are also prominent hacking targets, because of the potential for immediate financial gain from transferring money, making purchases, or selling the information on the black market. In-store payment systems and ATMs have also been tampered with in order to gather customer account data and PINs. The UCLA Internet Report: Surveying the Digital Future (2000) found that the privacy of personal data created barriers to online sales and that more than nine out of 10 internet users were somewhat or very concerned about credit card security. The most common web technologies for improving security between browsers and websites are named SSL (Secure Sockets Layer), and its successor TLS (Transport Layer Security), identity management and authentication services, and domain name services allow companies and consumers to engage in secure communications and commerce. Several versions of SSL and TLS are commonly used today in applications such as web browsing, e-mail, internet faxing, instant messaging, and VoIP (voice-over-IP). There are various interoperable implementations of these technologies, including at least one implementation that is open source. Open source allows anyone to view the application's source code, and look for and report vulnerabilities. The credit card companies Visa and MasterCard cooperated to develop the secure EMV chip which is embedded in credit cards. Further developments include the Chip Authentication Program where banks give customers hand-held card readers to perform online secure transactions. Other developments in this arena include the development of technology such as Instant Issuance which has enabled shopping mall kiosks acting on behalf of banks to issue on-the-spot credit cards to interested customers. Utilities and industrial equipment Computers control functions at many utilities, including coordination of telecommunications, the power grid, nuclear power plants, and valve opening and closing in water and gas networks. The Internet is a potential attack vector for such machines if connected, but the Stuxnet worm demonstrated that even equipment controlled by computers not connected to the Internet can be vulnerable. In 2014, the Computer Emergency Readiness Team, a division of the Department of Homeland Security, investigated 79 hacking incidents at energy companies.AviationThe aviation industry is very reliant on a series of complex systems which could be attacked. A simple power outage at one airport can cause repercussions worldwide, much of the system relies on radio transmissions which could be disrupted, and controlling aircraft over oceans is especially dangerous because radar surveillance only extends 175 to 225 miles offshore. There is also potential for attack from within an aircraft. Implementing fixes in aerospace systems poses a unique challenge because efficient air transportation is heavily affected by weight and volume. Improving security by adding physical devices to airplanes could increase their unloaded weight, and could potentially reduce cargo or passenger capacity. In Europe, with the (Pan-European Network Service) and NewPENS, and in the US with the NextGen program, air navigation service providers are moving to create their own dedicated networks. Many modern passports are now biometric passports, containing an embedded microchip that stores a digitized photograph and personal information such as name, gender, and date of birth. In addition, more countries are introducing facial recognition technology to reduce identity-related fraud. The introduction of the ePassport has assisted border officials in verifying the identity of the passport holder, thus allowing for quick passenger processing. Plans are under way in the US, the UK, and Australia to introduce SmartGate kiosks with both retina and fingerprint recognition technology. The airline industry is moving from the use of traditional paper tickets towards the use of electronic tickets (e-tickets). These have been made possible by advances in online credit card transactions in partnership with the airlines. Long-distance bus companies are also switching over to e-ticketing transactions today. The consequences of a successful attack range from loss of confidentiality to loss of system integrity, air traffic control outages, loss of aircraft, and even loss of life. Consumer devices Desktop computers and laptops are commonly targeted to gather passwords or financial account information or to construct a botnet to attack another target. Smartphones, tablet computers, smart watches, and other mobile devices such as quantified self devices like activity trackers have sensors such as cameras, microphones, GPS receivers, compasses, and accelerometers which could be exploited, and may collect personal information, including sensitive health information. WiFi, Bluetooth, and cell phone networks on any of these devices could be used as attack vectors, and sensors might be remotely activated after a successful breach. The increasing number of home automation devices such as the Nest thermostat are also potential targets.Large corporationsLarge corporations are common targets. In many cases attacks are aimed at financial gain through identity theft and involve data breaches. Examples include the loss of millions of clients' credit card and financial details by Home Depot, Staples, Target Corporation, and Equifax. Medical records have been targeted in general identify theft, health insurance fraud, and impersonating patients to obtain prescription drugs for recreational purposes or resale. Although cyber threats continue to increase, 62% of all organizations did not increase security training for their business in 2015. Not all attacks are financially motivated, however: security firm HBGary Federal had a serious series of attacks in 2011 from hacktivist group Anonymous in retaliation for the firm's CEO claiming to have infiltrated their group, and Sony Pictures was hacked in 2014 with the apparent dual motive of embarrassing the company through data leaks and crippling the company by wiping workstations and servers. Automobiles Vehicles are increasingly computerized, with engine timing, cruise control, anti-lock brakes, seat belt tensioners, door locks, airbags and advanced driver-assistance systems on many models. Additionally, connected cars may use WiFi and Bluetooth to communicate with onboard consumer devices and the cell phone network. Simple examples of risk include a malicious compact disc being used as an attack vector, and the car's onboard microphones being used for eavesdropping. However, if access is gained to a car's internal controller area network, the danger is much greater – and in a widely publicized 2015 test, hackers remotely carjacked a vehicle from 10 miles away and drove it into a ditch. Manufacturers are reacting in numerous ways, with Tesla in 2016 pushing out some security fixes over the air into its cars' computer systems. In the area of autonomous vehicles, in September 2016 the United States Department of Transportation announced some initial safety standards, and called for states to come up with uniform policies. Additionally, e-Drivers' licenses are being developed using the same technology. For example, Mexico's licensing authority (ICV) has used a smart card platform to issue the first e-Drivers' licenses to the city of Monterrey, in the state of Nuevo León.ShippingShipping companies have adopted RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) technology as an efficient, digitally secure, tracking device. Unlike a barcode, RFID can be read up to 20 feet away. RFID is used by FedEx and UPS. Government Government and military computer systems are commonly attacked by activists and foreign powers. Local and regional government infrastructure such as traffic light controls, police and intelligence agency communications, personnel records, as well as student records. The FBI, CIA, and Pentagon, all utilize secure controlled access technology for any of their buildings. However, the use of this form of technology is spreading into the entrepreneurial world. More and more companies are taking advantage of the development of digitally secure controlled access technology. GE's ACUVision, for example, offers a single panel platform for access control, alarm monitoring and digital recording. Internet of things and physical vulnerabilities The Internet of things (IoT) is the network of physical objects such as devices, vehicles, and buildings that are embedded with electronics, software, sensors, and network connectivity that enables them to collect and exchange data. Concerns have been raised that this is being developed without appropriate consideration of the security challenges involved. While the IoT creates opportunities for more direct integration of the physical world into computer-based systems, it also provides opportunities for misuse. In particular, as the Internet of Things spreads widely, cyberattacks are likely to become an increasingly physical (rather than simply virtual) threat. If a front door's lock is connected to the Internet, and can be locked/unlocked from a phone, then a criminal could enter the home at the press of a button from a stolen or hacked phone. People could stand to lose much more than their credit card numbers in a world controlled by IoT-enabled devices. Thieves have also used electronic means to circumvent non-Internet-connected hotel door locks. An attack aimed at physical infrastructure or human lives is often called a cyber-kinetic attack. As IoT devices and appliances become more widespread, the prevalence and potential damage of cyber-kinetic attacks can increase substantially. Medical systems Medical devices have either been successfully attacked or had potentially deadly vulnerabilities demonstrated, including both in-hospital diagnostic equipment and implanted devices including pacemakers and insulin pumps. There are many reports of hospitals and hospital organizations getting hacked, including ransomware attacks, Windows XP exploits, viruses, and data breaches of sensitive data stored on hospital servers. On 28 December 2016 the US Food and Drug Administration released its recommendations for how medical device manufacturers should maintain the security of Internet-connected devices – but no structure for enforcement. Energy sector In distributed generation systems, the risk of a cyber attack is real, according to Daily Energy Insider. An attack could cause a loss of power in a large area for a long period of time, and such an attack could have just as severe consequences as a natural disaster. The District of Columbia is considering creating a Distributed Energy Resources (DER) Authority within the city, with the goal being for customers to have more insight into their own energy use and giving the local electric utility, Pepco, the chance to better estimate energy demand. The D.C. proposal, however, would "allow third-party vendors to create numerous points of energy distribution, which could potentially create more opportunities for cyber attackers to threaten the electric grid."Telecommunications Perhaps the most widely known digitally secure telecommunication device is the SIM (Subscriber Identity Module) card, a device that is embedded in most of the world's cellular devices before any service can be obtained. The SIM card is just the beginning of this digitally secure environment. The Smart Card Web Servers draft standard (SCWS) defines the interfaces to an HTTP server in a smart card. Tests are being conducted to secure OTA ("over-the-air") payment and credit card information from and to a mobile phone. Combination SIM/DVD devices are being developed through Smart Video Card technology which embeds a DVD-compliant optical disc into the card body of a regular SIM card. Other telecommunication developments involving digital security include mobile signatures, which use the embedded SIM card to generate a legally binding electronic signature. Cost and impact of security breaches Serious financial damage has been caused by security breaches, but because there is no standard model for estimating the cost of an incident, the only data available is that which is made public by the organizations involved. "Several computer security consulting firms produce estimates of total worldwide losses attributable to virus and worm attacks and to hostile digital acts in general. The 2003 loss estimates by these firms range from $13 billion (worms and viruses only) to $226 billion (for all forms of covert attacks). The reliability of these estimates is often challenged; the underlying methodology is basically anecdotal." However, reasonable estimates of the financial cost of security breaches can actually help organizations make rational investment decisions. According to the classic Gordon-Loeb Model analyzing the optimal investment level in information security, one can conclude that the amount a firm spends to protect information should generally be only a small fraction of the expected loss (i.e., the expected value of the loss resulting from a cyber/information security breach). Attacker motivation As with physical security, the motivations for breaches of computer security vary between attackers. Some are thrill-seekers or vandals, some are activists, others are criminals looking for financial gain. State-sponsored attackers are now common and well resourced but started with amateurs such as Markus Hess who hacked for the KGB, as recounted by Clifford Stoll in ''The Cuckoo's Egg''. Attackers motivations can vary for all types of attacks from pleasure to political goals. Additionally, recent attacker motivations can be traced back to extremist organizations seeking to gain political advantage or disrupt social agendas. The growth of the internet, mobile technologies, and inexpensive computing devices have led to a rise in capabilities but also to the risk to environments that are deemed as vital to operations. All critical targeted environments are susceptible to compromise and this has led to a series of proactive studies on how to migrate the risk by taking into consideration motivations by these types of actors. Several stark differences exist between the hacker motivation and that of nation state actors seeking to attack based on an ideological preference. A key aspect of threat modeling for any system is identifying the motivations behind potential attacks and the individuals or groups likely to carry them out. The level and detail of security measures will differ based on the specific system being protected. For instance, a home personal computer, a bank, and a classified military network each face distinct threats, despite using similar underlying technologies.Computer security incident managementComputer security incident management is an organized approach to addressing and managing the aftermath of a computer security incident or compromise with the goal of preventing a breach or thwarting a cyberattack. An incident that is not identified and managed at the time of intrusion typically escalates to a more damaging event such as a data breach or system failure. The intended outcome of a computer security incident response plan is to contain the incident, limit damage and assist recovery to business as usual. Responding to compromises quickly can mitigate exploited vulnerabilities, restore services and processes and minimize losses. Incident response planning allows an organization to establish a series of best practices to stop an intrusion before it causes damage. Typical incident response plans contain a set of written instructions that outline the organization's response to a cyberattack. Without a documented plan in place, an organization may not successfully detect an intrusion or compromise and stakeholders may not understand their roles, processes and procedures during an escalation, slowing the organization's response and resolution. There are four key components of a computer security incident response plan: # Preparation: Preparing stakeholders on the procedures for handling computer security incidents or compromises # Detection and analysis: Identifying and investigating suspicious activity to confirm a security incident, prioritizing the response based on impact and coordinating notification of the incident # Containment, eradication and recovery: Isolating affected systems to prevent escalation and limit impact, pinpointing the genesis of the incident, removing malware, affected systems and bad actors from the environment and restoring systems and data when a threat no longer remains # Post incident activity: Post mortem analysis of the incident, its root cause and the organization's response with the intent of improving the incident response plan and future response efforts. Notable attacks and breaches Some illustrative examples of different types of computer security breaches are given below. <!-- We don't want to list every breach ever – and please keep the descriptions short --> Robert Morris and the first computer worm In 1988, 60,000 computers were connected to the Internet, and most were mainframes, minicomputers and professional workstations. On 2 November 1988, many started to slow down, because they were running a malicious code that demanded processor time and that spread itself to other computers – the first internet computer worm. The software was traced back to 23-year-old Cornell University graduate student Robert Tappan Morris who said "he wanted to count how many machines were connected to the Internet". TJX customer credit card details In early 2007, American apparel and home goods company TJX announced that it was the victim of an unauthorized computer systems intrusion and that the hackers had accessed a system that stored data on credit card, debit card, check, and merchandise return transactions. Stuxnet attack In 2010, the computer worm known as Stuxnet reportedly ruined almost one-fifth of Iran's nuclear centrifuges. It did so by disrupting industrial programmable logic controllers (PLCs) in a targeted attack. This is generally believed to have been launched by Israel and the United States to disrupt Iran's nuclear program – although neither has publicly admitted this. Global surveillance disclosures In early 2013, documents provided by Edward Snowden were published by The Washington Post and The Guardian exposing the massive scale of NSA global surveillance. There were also indications that the NSA may have inserted a backdoor in a NIST standard for encryption. This standard was later withdrawn due to widespread criticism. The NSA additionally were revealed to have tapped the links between Google's data centers.Target and Home Depot breachesA Ukrainian hacker known as Rescator broke into Target Corporation computers in 2013, stealing roughly 40 million credit cards, and then Home Depot computers in 2014, stealing between 53 and 56 million credit card numbers. Warnings were delivered at both corporations, but ignored; physical security breaches using self checkout machines are believed to have played a large role. "The malware utilized is absolutely unsophisticated and uninteresting," says Jim Walter, director of threat intelligence operations at security technology company McAfee – meaning that the heists could have easily been stopped by existing antivirus software had administrators responded to the warnings. The size of the thefts has resulted in major attention from state and Federal United States authorities and the investigation is ongoing. Office of Personnel Management data breach In April 2015, the Office of Personnel Management discovered it had been hacked more than a year earlier in a data breach, resulting in the theft of approximately 21.5 million personnel records handled by the office. The Office of Personnel Management hack has been described by federal officials as among the largest breaches of government data in the history of the United States. Data targeted in the breach included personally identifiable information such as Social Security numbers, names, dates and places of birth, addresses, and fingerprints of current and former government employees as well as anyone who had undergone a government background check. It is believed the hack was perpetrated by Chinese hackers. Ashley Madison breach Ashley Madison Data Breach}} In July 2015, a hacker group is known as The Impact Team successfully breached the extramarital relationship website Ashley Madison, created by Avid Life Media. The group claimed that they had taken not only company data but user data as well. After the breach, The Impact Team dumped emails from the company's CEO, to prove their point, and threatened to dump customer data unless the website was taken down permanently. When Avid Life Media did not take the site offline the group released two more compressed files, one 9.7GB and the second 20GB. After the second data dump, Avid Life Media CEO Noel Biderman resigned; but the website remained to function. Colonial Pipeline ransomware attack In June 2021, the cyber attack took down the largest fuel pipeline in the U.S. and led to shortages across the East Coast.Legal issues and global regulationInternational legal issues of cyber attacks are complicated in nature. There is no global base of common rules to judge, and eventually punish, cybercrimes and cybercriminals - and where security firms or agencies do locate the cybercriminal behind the creation of a particular piece of malware or form of cyber attack, often the local authorities cannot take action due to lack of laws under which to prosecute. Proving attribution for cybercrimes and cyberattacks is also a major problem for all law enforcement agencies. "Computer viruses switch from one country to another, from one jurisdiction to another – moving around the world, using the fact that we don't have the capability to globally police operations like this. So the Internet is as if someone [had] given free plane tickets to all the online criminals of the world." The government's regulatory role in cyberspace is complicated. For some, cyberspace was seen as a virtual space that was to remain free of government intervention, as can be seen in many of today's libertarian blockchain and bitcoin discussions. Many government officials and experts think that the government should do more and that there is a crucial need for improved regulation, mainly due to the failure of the private sector to solve efficiently the cybersecurity problem. R. Clarke said during a panel discussion at the RSA Security Conference in San Francisco, he believes that the "industry only responds when you threaten regulation. If the industry doesn't respond (to the threat), you have to follow through." On the other hand, executives from the private sector agree that improvements are necessary, but think that government intervention would affect their ability to innovate efficiently. Daniel R. McCarthy analyzed this public-private partnership in cybersecurity and reflected on the role of cybersecurity in the broader constitution of political order. On 22 May 2020, the UN Security Council held its second ever informal meeting on cybersecurity to focus on cyber challenges to international peace. According to UN Secretary-General António Guterres, new technologies are too often used to violate rights.International actions Many different teams and organizations exist, including: * The Forum of Incident Response and Security Teams (FIRST) is the global association of CSIRTs. The US-CERT, AT&T, Apple, Cisco, McAfee, Microsoft are all members of this international team. * The Council of Europe helps protect societies worldwide from the threat of cybercrime through the Convention on Cybercrime. * The purpose of the Messaging Anti-Abuse Working Group (MAAWG) is to bring the messaging industry together to work collaboratively and to successfully address the various forms of messaging abuse, such as spam, viruses, denial-of-service attacks and other messaging exploitations. France Telecom, Facebook, AT&T, Apple, Cisco, Sprint are some of the members of the MAAWG. * ENISA : The European Network and Information Security Agency (ENISA) is an agency of the European Union with the objective to improve network and information security in the European Union. Europe On 14 April 2016, the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union adopted the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). The GDPR, which came into force on 25 May 2018, grants individuals within the European Union (EU) and the European Economic Area (EEA) the right to the protection of personal data. The regulation requires that any entity that processes personal data incorporate data protection by design and by default. It also requires that certain organizations appoint a Data Protection Officer (DPO). The IT Security Association TeleTrusT exist in Germany since June 1986, which is an international competence network for IT security. National actions Computer emergency response teams Most countries have their own computer emergency response team to protect network security. Canada Since 2010, Canada has had a cybersecurity strategy. This functions as a counterpart document to the National Strategy and Action Plan for Critical Infrastructure. There is also a Cyber Incident Management Framework to provide a coordinated response in the event of a cyber incident. The Canadian Cyber Incident Response Centre (CCIRC) is responsible for mitigating and responding to threats to Canada's critical infrastructure and cyber systems. It provides support to mitigate cyber threats, technical support to respond & recover from targeted cyber attacks, and provides online tools for members of Canada's critical infrastructure sectors. It posts regular cybersecurity bulletins & operates an online reporting tool where individuals and organizations can report a cyber incident. To inform the general public on how to protect themselves online, Public Safety Canada has partnered with STOP.THINK.CONNECT, a coalition of non-profit, private sector, and government organizations, and launched the Cyber Security Cooperation Program. They also run the GetCyberSafe portal for Canadian citizens, and Cyber Security Awareness Month during October. Public Safety Canada aims to begin an evaluation of Canada's cybersecurity strategy in early 2015. India Some provisions for cybersecurity have been incorporated into rules framed under the Information Technology Act 2000. The National Cyber Security Policy 2013 is a policy framework by the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY) which aims to protect the public and private infrastructure from cyberattacks, and safeguard "information, such as personal information (of web users), financial and banking information and sovereign data". CERT- In is the nodal agency which monitors the cyber threats in the country. The post of National Cyber Security Coordinator has also been created in the Prime Minister's Office (PMO). The Indian Companies Act 2013 has also introduced cyber law and cybersecurity obligations on the part of Indian directors. Some provisions for cybersecurity have been incorporated into rules framed under the Information Technology Act 2000 Update in 2013. South Korea Following cyberattacks in the first half of 2013, when the government, news media, television stations, and bank websites were compromised, the national government committed to the training of 5,000 new cybersecurity experts by 2017. The South Korean government blamed its northern counterpart for these attacks, as well as incidents that occurred in 2009, 2011, and 2012, but Pyongyang denies the accusations. United States Cyber Plan The United States has its first fully formed cyber plan in 15 years, as a result of the release of this National Cyber plan. In this policy, the US says it will: Protect the country by keeping networks, systems, functions, and data safe; Promote American wealth by building a strong digital economy and encouraging strong domestic innovation; Peace and safety should be kept by making it easier for the US to stop people from using computer tools for bad things, working with friends and partners to do this; and increase the United States' impact around the world to support the main ideas behind an open, safe, reliable, and compatible Internet. The new U.S. cyber strategy seeks to allay some of those concerns by promoting responsible behavior in cyberspace, urging nations to adhere to a set of norms, both through international law and voluntary standards. It also calls for specific measures to harden U.S. government networks from attacks, like the June 2015 intrusion into the U.S. Office of Personnel Management (OPM), which compromised the records of about 4.2 million current and former government employees. And the strategy calls for the U.S. to continue to name and shame bad cyber actors, calling them out publicly for attacks when possible, along with the use of economic sanctions and diplomatic pressure. Legislation The 1986 , the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act is the key legislation. It prohibits unauthorized access or damage of protected computers as defined in . Although various other measures have been proposed – none have succeeded. In 2013, executive order 13636 Improving Critical Infrastructure Cybersecurity was signed, which prompted the creation of the NIST Cybersecurity Framework. In response to the Colonial Pipeline ransomware attack President Joe Biden signed Executive Order 14028 on May 12, 2021, to increase software security standards for sales to the government, tighten detection and security on existing systems, improve information sharing and training, establish a Cyber Safety Review Board, and improve incident response.Standardized government testing servicesThe General Services Administration (GSA) has standardized the penetration test service as a pre-vetted support service, to rapidly address potential vulnerabilities, and stop adversaries before they impact US federal, state and local governments. These services are commonly referred to as Highly Adaptive Cybersecurity Services (HACS). Agencies The Department of Homeland Security has a dedicated division responsible for the response system, risk management program and requirements for cybersecurity in the United States called the National Cyber Security Division. The National Cybersecurity and Communications Integration Center brings together government organizations responsible for protecting computer networks and networked infrastructure. The third priority of the FBI is to: "Protect the United States against cyber-based attacks and high-technology crimes", and they, along with the National White Collar Crime Center (NW3C), and the Bureau of Justice Assistance (BJA) are part of the multi-agency task force, The Internet Crime Complaint Center, also known as IC3. In addition to its own specific duties, the FBI participates alongside non-profit organizations such as InfraGard. The Computer Crime and Intellectual Property Section (CCIPS) operates in the United States Department of Justice Criminal Division. The CCIPS is in charge of investigating computer crime and intellectual property crime and is specialized in the search and seizure of digital evidence in computers and networks. In 2017, CCIPS published A Framework for a Vulnerability Disclosure Program for Online Systems to help organizations "clearly describe authorized vulnerability disclosure and discovery conduct, thereby substantially reducing the likelihood that such described activities will result in a civil or criminal violation of law under the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (18 U.S.C. § 1030)." The United States Cyber Command, also known as USCYBERCOM, "has the mission to direct, synchronize, and coordinate cyberspace planning and operations to defend and advance national interests in collaboration with domestic and international partners." It has no role in the protection of civilian networks. The U.S. Federal Communications Commission's role in cybersecurity is to strengthen the protection of critical communications infrastructure, to assist in maintaining the reliability of networks during disasters, to aid in swift recovery after, and to ensure that first responders have access to effective communications services. The Food and Drug Administration has issued guidance for medical devices, and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration is concerned with automotive cybersecurity. After being criticized by the Government Accountability Office, and following successful attacks on airports and claimed attacks on airplanes, the Federal Aviation Administration has devoted funding to securing systems on board the planes of private manufacturers, and the Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System. Concerns have also been raised about the future Next Generation Air Transportation System. The US Department of Defense (DoD) issued DoD Directive 8570 in 2004, supplemented by DoD Directive 8140, requiring all DoD employees and all DoD contract personnel involved in information assurance roles and activities to earn and maintain various industry Information Technology (IT) certifications in an effort to ensure that all DoD personnel involved in network infrastructure defense have minimum levels of IT industry recognized knowledge, skills and abilities (KSA). Andersson and Reimers (2019) report these certifications range from CompTIA's A+ and Security+ through the ICS2.org's CISSP, etc. Computer emergency readiness team Computer emergency response team is a name given to expert groups that handle computer security incidents. In the US, two distinct organizations exist, although they do work closely together. * US-CERT: part of the National Cyber Security Division of the United States Department of Homeland Security. * CERT/CC: created by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and run by the Software Engineering Institute (SEI). U.S. NRC, 10 CFR 73.54 Cybersecurity In the context of U.S. nuclear power plants, the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) outlines cybersecurity requirements under 10 CFR Part 73, specifically in §73.54. NEI 08-09: Cybersecurity Plan for Nuclear Power Plants The Nuclear Energy Institute's NEI 08-09 document, Cyber Security Plan for Nuclear Power Reactors, outlines a comprehensive framework for cybersecurity in the nuclear power industry. Drafted with input from the U.S. NRC, this guideline is instrumental in aiding licensees to comply with the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), which mandates robust protection of digital computers and equipment and communications systems at nuclear power plants against cyber threats. Modern warfare There is growing concern that cyberspace will become the next theater of warfare. As Mark Clayton from The Christian Science Monitor wrote in a 2015 article titled "The New Cyber Arms Race": This has led to new terms such as cyberwarfare and cyberterrorism. The United States Cyber Command was created in 2009 and many other countries have similar forces. There are a few critical voices that question whether cybersecurity is as significant a threat as it is made out to be.CareersCybersecurity is a fast-growing field of IT concerned with reducing organizations' risk of hack or data breaches. According to research from the Enterprise Strategy Group, 46% of organizations say that they have a "problematic shortage" of cybersecurity skills in 2016, up from 28% in 2015. Commercial, government and non-governmental organizations all employ cybersecurity professionals. The fastest increases in demand for cybersecurity workers are in industries managing increasing volumes of consumer data such as finance, health care, and retail. However, the use of the term cybersecurity is more prevalent in government job descriptions. Typical cybersecurity job titles and descriptions include: Security analyst : Analyzes and assesses vulnerabilities in the infrastructure (software, hardware, networks), investigates using available tools and countermeasures to remedy the detected vulnerabilities and recommends solutions and best practices. Analyzes and assesses damage to the data/infrastructure as a result of security incidents, examines available recovery tools and processes, and recommends solutions. Tests for compliance with security policies and procedures. May assist in the creation, implementation, or management of security solutions. Security engineer : Performs security monitoring, security and data/logs analysis, and forensic analysis, to detect security incidents, and mount the incident response. Investigates and utilizes new technologies and processes to enhance security capabilities and implement improvements. May also review code or perform other security engineering methodologies. Security architect : Designs a security system or major components of a security system, and may head a security design team building a new security system.Chief Information Security Officer (CISO): A high-level management position responsible for the entire information security division/staff. The position may include hands-on technical work. Chief Security Officer (CSO) : A high-level management position responsible for the entire security division/staff. A newer position is now deemed needed as security risks grow. Data Protection Officer (DPO) : A DPO is tasked with monitoring compliance with data protection laws (such as GDPR), data protection policies, awareness-raising, training, and audits. Security Consultant/Specialist/Intelligence : Broad titles that encompass any one or all of the other roles or titles tasked with protecting computers, networks, software, data or information systems against viruses, worms, spyware, malware, intrusion detection, unauthorized access, denial-of-service attacks, and an ever-increasing list of attacks by hackers acting as individuals or as part of organized crime or foreign governments. <!-- PLEASE RESPECT ALPHABETICAL ORDER --> Student programs are also available for people interested in beginning a career in cybersecurity. Meanwhile, a flexible and effective option for information security professionals of all experience levels to keep studying is online security training, including webcasts. A wide range of certified courses are also available. In the United Kingdom, a nationwide set of cybersecurity forums, known as the U.K Cyber Security Forum, were established supported by the Government's cybersecurity strategy in order to encourage start-ups and innovation and to address the skills gap identified by the U.K Government. In Singapore, the Cyber Security Agency has issued a Singapore Operational Technology (OT) Cybersecurity Competency Framework (OTCCF). The framework defines emerging cybersecurity roles in Operational Technology. The OTCCF was endorsed by the Infocomm Media Development Authority (IMDA). It outlines the different OT cybersecurity job positions as well as the technical skills and core competencies necessary. It also depicts the many career paths available, including vertical and lateral advancement opportunities. Terminology The following terms used with regards to computer security are explained below: * Access authorization restricts access to a computer to a group of users through the use of authentication systems. These systems can protect either the whole computer, such as through an interactive login screen, or individual services, such as a FTP server. There are many methods for identifying and authenticating users, such as passwords, identification cards, smart cards, and biometric systems. * Anti-virus software consists of computer programs that attempt to identify, thwart, and eliminate computer viruses and other malicious software (malware). * Applications are executable code, so general corporate practice is to restrict or block users the power to install them; to install them only when there is a demonstrated need (e.g. software needed to perform assignments); to install only those which are known to be reputable (preferably with access to the computer code used to create the application,- and to reduce the attack surface by installing as few as possible. They are typically run with least privilege, with a robust process in place to identify, test and install any released security patches or updates for them. For example, programs can be installed into an individual user's account, which limits the program's potential access, as well as being a means control which users have specific exceptions to policy. In Linux, FreeBSD, OpenBSD, and other Unix-like operating systems there is an option to further restrict an application using chroot or other means of restricting the application to its own 'sandbox'. For example. Linux provides namespaces, and Cgroups to further restrict the access of an application to system resources. Generalized security frameworks such as SELinux or AppArmor help administrators control access. Java and other languages which compile to Java byte code and run in the Java virtual machine can have their access to other applications controlled at the virtual machine level. Some software can be run in software containers which can even provide their own set of system libraries, limiting the software's, or anyone controlling it, access to the server's versions of the libraries. * Authentication techniques can be used to ensure that communication end-points are who they say they are. * Automated theorem proving and other verification tools can be used to enable critical algorithms and code used in secure systems to be mathematically proven to meet their specifications. * Backups are one or more copies kept of important computer files. Typically, multiple copies will be kept at different locations so that if a copy is stolen or damaged, other copies will still exist. * Capability and access control list techniques can be used to ensure privilege separation and mandatory access control. Capabilities vs. ACLs discusses their use. * Chain of trust techniques can be used to attempt to ensure that all software loaded has been certified as authentic by the system's designers. * Confidentiality is the nondisclosure of information except to another authorized person. * Cryptographic techniques can be used to defend data in transit between systems, reducing the probability that the data exchange between systems can be intercepted or modified. Cyber attribution, is an attribution of cybercrime, i.e., finding who perpetrated a cyberattack. Cyberwarfare is an Internet-based conflict that involves politically motivated attacks on information and information systems. Such attacks can, for example, disable official websites and networks, disrupt or disable essential services, steal or alter classified data, and cripple financial systems. * Data integrity is the accuracy and consistency of stored data, indicated by an absence of any alteration in data between two updates of a data record. techniques involve transforming information, scrambling it, so it becomes unreadable during transmission. The intended recipient can unscramble the message; ideally, eavesdroppers cannot.]] * Encryption is used to protect the confidentiality of a message. Cryptographically secure ciphers are designed to make any practical attempt of breaking them infeasible. Symmetric-key ciphers are suitable for bulk encryption using shared keys, and public-key encryption using digital certificates can provide a practical solution for the problem of securely communicating when no key is shared in advance. * Endpoint security software aids networks in preventing malware infection and data theft at network entry points made vulnerable by the prevalence of potentially infected devices such as laptops, mobile devices, and USB drives. * Firewalls serve as a gatekeeper system between networks, allowing only traffic that matches defined rules. They often include detailed logging, and may include intrusion detection and intrusion prevention features. They are near-universal between company local area networks and the Internet, but can also be used internally to impose traffic rules between networks if network segmentation is configured. * A hacker is someone who seeks to breach defenses and exploit weaknesses in a computer system or network. * Honey pots are computers that are intentionally left vulnerable to attack by crackers. They can be used to catch crackers and to identify their techniques. * Intrusion-detection systems are devices or software applications that monitor networks or systems for malicious activity or policy violations. * A microkernel is an approach to operating system design which has only the near-minimum amount of code running at the most privileged level – and runs other elements of the operating system such as device drivers, protocol stacks and file systems, in the safer, less privileged user space. * Pinging. The standard ping application can be used to test if an IP address is in use. If it is, attackers may then try a port scan to detect which services are exposed. * A port scan is used to probe an IP address for open ports to identify accessible network services and applications. * A key logger is spyware that silently captures and stores each keystroke that a user types on the computer's keyboard. * Social engineering is the use of deception to manipulate individuals to breach security. * Logic bombs is a type of malware added to a legitimate program that lies dormant until it is triggered by a specific event. * A unikernel is a computer program that runs on a minimalistic operating system where a single application is allowed to run (as opposed to a general purpose operating system where many applications can run at the same time). This approach to minimizing the attack surface is adopted mostly in cloud environments where software is deployed in virtual machines. * Zero trust security means that no one is trusted by default from inside or outside the network, and verification is required from everyone trying to gain access to resources on the network. History Since the Internet's arrival and with the digital transformation initiated in recent years, the notion of cybersecurity has become a familiar subject in both our professional and personal lives. Cybersecurity and cyber threats have been consistently present for the last 60 years of technological change. In the 1970s and 1980s, computer security was mainly limited to academia until the conception of the Internet, where, with increased connectivity, computer viruses and network intrusions began to take off. After the spread of viruses in the 1990s, the 2000s marked the institutionalization of organized attacks such as distributed denial of service. This led to the formalization of cybersecurity as a professional discipline. The April 1967 session organized by Willis Ware at the Spring Joint Computer Conference, and the later publication of the Ware Report, were foundational moments in the history of the field of computer security. Ware's work straddled the intersection of material, cultural, political, and social concerns. introduced the CIA triad of confidentiality, integrity, and availability as a clear and simple way to describe key security goals. While still relevant, many more elaborate frameworks have since been proposed. However, in the 1970s and 1980s, there were no grave computer threats because computers and the internet were still developing, and security threats were easily identifiable. More often, threats came from malicious insiders who gained unauthorized access to sensitive documents and files. Although malware and network breaches existed during the early years, they did not use them for financial gain. By the second half of the 1970s, established computer firms like IBM started offering commercial access control systems and computer security software products. One of the earliest examples of an attack on a computer network was the computer worm Creeper written by Bob Thomas at BBN, which propagated through the ARPANET in 1971. The program was purely experimental in nature and carried no malicious payload. A later program, Reaper, was created by Ray Tomlinson in 1972 and used to destroy Creeper. Between September 1986 and June 1987, a group of German hackers performed the first documented case of cyber espionage. The group hacked into American defense contractors, universities, and military base networks and sold gathered information to the Soviet KGB. The group was led by Markus Hess, who was arrested on 29 June 1987. He was convicted of espionage (along with two co-conspirators) on 15 Feb 1990. In 1988, one of the first computer worms, called the Morris worm, was distributed via the Internet. It gained significant mainstream media attention. Netscape started developing the protocol SSL, shortly after the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) launched Mosaic 1.0, the first web browser, in 1993. Netscape had SSL version 1.0 ready in 1994, but it was never released to the public due to many serious security vulnerabilities. The National Security Agency (NSA) is responsible for the protection of U.S. information systems and also for collecting foreign intelligence. The agency analyzes commonly used software and system configurations to find security flaws, which it can use for offensive purposes against competitors of the United States. NSA contractors created and sold click-and-shoot attack tools to US agencies and close allies, but eventually, the tools made their way to foreign adversaries. In 2016, NSAs own hacking tools were hacked, and they have been used by Russia and North Korea. NSA's employees and contractors have been recruited at high salaries by adversaries, anxious to compete in cyberwarfare. In 2007, the United States and Israel began exploiting security flaws in the Microsoft Windows operating system to attack and damage equipment used in Iran to refine nuclear materials. Iran responded by heavily investing in their own cyberwarfare capability, which it began using against the United States.<ref name"perlroth" /> Notable scholars See also * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * }} References Further reading * * * * * * * * * * * Cybersecurity Best Practices \| Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency CISA. (n.d.). Retrieved April 24, 2024, from https://www.cisa.gov/topics/cybersecurity-best-practices * Sztyber-Betley, A., Syfert, M., Kościelny, J. M., & Górecka, Z. (2023). Controller Cyber-Attack Detection and Isolation †: Sensors (14248220). Sensors (14248220), 23(5), 2778. <!-- External links --> <!-- Please be cautious about adding more external links. Wikipedia is not a collection of links and should not be used for advertising. Excessive or inappropriate links will be removed. See Wikipedia:External links and Wikipedia:Spam for details. If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page.--> Category:Computer security Category:Cryptography Category:Cyberwarfare Category:Data protection Category:Information governance Category:Malware	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_security	2025-04-05T18:28:08.425610
7400	Chris Cunningham	\| birth_place = Reading, Berkshire, England \| death_date \| death_place \| occupation = Filmmaker, video artist, photographer, music producer \| years_active = 1995–present \| website \| spouse }} Chris Cunningham (born 15 October 1970) is a British video artist and music video director who directed music videos for electronic musicians such as Autechre, Squarepusher, and Aphex Twin and Björk. Early in his career he worked as a comic book artist. He has created art installations and directed short movies. In the mid 2000s, Cunningham began doing music production work, and has also designed album artwork for a variety of musicians. Cunningham worked on a never completed movie adaptation of William Gibson's cyberpunk novel Neuromancer. His style is noted for its use of robotics, body horror and Mickey mousing (syncing action with music). Biography Early work - comic books and film special effects Between circa 1990 and 1992, he worked as a comic book artist for 2000 AD working under the pseudonym "Chris Halls" (Halls is his stepfather's surname). He worked on comics including Aliens and Judge Dredd Megazine. His contributions included cover paintings and strips. For Kubrick, Cunningham designed and supervised animatronic prototypes of David; the central robot child character. Cunningham worked for over a year on the film. However, around this time Kubrick put the film on hold, with Cunningham going on to pursue a career as a director. Music videos<!--Music video director links directly here.--> Cunningham has had close ties to Warp Records since his first video for Autechre, "Second Bad Vilbel" in 1995 and Squarepusher's "Come On My Selector" in 1998, which received airplay on MTV's Amp and MTV's Chill Out Zone in Europe. Videos for Aphex Twin's "Come to Daddy" and "Windowlicker" are perhaps his best known. His video for Björk's "All Is Full of Love" won multiple awards, including an MTV music video award for Breakthrough Video and was nominated for a Grammy for Best Short Form Music Video. It was also the first ever music video to win a Gold Pencil at the D&AD Awards. It can still be seen at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. His video for Aphex Twin's "Windowlicker" was nominated for the "Best Video" award at the Brit Awards 2000. He also directed Madonna's "Frozen" video which became an international hit and won the award for Best Special Effects at the 1998 MTV Music Video Awards. Cunningham also came out of a seven-year hiatus from making music videos to direct the video for "Sheena Is a Parasite" by the Horrors. Video art His video installation Flex was first shown in 2000 at the Royal Academy of Arts, and subsequently at the Anthony d'Offay Gallery and other art galleries. Flex was commissioned by the Anthony d'Offay Gallery for the Apocalypse: Beauty & Horror in Contemporary Art exhibition curated by Norman Rosenthal and Max Wigram at the Royal Academy of Arts in 2000. The Anthony d'Offay Gallery also commissioned Monkey Drummer, a 2½ minute piece intended for exhibition as a companion to Flex at the 2000 Apocalypse exhibition at the Royal Academy of Arts: however, the piece was not finished in time. In it an automaton with nine appendages and the head of a monkey plays the drums to "Mt Saint Michel + Saint Michaels Mount", the 10th track on Aphex Twin's 2001 album drukqs. Monkey Drummer debuted as part of Cunningham's installation at the 49th International Exhibition of Art at the 2001 Venice Biennale, which consisted of a loop of Monkey Drummer, Flex, and his video for Björk's "All Is Full of Love". In 2002 both Flex and Monkey Drummer were exhibited by 5th Gallery in Dublin, Ireland, in an exhibition curated by Artist/Curator Paul Murnaghan, Neuromancer In an August 1999 Spike Magazine interview, cyberpunk author William Gibson stated "He (Chris) was brought to my attention by someone else. We were told, third-hand, that he was extremely wary of the Hollywood process, and wouldn't return calls. But someone else told us that Neuromancer had been his The Wind in the Willows, that he'd read it when he was a kid. I went to London and we met." Gibson is also quoted in the article as saying "Chris is my own 100 percent personal choice...My only choice. The only person I've met who I thought might have a hope in hell of doing it right. I went back to see him in London just after he'd finished the Bjork video, and I sat on a couch beside this dead sex little Bjork robot, except it was wearing Aphex Twin's head. We talked." In 2000, Cunningham and William Gibson began work on the script for Gibson's 1984 novel Neuromancer. However, because Neuromancer was due to be a big budget studio film, it is rumoured that Cunningham pulled out due to being a first time director without final cut approval. He also felt that too much of the original book's ideas had been cannibalised by other recent films. Music production, 'live' and short films (2004 - present) By 18 November 2004, the Neuromancer film project had been canned. On the FAQ on the William Gibson Board, Gibson stated about the adaptation "... The most recently rumoured version, to have been directed by Chris Cunningham, is now definitely not happening." Cunningham took a sabbatical from filmmaking to learn about music production and recording and to develop his own music projects. In 2005, Cunningham released the short film Rubber Johnny as a DVD accompanied by a book of photographs and drawings. Rubber Johnny, a six-minute experimental short film cut to a soundtrack by Aphex Twin remixed by Cunningham, was shot between 2001 and 2004. Shot on DV night-vision, it was made in Cunningham's own time as a home movie of sorts, and took three and half years of weekends to complete. The Telegraph called it "like a Looney Tunes short for a generation raised on video nasties and rave music". In 2005, Cunningham played a 45-minute audio visual piece performed live in Tokyo and Osaka in front of 30,000+ fans over the two nights at the Japanese electronic music festival . These performances evolved into Chris Cunningham Live, a 55-minute long performance piece combining original and remixed music and film. It features remixed, unreleased and brand new videos and music dynamically edited together into a new live piece spread over three screens. The sound accompanying these images includes Cunningham's first publicly performed compositions interspersed with his remixes of other artist's work. Chris Cunningham Live debuted as one of the headline attractions at Warp 20 in Paris on 8 May 2009 with other performances scheduled at festivals in UK, and a number of European cities later in the year. Chris Cunningham Live continued in June 2011, with performances in London, Barcelona, and Sydney, Australia. During this period Cunningham also made another short film for Warp Films, Spectral Musicians, which remains unreleased. The short film was set to Squarepusher's "My Fucking Sound" from his album Go Plastic; and to a piece called "Mutilation Colony" which was written especially for the short, and was released on the studio album Do You Know Squarepusher. In 2007, an excerpt from Flex was shown in the Barbican's exhibition Seduced: Art and Sex from Antiquity to Now curated by Martin Kemp, Marina Wallace and Joanne Bernstein. alongside other pieces by Bacon, Klimt, Rembrandt, Rodin and Picasso. In December 2007 Cunningham produced two tracks, "Three Decades" and "Primary Colours", for Primary Colours, the second album by the Horrors. In the summer of 2008, due to scheduling conflicts with his feature film script writing he could not work on the rest of the album which was subsequently recorded by Geoff Barrow from Portishead. In 2008, he produced and arranged a new version of 'I Feel Love' for the Gucci commercial that he also directed. He travelled to Nashville to work with Donna Summer to record a brand new vocal for it. In 2008, Cunningham produced a fashion shoot for Dazed & Confused using Grace Jones as a model to create "Nubian versions" of Rubber Johnny. In an interview for BBC's "The Culture Show", it was suggested that the collaboration may expand into a video project. In regards to the collaboration, Cunningham stated "For me, Grace has the strongest iconography of any artist in music. She’s definitely the most inspiring person I’ve worked with so far". In November 2008, Cunningham followed on with another photoshoot for Vice Magazine.Personal lifeCunningham was married to Warpaint's bassist Jenny Lee Lindberg in 2010. By 2016, they were no longer together.PhotographyCunningham has created photography and cover artwork for various people including Björk's "All Is Full of Love", Aphex Twin's "Windowlicker" and "Come to Daddy". Videography Cunningham has directed music videos, commercials and short films. His commercials for companies and brands, include Gucci, Sony (PlayStation), Levi's, Telecom Italia, Nissan, and Orange. The video collection The Work of Director Chris Cunningham was released in November 2004 as part of the Directors Label set. This DVD includes selected highlights from 1995 to 2000. * "Second Bad Vilbel" (1996) video for Autechre * "Back with the Killer Again" (1996) video for the Auteurs * "Light Aircraft on Fire" (1996) video for the Auteurs * "Fighting Fit" (1996) video for Gene * "Another Day" (1996) video for Lodestar * "Space Junkie" (1996) video for Holy Barbarians * "36 Degrees" (1996) video for Placebo * "Personally" (1997) video for 12 Rounds * "Jesus Coming in for the Kill" (1997) video for Life's Addiction * "The Next Big Thing" (1997) video for Jesus Jones * "Tranquillizer" (1997) video for Geneva * "No More Talk" (1997) video for Dubstar * "Something to Say" (1997) video for Jocasta * "Come to Daddy" (1997) video for Aphex Twin * "Clip Clop" (1997) commercial for XFM London * "Sport is Free" (1997) – commercial for ITV * "Fetish" (1998) – commercial for NUS * "Only You" (1998) video for Portishead * "Frozen" (1998) video for Madonna * "Come on My Selector" (1998) video for Squarepusher * "Engine" (1999) commercial for Nissan. Featuring music by Boards of Canada * "All Is Full of Love" (1999) video for Björk * "Windowlicker" (1999) video for Aphex Twin * "Afrika Shox" (1999) video for Leftfield and Afrika Bambaataa * "Mental Wealth" (1999) commercial for Sony PlayStation * "Photocopier" (unreleased) commercial for Levi's * "Flex" (2000) video installation. Featuring music by Aphex Twin * "Quiet" (2000) – commercial for Telecom Italia. Featuring music by Boards of Canada * "Monkey Drummer" (2001) video installation. Featuring "Mt Saint Michel + Saint Michaels mount" from Aphex Twin's album Drukqs * "Up and Down" (2002) – commercial for Levi's * "Photo Messaging" (2003) commercial for Orange. Featuring music from Add N To (X). * "Rubber Johnny" (2005) featuring "Afx237 V7" from Aphex Twin's album Drukqs * "Sheena Is a Parasite" (2006) video for the Horrors * "Gucci Flora" (2009) commercial for Gucci Perfume * "New York Is Killing Me (Chris Cunningham Remix)" (2010) video for Gil Scott-Heron * "Jaqapparatus 1" (2012) robotic art installation performance for Audi City London. * "Love Is To Die" Multimedia documentary for the album release of Warpaint (2014). References External links * * * [http://www.mvdbase.com/tech.php?lastCunningham&firstChris Chris Cunningham] at the Music Video Database * [http://www.2000ad.org/?zonedroid&pageprofiles&choice=CHRISH Chris Cunningham] profile at 2000 AD * [http://pitchfork.com/features/interviews/6103-chris-cunningham Chris Cunningham] interview at Pitchfork, 2005 Category:1970 births Category:Advertising directors Category:British comics artists Category:British music video directors Category:Living people Category:British video artists Category:People from Lakenheath Category:People from Reading, Berkshire Category:English contemporary artists	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Cunningham	2025-04-05T18:28:08.438674
7401	Centaur	A centaur ( ; ; ), occasionally hippocentaur, also called Ixionidae (), is a creature from Greek mythology with the upper body of a human and the lower body and legs of a horse that was said to live in the mountains of Thessaly. In one version of the myth, the centaurs were named after Centaurus, and, through his brother Lapithes, were kin to the legendary tribe of the Lapiths. Centaurs are thought of in many Greek myths as being as wild as untamed horses, and were said to have inhabited the region of Magnesia and Mount Pelion in Thessaly, the Foloi oak forest in Elis, and the Malean peninsula in southern Laconia. Centaurs are subsequently featured in Roman mythology, and were familiar figures in the medieval bestiary. They remain a staple of modern fantastic literature. Etymology The Greek word kentauros is generally regarded as being of obscure origin. The etymology from ken + tauros, 'piercing bull', was a euhemerist suggestion in Palaephatus' rationalizing text on Greek mythology, On Incredible Tales (Περὶ ἀπίστων), which included mounted archers from a village called Nephele eliminating a herd of bulls that were the scourge of Ixion's kingdom. Another possible related etymology can be "bull-slayer". Mythology of an Attic red-figure kylix, \|alt]]Creation of centaursThe centaurs were usually said to have been born of Ixion and Nephele. As the story goes, Nephele was a cloud made into the likeness of Hera in a plot to trick Ixion into revealing his lust for Hera to Zeus. Ixion seduced Nephele and from that relationship centaurs were created. Another version, however, makes them children of Centaurus, a man who mated with the Magnesian mares. Centaurus was either himself the son of Ixion and Nephele (inserting an additional generation) or of Apollo and the nymph Stilbe. In the latter version of the story, Centaurus's twin brother was Lapithes, ancestor of the Lapiths. Another tribe of centaurs was said to have lived on Cyprus. According to Nonnus, the Cyprian Centaurs were fathered by Zeus, who, in frustration after Aphrodite had eluded him, spilled his seed on the ground of that land. Unlike those of mainland Greece, the Cyprian centaurs were ox-horned. There were also the Lamian Pheres, twelve rustic daimones (spirits) of the Lamos river. They were set by Zeus to guard the infant Dionysos, protecting him from the machinations of Hera, but the enraged goddess transformed them into ox-horned Centaurs unrelated to the Cyprian Centaurs. The Lamian Pheres later accompanied Dionysos in his campaign against the Indians. The centaur's half-human, half-horse composition has led many writers to treat them as liminal beings, caught between the two natures they embody in contrasting myths; they are both the embodiment of untamed nature, as in their battle with the Lapiths (their kin), and conversely, teachers like Chiron. Centauromachy red-figured kylix, c. 510–500 BC]] , on South Metope 31 of the Parthenon, c. 447–438 BC]] The Centaurs are best known for their fight with the Lapiths who, according to one origin myth, would have been cousins to the centaurs. The battle, called the Centauromachy, was caused by the centaurs' attempt to carry off Hippodamia and the rest of the Lapith women on the day of Hippodamia's marriage to Pirithous, who was the king of the Lapithae and a son of Ixion. Theseus, a hero and founder of cities, who happened to be present, threw the balance in favour of the Lapiths by assisting Pirithous in the battle. The Centaurs were driven off or destroyed. Another Lapith hero, Caeneus, who was invulnerable to weapons, was beaten into the earth by Centaurs wielding rocks and the branches of trees. In her article "The Centaur: Its History and Meaning in Human Culture", Elizabeth Lawrence claims that the contests between the centaurs and the Lapiths typify the struggle between civilization and barbarism. The Centauromachy is most famously portrayed in the metopes of the Parthenon by Phidias and in the Battle of the Centaurs, a relief by Michelangelo. List of centaurs . The mosaic now resides in the Staatliche Museen zu Berlin in Germany.\|alt=\|301x301px]] * Abas, attended Pirithous' wedding, fought against the Lapiths and fled. * Agrius, repelled by Heracles in a fight. * Amphion, tried to plunder Pholus of his wine and was killed by Heracles. * Amycus, son of Ophion. He attended Pirithous' wedding and fought against the Lapiths. Amycus was killed by Pelates. * Anchius, repelled by Heracles when he tried to steal the wine of Pholus. * Aphareus, killed by Theseus in the fight at Pirithous' wedding. * Aphidas, killed by Phorbas in the fight at Pirithous' wedding. * Arctus, attended Pirithous' wedding and fought against the Lapiths. * Areos, attended Pirithous' wedding and fought against the Lapiths. * Argius, killed by Heracles when he tried to steal the wine of Pholus. * Bienor, attended Pirithous' wedding, fought in the battle against the Lapiths and was killed by Theseus. * Bromus, attended Pirithous' wedding, fought in the battle against the Lapiths and was killed by Caeneus. * Chiron, the son of Cronus and Philyra. on a South Italian bell-krater, c. 350–325 BC]] * Chromis, attended Pirithous' wedding, fought in the battle against the Lapiths and was killed by Pirithous. * Chthonius, attended Pirithous' wedding, fought in the battle against the Lapiths and was killed by Nestor. * Clanis, attended Pirithous' wedding, fought in the battle against the Lapiths and was killed by Peleus. * Crenaeus, attended Pirithous' wedding, fought in the battle against the Lapiths and was killed by Dryas. * Daphnis, tried to plunder Pholus of his wine and was killed by Heracles. * Dictys, attended Pirithous' wedding, fought in the battle against the Lapiths and was killed by Pirithous. * Dorylas, attended Pirithous' wedding, fought in the battle against the Lapiths and was killed by Peleus. * Doupon, tried to plunder Pholus of his wine and was killed by Heracles. * Elatus, tried to plunder Pholus of his wine. Heracles shot an arrow at him, which, passing through his arm, stuck in the knee of Chiron. * Eurytus, the wildest of the wild Centaurs. He started the fight at Pirithous' wedding and was killed by Theseus. * Gryneus, fought against the Lapiths at Pirithous' wedding and was killed by Exadius. * Helops, attended Pirithous' wedding and fought in the battle against the Lapiths. While fleeing from Pirithous, he fell from a precipice into the top of a tree and impaled his body. * Hippotion, another Centaur, killed by Heracles when he tried to steal the wine of Pholus. * Homadus, tried to plunder Pholus of his wine. Some time after he attempted to rape Alcyone, a granddaughter of Perseus. He got killed in Arcadia. * Hylaeus, killed by Heracles under unknown circumstances. * Hylaeus, followed Dionysus in his Indian campaign and was killed by Orontes, an Indian General. * Hyles, attended Pirithous' wedding, fought in the battle against the Lapiths and was killed by Peleus. * Imbreus, fought against the Lapiths at Pirithous' wedding and was killed by Dryas. * Lycabas, attended Pirithous' wedding, fought against the Lapiths and fled. * Lycidas, fought against the Lapiths at Pirithous' wedding and was killed by Dryas. * Lycus, fought against the Lapiths at Pirithous' wedding was killed by Pirithous. * Medon, attended Pirithous' wedding, fought against the Lapiths and fled. * Mimas, attended Pirithous' wedding and fought against the Lapiths. * Nedymnus, fought against the Lapiths at Pirithous' wedding. Killed by Theseus. * Ophion, father of Amycus. * Orneus, attended Pirithous' wedding fought against the Lapiths and fled. * Perimedes, son of Peuceus and attended Pirithous' wedding and fought against the Lapiths. * Peuceus, father of Perimedes and Dryalus. * Phlegraeus, fought against the Lapiths at Pirithous' wedding and was killed by Peleus. * Pylenor, having been wounded by Heracles washed himself in the river Anigrus, thus providing the river with a peculiar odor. * Pyracmus, fought against the Lapiths at Pirithous' wedding and was killed by Caeneus. * Ripheus, fought against the Lapiths at Pirithous' wedding and was killed by Theseus. * Styphelus, fought against the Lapiths at Pirithous' wedding and was killed by Caeneus. * Thereus, killed by Heracles when he tried to steal the wine of Pholus. * Ureus, attended Pirithous' wedding and fought against the Lapiths. Origin of the myth n pottery from the Geometric period (c. 900–700 BC)]] The most common theory holds that the idea of centaurs came from the first reaction of a non-riding culture, as in the Minoan Aegean world, to nomads who were mounted on horses. The theory suggests that such riders would appear as half-man, half-animal. Bernal Díaz del Castillo reported that the Aztecs also had this misapprehension about Spanish cavalrymen. The Lapith tribe of Thessaly, who were the kinsmen of the Centaurs in myth, were described as the inventors of horse-riding by Greek writers. The Thessalian tribes also claimed their horse breeds were descended from the centaurs. Robert Graves (relying on the work of Georges Dumézil, who argued for tracing the centaurs back to the Indian Gandharva), speculated that the centaurs were a dimly remembered, pre-Hellenic fraternal earth cult who had the horse as a totem. A similar theory was incorporated into Mary Renault's The Bull from the Sea. Variations Female centaurs (Mosaic from Roman Tunisia, 2nd century AD)]] Though female centaurs, called centaurides or centauresses, are not mentioned in early Greek literature and art, they do appear occasionally in later antiquity. A Macedonian mosaic of the 4th century BC is one of the earliest examples of the centauress in art. Ovid also mentions a centauress named Hylonome who committed suicide when her husband Cyllarus was killed in the war with the Lapiths. India The Kalibangan cylinder seal, dated to be around 2600–1900 BC, Other sources claim the creatures represented are actually half human and half tigers, later evolving into the Hindu Goddess of War. These seals are also evidence of Indus-Mesopotamia relations in the 3rd millennium BC. In a popular legend associated with Pazhaya Sreekanteswaram Temple in Thiruvananthapuram, the curse of a saintly Brahmin transformed a handsome Yadava prince into a creature having a horse's body and the prince's head, arms, and torso in place of the head and neck of the horse. Kinnaras, another half-man, half-horse mythical creature from Indian mythology, appeared in various ancient texts, arts, and sculptures from all around India. It is shown as a horse with the torso of a man where the horse's head would be, and is similar to a Greek centaur. Russia A centaur-like half-human, half-equine creature called Polkan appeared in Russian folk art and lubok prints of the 17th–19th centuries. Polkan is originally based on Pulicane, a half-dog from Andrea da Barberino's poem I Reali di Francia, which was once popular in the Slavonic world in prosaic translations. Artistic representations Classical art n kantharos, Late Geometric period]] The extensive Mycenaean pottery found at Ugarit included two fragmentary Mycenaean terracotta figures which have been tentatively identified as centaurs. This finding suggests a Bronze Age origin for these creatures of myth. A painted terracotta centaur was found in the "Hero's tomb" at Lefkandi, and by the Geometric period, centaurs figure among the first representational figures painted on Greek pottery. An often-published Geometric period bronze of a warrior face-to-face with a centaur is at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. In Greek art of the Archaic period, centaurs are depicted in three different forms. * Some centaurs are depicted with a human torso attached to the body of a horse at the withers, where the horse's neck would be; this form, designated "Class A" by Professor Paul Baur, later became standard. * "Class B" centaurs are depicted with a human body and legs joined at the waist to the hindquarters of a horse; in some cases centaurs of both Class A and Class B appear together. * A third type, designated "Class C", depicts centaurs with human forelegs terminating in hooves. Baur describes this as an apparent development of Aeolic art, which never became particularly widespread. There are also paintings and motifs on amphorae and Dipylon cups which depict winged centaurs. Centaurs were also frequently depicted in Roman art. One example is the pair of centaurs drawing the chariot of Constantine the Great and his family in the Great Cameo of Constantine (circa AD 314–16), which embodies wholly pagan imagery, and contrasts sharply with the popular image of Constantine as the patron of early Christianity. Medieval art in the Auvergne]] explaining the importance of astrology from a medical perspective; a centaur is depicted around the thighs as Sagittarius below Scorpio [genitalia] and above Capricorn [knees].]] Centaurs preserved a Dionysian connection in the 12th-century Romanesque carved capitals of Mozac Abbey in the Auvergne. Other similar capitals depict harvesters, boys riding goats (a further Dionysiac theme), and griffins guarding the chalice that held the wine. Centaurs are also shown on a number of Pictish carved stones from north-east Scotland erected in the 8th–9th centuries AD (e.g., at Meigle, Perthshire). Though outside the limits of the Roman Empire, these depictions appear to be derived from Classical prototypes. Modern art The John C. Hodges library at The University of Tennessee hosts a permanent exhibit of a "Centaur from Volos" in its library. The exhibit, made by sculptor Bill Willers by combining a study human skeleton with the skeleton of a Shetland pony, is entitled "Do you believe in Centaurs?". According to the exhibitors, it was meant to mislead students in order to make them more critically aware. Cartography Depictions of centaurs in a mythical land located south beyond the world's known continents appear on a map by Urbano Monti from 1587, sometimes called Monti's Planisphere. In heraldry Centaurs are common in European heraldry, although more frequent in continental than in British arms. A centaur holding a bow is referred to as a sagittarius.LiteratureClassical literatureJerome's version of the Life of St Anthony the Great, written by Athanasius of Alexandria about the hermit monk of Egypt, was widely disseminated in the Middle Ages; it relates Anthony's encounter with a centaur who challenged the saint, but was forced to admit that the old gods had been overthrown. The episode was often depicted in The Meeting of St Anthony Abbot and St Paul the Hermit by the painter Stefano di Giovanni, who was known as "Sassetta". Of the two episodic depictions of the hermit Anthony's travel to greet the hermit Paul, one is his encounter with the demonic figure of a centaur along the pathway in a wood. Lucretius, in his first-century BC philosophical poem On the Nature of Things, denied the existence of centaurs, based on the differing rates of growth of human and equine anatomies. Specifically, he states that at the age of three years, horses are in the prime of their life while humans at the same age are still little more than babies, making hybrid animals impossible.Medieval literatureCentaurs are among the creatures which 14th-century Italian poet Dante placed as guardians in his Inferno. In Canto XII, Dante and his guide Virgil meet a band led by Chiron and Pholus, guarding the bank of Phlegethon in the seventh circle of Hell, a river of boiling blood in which the violent against their neighbours are immersed, shooting arrows into any who move to a shallower spot than their allotted station. The two poets are treated with courtesy, and Nessus guides them to a ford. In Canto XXIV, in the eighth circle, in Bolgia 7, a ditch where thieves are confined, they meet but do not converse with Cacus (who is a giant in the ancient sources), wreathed in serpents and with a fire-breathing dragon on his shoulders, arriving to punish a sinner who has just cursed God. In his Purgatorio, an unseen spirit on the sixth terrace cites the centaurs ("the drunken double-breasted ones who fought Theseus") as examples of the sin of gluttony. Modern day literature <!--PLEASE DO NOT LIST TRIVIA HERE; PLACE SINGLE-SENTENCE ITEMS IN THE MAIN ARTICLE ABOVE--> C.S. Lewis's The Chronicles of Narnia series portrays centaurs as wise and courageous creatures, who are gifted in fields such as astronomy and medicine. John Updike's 1963 novel The Centaur contains numerous references to mythological centaurs. The author depicts a rural Pennsylvanian town as seen through the optics of the myth of the centaur. An unknown and marginalized local school teacher, just like the mythological Chiron did for Prometheus, gave up his life for the future of his son who had chosen to be an independent artist in New York. In J.K. Rowling's Harry Potter series, centaurs inhabit the Forbidden Forest near Hogwarts, and are talented archers and healers; they are also known to their proficiency in astrology. The centaurs in Rick Riordan's Percy Jackson & the Olympians are portrayed as wild party-goers, with the exception of Chiron, who serves as the main director of activities at the series' demigod training facility. <!--PLEASE DO NOT LIST TRIVIA HERE; info added to this section should be in essay form; list trivia at the MAIN ARTICLE: CENTAURS IN POPULAR CULTURE--> Gallery <gallery mode"packed" heights"150px"> File:Centaur lekythos Met 51.163.jpg\|Diosphos Painter, white-ground lekythos (500 BC) File:Sandro Botticelli 063.jpg\|Botticelli, Pallas and Centaur (1482–83) File:Canova - Theseus defeats the centaur - close.jpg\|Antonio Canova, Theseus Defeats the Centaur (1805–1819) File:Bova1860.jpg\|Prince Bova fights Polkan, Russian lubok (1860) File:Centaur nymph Marqueste Tuileries.jpg\|Centaur carrying off a nymph (1892) by Laurent Marqueste (Tuileries Garden, Paris) File:Brooklyn Museum - Centauress - John La Farge - overall.jpg\|Centauress, by John La Farge File:Centaure Malmaison crop.jpg\|A bronze statue of a centaur, after the Furietti Centaurs File:Augustin Courtet, Centauress and Faun. 1849. Bronze. Lyon, Parc de la Tête d’or. Photo, Jamie Mulherron.jpg\|Augustin Courtet, Centauress and Faun (1849), Lyon, Parc de la Tête d’or </gallery> See also Other hybrid creatures appear in Greek mythology, always with some liminal connection that links Hellenic culture with archaic or non-Hellenic cultures: * Furietti Centaurs * Hippocamp * Hybrid (mythology) * Ipotane - Another half-human half-horse creature. * Legendary creature * Lists of legendary creatures * Minotaur * Onocentaur - A type of centaur that is part-donkey. * Ichthyocentaur - A type of aquatic centaur with a fish tail instead of hindquarters. * Sagittarius * Satyr Also, * Hindu Kamadhenu * Indian Kinnara which are half-horse and half-man creatures. * Islamic Buraq, a heavenly steed often portrayed as an equine being with a human face. * Philippine Tikbalang * Roman Faun, and the Hippopodes of Pomponius Mela, Pliny the Elder, and later authors. * Scottish Each uisge and Nuckelavee * Welsh Ceffyl Dŵr Additionally, Bucentaur, the name of several historically important Venetian vessels, was linked to a posited ox-centaur or βουκένταυρος (boukentauros) by fanciful and likely spurious folk-etymology. Footnotes Notes References * Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. ISBN 0-674-99135-4. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:1999.01.0022 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.] [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:1999.01.0021 Greek text available from the same website]. * Diodorus Siculus, The Library of History translated by Charles Henry Oldfather. Twelve volumes. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1989. Vol. 3. Books 4.59–8. [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/home.html Online version at Bill Thayer's Web Site] Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica. Vol 1-2. Immanel Bekker. Ludwig Dindorf. Friedrich Vogel. in aedibus B. G. Teubneri. Leipzig. 1888–1890. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0540 Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library]. Gaius Julius Hyginus, Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies. [https://topostext.org/work/206 Online version at the Topos Text Project.] * Gaius Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica translated by Mozley, J H. Loeb Classical Library Volume 286. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1928. [http://www.theoi.com/Text/ValeriusFlaccus1.html Online version at theio.com.] * Gaius Valerius Flaccus, Argonauticon. Otto Kramer. Leipzig. Teubner. 1913. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2007.01.0058 Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library.] * Hesiod, Shield of Heracles from The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, MA.,Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:1999.01.0132 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.] [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:1999.01.0127 Greek text available from the same website]. Homer, The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. . [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:1999.01.0136 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.] [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:1999.01.0135 Greek text available from the same website]. Kaleta, Marcin Konrad, "Centaurs", in The Ashgate Encyclopedia of Literary and Cinematic Monsters, pp. 75–77, edited by Jeffrey Andrew Weinstock, Farnham and Burlington, Ashgate, 1988. . . * Leuker, Tobias, "Centaurs", in ''Brill's New Pauly – Supplements. Volume 4: The Reception of Myth and Mythology, edited by Maria Moog-Grünewald, Brill, 2010. . * Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus, Lives with an English Translation by Bernadotte Perrin. Cambridge, MA. Harvard University Press. London. William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. 1. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:2008.01.0067 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.] [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:2008.01.0075 Greek text available from the same website]. Nonnus of Panopolis, Dionysiaca translated by William Henry Denham Rouse (1863–1950), from the Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1940. [https://topostext.org/work/529 Online version at the Topos Text Project.] Nonnus of Panopolis, Dionysiaca. 3 Vols. W.H.D. Rouse. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1940–1942. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0485 Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library]. Pausanias, Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. . [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0160 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library] Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio. 3 vols. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0159 Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library]. * Publius Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses translated by Brookes More (1859–1942). Boston, Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0028 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.] * Publius Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses. Hugo Magnus. Gotha (Germany). Friedr. Andr. Perthes. 1892. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0029 Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library]. * Publius Vergilius Maro, Aeneid. Theodore C. Williams. trans. Boston. Houghton Mifflin Co. 1910. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0054%3Abook%3D1%3Acard%3D1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.] * Publius Vergilius Maro, Bucolics, Aeneid, and Georgics. J. B. Greenough. Boston. Ginn & Co. 1900. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0055 Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library]. * Sextus Propertius, Elegies from Charm. Vincent Katz. trans. Los Angeles. Sun & Moon Press. 1995. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:1999.02.0067 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.] [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:1999.02.0066 Latin text available at the same website]. Further reading * M. Grant and J. Hazel. Who's Who in Greek Mythology''. David McKay & Co Inc, 1979. * * Homer's Odyssey, Book 21, 295ff * Harry Potter, books 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7. * The Chronicles of Narnia, book 2. * Percy Jackson & the Olympians, book 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. * Frédérick S. Parker. Finding the Kingdom of the Centaurs. External links * [http://www.theoi.com/Georgikos/KentauroiThessalioi.html Theoi Project on Centaurs] in literature * [http://theoi.com/Georgikos/Kentaurides.html Centaurides] on female centaurs * [http://www.mythweb.com/encyc/entries/centaurs.html MythWeb] article on centaurs * [http://www.hp-lexicon.org/bestiary/bestiary_c.html#centaurs Harry Potter Lexicon] article on centaurs in the Harry Potter universe [http://www.erich-kissing.de/kentaure.htm Erich Kissing's centaurs] contemporary art [https://iconographic.warburg.sas.ac.uk/category/vpc-taxonomy-000257 The Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (images of centaurs)] Category:Greek legendary creatures Category:Roman legendary creatures Category:Horses in mythology Category:Mythological human hybrids Category:Mythological human–animal hybrids	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centaur	2025-04-05T18:28:08.483038
7403	Chemotaxis	thumb\|Capillary tube assay for chemotaxis. Motile prokaryotes sense chemicals in their environment and change their motility accordingly. Absent chemicals, movement is completely random. When an attractant or repellent is present, runs become longer and tumbles become less frequent. The result is net movement towards or away from the chemical (i.e., up or down the chemical gradient). The net movement can be seen in the beaker, where the bacteria accumulate around the origin of the attractant, and away from the origin of the repellent. Chemotaxis (from chemo- + taxis) is the movement of an organism or entity in response to a chemical stimulus. Somatic cells, bacteria, and other single-cell or multicellular organisms direct their movements according to certain chemicals in their environment. This is important for bacteria to find food (e.g., glucose) by swimming toward the highest concentration of food molecules, or to flee from poisons (e.g., phenol). In multicellular organisms, chemotaxis is critical to early development (e.g., movement of sperm towards the egg during fertilization) and development (e.g., migration of neurons or lymphocytes) as well as in normal function and health (e.g., migration of leukocytes during injury or infection). In addition, it has been recognized that mechanisms that allow chemotaxis in animals can be subverted during cancer metastasis, and the aberrant change of the overall property of these networks, which control chemotaxis, can lead to carcinogenesis. The aberrant chemotaxis of leukocytes and lymphocytes also contribute to inflammatory diseases such as atherosclerosis, asthma, and arthritis. Sub-cellular components, such as the polarity patch generated by mating yeast, may also display chemotactic behavior. Positive chemotaxis occurs if the movement is toward a higher concentration of the chemical in question; negative chemotaxis if the movement is in the opposite direction. Chemically prompted kinesis (randomly directed or nondirectional) can be called chemokinesis. History of chemotaxis research Although migration of cells was detected from the early days of the development of microscopy by Leeuwenhoek, a Caltech lecture regarding chemotaxis propounds that 'erudite description of chemotaxis was only first made by T. W. Engelmann (1881) and W. F. Pfeffer (1884) in bacteria, and H. S. Jennings (1906) in ciliates'. The Nobel Prize laureate I. Metchnikoff also contributed to the study of the field during 1882 to 1886, with investigations of the process as an initial step of phagocytosis. The significance of chemotaxis in biology and clinical pathology was widely accepted in the 1930s, and the most fundamental definitions underlying the phenomenon were drafted by this time. The most important aspects in quality control of chemotaxis assays were described by H. Harris in the 1950s. In the 1960s and 1970s, the revolution of modern cell biology and biochemistry provided a series of novel techniques that became available to investigate the migratory responder cells and subcellular fractions responsible for chemotactic activity. The availability of this technology led to the discovery of C5a, a major chemotactic factor involved in acute inflammation. The pioneering works of J. Adler modernized Pfeffer's capillary assay and represented a significant turning point in understanding the whole process of intracellular signal transduction of bacteria. Bacterial chemotaxis—general characteristics right\|350 px\|Correlation of swimming behaviour and flagellar rotation Some bacteria, such as E. coli, have several flagella per cell (4–10 typically). These can rotate in two ways: Counter-clockwise rotation aligns the flagella into a single rotating bundle, causing the bacterium to swim in a straight line; and Clockwise rotation breaks the flagella bundle apart such that each flagellum points in a different direction, causing the bacterium to tumble in place. The directions of rotation are given for an observer outside the cell looking down the flagella toward the cell. Behavior The overall movement of a bacterium is the result of alternating tumble and swim phases, called run-and-tumble motion. As a result, the trajectory of a bacterium swimming in a uniform environment will form a random walk with relatively straight swims interrupted by random tumbles that reorient the bacterium. Bacteria such as E. coli are unable to choose the direction in which they swim, and are unable to swim in a straight line for more than a few seconds due to rotational diffusion; in other words, bacteria "forget" the direction in which they are going. By repeatedly evaluating their course, and adjusting if they are moving in the wrong direction, bacteria can direct their random walk motion toward favorable locations. In the presence of a chemical gradient bacteria will chemotax, or direct their overall motion based on the gradient. If the bacterium senses that it is moving in the correct direction (toward attractant/away from repellent), it will keep swimming in a straight line for a longer time before tumbling; however, if it is moving in the wrong direction, it will tumble sooner. Bacteria like E. coli use temporal sensing to decide whether their situation is improving or not, and in this way, find the location with the highest concentration of attractant, detecting even small differences in concentration. This biased random walk is a result of simply choosing between two methods of random movement; namely tumbling and straight swimming. The helical nature of the individual flagellar filament is critical for this movement to occur. The protein structure that makes up the flagellar filament, flagellin, is conserved among all flagellated bacteria. Vertebrates seem to have taken advantage of this fact by possessing an immune receptor (TLR5) designed to recognize this conserved protein. As in many instances in biology, there are bacteria that do not follow this rule. Many bacteria, such as Vibrio, are monoflagellated and have a single flagellum at one pole of the cell. Their method of chemotaxis is different. Others possess a single flagellum that is kept inside the cell wall. These bacteria move by spinning the whole cell, which is shaped like a corkscrew. Signal transduction right\|350 px\|Domain structure of chemotaxis receptor for Asp Chemical gradients are sensed through multiple transmembrane receptors, called methyl-accepting chemotaxis proteins (MCPs), which vary in the molecules that they detect. These receptors may bind attractants or repellents directly or indirectly through interaction with proteins of periplasmatic space. The signals from these receptors are transmitted across the plasma membrane into the cytosol, where Che proteins are activated. The Che proteins alter the tumbling frequency, and alter the receptors. CheA, in turn, transfers phosphoryl groups to conserved aspartate residues in the response regulators CheB and CheY; CheA is a histidine kinase and it does not actively transfer the phosphoryl group, rather, the response regulator CheB takes the phosphoryl group from CheA. This mechanism of signal transduction is called a two-component system, and it is a common form of signal transduction in bacteria. CheY induces tumbling by interacting with the flagellar switch protein FliM, inducing a change from counter-clockwise to clockwise rotation of the flagellum. Change in the rotation state of a single flagellum can disrupt the entire flagella bundle and cause a tumble. Receptor regulation right\|450 px\|Signalling pathways of E.coli CheB, when activated by CheA, acts as a methylesterase, removing methyl groups from glutamate residues on the cytosolic side of the receptor; it works antagonistically with CheR, a methyltransferase, which adds methyl residues to the same glutamate residues. The MCPs no longer respond to the attractant when they are fully methylated; therefore, even though the level of attractant might remain high, the level of CheA-P (and CheB-P) increases and the cell begins to tumble. that bacteria have to chemical gradients, other mechanisms are involved in increasing the absolute value of the sensitivity on a given background. Well-established examples are the ultra-sensitive response of the motor to the CheY-P signal, and the clustering of chemoreceptors. Chemoattractants and chemorepellents Chemoattractants and chemorepellents are inorganic or organic substances possessing chemotaxis-inducer effect in motile cells. These chemotactic ligands create chemical concentration gradients that organisms, prokaryotic and eukaryotic, move toward or away from, respectively. right\|250x250px\|float Effects of chemoattractants are elicited via chemoreceptors such as methyl-accepting chemotaxis proteins (MCP). MCPs in E.coli include Tar, Tsr, Trg and Tap. Chemoattracttants to Trg include ribose and galactose with phenol as a chemorepellent. Tap and Tsr recognize dipeptides and serine as chemoattractants, respectively. Non-acylated methioninyl peptides do not act as chemoattractants to neutrophils and macrophages. GTP and ATP are chemorepellents in micro-molar concentrations to both Tetrahymena and Paramecium. These organisms avoid these molecules by producing avoiding reactions to re-orient themselves away from the gradient. Eukaryotic chemotaxis right\|350 px\|Difference of gradient sensing in prokaryotes and eukaryotes The mechanism of chemotaxis that eukaryotic cells employ is quite different from that in the bacteria E. coli; however, sensing of chemical gradients is still a crucial step in the process. Due to their small size and other biophysical constraints, E. coli cannot directly detect a concentration gradient. Instead, they employ temporal gradient sensing, where they move over larger distances several times their own width and measure the rate at which perceived chemical concentration changes. Eukaryotic cells are much larger than prokaryotes and have receptors embedded uniformly throughout the cell membrane. In prokaryotes, this mechanism involves the methylation of receptors called methyl-accepting chemotaxis proteins (MCPs). LEGI involves the balance between a fast excitation and delayed inhibition which controls downstream signaling such as Ras activation and PIP3 production. Levels of receptors, intracellular signalling pathways and the effector mechanisms all represent diverse, eukaryotic-type components. In eukaryotic unicellular cells, amoeboid movement and cilium or the eukaryotic flagellum are the main effectors (e.g., Amoeba or Tetrahymena). Some eukaryotic cells of higher vertebrate origin, such as immune cells also move to where they need to be. Besides immune competent cells (granulocyte, monocyte, lymphocyte) a large group of cells—considered previously to be fixed into tissues—are also motile in special physiological (e.g., mast cell, fibroblast, endothelial cells) or pathological conditions (e.g., metastases). Chemotaxis has high significance in the early phases of embryogenesis as development of germ layers is guided by gradients of signal molecules. Detection of a gradient of chemoattractant The specific molecule/s that allow a eukaryotic cells detect a gradient of chemoattractant ligands (that is, a sort of the molecular compass that detects the direction of a chemoattractant) seems to change depending on the cell and chemoattractant receptor involved or even the concentration of the chemoattractant. However, these molecules apparently are activated independently of the motility of the cell. That is, even an immnobilized cell is still able to detect the direction of a chemoattractant. There appear to be mechanisms by which an external chemotactic gradient is sensed and turned into an intracellular Ras and PIP3 gradients, which results in a gradient and the activation of a signaling pathway, culminating in the polymerisation of actin filaments. The growing distal end of actin filaments develops connections with the internal surface of the plasma membrane via different sets of peptides and results in the formation of anterior pseudopods and posterior uropods. Cilia of eukaryotic cells can also produce chemotaxis; in this case, it is mainly a Ca2+-dependent induction of the microtubular system of the basal body and the beat of the 9 + 2 microtubules within cilia. The orchestrated beating of hundreds of cilia is synchronized by a submembranous system built between basal bodies. The details of the signaling pathways are still not totally clear. Chemotaxis-related migratory responses right\|400 px\|Chemotaxis related migratory responses Chemotaxis refers to the directional migration of cells in response to chemical gradients; several variations of chemical-induced migration exist as listed below. Chemokinesis refers to an increase in cellular motility in response to chemicals in the surrounding environment. Unlike chemotaxis, the migration stimulated by chemokinesis lacks directionality, and instead increases environmental scanning behaviors. In haptotaxis the gradient of the chemoattractant is expressed or bound on a surface, in contrast to the classical model of chemotaxis, in which the gradient develops in a soluble fluid. The most common biologically active haptotactic surface is the extracellular matrix (ECM); the presence of bound ligands is responsible for induction of transendothelial migration and angiogenesis. Necrotaxis embodies a special type of chemotaxis when the chemoattractant molecules are released from necrotic or apoptotic cells. Depending on the chemical character of released substances, necrotaxis can accumulate or repel cells, which underlines the pathophysiological significance of this phenomenon. Receptors In general, eukaryotic cells sense the presence of chemotactic stimuli through the use of 7-transmembrane (or serpentine) heterotrimeric G-protein-coupled receptors, a class representing a significant portion of the genome. Some members of this gene superfamily are used in eyesight (rhodopsins) as well as in olfaction (smelling). The main classes of chemotaxis receptors are triggered by: Formyl peptides - formyl peptide receptors (FPR), Chemokines - chemokine receptors (CCR or CXCR), and Leukotrienes - leukotriene receptors (BLT). However, induction of a wide set of membrane receptors (e.g., cyclic nucleotides, amino acids, insulin, vasoactive peptides) also elicit migration of the cell. Chemotactic selection right\|300 px\|Chemotactic selection While some chemotaxis receptors are expressed in the surface membrane with long-term characteristics, as they are determined genetically, others have short-term dynamics, as they are assembled ad hoc in the presence of the ligand. The diverse features of the chemotaxis receptors and ligands allows for the possibility of selecting chemotactic responder cells with a simple chemotaxis assay By chemotactic selection, we can determine whether a still-uncharacterized molecule acts via the long- or the short-term receptor pathway. The term chemotactic selection is also used to designate a technique that separates eukaryotic or prokaryotic cells according to their chemotactic responsiveness to selector ligands. Chemotactic ligands right\|350 px\|Structure of chemokine classes left\|300 px\|Three dimensional structure of chemokines The number of molecules capable of eliciting chemotactic responses is relatively high, and we can distinguish primary and secondary chemotactic molecules. The main groups of the primary ligands are as follows: Formyl peptides are di-, tri-, tetrapeptides of bacterial origin, formylated on the N-terminus of the peptide. They are released from bacteria in vivo or after decomposition of the cell, a typical member of this group is the N-formylmethionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine (abbreviated fMLF or fMLP). Bacterial fMLF is a key component of inflammation has characteristic chemoattractant effects in neutrophil granulocytes and monocytes. The chemotactic factor ligands and receptors related to formyl peptides are summarized in the related article, Formyl peptide receptors. Complement 3a (C3a) and complement 5a (C5a) are intermediate products of the complement cascade. Their synthesis is joined to the three alternative pathways (classical, lectin-dependent, and alternative) of complement activation by a convertase enzyme. The main target cells of these derivatives are neutrophil granulocytes and monocytes as well. Chemokines belong to a special class of cytokines; not only do their groups (C, CC, CXC, CX3C chemokines) represent structurally related molecules with a special arrangement of disulfide bridges but also their target cell specificity is diverse. CC chemokines act on monocytes (e.g., RANTES), and CXC chemokines are neutrophil granulocyte-specific (e.g., IL-8). Investigations of the three-dimensional structures of chemokines provided evidence that a characteristic composition of beta-sheets and an alpha helix provides expression of sequences required for interaction with the chemokine receptors. Formation of dimers and their increased biological activity was demonstrated by crystallography of several chemokines, e.g. IL-8. Metabolites of polyunsaturated fatty acids Leukotrienes are eicosanoid lipid mediators made by the metabolism of arachidonic acid by ALOX5 (also termed 5-lipoxygenase). Their most prominent member with chemotactic factor activity is leukotriene B4, which elicits adhesion, chemotaxis, and aggregation of leukocytes. The chemoattractant action of LTB4 is induced via either of two G protein–coupled receptors, BLT1 and BLT2, which are highly expressed in cells involved in inflammation and allergy. The family of 5-Hydroxyicosatetraenoic acid eicosanoids are arachidonic acid metabolites also formed by ALOX5. Three members of the family form naturally and have prominent chemotactic activity. These, listed in order of decreasing potency, are: 5-oxo-eicosatetraenoic acid, 5-oxo-15-hydroxy-eicosatetraenoic acid, and 5-Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid. This family of agonists stimulates chemotactic responses in human eosinophils, neutrophils, and monocytes by binding to the Oxoeicosanoid receptor 1, which like the receptors for leukotriene B4, is a G protein-coupled receptor. with 5-oxoeicosatrienoic acid being as potent as its arachidonic acid-derived analog, 5-oxo-eicosatetraenoic acid, in stimulating human blood eosinophil and neutrophil chemotaxis. 12-Hydroxyheptadecatrienoic acid is a non-eicosanoid metabolite of arachidonic acid made by cyclooxygenase 1 or cyclooxygenase 2 that stimulates leukocyte chemotaxis though the leukotriene B4 receptor, BLT2. 15-oxo-eicosatetraenoic acid is an eicosanoid metabolite of arachidonic acid made my ALOX15; it has weak chemotactic activity for human monocytes (sees 15-Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid#15-oxo-ETE). The receptor or other mechanism by which this metabolite stimulates chemotaxis has not been elucidated. Chemotactic range fitting right\|thumb\|alt=Chemotactic range fitting\|Chemotactic range fitting Chemotactic responses elicited by ligand-receptor interactions vary with the concentration of the ligand. Investigations of ligand families (e.g. amino acids or oligopeptides) demonstrates that chemoattractant activity occurs over a wide range, while chemorepellent activities have narrow ranges. Clinical significance A changed migratory potential of cells has relatively high importance in the development of several clinical symptoms and syndromes. Altered chemotactic activity of extracellular (e.g., Escherichia coli) or intracellular (e.g., Listeria monocytogenes) pathogens itself represents a significant clinical target. Modification of endogenous chemotactic ability of these microorganisms by pharmaceutical agents can decrease or inhibit the ratio of infections or spreading of infectious diseases. Apart from infections, there are some other diseases wherein impaired chemotaxis is the primary etiological factor, as in Chédiak–Higashi syndrome, where giant intracellular vesicles inhibit normal migration of cells. + Chemotaxis in diseases Type of disease Chemotaxis increased Chemotaxis decreased Infections Inflammations AIDS, Brucellosis Chemotaxis results in the disease — Chédiak–Higashi syndrome, Kartagener syndrome Chemotaxis is affected Atherosclerosis, arthritis, periodontitis, psoriasis, reperfusion injury, metastatic tumorsMultiple sclerosis, Hodgkin disease, male infertility Intoxications Asbestos, benzpyrene Hg and Cr salts, ozone Mathematical models Several mathematical models of chemotaxis were developed depending on the type of Migration (e.g., basic differences of bacterial swimming, movement of unicellular eukaryotes with cilia/flagellum and amoeboid migration) Physico-chemical characteristics of the chemicals (e.g., diffusion) working as ligands Biological characteristics of the ligands (attractant, neutral, and repellent molecules) Assay systems applied to evaluate chemotaxis (see incubation times, development, and stability of concentration gradients) Other environmental effects possessing direct or indirect influence on the migration (lighting, temperature, magnetic fields, etc.) Although interactions of the factors listed above make the behavior of the solutions of mathematical models of chemotaxis rather complex, it is possible to describe the basic phenomenon of chemotaxis-driven motion in a straightforward way. Indeed, let us denote with \varphi the spatially non-uniform concentration of the chemo-attractant and \nabla \varphi as its gradient. Then the chemotactic cellular flow (also called current) {\bf J} that is generated by the chemotaxis is linked to the above gradient by the law:where C is the spatial density of the cells and \chi is the so-called 'Chemotactic coefficient' - \chi is often not constant, but a decreasing function of the chemo-attractant. For some quantity \rho that is subject to total flux {\bf J} and generation/destruction term S, it is possible to formulate a continuity equation: {\partial \rho\over{\partial t}} + \nabla \cdot {\bf J} = S where \nabla \cdot () is the divergence. This general equation applies to both the cell density and the chemo-attractant. Therefore, incorporating a diffusion flux into the total flux term, the interactions between these quantities are governed by a set of coupled reaction-diffusion partial differential equations describing the change in C and \varphi: The chemotactic behavior of the bacteria was proven to lead to non-trivial population patterns even in the absence of environmental heterogeneities. The presence of structural pore scale heterogeneities has an extra impact on the emerging bacterial patterns. Measurement of chemotaxis A wide range of techniques is available to evaluate chemotactic activity of cells or the chemoattractant and chemorepellent character of ligands. The basic requirements of the measurement are as follows: Concentration gradients can develop relatively quickly and persist for a long time in the system Chemotactic and chemokinetic activities are distinguished Migration of cells is free toward and away on the axis of the concentration gradient Detected responses are the results of active migration of cells Despite the fact that an ideal chemotaxis assay is still not available, there are several protocols and pieces of equipment that offer good correspondence with the conditions described above. The most commonly used are summarised in the table below: Type of assayAgar-plate assaysTwo-chamber assaysOthersExamples PP-chamber Boyden chamber Zigmond chamber Dunn chambers Multi-well chambers Capillary techniques T-maze technique Opalescence technique Orientation assays Artificial chemotactic systems Chemical robots that use artificial chemotaxis to navigate autonomously have been designed. Applications include targeted delivery of drugs in the body. More recently, enzyme molecules have also shown positive chemotactic behavior in the gradient of their substrates. The thermodynamically favorable binding of enzymes to their specific substrates is recognized as the origin of enzymatic chemotaxis. Additionally, enzymes in cascades have also shown substrate-driven chemotactic aggregation. Apart from active enzymes, non-reacting molecules also show chemotactic behavior. This has been demonstrated by using dye molecules that move directionally in gradients of polymer solution through favorable hydrophobic interactions. See also McCutcheon index Tropism Durotaxis Haptotaxis Mechanotaxis Plithotaxis Thin layers (oceanography) References Further reading External links Chemotaxis Neutrophil Chemotaxis Cell Migration Gateway Downloadable Matlab chemotaxis simulator Bacterial Chemotaxis Interactive Simulator (web-app) Category:Motile cells Category:Perception Category:Taxes (biology) Category:Transmembrane receptors Category:Transport phenomena	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemotaxis	2025-04-05T18:28:08.578464
7406	Cheshire	\| image_caption = The Cheshire Plain from Beeston Castle, Eastgate Clock in Chester, and Little Moreton Hall \| motto = <!--for non-English motto, use: Motto in italics<br />("English translation")--> \| locator_map = File:Cheshire UK locator map 2010.svg \| map_caption \| coordinates \| region = North West England \| established_date = Ancient \| established_by \| preceded_by \| origin \| MPs 11 MPs \| police = Cheshire Constabulary \| largest_town = Warrington <!-- Ceremonial county -->\| lord_lieutenant_office = Lord Lieutenant of Cheshire \| lord_lieutenant_name = Alexis (Lady) Redmond \| high_sheriff_office = High Sheriff of Cheshire \| high_sheriff_name Nicholas Hopkinson \| area_total_km2 \| area_total_rank \| ethnicity = <!-- Non-metropolitan county --> \| county_council \| unitary_council1 \| unitary_council2 \| joint_committees \| admin_hq \| area_council_km2 \| area_council_rank \| population_council \| density_council \| iso_code \| ons_code \| gss_code \| nuts_code \| website <!-- Maps --> \| districts_map \| districts_key All unitary \| districts_list = }} Cheshire ( ) is a ceremonial county in North West England. It is bordered by Merseyside to the north-west, Greater Manchester to the north-east, Derbyshire to the east, Staffordshire to the south-east, and Shropshire to the south; to the west it is bordered by the Welsh counties of Flintshire and Wrexham, and has a short coastline on the Dee Estuary. Warrington is the largest settlement, and the city of Chester is the county town. The county has an area of and had a population of 1,095,500 at the 2021 census. The north and west are relatively urbanised, and contain the settlements of Warrington, Chester, Runcorn, Widnes, and Ellesmere Port. The south and east of the county are primarily rural, and the largest settlement is Crewe. For local government purposes Cheshire comprises four unitary authority areas: Cheshire East, Cheshire West and Chester, Halton, and Warrington. The county historically included all of the Wirral Peninsula and parts of southern Greater Manchester and northern Derbyshire, but excluded Widnes and Warrington. The landscape of the county is dominated by the Cheshire Plain, an area of relatively flat land divided by the Mid-Cheshire Ridge. To the west, Cheshire contains the south of the Wirral Peninsula, and to the east the landscape rises to the Pennines, where the county contains part of the Peak District. The River Mersey runs through the north of Cheshire before broadening into its wide estuary; the River Dee forms part of the county's border with Wales, then fully enters England and flows through the city of Chester before re-entering Wales upstream of its estuary. Red Triassic sandstone forms the bedrock of much of the county, and was used in the construction of many of its buildings. Toponymy Cheshire's name was originally derived from an early name for Chester, and was first recorded as Legeceasterscir in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, meaning "the shire of the city of legions". Although the name first appears in 980, it is thought that the county was created by Edward the Elder around 920. Because of the historically close links with the land bordering Cheshire to the west, which became modern Wales, there is a history of interaction between Cheshire and North Wales. The Domesday Book records Cheshire as having two complete Hundreds (Atiscross and Exestan) that later became the principal part of Flintshire. Additionally, another large portion of the Duddestan Hundred later became known as English Maelor (Maelor Saesneg) when it was transferred to North Wales. For this and other reasons, the Welsh language name for Cheshire, , is sometimes used.<br /><br />]] After the Norman conquest of 1066 by William I, dissent and resistance continued for many years after the invasion. In 1069 local resistance in Cheshire was finally put down using draconian measures as part of the Harrying of the North. The ferocity of the campaign against the English populace was enough to end all future resistance. Examples were made of major landowners such as Earl Edwin of Mercia, their properties confiscated and redistributed amongst Norman barons. The earldom was sufficiently independent from the kingdom of England that the 13th-century Magna Carta did not apply to the shire of Chester, so the earl wrote up his own Chester Charter at the petition of his barons. County Palatine William I made Cheshire a county palatine and gave Gerbod the Fleming the new title of Earl of Chester. When Gerbod returned to Normandy in about 1070, the king used his absence to declare the earldom forfeit and gave the title to Hugh d'Avranches (nicknamed Hugh Lupus, or "wolf"). Because of Cheshire's strategic location on the Welsh Marches, the Earl had complete autonomous powers to rule on behalf of the king in the county palatine. Hundreds in Wales.]] Cheshire in the Domesday Book (1086) is recorded as a much larger county than it is today. It included two hundreds, Atiscross and Exestan, that later became part of North Wales. At the time of the Domesday Book, it also included as part of Duddestan Hundred the area of land later known as English Maelor (which used to be a detached part of Flintshire) in Wales. The area between the Mersey and Ribble (referred to in the Domesday Book as "Inter Ripam et Mersam") formed part of the returns for Cheshire. Although this has been interpreted to mean that at that time south Lancashire was part of Cheshire, more exhaustive research indicates that the boundary between Cheshire and what was to become Lancashire remained the River Mersey. With minor variations in spelling across sources, the complete list of hundreds of Cheshire at this time are: Atiscross, Bochelau, Chester, Dudestan, Exestan, Hamestan, Middlewich, Riseton, Roelau, Tunendune, Warmundestrou and Wilaveston. Feudal baronies There were 8 feudal baronies in Chester, the barons of Kinderton, Halton, Malbank, Mold, Shipbrook, Dunham-Massey, and the honour of Chester itself. Feudal baronies or baronies by tenure were granted by the Earl as forms of feudal land tenure within the palatinate in a similar way to which the king granted English feudal baronies within England proper. An example is the barony of Halton. One of Hugh d'Avranche's barons has been identified as Robert Nicholls, Baron of Halton and Montebourg. North Mersey to Lancashire In 1182, the land north of the Mersey became administered as part of the new county of Lancashire, resolving any uncertainty about the county in which the land "Inter Ripam et Mersam" was. Over the years, the ten hundreds consolidated and changed names to leave just seven—Broxton, Bucklow, Eddisbury, Macclesfield, Nantwich, Northwich and Wirral. Principality: Merging of Palatine and Earldom In 1397 the county had lands in the march of Wales added to its territory, and was promoted to the rank of principality. This was because of the support the men of the county had given to King Richard II, in particular by his standing armed force of about 500 men called the "Cheshire Guard". As a result, the King's title was changed to "King of England and France, Lord of Ireland, and Prince of Chester". No other English county has been honoured in this way, although it lost the distinction on Richard's fall in 1399. Lieutenancy: North split-off District Through the Local Government Act 1972, which came into effect on 1 April 1974, some areas in the north became part of the metropolitan counties of Greater Manchester and Merseyside. Stockport (previously a county borough), Altrincham, Hyde, Dukinfield and Stalybridge in the north-east became part of Greater Manchester. Much of the Wirral Peninsula in the north-west, including the county boroughs of Birkenhead and Wallasey, joined Merseyside as the Metropolitan Borough of Wirral. At the same time the Tintwistle Rural District was transferred to Derbyshire. The area of south Lancashire not included within either the Merseyside or Greater Manchester counties, including Widnes and the county borough of Warrington, was added to the new non-metropolitan county of Cheshire. District and Unitary Halton and Warrington became unitary authorities independent of Cheshire County Council on 1 April 1998, but remain part of Cheshire for ceremonial purposes and also for fire and policing. Halton is part of Liverpool City Region combined authority, which also includes the five metropolitan boroughs of Merseyside. A referendum for a further local government reform connected with an elected regional assembly was planned for 2004, but was abandoned. Unitary As part of the local government restructuring in April 2009, Cheshire County Council and the Cheshire districts were abolished and replaced by two new unitary authorities, Cheshire East and Cheshire West and Chester. The existing unitary authorities of Halton and Warrington were not affected by the change. Governance Current <imagemap> File:Cheshire unitary labell.png\|220px\|thumb\|The ceremonial county showing the four unitary authorities. Click on the map for more information poly 132 343 74 237 19 152 25 129 215 134 231 120 255 121 298 172 293 195 263 221 221 222 179 257 152 293 175 350 Cheshire West and Chester poly 168 293 241 241 285 239 325 225 382 264 383 272 316 308 312 348 225 368 Cheshire East poly 333 175 269 130 267 103 300 82 357 102 480 90 491 189 410 239 Cheshire East poly 313 228 334 183 419 219 354 293 Cheshire East poly 131 105 166 58 182 73 182 94 201 99 207 91 218 105 210 129 183 127 161 121 131 107 Halton poly 188 75 192 30 266 9 296 73 267 82 251 107 234 112 Warrington desc none </imagemap> {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|- ! Unit ! Admin-HQ ! Population<br />() ! Area (km<sup>2</sup>) ! Density (km<sup>2</sup>) ! Head ! colspan="2" \| Party \|- \| Cheshire East \| Sandbach \| \| \| \|Sam Corcoran \| style="color:inherit;background:" \| \|<!----> \|- \| Cheshire West & Chester \| Winsford, Ellesmere Port \| \| \| \|Louise Gittins \| style="color:inherit;background:" \| \| \|- \| Halton \| Widnes \| \| \| \| Mike Wharton \| style="color:inherit;background:" \| \| \|- \| Warrington \| Warrington \| \| \| \| Russ Bowden \| style="color:inherit;background:" \| \| \|} Cheshire has no county-wide elected local council, but it does have a Lord Lieutenant under the Lieutenancies Act 1997 and a High Sheriff under the Sheriffs Act 1887. Local government functions apart from the Police and Fire/Rescue services are carried out by four smaller unitary authorities: Cheshire East, Cheshire West and Chester, Halton, and Warrington. All four unitary authority areas have borough status. Policing and fire and rescue services are still provided across the county as a whole. The Cheshire Fire Authority consist of members of the four councils, while governance of Cheshire Constabulary is performed by the elected Cheshire Police and Crime Commissioner. Winsford is a major administrative hub for Cheshire with the Police and Fire & Rescue Headquarters based in the town as well as a majority of Cheshire West and Chester Council. It was also home to the former Vale Royal Borough Council and Cheshire County Council. Devolution talks for the county were scheduled for Autumn 2024. Plans to establish a Cheshire and Warrington Combined Authority were approved by the UK government in February 2025. Halton Borough has been a member of the Liverpool City Region Combined Authority since that authority was established in 2014. Transition into a lieutenancy From 1 April 1974 the area under the control of the county council was divided into eight local government districts; Chester, Congleton, Crewe and Nantwich, Ellesmere Port and Neston, Halton, Macclesfield, Vale Royal and Warrington. Halton (which includes the towns of Runcorn and Widnes) and Warrington became unitary authorities in 1998. The remaining districts and the county were abolished as part of local government restructuring on 1 April 2009. The Halton and Warrington boroughs were not affected by the 2009 restructuring. On 25 July 2007, the Secretary of State Hazel Blears announced she was 'minded' to split Cheshire into two new unitary authorities, Cheshire West and Chester, and Cheshire East. She confirmed she had not changed her mind on 19 December 2007 and therefore the proposal to split two-tier Cheshire into two would proceed. Cheshire County Council leader Paul Findlow, who attempted High Court legal action against the proposal, claimed that splitting Cheshire would only disrupt excellent services while increasing living costs for all. On 31 January 2008 The Standard, Cheshire and district's newspaper, announced that the legal action had been dropped. Members against the proposal were advised that they may be unable to persuade the court that the decision of Hazel Blears was "manifestly absurd". The Cheshire West and Chester unitary authority covers the area formerly occupied by the City of Chester and the boroughs of Ellesmere Port and Neston and Vale Royal; Cheshire East now covers the area formerly occupied by the boroughs of Congleton, Crewe and Nantwich, and Macclesfield. The changes were implemented on 1 April 2009. Congleton Borough Council pursued an appeal against the judicial review it lost in October 2007. The appeal was dismissed on 4 March 2008.GeographyPhysical A plain of glacial till and other glacio-fluvial sediments extends across much of Cheshire, separating the hills of North Wales and the Pennines. Known as the Cheshire Plain, it was formed following the retreat of a Quaternary ice sheet which left the area dotted with kettle holes, those which hold water being referred to as meres. The bedrock of this region is almost entirely Triassic sandstone, outcrops of which have long been quarried, notably at Runcorn, providing the distinctive red stone for Liverpool Cathedral and Chester Cathedral. The eastern half of the county is Upper Triassic Mercia Mudstone laid down with large salt deposits which were mined for hundreds of years around Winsford. Separating this area from Lower Triassic Sherwood Sandstone to the west is a prominent sandstone ridge known as the Mid Cheshire Ridge. A footpath, the Sandstone Trail, follows this ridge from Frodsham to Whitchurch passing Delamere Forest, Beeston Castle and earlier Iron Age forts. The western fringes of the Peak District - the southernmost extent of the Pennine range - form the eastern part of the county. The highest point (county top) in the historic county of Cheshire was Black Hill () near Crowden in the Cheshire Panhandle, a long eastern projection of the county which formerly stretched along the northern side of Longdendale and on the border with the West Riding of Yorkshire. Black Hill is now the highest point in the ceremonial county of West Yorkshire. Within the current ceremonial county and the unitary authority of Cheshire East the highest point is Shining Tor on the Derbyshire/Cheshire border between Macclesfield and Buxton, at above sea level. After Shining Tor, the next highest point in Cheshire is Shutlingsloe, at above sea level. Shutlingsloe lies just to the south of Macclesfield Forest and is sometimes humorously referred to as the "Matterhorn of Cheshire" thanks to its distinctive steep profile. HumanGreen belt Cheshire contains portions of two green belt areas surrounding the large conurbations of Merseyside and Greater Manchester (North Cheshire Green Belt, part of the North West Green Belt) and Stoke-on-Trent (South Cheshire Green Belt, part of the Stoke-on-Trent Green Belt), these were first drawn up from the 1950s. Contained primarily within Cheshire East and Chester West & Chester, with small portions along the borders of the Halton and Warrington districts, towns and cities such as Chester, Macclesfield, Alsager, Congleton, Northwich, Ellesmere Port, Knutsford, Warrington, Poynton, Disley, Neston, Wilmslow, Runcorn, and Widnes are either surrounded wholly, partially enveloped by, or on the fringes of the belts. The North Cheshire Green Belt is contiguous with the Peak District Park boundary inside Cheshire. Borders The ceremonial county borders Merseyside, Greater Manchester, Derbyshire, Staffordshire and Shropshire in England along with Flintshire and Wrexham in Wales, arranged by compass directions as shown in the table. below. Cheshire also forms part of the North West England region. Flora and fauna In July 2022, beavers bred in Cheshire for the first time in 400 years, following a reintroduction scheme. Demography Population ]] ]] Based on the Census of 2001, the overall population of Cheshire East and Cheshire West and Chester is 673,781, of which 51.3% of the population were male and 48.7% were female. Of those aged between 0–14 years, 51.5% were male and 48.4% were female; and of those aged over 75 years, 62.9% were female and 37.1% were male. The population for 2021 is forecast to be 708,000. In 2001, the population density of Cheshire East and Cheshire West and Chester was 32 people per km<sup>2</sup>, lower than the North West average of 42 people/km<sup>2</sup> and the England and Wales average of 38 people/km<sup>2</sup>. Ellesmere Port and Neston had a greater urban density than the rest of the county with 92 people/km<sup>2</sup>. {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" \|- \|+Population totals for Cheshire East and Cheshire West and Chester \|- ! Year ! Population ! \| ! Year ! Population ! \| ! Year ! Population ! \| ! Chart \|- ! 1801 \| 124,570 \| rowspan="8" \| ! 1881 \| 303,315 \| rowspan="8" \| ! 1961 \| 533,642 \| rowspan="8" \| \| rowspan="8"\| \|- ! 1811 \| 141,672 ! 1891 \| 324,494 ! 1971 \| 605,918 \|- ! 1821 \| 167,730 ! 1901 \| 343,557 ! 1981 \| 632,630 \|- ! 1831 \| 191,965 ! 1911 \| 364,179 ! 1991 \| 656,050 \|- ! 1841 \| 206,063 ! 1921 \| 379,157 ! 2001 \| 673,777 \|- ! 1851 \| 224,739 ! 1931 \| 395,717 ! 2011 \| 699,735 \|- ! 1861 \| 250,931 ! 1941 \| 431,335 ! 2021 \| 755,835 \|- ! 1871 \| 277,123 ! 1951 \| 471,438 \|- \| colspan"10" \|Pre-1974 statistics were gathered from local government areas that now compose Cheshire<br />Source: Great Britain Historical GIS. \|} <!-- Self-maintaining population table --> Ethnicity In 2001, ethnic white groups accounted for 98% (662,794) of the population, and 10,994 (2%) in ethnic groups other than white. Of the 2% in non-white ethnic groups: * 3,717 (34%) belonged to mixed ethnic groups * 3,336 (30%) were Asian or Asian British * 1,076 (10%) were black or black British * 1,826 (17%) were of Chinese ethnic groups * 1,039 (9%) were of other ethnic groups.Religion in Wilmslow]] In the 2001 Census, 81% of the population (542,413) identified themselves as Christian; 124,677 (19%) did not identify with any religion or did not answer the question; 5,665 (1%) identified themselves as belonging to other major world religions; and 1,033 belonged to other religions. In terms of Roman Catholic church administration, most of Cheshire falls into the Roman Catholic Diocese of Shrewsbury. Economy {\| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:right;" \|+ GVA and GDP by local authority district in 2021 \|- style="text-align:left;" ! District ! GVA (£ billions) ! GVA per capita (£) ! GDP (£ billions) ! GDP per capita (£) \|- \| style="text-align:left;" \| Cheshire East \| £14.6 \| £36,559 \| £16.1 \| £40,142 \|- \| style="text-align:left;" \| Cheshire West and Chester \| £11.7 \| £32,846 \| £13.1 \| £36,518 \|- \| style="text-align:left;" \| Warrington \| £8.5 \| £40,085 \| £9.3 \| £44,205 \|- ! style="text-align:left;" \| Cheshire* ! style="text-align:right;" \| £34.9 ! style="text-align:right;" \| £35,957 ! style="text-align:right;" \| £38.5 ! style="text-align:right;" \| £39,689 \|- ! style"text-align:left;" colspan"5" \| Excluding Halton which forms part of the Liverpool City Region for economic purposes \|} Cheshire has a diverse economy with significant sectors including agriculture, automotive, bio-technology, chemical, financial services, food and drink, ICT, and tourism. The county is famous for the production of Cheshire cheese, salt and silk. The county has seen a number of inventions and firsts in its history. A mainly rural county, Cheshire has a high concentration of villages. Agriculture is generally based on the dairy trade, and cattle are the predominant livestock. Land use given to agriculture has fluctuated somewhat, and in 2005 totalled 1558 km<sup>2</sup> over 4,609 holdings. Based on holdings by EC farm type in 2005, 8.51 km<sup>2</sup> was allocated to dairy farming, with another 11.78 km<sup>2</sup> allocated to cattle and sheep. sanding the street in celebration of May Day in 1920]] The chemical industry in Cheshire was founded in Roman times, with the mining of salt in Winsford, Middlewich and Northwich. Salt is still mined in the area by British Salt. The salt mining has led to a continued chemical industry around Northwich, with Brunner Mond based in the town. Other chemical companies, including Ineos (formerly ICI), have plants at Runcorn. The Essar Refinery (formerly Shell Stanlow Refinery) is at Ellesmere Port. The oil refinery has operated since 1924 and has a capacity of 12 million tonnes per year. Crewe was once the centre of the British railway industry, and remains a major railway junction. The Crewe railway works, built in 1840, employed 20,000 people at its peak, although the workforce is now less than 1,000. Crewe is also the home of Bentley cars. Also within Cheshire are manufacturing plants for Jaguar and Vauxhall Motors in Ellesmere Port. The county also has an aircraft industry, with the BAE Systems facility at Woodford Aerodrome, part of BAE System's Military Air Solutions division. The facility designed and constructed Avro Lancaster and Avro Vulcan bombers and the Hawker-Siddeley Nimrod. On the Cheshire border with Flintshire is the Broughton aircraft factory, more recently associated with Airbus. Tourism in Cheshire from within the UK and overseas continues to perform strongly. Over 8 million nights of accommodation (both UK and overseas) and over 2.8 million visits to Cheshire were recorded during 2003. At the start of 2003, there were 22,020 VAT-registered enterprises in Cheshire, an increase of 7% since 1998, many in the business services (31.9%) and wholesale/retail (21.7%) sectors. Between 2002 and 2003 the number of businesses grew in four sectors: public administration and other services (6.0%), hotels and restaurants (5.1%), construction (1.7%), and business services (1.0%). However, towns such as Crewe and Winsford have significant deprivation. The county's proximity to the cities of Manchester and Liverpool means counter urbanisation is common. Cheshire West has a fairly large proportion of residents who work in Liverpool and Manchester, while the town of Northwich and area of Cheshire East falls more within Manchester's sphere of influence.Education ]] All four local education authorities in Cheshire operate only comprehensive state school systems. When Altrincham, Sale and Bebington were moved from Cheshire to Trafford and Merseyside in 1974, they took some former Cheshire selective schools. There are two universities based in the county, the University of Chester and the Chester campus of The University of Law. The Crewe campus of Manchester Metropolitan University was scheduled to close in 2019.CultureArts and entertainment memorial window (featuring the Hatter and March Hare)]] Cheshire has produced musicians such as Joy Division members Ian Curtis and Stephen Morris, One Direction member Harry Styles, the members of The 1975, Take That member Gary Barlow, The Cult member Ian Astbury, Catfish and the Bottlemen member Van McCann, Girls Aloud member Nicola Roberts, Stephen Hough, John Mayall, The Charlatans member Tim Burgess, and Nigel Stonier. Actors from Cheshire include Russ Abbot, Warren Brown, Julia Chan, Ray Coulthard, Daniel Craig, Tim Curry, Wendy Hiller, Tom Hughes, Tim McInnerny, Ben Miller, Pete Postlethwaite, Adam Rickitt, John Steiner, and Ann Todd. The most famous author from the county is Lewis Carroll, who wrote ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' and named the Cheshire Cat character after it. Other notable Cheshire writers include Hall Caine, Alan Garner, and Elizabeth Gaskell. Artists from Cheshire include ceramic artist Emma Bossons and sculptor/photographer Andy Goldsworthy. Local news and television programmes are provided by BBC North West and ITV Granada. Television signals are received from the Winter Hill TV transmitter. Local radio stations in the county include Chester's Dee Radio, Capital North West and Wales, Smooth Wales, Cheshire's Silk Radio and Hits Radio Staffordshire & Cheshire. It is one of only four counties in the country (along with County Durham, Dorset, and Rutland) that does not have its own designated BBC radio station; the south and parts of the east are covered by BBC Radio Stoke, while BBC Radio Merseyside tends to cover the west, and BBC Radio Manchester covers the north and parts of the east. The BBC directs readers to Stoke and Staffordshire when Cheshire is selected on their website. There were plans to launch BBC Radio Cheshire, but those were shelved in 2007 after the BBC license fee settlement was lower than expected. Sports Athletes native to Cheshire include sailor Ben Ainslie, cricketer Ian Botham, rock climber Shauna Coxsey, boxer Tyson Fury, oarsman Matt Langridge, mountaineer George Mallory, marathon runner Paula Radcliffe, cyclist Sarah Storey, and hurdler Shirley Strong. It has also been home to numerous athletes from outside the county. Many Premier League footballers have relocated there over the years upon joining nearby teams such as Manchester United FC, Manchester City FC, Everton FC, and Liverpool FC. These include Dean Ashton, Seth Johnson, Jesse Lingard and Michael Owen, The "Cheshire Golden Triangle" is the collective name for a group of adjacent Cheshire villages where the number of footballers, actors, and entrepreneurs moving in over the years led to the average house prices becoming some of the most expensive in the UK. Cheshire has one Football League team, Crewe Alexandra, which plays in . The next highest-placed teams are Chester and Warrington Town, who both compete in the National League North, the sixth tier of English football. Northwich Victoria, another ex-League team which was a founding member of the Football League Division Two in 1892/1893, now represents Cheshire in the Northern Premier League along with Nantwich Town. Macclesfield Town another former League club, went into liquidation in 2020; a phoenix club, Macclesfield, was formed in 2021. The Warrington Wolves and Widnes Vikings are the premier rugby league teams in Cheshire; the former plays in the Super League, while the latter plays in the Championship. There are also numerous junior clubs in the county, including Chester Gladiators. Cheshire County Cricket Club is one of the clubs that make up the minor counties of English and Welsh cricket. Cheshire also is represented in the highest level basketball league in the UK, the BBL, by Cheshire Phoenix (formerly Cheshire Jets). Europe's largest motorcycle event, the Thundersprint, is held in Northwich every May. Other The Royal Cheshire Show, an annual agricultural show, has taken place since the 1800s. Cheshire also produced a military hero in Norman Cyril Jones, a World War I flying ace who won the Distinguished Flying Cross. Unofficial county flower As part of a 2002 marketing campaign, the plant conservation charity Plantlife chose the cuckooflower as the county flower. Previously, a sheaf of golden wheat was the county emblem, a reference to the Earl of Chester's arms in use from the 12th century. Landmarks Prehistoric burial grounds have been discovered at The Bridestones near Congleton (Neolithic) and Robin Hood's Tump near Alpraham (Bronze Age). The remains of Iron Age hill forts are found on sandstone ridges at several locations in Cheshire. Examples include Maiden Castle on Bickerton Hill, Helsby Hillfort and Woodhouse Hillfort at Frodsham. The Roman fortress and walls of Chester, perhaps the earliest building works in Cheshire remaining above ground, are constructed from purple-grey sandstone. The distinctive local red sandstone has been used for many monumental and ecclesiastical buildings throughout the county: for example, the medieval Beeston Castle, Chester Cathedral and numerous parish churches. Occasional residential and industrial buildings, such as Helsby railway station (1849), are also in this sandstone. Many surviving buildings from the 15th to 17th centuries are timbered, particularly in the southern part of the county. Notable examples include the moated manor house Little Moreton Hall, dating from around 1450, and many commercial and residential buildings in Chester, Nantwich and surrounding villages. Early brick buildings include Peover Hall near Macclesfield (1585), Tattenhall Hall (pre-1622), and the Pied Bull Hotel in Chester (17th-century). From the 18th century, orange, red or brown brick became the predominant building material used in Cheshire, although earlier buildings are often faced or dressed with stone. Examples from the Victorian period onwards often employ distinctive brick detailing, such as brick patterning and ornate chimney stacks and gables. Notable examples include Arley Hall near Northwich, Willington Hall near Chester (both by Nantwich architect George Latham) and Overleigh Lodge, Chester. From the Victorian era, brick buildings often incorporate timberwork in a mock Tudor style, and this hybrid style has been used in some modern residential developments in the county. Industrial buildings, such as the Macclesfield silk mills (for example, Waters Green New Mill), are also usually in brick. Settlements \|float=right \|width=350 \|places= <!-- First four have population over 70,000 according to their articles, listed in descending order--> <!-- Below all have population over 30,000 according to their articles, listed in descending order--> <!-- Below all have population over 20,000 according to their articles, listed in descending order--> <!-- Below are smaller settlements that are of significance historically for previously having city/capital status, or have recently been designated for expansion--> }} The county is home to some of the most affluent areas of northern England, including Alderley Edge, Wilmslow, Prestbury, Tarporley and Knutsford, named in 2006 as the most expensive place to buy a house in the north of England. The former Cheshire town of Altrincham was in second place. The area is sometimes referred to as The Golden Triangle on account of the area in and around the aforementioned towns and villages. Holmes Chapel has increasingly become a sought out tourist destination due to being the former hometown of celebrity Harry Styles, and is also undergoing a planned population increase. Thingwall, currently in the county of Merseyside but historically part of Cheshire until 1974, is known for having once been the base of a Viking parliament established by Norse settlers in the area. There is currently one city in the county officially, Chester. However, it remains a disputed piece of folklore that the village of Thelwall (today administratively paired with its neighbour Grappenhall in a civil parish) was at one time considered a city. Warrington is currently the largest urban settlement in the county overall despite its town status, and was one of the third wave of post-Second World War UK new towns designated for expansion. Other core settlements across Cheshire are: <!---IF POPULATING THIS TABLE, PLEASE ARRANGE IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER. PLEASE BE MINDFUL THAT A DISTRICT OF A SETTLEMENT ALREADY MENTIONED IS NOT APPROPRIATE TO LINK HERE - THESE SHOULD BE WITHIN THEIR SETTLEMENT'S ARTICLE---> {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Ceremonial county ! District ! Centre of administration ! Other towns or cities \|- \|rowspan="4"\| Cheshire \| Cheshire East (unitary) \| Sandbach \| Alderley Edge, Alsager, Bollington, Crewe, Congleton, Handforth, Holmes Chapel, Knutsford, Macclesfield, Middlewich, Nantwich, Poynton, Wilmslow \|- \| Cheshire West and Chester (unitary) \| Chester \| Ellesmere Port, Frodsham, Malpas, Neston, Northwich, Saltney (eastern part), Tarporley, Tarvin, Winsford \|- \| Halton (unitary) \| Widnes \| Runcorn \|- \| Warrington (unitary) \| Warrington \| Birchwood, Culcheth, Grappenhall and Thelwall, Lymm \|} Some settlements which were historically part of the county now fall under the ceremonial counties of Derbyshire, Merseyside and Greater Manchester: {\| class"wikitable" style"width:auto" \|- !scope="row"\| Derbyshire \| Crowden, Newtown, Tintwistle, Whaley Bridge (western part), Woodhead \|- !scope="row"\| Greater Manchester \| Altrincham, Bramhall, Bredbury, Cheadle, Cheadle Hulme, Dukinfield, Gatley, Hale, Hale Barns, Hattersley, Hazel Grove, Heald Green, High Lane, Hyde, Marple, Mossley (part), Partington, Romiley, Sale, Stalybridge, Stockport, Timperley, Woodford Garden Village, Woodley, Wythenshawe \|- !scope="row"\| Merseyside \| Bebington, Bidston, Birkenhead, Brimstage, Bromborough, Eastham, Greasby, Heswall, Hoylake, Irby, Leasowe, Moreton, New Ferry, Pensby, Port Sunlight, Thingwall, Upton, Wallasey, West Kirby \|} Transport Railways in November 2017]] in July 1951]] The main railway line through the county is the West Coast Main Line. Trains on the main London to Scotland line call at Crewe (in the south of the county) and Warrington Bank Quay (in the north of the county). Trains stop at Crewe and Runcorn on the Liverpool branch of the WCML; Crewe and Macclesfield are each hourly stops on the two Manchester branches. The major interchanges are: Crewe (the biggest station in Cheshire) for trains to London Euston, Glasgow Central, Edinburgh Waverley, Manchester Piccadilly and Liverpool Lime Street (via the WCML). Trains on other routes travel to Wales, the Midlands (Birmingham, Stoke and Derby) as well as suburban services to Manchester Piccadilly, Chester and Liverpool Lime Street. Warrington stations (Central and Bank Quay) for suburban services to Manchester Piccadilly, Chester and Liverpool Lime Street and regional express services to North Wales, London, Scotland, Yorkshire, the East Coast and the East Midlands Chester for urban services (via Merseyrail) to Liverpool Central, suburban services to Manchester, Warrington, Wrexham General and rural Cheshire and express services to Llandudno, Holyhead, Birmingham, the West Midlands, London and Cardiff and, from May 2019, to Leeds. In the east of Cheshire, Macclesfield station is served by Avanti West Coast, CrossCountry and Northern, on the Manchester–London line. Services from Manchester to the south coast frequently stop at Macclesfield. Neston on the Wirral Peninsula is served by a railway station on the Borderlands line between Bidston and Wrexham. Roadways in August 2012]] Cheshire has of roads, including of the M6, M62, M53 and M56 motorways; there are 23 interchanges and four service areas. It also has the A580 "East Lancashire Road" at its border with Greater Manchester at Leigh. The M6 motorway at the Thelwall Viaduct carries 140,000 vehicles every 24 hours. Bus transport in Cheshire is provided by various operators. The major bus operator in the Cheshire area is D&G Bus. Other operators in Cheshire include Stagecoach Chester & Wirral and Network Warrington. There are also several operators based outside of Cheshire, who either run services wholly within the area or services which start from outside the area. Companies include Arriva Buses Wales, Aimee's Travel, High Peak, First Greater Manchester, D&G bus and Stagecoach Manchester. Some services are run under contract to Cheshire West and Chester, Cheshire East, Borough of Halton and Warrington Councils. Waterways in October 2016]] The Cheshire canal system includes several canals originally used to transport the county's industrial products (mostly chemicals). Nowadays they are mainly used for tourist traffic. The Cheshire Ring is formed from the Rochdale, Ashton, Peak Forest, Macclesfield, Trent and Mersey and Bridgewater canals. The Manchester Ship Canal is a wide, stretch of water opened in 1894. It consists of the rivers Irwell and Mersey made navigable to Manchester for seagoing ships leaving the Mersey estuary. The canal passes through the north of the county via Runcorn and Warrington. Rivers and canals in the county are: {\| \|width=60%\| * River Bollin * River Croco * River Dane * River Dean * River Dee / Afon Dyfrdwy * River Gowy * River Goyt * River Mersey * River Weaver and Weaver Navigation * River Wheelock \| * Bridgewater Canal * Macclesfield Canal * Manchester Ship Canal * Shropshire Union Canal and the Llangollen branch * Trent and Mersey Canal \|} See also * Cheshire (UK Parliament constituency), historical list of MPs for Cheshire constituency * Constable of Chester * Custos Rotulorum of Cheshire – Keepers of the Rolls * Healthcare in Cheshire * High Sheriff of Cheshire * Lord Lieutenant of Cheshire * Outline of England Notes References Bibliography * Crosby, A. (1996). A History of Cheshire. The Darwen County History Series. Chichester, UK: Phillimore & Co . * }} * Harris, B. E., and Thacker, A. T. (1987). The Victoria History of the County of Chester. Volume 1: Physique, Prehistory, Roman, Anglo-Saxon, and Domesday. Oxford: Oxford University Press. . * Morgan, P. (ed.) (1978). Domesday Book. Volume 26: Cheshire. Chichester, Sussex: Phillmore and Company Limited. . * * Phillips, A. D. M., and Phillips, C. B. (eds.) (2002). A New Historical Atlas of Cheshire. Chester, UK: Cheshire County Council and Cheshire Community Council Publications Trust. . * Shores, Christopher; Franks, Norman; Guest, Russell (1990). Above the Trenches: A Complete Record of the Fighter Aces and Units of the British Empire Air Forces 1915–1920. Grub Street. , . * Sylvester, D. (1980) [first ed.: 1971]. A History of Cheshire. Second edition. The Darwen County History Series. London and Chichester, UK: Phillimore & Co. Ltd. . Further reading * Beck, J. (1969). Tudor Cheshire. Volume 7 of Cheshire Community Council Series: A History of Cheshire. Series Editor: J. J. Bagley. Chester, UK: Cheshire Community Council. * Bu'Lock, J. D. (1972). Pre-Conquest Cheshire 383–1066. Volume 3 of Cheshire Community Council Series: A History of Cheshire. Series Editor: J. J. Bagley. Chester, UK: Cheshire Community Council. * Dore, R. N. (1966). The Civil Wars in Cheshire. Volume 8 of Cheshire Community Council Series: A History of Cheshire. Series Editor: J. J. Bagley. Chester, UK: Cheshire Community Council. * Driver, J. T. (1971). Cheshire in the Later Middle Ages 1399–1540. Volume 6 of Cheshire Community Council Series: A History of Cheshire. Series Editor: J. J. Bagley. Chester, UK: Cheshire Community Council. * Harris, B. E. (1979). 'The Victoria History of the County of Chester. Volume 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press. . * Harris, B. E. (1980). 'The Victoria History of the County of Chester. Volume 3. Oxford: Oxford University Press. . * Hewitt, H. J. (1967). Cheshire Under the Three Edwards. Volume 5 of Cheshire Community Council Series: A History of Cheshire. Series Editor: J. J. Bagley. Chester, UK: Cheshire Community Council. * Higham, N. J. (1993). The Origins of Cheshire. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. . * Hodson, J. H. (1978). Cheshire, 1660–1780: Restoration to Industrial Revolution. Volume 9 of Cheshire Community Council Series: A History of Cheshire. Series editor: J. J. Bagley. Chester, UK: Cheshire Community Council. . * Husain, B. M. C. (1973). Cheshire Under the Norman Earls 1066–1237. Volume 4 of Cheshire Community Council Series: A History of Cheshire. Series editor: J. J. Bagley. Chester, UK: Cheshire Community Council. * Morgan, V., and Morgan, P. (2004). Prehistoric Cheshire. Ashbourne, Derbyshire: Landmark Publishing Company. . * Scard, G. (1981). Squire and Tenant: Rural Life in Cheshire 1760–1900. Volume 10 of Cheshire Community Council Series: A History of Cheshire. Series editor: J. J. Bagley. Chester, UK: Cheshire Community Council. . * Scholes, R. (2000). The Towns and Villages of Britain: Cheshire. Wilmslow, Cheshire: Sigma Press. . * * Sylvester. D., and Nulty, G. (1958). The Historical Atlas of Cheshire. Third Edition. Chester, UK: Cheshire Community Council. * Thompson, F. H. (1965). Roman Cheshire. Volume 2 of Cheshire Community Council Series: A History of Cheshire. Series Editor: J. J. Bagley. Chester, UK: Cheshire Community Council. * Tigwell, R. E. (1985). Cheshire in the Twentieth Century. Volume 11 of Cheshire Community Council Series: A History of Cheshire. Series Editor: J. J. Bagley. Chester, UK: Cheshire Community Council. * Varley, W. J. (1964). Cheshire Before the Romans. Volume 1 of Cheshire Community Council Series: A History of Cheshire. Series Editor: J. J. Bagley. Chester, UK: Cheshire Community Council. * Youngs, F. A. (1991). Guide to the Local Administrative Units of England. Volume 1: Northern England. London: Royal Historical Society. . External links * [http://www.cheshirelieutenancy.org.uk/ Cheshire Lieutenancy] * [http://www.visitcheshire.com Chester, Cheshire & Beyond – The official tourist board for Chester & Cheshire] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090326015935/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/census2001/bicentenary/pdfs/cheshire.pdf Office for National Statistics – 2001 Bicentenary – Cheshire] Category:Ceremonial counties of England Category:Counties of England established in antiquity Category:Former non-metropolitan counties Category:North West England Category:NUTS 2 statistical regions of the United Kingdom	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheshire	2025-04-05T18:28:08.630068
7407	County town	In Great Britain and Ireland, a county town is usually the location of administrative or judicial functions within a county, and the place where public representatives are elected to parliament. Following the establishment of county councils in England in 1889, the headquarters of the new councils were usually established in the county town of each county; however, the concept of a county town pre-dates these councils. The concept of a county town is ill-defined and unofficial. Some counties in Great Britain have their administrative bodies housed elsewhere. For example, Lancaster is the county town of Lancashire, but the county council is in Preston. Owing to the creation of unitary authorities, some county towns in Great Britain are administratively separate from the county. For example, Nottingham is separated from the rest of Nottinghamshire, and Brighton and Hove is separate from East Sussex. On a ceremonial level, both are in their own respective counties geographically. Great Britain, historic England This list shows towns or cities which held county functions at various points in time. {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|- !width="170px"\|County\|\|Named after or of same root ! Places that held county functions<!--Assize, ecclesiastical, gaol, county corporates and so on--> \|- \| \|colspan=2\| Bedford \|- \| \|\|N/A\|\|Reading or Abingdon \|- \| \|\|Buckingham\|\| Aylesbury \|- \| \|Cambridge\|\|Ely \|- \| \|colspan=2\|Chester \|- \| \|\|N/A\|\| Truro, Bodmin or Launceston \|- \| \|\|Carlisle (county later renamed)\|\|Cockermouth or Penrith \|- \| \|colspan=2\| Derby <!-- Please do not add Matlock here: it is detailed below under "1889 and after" --> \|- \| \|\|N/A\|\|Exeter \|- \| \|Dorchester\|\|Poole \|- \| \|Durham\|\|Bishop Auckland or Sadberge \|- \| \|\|N/A\|\|Chelmsford \|- \| \|Gloucester\|\|Bristol \|- \| \|\| Southampton\|\|Winchester \|- \| \|colspan=2\| Hereford \|- \| \|colspan=2\| Hertford \|- \| \|colspan=2\| Huntingdon \|- \| \|\| Canterbury (name of same origin) \|\|Maidstone \|- \| \|\| Lancaster\|\|Preston \|- \| \|colspan=2\| Leicester \|- \| \|colspan=2\|Lincoln \|- \| \|\| N/A\|\|Brentford, Clerkenwell, London or Westminster \|- \| \|\|N/A\|\|Norwich \|- \| \|colspan=2\|Northampton \|- \| \|\| N/A\|\|Alnwick, Newcastle upon Tyne, Morpeth or Berwick upon Tweed \|- \| \|colspan2\| Nottingham \|- \| \|colspan=2\| Oxford \|- \| \|\| N/A\|\|Oakham \|- \| \|colspan=2\| Shrewsbury (spellings diverged) \|- \| \|\| Somerton \|\| Taunton, Ilchester, Bath or Wells \|- \| \| Stafford \|\| Lichfield \|- \| \|\|N/A\|\| Ipswich \|- \| \|\|N/A\|\| Guildford, Newington or Southwark \|- \| \|\|N/A\|\| Lewes, Chichester or Horsham \|- \| \|Warwick\|\|Coventry \|- \| \|\|N/A\|\| Appleby or Kendal \|- \| \|\|Wilton\|\| Trowbridge, Salisbury or Devizes \|- \| \| colspan="2" \|Worcester \|- \| \|York\|\| Kingston upon Hull \|} Scotland {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|- !County !! County town \|- \| \|\|Aberdeen \|- \| Angus (or Forfarshire) \|\|Forfar \|- \| Argyll\|\|Lochgilphead (formerly Inveraray) \|- \| Ayrshire\|\|Ayr \|- \| \|\|Banff \|- \| \|\|Duns, Scottish Borders (formerly Berwick-upon-Tweed, formerly Greenlaw) \|- \| Bute\|\|Rothesay \|- \| \|\|Wick \|- \| Clackmannanshire\|\|Alloa (formerly Clackmannan) \|- \| Cromartyshire\|\|Cromarty \|- \| Dumfriesshire\|\|Dumfries \|- \| Dunbartonshire\|\|Dumbarton \|- \| (or Haddingtonshire) \|\|Haddington \|- \| Fife\|\|Cupar \|- \| Inverness-shire\|\|Inverness \|- \| Kincardineshire\|\|Stonehaven (formerly Kincardine) \|- \| Kinross-shire\|\|Kinross \|- \| \|\|Kirkcudbright \|- \| Lanarkshire\|\|Lanark \|- \| Midlothian (or Edinburghshire) \|\|Edinburgh \|- \| (or Elginshire) \|\|Elgin \|- \| Nairnshire\|\|Nairn \|- \| \|\|Kirkwall \|- \| Peeblesshire\|\|Peebles \|- \| Perthshire\|\|Perth \|- \| Renfrewshire\|\|Renfrew \|- \| Ross-shire\|\|Dingwall (also the county town of Ross and Cromarty) \|- \| Roxburghshire\|\|Jedburgh (formerly Roxburgh) \|- \| Selkirkshire\|\|Selkirk \|- \| \|\|Lerwick \|- \| Stirlingshire\|\|Stirling \|- \| \|\|Dornoch \|- \| West Lothian (or Linlithgowshire) \|\|Linlithgow \|- \| Wigtownshire\|\|Wigtown \|} # # # # # # # # Wales Following the Norman invasion of Wales, the Cambro-Normans created the historic shire system (also known as ancient counties). Many of these counties were named for the centre of Norman power within the new county (Caernarfonshire named for Caernarfon, Monmouthshire named for Monmouth) others were named after the previous medieval Welsh kingdoms (Ceredigon becomes Cardigan, Morgannwg becomes Glamorgan). The 1535 Laws in Wales Act established the historic counties in English law, but in Wales they were later replaced with eight preserved counties for ceremonial purposes and the twenty two principal areas are used for administrative purposes. Neither of these subdivisions use official county towns, although their administrative headquarters and ceremonial centres are often located in the historic county town. {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|- !Name in English !! Name in Welsh !! County town in English !! County town in Welsh \|- \| \|\|Ynys Môn\|\|Llangefni<br>(formerly Beaumaris?)\|\|Llangefni<br>Biwmares \|- \| Brecknockshire\|\|Brycheiniog\|\|Brecon\|\|Aberhonddu \|- \| <br>(formerly Carnarvonshire)\|\|Sir Gaernarfon\|\|Caernarfon\|\|Caernarfon \|- \| \|\|Ceredigion\|\|Cardigan\|\|Aberteifi \|- \| Carmarthenshire\|\|Sir Gaerfyrddin\|\|Carmarthen\|\|Caerfyrddin \|- \| Denbighshire\|\|Sir Ddinbych\|\|Ruthin (formerly Denbigh)\|\|Rhuthun (formerly Dinbych) \|- \| \|\|Sir y Fflint\|\|Mold (formerly Flint)\|\|Yr Wyddgrug (formerly Y Fflint) \|- \| \|\|Morgannwg\|\|Cardiff\|\|Caerdydd \|- \| or Merionethshire\|\|Meirionnydd or Sir Feirionnydd\|\|Dolgellau\|\|Dolgellau \|- \| Montgomeryshire\|\|Sir Drefaldwyn\|\|Welshpool (formerly Montgomery)\|\|Y Trallwng (formerly Trefaldwyn) \|- \| \|\|Sir Fynwy\|\| Monmouth\|\|Trefynwy \|- \| \|\|Sir Benfro\|\|Haverfordwest (formerly Pembroke)\|\|Hwlffordd (formerly Penfro) \|- \| Radnorshire\|\|Sir Faesyfed\|\|Presteigne (formerly New Radnor)\|\|Llanandras (former Maesyfed) \|} # Great Britain, post 19th-century reformsWith the creation of elected county councils in 1889, the administrative headquarters in some cases moved away from the traditional county town. Furthermore, in 1965 and 1974 there were major boundary changes in England and Wales and administrative counties were replaced with new metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties. The boundaries underwent further alterations between 1995 and 1998 to create unitary authorities, and some of the ancient counties and county towns were restored. (Note: not all headquarters are or were called County Halls or Shire Halls e.g.: Cumbria County Council's HQ up until 2016 was called The Courts and has since moved to Cumbria House.) Before 1974, many of the county halls were in towns and cities that had the status of a county borough i.e. a borough outside the county council's jurisdiction.England, from 1889{\| class"wikitable sortable" \|- ! County council !! Date !! Headquarters \|- \| Bedfordshire \| 1889 to 2009 \| Bedford \|- \| Berkshire \| 1889 to 1998 \| Reading (county borough until 1974) \|- \| Buckinghamshire \| 1889 onwards \| Aylesbury \|- \| Cambridgeshire \| 1889 to 1965 and<br>1974 onwards \| Cambridge (until 2021)<br>Alconbury Weald (after 2021) \|- \| Cheshire \| 1889 to 2009 \| Chester \|- \| Cornwall \| 1889 onwards \| Truro \|- \| Cumberland \| 1889 to 1974 \| Carlisle (county borough from 1914) \|- \| Derbyshire \| 1889 onwards \| Matlock (moved from Derby, county borough 1958) \|- \| Devon \| 1889 onwards \| Exeter (county borough until 1974). In 1963 the Devon County Buildings Area was transferred from the county borough of Exeter to the administrative county of Devon, of which it formed an exclave until 1974. \|- \| Dorset \| 1889 onwards \| Dorchester \|- \| Durham \| 1889 onwards \| Durham \|- \| Essex \| 1889 onwards \| Chelmsford \|- \| Gloucestershire \| 1889 onwards \| Gloucester (county borough until 1974) \|- \| Hampshire \| 1889 onwards \| Winchester \|- \| Herefordshire \| 1889 to 1974 and<br>1998 onwards \| Hereford \|- \| Hertfordshire \| 1889 onwards \| Hertford \|- \| Huntingdonshire \| 1889 to 1965 \| Huntingdon \|- \| Isle of Ely \| 1889 to 1965 \| March \|- \| Isle of Wight \| 1890 onwards \| Newport \|- \| Kent \| 1889 onwards \| Maidstone \|- \| Lancashire \| 1889 onwards \| Preston (county borough until 1974) \|- \| Leicestershire \| 1889 onwards \| Leicester \|- \| Lincolnshire, Parts of Lindsey \| 1889 to 1974 \| Lincoln (county borough) \|- \| Lincolnshire, Parts of Holland \| 1889 to 1974 \| Boston \|- \| Lincolnshire, Parts of Kesteven \| 1889 to 1974 \| Sleaford \|- \| London \| 1889 to 1965 \| Spring Gardens, Westminster until 1922, County Hall at Lambeth thereafter \|- \| Middlesex \| 1889 to 1965 \| Middlesex Guildhall at Westminster in County of London \|- \| Norfolk \| 1889 onwards \| Norwich (county borough until 1974) \|- \| Northamptonshire \| 1889 onwards \| Northampton (county borough until 1974) \|- \| Northumberland \| 1889 onwards \| County Hall Newcastle upon Tyne 1889 – 1981<br>County Hall Morpeth since 1981 \|- \| Nottinghamshire \| 1889 onwards \| West Bridgford (moved from county borough of Nottingham in 1959) \|- \| Oxfordshire \| 1889 onwards \| Oxford (county borough until 1974) \|- \| Soke of Peterborough \| 1889 to 1965 \| Peterborough \|- \| Rutland \| 1889 to 1974 and<br>1997 onwards \| Oakham \|- \| Shropshire \| 1889 onwards \| Shrewsbury \|- \| Somerset \| 1889 onwards \| Taunton \|- \| Staffordshire \| 1889 onwards \| Stafford \|- \| East Suffolk \| 1889 to 1974 \| Ipswich (county borough) \|- \| West Suffolk \| 1889 to 1974 \| Bury St Edmunds \|- \| Surrey \| 1889 onwards \| Inner London Sessions House, Newington (until 1893)<br>County Hall, Kingston upon Thames (18932020)<br>Woodhatch Place, Reigate (2021 onwards) \|- \| East Sussex \| 1889 onwards \| Lewes \|- \| West Sussex \| 1889 onwards \| Chichester (originally jointly with Horsham) The counties have no current administrative relevance. {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|- !County !! County town \|- \|Cornwall \|Savanna-la-Mar \|- \|Middlesex \|Spanish Town \|- \|Surrey \|Kingston \|} See also * Administrative centre * County seat References Category:Capitals Category:Towns in Ireland Category:Towns in the United Kingdom	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_town	2025-04-05T18:28:08.692095
7411	Constitution of Canada	The Constitution of Canada () is the supreme law in Canada. It outlines Canada's system of government and the civil and human rights of those who are citizens of Canada and non-citizens in Canada. Its contents are an amalgamation of various codified acts, treaties between the Crown and Indigenous Peoples (both historical and modern), uncodified traditions and conventions. Canada is one of the oldest constitutional monarchies in the world. The Canadian constitution includes core written documents and provisions that are constitutionally entrenched, take precedence over all other laws and place substantive limits on government action; these include the Constitution Act, 1867 (formerly the British North America Act, 1867) and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. The Constitution Act, 1867 provides for a constitution "similar in principle" to the largely unwritten constitution of the United Kingdom, recognizes Canada as a constitutional monarchy and federal state, and outlines the legal foundations of Canadian federalism. The Constitution of Canada includes written and unwritten components. The Supreme Court of Canada has held that this list is not exhaustive and that the Constitution of Canada includes a number of pre-confederation acts and unwritten components as well. The Canadian constitution also includes the fundamental principles of federalism, democracy, constitutionalism and the rule of law, and respect for minorities. The act renamed the northeasterly portion of the former French province of New France as the Province of Quebec, roughly coextensive with the southern third of contemporary Quebec. The proclamation, which established an appointed colonial government, was the constitution of Quebec until 1774 when the British parliament passed the Quebec Act, which expanded the province's boundaries to the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers (one of the grievances listed in the United States Declaration of Independence). Significantly, the Quebec Act also replaced French criminal law with the English common law system; but the French civil law system was retained for non-criminal matters. thumb\|left\|A painting depicting negotiations that would lead to the enactment of the British North America Act, 1867 The Treaty of Paris of 1783 ended the American War of Independence and sent a wave of British loyalist refugees northward to Quebec and Nova Scotia. In 1784, the two provinces were divided: Nova Scotia was split into Nova Scotia, Cape Breton Island (rejoined to Nova Scotia in 1820), Prince Edward Island, and New Brunswick, while Quebec was split into Lower Canada (southern Quebec) and Upper Canada (southern through lower northern Ontario). The winter of 1837–38 saw rebellion in both Canadas, contributing to their re-union as the Province of Canada in 1841. The British North America Act, 1867 established the Dominion of Canada as a federation of provinces. Initially, on July 1, 1867, four provinces entered into confederation as "One dominion under the name of Canada": Canada West (former Upper Canada, now Ontario), Canada East (former Lower Canada, now Quebec), Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. Although listed, Newfoundland never ratified the statute so was still subject to imperial authority when its entire system of government and economy collapsed in the mid-1930s. Canada did ratify the statute but with a requested exception—the Canadian federal and provincial governments could not agree on an amending formula for the Canadian constitution. It would be another 50 years before this was achieved. In the interim, the British parliament periodically passed constitutional amendments when requested by the government of Canada. This was never anything but a rubber stamp. The patriation of the Canadian constitution was achieved in 1982 when the British parliament, with the request and assent of the Canadian Parliament, passed the Canada Act 1982, which included in its schedules the Constitution Act, 1982. The United Kingdom thus renounced any remaining responsibility for, or jurisdiction over, Canada. In a formal ceremony on Parliament Hill in Ottawa, Queen Elizabeth II proclaimed the Constitution Act, 1982 into law on April 17, 1982. The Constitution Act, 1982, includes the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Before the Charter, various statutes protected an assortment of civil rights and obligations but nothing was enshrined in the constitution until 1982. The Charter has thus placed a strong focus upon individual and collective rights of the people of Canada. The enactment of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms has fundamentally changed much of Canadian constitutional law. The act also codified many previously oral constitutional conventions and made amendment of the constitution in general significantly more difficult. Previously, the Canadian constitution could be formally amended by an act of the British parliament, or by informal agreement between the federal and provincial governments, or even simply by adoption as the custom of an oral convention or performance that shows precedential but unwritten tradition. Since the act, textual amendments must now conform to certain specified provisions in the written portion of the Canadian constitution. Constitution Act, 1867 This was an act of the British parliament, originally called the British North America Act 1867. It outlined Canada's system of government, which combines Britain's Westminster model of parliamentary government with the division of sovereignty (federalism). Although it is the first of 20 British North America Acts, it is the most famous as the primary document of Canadian Confederation. With the patriation of the Constitution in 1982, this act was renamed Constitution Act, 1867. In recent years, the 1867 document has mainly served as the basis on which the division of powers between the provinces and the federal government is analyzed. Constitution Act, 1982 Endorsed by all provincial governments except that of Quebec, this was the formal act of Parliament that effected Canada's full legislative independence from the United Kingdom. Part V of this act established an amending formula for the Canadian constitution, the lack of which (due to more than 50 years of disagreement between the federal and provincial governments) meant Canada's constitutional amendments still required enactment by the British parliament after the Statute of Westminster in 1931. The Constitution Act, 1982 was enacted as a schedule to the Canada Act 1982, a British act of Parliament which was introduced at the request of a joint address to Queen Elizabeth II by the Senate and House of Commons of Canada. The version of the Canada Act 1982 which is in force in Britain is in English only, but the version of the act in force in Canada is bilingual, English and French. In addition to enacting the Constitution Act, 1982, the Canada Act 1982 provides that no further British acts of Parliament will apply to Canada as part of its law, finalizing Canada's legislative independence. Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms As noted above, this is Part I of the Constitution Act, 1982. The Charter is the constitutional guarantee of the civil rights and liberties of every citizen in Canada, such as freedom of expression, of religion, and of mobility. Part II addresses the rights of Aboriginal peoples in Canada. Canada's constitution is composed of several individual statutes. There are three general methods by which a statute becomes entrenched in the Constitution: Specific mention as a constitutional document in section 52(2) of the Constitution Act, 1982 (e.g., the Constitution Act, 1867). Constitutional entrenchment of an otherwise statutory English, British, or Canadian document because its (still in force) subject-matter provisions are explicitly assigned to one of the methods of the amending formula (per the Constitution Act, 1982)—e.g., provisions with regard to the monarchy in the English Bill of Rights 1689 or the Act of Settlement 1701.English and British statutes are part of Canadian law because of the Colonial Laws Validity Act 1865; section 129 of the Constitution Act, 1867; and the Statute of Westminster 1931. If still at least partially unrepealed those laws then became entrenched when the amending formula was made part of the constitution. Reference by an entrenched document—e.g., the Preamble of the Constitution Act, 1867 entrenchment of written and unwritten principles from the constitution of the United Kingdom or the Constitution Act, 1982 reference to the Proclamation of 1763.Crucially, this includes Aboriginal rights and Crown treaties with particular First Nations (e.g., historic "numbered" treaties; modern land-claims agreements). Unwritten or uncodified sources The existence of unwritten constitutional components was reaffirmed in 1998 by the Supreme Court in Reference re Secession of Quebec. The Constitution is more than a written text. It embraces the entire global system of rules and principles which govern the exercise of constitutional authority. A superficial reading of selected provisions of the written constitutional enactment, without more, may be misleading. In practice, there have been three sources of unwritten constitutional law: Conventions Constitutional conventions form part of the constitution, but they are not judicially enforceable. They include the existence of the office of prime minister and the Cabinet, the practice that the Crown in most circumstances is required to grant royal assent to bills adopted by both houses of Parliament, and the requirement that the prime minister either resign or request a dissolution and general election upon losing a vote of confidence in the House of Commons. Royal prerogative Reserve powers of the Canadian Crown, being remnants of the powers once held by the British Crown, reduced over time by the parliamentary system. Primarily, these are the orders in council, which give the government the authority to declare war, conclude treaties, issue passports, make appointments, make regulations, incorporate, and receive lands that escheat to the Crown. Unwritten principles Principles that are incorporated into the Canadian constitution by the preamble of the Constitution Act, 1867, including a statement that the constitution is "similar in Principle to that of the United Kingdom", much of which is unwritten. Unlike conventions, they are justiciable. Amongst those principles most recognized as constitutional to date are federalism, liberal democracy, constitutionalism, the rule of law, and respect for minorities. Others include responsible government, representation by population, judicial independence, parliamentary supremacy, and an implied bill of rights. In one case, the Provincial Judges Reference (1997), a law was held invalid for contradicting an unwritten principle (in this case judicial independence). Provincial constitutions Unlike in most federations, Canadian provinces do not have written provincial constitutions. Provincial constitutions are instead a combination of uncodified constitution, provisions of the Constitution of Canada, and provincial statutes. Overall structures of provincial governments (like the legislature and cabinet) are described in parts of the Constitution of Canada. Governmental structure of the original four provinces (Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec, and Ontario) is described in Part V of the Constitution Act, 1867. The three colonies that joined Canada after Confederation (British Columbia, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland and Labrador) had existing UK legislation which described their governmental structure, and this was affirmed in each colony's Terms of Union, which now form part of Canada's Constitution. The remaining three provinces (Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta) were created by federal statute. Their constitutional structures are described in those statutes, which now form part of Canada's Constitution. All provinces have enacted legislation that establishes other rules for the structure of government. For example, every province (and territory) has an act governing elections to the legislature, and another governing procedure in the legislature. Two provinces have explicitly listed such acts as being part of their provincial constitution; see Constitution of Quebec and Constitution Act (British Columbia). However, these acts do not, generally, supersede other legislation and do not require special procedures to amend, and so they function as regular statutes rather than constitutional statutes. A small number of non-constitutional provincial laws do supersede all other provincial legislation, as a constitution would. This is referred to as quasi-constitutionality. Quasi-constitutionality is often applied to human rights laws, allowing those laws to act as a de facto constitutional charter of rights. For example, laws preventing discrimination in employment, housing, and services have clauses making them quasi-constitutional in ten of thirteen jurisdictions. Amending provincial constitutions Section 45 of the Constitution Act, 1982 allows each province to amend its own constitution. This applies, for example, to provincial statute laws like Constitution of Quebec and Constitution Act (British Columbia). However, if the desired change would require an amendment to any documents that form part of the Constitution of Canada, it would require the consent of the Senate and House of Commons under section 43. This was done, for example, by the Constitution Amendment, 1998, when Newfoundland asked the federal government to amend the Terms of Union of Newfoundland to allow it to end denominational quotas for religion classes. A small number of statutes within provincial constitutions cannot be amended by a simple majority of the legislative assembly, despite section 45. For example, section 7 of the Constitution of Alberta Amendment Act, 1990 requires plebiscites of Métis settlement members before that act can be amended. Courts have not yet ruled about whether this kind of language really would bind future legislatures, but it might do so if the higher bar was met when creating the law. Vandalism of the proclamation paper In 1983, Peter Greyson, an art student, entered Ottawa's National Archives (known today as Library and Archives Canada) and poured red paint mixed with glue over a copy of the proclamation of the 1982 constitutional amendment. He said he was displeased with the federal government's decision to allow United States missile testing in Canada and had wanted to "graphically illustrate to Canadians" how wrong he believed the government to be. Greyson was charged with public mischief and sentenced to 89 days in jail, 100 hours of community work, and two years of probation. A grapefruit-sized stain remains on the original document; restoration specialists opted to leave most of the paint intact, fearing that removal attempts would only cause further damage. See also Canadian values Constitutionalism References Further reading External links Full text of the Constitution – a comprehensive history of the Canadian Constitution with digitized primary sources. Fundamental Freedoms: The Charter of Rights and Freedoms – Charter of Rights and Freedoms website with video, audio and the Charter in over 20 languages. Meech Lake Accord, 1987 Charlottetown Accord, 1992 Results of Referendum on the Charlottetown Accord, 1992 CBC Digital Archives – Charting the Future: Canada's New Constitution CBC Digital Archives – Canada's Constitutional Debate: What Makes a Nation? OriginalDocuments.ca Constitution of Canada Category:Uncodified constitutions	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Canada	2025-04-05T18:28:08.725175
7424	Crochet	Crochet (; ) is a process of creating textiles by using a crochet hook to interlock loops of yarn, thread, or strands of other materials. The name is derived from the French term crochet, which means ''''hook'.' Hooks can be made from different materials (aluminum, steel, metal, wood, bamboo, bone, etc.), sizes, and types (in-line, tapered, ergonomic, etc.). The key difference between crochet and knitting, beyond the implements used for their production, is that each stitch in crochet is completed before you begin the next one, while knitting keeps many stitches open at a time. Some variant forms of crochet, such as Tunisian crochet and Broomstick lace, do keep multiple crochet stitches open at a time. Etymology The word crochet is derived from the French word , a diminutive of croche, in turn from the Germanic croc, both meaning "hook". In 1567, the tailor of Mary, Queen of Scots, Jehan de Compiegne, supplied her with silk thread for sewing and crochet, "soye à coudre et crochetz". Origins , Italy]] Knitted textiles survive from as early as the 11th century CE, but the first substantive evidence of crocheted fabric emerges in Europe during the 19th century. Earlier work identified as crochet was commonly made by nålebinding, a different looped yarn technique. There are three main theories for the origin of crochet.Some believe that its beginnings can be traced to the Arab trade route, originating in Arabia and spreading to Tibet and then Spain as well as other Mediterranean countries. The first is "simple open crochet" (crochet simple ajour), a mesh of chain-stitch arches. The second (illustrated here) starts in a semi-open form (demi jour), where chain-stitch arches alternate with equally long segments of slip-stitch crochet, and closes with a star made with "double-crochet stitches" (dubbelde hekelsteek: double-crochet in British terminology; single-crochet in US). The third purse is made entirely in double-crochet. The instructions prescribe the use of a tambour needle (as illustrated below) and introduce a number of decorative techniques. The earliest dated reference in English to garments made of cloth produced by looping yarn with a hook—shepherd's knitting—is in The Memoirs of a Highland Lady by Elizabeth Grant (1797–1830). The journal entry, itself, is dated 1812 but was not recorded in its subsequently published form until some time between 1845 and 1867, and the actual date of publication was first in 1898. Nonetheless, the 1833 volume of Penélopé'' describes and illustrates a shepherd's hook, and recommends its use for crochet with coarser yarn. In 1844, one of the numerous books discussing crochet that began to appear in the 1840s states: Two years later, the same author writes: An instruction book from 1846 describes Shepherd or single crochet as what in current international terminology is either called single crochet or slip-stitch crochet, with U.S. terminology always using the latter (reserving single crochet for use as noted above). It similarly equates "Double" and "French crochet". Notwithstanding the categorical assertion of a purely British origin, there is solid evidence of a connection between French tambour embroidery, french passementerie and crochet. A form of hook known as crochet was used to create 'chains in the air' as part of passementerie back in the 17th century. This is confirmed by a patent issued to the passementiers by Louis XIV in 1653, and there are earlier decorative examples of this technique. The patent lists various items, including "thread for embroidery, enhanced and embellished as done with a needle, on thimbles, on the fingers, on a crochet, and on a bobbin." Similarly, chain stitch appears in Queen Elizabeth I's wardrobe accounts, starting in 1558, with further references to garments bordered with 'cheyne lace' in other inventories. One example from 1588 describes "a long cloak of murry velvet, with a border of small cheyne lace of Venice silver." While the exact design of the 1653 crochet is unclear, a 1723 French dictionary by Jacques Savary des Brûlons describes a crochet as a small iron instrument, three or four inches long, with a pointed, curved end and a wooden handle, used by passementiers for tasks like creating hat seams and attaching flowers to mesh. It is most likely that the hook used in crochet came from the ones used by the French pessamenterie industry. French tambour embroidery and the crochet needle used for it was illustrated in detail in 1763 in Diderot's Encyclopedia. The tip of the needle shown there is indistinguishable from that of a present-day inline crochet hook and the chain stitch separated from a cloth support is a fundamental element of the latter technique. The 1823 Penélopé instructions unequivocally state that the tambour tool was used for crochet and the first of the 1840s instruction books uses the terms tambour and crochet as synonyms. This equivalence is retained in the 4th edition of that work, 1847. The strong taper of the shepherd's hook eases the production of slip-stitch crochet but is less amenable to stitches that require multiple loops on the hook at the same time. Early yarn hooks were also continuously tapered but gradually enough to accommodate multiple loops. The design with a cylindrical shaft that is commonplace today was largely reserved for tambour-style steel needles. Both types gradually merged into the modern form that appeared toward the end of the 19th century, including both tapered and cylindrical segments, and the continuously tapered bone hook remained in industrial production until World War II. The early instruction books make frequent reference to the alternative use of 'ivory, bone, or wooden hooks' and 'steel needles in a handle', as appropriate to the stitch being made. Taken with the synonymous labeling of shepherd's- and single crochet, and the similar equivalence of French- and double crochet, there is a strong suggestion that crochet is rooted both in tambour embroidery and shepherd's knitting, leading to thread and yarn crochet respectively; a distinction that is still made. The locus of the fusion of all these elements—the "invention" noted above—has yet to be determined, as does the origin of shepherd's knitting. Shepherd's hooks are still being made for local slip-stitch crochet traditions. The form in the accompanying photograph is typical for contemporary production. A longer continuously tapering design intermediate between it and the 19th-century tapered hook was also in earlier production, commonly being made from the handles of forks and spoons. Irish crochet lace, late 19th century. The design of this example is closely based on Flemish needle lace of the 17th century.]] In the 19th century, as Ireland was facing the Great Irish Famine (1845–1849), crochet lace work was introduced as a form of famine relief (the production of crocheted lace being an alternative way of making money for impoverished Irish workers). Men, women, children joined a co-operative in order to crochet and produce products to help with famine relief during the Great Irish Famine. Schools to teach crocheting were started. Teachers were trained and sent across Ireland to teach this craft. When the Irish immigrated to the Americas, they were able to take with them crocheting. Mademoiselle Riego de la Branchardiere is generally credited with the invention of Irish Crochet, publishing the first book of patterns in 1846. Irish lace became popular in Europe and America, and was made in quantity until the first World War.Modern practice and cultureFashions in crochet changed with the end of the Victorian era in the 1890s. Crocheted laces in the new Edwardian era, peaking between 1910 and 1920, became even more elaborate in texture and complicated stitching. by an internee at Manzanar War Relocation Center, 1943. Photograph by Ansel Adams]] The strong Victorian colors disappeared, though, and new publications called for white or pale threads, except for fancy purses, which were often crocheted of brightly colored silk and elaborately beaded. After World War I, far fewer crochet patterns were published, and most of them were simplified versions of the early 20th-century patterns. After World War II, from the late 1940s until the early 1960s, there was a resurgence in interest in home crafts, particularly in the United States, with many new and imaginative crochet designs published for colorful doilies, potholders, and other home items, along with updates of earlier publications. These patterns called for thicker threads and yarns than in earlier patterns and included variegated colors. The craft remained primarily a homemaker's art until the late 1960s and early 1970s, when the new generation picked up on crochet and popularized granny squares, a motif worked in the round and incorporating bright colors. ]] Although crochet underwent a subsequent decline in popularity, the early 21st century has seen a revival of interest in handcrafts and DIY, as well as improvement of the quality and varieties of yarn. As well as books and classes, there are YouTube tutorials and TikTok videos to help people who may need a clearer explanation to learn how to crochet. Crochet has been used as a medium to explore identity and self-expression in educational programs, bridging the gap between art and technology. Filet crochet, Tunisian crochet, tapestry crochet, broomstick lace, hairpin lace, cro-hooking, and Irish crochet are all variants of the basic crochet method. Mental health benefits of crocheting Coping with anxiety, depression, major life events such as grief or divorce, and management of chronic pain and illness. Crochet is relatively low-cost and portable and the basic stitches can be easily learned by most people. The tactile and creative nature of crochet has been shown to improve emotional well-being and foster a sense of community among participants. Based on a study done by the Royal Society for Public Health in 2020 on 8,391 crocheters from 87 different countries over 6 weeks, 89.5% of crocheters felt calmer, 82% felt happier, and 74.7% felt more useful which can signify an improvement in mental health from participating in crochet. The benefits appear to stem from the low cost, portability, and easily learned aspects of crochet. Sustainability and crochet in fashion Sustainability can be a key pillar of crochet, as it may use upcycled and environmentally friendly materials in yarn to create sustainable fabrics such as bamboo, hemp, cotton, linen, and wool. Synthetic fibres, e.g., acrylic and polyester are, nevertheless, quite commonly used. Since crochet is typically made by hand, crochet contributes to ethical production by adhering to the slow production of garments and accessories rather than the fast-paced and mechanized garments that are produced on a mass scale by the fast fashion industry. There are crochet machines but there is little evidence to support crochet machines contributing to mass production in the same sense that other textiles are being used in fast fashion. In addition, crochet fabric can be loosened and undone easily to be reused in a new way. Crochet can be added to worn or torn garments and to add a stylistic enhancement, such as a collar or sleeves, which may contribute to upcycling of clothing. Crochet highlights the sustainability factor of quality versus quantity because of the customization aspect which can make crochet items more personalized. Another aspect of the sustainability of crochet is that crochet is versatile and can be used to create many different products eliminating the need to constantly buy new products. Many crochet and knit yarn brands have taken a stance on sustainability by aiming to increase the production of natural fibers such as organic cotton, hemp, wool and recycled yarns. Creating crocheted items has become a way to make sustainable fashion. Fast fashion brands like Shein have created products that resemble crocheted items. tapestry crocheted in Guatemala]] Crochet has experienced a revival on the catwalk as well. Christopher Kane's Fall 2011 Ready-to-Wear collection makes intensive use of the granny square, one of the most basic of crochet motifs. Websites such as Etsy and Ravelry have made it easier for individual hobbyists to sell and distribute their patterns or projects across the internet.MaterialsThe basic materials required for crocheting are a hook, scissors (to cut yarn), and some type of material that will be crocheted, the most commonly used are yarn or thread. Alternatively, some people choose to crochet with their hands, especially for large yarns. Yarn, one of the most commonly used materials for crocheting, has varying weights which need to be taken into consideration when following patterns. The weight of the yarn can affect not only the look of the product but also the feeling. Acrylic can also be used when crocheting, as it is synthetic and an alternative to wool. Additional tools are convenient for making related accessories. Examples of such tools include cardboard cutouts, which can be used to make tassels, fringe, and many other items; a pom-pom circle, used to make pom-poms; a tape measure and a gauge measure, both used for measuring crocheted work and counting stitches; a row counter; and occasionally plastic rings, which are used for special projects. In recent years, yarn selections have moved beyond synthetic and plant and animal-based fibers to include bamboo, qiviut, hemp, and banana stalks, to name a few. Many advanced crocheters have also incorporated recycled materials into their work in an effort to "go green" and experiment with new textures by using items such as plastic bags, old T-shirts or sheets, VCR or cassette tape, and ribbon. Artisan-made hooks are often made of hand-turned woods, sometimes decorated with semi-precious stones or beads. Steel crochet hooks are sized in a reverse manner – the higher the number, the smaller the hook. They range in size from 0.9 to 2.7 millimeters, or from 14 to 00 in American sizing. A yarn's usefulness is judged by several factors, such as its loft (its ability to trap air), its resilience (elasticity under tension), its washability and colorfastness, its hand (its feel, particularly softness vs. scratchiness), its durability against abrasion, its resistance to pilling, its hairiness (fuzziness), its tendency to twist or untwist, its overall weight and drape, its blocking and felting qualities, its comfort (breathability, moisture absorption, wicking properties) and its appearance, which includes its color, sheen, smoothness and ornamental features. Other factors include allergenicity, speed of drying, resistance to chemicals, moths, and mildew, melting point and flammability, retention of static electricity, and the propensity to accept dyes. Desirable properties may vary for different projects, so there is no one "best" yarn. Although crochet may be done with ribbons, metal wire, or more exotic filaments, most yarns are made by spinning fibers. In spinning, the fibers are twisted so that the yarn resists breaking under tension; the twisting may be done in either direction, resulting in a Z-twist or S-twist yarn. If the fibers are first aligned by combing them and the spinner uses a worsted type drafting method such as the short forward draw, the yarn is smoother and called a worsted; by contrast, if the fibers are carded but not combed and the spinner uses a woolen drafting method such as the long backward draw, the yarn is fuzzier and called woolen-spun. The fibers making up a yarn may be continuous filament fibers such as silk and many synthetics, or they may be staples (fibers of an average length, typically a few inches); naturally filament fibers are sometimes cut up into staples before spinning. The strength of the spun yarn against breaking is determined by the amount of twist, the length of the fibers, and the thickness of the yarn. In general, yarns become stronger with more twists (also called worst), longer fibers, and thicker yarns (more fibers); for example, thinner yarns require more twists than thicker yarns to resist breaking under tension. The thickness of the yarn may vary along its length; a slub is a much thicker section in which a mass of fibers is incorporated into the yarn. The spun fibers are generally divided into animal fibers, plant, and synthetic fibers. These fiber types are chemically different, corresponding to proteins, carbohydrates, and synthetic polymers, respectively. Animal fibers include silk, but generally are long hairs of animals such as sheep (wool), goat (angora, or cashmere goat), rabbit (angora), llama, alpaca, dog, cat, camel, yak, and muskox (qiviut). Plants used for fibers include cotton, flax (for linen), bamboo, ramie, hemp, jute, nettle, raffia, yucca, coconut husk, banana trees, soy and corn. Rayon and acetate fibers are also produced from cellulose mainly derived from trees. Common synthetic fibers include acrylics, polyesters such as dacron and ingeo, nylon and other polyamides, and olefins such as polypropylene. Of these types, wool is generally favored for crochet, chiefly owing to its superior elasticity, warmth and (sometimes) felting; however, wool is generally less convenient to clean and some people are allergic to it. It is also common to blend different fibers in the yarn, e.g., 85% alpaca and 15% silk. Even within a type of fiber, there can be great variety in the length and thickness of the fibers; for example, Merino wool and Egyptian cotton are favored because they produce exceptionally long, thin (fine) fibers for their type. A single spun yarn may be crochet as is, or braided or plied with another. In plying, two or more yarns are spun together, almost always in the opposite sense from which they were spun individually; for example, two Z-twist yarns are usually plied with an S-twist. The opposing twist relieves some of the yarn's tendency to curl up and produces a thicker, balanced yarn. Plied yarns may themselves be plied together, producing cabled yarns or multi-stranded yarns. Sometimes, the yarns being plied are fed at different rates, so that one yarn loops around the other, as in bouclé. The single yarns may be dyed separately before plying, or afterward to give the yarn a uniform look. The dyeing of yarns is a complex art. Yarns need not be dyed, or they may be dyed one color or a great variety of colors. Dyeing may be done industrially, by hand, or even hand-painted onto the yarn. A great variety of synthetic dyes have been developed since the synthesis of indigo dye in the mid-19th century; however, natural dyes are also possible, although they are generally less brilliant. The color scheme of a yarn is sometimes called its colorway. Variegated yarns can produce interesting visual effects, such as diagonal stripes. ProcessCrocheted fabric is begun by placing a slip-knot loop on the hook (though other methods, such as a magic ring or simple folding over of the yarn, may be used), pulling another loop through the first loop, and repeating this process to create a chain of a suitable length. The chain is either turned and worked in rows, or joined to the beginning of the row with a slip stitch and worked in rounds. Rounds can also be created by working many stitches into a single loop. Stitches are made by pulling one or more loops through each loop of the chain. At any one time at the end of a stitch, there is only one loop left on the hook. Tunisian crochet, however, draws all of the loops for an entire row onto a long hook before working them off one at a time. Like knitting, crochet can be worked either flat (back and forth in rows) or in the round (in spirals, such as when making tubular pieces). Types of stitches There are six main types of basic stitches (the following description uses international crochet terminology with US variants noted in brackets). #Chain stitch (ch) – the most basic of all stitches and used to begin most projects. Yarn round hook (yrh) and draw through. #Slip stitch (sl st or ss) – used to join chain stitch to form a ring. Insert hook in work, yrh, draw through. #Double crochet (dc) (US = single crochet) – Insert hook, draw loop through, (2 loops on hook, hence double), yrh, draw through. #Half treble (htr) (US = half double) – yrh, insert hook, draw loop through, (3 loops on hook, hence treble), yrh, draw through all loops. #Treble (tr) (US = double) – yrh, insert hook, draw loop through (3 loops on hook, hence treble), yrh, draw through 2 loops, yrh, draw through 2 loops. #Double treble (US = treble or triple) – as treble but 2 yrh at start (hence double treble). Also triple treble (ttr), as treble but with 3 yrh at start, and so on. While the horizontal distance covered by these basic stitches is the same, they differ in height and can be replaced with a length of ch when required, e.g. 1 tr 3 ch. The more advanced stitches are often combinations of these basic stitches, or are made by inserting the hook into the work in unusual locations. More advanced stitches include the shell stitch, V stitch, spike stitch, Afghan stitch, butterfly stitch, popcorn stitch, cluster stitch, and crocodile stitch. International crochet terms and notations There are two main notations of basic stitches, one used across Europe, Australia, India and other crocheting nations, the other in the US and Canada. (In America, international terminology is often erroneously called British or UK terminology.) Crochet is traditionally worked from a written pattern using standard abbreviations or from a diagram, thus enabling non-English speakers to use English-based patterns. To help counter confusion when reading patterns, a diagramming system using a standard international notation has come into use (illustration, left). In the United States, crochet terminology and sizing guidelines, as well as standards for yarn and hook labeling, are primarily regulated by the Craft Yarn Council. {\| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" \|+Common Crochet Stitches !International term !US term \|- \|Double crochet (dc) \|Single crochet (sc) \|- \|Half treble (htr) \|Half double crochet (hdc) \|- \|Treble (tr) \|Double crochet (dc) \|- \|Double treble (dtr) \|Triple crochet (tr) \|- \|Double crochet 2 together (dc2tog) \|Single 2 together (sc2tog) \|- \|Treble 2 together (tr2tog) \|Double 2 together (dc2tog) \|} Another terminological difference is known as tension (international) and gauge (US). Individual crocheters work yarn with a loose or a tight hold and, if unmeasured, these differences can lead to significant size changes in finished garments that have the same number of stitches. In order to control for this inconsistency, printed crochet instructions include a standard for the number of stitches across a standard swatch of fabric. An individual crocheter begins work by producing a test swatch and compensating for any discrepancy by changing to a smaller or larger hook. Differences and similarities to knitting One of the more obvious differences is that crochet uses one hook while most knitting uses two needles. In most crochet, the artisan usually has only one live stitch on the hook (except Tunisian crochet), while a knitter keeps an entire row of stitches active simultaneously. Dropped stitches, which can unravel a knitted fabric, rarely interfere with crochet work, due to a second structural difference between knitting and crochet. In knitting, each stitch is supported by the corresponding stitch in the row above and it supports the corresponding stitch in the row below. In contrast, crochet stitches are only supported by and support the stitches on either side of it. If a stitch in a finished crocheted item breaks, the stitches above and below remain intact, and because of the complex looping of each stitch, the stitches on either side are unlikely to come loose unless heavily stressed Round or cylindrical patterns are simple to produce with a regular crochet hook, but cylindrical knitting requires either a set of circular needles or three to five special double-ended needles. Many crocheted items are composed of individual motifs which are then joined, either by sewing or crocheting, whereas knitting is usually composed of one fabric, such as entrelac. Freeform crochet is a technique that can create interesting shapes in three dimensions because new stitches can be made independently of previous stitches almost anywhere in the crocheted piece. It is generally accomplished by building shapes or structural elements onto existing crocheted fabric at any place the crafter desires. Knitting can be accomplished by machine, while many crochet stitches can only be crafted by hand. The height of knitted and crocheted stitches is also different: a single crochet stitch is twice the height of a knit stitch in the same yarn size and comparable diameter tools, and a double crochet stitch is about four times the height of a knit stitch. While most crochet is made with a hook, there is also a method of crocheting with a knitting loom. This is called loomchet. Slip stitch crochet is very similar to knitting. Each stitch in slip stitch crochet is formed the same way as a knit or purl stitch which is then bound off. A person working in slip stitch crochet can follow a knitted pattern with knits, purls, and cables, and get a similar result. It is a common perception that crochet produces a thicker fabric than knitting, tends to have less "give" than knitted fabric, and uses approximately a third more yarn for a comparable project than knitted items. Although this is true when comparing a single crochet swatch with a stockinette swatch, both made with the same size yarn and needle/hook, it is not necessarily true for crochet in general. Most crochet uses far less than 1/3 more yarn than knitting for comparable pieces, and a crocheter can get similar feel and drape to knitting by using a larger hook or thinner yarn. Tunisian crochet and slip stitch crochet can in some cases use less yarn than knitting for comparable pieces. According to sources claiming to have tested the 1/3 more yarn assertion, a single crochet stitch (sc) uses approximately the same amount of yarn as knit garter stitch, but more yarn than stockinette stitch. Any stitch using yarnovers uses less yarn than single crochet to produce the same amount of fabric. Cluster stitches, which are in fact multiple stitches worked together, will use the most length. Standard crochet stitches like sc and dc also produce a thicker fabric, more like knit garter stitch. This is part of why they use more yarn. Slip stitch can produce a fabric much like stockinette that is thinner and therefore uses less yarn. Any yarn can be either knitted or crocheted, provided needles or hooks of the correct size are used, but the cord's properties should be taken into account. For example, lofty, thick woolen yarns tend to function better when knitted, which does not crush their airy structure, while thin and tightly spun yarn helps to achieve the firm texture required for Amigurumi crochet. <div class="center"> <gallery widths"200px" heights"170px" perrow"4" caption"Differences between crochet and knitting"> File:Crochet-round.jpg\|Most crochet uses one hook and works upon one stitch at a time. Crochet may be worked in circular rounds without any specialized tools, as shown here. File:Pink knitting in front of pink sweatshirt.JPG\|Knitting uses two or more straight needles that carry multiple stitches. File:Doublepoints2.JPG\|Unlike crochet, knitting requires specialized needles to create circular rounds. File:Amigurumi-bear.jpg\|For amigurumi, crocheting creates a knobbier and more structured texture compared with knitting. </gallery> </div> Craftivism It has been very common for people and groups to crochet clothing and other garments and then donate them to soldiers during war. People have also crocheted clothing and then donated it to hospitals, for sick patients and also for newborn babies. Sometimes groups will crochet for a specific charity purpose, such as crocheting for homeless shelters, nursing homes, etc. It is becoming increasingly popular to crochet hats (commonly referred to as "chemo caps") and donate them to cancer treatment centers, for those undergoing chemotherapy and therefore losing hair. During October pink hats and scarves are made and proceeds are donated to breast cancer funds. Organizations dedicated to using crochet as a way to help others include Knots of Love, Crochet for Cancer, and Soldiers' Angels. These organizations offer warm useful items for people in need. In 2020, people around the world banded together to help save the wildlife affected by the Australian bushfires by crocheting kangaroo pouches, koala mittens, and wildlife nests. This was an international effort to help during the particularly bad bushfire season which devastated local ecological systems. A group started in 2005 to create crochet versions of coral reefs grew by 2022 to over 20,000 contributors in what became the Crochet Coral Reef Project. Extending hyperbolic crochet for activism and education with color, a group of South African crafters created The Abundance Crochet Coral Reef, an eco-art installation in Cape Town's Two Oceans Aquarium, to juxtapose hyperbolic shapes crocheted in variations of white on one side of a display with fiber coral shapes crocheted in various colors to illustrate coral bleaching due to oceanic warming and climate change. Feminist scholar-activists have argued for crochet as an embodied method of inquiry aimed at uncovering entangled, relational, and situated ways being and knowing inclusive of the more-than-human co-creation of worlds. In Staying with the Trouble, Donna Haraway argues for the methodological use of crochet to model ecological and mathematical phenomena as "a kind of lure to an affective cognitive ecology stitched in fiber arts" that works "not by mimicry, but by open-ended, exploratory process."Yarn bombing In recent years, a practice called yarn bombing, or the use of knitted or crocheted cloth to modify and beautify one's (usually outdoor) surroundings, emerged in the US and spread worldwide. Yarn bombers sometimes target existing pieces of graffiti for beautification. In 2010, an entity dubbed "the Midnight Knitter" hit West Cape May. Residents awoke to find knit cozies hugging tree branches and sign poles. In September 2015, Grace Brett was named "The World's Oldest Yarn Bomber". She is part of a group of yarn graffiti-artists called the Souter Stormers, who beautify their local town in Scotland. Mathematics and hyperbolic crochet Crochet has been used to illustrate shapes in hyperbolic space that are difficult to reproduce using other media or are difficult to understand when viewed two-dimensionally. Mathematician Daina Taimiņa first used crochet in 1997 to create strong, durable models of hyperbolic space after finding paper models were delicate and hard to create. These models enable one to turn, fold, and otherwise manipulate space to more fully grasp ideas such as how a line can appear curved in hyperbolic space yet actually be straight. Her work received an exhibition by the Institute For Figuring. As hyperbolic and mathematics-based crochet has become more popular, there have been several events highlighting work from various fiber artists. Two shows were Sant Ocean Hall at the Smithsonian in Washington, D.C., and Sticks, Hooks, and the Mobius: Knit and Crochet Go Cerebral at Lafayette College in Pennsylvania.ArchitectureIn Style in the technical arts, Gottfried Semper looks at the textile with great promise and historical precedent. In Section 53, he writes of the "loop stitch, or Noeud Coulant: a knot that, if untied, causes the whole system to unravel." In the same section, Semper confesses his ignorance of the subject of crochet but believes strongly that it is a technique of great value as a textile technique and possibly something more. There are a small number of architects currently interested in the subject of crochet as it relates to architecture. The following publications, explorations and thesis projects can be used as a resource to see how crochet is being used within the capacity of architecture. * Emergent Explorations: Analog and Digital Scripting – Alexander Worden * Research and Design: The Architecture of Variation – Lars Spuybroek * YurtAlert – Kate Pokorny Styles in crochet * Mosaic crochet * Granny square * Freeform crochet * Motifs * Crocheted lace * Tunisian crochet * Tapestry crochet * Amigurumi * Filet crochet * Corner to Corner (C2C) Crochet * Irish crochet lace * Bead crochet * Doily See also * Crochet Guild of America * The Tempestry Project * Fiber art * Macramé * Tatting * Knitting * Sewing * Embroidery References 57. York, Portia et al. “Crochet: Engaging Secondary School Girls in Art for STEAM’s Sake.” Science Education International 33.4 (2022): 392–399. Science Education International. Web. Further reading * [https://gutenberg.org/ebooks/73303 The ladies' complete guide to crochet, fancy knitting, and needlework by Stephens] * * Hadley, Sara. "Irish Crochet Lace", The Lace Maker, Vol. 4 3, New York: D.S. Bennet, 1911. * Kooler, Donna ''Donna Kooler's Encyclopedia of Crochet, Leisure Arts, Inc., Little Rock, Arkansas * Lambert, Miss [Frances]. My Crochet Sampler, London: John Murray, Albemarle Street, 1844. * Potter, Annie Louise. A living mystery: the international art & history of crochet * Riego de la Branchardiere, Eléanor. Crochet Book 4th Series, London: Simpkin, Marshall, and Co., 1848. * Riego de la Branchardiere, Eléanor. Crochet Book 6th Series, containing D'Oyleys and Anti-Macassars, London: Simpkin, Marshall, and Co., 1877. This is the 20th printing of this book; the original publishing date is probably about 1850. * Riego de la Branchardiere, Eléanor. Crochet Book, 9th Series or Third Winter Book, London: Simpkin, Marshall and Co., 1850. * Warren, The Court Crochet Doyley Book, London: Ackermann & Co, 1847. * Wildman, Emily. Step-By-Step Crochet'', 1972 External links <!-- \| PLEASE BE CAUTIOUS IN ADDING MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. Wikipedia \| \| is not a collection of links nor should it be used for advertising. \| \| \| \| Excessive or inappropriate links WILL BE DELETED. \| \| See Wikipedia:External links & Wikipedia:Spam for details. \| \| \| \| If there are already plentiful links, please propose additions or \| \| replacements on this article's discussion page, or submit your link \| \| to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) \| \| and link back to that category using the template. \| --> * [https://www.antiquepatternlibrary.org The Antique Pattern Library] Category:Crafts Category:Figured fabrics Category:Needlework Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Knots	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crochet	2025-04-05T18:28:08.751876
7425	Electromagnetic coil	thumb\|The magnetic field lines (green) of a current-carrying loop of wire pass through the center of the loop, concentrating the field there An electromagnetic coil is an electrical conductor such as a wire in the shape of a coil (spiral or helix). Electromagnetic coils are used in electrical engineering, in applications where electric currents interact with magnetic fields, in devices such as electric motors, generators, inductors, electromagnets, transformers, sensor coils such as in medical MRI imaging machines. Either an electric current is passed through the wire of the coil to generate a magnetic field, or conversely, an external time-varying magnetic field through the interior of the coil generates an EMF (voltage) in the conductor. A current through any conductor creates a circular magnetic field around the conductor due to Ampere's law. The advantage of using the coil shape is that it increases the strength of the magnetic field produced by a given current. The magnetic fields generated by the separate turns of wire all pass through the center of the coil and add (superpose) to produce a strong field there. The induced voltage can be increased by winding the wire into a coil because the field lines intersect the circuit multiple times. The hole in the center of the coil is called the core area or magnetic axis. Each loop of wire is called a turn. A winding that has a single tap in the center of its length is called center-tapped. Coils can have more than one winding, insulated electrically from each other. When there are two or more windings around a common magnetic axis, the windings are said to be inductively coupled or magnetically coupled. A time-varying current through one winding will create a time-varying magnetic field that passes through the other winding, which will induce a time-varying voltage in the other windings. This is called a transformer. The winding to which current is applied, which creates the magnetic field, is called the primary winding. The other windings are called secondary windings. Magnetic core Many electromagnetic coils have a magnetic core, a piece of ferromagnetic material like iron in the center to increase the magnetic field. The current through the coil magnetizes the iron, and the field of the magnetized material adds to the field produced by the wire. This is called a ferromagnetic-core or iron-core coil. A ferromagnetic core can increase the magnetic field and inductance of a coil by hundreds or thousands of times over what it would be without the core. A ferrite core coil is a variety of coil with a core made of ferrite, a ferrimagnetic ceramic compound. Ferrite coils have lower core losses at high frequencies. A coil with a core which forms a closed loop, possibly with some narrow air gaps, is called a closed-core coil. By providing a closed path for the magnetic field lines, this geometry minimizes the magnetic reluctance and produces the strongest magnetic field. It is often used in transformers. A common form for closed-core coils is a toroidal core coil, in which the core has the shape of a torus or doughnut, with either a circular or rectangular cross section. This geometry has minimum leakage flux and radiates minimum electromagnetic interference (EMI). A coil with a core which is a straight bar or other non-loop shape is called an open-core coil. This has lower magnetic field and inductance than a closed core, but is often used to prevent magnetic saturation of the core. A coil without a ferromagnetic core is called an air-core coil. This includes coils wound on plastic or other nonmagnetic forms, as well as coils which actually have empty air space inside their windings. Types of coils Coils can be classified by the frequency of the current they are designed to operate with: Direct current or DC coils or electromagnets operate with a steady direct current in their windings Audio-frequency or AF coils, inductors or transformers operate with alternating currents in the audio frequency range, less than 20 kHz Radio-frequency or RF coils, inductors or transformers operate with alternating currents in the radio frequency range, above 20 kHz Coils can be classified by their function: Electromagnets thumb\|Field coil electromagnet on the stator of an AC universal motor. thumb\|Canon AF-10 Date old camera shutter driver coil. Electromagnets are coils that generate a magnetic field for some external use, often to exert a mechanical force on something. or remove existing background fields. A few specific types: Solenoid - an electromagnet in the form of a straight hollow helix of wire Motor and generator windings - iron core electromagnets on the rotor or stator of electric motors and generators which act on each other to either turn the shaft (motor) or generate an electric current (generator) Field winding - an iron-core coil which generates a steady magnetic field to act on the armature winding. Armature winding - an iron-core coil which is acted on by the magnetic field of the field winding to either create torque (motor) or induce a voltage to produce power (generator) Helmholtz coil, Maxwell coil - air-core coils which serve to cancel an external magnetic field Degaussing coil - a coil used to demagnetize parts Voice coil - a coil used in a moving-coil loudspeaker, suspended between the poles of a magnet. When the audio signal is passed through the coil, it vibrates, moving the attached speaker cone to create sound waves. The reverse is used in a dynamic microphone, where sound vibrations intercepted by something like a diaphragm physically transfer to a voice coil immersed in a magnetic field, and the coil's terminal ends then provide an electric analog of those vibrations. Inductors Inductors or reactors are coils which generate a magnetic field which interacts with the coil itself, to induce a back EMF which opposes changes in current through the coil. Inductors are used as circuit elements in electrical circuits, to temporarily store energy or resist changes in current. A few types: Tank coil - an inductor used in a tuned circuit Choke - an inductor used to block high frequency AC while allowing through low frequency AC or DC. Loading coil - an inductor used to add inductance to an antenna, to make it resonant, or to a cable to prevent distortion of signals. Variometer - an adjustable inductor consisting of two coils in series, an outer stationary coil and a second one inside it which can be rotated so their magnetic axes are in the same direction or opposed. Flyback transformer - Although called a transformer, this is actually an inductor which serves to store energy in switching power supplies and horizontal deflection circuits for CRT televisions and monitors Saturable reactor - an iron-core inductor used to control AC power by varying the saturation of the core using a DC control voltage in an auxiliary winding. Inductive ballast - an inductor used in gas-discharge lamp circuits, such as fluorescent lamps, to limit the current through the lamp. Transformers thumb\|Transformer A transformer is a device with two or more magnetically coupled windings (or sections of a single winding). A time varying current in one coil (called the primary winding) generates a magnetic field which induces a voltage in the other coil (called the secondary winding). A few types: Distribution transformer - A transformer in an electric power grid which transforms the high voltage from the electric power line to the lower voltage used by utility customers. Autotransformer - a transformer with only one winding. Different portions of the winding, accessed with taps, act as primary and secondary windings of the transformer. Toroidal transformer - the core is in the shape of a toroid. This is a commonly used shape as it decreases the leakage flux, resulting in less electromagnetic interference. Induction coil or trembler coil - an early transformer which uses a vibrating interrupter mechanism to break the primary current so it can operate off of DC current. Ignition coil - an induction coil used in internal combustion engines to create a pulse of high voltage to fire the spark plug which initiates the fuel burning. Balun - a transformer which matches a balanced transmission line to an unbalanced one. Bifilar coil - a coil wound with two parallel, closely spaced strands. If AC currents are passed through it in the same direction, the magnetic fluxes will add, but if equal currents in opposite directions pass through the windings the opposite fluxes will cancel, resulting in zero flux in the core. So no voltage will be induced in a third winding on the core. These are used in instruments and in devices like Ground Fault Interrupters. They are also used in low inductance wirewound resistors for use at RF frequencies. Audio transformer - A transformer used with audio signals. They are used for impedance matching. Hybrid coil - a specialized audio transformer with 3 windings used in telephony circuits to convert between two-wire and four-wire circuits Electric machines Electric machines such as motors and generators have one or more windings which interact with moving magnetic fields to convert electrical energy to mechanical energy. Often a machine will have one winding through which passes most of the power of the machine (the "armature"), and a second winding which provides the magnetic field of the rotating element ( the "field winding") which may be connected by brushes or slip rings to an external source of electric current. In an induction motor, the "field" winding of the rotor is energized by the slow relative motion between the rotating winding and the rotating magnetic field produced by the stator winding, which induces the necessary exciting current in the rotor. Transducer coils thumb\|upright=0.7\|The sensor coil of a metal detector. These are coils used to translate time-varying magnetic fields to electric signals, and vice versa. A few types: Sensor or pickup coils - these are used to detect external time-varying magnetic fields Inductive sensor - a coil which senses when a magnet or iron object passes near it Recording head - a coil which is used to create a magnetic field to write data to a magnetic storage medium, such as magnetic tape, or a hard disk. Conversely it is also used to read the data in the form of changing magnetic fields in the medium. Induction heating coil - an AC coil used to heat an object by inducing eddy currents in it, a process called induction heating. Loop antenna - a coil which serves as a radio antenna, to convert radio waves to electric currents. Rogowski coil - a toroidal coil used as an AC measuring device Musical instrument pickup - a coil used to produce the output audio signal in an electric guitar or electric bass. Flux gate - a sensor coil used in a magnetometer Magnetic phonograph cartridge - a sensor in a record player that uses a coil to translate vibration of a needle to an audio signal in playing vinyl phonograph records. There are also types of coil which don't fit into these categories. Winding technology See also Hanna curve References Further reading Querfurth, William, "Coil winding; a description of coil winding procedures, winding machines and associated equipment for the electronic industry" (2d ed.). Chicago, G. Stevens Mfg. Co., 1958. Weymouth, F. Marten, "Drum armatures and commutators (theory and practice) : a complete treatise on the theory and construction of drum winding, and of commutators for closed-coil armatures, together with a full résumé of some of the principal points involved in their design; and an exposition of armature reactions and sparking". London, "The Electrician" Printing and Publishing Co., 1893. "Coil winding proceedings". International Coil Winding Association. Chandler, R. H., "Coil coating review, 1970–76". Braintree, R. H. Chandler Ltd, 1977. External links Coil Inductance Calculator Online calculator for determining the inductance of single-layer and multilayer coils R. Clarke, "Producing wound components ". Surrey.ac.uk, 2005 October 9	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_coil	2025-04-05T18:28:08.767888
7426	Charles I of England	\| succession1 = King of Scotland \| moretext1 = (more...) \| reign1 = \| coronation1 = 18 June 1633 \| predecessor1 = James VI \| successor1 = Charles II \| spouse = \| religion = Protestant \| issue = \| issue-link = #Issue \| issue-pipe = more... \| house = Stuart \| father = James VI and I \| mother = Anne of Denmark \| birth_date = 19 November 1600 \| birth_place = Dunfermline Palace, Dunfermline, Scotland \| death_date \| death_place = Whitehall, Westminster, England \| burial_date = 9 February 1649 \| burial_place = St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, England \| signature = UK-Royal-Signature Charles.svg }} Charles I (19 November 1600 – 30 January 1649) was King of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649. Charles was born into the House of Stuart as the second son of King James VI of Scotland, but after his father inherited the English throne in 1603, he moved to England, where he spent much of the rest of his life. He became heir apparent to the kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland in 1612 upon the death of his elder brother, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales. An unsuccessful and unpopular attempt to marry him to Infanta Maria Anna of Spain culminated in an eight-month visit to Spain in 1623 that demonstrated the futility of the marriage negotiation. Two years later, shortly after his accession, he married Henrietta Maria of France. After his accession in 1625, Charles quarrelled with the English Parliament, which sought to curb his royal prerogative. He believed in the divine right of kings and was determined to govern according to his own conscience. Many of his subjects opposed his policies, in particular the levying of taxes without Parliamentary consent, and perceived his actions as those of a tyrannical absolute monarch. His religious policies, coupled with his marriage to a Roman Catholic, generated antipathy and mistrust from Reformed religious groups such as the English Puritans and Scottish Covenanters, who thought his views too Catholic. He supported high church Anglican ecclesiastics and failed to aid continental Protestant forces successfully during the Thirty Years' War. His attempts to force the Church of Scotland to adopt high Anglican practices led to the Bishops' Wars, strengthened the position of the English and Scottish parliaments, and helped precipitate his own downfall. From 1642, Charles fought the armies of the English and Scottish parliaments in the English Civil War. After his defeat in 1645 at the hands of the Parliamentarian New Model Army, he fled north from his base at Oxford. Charles surrendered to a Scottish force and, after lengthy negotiations between the English and Scottish parliaments, was handed over to the Long Parliament in London. Charles refused to accept his captors' demands for a constitutional monarchy, and temporarily escaped captivity in November 1647. Re-imprisoned on the Isle of Wight, he forged an alliance with Scotland, but by the end of 1648, the New Model Army had consolidated its control over England. Charles was tried, convicted, and executed for high treason in January 1649. The monarchy was abolished and the Commonwealth of England was established as a republic. The monarchy was restored in 1660, with Charles's son Charles II as king. Early life of Charles and his parents, King James and Queen Anne, 1612]] The second son of King James VI of Scotland and Anne of Denmark, Charles was born in Dunfermline Palace, Fife, on 19 November 1600. At a Protestant ceremony in the Chapel Royal of Holyrood Palace in Edinburgh on 23 December 1600, he was baptised by David Lindsay, Bishop of Ross, and created Duke of Albany, the traditional title of the second son of the king of Scotland, with the subsidiary titles of Marquess of Ormond, Earl of Ross and Lord Ardmannoch. James VI was the first cousin twice removed of Queen Elizabeth I of England, and when she died childless in March 1603, he became king of England as James I. Charles was a weak and sickly infant, and while his parents and older siblings left for England in April and early June that year, due to his fragile health, he remained in Scotland with his father's friend Lord Fyvie appointed as his guardian. By 1604, when Charles was three-and-a-half, he was able to walk the length of the great hall at Dunfermline Palace without assistance, and it was decided that he was strong enough to journey to England to be reunited with his family. In mid-July 1604, he left Dunfermline for England, where he was to spend most of the rest of his life. In England, Charles was placed under the charge of Elizabeth, Lady Carey, the wife of courtier Sir Robert Carey, who put him in boots made of Spanish leather and brass to help strengthen his weak ankles. His speech development was also slow, and he had a stammer for the rest of his life. , 1611]] In January 1605, Charles was created Duke of York, as is customary in the case of the English sovereign's second son, and made a Knight of the Bath. Thomas Murray, a presbyterian Scot, was appointed as a tutor. Charles learnt the usual subjects of classics, languages, mathematics and religion. In 1611, he was made a Knight of the Garter. Eventually, Charles apparently conquered his physical infirmity, which might have been caused by rickets. He became an adept horseman and marksman, and took up fencing. Even so, his public profile remained low in contrast to that of his physically stronger and taller. }} elder brother, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, whom Charles adored and attempted to emulate. But in early November 1612, Henry died at the age of 18 of what is suspected to have been typhoid (or possibly porphyria). Charles, who turned 12 two weeks later, became heir apparent. As the eldest surviving son of the sovereign, he automatically gained several titles, including Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay. In November 1616, he was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester. Heir apparent In 1613, Charles's sister Elizabeth married Frederick V, Elector Palatine, and moved to Heidelberg. In 1617, the Habsburg Archduke Ferdinand of Austria, a Catholic, was elected king of Bohemia. The next year, the Bohemians rebelled, defenestrating the Catholic governors. In August 1619, the Bohemian Diet chose Frederick, who led the Protestant Union, as their monarch, while Ferdinand was elected Holy Roman Emperor in the imperial election. Frederick's acceptance of the Bohemian crown in defiance of the Emperor marked the beginning of the turmoil that would develop into the Thirty Years' War. The conflict, originally confined to Bohemia, spiralled into a wider European war, which the English Parliament and public quickly grew to see as a polarised continental struggle between Catholics and Protestants. In 1620, King Frederick was defeated at the Battle of White Mountain near Prague and his hereditary lands in the Electoral Palatinate were invaded by a Habsburg force from the Spanish Netherlands. James, however, had been seeking marriage between Prince Charles and Ferdinand's niece, Infanta Maria Anna of Spain, and began to see the Spanish match as a possible diplomatic means of achieving peace in Europe. Negotiation with Spain proved unpopular with both the public and James's court. The English Parliament was actively hostile towards Spain and Catholicism, and thus, when called by James in 1621, the members hoped for an enforcement of recusancy laws, a naval campaign against Spain, and a Protestant marriage for the Prince of Wales. James's Lord Chancellor, Francis Bacon, was impeached before the House of Lords for corruption. The impeachment was the first since 1459 without the King's official sanction in the form of a bill of attainder. The incident set an important precedent as the process of impeachment would later be used against Charles and his supporters George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, Archbishop William Laud, and Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford. James insisted that the House of Commons be concerned exclusively with domestic affairs, while the members protested that they had the privilege of free speech within the Commons' walls, demanding war with Spain and a Protestant princess of Wales. Like his father, Charles considered discussion of his marriage in the Commons impertinent and an infringement of his father's royal prerogative. In January 1622, James dissolved Parliament, angry at what he perceived as the members' impudence and intransigence. , 1623]] Charles and Buckingham, James's favourite and a man who had great influence over the prince, travelled incognito to Spain in February 1623 to try to reach agreement on the long-pending Spanish match. The trip was an embarrassing failure. The infanta thought Charles little more than an infidel, and the Spanish at first demanded that he convert to Catholicism as a condition of the match. They insisted on toleration of Catholics in England and the repeal of the English penal laws, which Charles knew Parliament would not agree to, and that the infanta remain in Spain for a year after any wedding to ensure that England complied with all the treaty's terms. A personal quarrel erupted between Buckingham and Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares, the Spanish chief minister, and so Charles conducted the ultimately futile negotiations personally. When he returned to London in October, without a bride and to a rapturous and relieved public welcome, he and Buckingham pushed the reluctant James to declare war on Spain. With the encouragement of his Protestant advisers, James summoned the English Parliament in 1624 to request subsidies for a war. Charles and Buckingham supported the impeachment of the Lord Treasurer, Lionel Cranfield, 1st Earl of Middlesex, who opposed war on grounds of cost and quickly fell in much the same manner Bacon had. James told Buckingham he was a fool, and presciently warned Charles that he would live to regret the revival of impeachment as a parliamentary tool. An underfunded makeshift army under Ernst von Mansfeld set off to recover the Palatinate, but it was so poorly provisioned that it never advanced beyond the Dutch coast. By 1624, the increasingly ill James was finding it difficult to control Parliament. By the time of his death in March 1625, Charles and Buckingham had already assumed de facto control of the kingdom.Early reign by van Dyck, 1632]] With the failure of the Spanish match, Charles and Buckingham turned their attention to France. On 1 May 1625<!--11 May in the Gregorian calendar used in France--> Charles was married by proxy to the 15-year-old French princess Henrietta Maria in front of the doors of Notre Dame de Paris. He had seen her in Paris while en route to Spain. They met in person on 13 June 1625 in Canterbury. Charles delayed the opening of his first Parliament until after the marriage was consummated, to forestall any opposition. Many members of the Commons opposed his marriage to a Catholic, fearing that he would lift restrictions on Catholic recusants and undermine the official establishment of the reformed Church of England. Charles told Parliament that he would not relax religious restrictions, but promised to do exactly that in a secret marriage treaty with his brother-in-law Louis XIII of France. Moreover, the treaty loaned to the French seven English naval ships that were used to suppress the Protestant Huguenots at La Rochelle in September 1625. Charles was crowned on 2 February 1626 at Westminster Abbey, but without his wife at his side, because she refused to participate in a Protestant religious ceremony. Distrust of Charles's religious policies increased with his support of a controversial anti-Calvinist ecclesiastic, Richard Montagu, who was in disrepute among the Puritans. In his pamphlet A New Gag for an Old Goose (1624), a reply to the Catholic pamphlet A New Gag for the New Gospel, Montagu argued against Calvinist predestination, the doctrine that God preordained salvation and damnation. Anti-Calvinistsknown as Arminiansbelieved that people could accept or reject salvation by exercising free will. Arminian divines had been one of the few sources of support for Charles's proposed Spanish marriage. With King James's support, Montagu produced another pamphlet, Appello Caesarem, published in 1625 shortly after James's death and Charles's accession. To protect Montagu from the stricture of Puritan members of Parliament, Charles made him a royal chaplain, heightening many Puritans' suspicions that Charles favoured Arminianism as a clandestine attempt to aid Catholicism's resurgence. Rather than direct involvement in the European land war, the English Parliament preferred a relatively inexpensive naval attack on Spanish colonies in the New World, hoping for the capture of the Spanish treasure fleets. Parliament voted to grant a subsidy of £140,000, an insufficient sum for Charles's war plans. Moreover, the House of Commons limited its authorisation for royal collection of tonnage and poundage (two varieties of customs duties) to a year, although previous sovereigns since Henry VI had been granted the right for life. In this manner, Parliament could delay approval of the rates until after a full-scale review of customs revenue. The bill made no progress in the House of Lords past its first reading. Although no act of Parliament for the levy of tonnage and poundage was obtained, Charles continued to collect the duties. , 1628]] A poorly conceived and executed naval expedition against Spain under Buckingham's leadership went badly, and the House of Commons began proceedings for the impeachment of the Duke. In May 1626, Charles nominated Buckingham as Chancellor of Cambridge University in a show of support, and had two members who had spoken against BuckinghamDudley Digges and Sir John Eliotarrested at the door of the House. The Commons was outraged by the imprisonment of two of their members, and after about a week in custody, both were released. On 12 June 1626, the Commons launched a direct protestation attacking Buckingham, stating, "We protest before your Majesty and the whole world that until this great person be removed from intermeddling with the great affairs of state, we are out of hope of any good success; and do fear that any money we shall or can give will, through his misemployment, be turned rather to the hurt and prejudice of this your kingdom than otherwise, as by lamentable experience we have found those large supplies formerly and lately given." Despite the protests, Charles refused to dismiss his friend, dismissing Parliament instead. Meanwhile, domestic quarrels between Charles and Henrietta Maria were souring the early years of their marriage. Disputes over her jointure, appointments to her household, and the practice of her religion culminated in the King expelling the vast majority of her French attendants in August 1626. Despite Charles's agreement to provide the French with English ships as a condition of marrying Henrietta Maria, in 1627 he launched an attack on the French coast to defend the Huguenots at La Rochelle. The action, led by Buckingham, was ultimately unsuccessful. Buckingham's failure to protect the Huguenotsand his retreat from Saint-Martin-de-Réspurred Louis XIII's siege of La Rochelle and furthered the English Parliament's and people's detestation of the Duke. Charles provoked further unrest by trying to raise money for the war through a "forced loan": a tax levied without parliamentary consent. In November 1627, the test case in the King's Bench, the "Five Knights' Case", found that the King had a prerogative right to imprison without trial those who refused to pay the forced loan. Summoned again in March 1628, Parliament adopted a Petition of Right on 26 May, calling upon Charles to acknowledge that he could not levy taxes without Parliament's consent, impose martial law on civilians, imprison them without due process, or quarter troops in their homes. Charles assented to the petition on 7 June, but by the end of the month he had prorogued Parliament and reasserted his right to collect customs duties without authorisation from Parliament. On 23 August 1628, Buckingham was assassinated. Charles was deeply distressed. According to Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon, he "threw himself upon his bed, lamenting with much passion and with abundance of tears". He remained grieving in his room for two days. In contrast, the public rejoiced at Buckingham's death, accentuating the gulf between the court and the nation and between the Crown and the Commons. Buckingham's death effectively ended the war with Spain and eliminated his leadership as an issue, but it did not end the conflicts between Charles and Parliament. It did, however, coincide with an improvement in Charles's relationship with his wife, and by November 1628 their old quarrels were at an end. Perhaps Charles's emotional ties were transferred from Buckingham to Henrietta Maria. She became pregnant for the first time, and the bond between them grew stronger. Together, they embodied an image of virtue and family life, and their court became a model of formality and morality.Personal ruleParliament prorogueddepicted Charles as a victorious and chivalrous Saint George in an English landscape, 1629–30. The landscape is modelled on the Thames Valley, and the central figures of Saint George (England's patron saint) and a maiden resemble the King and Queen. The dragon of war lies slain under Charles's foot.}}]] In January 1629, Charles opened the second session of the English Parliament, which had been prorogued in June 1628, with a moderate speech on the tonnage and poundage issue. Members of the House of Commons began to voice opposition to Charles's policies in light of the case of John Rolle, a Member of Parliament whose goods had been confiscated for failing to pay tonnage and poundage. Many MPs viewed the imposition of the tax as a breach of the Petition of Right. When Charles ordered a parliamentary adjournment on 2 March, members held the Speaker, Sir John Finch, down in his chair so that the session could be prolonged long enough for resolutions against Catholicism, Arminianism, and tonnage and poundage to be read out and acclaimed by the chamber. This was too much for Charles, who dissolved Parliament and had nine parliamentary leaders, including Sir John Eliot, imprisoned over the matter, thereby turning the men into martyrs and giving popular cause to their protest. Personal rule necessitated peace. Without the means in the foreseeable future to raise funds from Parliament for a European war, or Buckingham's help, Charles made peace with France and Spain. The next 11 years, during which Charles ruled England without a Parliament, are known as the Personal Rule or the "eleven years' tyranny". Ruling without Parliament was not exceptional, and was supported by precedent. }} But only Parliament could legally raise taxes, and without it Charles's capacity to acquire funds for his treasury was limited to his customary rights and prerogatives. Finances of Charles I, inscribed: CAROLUS D(EI) G(RATIA) MAG(NAE) BRIT(ANNIAE) FR(ANCIAE) ET HIB(ERNIAE) REX ("Charles, by the grace of God, King of Great Britain, of France and of Ireland")]] of Charles I, showing a crown over two sceptres in saltire on the obverse. The two sceptres represent the two kingdoms of England and Scotland.]] .]] A large fiscal deficit had arisen during the reigns of Elizabeth I and James I. Notwithstanding Buckingham's short-lived campaigns against both Spain and France, Charles had little financial capacity to wage wars overseas. Throughout his reign, he was obliged to rely primarily on volunteer forces for defence and on diplomatic efforts to support his sister Elizabeth and his foreign policy objective for the restoration of the Palatinate. England was still the least taxed country in Europe, with no official excise and no regular direct taxation. To raise revenue without reconvening Parliament, Charles resurrected an all-but-forgotten law called the "Distraint of Knighthood", in abeyance for over a century, which required any man who earned £40 or more from land each year to present himself at the king's coronation to be knighted. Relying on this old statute, Charles fined those who had failed to attend his coronation in 1626. }} The chief tax Charles imposed was a feudal levy known as ship money, which proved even more unpopular, and lucrative, than tonnage and poundage. Previously, collection of ship money had been authorised only during wars, and only on coastal regions. But Charles argued that there was no legal bar to collecting the tax for defence during peacetime and throughout the kingdom. Ship money, paid directly to the Treasury of the Navy, provided between £150,000 to £200,000 annually between 1634 and 1638, after which yields declined. Opposition to ship money steadily grew, but England's 12 common law judges ruled the tax within the King's prerogative, though some had reservations. The prosecution of John Hampden for non-payment in 1637–38 provided a platform for popular protest, and the judges found against Hampden only by the narrow margin of 7–5. Charles also derived money by granting monopolies, despite a statute forbidding such action, which, though inefficient, raised an estimated £100,000 a year in the late 1630s. One such monopoly was for soap, pejoratively called "popish soap" because some of its backers were Catholics. Charles also raised funds from the Scottish nobility, at the price of considerable acrimony, by the Act of Revocation (1625), whereby all gifts of royal or church land made to the nobility since 1540 were revoked, with continued ownership being subject to an annual rent. In addition, the boundaries of the royal forests in England were restored to their ancient limits as part of a scheme to maximise income by exploiting the land and fining land users within the reasserted boundaries for encroachment. The programme's focus was disafforestation and sale of forest lands for conversion to pasture and arable farming, or in the case of the Forest of Dean, development for the iron industry. Disafforestation frequently caused riots and disturbances, including those known as the Western Rising. Against the background of this unrest, Charles faced bankruptcy in mid-1640. The City of London, preoccupied with its own grievances, refused to make any loans to him, as did foreign powers. In this extremity, in July Charles seized silver bullion worth £130,000 held in trust at the mint in the Tower of London, promising its later return at 8% interest to its owners. In August, after the East India Company refused to grant a loan, Lord Cottington seized the company's stock of pepper and spices and sold it for £60,000 (far below its market value), promising to refund the money with interest later.Religious conflicts '' by Anthony van Dyck, 1633]] Throughout Charles's reign, the English Reformation was in the forefront of political debate. Arminian theology emphasised clerical authority and the individual's ability to reject or accept salvation, which opponents viewed as heretical and a potential vehicle for the reintroduction of Catholicism. Puritan reformers considered Charles too sympathetic to Arminianism,}} and opposed his desire to move the Church of England in a more traditional and sacramental direction. In addition, his Protestant subjects followed the European war closely and grew increasingly dismayed by Charles's diplomacy with Spain and his failure to support the Protestant cause abroad effectively. In 1633, Charles appointed William Laud Archbishop of Canterbury. They initiated a series of reforms to promote religious uniformity by restricting non-conformist preachers, insisting the liturgy be celebrated as prescribed by the Book of Common Prayer, organising the internal architecture of English churches to emphasise the sacrament of the altar, and reissuing King James's Declaration of Sports, which permitted secular activities on the sabbath. The Feoffees for Impropriations, an organisation that bought benefices and advowsons so that Puritans could be appointed to them, was dissolved. Laud prosecuted those who opposed his reforms in the Court of High Commission and the Star Chamber, the two most powerful courts in the land. The courts became feared for their censorship of opposing religious views and unpopular among the propertied classes for inflicting degrading punishments on gentlemen. For example, in 1637 William Prynne, Henry Burton and John Bastwick were pilloried, whipped and mutilated by cropping and imprisoned indefinitely for publishing anti-episcopal pamphlets. by van Dyck, 1635–36}}]] When Charles attempted to impose his religious policies in Scotland he faced numerous difficulties. Although born in Scotland, Charles had become estranged from it; his first visit since early childhood was for his Scottish coronation in 1633. To the dismay of the Scots, who had removed many traditional rituals from their liturgical practice, Charles insisted that the coronation be conducted using the Anglican rite. In 1637, he ordered the use of a new prayer book in Scotland that was almost identical to the English Book of Common Prayer'', without consulting either the Scottish Parliament or the Kirk. Although it had been written, under Charles's direction, by Scottish bishops, many Scots resisted it, seeing it as a vehicle to introduce Anglicanism to Scotland. On 23 July, riots erupted in Edinburgh on the first Sunday of the prayer book's usage, and unrest spread throughout the Kirk. The public began to mobilise around a reaffirmation of the National Covenant, whose signatories pledged to uphold the reformed religion of Scotland and reject any innovations not authorised by Kirk and Parliament. When the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland met in November 1638, it condemned the new prayer book, abolished episcopal church government, and adopted presbyterian government by elders and deacons.Bishops' Wars Charles perceived the unrest in Scotland as a rebellion against his authority, precipitating the First Bishops' War in 1639. He did not seek subsidies from the English Parliament to wage war, instead raising an army without parliamentary aid and marching to Berwick-upon-Tweed, on the Scottish border. The army did not engage the Covenanters, as the King feared the defeat of his forces, whom he believed to be significantly outnumbered by the Scots. In the Treaty of Berwick, Charles regained custody of his Scottish fortresses and secured the dissolution of the Covenanters' interim government, albeit at the decisive concession that both the Scottish Parliament and General Assembly of the Scottish Church were called. The military failure in the First Bishops' War caused a financial and diplomatic crisis for Charles that deepened when his efforts to raise funds from Spain while simultaneously continuing his support for his Palatine relatives led to the public humiliation of the Battle of the Downs, where the Dutch destroyed a Spanish bullion fleet off the coast of Kent in sight of the impotent English navy. Charles continued peace negotiations with the Scots in a bid to gain time before launching a new military campaign. Because of his financial weakness, he was forced to call Parliament into session in an attempt to raise funds for such a venture. Both the English and Irish parliaments were summoned in the early months of 1640. In March 1640, the Irish Parliament duly voted in a subsidy of £180,000 with the promise to raise an army 9,000 strong by the end of May. But in the English general election in March, court candidates fared badly, and Charles's dealings with the English Parliament in April quickly reached stalemate. The earls of Northumberland and Strafford attempted to broker a compromise whereby the King would agree to forfeit ship money in exchange for £650,000 (although the cost of the coming war was estimated at £1 million). Nevertheless, this alone was insufficient to produce consensus in the Commons. The Parliamentarians' calls for further reforms were ignored by Charles, who still retained the support of the House of Lords. Despite the protests of the Earl of Northumberland, the Short Parliament (as it came to be known) was dissolved in May 1640, less than a month after it assembled. }} By this stage the Earl of Strafford, Lord Deputy of Ireland since 1632, had emerged as Charles's right-hand man and, together with Archbishop Laud, pursued a policy that he termed "Thorough", which aimed to make central royal authority more efficient and effective at the expense of local or anti-government interests. Although originally a critic of the King, Strafford defected to royal service in 1628, in part due to the Duke of Buckingham's persuasion, and had since emerged, alongside Laud, as the most influential of Charles's ministers. Bolstered by the failure of the English Short Parliament, the Scottish Parliament declared itself capable of governing without the King's consent, and in August 1640 the Covenanter army moved into the English county of Northumberland. Following the illness of Lord Northumberland, who was the King's commander-in-chief, Charles and Strafford went north to command the English forces, despite Strafford being ill himself with a combination of gout and dysentery. The Scottish soldiery, many of whom were veterans of the Thirty Years' War, had far greater morale and training than their English counterparts. They met virtually no resistance until reaching Newcastle upon Tyne, where they defeated the English forces at the Battle of Newburn and occupied the city, as well as the neighbouring County Palatine of Durham. As demands for a parliament grew, Charles took the unusual step of summoning a great council of peers. By the time it met, on 24 September at York, Charles had resolved to follow the almost universal advice to call a parliament. After informing the peers that a parliament would convene in November, he asked them to consider how he could acquire funds to maintain his army against the Scots in the meantime. They recommended making peace. A cessation of arms was negotiated in the humiliating<!--; ; --> Treaty of Ripon, signed in October 1640. This stated that the Scots would continue to occupy Northumberland and Durham and be paid £850 per day indefinitely until a final settlement was negotiated and the English Parliament recalled, which would be required to raise sufficient funds to pay the Scottish forces. Consequently, Charles summoned what later became known as the Long Parliament. Once again, his supporters fared badly at the polls. Of the 493 members of the Commons returned in November, more than 350 opposed the King. Long Parliament Tensions escalate The Long Parliament proved just as difficult for Charles as had the Short Parliament. It assembled on 3 November 1640 and quickly began proceedings to impeach the King's leading counsellors for high treason. Strafford was taken into custody on 10 November; Laud was impeached on 18 December; Finch, now Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, was impeached the next day, and fled to The Hague with Charles's permission on 21 December. To prevent the King from dissolving it at will, Parliament passed the Triennial Act, which required Parliament to be summoned at least every three years, and permitted the Lord Keeper and 12 peers to summon Parliament if the King failed to do so. The Act was coupled with a subsidy bill, and to secure the latter, Charles grudgingly granted royal assent in February 1641. Strafford had become the principal target of the Parliamentarians, particularly John Pym, and he went on trial for high treason on 22 March 1641. But Sir Henry Vane's key allegation that Strafford had threatened to use the Irish army to subdue England was not corroborated, and on 10 April Pym's case collapsed. Pym and his allies immediately launched a bill of attainder, which simply declared Strafford guilty and pronounced the sentence of death. Charles assured Strafford that "upon the word of a king you shall not suffer in life, honour or fortune", and the attainder could not succeed if Charles withheld assent. Furthermore, many members and most peers opposed the attainder, not wishing, in the words of one, to "commit murder with the sword of justice". But increased tensions and an attempted coup by royalist army officers in support of Strafford and in which Charles was involved began to sway the issue. The Commons passed the bill on 20 April by a large margin (204 in favour, 59 opposed, and 230 abstained), and the Lords acquiesced (by 26 votes to 19, with 79 absent) in May. On 3 May, Parliament's Protestation attacked the "wicked counsels" of Charles's "arbitrary and tyrannical government". While those who signed the petition undertook to defend the King's "person, honour and estate", they also swore to preserve "the true reformed religion", Parliament, and the "rights and liberties of the subjects". Fearing for his family's safety in the face of unrest, Charles reluctantly assented to Strafford's attainder on 9 May after consulting his judges and bishops. Strafford was beheaded three days later. Also in early May, Charles assented to an unprecedented Act that forbade the dissolution of the English Parliament without its consent. In the following months, ship money, fines in distraint of knighthood and excise without parliamentary consent were declared unlawful, and the Courts of Star Chamber and High Commission were abolished. All remaining forms of taxation were legalised and regulated by the Tonnage and Poundage Act. The House of Commons also launched bills attacking bishops and episcopacy, but these failed in the Lords. Charles had made important concessions in England, and temporarily improved his position in Scotland by signing a final settlement of the Bishops' Wars, then securing the Scots' favour on a visit from August to November 1641 during which he conceded to the official establishment of presbyterianism in Scotland. But after an attempted royalist coup in Scotland, known as the Incident, Charles's credibility was significantly undermined.Irish rebellion , by van Dyck, 1637]] Ireland's population was split into three main sociopolitical groups: the Gaelic Irish, who were Catholic; the Old English, who were descended from medieval Normans and also predominantly Catholic; and the New English, who were Protestant settlers from England and Scotland aligned with the English Parliament and the Covenanters. Strafford's administration had improved the Irish economy and boosted tax revenue, but had done so by heavy-handedly imposing order. He had trained up a large Catholic army in support of the King and weakened the Irish Parliament's authority, while continuing to confiscate land from Catholics for Protestant settlement at the same time as promoting a Laudian Anglicanism that was anathema to Presbyterians. As a result, all three groups had become disaffected. Strafford's impeachment provided a new departure for Irish politics whereby all sides joined to present evidence against him. In a similar manner to the English Parliament, the Old English members of the Irish Parliament argued that while opposed to Strafford they remained loyal to Charles. They argued that the King had been led astray by malign counsellors, and that, moreover, a viceroy such as Strafford could emerge as a despotic figure instead of ensuring that the King was directly involved in governance. Strafford's fall from power weakened Charles's influence in Ireland. The dissolution of the Irish army was unsuccessfully demanded three times by the English Commons during Strafford's imprisonment, until lack of money eventually forced Charles to disband the army at the end of Strafford's trial. Disputes over the transfer of land ownership from native Catholic to settler Protestant, particularly in relation to the plantation of Ulster, coupled with resentment at moves to ensure the Irish Parliament was subordinate to the Parliament of England, sowed the seeds of rebellion. When armed conflict arose between the Gaelic Irish and New English in late October 1641, the Old English sided with the Gaelic Irish while simultaneously professing their loyalty to the King. In November 1641, the House of Commons passed the Grand Remonstrance, a long list of grievances against actions by Charles's ministers committed since the beginning of his reign (that were asserted to be part of a grand Catholic conspiracy of which the King was an unwitting member), but it was in many ways a step too far by Pym and passed by only 11 votes, 159 to 148. Furthermore, the Remonstrance had very little support in the House of Lords, which the Remonstrance attacked. The tension was heightened by news of the Irish rebellion, coupled with inaccurate rumours of Charles's complicity. Throughout November, a series of alarmist pamphlets published stories of atrocities in Ireland, including massacres of New English settlers by the native Irish who could not be controlled by the Old English lords. Rumours of "papist" conspiracies circulated in England, and English anti-Catholic opinion was strengthened, damaging Charles's reputation and authority. The English Parliament distrusted Charles's motivations when he called for funds to put down the Irish rebellion; many members of the Commons suspected that forces he raised might later be used against Parliament itself. Pym's Militia Bill was intended to wrest control of the army from the King, but it did not have the support of the Lords, let alone Charles. Instead, the Commons passed the bill as an ordinance, which they claimed did not require royal assent. The Militia Ordinance appears to have prompted more members of the Lords to support the King. In an attempt to strengthen his position, Charles generated great antipathy in London, which was already fast falling into lawlessness, when he placed the Tower of London under the command of Colonel Thomas Lunsford, an infamous, albeit efficient, career officer. When rumours reached Charles that Parliament intended to impeach his wife for supposedly conspiring with the Irish rebels, he decided to take drastic action.Five members , January 1642; a Victorian re-imagining by Charles West Cope]] Charles suspected, probably correctly, that some members of the English Parliament had colluded with the invading Scots. On 3 January 1642, Charles directed Parliament to give up five specific members of the Commons—Pym, John Hampden, Denzil Holles, William Strode and Sir Arthur Haselrig—and one peer, Lord Mandeville, on the grounds of high treason. When Parliament refused, it was possibly Henrietta Maria who persuaded Charles to arrest the five members by force, which he resolved to do personally. But news of the warrant reached Parliament ahead of him, and the wanted men slipped away by boat shortly before Charles entered the House of Commons with an armed guard on 4 January. Having displaced Speaker William Lenthall from his chair, the King asked him where the MPs had fled. Lenthall, on his knees, famously replied, "May it please your Majesty, I have neither eyes to see nor tongue to speak in this place but as the House is pleased to direct me, whose servant I am here." Charles abjectly declared "all my birds have flown", and was forced to retire empty-handed. The botched arrest attempt was politically disastrous for Charles. No English sovereign had ever entered the House of Commons, and his unprecedented invasion of the chamber to arrest its members was considered a grave breach of parliamentary privilege. In one stroke Charles destroyed his supporters' efforts to portray him as a defence against innovation and disorder. Parliament quickly seized London, and Charles fled the capital for Hampton Court Palace on 10 January, moving two days later to Windsor Castle. After sending his wife and eldest daughter to safety abroad in February, he travelled northwards, hoping to seize the military arsenal at Hull. To his dismay, he was rebuffed by the town's Parliamentary governor, Sir John Hotham, who refused him entry in April, and Charles was forced to withdraw.English Civil War '' by Charles Landseer, painted in 1845, depicts Charles (centre in blue sash) before the battle of Edgehill, 1642.]] In mid-1642, both sides began to arm. Charles raised an army using the medieval method of commission of array, and Parliament called for volunteers for its militia. The negotiations proved futile, and Charles raised the royal standard in Nottingham on 22 August 1642. By then, his forces controlled roughly the Midlands, Wales, the West Country and northern England. He set up his court at Oxford. Parliament controlled London, the south-east and East Anglia, as well as the English navy. After a few skirmishes, the opposing forces met in earnest at Edgehill, on 23 October 1642. Charles's nephew Prince Rupert of the Rhine disagreed with the battle strategy of the royalist commander Robert Bertie, 1st Earl of Lindsey, and Charles sided with Rupert. Lindsey resigned, leaving Charles to assume overall command assisted by Patrick Ruthven, 1st Earl of Forth. Rupert's cavalry successfully charged through the parliamentary ranks, but instead of swiftly returning to the field, rode off to plunder the parliamentary baggage train. Lindsey, acting as a colonel, was wounded and bled to death without medical attention. The battle ended inconclusively as the daylight faded. In his own words, the experience of battle had left Charles "exceedingly and deeply grieved". He regrouped at Oxford, turning down Rupert's suggestion of an immediate attack on London. After a week, he set out for the capital on 3 November, capturing Brentford on the way while simultaneously continuing to negotiate with civic and parliamentary delegations. At Turnham Green on the outskirts of London, the royalist army met resistance from the city militia, and faced with a numerically superior force, Charles ordered a retreat. He overwintered in Oxford, strengthening the city's defences and preparing for the next season's campaign. Peace talks between the two sides collapsed in April. on horseback in front of his troops, 1644]] The war continued indecisively over the next couple of years, and Henrietta Maria returned to Britain for 17 months from February 1643. After Rupert captured Bristol in July 1643, Charles visited the port city and laid siege to Gloucester, further up the river Severn. His plan to undermine the city walls failed due to heavy rain, and on the approach of a parliamentary relief force, Charles lifted the siege and withdrew to Sudeley Castle. The parliamentary army turned back towards London, and Charles set off in pursuit. The two armies met at Newbury, Berkshire, on 20 September. Just as at Edgehill, the battle stalemated at nightfall, and the armies disengaged. In January 1644, Charles summoned a Parliament at Oxford, which was attended by about 40 peers and 118 members of the Commons; all told, the Oxford Parliament, which sat until March 1645, was supported by the majority of peers and about a third of the Commons. Charles became disillusioned by the assembly's ineffectiveness, calling it a "mongrel" in private letters to his wife. In 1644, Charles remained in the southern half of England while Rupert rode north to relieve Newark and York, which were under threat from parliamentary and Scottish Covenanter armies. Charles was victorious at the Battle of Cropredy Bridge in late June, but the royalists in the north were defeated at the Battle of Marston Moor just a few days later. The King continued his campaign in the south, encircling and disarming the parliamentary army of Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex. Returning northwards to his base at Oxford, he fought at Newbury for a second time before the winter closed in; the battle ended indecisively. Attempts to negotiate a settlement over the winter, while both sides rearmed and reorganised, were again unsuccessful. At the Battle of Naseby on 14 June 1645, Rupert's horsemen again mounted a successful charge against the flank of Parliament's New Model Army, but elsewhere on the field, opposing forces pushed Charles's troops back. Attempting to rally his men, Charles rode forward, but as he did so, Robert Dalzell, 1st Earl of Carnwath seized his bridle and pulled him back, fearing for the King's safety. The royalist soldiers misinterpreted Carnwath's action as a signal to move back, leading to a collapse of their position. The military balance tipped decisively in Parliament's favour. There followed a series of defeats for the royalists, and then the siege of Oxford, from which Charles escaped (disguised as a servant) in April 1646. He put himself into the hands of the Scottish Presbyterian army besieging Newark, and was taken northwards to Newcastle upon Tyne. After nine months of negotiations, the Scots finally arrived at an agreement with the English Parliament: in exchange for £100,000, and the promise of more money in the future, the Scots withdrew from Newcastle and delivered Charles to the parliamentary commissioners in January 1647. Captivity '' by Eugène Lami, 1829]] Parliament held Charles under house arrest at Holdenby House in Northamptonshire until Cornet George Joyce took him by threat of force from Holdenby on 3 June in the name of the New Model Army. By this time, mutual suspicion had developed between Parliament, which favoured army disbandment and presbyterianism, and the New Model Army, which was primarily officered by congregationalist Independents, who sought a greater political role. Charles was eager to exploit the widening divisions, and apparently viewed Joyce's actions as an opportunity rather than a threat. He was taken first to Newmarket, at his own suggestion, and then transferred to Oatlands and subsequently Hampton Court, while more fruitless negotiations took place. By November, he determined that it would be in his best interests to escape—perhaps to France, Southern England or Berwick-upon-Tweed, near the Scottish border. He fled Hampton Court on 11 November, and from the shores of Southampton Water made contact with Colonel Robert Hammond, Parliamentary Governor of the Isle of Wight, whom he apparently believed to be sympathetic. But Hammond confined Charles in Carisbrooke Castle and informed Parliament that Charles was in his custody. From Carisbrooke, Charles continued to try to bargain with the various parties. In direct contrast to his previous conflict with the Scottish Kirk, on 26 December 1647 he signed a secret treaty with the Scots. Under the agreement, called the "Engagement", the Scots undertook to invade England on Charles's behalf and restore him to the throne on condition that Presbyterianism be established in England for three years. The royalists rose in May 1648, igniting the Second Civil War, and as agreed with Charles, the Scots invaded England. Uprisings in Kent, Essex, and Cumberland, and a rebellion in South Wales, were put down by the New Model Army, and with the defeat of the Scots at the Battle of Preston in August 1648, the royalists lost any chance of winning the war. Charles's only recourse was to return to negotiations, which were held at Newport on the Isle of Wight. On 5 December 1648, Parliament voted 129 to 83 to continue negotiating with the King, but Oliver Cromwell and the army opposed any further talks with someone they viewed as a bloody tyrant and were already taking action to consolidate their power. Hammond was replaced as Governor of the Isle of Wight on 27 November, and placed in the custody of the army the following day. In Pride's Purge on 6 and 7 December, the members of Parliament out of sympathy with the military were arrested or excluded by Colonel Thomas Pride, while others stayed away voluntarily. The remaining members formed the Rump Parliament. It was effectively a military coup.Trial , 1649. He let his beard and hair grow long because Parliament had dismissed his barber, and he refused to let anyone else near him with a razor.]] Charles was moved to Hurst Castle at the end of 1648, and thereafter to Windsor Castle. In January 1649, the Rump Parliament House of Commons indicted him for treason; however, the House of Lords rejected the charge. The idea of trying a king was novel. The Chief Justices of the three common law courts of England—Henry Rolle, Oliver St John and John Wilde—all opposed the indictment as unlawful. The Rump Commons declared itself capable of legislating alone, passed a bill creating a separate court for Charles's trial, and declared the bill an act without the need for royal assent. The High Court of Justice established by the Act consisted of 135 commissioners, but many either refused to serve or chose to stay away. Only 68 (all firm Parliamentarians) attended Charles's trial on charges of high treason and "other high crimes" that began on 20 January 1649 in Westminster Hall. John Bradshaw acted as President of the Court, and the prosecution was led by Solicitor General John Cook. Charles was accused of treason against England by using his power to pursue his personal interest rather than the good of the country. The charge stated that he was devising "a wicked design to erect and uphold in himself an unlimited and tyrannical power to rule according to his will, and to overthrow the rights and liberties of the people". In carrying this out he had "traitorously and maliciously levied war against the present Parliament, and the people therein represented", and that the "wicked designs, wars, and evil practices of him, the said Charles Stuart, have been, and are carried on for the advancement and upholding of a personal interest of will, power, and pretended prerogative to himself and his family, against the public interest, common right, liberty, justice, and peace of the people of this nation." Presaging the modern concept of command responsibility, the indictment held him "guilty of all the treasons, murders, rapines, burnings, spoils, desolations, damages and mischiefs to this nation, acted and committed in the said wars, or occasioned thereby." An estimated 300,000 people, or 6% of the population, died during the war. Over the first three days of the trial, whenever Charles was asked to plead, he refused, stating his objection with the words: "I would know by what power I am called hither, by what lawful authority...?" He claimed that no court had jurisdiction over a monarch, that his own authority to rule had been given to him by God and by the traditional laws of England, and that the power wielded by those trying him was only that of force of arms. Charles insisted that the trial was illegal, explaining that, }} The court, by contrast, challenged the doctrine of sovereign immunity and proposed that "the King of England was not a person, but an office whose every occupant was entrusted with a limited power to govern 'by and according to the laws of the land and not otherwise'." At the end of the third day, Charles was removed from the court, which then heard more than 30 witnesses against him in his absence over the next two days, and on 26 January condemned him to death. The next day, the King was brought before a public session of the commission, declared guilty, and sentenced. The judgement read, "For all which treasons and crimes this court doth adjudge that he, the said Charles Stuart, as a tyrant, traitor, murderer, and public enemy to the good people of this nation, shall be put to death by the severing of his head from his body." Fifty-nine of the commissioners signed Charles's death warrant. Execution ]] Charles's execution was scheduled for Tuesday, 30 January 1649. Two of his children remained in England under the control of the Parliamentarians: Elizabeth and Henry. They were permitted to visit him on 29 January, and he bade them a tearful farewell. The next morning, he called for two shirts to prevent the cold weather causing any noticeable shivers that the crowd could have mistaken for fear: "the season is so sharp as probably may make me shake, which some observers may imagine proceeds from fear. I would have no such imputation." Charles was separated from spectators by large ranks of soldiers, and his last speech reached only those with him on the scaffold. He blamed his fate on his failure to prevent the execution of his loyal servant Strafford: "An unjust sentence that I suffered to take effect, is punished now by an unjust sentence on me." He declared that he had desired the liberty and freedom of the people as much as any, "but I must tell you that their liberty and freedom consists in having government ... It is not their having a share in the government; that is nothing appertaining unto them. A subject and a sovereign are clean different things." He continued, "I shall go from a corruptible to an incorruptible Crown, where no disturbance can be." At about 2:00 p.m., Charles put his head on the block after saying a prayer and signalled the executioner when he was ready by stretching out his hands; he was then beheaded in one clean stroke. According to observer Philip Henry, a moan "as I never heard before and desire I may never hear again" rose from the assembled crowd, some of whom then dipped their handkerchiefs in the King's blood as a memento. }} The executioner was masked and disguised, and there is debate over his identity.<!----> The commissioners approached Richard Brandon, the common hangman of London, but he refused, at least at first, despite being offered £200—a considerably large sum for the time.<!----> It is possible he relented and undertook the commission after being threatened with death, but others have been named as potential candidates, including George Joyce, William Hulet and Hugh Peters. The clean strike, confirmed by an examination of the King's body at Windsor in 1813, suggests that the execution was carried out by an experienced headsman. It was common practice for the severed head of a traitor to be held up and exhibited to the crowd with the words "Behold the head of a traitor!" Charles's head was exhibited, but those words were not used, possibly because the executioner did not want his voice recognised. On the day after the execution, the King's head was sewn back onto his body, which was then embalmed and placed in a lead coffin. The commission refused to allow Charles's burial at Westminster Abbey, so his body was conveyed to Windsor on the night of 7 February. He was buried in private on 9 February 1649 in the Henry VIII vault in the chapel's quire, alongside the coffins of Henry VIII and Henry's third wife, Jane Seymour, in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle. The King's son, Charles II, later planned for an elaborate royal mausoleum to be erected in Hyde Park, London, but it was never built. Legacy Ten days after Charles's execution, on the day of his interment, a memoir purportedly written by him appeared for sale. This book, the Eikon Basilike (Greek for the "Royal Portrait"), contained an apologia for royal policies, and proved an effective piece of royalist propaganda. John Milton wrote a Parliamentary rejoinder, the Eikonoklastes ("The Iconoclast"), but the response made little headway against the pathos of the royalist book. Anglicans and royalists fashioned an image of martyrdom, and in the Convocations of Canterbury and York of 1660 King Charles the Martyr was added to the Church of England's liturgical calendar. High church Anglicans held special services on the anniversary of his death. Churches, such as those at Falmouth and Tunbridge Wells, and Anglican devotional societies such as the Society of King Charles the Martyr, were founded in his honour. With the monarchy overthrown, England became a republic or "Commonwealth". The House of Lords was abolished by the Rump Commons, and a Council of State assumed executive power. All significant military opposition in Britain and Ireland was extinguished by the forces of Oliver Cromwell in the Anglo-Scottish War and the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland. Cromwell forcibly disbanded the Rump Parliament in 1653, thereby establishing the Protectorate with himself as Lord Protector. Upon his death in 1658, he was briefly succeeded by his ineffective son, Richard. Parliament was reinstated, and the monarchy was restored to Charles I's eldest son, Charles II, in 1660. Charles's unprecedented 1642 invasion of the House of Commons' chamber, a grave violation of the liberties of Parliament, and his unsuccessful attempt to arrest five Members of Parliament are commemorated annually at the State Opening of Parliament.Art Partly inspired by his visit to the Spanish court in 1623, Charles became a passionate and knowledgeable art collector, amassing one of the finest art collections ever assembled. In Spain, he sat for a sketch by Velázquez, and acquired works by Titian and Correggio, among others. In England, his commissions included the ceiling of the Banqueting House, Whitehall, by Peter Paul Rubens and paintings by other artists from the Low Countries such as Gerard van Honthorst, Daniel Mytens, and Anthony van Dyck. His close associates, including the Duke of Buckingham and Thomas Howard, 21st Earl of Arundel, shared his interest and have been dubbed the Whitehall Group. In 1627 and 1628, Charles purchased the entire collection of the Duke of Mantua, which included work by Titian, Correggio, Raphael, Caravaggio, Andrea del Sarto and Andrea Mantegna. His collection grew further to encompass Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Pieter Bruegel the Elder, Leonardo da Vinci, Hans Holbein the Younger, Wenceslaus Hollar, Tintoretto and Veronese, and self-portraits by both Albrecht Dürer and Rembrandt. By Charles's death, there were an estimated 1,760 paintings, most of which were sold and dispersed by Parliament.AssessmentsIn the words of John Philipps Kenyon, "Charles Stuart is a man of contradictions and controversy". Revered by high Tories who considered him a saintly martyr, he was condemned by Whig historians, such as Samuel Rawson Gardiner, who thought him duplicitous and delusional. In recent decades, most historians have criticised him, the main exception being Kevin Sharpe, who offered a more sympathetic view that has not been widely adopted. Sharpe argued that the King was a dynamic man of conscience, but Barry Coward thought Charles "the most incompetent monarch of England since Henry VI", a view shared by Ronald Hutton, who called him "the worst king we have had since the Middle Ages". Archbishop William Laud, whom Parliament beheaded during the war, called Charles a "mild and gracious prince who knew not how to be, or how to be made, great." Charles was more sober and refined than his father, but he was intransigent. He deliberately pursued unpopular policies that brought ruin on himself. Both Charles and James were advocates of the divine right of kings, but while James's ambitions concerning absolute prerogative were tempered by compromise and consensus with his subjects, Charles believed he had no need to compromise or even to explain his actions. He thought he was answerable only to God. "Princes are not bound to give account of their actions," he wrote, "but to God alone". Titles, styles, honours and arms between 1637 and 1638]] Titles and styles * 23 December 1600 – 27 March 1625: Duke of Albany, Marquess of Ormonde, Earl of Ross and Lord Ardmannoch * 6 January 1605 – 27 March 1625: Duke of York * 6 November 1612 – 27 March 1625: Duke of Cornwall and Rothesay * 4 November 1616 – 27 March 1625: Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester * 27 March 1625 – 30 January 1649: His Majesty The King The official style of Charles I as king in England was "Charles, by the Grace of God, King of England, Scotland, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, etc." The style "of France" was only nominal, and was used by every English monarch from Edward III to George III, regardless of the amount of French territory actually controlled. The authors of his death warrant called him "Charles Stuart, King of England". Honours * KB: Knight of the Bath, 6 January 1605 * KG: Knight of the Garter, 24 April 1611<ref namekt/>ArmsAs Duke of York, Charles bore the royal arms of the kingdom differenced by a label Argent of three points, each bearing three torteaux Gules. As the Prince of Wales, he bore the royal arms differenced by a plain label Argent of three points. As king, Charles bore the royal arms undifferenced: Quarterly, I and IV Grandquarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or (for France) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II Or a lion rampant within a tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland). In Scotland, the Scottish arms were placed in the first and fourth quarters with the English and French arms in the second quarter. {\| border"0" align"center" width="85%" \|- !width=25% \| !width=25% \| !width=25% \| !width=25% \| \|-style="text-align: center;" \|Coat of arms as Duke of York from 1611 to 1612 \|Coat of arms as heir apparent and Prince of Wales used from 1612 to 1625 \|Coat of arms of Charles I used (outside Scotland) from 1625 to 1649 \|Coat of arms of Charles I used in Scotland from 1625 to 1649 \|} Issue , James, Charles, Elizabeth and Anne.]] Charles had nine children, five of whom reached adulthood. Two of his sons eventually succeeded as king, and two children died at or shortly after birth. {\| class="wikitable" \|- !Name!!Birth!!Death!!Notes \|- \|Charles James, Duke of Cornwall and Rothesay\|\|13 May 1629\|\|13 May 1629\|\|Born and died the same day. Buried as "Charles, Prince of Wales". \|- \|Charles II\|\|29 May 1630\|\|6 February 1685\|\|Married Catherine of Braganza (1638–1705) in 1662. No legitimate liveborn issue, but many acknowledged illegitimate offspring. \|- \|Mary, Princess Royal\|\|4 November 1631\|\|\|\|Married William II, Prince of Orange (1626–1650) in 1641. She had one child: William III & II. \|- \|James II & VII\|\|\|\|6 September 1701<!--16 September NS-->\|\|Married (1) Anne Hyde (1637–1671) in 1659. Had issue including Mary II and Anne, Queen of Great Britain;<br />Married (2) Mary of Modena (1658–1718) in 1673. Had issue. \|- \|Elizabeth\|\|\|\|8 September 1650\|\|Died young. \|- \|Anne\|\|17 March 1637\|\|5 November 1640\|\|Died young. \|- \|Catherine\|\|29 June 1639\|\|29 June 1639\|\|Born and died the same day. \|- \|Henry, Duke of Gloucester\|\|8 July 1640\|\|\|\| No issue. \|- \|Henrietta\|\|16 June 1644\|\|30 June 1670\|\|Married Philip, Duke of Orléans (1640–1701) in 1661. Had issue. \|} Ancestry \| boxstyle_1 = background-color: #fcc; \| boxstyle_2 = background-color: #fb9; \| boxstyle_3 = background-color: #ffc; \| boxstyle_4 = background-color: #bfc; \|1= 1. Charles I of England \|2= 2. James I of England (VI of Scotland) \|3= 3. Anne of Denmark \|4= 4. Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley \|5= 5. Mary, Queen of Scots \|6= 6. Frederick II of Denmark \|7= 7. Sophia of Mecklenburg \|8= 8. Matthew Stewart, Earl of Lennox \|99. Margaret Douglas }} \|1010. James V of Scotland \|11= 11. Mary of Guise \|1212. Christian III of Denmark }} \|13= 13. Dorothea of Saxe-Lauenburg \|14= 14. Ulrich III, Duke of Mecklenburg \|1515. Elizabeth of Denmark }} Notes References Citations Sources * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Further reading* * Brotton, Jerry (2007), ''The Sale of the Late King's Goods: Charles I and His Art Collection, Pan Macmillan, * * * Gardiner, Samuel Rawson (1882), The Fall of the Monarchy of Charles I, 1637–1649'': [https://archive.org/details/fallmonarchycha02gardgoog Volume I (1637–1640)]; [https://archive.org/details/fallmonarchycha00gardgoog Volume II (1640–1642)] * * * * * * * * Historiography* * * * [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/610820/summary online] * * [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/610819/summary online] * * * [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/610821/summary online] * * External links * * [https://www.royal.uk/charles-i Charles I] at the official website of the British monarchy * [https://www.rct.uk/collection/people/charles-i-king-of-great-britain-1600-49#/type/subject Charles I] at the official website of the Royal Collection Trust * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/charles_i_king.shtml Charles I] at BBC History * [http://www.skcm-usa.org The Society of King Charles the Martyr (United States)] * * <!--See docs to create custom search--> \|- \|- Category:1600 births Category:1649 deaths Category:16th-century Scottish peers Category:17th-century Scottish monarchs Category:17th-century English monarchs Category:17th-century Irish monarchs Category:17th-century English nobility Category:17th-century Scottish peers Category:Protestant monarchs Category:Anglican saints Category:English pretenders to the French throne Category:Princes and great stewards of Scotland Category:Princes of Wales Category:House of Stuart 401 Category:Dukes of Cornwall Category:Dukes of Rothesay Category:Dukes of York Stuart, Charles Category:Peers of Scotland created by James VI<!--in 1600, as Duke of Albany--> Category:Peers of England created by James I<!--in 1605, as Duke of York--> Category:Knights of the Garter Category:People from Dunfermline Category:People of the English Civil War Category:Monarchs taken prisoner in wartime Category:Executed monarchs Category:Dethroned monarchs Category:Executed British royalty Category:People executed under the Interregnum (England) for treason against England Category:People executed under the Interregnum (England) by decapitation Category:Burials at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle Category:People executed by public decapitation Category:English Christian royal saints Category:Scottish royal saints Category:Irish royal saints Category:Heads of government who were later imprisoned Category:Children of James VI and I Category:Sons of kings Category:People with speech disorders	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_I_of_England	2025-04-05T18:28:08.869509
7431	Counter-Strike (video game)	\| publisher = }} \| designer = \| series = Counter-Strike \| engine = GoldSrc \| released = \| Microsoft Windows \| November 9, 2000 \| Xbox \| \| OS X, Linux \| }} \| genre = Tactical first-person shooter \| modes = Multiplayer \| platforms = Windows, Xbox, OS X, Linux }} Counter-Strike (also known as Half-Life: Counter-Strike or Counter-Strike 1.6) is a 2000 tactical first-person shooter game developed by Valve Corporation and published by Sierra Studios. It is the first installment in the Counter-Strike series. The game pits two teams—the Counter-Terrorists and Terrorists—against each other in objective-based game modes. The most common objectives are bomb defusal and hostage rescue, each played on designated maps. Players begin with a knife and pistol and they can purchase more advanced weapons and equipment with money earned through eliminating enemies or accomplishing goals. Once eliminated, players do not respawn until the end of the round. Minh Le and Jess Cliffe planned a game based on counter-terrorism in 1998 with development beginning the following year when the first few beta versions were released. The Half-Life modification gained significant popularity and interest, which attracted Valve. Valve later acquired the game's intellectual property and announced a partnership with Le and Cliffe. After finishing development, Counter-Strike was released by Valve for Microsoft Windows in November 2000. Several remakes and ports were released on Xbox, as well as OS X and Linux. Since its release, Counter-Strike received positive reviews from critics who praised the gameplay and its emphasis on teamwork and strategy. It has been called one of the most influential first-person shooters and noted for its realistic and tactical approach to counter-terrorism. The game became a major hit and sold millions of copies and grossing millions of dollars. Because of this success, sequels of Counter-Strike came out, with the first one being Counter-Strike: Condition Zero, released in 2004, which was received with mixed reviews. Counter-Strike: Source came out later that year, which ran on Valve's Source engine, offering improved visuals and physics. In 2012, Counter-Strike: Global Offensive was launched, giving the franchise new game modes and better matchmaking. Counter-Strike 2, developed in the Source 2 engine, was released in 2023 as an update to Global Offensive. Gameplay )]] Counter-Strike is a team-based multiplayer first-person shooter video game in which players play as Terrorists (T) or Counter-Terrorists (CT). Each game begins with both teams spawning simultaneously as one of eight possible default character models (four each for Counter-Terrorist and Terrorist). Each player begins with $800, two magazines of ammo, a knife, and a handgun: a Heckler & Koch USP for the Counter-Terrorists or a Glock 18c for the Terrorists. Players are usually allowed a few seconds before the round starts to purchase equipment but not move. They may purchase equipment whenever they are in a buy zone for their team. When players are killed, they become spectators for the rest of the round. They may typically watch the rest of the round from a variety of chosen observer modes (free-look mode, locked chasecam and free chase chasecam)<!-- what do these mean? -->. At the end of each round players receive money to use in the next round; $3,500 for winning a round, $1,500 for losing one, and $300 for killing an enemy. They can earn up to $16,000 and can be fined (e.g. killing a teammate fines the perpetrator $3,300)<!-- is this the only way to be fined? -->. Depending on the map there are 3 possible objectives to win as well as the option of eliminating all enemy team members :* Bomb defusal: The Terrorist team has a bomb when the round starts. The goal of the Terrorists is to plant the bomb at a bomb site—usually called Bombsite A or Bombsite B on the map—and make sure it explodes. The Counter-Terrorist team wins if they are able to defuse the bomb within a set time limit. If either team is eliminated before the bomb is planted, the other team wins. Bomb defusal maps start with the prefix "de_" (e.g de_dust2). :* Hostage rescue: Four hostages are often located close to the Terrorist base on the map. The goal of the counter-terrorists is to lead the captives to a location on the map where they are rescued. A heads-up display (HUD) shows information to assist players during gameplay. The action indicator in the top right displays the names of players who are killed and the weapon used. The radar, or mini-map, shows the positions of teammates and other relevant map details. The HUD displays the player's health, armor, ammunition, and money as well as the round timer. On the left side, icons indicate important locations such as hostage rescue areas, VIP escape points, buy zones, and bomb sites, and in bomb defusal maps, it shows whether the player is carrying the C4 bomb or a defuse kit. There are three categories of weapons: melee (knife), secondary (handguns), and primary (rifles, shotguns, machine guns, and submachine guns). Players are only allowed to carry one weapon of each category at a time. There is a separate category for equipment like defusing kits and hand grenades which do not have the same carry limits.DevelopmentVideo game programmer Minh "Gooseman" Le was previously involved in developing video game mods, such as Navy SEALs for Quake and Action Quake 2. However, he wanted to create his own mod to have more control over development. He chose to use the game engine GoldSrc, because he had already worked with the Quake and Quake 2 engines, and he felt it was a logical choice. The realistic setting of Half-Life, which was developed using GoldSrc, made Half-Life well-suited for his concept of a mod involving terrorists and counter-terrorists. In February 1999, the first screenshots of Counter-Strike were released, accompanied by an interview with Le about the mod. Le and Jess Cliffe, who had both worked on Action Quake 2, connected through Internet Relay Chat, during which Le shared his idea for the mod. Cliffe, excited by the concept, offered to create a website for it, thus becoming involved in the project. Several movies served as sources of inspiration for prospective weapon candidates. For instance, the Krieg 552 and M249 were included in Counter-Strike due to inspiration from the 1998 film Ronin. Additionally, the films Air Force One and Léon: The Professional served as further influences for weapon selection. A few weapon models in Counter-Strike deviate from their real-world counterparts because Le had to make assumptions about how certain weapons would behave in animations due to limited information. On March 15, 1999, the mod received its name following an ICQ chat between Le and Cliffe. It was hosted by GameSpys Joost Schurr on Planet Half-Life. Minh Le's reputation from Action Quake 2 led to the mod receiving significant attention before release. The website attracted 10,000 visitors within two and a half weeks. In May 1999, the mod's most pressing issue was a shortage of people to make maps to play on. A contest was held to select maps for the initial beta, though some maps selected were later discarded. Before the first beta's official release, a pre-beta build was leaked online,which potentially accelerated the release of the mod. featured a hostage rescue scenario, 9 weapons, 4 maps, and one player model per side. Jess Cliffe reported that the release was well-received by the community. The interest in the game drew numerous players to Cliffe's website, which helped both him and Le to make revenue from advertisements hosted on the site. Another website related to Counter-Strike was launched by John "Rizzuh" Jensen as a source for information about the game, tactics, skins and sounds. In late 1999, Minh Le began working at Barking Dog Studios while finishing his studies. When Valve Software learned of this, they asked Barking Dog to assist in developing Beta 5, offering to finance the project and acquire the game's intellectual property. The development was mainly handled by Barking Dog, as Le was occupied with his university studies. New hostage models were introduced, and the development of the game was further supported with the release of Beta 5.2. Release Pre-release On April 12, 2000, Valve Software announced a partnership with the Counter-Strike Team, confirming that Counter-Strike 1.0 would be included in an upcoming Half-Life patch. Though not explicitly stated, it is widely believed that this followed Valve's acquisition of Counter-Strike. Statements suggest the rights were sold in early 2000, involving a financial transaction. Despite the partnership, two more beta versions were released. Beta 6.5 (June 8, 2000) introduced an updated netcode, while Beta 7.0 (August 26, 2000) added drive-able vehicles. Following the acquisition of the game by Valve, while Cliffe continued working for them, Le did additional work towards a Counter-Strike 2.0 based on Valve's upcoming Source engine, but left to start his own studio after Valve opted to shelve the sequel. The decision aimed to increase accessibility and test market demand for a multiplayer game independent of Half-Life. Legal issues arose before the retail release, particularly regarding weapon names, which were changed to fictional alternatives. Valve also had to secure rights for maps and textures, leading to modifications and removals of certain assets. Minh Le, one of the original developers, compensated mappers whose work Valve did not purchase. Maverick Developments created a training map for the retail edition. On November 9, 2000, Valve announced that the retail version had gone gold, and the mod version was released shortly after. It was launched under the name Half-Life: Counter-Strike because according to Jess Cliffe, the game did not have a strong identity. After launch, Valve continued releasing updates. Version 1.1 implemented a new spectator mode, version 1.3 introduced voice chat, and version 1.4 added anti-cheat measures. Counter-Strike 1.5, released on June 12, 2002, was the last update before transitioning to Steam. In October 2002, it was stated that Counter-Strike 1.6 would initially be distributed via Steam, with a beta test preceding its official release. Public beta testing was originally set to begin in mid-November, but the launch was first postponed to mid-December before finally starting on January 16, 2003. On the same day, due to overwhelming demand, further beta admissions were quickly suspended as Steam's servers ran out of bandwidth. It was available to the public once again in July 2003. Along with the beta release, Valve and Plantronics announced a blue-and-gold-colored Counter-Strike headset based on Plantronics' DSP-500 headset. The headset had an adjustable microphone boom, a built-in volume control, and was usable with a USB port rather than a sound card. During the beta phase, the game underwent multiple updates, introducing new weapons and a completely redesigned interface based on Valve's VGUI2 technology. Additionally, the official bot, developed by Turtle Rock Studios for Counter-Strike: Condition Zero, was publicly tested within Counter-Strike 1.6 from June 5. Following release, advertisements were brought to Counter-Strike. They were removed after the game was converted to the SteamPipe content delivery system. Plans for Counter-Strike 1.7—which aimed to merge the player bases of Counter-Strike and Condition Zero—were never realized. In January 2013, Valve ported Counter-Strike onto OS X and Linux. It is the third Valve game to be ported to Linux, after Counter-Strike: Source and Team Fortress 2.ControversyThe game faced scrutiny in Germany after being linked to the Erfurt school massacre in 2002 after it was found on the computer of the perpetrator, Robert Steinhäuser. Politicians, including Günther Beckstein, and media outlets, particularly Bild, then regularly referred the game to the game as . Calls for banning violent video games intensified, with politicians like Beckstein advocating for penalties against players. Media outlets like Frontal 21 on ZDF often portrayed players negatively. In 2002, Germany's BPjM considered indexing Counter-Strike but ultimately rejected it, concluding that the game's objectives could be achieved without violence and that its communication aspects were beneficial. Chancellor Gerhard Schröder criticized the decision as irresponsible. A Brazilian federal judge, Carlos Alberto Simões de Tomaz, ordered a ban on the sale of Counter-Strike and EverQuest in October 2007 arguing that the games "bring imminent stimulus to the subversion of the social order, attempting against the democratic state and the law and against public security." The order began to be enforced on January 17, 2008, but regional federal court order lifting the prohibition on the sale of Counter-Strike was published on June 18, 2009.Reception Player count Counter-Strike became one of the most popular video games. During the beta stages, it garnered over 245,000 players. After its release in November 2000, the game reached a player count of over 700,000, who played on over 7,000 servers, surpassing both Team Fortress Classic and Unreal Tournament. In March 2002, Counter-Strike was the most popular multiplayer game across 150 game centers in North America. Counter-Strike stayed at the top in June, July, and August.Critical receptionPC receptionUpon its retail release, Counter-Strike received highly favorable reviews. The New York Times reported that E-Sports Entertainment ESEA League started the first professional fantasy e-sports league in 2004 with the game Counter-Strike. Some credit the move into professional competitive team play with prizes as a major factor in Counter-Strike longevity and success. The game was praised by critics for its emphasis on teamwork and communication among players. Scott Osborne, writing for GameSpot, felt that the audio messages were a decent feature, which covered requests for backup, status reports and warnings. One problem, according to him, was that both teams used the same voice. Clayton Wolfe of IGN expressed the importance of teamwork and stating, "It's the team-based tactics that make [Counter-Strike] so fun."<!-- We really need secondary sources for these awards. I can't verify the two Spotlight awards. But the game did win 2 different awards from GDC in 2000 not 2001 so im not sure whats up. --> In 2003, Counter-Strike was inducted into GameSpot's greatest games of all time list. Sales Counter-Strike became the first fan-made video game to be released commercially. By July 2001, global retail sales of the game had surpassed 250,000 units. By October 2002, sales had exceeded 1.3 million copies. Sales continued to rise, reaching 1.5 million units and generating $40 million in revenue by February 2003. By August 2004, Counter-Strike had grossed $75 million in revenue and had an estimated two million players worldwide. In the United States, its retail version sold 550,000 copies and earned $15.7 million by August 2006, making it the 22nd best-selling PC game in the country between January 2000 and August 2006. The Xbox version of the game sold 1.5 million copies. As of December 2008, Counter-Strike had sold approximately 4.2 million copies, surpassing all other Valve games except Half-Life and Half-Life 2. A portion of Half-Life sales is often attributed to Counter-Strike since the game was originally available as a modification of Half-Life. Half-Life experienced an unusual increase in sales year-over-year following its release, which Gabe Newell attributed to the popularity of Counter-Strike. He described the release of the mod as one of the best things that could have happened to Half-Life.Competitive play The original Counter-Strike has been played in competitive tournaments since 2000<!-- is it still being played? when was the last one -->, with the first major event taking place at the Cyberathlete Professional League (CPL) Winter Championship in 2001. The CPL announced a transition from Quake III Arena to Counter-Strike for the Winter Championship. Prior to this, the 2000 Babbage's event featured a Counter-Strike competition sponsored by Kärna, the parent company of Razer, offering a $15,000 prize pool. However, Kärna experienced financial difficulties, leading to delays in prize payouts. On March 14, 2001, the CPL issued a statement confirming that alternative arrangements would be made if the payments were not received by April 2, 2001. On April 12, 2001, the CPL Winter Championship commenced at the Hyatt Regency in Dallas, Texas. The event featured 48 competing teams, marking the first large-scale Counter-Strike tournament. The competition attracted over 800 attendees, including participants and Bring Your Own Computer (BYOC) players. Many professional Quake players were notably absent, while the Counter-Strike community saw an influx of new competitors. This tournament was the largest Counter-Strike event at the time and contributed to the game's rise in professional esports. In 2003, the Esports World Convention hosted a Counter-Strike tournament which featured 37 teams competing for a $100,000 prize pool. In 2012, the Electronic Sports League removed the game from the main titles for the 2012–2013 Intel Extreme Masters due to its decreasing popularity outside of Europe.Sequels Following the success of Counter-Strike, Valve went on to make multiple sequels. The first sequel, Counter-Strike: Condition Zero, which used Counter-Strikes GoldSrc engine, was released in 2004. Counter-Strike: Source, a remake of the original Counter-Strike, was the first in the series to use Valve's Source engine and was also released in 2004, eight months after the release of Condition Zero. The next game in the Counter-Strike series was Counter-Strike: Global Offensive, released for Windows, OS X, Linux, PlayStation 3, and Xbox 360 in 2012. Counter-Strike 2, an updated version of Global Offensive, was released in 2023. The game spawned multiple spin-offs for the Asian gaming market. The first, Counter-Strike Neo, was an arcade game developed by Namco and released in Japan in 2003. In 2008, Nexon Corporation released Counter-Strike Online, a free-to-play installment in the series monetized via microtransactions. Counter-Strike Online was followed by Counter-Strike Online 2 in 2013. In 2014, Nexon released Counter-Strike Nexon: Zombies worldwide via Steam. See also * List of video games derived from modifications Notes References Bibliography * * Category:2000 video games Category:Asymmetrical multiplayer video games Category:Censored video games Category:Counter-Strike Category:Esports games Category:First-person shooters Category:Golden Joystick Award winners Category:GoldSrc games Category:GoldSrc mods Category:Linux games Category:MacOS games Category:Microsoft games Category:Multiplayer online games Category:Sierra Entertainment games Category:Tactical shooters Category:Valve Corporation games Category:Video games about bomb disposal Category:Video games about police officers Category:Video games about terrorism Category:Video games about the Special Air Service Category:Video games about the United States Navy SEALs Category:Video games developed in the United States Category:Video games set in Cuba Category:Video games set in Italy Category:Video games set in Mexico Category:Video games set in the United States Category:Windows games Category:Xbox games Category:Cooperative video games	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter-Strike_(video_game)	2025-04-05T18:28:08.915111
7434	Camille Pissarro	\| birth_name = Jacob Abraham Camille Pissarro \| birth_date \| birth_place = Charlotte Amalie, Saint Thomas, Danish West Indies \| death_date \| death_place = Paris, France \| nationality = Danish, French \| field = Painting \| movement = Impressionism<br>Post-Impressionism \| module }} Jacob Abraham Camille Pissarro ( ; ; 10 July 1830 – 13 November 1903) was a Danish-French Impressionist and Neo-Impressionist painter born on the island of St Thomas (now in the US Virgin Islands, but then in the Danish West Indies). His importance resides in his contributions to both Impressionism and Post-Impressionism. Pissarro studied from great forerunners, including Gustave Courbet and Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot. He later studied and worked alongside Georges Seurat and Paul Signac when he took on the Neo-Impressionist style at the age of 54. In 1873 he helped establish a collective society of fifteen aspiring artists, becoming the "pivotal" figure in holding the group together and encouraging the other members. Art historian John Rewald called Pissarro the "dean of the Impressionist painters", not only because he was the oldest of the group, but also "by virtue of his wisdom and his balanced, kind, and warmhearted personality". Paul Cézanne said "he was a father for me. A man to consult and a little like the good Lord", and he was also one of Paul Gauguin's masters. Pierre-Auguste Renoir referred to his work as "revolutionary", through his artistic portrayals of the "common man", as Pissarro insisted on painting individuals in natural settings without "artifice or grandeur". Pissarro is the only artist to have shown his work at all eight Paris Impressionist exhibitions, from 1874 to 1886. He "acted as a father figure not only to the Impressionists" but to all four of the major Post-Impressionists, Cézanne, Seurat, Gauguin, and van Gogh. Early years ]] , 1856]] Jacob Abraham Camille Pissarro was born on 10 July 1830 on the island of St. Thomas to Frederick Abraham Gabriel Pissarro and Rachel Manzano-Pomié. His father was of Portuguese Jewish descent and held French nationality. His mother was from a French-Jewish family from St. Thomas with Provençal Jewish roots. His father was a merchant who came to the island from France to deal with the hardware store of a deceased uncle, Isaac Petit, and married his widow. The marriage caused a stir within St. Thomas's small Jewish community because she was previously married to Frederick's uncle and according to Jewish law a man is forbidden from marrying his aunt. In subsequent years his four children attended the all-black primary school. Upon his death, his will specified that his estate be split equally between the synagogue and St. Thomas' Protestant church. When Pissarro was twelve his father sent him to boarding school in France. He studied at the Savary Academy in Passy near Paris. While a young student, he developed an early appreciation of the French art masters. Monsieur Savary himself gave him a strong grounding in drawing and painting and suggested he draw from nature when he returned to St. Thomas. After his schooling, Pissarro returned to St. Thomas at the age of sixteen or seventeen, where his father advocated Pissarro to work in his business as a port clerk. Nevertheless, Pissarro took every opportunity during those next five years at the job to practice drawing during breaks and after work. Mirzoeff states, "A formal analysis suggests that [Sawkins's] work influenced the young Pissarro, who had just returned to the island from his school in France. Soon afterward, Pissarro began his own drawings of the local African population in apparent imitation of Sawkins," creating "sketches for a postslavery imagination." He also studied paintings by other artists whose style impressed him: Courbet, Charles-François Daubigny, Jean-François Millet, and Corot. He also enrolled in various classes taught by masters, at schools such as École des Beaux-Arts and Académie Suisse. But Pissarro eventually found their teaching methods "stifling," states art historian John Rewald. This prompted him to search for alternative instruction, which he requested and received from Corot. He and Corot shared a love of rural scenes painted from nature. It was by Corot that Pissarro was inspired to paint outdoors, also called "plein air" painting. Pissarro found Corot, along with the work of Gustave Courbet, to be "statements of pictorial truth," writes Rewald. He discussed their work often. Jean-François Millet was another whose work he admired, especially his "sentimental renditions of rural life". Corot would complete his paintings back in his studio, often revising them according to his preconceptions. Pissarro, however, preferred to finish his paintings outdoors, often at one sitting, which gave his work a more realistic feel. As a result, his art was sometimes criticised as being "vulgar," because he painted what he saw: "rutted and edged hodgepodge of bushes, mounds of earth, and trees in various stages of development." According to one source, such details were equivalent to today's art showing garbage cans or beer bottles on the side of a street. This difference in style created disagreements between Pissarro and Corot. Walters Art Museum.]] In 1859, while attending the free school, the Académie Suisse, Pissarro became friends with a number of younger artists who likewise chose to paint in the more realistic style. Among them were Claude Monet, Armand Guillaumin and Paul Cézanne. What they shared in common was their dissatisfaction with the dictates of the Salon. Cézanne's work had been mocked at the time by the others in the school, and, writes Rewald, in his later years Cézanne "never forgot the sympathy and understanding with which Pissarro encouraged him." At the age of thirty-eight, Pissarro had begun to win himself a reputation as a landscapist to rival Corot and Daubigny. In the late 1860s or early 1870s, Pissarro became fascinated with Japanese prints, which influenced his desire to experiment in new compositions. He described the art to his son Lucien: :"It is marvelous. This is what I see in the art of this astonishing people ... nothing that leaps to the eye, a calm, a grandeur, an extraordinary unity, a rather subdued radiance ..." His political philosophies also motivated some of his art. The purpose of the album was political, Pissarro created the album as a gift for his niece aiming to solidify her anarchist tendencies.The London years '', 1897. Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.]] After the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, having only Danish nationality and being unable to join the army, he moved his family to Norwood, then a village on the edge of London. However, his style of painting, which was a forerunner of what was later called "Impressionism", did not do well. He wrote to his friend, Théodore Duret, that "my painting doesn't catch on, not at all ..." views of The Crystal Palace relocated from Hyde Park, Dulwich College, Sydenham Hill, All Saints Church Upper Norwood'', and a lost painting of St. Stephen's Church. Returning to France, Pissarro lived in Pontoise from 1872 to 1884. In 1890 he again visited England and painted some ten scenes of central London. He came back again in 1892, painting in Kew Gardens and Kew Green, and also in 1897, when he produced several oils described as being of Bedford Park, Chiswick, but in fact all being of the nearby Stamford Brook area except for one of Bath Road, which runs from Stamford Brook along the south edge of Bedford Park. French Impressionism '', 1874]] When Pissarro returned to his home in France after the war, he discovered that of the 1,500 paintings he had done over 20 years, which he was forced to leave behind when he moved to London, only 40 remained. The rest had been damaged or destroyed by the soldiers, who often used them as floor mats outside in the mud to keep their boots clean. It is assumed that many of those lost were done in the Impressionist style he was then developing, thereby "documenting the birth of Impressionism." Armand Silvestre, a critic, went so far as to call Pissarro "basically the inventor of this [Impressionist] painting"; however, Pissarro's role in the Impressionist movement was "less that of the great man of ideas than that of the good counselor and appeaser ..." "Monet ... could be seen as the guiding force." Towards the end of the 1890s she began to distance herself from the Impressionists, avoiding Degas at times as she did not have the strength to defend herself against his "wicked tongue". Instead, she came to prefer the company of "the gentle Camille Pissarro", with whom she could speak frankly about the changing attitudes toward art. She once described him as a teacher "that could have taught the stones to draw correctly." Art historian Cora Michael notes that “of the Impressionists, Pissarro was perhaps the one most devoted to printmaking and…approached prints from the point of view of an avant-garde artist.” In the 1880s to early 1890s, Pissarro returned to his studio in Pontoise, where he worked with many different print mediums to produce works such as “Vegetable Market at Pontoise” and “The Road to Rouen: The Hills of Pontoise".Neo-Impressionist period '', 1901. National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa]] ]] By the 1880s, Pissarro began to explore new themes and methods of painting to break out of what he felt was an artistic "mire". As a result, Pissarro went back to his earlier themes by painting the life of country people, which he had done in Venezuela in his youth. Degas described Pissarro's subjects as "peasants working to make a living". Pierre-Auguste Renoir, in 1882, referred to Pissarro's work during this period as "revolutionary," in his attempt to portray the "common man." Pissarro himself did not use his art to overtly preach any kind of political message, however, although his preference for painting humble subjects was intended to be seen and purchased by his upper class clientele. He also began painting with a more unified brushwork along with pure strokes of color. Studying with Seurat and Signac In 1885 he met Georges Seurat and Paul Signac, both of whom relied on a more "scientific" theory of painting by using very small patches of pure colours to create the illusion of blended colours and shading when viewed from a distance. Pissarro then spent the years from 1885 to 1888 practising this more time-consuming and laborious technique, referred to as pointillism. The paintings that resulted were distinctly different from his Impressionist works, and were on display in the 1886 Impressionist Exhibition, but under a separate section, along with works by Seurat, Signac, and his son Lucien. All four works were considered an "exception" to the eighth exhibition. Joachim Pissarro notes that virtually every reviewer who commented on Pissarro's work noted "his extraordinary capacity to change his art, revise his position and take on new challenges." His work has also been described by art historian Diane Kelder as expressing "the same quiet dignity, sincerity, and durability that distinguished his person." She adds that "no member of the group did more to mediate the internecine disputes that threatened at times to break it apart, and no one was a more diligent proselytizer of the new painting." Camille Pissarro is a pivotal character in the historical fiction novels, The Dream Collector, Books I & II by R.w. Meek, depicting his major role among the Impressionists and his open-mindedness toward the Post-Impressionist art of George Seurat, Paul Gauguin and Vincent van Gogh.The legacy of Nazi-looted Pissarros '', 1903. Tate Gallery, London]] During the early 1930s throughout Europe, Jewish owners of numerous fine art masterpieces found themselves forced to give up or sell off their collections for minimal prices due to anti-Jewish laws created by the new Nazi regime. Many Jews were forced to flee Germany starting in 1933, and then, as the Nazis expanded their hold over all of Europe, Austria, France, Holland, Poland, Italy and other countries. The Nazis created special looting organizations like the Reichsleiter Rosenberg Taskforce whose mission it was to seize Jewish property notably valuable artworks. When those forced into exile or deported to extermination camps owned valuables, including artwork, they were often sold to finance the Nazi war effort, sent to Hitler's personal museum, traded or seized by officials for personal gain. Several artworks by Pissarro were looted from their Jewish owners in Germany, France and elsewhere by the Nazis. Pissarro's Shepherdess Bringing Home the Sheep (La Bergère Rentrant des Moutons") was looted from the Jewish art collectors Yvonne et Raoul Meyer in France in 1941 and transited via Switzerland and New York before entering the Fred Jones Jr Museum at the University of Oklahoma. In 2014, Meyer's daughter, Léonie-Noëlle Meyer filed a restitution claim which resulted in years of court battle. The lawsuit resulted in the recognition of Meyer's ownership and its transfer to France for five years, coupled with an agreement to shuttle the painting back and forth between Paris and Oklahoma every three years after that. However, in 2020 Meyer filed suit in a French court to challenge the accord. After Fred Jones Jr Museum sued Meyer requesting heavy financial penalties, the Holocaust survivor abandoned her effort to recover the Pissarro, saying, "I have no other choice. Pissarro's Picking Peas (La Cueillette) was looted from Jewish businessman Simon Bauer, in addition to 92 other artworks seized in 1943 by the Vichy collaborationist regime in France. Pissarro's Sower And Ploughman, was owned by Dr Henri Hinrichsen, a Jewish music publisher from Leipzig, until 11 January 1940, when he was forced to relinquish the painting to Hildebrand Gurlitt in Nazi-occupied Brussels, before being murdered in Auschwitz in September 1942. Pissarro's "Le Quai Malaquais, Printemps", owned by German Jewish publisher Samuel Fischer, founder of the famous S. Fischer Verlag, passed through the hands of infamous Nazi art looter Bruno Lohse. Pissarro's Le Boulevard de Montmartre, Matinée de Printemps, owned by Max Silberberg, a German Jewish industrialist whose renowned art collection was considered "one of the best in pre-war Germany", was seized and sold in a forced auction before Silberberg and his wife Johanna were murdered in Auschwitz. In the decades after World War II, many art masterpieces were found on display in various galleries and museums in Europe and the United States, often with false provenances and labels missing. Some, as a result of legal action, were later returned to the families of the original owners. Many of the recovered paintings were then donated to the same or other museums as a gift. '', 1897, Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza.]] One such lost piece, Pissarro's 1897 oil painting, Rue St. Honoré, Apres Midi, Effet de Pluie, was discovered hanging at Madrid's government-owned museum, the Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza. In January 2011 the Spanish government denied a request by the US ambassador to return the painting. At the subsequent trial in Los Angeles, the court ruled that the Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection Foundation was the rightful owner. In 1999, Pissarro's 1897 Le Boulevard de Montmartre, Matinée de Printemps appeared in the Israel Museum in Jerusalem, its donor having been unaware of its pre-war provenance. In January 2012, Le Marché aux Poissons (The Fish Market), a color monotype, was returned after 30 years. During his lifetime, Camille Pissarro sold few of his paintings. By the 21st century, however, his paintings were selling for millions. An auction record for the artist was set on 6 November 2007 at Christie's in New York, where a group of four paintings, Les Quatre Saisons (the Four Seasons), sold for $14,601,000 (estimate $12,000,000 – $18,000,000). In November 2009 ''Le Pont Boieldieu et la Gare d'Orléans, Rouen, Soleil'' sold for $7,026,500 at Sotheby's in New York. In February 2014 the 1897 Le Boulevard de Montmartre, Matinée de Printemps, originally owned by the German industrialist and Holocaust victim Max Silberberg (de), sold at Sotheby's in London for £19.9M, nearly five times the previous record. In October 2021 Berlin's Alte Nationalgalerie restituted Pissarro's "A Square in La Roche-Guyon" (1867) to the heirs of Armand Dorville, a French Jewish art collector whose family was persecuted by the Nazis and whose paintings had been sold at a 1942 auction in Nice that was overseen by the Commissariat Général aux Questions Juives. The museum then purchased the Pissarro back. <gallery widths"180px" heights"150px" perrow"6" caption"Boulevard Montmartre cityscape series"> File:Pissarro Camille - Boulevard Montmartre à Paris.jpg\| Boulevard Montmartre à Paris, 1897. Hermitage Museum File:Boulevard Montmartre- Mardi Gras (frameless).jpg\|Boulevard Montmartre: Mardi Gras, 1897. Hammer Museum File:Camille Pissarro - Boulevard Montmartre, morning, cloudy weather - Google Art Project.jpg\| Boulevard Montmartre, morning, cloudy weather, 1897. National Gallery of Victoria File:The Boulevard Montmartre on a Winter Morning.JPG\|The Boulevard Montmartre on a Winter Morning, 1897. Metropolitan Museum of Art File:Camille Pissarro - Boulevard Montmartre, Spring - Google Art Project.jpg\|Le Boulevard de Montmartre, Matinée de Printemps, street view from hotel window, 1897 File:Camille Pissarro - Boulevard Montmartre at Night - c 1897 - National Gallery UK.jpg\|The Boulevard Montmartre at Night, 1897. National Gallery </gallery> A family of painters ]] Camille's son Lucien was an Impressionist and Neo-impressionist painter as were his second and third sons Georges Henri Manzana Pissarro and Félix Pissarro. Lucien's daughter Orovida Pissarro was also a painter. Camille's great-grandson, Joachim Pissarro, became Head Curator of Drawing and Painting at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City and a professor in Hunter College's Art Department. Camille's great-granddaughter, Lélia Pissarro, has had her work exhibited alongside her great-grandfather. Another great-granddaughter, Julia Pissarro, a Barnard College graduate, is also active in the art scene. From the only daughter of Camille, Jeanne Pissarro, other painters include Henri Bonin-Pissarro (1918–2003) and Claude Bonin-Pissarro (born 1921), who is the father of the Abstract artist Frédéric Bonin-Pissarro (born 1964). The grandson of Camille Pissarro, Hugues Claude Pissarro (dit Pomié), was born in 1935 in the western section of Paris, Neuilly-sur-Seine, and began to draw and paint as a young child under his father's tutelage. During his adolescence and early twenties he studied the works of the great masters at the Louvre. His work has been featured in exhibitions in Europe and the United States, and he was commissioned by the White House in 1959 to paint a portrait of U.S. President Dwight Eisenhower. He now lives and paints in Donegal, Ireland, with his wife Corinne also an accomplished artist and their children.Paintings <gallery widths"180px" heights"180px" perrow="4"> File:Camille Pissarro - A Plaza in Caracas.jpg\|A Plaza in Caracas, c. 1850–52, oil on canvas. Colección Patricia Phelps de Cisneros File:Camille Pissarro - Allée dans une fôret (sur 1859).jpg\|Allée dans une forêt (Road in a Forest), 1859, oil on canvas, Private Collection File:Camille Pissarro - Le Labourage, Bérelles (PD 46).jpg\|Working at Bérelles (Le Labourage, Bérelles), c. 1860, oil on panel, Private Collection File:Camille Pissarro - Châtaigniers à Louveciennes - 1879.jpg\|Châtaignier à Louveciennes, 1870. Musée d'Orsay, Paris File:Camille Pissarro - Allée dans le parc de Marly.jpg\|The Woods at Marly, 1871. Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, Madrid File:La Route.jpg\|The Road to Versailles, Louveciennes: Morning Frost, 1871. Dallas Museum of Art File:Pissaro, Camille, Still Life Apples and Pears.jpg\|Still Life: Apples and Pears in a Round Basket, 1872. The Henry and Rose Pearlman Collection, on long-term loan to the Princeton University Art Museum File:Camille Pissarro - Paul Cézanne.jpg\|Camille Pissarro, Portrait of Paul Cézanne, 1874. National Gallery, London File:Camille Pissarro A Cowherd at Valhermeil, Auvers-sur-Oise The Metropolitan Museum of Art.jpg\|A Cowherd at Valhermeil, Auvers-sur-Oise, 1874. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York File:MuMA - Pissarro - Un carrefour à l'Hermitage, Pontoise.JPG\|''Un Carrefour à l'Hermitage, Pontoise, 1876. Musée Malraux, Le Havre File:Camille Pissarro - Red roofs, corner of a village, winter - Google Art Project.jpg\|Toits rouges, coin d'un village, hiver'', Côte de Saint-Denis, Pontoise, 1877. Musée d'Orsay, Paris Image:Camille Pissarro - The Côte des Bœufs at L'Hermitage - National Gallery London.jpg\|''The Côte des Bœufs at L'Hermitage, 1877. National Gallery, London Image:Camille Pissarro - Dans le jardin des Mathurins, Pontoise - 503.jpg\|The Garden of Pontoise, 1877 File:Camille Pissarro Washerwoman, Study The Metropolitan Museum of Art.jpg\|Washerwoman, Study, 1880. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York File:Camille Pissarro - Conversation - Google Art Project.jpg\|Conversation, c. 1881. National Museum of Western Art, Tokyo File:The Harvest, Pontoise.jpg\|The Harvest, Pontoise, 1881. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York File:Camille Pissarro - The Harvest - Google Art Project.jpg\|The Harvest, 1882. Artizon Museum, Tokyo File:CAMILLE PISSARRO (1830-1903) Le jardin de Maubuisson, Pontoise, la mère Bellette 21 7-16 x 25 7-8 in. (54.5 x 65.7cm).jpg\| Le jardin de Maubuisson, Pontoise, 1882 File:The Church at Eragny Pissarro.jpg\|The Church at Eragny'', 1884. Walters Art Museum File:Route Enneigée avec maison, environs d'Éragny by Camille Pissarro.jpg\|''Route Enneigée avec maison, environs d'Éragny, 1885 Image:Bergère rentrant des moutons.jpg\| Shepherdess Bringing in Sheep (Bergère rentrant des moutons) 1886. University of Oklahoma File:Camille Pissarro 019.jpg\|Children on a Farm, 1887. Collection of G. Signac, Paris Image:Camille Pissarro 016.jpg\|Haying at Eragny, 1889 File:Pissarro—Old Chelsea Bridge.jpg\|Old Chelsea Bridge, London 1890. Smith College Museum of Arts File:The Place du Havre, Paris.jpg\|Place du Havre, Paris, 1893. Art Institute of Chicago File:Morning, An Overcast Day, Rouen MET DT1863.jpg\|Morning, An Overcast Day, Rouen, 1896. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York File:14 oct 2014 theatre fr.jpg\|Place du Théâtre Français: Fog Effect, 1897. Dallas Museum of Art File:Camille Pissarro 036.jpg\|Rouen, Rue de l'Épicerie, 1898 File:Camille Pissarro, The Garden of the Tuileries on a Winter Afternoon, 1899.jpg\|The Garden of the Tuileries on a Winter Afternoon, 1899, Metropolitan Museum of Art File:Camille Pissarro - La Place due Théâtre Français - Google Art Project.jpg\| La Place du Théâtre Français'', 1898. LACMA, Los Angeles File:Camille Pissarro (1830-1903) - 'View of Rouen', 1898.jpg\|View of Rouen, 1898. Honolulu Museum of Art File:WLA_metmuseum_Camille_Pissarro_French.jpg\|The Garden of the Tuileries on a Spring Morning, 1899. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York File:Camille Pissarro (1830-1903) - 'Morning, Winter Sunshine, Frost, the Pont-Neuf, the Seine, the Louvre, Soleil D'hiver Gella Blanc', ca. 1901.jpg\|''Morning, Winter Sunshine, Frost, the Pont-Neuf, the Seine, the Louvre, Soleil D'hiver Gella Blanc, c. 1901. Honolulu Museum of Art File:Pissarro havre.jpg\|Ship entering the Harbor at Le Havre, 1903. Dallas Museum of Art File:Camille Pissarro - The Fish Market in Dieppe, Grey Weather, Morning - 1902 - Dallas Museum of Art.jpg\|The Fish Market, Dieppe: Grey Weather, Morning, c 1902. Dallas Museum of Art </gallery> Drawings and prints <gallery widths"180px" heights"180px" perrow="4"> File:Camille Pissarro - La Guaira.jpg\|La Guaira, 1852–54, graphite and ink on paper File:Camille Pissarro - View from Upper Norwood.jpg\|View from Upper Norwood, c. 1870, pen and brown ink over pencil on paper. Ashmolean Museum File:LES POMMIERS, PONTOISE.PNG\|Apple Trees at Pontoise, c. 1872, pastel on paper File:Piette by Pissarro.jpg\|Portrait of Ludovic Piette'', c. 1875, pastel on paper. Wildenstein Institute File:The Woods at L'Hermitage, Pontoise MET DP108213.jpg\|''The Woods at L'Hermitage, Pontoise, 1879, softground etching, aquatint, and drypoint on china paper (sixth state). Metropolitan Museum of Art File:Camille Pissarro - Boulevard de Rochechouart, 1880. Pastel, Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute.jpg\|Boulevard de Rochechouart, 1880, pastel on beige wove paper File:Camille Pissarro - Paysage a Osny - Google Art Project.jpg\|Landscape in Osny'', 1887, etching on Holland paper. Museum of Fine Arts, Houston File:Camille Pissarro-Faneuses d'Eragny.jpg\|Tedders of Eragny (Faneuses d'Eragny), 1897, etching, aquatint and dry-point on paper. Strasbourg Museum of Modern and Contemporary Art File:Paysanne Nouant son Foulard by Camille Pissarro.jpg\|Paysanne Nouant son Foulard, 1882, pastel on paper </gallery> List of paintings The Banks of the Oise near Pontoise 1873, Indianapolis Museum of Art Pont Boieldieu in Rouen, Rainy Weather, 1896, Art Gallery of Ontario Steamboats in the Port of Rouen, 1896, Metropolitan Museum of Art Le Boulevard de Montmartre, Matinée de Printemps, view from window, 1897, private collection * Bath Road, London, 1897, Ashmolean Museum * Hay Harvest at Éragny, 1901, National Gallery of Canada Self-portrait, 1903, Tate Gallery, London Le Printemps, Paysannes dans un Champ, 1882, fan-shaped painting in gouache on silk, Private Collection Paysans Ramassant des Pommes, circa 1890, oil on panel <!-- ''The Côte des Bœufs at L'Hermitage, National Gallery, London --> See also * Jewish culture * List of claims for restitution for Nazi-looted art References Bibliography * Rewald, John, ed., with the assistance of Lucien Pissarro: Camille Pissarro, Lettres à son fils Lucien, Editions Albin Michel, Paris 1950; previously published, translated to English: Camille Pissarro, Letters to his son Lucien, New York 1943 & London 1944; 3rd revised edition, Paul P Appel Publishers, 1972 * Bailly-Herzberg, Janine, ed.: , 5 volumes, Presses Universitaires de France, Paris, 1980 & Editions du Valhermeil, Paris, 1986–1991 – – – – * DeLue, Rachael Ziady. “Pissarro, Landscape, Vision, and Tradition.” The Art Bulletin, vol. 80, no. 4, Dec. 1998, p. 718, https://doi.org/10.2307/3051320. * Herbert, Robert L. “Artists and Anarchism: Unpublished Letters of Pissarro, Signac and Others - II.” The Burlington Magazine, vol. 102, no. 693, 1960, pp. 517–22. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/873160. * Hubert van den Berg. “Pissarro and Anarchism.” History Workshop, no. 32, 1991, pp. 226–28. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4289126. * \| publisher = Villard Books \| location = New York \| year = 1994 \| isbn= 978-0-394-58497-3 \| lccn = 98-8028 }} Thomson, Richard. “Camille Pissarro’s “Turpitudes Sociales” Revisited, Part I: Politics, Caricature and Family Tensions in 1889.” The Burlington Magazine, vol. 142, no. 1169, 2000, pp. i–478, https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/43858729.pdf. Thorold, Anne, ed.: The letters of Lucien to Camille Pissarro 1883–1903'', Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, New York & Oakleigh, 1993 Further reading * * * Clement, Russell T. and Houze, Annick, Neo-Impressionist Painters: A Sourcebook on Georges Seurat, Camille Pissarro, Paul Signac, Théo van Rysselberghe, Henri-Edmond Cross, Charles Angrand, Maximilien Luce, and Albert Dubois-Pillet (1999), Greenwood Press * Eitner, Lorenz, An Outline of 19th Century European Painting: From David through Cézanne (1992), HarperCollins Publishers, * Gopnik, Adam, [https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2024/01/01/camille-pissarro-the-audacity-of-impressionism-anka-muhlstein-book-review "Winter Sun: How Camille Pissarro Went from Mediocrity to Magnificence"], The New Yorker, 1 & 8 January 2024, pp. 53–57. * Lloyd, Christopher (1981). Camille Pissarro. Skira Rizzoli. * Nochlin, Linda, The Politics of Vision: Essays on Nineteenth-Century Art and Society (1991). Westview Press, * Muhlstein, Anka, Camille Pissarro: The Audacity of Impressionism (2023). New York: Other Press (Translation by Adriana Hunter of Camille Pissarro: Le Premier Impressionniste (2024). Paris: Plon ) * * Rewald, John, The History of Impressionism (1961), Museum of Modern Art * Stone, Irving, Depths of Glory: A Biographical Novel of Camille Pissarro (1985). Doubleday * Tabarant, Adolphe, Pissarro (1925), John Lane the Bodley Head Ltd., translated by J. Lewis May External links [http://www.shapell.org/manuscript.aspx?camille-pissarro-protests-dreyfus-affair-conviction Camille Pissarro Protests Alfred Dreyfus' Conviction: Original Letter] Shapell Manuscript Foundation [http://img.groundspeak.com/waymarking/0bddb4a7-c023-40f9-8066-328e59cac492.jpg Photograph of Pissarro's mausoleum at Cimetière Père Lachaise, Paris] (JPG) * [http://www.clarkart.edu/exhibitions/pissarro/content/exhibition.cfm ''Pissarro's People, exhibition held at the Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute, Williamstown MA, 12 June – 2 October 2011] * [http://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?findcamille+pissarro&role&nation&prev_page1&subjectid=500001924 Union List of Artist Names, Getty Vocabularies.] ULAN Full Record Display for Camille Pissarro. Getty Vocabulary Program, Getty Research Institute. Los Angeles, California. * * [http://www.muma-lehavre.fr/en/exhibitions/pissarro-dans-les-ports Exhibition Pissarro dans les ports, 2013, Museum of modern art André Malraux – MuMa] * [http://www.shapell.org/Collection/Jewish-Figures/Pissarro-Camille Camille Pissarro Personal Manuscripts] * [http://thejewishmuseum.org/exhibitions/camille-pissarro-impressions-of-city-and-country Camille Pissarro at The Jewish Museum] * [https://publications.artic.edu/pissarro/reader/paintingsandpaper/section/8 Pissarro Paintings and Works on Paper at the Art Institute of Chicago''], one of the Art Institute of Chicago's [http://www.artic.edu/collections/books/online-scholarly-catalogues digital scholarly catalogues] Jennifer A. Thompson, "[https://doi.org/10.29075/9780876332764/101742/1 L’île Lacroix, Rouen (The Effect of Fog) by Camille Pissarro (cat. 1060)]," in [https://doi.org/10.29075/9780876332764/1 The John G. Johnson Collection: A History and Selected Works], a Philadelphia Museum of Art free digital publication [https://www.benuricollection.org.uk/intermediate.php?artistid=124 An artwork by Camille Pissarro] at the [https://benuri.org/ Ben Uri] site * [https://www.ashmolean.org/pissarro Pissarro: Father of Impressionism] Exhibition at Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, 18 February - 12 June, 2022. Category:1830 births Category:1903 deaths Category:19th-century Danish painters Category:19th-century Danish male artists Category:20th-century Danish painters Category:20th-century Danish male artists Category:19th-century French painters Category:19th-century French male artists Category:20th-century French painters Category:20th-century French male artists Category:Danish male painters Category:French male painters Category:People from the Danish West Indies Category:People from Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands Category:Danish Sephardi Jews Category:French expatriates in England Category:French Impressionist painters Category:19th-century French Sephardi Jews Category:Jewish painters Category:École des Beaux-Arts alumni Category:School of Paris Category:Jewish School of Paris Category:Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery Category:French people of Portuguese-Jewish descent Category:French people of Creole descent Category:Danish people of French descent Category:Danish people of Portuguese-Jewish descent Category:United States Virgin Islands Jews	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camille_Pissarro	2025-04-05T18:28:08.945220
7435	Cardiology diagnostic tests and procedures	- \| MeshID = D006334 \| other_codes = }} The diagnostic tests in cardiology are methods of identifying heart conditions associated with healthy vs. unhealthy, pathologic heart function. Bedside History Obtaining a medical history is always the first "test", part of understanding the likelihood of significant disease, as detectable within the current limitations of clinical medicine. Yet heart problems often produce no symptoms until very advanced, and many symptoms, such as palpitations and sensations of extra or missing heart beats correlate poorly with relative heart health vs disease. Hence, a history alone is rarely sufficient to diagnose a heart condition. Auscultation Auscultation employs a stethoscope to more easily hear various normal and abnormal sounds, such as normal heart beat sounds and the usual heart beat sound changes associated with breathing versus heart murmurs. Laboratory Blood tests A variety of blood tests are available for analyzing cholesterol transport behavior, HDL, LDL, triglycerides, lipoprotein little a, homocysteine, C-reactive protein, blood sugar control: fasting, after eating or averages using glycated albumen or hemoglobin, myoglobin, creatine kinase, troponin, brain-type natriuretic peptide, etc. to assess the evolution of coronary artery disease and evidence of existing damage. A great many more physiologic markers related to atherosclerosis and heart function are used and being developed and evaluated in research. {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" \|+ Cardiology diagnostic tests ! Test Name !! Lower/normal risk !! High risk !! Cost $US<br>(approx) \|- \|- \|Total Cholesterol \|\| <200 mg/dL \|\| >240 mg/dL \|- \|LDL-C \|\| <100 mg/dL \|\| >160 mg/dL \|\| $150* \|- \|HDL-C \|\| >60 mg/dL \|\| <40 mg/dL \|- \|Triglyceride \|\| <150 mg/dL \|\| >200 mg/dL \|- \|Blood Pressure \|\| <120/80 mmHg\|\| >140/90 mmHg \|- \|- \|C-reactive protein \|\| <1 mg/L \|\| >3 mg/L \|\| $20 \|- \|Fibrinogen \|\| <300 mg/dL \|\| >460 mg/dL \|\| $100 \|- \|Homocysteine \|\| <10 μmol/L \|\| >14 μmol/L \|\| $200 \|- \|Fasting Insulin \|\| <15 μIU/mL \|\| >25 μIU/mL \|\| $75 \|- \|Ferritin \|\| male 12–300 ng/mL<br> female 12–150 ng/mL \|\| \|\| $85 \|- \|Lipoprotein(a) - Lp(a) \|\| <14 mg/dL \|\| >19 mg/dL \|\| $75 \|- \|Coronary calcium scan \|\| <100 \|\| >300 \|\| $250–600 \|} () due to the high cost, LDL is usually calculated instead of being measured directly<br> source: Beyond Cholesterol, Julius Torelli MD, 2005 Electrophysiology Electrocardiogram Electrocardiography (ECG/EKG in German vernacular. Elektrokardiogram) monitors electrical activity of the heart, primarily as recorded from the skin surface. A 12 lead recording, recording the electrical activity in three planes, anterior, posterior, and lateral is the most commonly used form. The ECG allows observation of the heart electrical activity by visualizing waveform beat origin (typically from the sinoatrial or SA node) following down the bundle of HIS and ultimately stimulating the ventricles to contract forcing blood through the body. Much can be learned by observing the QRS morphology (named for the respective portions of the polarization/repolarization waveform of the wave, P,Q,R,S,T wave). Rhythm abnormalities can also be visualized as in slow heart rate bradycardia, or fast heart rate tachycardia. Fasegram A Fasegraphy allows expanding the system of Electrocardiography diagnostic features, based on the evaluation of the speed characteristics of the process, and thereby increasing the sensitivity and specificity of ECG-diagnostics. Fasegraphy allows determining the initial features of changes in the cardiac muscle, even on a single-channel ECG, which are underestimated in traditional ECG diagnostics. Holter monitor A Holter monitor records a continuous EKG rhythm pattern (rarely a full EKG) for 24 hours or more. These monitors are used for suspected frequent rhythm abnormalities, especially ones the wearer may not recognize by symptoms. They are more expensive than event monitors. Event monitor An event monitor records short term EKG rhythm patterns, generally storing the last 2 to 5 minutes, adding in new and discarding old data, for 1 to 2 weeks or more. There are several different types with different capabilities. When the wearer presses a button on the monitor, it quits discarding old and continues recording for a short additional period. The wearer then plays the recording, via a standard phone connection, to a center with compatible receiving and rhythm printing equipment, after which the monitor is ready to record again. These monitors are used for suspected infrequent rhythm abnormalities, especially ones the wearer does recognize by symptoms. They are less expensive than Holter monitors. Cardiac stress testing Cardiac stress testing is used to determine to assess cardiac function and to disclose evidence of exertion-related cardiac hypoxia. Radionuclide testing using thallium or technetium can be used to demonstrate areas of perfusion abnormalities. With a maximal stress test the level of exercise is increased until the person's heart rate will not increase any higher, despite increased exercise. A fairly accurate estimate of the target heart rate, based on extensive clinical research, can be estimated by the formula 220 beats per minute minus patient's age. This linear relation is accurate up to about age 30, after which it mildly underestimates typical maximum attainable heart rates achievable by healthy individuals. Other formulas exist, such as that by Miller (217 - (0.85 × Age)) and others. Achieving a high enough heart rate at the end of exercise is critical to improving the sensitivity of the test to detect high grade heart artery stenosis. High frequency analysis of the QRS complex may be useful for detection of coronary artery disease during an exercise stress test. Electrophysiology study The electrophysiology study or EP study is the end all of electrophysiological tests of the heart. It involves a catheter with electrodes probing the endocardium, the inside of the heart, and testing the conduction pathways and electrical activity of individual areas of the heart. Medical imaging Cardiac imaging techniques include coronary catheterization, echocardiogram, intravascular ultrasound, retinal vessel analysis and the coronary calcium scan. See also Cardiology * Reference ranges for common blood tests * Medical technologist References Category:Diagnostic cardiology	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiology_diagnostic_tests_and_procedures	2025-04-05T18:28:08.969132
7437	Carlo Collodi	\| birth_place = Florence, Grand Duchy of Tuscany \| death_date \| death_place = Florence, Kingdom of Italy \| occupation = \| nationality = Italian \| genre = \| movement \| website }} (1852–1910), the first illustrator (1883) of The Adventures of Pinocchio]] Carlo Lorenzini (; 24 November 1826 – 26 October 1890), better known by the pen name Carlo Collodi ( ; ), was an Italian author, humourist, and journalist, widely known for his fairy tale novel The Adventures of Pinocchio.Early lifeLorenzini was born in Florence on 24 November 1826. His mother Angiolina Orzali Lorenzini was a seamstress from Collodi, the town from which he later took the pen name, and his father Domenico Lorenzini was a cook. Both parents worked for the Ginori Lisci. and he had ten siblings; seven died at a young age. He spent most of his childhood in the town of Collodi where his mother was born. He lived there with his maternal grandmother. After attending primary school, he was sent to study at a theological seminary in Colle Val d'Elsa. In 1844, he started working at the Florentine bookstore Libreria Piatti, where he assisted Giuseppe Aiazzi, a prominent Italian manuscript specialist. This newspaper was censored by order of the Grand Duke of Tuscany. In 1854, he published his second newspaper, ("The Controversy"). Lorenzini's first publications were in his periodicals. A debut came in 1856 with the play and parodic guidebook , both in 1856. By 1860, he published his first notable work called (Mr. Alberi Is Right!), which outlined his political and cultural vision of Italy. This is the text where Lorenzini started using the Collodi pseudonym, which was taken from his mother's hometown. Lorenzini died suddenly in Florence on 26 October 1890 at the age of 63 and is interred at Cimitero Monumentale Delle Porte Sante in Florence. The National Carlo Collodi Foundation was established in 1962 to promote education and the works of Collodi, and Pinocchio Park, which was opened in 1956 in the town of Collodi and remains a popular attraction today. References Bibliography * External links * * * ** * ** [https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/500 The Adventures of Pinocchio] at Project Gutenberg (translated from the Italian by Carol Della Chiesa) * * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080225143938/http://www.pinocchio.it/park.htm Pinocchio Park] Collodi Tuscany * [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/22633 New York Review of Books] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080302225929/http://www.pinocchio.it/eng/fondazionecollodi/ Carlo Collodi National Foundation] Collodi Tuscany * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071010113905/http://www.i-rabia.com/circusA.html Carlo Collodi and Modern Politics – Any Parallels ?] * [https://archive.today/20130415024840/http://www.ilnarratore.org/show.php?typeauthor&languageen&aid41&tpl/eng/autore.tpl.html from "Pinocchio. Le avventure di un burattino"] listen to chapt.1 – 2 – 12 audio mp3 for free Category:1826 births Category:1890 deaths Category:19th-century Italian male writers Category:19th-century Italian novelists Category:19th-century Italian short story writers Category:19th-century journalists Category:19th-century pseudonymous writers Category:Italian Army personnel Category:Italian children's writers Category:Italian fantasy writers Category:Italian male journalists Category:Italian male novelists Category:Italian male short story writers Category:Italian people of the Italian unification Category:Journalists from Florence Category:People from Pescia Category:People of the Revolutions of 1848 Category:Writers from Florence Category:Writers from the Grand Duchy of Tuscany Category:Pinocchio	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlo_Collodi	2025-04-05T18:28:08.976706
7439	Constructible number	thumb\|250px\|The square root of 2 is equal to the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle with legs of length 1 and is therefore a constructible number In geometry and algebra, a real number r is constructible if and only if, given a line segment of unit length, a line segment of length \|r\| can be constructed with compass and straightedge in a finite number of steps. Equivalently, r is constructible if and only if there is a closed-form expression for r using only integers and the operations for addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and square roots. The geometric definition of constructible numbers motivates a corresponding definition of constructible points, which can again be described either geometrically or algebraically. A point is constructible if it can be produced as one of the points of a compass and straightedge construction (an endpoint of a line segment or crossing point of two lines or circles), starting from a given unit length segment. Alternatively and equivalently, taking the two endpoints of the given segment to be the points (0, 0) and (1, 0) of a Cartesian coordinate system, a point is constructible if and only if its Cartesian coordinates are both constructible numbers. Constructible numbers and points have also been called ruler and compass numbers and ruler and compass points, to distinguish them from numbers and points that may be constructed using other processes. The set of constructible numbers forms a field: applying any of the four basic arithmetic operations to members of this set produces another constructible number. This field is a field extension of the rational numbers and in turn is contained in the field of algebraic numbers. It is the Euclidean closure of the rational numbers, the smallest field extension of the rationals that includes the square roots of all of its positive numbers. The proof of the equivalence between the algebraic and geometric definitions of constructible numbers has the effect of transforming geometric questions about compass and straightedge constructions into algebra, including several famous problems from ancient Greek mathematics. The algebraic formulation of these questions led to proofs that their solutions are not constructible, after the geometric formulation of the same problems previously defied centuries of attack. Geometric definitions Geometrically constructible points Let O and A be two given distinct points in the Euclidean plane, and define S to be the set of points that can be constructed with compass and straightedge starting with O and A. Then the points of S are called constructible points. O and A are, by definition, elements of S. To more precisely describe the remaining elements of S, make the following two definitions: a line segment whose endpoints are in S is called a constructed segment, and a circle whose center is in S and which passes through a point of S (alternatively, whose radius is the distance between some pair of distinct points of S) is called a constructed circle. Then, the points of S, besides O and A are: the intersection of two non-parallel constructed segments, or lines through constructed segments, the intersection points of a constructed circle and a constructed segment, or line through a constructed segment, or the intersection points of two distinct constructed circles. As an example, the midpoint of constructed segment OA is a constructible point. One construction for it is to construct two circles with OA as radius, and the line through the two crossing points of these two circles. Then the midpoint of segment OA is the point where this segment is crossed by the constructed line. Geometrically constructible numbers The starting information for the geometric formulation can be used to define a Cartesian coordinate system in which the point O is associated to the origin having coordinates (0,0) and in which the point A is associated with the coordinates (1, 0). The points of S may now be used to link the geometry and algebra by defining a constructible number to be a coordinate of a constructible point. Equivalent definitions are that a constructible number is the x-coordinate of a constructible point (x,0) or the length of a constructible line segment. In one direction of this equivalence, if a constructible point has coordinates (x,y), then the point (x,0) can be constructed as its perpendicular projection onto the x-axis, and the segment from the origin to this point has length x. In the reverse direction, if x is the length of a constructible line segment, then intersecting the x-axis with a circle centered at O with radius x gives the point (x,0). It follows from this equivalence that every point whose Cartesian coordinates are geometrically constructible numbers is itself a geometrically constructible point. For, when x and y are geometrically constructible numbers, point (x,y) can be constructed as the intersection of lines through (x,0) and (0,y), perpendicular to the coordinate axes. Algebraic definitions Algebraically constructible numbers The algebraically constructible real numbers are the subset of the real numbers that can be described by formulas that combine integers using the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, multiplicative inverse, and square roots of positive numbers. Even more simply, at the expense of making these formulas longer, the integers in these formulas can be restricted to be only 0 and 1. For instance, the square root of 2 is constructible, because it can be described by the formulas \sqrt2 or \sqrt{1+1}. Analogously, the algebraically constructible complex numbers are the subset of complex numbers that have formulas of the same type, using a more general version of the square root that is not restricted to positive numbers but can instead take arbitrary complex numbers as its argument, and produces the principal square root of its argument. Alternatively, the same system of complex numbers may be defined as the complex numbers whose real and imaginary parts are both constructible real numbers. For instance, the complex number i has the formulas \sqrt{-1} or \sqrt{0-1}, and its real and imaginary parts are the constructible numbers 0 and 1 respectively. These two definitions of the constructible complex numbers are equivalent. In one direction, if q=x+iy is a complex number whose real part x and imaginary part y are both constructible real numbers, then replacing x and y by their formulas within the larger formula x+y\sqrt{-1} produces a formula for q as a complex number. In the other direction, any formula for an algebraically constructible complex number can be transformed into formulas for its real and imaginary parts, by recursively expanding each operation in the formula into operations on the real and imaginary parts of its arguments, using the expansions (a+ib)\pm (c+id)=(a \pm c)+i(b \pm d) (a+ib)(c+id)=(ac-bd) + i(ad+bc) \frac{1}{a+ib}=\frac{a}{a^2+b^2} + i \frac{-b}{a^2+b^2} \sqrt{a+ib} \frac{(a+r)\sqrt{r}}{s} + i\frac{b\sqrt{r}}{s}, where r\sqrt{a^2+b^2{}_{\!}} and s=\sqrt{(a+r)^2+b^2}. Algebraically constructible points The algebraically constructible points may be defined as the points whose two real Cartesian coordinates are both algebraically constructible real numbers. Alternatively, they may be defined as the points in the complex plane given by algebraically constructible complex numbers. By the equivalence between the two definitions for algebraically constructible complex numbers, these two definitions of algebraically constructible points are also equivalent. In the other direction, a set of geometric objects may be specified by algebraically constructible real numbers: coordinates for points, slope and y-intercept for lines, and center and radius for circles. It is possible (but tedious) to develop formulas in terms of these values, using only arithmetic and square roots, for each additional object that might be added in a single step of a compass-and-straightedge construction. It follows from these formulas that every geometrically constructible number is algebraically constructible. Algebraic properties The definition of algebraically constructible numbers includes the sum, difference, product, and multiplicative inverse of any of these numbers, the same operations that define a field in abstract algebra. Thus, the constructible numbers (defined in any of the above ways) form a field. More specifically, the constructible real numbers form a Euclidean field, an ordered field containing a square root of each of its positive elements. Examining the properties of this field and its subfields leads to necessary conditions on a number to be constructible, that can be used to show that specific numbers arising in classical geometric construction problems are not constructible. It is convenient to consider, in place of the whole field of constructible numbers, the subfield \mathbb{Q}(\gamma) generated by any given constructible number \gamma, and to use the algebraic construction of \gamma to decompose this field. If \gamma is a constructible real number, then the values occurring within a formula constructing it can be used to produce a finite sequence of real numbers \alpha_1,\dots, \alpha_n=\gamma such that, for each i, \mathbb{Q}(\alpha_1,\dots,\alpha_i) is an extension of \mathbb{Q}(\alpha_1,\dots,\alpha_{i-1}) of degree 2. Using slightly different terminology, a real number is constructible if and only if it lies in a field at the top of a finite tower of real quadratic extensions, \mathbb{Q} = K_0 \subseteq K_1 \subseteq \dots \subseteq K_n, starting with the rational field \mathbb{Q} where \gamma is in K_n and for all 0, [K_j:K_{j-1}]=2. It follows from this decomposition that the degree of the field extension [\mathbb{Q}(\gamma):\mathbb{Q}] is 2^r, where r counts the number of quadratic extension steps. Analogously to the real case, a complex number is constructible if and only if it lies in a field at the top of a finite tower of complex quadratic extensions. More precisely, \gamma is constructible if and only if there exists a tower of fields \mathbb{Q} = F_0 \subseteq F_1 \subseteq \dots \subseteq F_n, where \gamma is in F_n, and for all 0, [F_j:F_{j-1}]= 2. The difference between this characterization and that of the real constructible numbers is only that the fields in this tower are not restricted to being real. Consequently, if a complex number a complex number \gamma is constructible, then the above characterization implies that [\mathbb{Q}(\gamma):\mathbb{Q}] is a power of two. However, this condition is not sufficient - there exist field extensions whose degree is a power of two, but which cannot be factored into a sequence of quadratic extensions. To obtain a sufficient condition for constructibility, one must instead consider the splitting field K\mathbb{Q}(\gamma,\gamma',\gamma,\dots) obtained by adjoining all roots of the minimal polynomial of \gamma. If the degree of extension is a power of two, then its Galois group G\mathrm{Gal}(K/\mathbb{Q}) is a 2-group, and thus admits a descending sequence of subgroups G G_n \supseteq G_{n-1} \supseteq \cdots \supseteq G_0 1, with \|G_k\| = 2^k for 0\leq k \leq n. By the fundamental theorem of Galois theory, there is a corresponding tower of quadratic extensions \mathbb{Q} F_0 \subseteq F_1 \subseteq \dots \subseteq F_n K, whose topmost field contains \gamma, and from this it follows that \gamma is constructible. The fields that can be generated from towers of quadratic extensions of \mathbb{Q} are called of \mathbb{Q}. The fields of real and complex constructible numbers are the unions of all real or complex iterated quadratic extensions of \mathbb{Q}. Trigonometric numbers Trigonometric numbers are the cosines or sines of angles that are rational multiples of \pi. These numbers are always algebraic, but they may not be constructible. The cosine or sine of the angle 2\pi/n is constructible only for certain special numbers n: The powers of two The Fermat primes, prime numbers that are one plus a power of two The products of powers of two and any number of distinct Fermat primes. Thus, for example, \cos(\pi/15) is constructible because 15 is the product of the Fermat primes 3 and 5; but \cos(\pi/9) is not constructible (not being the product of Fermat primes) and neither is \cos(\pi/7) (being a non-Fermat prime). Impossible constructions The ancient Greeks thought that certain problems of straightedge and compass construction they could not solve were simply obstinate, not unsolvable. However, the non-constructibility of certain numbers proves that these constructions are logically impossible to perform. (The problems themselves, however, are solvable using methods that go beyond the constraint of working only with straightedge and compass, and the Greeks knew how to solve them in this way. One such example is Archimedes' Neusis construction solution of the problem of Angle trisection.) In particular, the algebraic formulation of constructible numbers leads to a proof of the impossibility of the following construction problems: Doubling the cube The problem of doubling the unit square is solved by the construction of another square on the diagonal of the first one, with side length \sqrt2 and area 2. Analogously, the problem of doubling the cube asks for the construction of the length \sqrt[3]{2} of the side of a cube with volume 2. It is not constructible, because the minimal polynomial of this length, x^3-2, has degree 3 over \Q. As a cubic polynomial whose only real root is irrational, this polynomial must be irreducible, because if it had a quadratic real root then the quadratic conjugate would provide a second real root. Angle trisection In this problem, from a given angle \theta, one should construct an angle \theta/3. Algebraically, angles can be represented by their trigonometric functions, such as their sines or cosines, which give the Cartesian coordinates of the endpoint of a line segment forming the given angle with the initial segment. Thus, an angle \theta is constructible when x\cos\theta is a constructible number, and the problem of trisecting the angle can be formulated as one of constructing \cos(\tfrac{1}{3}\arccos x). For example, the angle \theta\pi/360^\circ of an equilateral triangle can be constructed by compass and straightedge, with x\cos\theta\tfrac12. However, its trisection \theta/3\pi/9=20^\circ cannot be constructed, because \cos\pi/9 has minimal polynomial 8x^3-6x-1 of degree 3 over \Q. Because this specific instance of the trisection problem cannot be solved by compass and straightedge, the general problem also cannot be solved. Squaring the circle A square with area \pi, the same area as a unit circle, would have side length \sqrt\pi, a transcendental number. Therefore, this square and its side length are not constructible, because it is not algebraic over \Q. Regular polygons If a regular n-gon is constructed with its center at the origin, the angles between the segments from the center to consecutive vertices are 2\pi/n. The polygon can be constructed only when the cosine of this angle is a trigonometric number. Thus, for instance, a 15-gon is constructible, but the regular heptagon is not constructible, because 7 is prime but not a Fermat prime. For a more direct proof of its non-constructibility, represent the vertices of a regular heptagon as the complex roots of the polynomial x^7-1. Removing the factor x-1, dividing by x^3, and substituting y=x+1/x gives the simpler polynomial y^3+y^2-2y-1, an irreducible cubic with three real roots, each two times the real part of a complex-number vertex. Its roots are not constructible, so the heptagon is also not constructible. Alhazen's problem If two points and a circular mirror are given, where on the circle does one of the given points see the reflected image of the other? Geometrically, the lines from each given point to the point of reflection meet the circle at equal angles and in equal-length chords. However, it is impossible to construct a point of reflection using a compass and straightedge. In particular, for a unit circle with the two points (\tfrac16,\tfrac16) and (-\tfrac12,\tfrac12) inside it, the solution has coordinates forming roots of an irreducible degree-four polynomial x^4-2x^3+4x^2+2x-1. Although its degree is a power of two, the splitting field of this polynomial has degree divisible by three, so it does not come from an iterated quadratic extension and Alhazen's problem has no compass and straightedge solution. History The birth of the concept of constructible numbers is inextricably linked with the history of the three impossible compass and straightedge constructions: doubling the cube, trisecting an angle, and squaring the circle. The restriction of using only compass and straightedge in geometric constructions is often credited to Plato due to a passage in Plutarch. According to Plutarch, Plato gave the duplication of the cube (Delian) problem to Eudoxus and Archytas and Menaechmus, who solved the problem using mechanical means, earning a rebuke from Plato for not solving the problem using pure geometry. However, this attribution is challenged, due, in part, to the existence of another version of the story (attributed to Eratosthenes by Eutocius of Ascalon) that says that all three found solutions but they were too abstract to be of practical value. Proclus, citing Eudemus of Rhodes, credited Oenopides ( 450 BCE) with two ruler and compass constructions, leading some authors to hypothesize that Oenopides originated the restriction. The restriction to compass and straightedge is essential to the impossibility of the classic construction problems. Angle trisection, for instance, can be done in many ways, several known to the ancient Greeks. The Quadratrix of Hippias of Elis, the conics of Menaechmus, or the marked straightedge (neusis) construction of Archimedes have all been used, as has a more modern approach via paper folding. Although not one of the classic three construction problems, the problem of constructing regular polygons with straightedge and compass is often treated alongside them. The Greeks knew how to construct regular with n=2^h (for any integer h\ge 2), 3, 5, or the product of any two or three of these numbers, but other regular eluded them. In 1796 Carl Friedrich Gauss, then an eighteen-year-old student, announced in a newspaper that he had constructed a regular 17-gon with straightedge and compass. Gauss's treatment was algebraic rather than geometric; in fact, he did not actually construct the polygon, but rather showed that the cosine of a central angle was a constructible number. The argument was generalized in his 1801 book Disquisitiones Arithmeticae giving the condition for the construction of a regular Gauss claimed, but did not prove, that the condition was also necessary and several authors, notably Felix Klein, attributed this part of the proof to him as well. Alhazen's problem is also not one of the classic three problems, but despite being named after Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), a medieval Islamic mathematician, it already appears in Ptolemy's work on optics from the second century. Pierre Wantzel proved algebraically that the problems of doubling the cube and trisecting the angle are impossible to solve using only compass and straightedge. In the same paper he also solved the problem of determining which regular polygons are constructible: a regular polygon is constructible if and only if the number of its sides is the product of a power of two and any number of distinct Fermat primes (i.e., the sufficient conditions given by Gauss are also necessary). An attempted proof of the impossibility of squaring the circle was given by James Gregory in (The True Squaring of the Circle and of the Hyperbola) in 1667. Although his proof was faulty, it was the first paper to attempt to solve the problem using algebraic properties of . It was not until 1882 that Ferdinand von Lindemann rigorously proved its impossibility, by extending the work of Charles Hermite and proving that is a transcendental number. Alhazen's problem was not proved impossible to solve by compass and straightedge until the work of Jack Elkin. The study of constructible numbers, per se, was initiated by René Descartes in La Géométrie, an appendix to his book Discourse on the Method'' published in 1637. Descartes associated numbers to geometrical line segments in order to display the power of his philosophical method by solving an ancient straightedge and compass construction problem put forth by Pappus. See also Computable number Definable real number Notes References External links Constructible Numbers at Cut-the-knot Category:Euclidean plane geometry Category:Algebraic numbers	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructible_number	2025-04-05T18:28:09.041705
7441	Carson City, Nevada	\| imagesize = 300px \| image_caption \| image_flag Flag of Carson City, Nevada.jpg \| image_seal = CarsonCityNVseal.png \| image_map = Map of Nevada highlighting Carson City.svg \| mapsize \| map_caption Location within Nevada \| pushpin_map = Nevada#USA \| pushpin_label = Carson City \| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Nevada##Location within the United States \| pushpin_relief = yes \| subdivision_type = Country \| subdivision_name = United States \| subdivision_type1 = State \| subdivision_name1 = Nevada \| leader_title = Mayor \| leader_name = Lori Bagwell \| established_title = Founded \| established_date = \| named_for = Kit Carson \| area_magnitude \| area_total_sq_mi 157.12 \| area_land_sq_mi = 144.53 \| area_water_sq_mi = 12.59 \| area_water_percent = 8.0 \| area_urban_sq_mi \| area_urban_km2 \| area_metro_sq_mi \| area_metro_km2 \| population_as_of = 2020 \| population_note \| population_total 58639 \| population_metro \| population_urban \| population_density_sq_mi = 405.71 \| timezone = Pacific \| utc_offset = −8 \| timezone_DST = Pacific \| utc_offset_DST = −7 \| coordinates \| elevation_m = 1427 \| elevation_ft = 4682 \| postal_code_type = ZIP code \| postal_code = 89701–89706, 89711–89714, 89721,89703 \| area_code = 775 \| blank_name = GNIS feature ID \| blank_info 863976 \| area_total_km2 = 406.94 \| area_land_km2 = 374.34 \| area_water_km2 = 32.59 \| population_footnotes \| elevation_footnotes }} Carson City, officially the Consolidated Municipality of Carson City, is an independent city and the capital of the U.S. state of Nevada. As of the 2020 census, the population was 58,639, making it the 6th most populous city in the state. The majority of the city's population lives in Eagle Valley, on the eastern edge of the Carson Range, a branch of the Sierra Nevada, about south of Reno. The city is named after the mountain man Kit Carson (1809-1868). The town began as a stopover for California-bound immigrants, but developed into a city with the Comstock Lode, a silver strike in the mountains to the northeast. The city has served as Nevada's capital since statehood in 1864; for much of its history it was a hub for the Virginia and Truckee Railroad, although the tracks were removed in 1950. Before 1969, Carson City was the county seat of Ormsby County. That year, after a referendum approved merging the city and the county, the state legislature issued a revised city charter that merged them into the Consolidated Municipality of Carson City. With the consolidation, the city limits extend west across the Sierra Nevada to the California-Nevada state line in the middle of Lake Tahoe. Like other independent cities<!-- Carson City is an "independent city", NOT the more common "consolidated city-county". While counties legally survive in the latter (Nashville-Davidson County, TN, or even New Orleans-Orleans Parish, LA although Orleans Parish has never been fully independent of NOLA), Ormsby County was completely abolished by its consolidation into Carson City. Thus, Carson City is like Baltimore, St. Louis and the 38 cities of Virginia, all legally independent of ANY county. --> in the United States, it is treated as a county-equivalent for census purposes.HistoryThe Washoe people have inhabited the valley and surrounding areas for about 6,000 years. The first European Americans to arrive in what is now known as Eagle Valley were John C. Frémont and his exploration party in January 1843. Fremont named the river flowing through the valley Carson River in honor of Kit Carson,(1809-1868), the mountain man, explorer and scout he had hired for his expedition. Later, settlers named the area Washoe, in reference to the indigenous people. By 1851, the Eagle Station ranch along the Carson River was a trading post and stop-over for westbound travelers and wagons on the California Trail's Carson Branch, which ran through Eagle Valley. The valley and trading post received their name from a bald eagle that was hunted and killed by one of the early settlers and was featured pinned on a wall inside the post. As the area was part of the larger Utah Territory (1850-1896), it was governed from the territorial (and later state) capital of Salt Lake City on the eastern shore of the Great Salt Lake, where the territorial government was headquartered there several hundred miles further east with Mormon (The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints) patriarch of Brigham Young (1801-1877), as first Governor of Utah. Early settlers bristled at the control by Mormon-influenced officials and desired the creation of the provisional Nevada Territory with Isaac Roop (1822-1869, served 1859-1861), as provisional Governor. A vigilante group of influential settlers, headed by Abraham Curry (1815-1873), sought a site for a capital city for the envisioned future separate territory. In 1858, Abraham Curry bought Eagle Station and the settlement was thereafter renamed Carson City. Curry and several other partners had Eagle Valley surveyed for development. Curry decided Carson City would someday serve as the capital city and left a plot in the center of town for a capitol building. After gold and silver ore were discovered in 1859 on the nearby newly-named Comstock Lode, Carson City's population began to grow. Curry built the Warm Springs Hotel a mile to the east of the town center. When new territorial governor James W. Nye (1815-1876, served 1861-1864), traveled east to Nevada, he chose Carson City as the territorial capital instead of earlier Genoa, which had functioned temporarily as such for the past few years. Influenced by Carson City lawyer William M. Stewart (1827-1909), who escorted him from the port of San Francisco, California where he arrived onboard a passenger steamboat liner, then journeying uphill past Sacramento to Nevada. As such, Carson City bested Virginia City and American Flat. Curry loaned the Warm Springs Hotel to the territorial Legislature as a temporary meeting hall. The Legislature named Carson City to be the county seat of Ormsby County and also selected the hotel as the territorial prison, with Curry serving as its first warden. Today, the property is still part of the state prison. When Nevada became the 36th state in 1864 during the American Civil War (1861-1865), Carson City was confirmed as Nevada's permanent state capital. Carson City's development was no longer dependent on the mining industry and instead became a thriving commercial center. The Virginia and Truckee Railroad was built between Virginia City and Carson City. A log flume was also built from the Sierra Nevada mountains range into Carson City. The current Nevada State Capitol building was constructed from 1869 to 1871. The United States Mint also operated its branch of the Carson City Mint between the years of 1870 and 1893, which struck gold and silver coins of United States currency. People came from China during that time, many to work on the transcontinental railroad being constructed. Some of them owned businesses and taught school. By 1880, almost a thousand Chinese people, "one for every five Caucasians", lived in Carson City. Carson City's population and transportation traffic decreased when the Central Pacific Railroad built a branch line through Donner Pass to connect with the Carson and Colorado Railroad. The new branch also bypassed the Virginia & Truckee line, and ran too far to the north to benefit Carson City. The city was slightly revitalized with the mining booms in nearby Tonopah and Goldfield. The United States federal building (now renamed the Paul Laxalt Building) was completed in 1890 as was the Stewart Indian School. Even these developments could not prevent its population from dropping to just over 1,500 people by 1930. Carson City resigned itself to small city status, advertising itself as "America's smallest capital". The city slowly grew after World War II (1939/1941-1945); by 1960, it had reached its former 1880 mining boom-town era population size of 80 years before. 20th-century revitalization and growth As early as the late 1940s, discussions began about merging Ormsby County and Carson City. By this time, the county was little more than Carson City and a few hamlets to the west. By the 1960 census, all but 2,900 of the county's residents lived in Carson City. However, the effort did not pay off until 1966, when a statewide referendum approved the merger. The required constitutional amendment was passed in 1968. On April 1, 1969, Ormsby County and Carson City officially merged as the Consolidated Municipality of Carson City. In 1991, the city adopted a downtown master plan, specifying no building within of the capitol would surpass it in height. This plan effectively prohibited future high-rise development in the center of downtown. The Ormsby House is the tallest building in downtown Carson City, at a height of . The structure was completed in 1972. Geography Most of the city proper resides in the Eagle Valley. The Carson River flows from Douglas County through the southwestern edge of both the valley and Carson City. Since the consolidation, the city limits today include several small populated areas outside of this valley. Today the city limits include several peaks in the Sierra Nevada, small portions of both the Virginia Range and the Pine Nut Mountains and portions of Marlette Lake and Lake Tahoe. The highest elevation in city limits is Snow Valley Peak at an elevation of . Carson City is one of two state capitals that border another state, the other being Trenton, New Jersey.ClimateCarson City features a cold semi-arid climate (Köppen: BSk, Trewartha: BSak) with cold winters and hot summers. The city is in a high desert river valley approximately above sea level. There are four fairly distinct seasons. Winters see typically light to moderate snowfall, with an average of , with the most snowfall being from July 1951 to June 1952 and the least from July 2002 to June 2003. Most precipitation occurs in winter and spring, with summer and fall being fairly dry, drier than neighboring California. The wettest “rain year” was from July 1937 to June 1938 with and the driest from July 1971 to June 1972 with . The most precipitation in one month occurred in December 1955 when fell and the most snowfall in March 1952. The most precipitation in one day has been on November 19 of 1950. There are 39.5 afternoons of + highs annually, with + temperatures occurring 1.2 afternoons per year. Places of interest Museums * Nevada State Capitol – original capitol still housing the governor's offices with museum exhibits * Nevada State Museum – former branch of the United States Mint featuring rock, mining and prehistoric exhibits, and a recreated Wild West village * Nevada State Railroad Museum – featuring the Inyo locomotive and relocated Wabuska Railroad Station * Stewart Indian School – museum collection includes items from former faculty, students and school * Foreman-Roberts House Museum – Gothic Revival architecture, tours available. * Sears–Ferris House (not open to public) – home of George Washington Gale Ferris Jr., inventor of the Ferris wheel * Yesterday's Flyers, an aviation museum in Carson City. * Children's Museum of Northern Nevada – Carson City Open land * Silver Saddle Ranch * Mexican Dam – 1860s stone dam across the Carson River * Prison Hill – California Trail historic markers, location of the Stewart "S" * Carson Aquatic Trail * Humboldt-Toiyabe National Forest (Carson Ranger District) Kings Canyon Falls Snow Valley Peak – – highest point within Carson City * Tahoe Rim Trail * Lake Tahoe–Nevada State Park * Lake Tahoe beachfront (several beaches along Lake Tahoe lie within the city limits) Chimney Beach Secret Harbor Whale Beach Skunk Harbor * Washoe Lake State Park – borders city to the north * "C Hill" – hill featuring the Carson City "C" and giant American Flag Demographics Carson City is the smallest of the United States' 366 metropolitan statistical areas. As of the 2010 census, there were 55,274 people, 20,171 households, and 13,252 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 21,283 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 81.1% White, 1.9% Black or African American, 2.4% Native American, 2.1% Asian, 0.2% Pacific Islander, 9.4% from other races, and 2.9% from two or more races. 21% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. As of the 2000 census, there were 20,171 households, out of which 29.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.0% were married couples living together, 11.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.3% were non-families. 27.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.00% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 2.97. The city's age distribution was: 23.4% under the age of 18, 7.9% from 18 to 24, 28.9% from 25 to 44, 24.9% from 45 to 64, and 14.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 106.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 108.2 males. Data from the 2000 census indicates the median income for a household in the city was $41,809, and the median income for a family was $49,570. Males had a median income of $35,296 versus $27,418 for females. The per capita income for the city was $20,943. 10.0% of the population and 6.9% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 13.7% of those under the age of 18 and 5.8% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line. Languages As of 2010, 82.3% (42,697) of Carson City residents age 5 and older spoke English at home as a first language, while 14.1% (7,325) spoke Spanish, 0.6% (318) French, and numerous Indo-Aryan languages were spoken as a main language by 0.5% (261) of the population over the age of five. In total, 17.7% (9,174) of Carson City's population age 5 and older spoke a first language other than English.Government and politics Ormsby County consolidated with Carson City in 1969, and the county simultaneously dissolved. The city is now governed by a five-member board of supervisors, consisting of a mayor and four supervisors. <!-- PresRow should be --> Carson City, being the state capital, has seen many political protests and demonstrations. In an attempt to either make a proposed spent nuclear fuel storage facility at Yucca Mountain prohibitively expensive (by raising property tax rates to the maximum allowed) or to allow the state to collect the potential federal payments of property taxes on the facility, the state government in 1987 carved Yucca Mountain out of Nye County and created a new county with no residents out of the area surrounding Yucca called Bullfrog County. Carson City became the county seat of Bullfrog County, even though it was not in Bullfrog County and is more than from Yucca Mountain. A state judge found the process unconstitutional in 1989, and Bullfrog County's territory was retroceded to Nye County. Culture Sports and recreation Carson City has never hosted any professional team sports. However, a variety of sports are offered at parks and recreation. Many neighborhood parks offer a wide variety of features including picnic tables, beaches, restrooms, fishing, softball, basketball hoops, ponds, tennis, and volleyball. The largest park is Mills Park, which has a total land area of and includes the narrow-gauge Carson & Mills Park Railroad. While there are no ski slopes within Carson City, the city is near the Heavenly Mountain Resort, Diamond Peak and Mount Rose Ski Tahoe skiing areas. Carson City houses the 2024 #1 rated disc golf course in Nevada, Stadium Course At Carson Ridge. Notable people Carson City has served as one of the state's centers for politics and business. Every state governor since Denver S. Dickerson has resided in the Governor's Mansion in Carson City. The following personalities took up residence in Carson City at some point in their lives. * Mackena Bell, racing driver * Duane Leroy Bliss, timber businessman * Orion Clemens, Secretary of Nevada Territory * Steven S. Coughlin, American epidemiologist and author * John Cradlebaugh, first Delegate to the U.S. House of Representatives from Nevada Territory * Abraham Curry, founding father of Carson City and early politician * Dat So La Lee, Native American basket weaver and artist * Nellie Verrill Mighels Davis, journalist * David Eddings, best selling author of fantasy novels * George Washington Gale Ferris Jr., inventor of the Ferris wheel * Ellen Hopkins, author * Paul Laxalt, former Governor and U.S. Senator * Greg LeMond, two time World Champion road racing cyclist, and three-time winner of the Tour de France * Alice Little, Irish-American sex-worker and advocate * David Lundquist, Major League baseball player (Chicago White Sox) * Maurice E. McLoughlin, two-time U.S. Open champion, member of International Tennis Hall of Fame * Henry Rust Mighels, journalist, politician, first husband of Nellie Verrill Mighels Davis * Hank Monk, stagecoach driver * William Ormsby, soldier and namesake of Ormsby County and Ormsby House * Donovan Osborne, Major League baseball player (St. Louis Cardinals) * Darrell Rasner, Major League baseball player (New York Yankees) * Don Tatro, member of the Nevada Senate * Mark Twain, author (lived with his brother Orion Clemens) * Matt Williams, Major League third baseman (San Francisco Giants, Cleveland Indians, and Arizona Diamondbacks) * Sarah Winnemucca, Native American activist and author Economy and infrastructure The following is a list of notable employers in Carson City from the fourth quarter of 2012: 1,000–1,499 employees * Carson City School District 500–999 employees * Nevada Department of Transportation * Western Nevada College 200–499 employees * Nevada Department of Corrections * Nevada Department of Motor Vehicles * Casino Fandango * Walmart * Precision Castparts Corp. * Gold Dust West Hotel and Casino * Carson Nugget * Costco Wholesale Corporation * Nevada Department of Conservation and Natural Resources 100–199 employees * Nevada Department of Health and Human Services, Division of Welfare and Supportive Services Transportation , just south of US 50 in Douglas County near Carson City]] There are four highways in the city: Nevada State Route 28, U.S. Route 395, U.S. Route 50, and Interstate 580, its only freeway. Phase 1 of the Carson City Freeway Project from US 395, just north of the city, to US 50 was completed in February 2006, and Phase 2A, extending from Rt. 50 to Fairview Drive, was officially opened on September 24, 2009. Phase 2B, Fairview Drive to Rt. 50, was completed in August 2017. Prior to 2012, Carson City was one of only five state capitals not directly served by an interstate highway; the city lost this distinction when I-580 was extended into the city limits. Carson City's first modern bus system, Jump Around Carson, or JAC, opened to the public in October 2005. JAC uses a smaller urban bus ideal for Carson City. Tahoe Transportation District connects Gardnerville with Carson City. However, there is virtually no ground public transportation to other destinations. Passenger trains have not served Carson City since 1950, when the Virginia and Truckee Railroad was shut down. Greyhound Lines stopped their bus services to the town in 2006 and Amtrak discontinued their connecting thruway bus to Sacramento, California, in 2008. There is now only a limited Monday – Friday RTC bus service, to Reno which is still served by both Greyhound and Amtrak, as well as Eastern Sierra Transit Authority service from Lone Pine to Reno. Carson City is also served by the Carson Airport, which is a regional airport in the northern part of the city. Reno–Tahoe International Airport, which is away, handles domestic commercial flights. Education The Carson City School District, the sole public school district of the city, operates ten schools there. The six elementary schools are Bordewich-Bray Elementary School, Empire Elementary School, Fremont Elementary School, Fritsch Elementary School, Mark Twain Elementary School, and Al Seeliger Elementary School. The two middle schools are Carson Middle School and Eagle Valley Middle School. Carson High School and the alternative Pioneer High School serve high school students. Carson High is on Saliman Road. The district sponsors Carson Montessori School, a public charter school serving grades K-6. Students residing in any Nevada county may enroll. Carson Montessori School is the only school in district operating with a balanced budget. In 2019 Carson Montessori School received the Governor's STEM Schools Designation, an official recognition given to 25 schools statewide which causes a short ceremony attended by the governor during which receiving schools are assigned a 10-foot banner. Western Nevada College (WNC) is a regionally accredited, two-year and four-year institution which is part of the Nevada System of Higher Education. The college offers many programs including education, arts and science. Carson City has a public library, the Carson City Library. Historic buildings <gallery widths"225px" heights"180px" class="center"> Image:StCharlesHotel Carson City.jpg\| Image:Laxalt Building, 2007.jpg\| Image:Nevada Govenors Mansion.JPG\| File:Paul Laxalt State Building.jpg\|Paul Laxalt State Building – formerly the U.S. Court House & Post Office, now home to the Nevada Commission on Tourism </gallery> See also * Carson Hot Springs References External links * * * * [http://www.visitcarsoncity.com/ Carson City Convention and Visitors Bureau] * Category:Cities in Nevada Category:Independent cities in the United States Category:Populated places established in 1858 Category:Nevada counties Category:1858 establishments in Utah Territory Category:Former county seats in Nevada Category:State capitals in the United States	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carson_City,_Nevada	2025-04-05T18:28:09.074191
7445	Classification of finite simple groups	In mathematics, the classification of finite simple groups (popularly called the enormous theorem) is a result of group theory stating that every finite simple group is either cyclic, or alternating, or belongs to a broad infinite class called the groups of Lie type, or else it is one of twenty-six exceptions, called sporadic (the Tits group is sometimes regarded as a sporadic group because it is not strictly a group of Lie type, in which case there would be 27 sporadic groups). The proof consists of tens of thousands of pages in several hundred journal articles written by about 100 authors, published mostly between 1955 and 2004. Simple groups can be seen as the basic building blocks of all finite groups, reminiscent of the way the prime numbers are the basic building blocks of the natural numbers. The Jordan–Hölder theorem is a more precise way of stating this fact about finite groups. However, a significant difference from integer factorization is that such "building blocks" do not necessarily determine a unique group, since there might be many non-isomorphic groups with the same composition series or, put in another way, the extension problem does not have a unique solution. Daniel Gorenstein (1923-1992), Richard Lyons, and Ronald Solomon are gradually publishing a simplified and revised version of the proof. Statement of the classification theorem The classification theorem has applications in many branches of mathematics, as questions about the structure of finite groups (and their action on other mathematical objects) can sometimes be reduced to questions about finite simple groups. Thanks to the classification theorem, such questions can sometimes be answered by checking each family of simple groups and each sporadic group. Daniel Gorenstein announced in 1983 that the finite simple groups had all been classified, but this was premature as he had been misinformed about the proof of the classification of quasithin groups. The completed proof of the classification was announced by after Aschbacher and Smith published a 1221-page proof for the missing quasithin case. Overview of the proof of the classification theorem wrote two volumes outlining the low rank and odd characteristic part of the proof, and wrote a 3rd volume covering the remaining characteristic 2 case. The proof can be broken up into several major pieces as follows: Groups of small 2-rank The simple groups of low 2-rank are mostly groups of Lie type of small rank over fields of odd characteristic, together with five alternating and seven characteristic 2 type and nine sporadic groups. The simple groups of small 2-rank include: Groups of 2-rank 0, in other words groups of odd order, which are all solvable by the Feit–Thompson theorem. Groups of 2-rank 1. The Sylow 2-subgroups are either cyclic, which is easy to handle using the transfer map, or generalized quaternion, which are handled with the Brauer–Suzuki theorem: in particular there are no simple groups of 2-rank 1 except for the cyclic group of order two. Groups of 2-rank 2. Alperin showed that the Sylow subgroup must be dihedral, quasidihedral, wreathed, or a Sylow 2-subgroup of U<sub>3</sub>(4). The first case was done by the Gorenstein–Walter theorem which showed that the only simple groups are isomorphic to L<sub>2</sub>(q) for q odd or A<sub>7</sub>, the second and third cases were done by the Alperin–Brauer–Gorenstein theorem which implies that the only simple groups are isomorphic to L<sub>3</sub>(q) or U<sub>3</sub>(q) for q odd or M<sub>11</sub>, and the last case was done by Lyons who showed that U<sub>3</sub>(4) is the only simple possibility. Groups of sectional 2-rank at most 4, classified by the Gorenstein–Harada theorem. The classification of groups of small 2-rank, especially ranks at most 2, makes heavy use of ordinary and modular character theory, which is almost never directly used elsewhere in the classification. All groups not of small 2 rank can be split into two major classes: groups of component type and groups of characteristic 2 type. This is because if a group has sectional 2-rank at least 5 then MacWilliams showed that its Sylow 2-subgroups are connected, and the balance theorem implies that any simple group with connected Sylow 2-subgroups is either of component type or characteristic 2 type. (For groups of low 2-rank the proof of this breaks down, because theorems such as the signalizer functor theorem only work for groups with elementary abelian subgroups of rank at least 3.) Groups of component type A group is said to be of component type if for some centralizer C of an involution, C/O(C) has a component (where O(C) is the core of C, the maximal normal subgroup of odd order). These are more or less the groups of Lie type of odd characteristic of large rank, and alternating groups, together with some sporadic groups. A major step in this case is to eliminate the obstruction of the core of an involution. This is accomplished by the B-theorem, which states that every component of C/O(C) is the image of a component of C. The idea is that these groups have a centralizer of an involution with a component that is a smaller quasisimple group, which can be assumed to be already known by induction. So to classify these groups one takes every central extension of every known finite simple group, and finds all simple groups with a centralizer of involution with this as a component. This gives a rather large number of different cases to check: there are not only 26 sporadic groups and 16 families of groups of Lie type and the alternating groups, but also many of the groups of small rank or over small fields behave differently from the general case and have to be treated separately, and the groups of Lie type of even and odd characteristic are also quite different. Groups of characteristic 2 type A group is of characteristic 2 type if the generalized Fitting subgroup F(Y) of every 2-local subgroup Y is a 2-group. As the name suggests these are roughly the groups of Lie type over fields of characteristic 2, plus a handful of others that are alternating or sporadic or of odd characteristic. Their classification is divided into the small and large rank cases, where the rank is the largest rank of an odd abelian subgroup normalizing a nontrivial 2-subgroup, which is often (but not always) the same as the rank of a Cartan subalgebra when the group is a group of Lie type in characteristic 2. The rank 1 groups are the thin groups, classified by Aschbacher, and the rank 2 ones are the notorious quasithin groups, classified by Aschbacher and Smith. These correspond roughly to groups of Lie type of ranks 1 or 2 over fields of characteristic 2. Groups of rank at least 3 are further subdivided into 3 classes by the trichotomy theorem, proved by Aschbacher for rank 3 and by Gorenstein and Lyons for rank at least 4. The three classes are groups of GF(2) type (classified mainly by Timmesfeld), groups of "standard type" for some odd prime (classified by the Gilman–Griess theorem and work by several others), and groups of uniqueness type, where a result of Aschbacher implies that there are no simple groups. The general higher rank case consists mostly of the groups of Lie type over fields of characteristic 2 of rank at least 3 or 4. Existence and uniqueness of the simple groups The main part of the classification produces a characterization of each simple group. It is then necessary to check that there exists a simple group for each characterization and that it is unique. This gives a large number of separate problems; for example, the original proofs of existence and uniqueness of the monster group totaled about 200 pages, and the identification of the Ree groups by Thompson and Bombieri was one of the hardest parts of the classification. Many of the existence proofs and some of the uniqueness proofs for the sporadic groups originally used computer calculations, most of which have since been replaced by shorter hand proofs. History of the proof Gorenstein's program In 1972 announced a program for completing the classification of finite simple groups, consisting of the following 16 steps: # Groups of low 2-rank. This was essentially done by Gorenstein and Harada, who classified the groups with sectional 2-rank at most 4. Most of the cases of 2-rank at most 2 had been done by the time Gorenstein announced his program. # The semisimplicity of 2-layers. The problem is to prove that the 2-layer of the centralizer of an involution in a simple group is semisimple. # Standard form in odd characteristic. If a group has an involution with a 2-component that is a group of Lie type of odd characteristic, the goal is to show that it has a centralizer of involution in "standard form" meaning that a centralizer of involution has a component that is of Lie type in odd characteristic and also has a centralizer of 2-rank 1. # Classification of groups of odd type. The problem is to show that if a group has a centralizer of involution in "standard form" then it is a group of Lie type of odd characteristic. This was solved by Aschbacher's classical involution theorem. # Quasi-standard form # Central involutions # Classification of alternating groups. # Some sporadic groups # Thin groups. The simple thin finite groups, those with 2-local p-rank at most 1 for odd primes p, were classified by Aschbacher in 1978 # Groups with a strongly p-embedded subgroup for p odd # The signalizer functor method for odd primes. The main problem is to prove a signalizer functor theorem for nonsolvable signalizer functors. This was solved by McBride in 1982. # Groups of characteristic p type. This is the problem of groups with a strongly p-embedded 2-local subgroup with p odd, which was handled by Aschbacher. # Quasithin groups. A quasithin group is one whose 2-local subgroups have p-rank at most 2 for all odd primes p, and the problem is to classify the simple ones of characteristic 2 type. This was completed by Aschbacher and Smith in 2004. # Groups of low 2-local 3-rank. This was essentially solved by Aschbacher's trichotomy theorem for groups with e(G)=3. The main change is that 2-local 3-rank is replaced by 2-local p-rank for odd primes. # Centralizers of 3-elements in standard form. This was essentially done by the Trichotomy theorem. # Classification of simple groups of characteristic 2 type. This was handled by the Gilman–Griess theorem, with 3-elements replaced by p-elements for odd primes. Timeline of the proof Many of the items in the table below are taken from . The date given is usually the publication date of the complete proof of a result, which is sometimes several years later than the proof or first announcement of the result, so some of the items appear in the "wrong" order. {\| \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \|\| Date \|\| Development \|- \| style="width: 3.4em; vertical-align:top" \|1832 \|Galois introduces normal subgroups and finds the simple groups A<sub>n</sub> (n ≥ 5) and PSL<sub>2</sub>(F<sub>p</sub>) (p ≥ 5) \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1854 \|Cayley defines abstract groups \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1861 \|Mathieu describes the first two Mathieu groups M<sub>11</sub>, M<sub>12</sub>, the first sporadic simple groups, and announces the existence of M<sub>24</sub>. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1870 \|Jordan lists some simple groups: the alternating and projective special linear ones, and emphasizes the importance of the simple groups. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1872 \|Sylow proves the Sylow theorems \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1873 \|Mathieu introduces three more Mathieu groups M<sub>22</sub>, M<sub>23</sub>, M<sub>24</sub>. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1892 \|Hölder proves that the order of any nonabelian finite simple group must be a product of at least four (not necessarily distinct) primes, and asks for a classification of finite simple groups. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1893 \|Cole classifies simple groups of order up to 660 \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1896 \|Frobenius and Burnside begin the study of character theory of finite groups. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1899 \|Burnside classifies the simple groups such that the centralizer of every involution is a non-trivial elementary abelian 2-group. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1901 \|Frobenius proves that a Frobenius group has a Frobenius kernel, so in particular is not simple. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1901 \|Dickson defines classical groups over arbitrary finite fields, and exceptional groups of type G<sub>2</sub> over fields of odd characteristic. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1901 \|Dickson introduces the exceptional finite simple groups of type E<sub>6</sub>. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1904 \|Burnside uses character theory to prove Burnside's theorem that the order of any non-abelian finite simple group must be divisible by at least 3 distinct primes. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1905 \|Dickson introduces simple groups of type G<sub>2</sub> over fields of even characteristic \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\| 1911 \|Burnside conjectures that every non-abelian finite simple group has even order \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1928 \|Hall proves the existence of Hall subgroups of solvable groups \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1933 \|Hall begins his study of p-groups \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1935 \|Brauer begins the study of modular characters. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1936 \|Zassenhaus classifies finite sharply 3-transitive permutation groups \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1938 \|Fitting introduces the Fitting subgroup and proves Fitting's theorem that for solvable groups the Fitting subgroup contains its centralizer. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1942 \|Brauer describes the modular characters of a group divisible by a prime to the first power. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1954 \|Brauer classifies simple groups with GL<sub>2</sub>(F<sub>q</sub>) as the centralizer of an involution. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1955 \|The Brauer–Fowler theorem implies that the number of finite simple groups with given centralizer of involution is finite, suggesting an attack on the classification using centralizers of involutions. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1955 \|Chevalley introduces the Chevalley groups, in particular introducing exceptional simple groups of types F<sub>4</sub>, E<sub>7</sub>, and E<sub>8</sub>. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1956 \|The Hall–Higman theorem describes the possibilities for the minimal polynomial of an element of prime power order for a representation of a p-solvable group. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1957 \| Suzuki shows that all finite simple CA groups of odd order are cyclic. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1958 \|The Brauer–Suzuki–Wall theorem characterizes the projective special linear groups of rank 1, and classifies the simple CA groups. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1959 \|Steinberg introduces the Steinberg groups, giving some new finite simple groups, of types <sup>3</sup>D<sub>4</sub> and <sup>2</sup>E<sub>6</sub> (the latter were independently found at about the same time by Tits). \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1959 \|The Brauer–Suzuki theorem about groups with generalized quaternion Sylow 2-subgroups shows in particular that none of them are simple. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1960 \|Thompson proves that a group with a fixed-point-free automorphism of prime order is nilpotent. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1960 \| Feit, Marshall Hall, and Thompson show that all finite simple CN groups of odd order are cyclic. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1960 \|Suzuki introduces the Suzuki groups, with types <sup>2</sup>B<sub>2</sub>. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1961 \|Ree introduces the Ree groups, with types <sup>2</sup>F<sub>4</sub> and <sup>2</sup>G<sub>2</sub>. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\| 1963 \| Feit and Thompson prove the odd order theorem. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1964 \|Tits introduces BN pairs for groups of Lie type and finds the Tits group \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1965 \|The Gorenstein–Walter theorem classifies groups with a dihedral Sylow 2-subgroup. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1966 \|Glauberman proves the Z theorem \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1966 \|Janko introduces the Janko group J1, the first new sporadic group for about a century. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1968 \|Glauberman proves the ZJ theorem \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1968 \|Higman and Sims introduce the Higman–Sims group \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1968 \|Conway introduces the Conway groups \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1969 \|Walter's theorem classifies groups with abelian Sylow 2-subgroups \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1969 \|Introduction of the Suzuki sporadic group, the Janko group J2, the Janko group J3, the McLaughlin group, and the Held group. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1969 \|Gorenstein introduces signalizer functors based on Thompson's ideas. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1970 \|MacWilliams shows that the 2-groups with no normal abelian subgroup of rank 3 have sectional 2-rank at most 4. (The simple groups with Sylow subgroups satisfying the latter condition were later classified by Gorenstein and Harada.) \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1970 \|Bender introduced the generalized Fitting subgroup \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1970 \|The Alperin–Brauer–Gorenstein theorem classifies groups with quasi-dihedral or wreathed Sylow 2-subgroups, completing the classification of the simple groups of 2-rank at most 2 \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1971 \|Fischer introduces the three Fischer groups \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1971 \|Thompson classifies quadratic pairs \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1971 \|Bender classifies group with a strongly embedded subgroup \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1972 \|Gorenstein proposes a 16-step program for classifying finite simple groups; the final classification follows his outline quite closely. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1972 \|Lyons introduces the Lyons group \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1973 \|Rudvalis introduces the Rudvalis group \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1973 \|Fischer discovers the baby monster group (unpublished), which Fischer and Griess use to discover the monster group, which in turn leads Thompson to the Thompson sporadic group and Norton to the Harada–Norton group (also found in a different way by Harada). \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1974 \|Thompson classifies N-groups, groups all of whose local subgroups are solvable. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1974 \|The Gorenstein–Harada theorem classifies the simple groups of sectional 2-rank at most 4, dividing the remaining finite simple groups into those of component type and those of characteristic 2 type. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1974 \|Tits shows that groups with BN pairs of rank at least 3 are groups of Lie type \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1974 \|Aschbacher classifies the groups with a proper 2-generated core \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1975 \|Gorenstein and Walter prove the L-balance theorem \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1976 \|Glauberman proves the solvable signalizer functor theorem \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1976 \|Aschbacher proves the component theorem, showing roughly that groups of odd type satisfying some conditions have a component in standard form. The groups with a component of standard form were classified in a large collection of papers by many authors. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1976 \|O'Nan introduces the O'Nan group \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1976 \|Janko introduces the Janko group J4, the last sporadic group to be discovered \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1977 \|Aschbacher characterizes the groups of Lie type of odd characteristic in his classical involution theorem. After this theorem, which in some sense deals with "most" of the simple groups, it was generally felt that the end of the classification was in sight. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1978 \|Timmesfeld proves the O<sub>2</sub> extraspecial theorem, breaking the classification of groups of GF(2)-type into several smaller problems. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1978 \|Aschbacher classifies the thin finite groups, which are mostly rank 1 groups of Lie type over fields of even characteristic. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1981 \|Bombieri uses elimination theory to complete Thompson's work on the characterization of Ree groups, one of the hardest steps of the classification. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1982 \|McBride proves the signalizer functor theorem for all finite groups. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1982 \|Griess constructs the monster group by hand \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1983 \| The Gilman–Griess theorem classifies groups of characteristic 2 type and rank at least 4 with standard components, one of the three cases of the trichotomy theorem. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1983 \|Aschbacher proves that no finite group satisfies the hypothesis of the uniqueness case, one of the three cases given by the trichotomy theorem for groups of characteristic 2 type. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1983 \|Gorenstein and Lyons prove the trichotomy theorem for groups of characteristic 2 type and rank at least 4, while Aschbacher does the case of rank 3. This divides these groups into 3 subcases: the uniqueness case, groups of GF(2) type, and groups with a standard component. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\| 1983 \| Gorenstein announces the proof of the classification is complete, somewhat prematurely as the proof of the quasithin case was incomplete. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\| 1985 \| Conway, Curtis, Norton, Parker, Wilson and Thackray publish the Atlas of Finite Groups with basic information about 93 finite simple groups. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|1994 \| Gorenstein, Lyons, and Solomon begin publication of the revised classification \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|2004 \|Aschbacher and Smith publish their work on quasithin groups (which are mostly groups of Lie type of rank at most 2 over fields of even characteristic), filling the last gap in the classification known at that time. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|2008 \|Harada and Solomon fill a minor gap in the classification by describing groups with a standard component that is a cover of the Mathieu group M<sub>22</sub>, a case that was accidentally omitted from the proof of the classification due to an error in the calculation of the Schur multiplier of M<sub>22</sub>. \|- \|style="vertical-align:top"\|2012 \|Gonthier and collaborators announce a computer-checked version of the Feit–Thompson theorem using the Coq proof assistant. \|} Second-generation classification The proof of the theorem, as it stood around 1985 or so, can be called first generation. Because of the extreme length of the first generation proof, much effort has been devoted to finding a simpler proof, called a second-generation classification proof. This effort, called "revisionism", was originally led by Daniel Gorenstein. , ten volumes of the second generation proof have been published (Gorenstein, Lyons & Solomon 1994, 1996, 1998, 1999, 2002, 2005, 2018a, 2018b; & Capdeboscq, 2021, 2023). In 2012 Solomon estimated that the project would need another 5 volumes, but said that progress on them was slow. It is estimated that the new proof will eventually fill approximately 5,000 pages. (This length stems in part from the second generation proof being written in a more relaxed style.) However, with the publication of volume 9 of the GLS series, and including the Aschbacher–Smith contribution, this estimate was already reached, with several more volumes still in preparation (the rest of what was originally intended for volume 9, plus projected volumes 10 and 11). Aschbacher and Smith wrote their two volumes devoted to the quasithin case in such a way that those volumes can be part of the second generation proof. Gorenstein and his collaborators have given several reasons why a simpler proof is possible. * The most important thing is that the correct, final statement of the theorem is now known. Simpler techniques can be applied that are known to be adequate for the types of groups we know to be finite simple. In contrast, those who worked on the first generation proof did not know how many sporadic groups there were, and in fact some of the sporadic groups (e.g., the Janko groups) were discovered while proving other cases of the classification theorem. As a result, many of the pieces of the theorem were proved using techniques that were overly general. Because the conclusion was unknown, the first generation proof consists of many stand-alone theorems, dealing with important special cases. Much of the work of proving these theorems was devoted to the analysis of numerous special cases. Given a larger, orchestrated proof, dealing with many of these special cases can be postponed until the most powerful assumptions can be applied. The price paid under this revised strategy is that these first generation theorems no longer have comparatively short proofs, but instead rely on the complete classification. Many first generation theorems overlap, and so divide the possible cases in inefficient ways. As a result, families and subfamilies of finite simple groups were identified multiple times. The revised proof eliminates these redundancies by relying on a different subdivision of cases. Finite group theorists have more experience at this sort of exercise, and have new techniques at their disposal. has called the work on the classification problem by Ulrich Meierfrankenfeld, Bernd Stellmacher, Gernot Stroth, and a few others, a third generation program. One goal of this is to treat all groups in characteristic 2 uniformly using the amalgam method. Length of proof Gorenstein has discussed some of the reasons why there might not be a short proof of the classification similar to the classification of compact Lie groups. The most obvious reason is that the list of simple groups is quite complicated: with 26 sporadic groups there are likely to be many special cases that have to be considered in any proof. So far no one has yet found a clean uniform description of the finite simple groups similar to the parameterization of the compact Lie groups by Dynkin diagrams. Atiyah and others have suggested that the classification ought to be simplified by constructing some geometric object that the groups act on and then classifying these geometric structures. The problem is that no one has been able to suggest an easy way to find such a geometric structure associated with a simple group. In some sense, the classification does work by finding geometric structures such as BN-pairs, but this only comes at the end of a very long and difficult analysis of the structure of a finite simple group. Another suggestion for simplifying the proof is to make greater use of representation theory. The problem here is that representation theory seems to require very tight control over the subgroups of a group in order to work well. For groups of small rank, one has such control and representation theory works very well, but for groups of larger rank no-one has succeeded in using it to simplify the classification. In the early days of the classification, there was a considerable effort made to use representation theory, but this never achieved much success in the higher rank case. Consequences of the classification This section lists some results that have been proved using the classification of finite simple groups. The Schreier conjecture The Signalizer functor theorem The B conjecture The Schur–Zassenhaus theorem for all groups (though this only uses the Feit–Thompson theorem). A transitive permutation group on a finite set with more than 1 element has a fixed-point-free element of prime power order. The classification of 2-transitive permutation groups. The classification of rank 3 permutation groups. The Sims conjecture Frobenius's conjecture on the number of solutions of . See also O'Nan–Scott theorem Notes <references group"note" />Citations<references />References* * * * * * Daniel Gorenstein (1985), "The Enormous Theorem", Scientific American, December 1, 1985, vol. 253, no. 6, pp. 104–115. * ** * Mark Ronan, Symmetry and the Monster, , Oxford University Press, 2006. (Concise introduction for lay reader) Marcus du Sautoy, Finding Moonshine, Fourth Estate, 2008, (another introduction for the lay reader. American edition published in 2009 as Symmetry: A Journey into the Patterns of Nature) Ron Solomon (1995) "[https://www.ams.org/notices/199502/solomon.pdf On Finite Simple Groups and their Classification]," Notices of the American Mathematical Society. (Not too technical and good on history. American version published in 2009 as Symmetry: A Journey into the Patterns of Nature) * – article won [https://www.ams.org/notices/200604/comm-conant.pdf Levi L. Conant prize] for exposition * * External links * [http://brauer.maths.qmul.ac.uk/Atlas/v3/ ATLAS of Finite Group Representations.] Searchable database of representations and other data for many finite simple groups. * Elwes, Richard, "[http://plus.maths.org/issue41/features/elwes/index.html An enormous theorem: the classification of finite simple groups]," Plus Magazine, Issue 41, December 2006. For laypeople. * Madore, David (2003) [http://www.eleves.ens.fr:8080/home/madore/math/simplegroups.html Orders of nonabelian simple groups.] Includes a list of all nonabelian simple groups up to order 10<sup>10</sup>. * [https://mathoverflow.net/q/180355 In what sense is the classification of all finite groups “impossible”?] * * (Last updated in February 2024) Category:Group theory * Category:Finite groups Category:Theorems in algebra Category:2004 in science Category:History of mathematics Category:Mathematical classification systems	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_finite_simple_groups	2025-04-05T18:28:09.102807
7446	Chalcolithic	The Chalcolithic ( ) (also called the Copper Age and Eneolithic); from khalkós, "copper" and líthos, "stone"); Eneolithic, from Latin aeneus "of copper"}} was an archaeological period characterized by the increasing use of smelted copper. It followed the Neolithic and preceded the Bronze Age. It occurred at different periods in different areas, but was absent in some parts of the world, such as Russia, where there was no well-defined Copper Age between the Stone and Bronze Ages. Stone tools were still predominantly used during this period. The Chalcolithic covers both the early cold working (hammering) of near pure copper ores, as exhibited by the likes of North American Great Lakes Old Copper complex, from around 6,500 BC, through the later copper smelting cultures. The archaeological site of Belovode, on Rudnik mountain in Serbia, has the world's oldest securely dated evidence of copper smelting at high temperature, from . The transition from Copper Age to Bronze Age in Europe occurred between the late 5th and the late In the Ancient Near East the Copper Age covered about the same period, beginning in the late and lasting for about a millennium before it gave rise to the Early Bronze Age. A study in the journal Antiquity from 2013 reporting the discovery of a tin bronze foil from the Pločnik archaeological site dated to , as well as 14 other artefacts from Bulgaria and Serbia dated to before 4,000 BC, showed that early tin bronze was more common than previously thought and developed independently in Europe 1,500 years before the first tin bronze alloys in the Near East. The concept of the Copper Age was put forward by Hungarian scientist Ferenc Pulszky in the 1870s, when, on the basis of the significant number of large copper objects unearthed within the Carpathian Basin, he suggested that the previous threefold division of the Prehistoric Age – the Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages – should be further divided with the introduction of the Copper Age. In 1881, John Evans recognized that use of copper often preceded the use of bronze, and distinguished between a transitional Copper Age and the Bronze Age proper. He did not include the transitional period in the Bronze Age, but described it separately from the customary stone / bronze / iron system, at the Bronze Age's beginning. He did not, however, present it as a fourth age but chose to retain the tripartite system. }} to mean Evans's original definition of Copper Age.RegionsNear East , Negev Desert, Israel]] The emergence of metallurgy may have occurred first in the Fertile Crescent. Lead may have been the first ore that humans smelted, since it can be easily obtained by heating galena. Possible early examples of lead smelting, supported by the extreme rarity of native lead, include: lead beads, found on Level IX of Chatal/Çatal Hüyük in central Anatolia, though they might be made of galena, cerussite, or metallic lead, and accordingly might or might not be evidence of early smelting; a lead bracelet, found in level XII of Yarim Tepe I, dated to the 6th millennium BC; a small cone-shaped piece of lead, found in the "Burnt House" in TT6 at Arpachiyah, dated to the Halaf period or slightly later than the Yarim Tepe bracelet; Arsenical copper or bronze was produced in eastern Turkey (Malatya Province) at two ancient sites, Norşuntepe and Değirmentepe, around 4200 BC. According to Boscher (2016), hearths or natural draft furnaces, slag, ore, and pigment had been recovered throughout these sites. This was in the context of Ubaid period architectural complexes typical of southern Mesopotamian architecture. Norşuntepe site demonstrates that some form of arsenic alloying was indeed taking place by the 4th millennium BC. Since the slag identified at Norşuntepe contains no arsenic, this means that arsenic in some form was added separately. Europe A copper axe found at Prokuplje, Serbia contains the oldest securely dated evidence of copper-making, (7,500 years ago). The find in June 2010 extends the known record of copper smelting by about 800 years, and suggests that copper smelting may have been invented in separate parts of Asia and Europe at that time rather than spreading from a single source. Copper artefacts found in northern Germany and Denmark date from between 4000 and 3300 BC, with most finds dating from 3500 - 3300 BC. They belong to the Funnel Beaker group. The copper was mined in Serbian mines, as researchers from Kiel have recently discovered. Ötzi the Iceman, who was found in the Ötztal Alps in 1991 and whose remains have been dated to about 3300 BC, was found with a Mondsee copper axe. , Spain]] Examples of Chalcolithic cultures in Europe include Vila Nova de São Pedro and Los Millares on the Iberian Peninsula. Pottery of the Beaker people has been found at both sites, dating to several centuries after copper-working began there. The Beaker culture appears to have spread copper and bronze technologies in Europe, along with Indo-European languages. In Britain, copper was used between the 25th and , but some archaeologists do not recognise a British Chalcolithic because production and use was on a small scale.South Asia Ceramic similarities between the Indus Valley Civilisation, southern Turkmenistan, and northern Iran during 4300–3300 BC of the Chalcolithic period suggest considerable mobility and trade. The term "Chalcolithic" has also been used in the context of the South Asian Stone Age. In Bhirrana, the earliest Indus civilization site, copper bangles and arrowheads were found. The inhabitants of Mehrgarh in present-day Pakistan fashioned tools with local copper ore between 7000 and 3300 BC. The Nausharo site was a pottery workshop in province of Balochistan, Pakistan, that dates to 4,500 years ago; 12 blades and blade fragments were excavated there. These blades are long, wide, and relatively thin. Archaeological experiments show that these blades were made with a copper indenter and functioned as a potter's tool to trim and shape unfired pottery. Petrographic analysis indicates local pottery manufacturing, but also reveals the existence of a few exotic black-slipped pottery items from the Indus Valley. In India, Chalcolithic culture flourished in mainly four farming communities – Ahar or Banas, Kayatha, Malwa, and Jorwe. These communities had some common traits like painted pottery and use of copper, but they had a distinct ceramic design tradition. Banas culture (2000–1600 BC) had ceramics with red, white, and black design. Kayatha culture (2450–1700 BC) had ceramics painted with brown colored design. Malwa culture (1900–1400 BC) had profusely decorated pottery with red or black colored design. Jorwe culture (1500–900 BC) had ceramics with matte surface and black-on-red design. Pandu Rajar Dhibi (2000–1600 BC) is a Chalcolithic site in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent. It is located on the south bank of Ajay River in West Bengal. Blackware, painted Koshi ware, pottery, various ornaments made of pearl and copper, various types of tools, pieces of fabric woven from Shimul cotton thread, human and various animal skeletons, burnt clay fragments have been found at the site. In March 2018, archaeologists had discovered three carts and copper artifacts including weapons dating to 1800 BC in Sanauli village of Uttar Pradesh. The artifacts belongs to Ochre Coloured Pottery culture.Pre-Columbian Americas In the Archaeology of the Americas, a five-period system is conventionally used which does not include metal ages, though metalworking technology did precede European contact in some areas. Andean civilizations in South America appear to have independently invented copper smelting. The term "Chalcolithic" is also applied to American civilizations that already used copper and copper alloys thousands of years before Europeans immigrated. Besides cultures in the Andes and Mesoamerica, the Old Copper complex mined and fabricated copper as tools, weapons, and personal ornaments in an area centered in the upper Great Lakes region (present-day Michigan and Wisconsin). The evidence of smelting or alloying that has been found in North America is subject to some dispute and a common assumption by archaeologists is that objects were cold-worked into shape. Artifacts from some of these sites have been dated to 6500–1000 BC, making them some of the oldest Chalcolithic sites in the world. Some archaeologists find artifactual and structural evidence of casting by Hopewellian and Mississippian peoples to be demonstrated in the archaeological record.East Asia In the 5th millennium BC copper artifacts start to appear in East Asia, such as in the Jiangzhai and Hongshan cultures, but those metal artifacts were not widely used during this early stage. Copper manufacturing gradually appeared in the Yangshao period (5000–3000 BC). Jiangzhai is the only site where copper artifacts were found in the Banpo culture. Archaeologists have found remains of copper metallurgy in various cultures from the late fourth to the early third millennia BC. These include the copper-smelting remains and copper artifacts of the Hongshan culture (4700–2900) and copper slag at the Yuanwozhen site. This indicates that inhabitants of the Yellow River valley had already learned how to make copper artifacts by the later Yangshao period.Sub-Saharan Africa In the region of the Aïr Mountains, Niger, independent copper smelting developed between 3000 and 2500 BC. The process was not in a developed state, indicating smelting was not foreign. It became mature about 1500 BC.See also * Arsenical bronze * Proto-city Notes References Bibliography * * * * * * * External links * Age Category:Historical eras	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcolithic	2025-04-05T18:28:09.119991
7447	Circumcision and law	Laws restricting, regulating, or banning circumcision, some dating back to ancient times, have been enacted in many countries and communities. In the case of non-therapeutic circumcision of children, proponents of laws in favor of the procedure often point to the rights of the parents or practitioners, namely the right of freedom of religion. Those against the procedure point to the boy's right of freedom from religion. In several court cases, judges have pointed to the irreversible nature of the act, the grievous harm to the boy's body, and the right to self-determination, and bodily integrity. History Judaism There are ancient religious requirements for circumcision. The Hebrew Bible commands Jews to circumcise their male children on the eighth day of life, and to circumcise their male slaves. Laws which ban circumcision are also ancient. The ancient Greeks prized the foreskin and disapproved of the Jewish custom of circumcision. 1 Maccabees, 1:60–61 states that King Antiochus IV of Syria, the occupying power of Judea in 170 BCE, outlawed circumcision on penalty of death, one of the grievances leading to the Maccabean Revolt. According to the Historia Augusta, the Roman emperor Hadrian issued a decree which banned circumcision in the empire, and some modern scholars argue that this was a main cause of the Jewish Bar Kokhba revolt of 132 CE. The Roman historian Cassius Dio, however, made no mention of such a law, instead, he blamed the Jewish uprising on Hadrian's decision to rebuild Jerusalem and rename it Aelia Capitolina, a city dedicated to Jupiter. Antoninus Pius permitted Jews to circumcise their own sons. However, he forbade the circumcision of non-Jewish males who were either foreign-born slaves of Jews and the circumcision of non-Jewish males who were members of Jewish households, in violation of Genesis 17:12. He also banned non-Jewish men from converting to Judaism. Antoninus Pius exempted the Egyptian priesthood from the otherwise universal ban on circumcision. Constantine the Great made it illegal to circumcise Christian slaves, and punished the owners who allowed it by freeing the Christian from slavery. Ecclesiastical canon law in Christianity children wearing traditional circumcision costumes]] Circumcision has also played a major role in Christian history and theology. The Council of Jerusalem in the early Christian Church declared that circumcision was not necessary for Christians; covenant theology largely views the Christian sacrament of baptism as fulfilling the Israelite practice of circumcision, both being signs and seals of the covenant of grace. Though mainstream Christian denominations maintain a neutral position on routine circumcision, it is widely practiced in many Christian communities. Historically, the Lutheran Churches have also not practiced circumcision among their communicants. Currently the Catholic Church maintains a neutral position on the practice of non-religious circumcision. Today, many Christian denominations are neutral about ritual male circumcision, not requiring it for religious observance, but neither forbidding it for cultural or other reasons. On the other hand, in Oriental Christianity, the Coptic Orthodox Church and Ethiopian Orthodox Church and Eritrean Orthodox Church require that their male members undergo circumcision. Soviet Union Before glasnost, according to an article in The Jewish Press, Jewish ritual circumcision was forbidden in the Soviet Union. However, David E. Fishman, professor of Jewish History at the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, states that, whereas the heder and yeshiva, the organs of Jewish education, "were banned by virtue of the law separating church and school, and subjected to tough police and administrative actions", circumcision was not proscribed by law or suppressed by executive measures. Jehoshua A. Gilboa writes that while circumcision was not officially or explicitly banned, pressure was exerted to make it difficult. Mohels in particular were concerned that they could be punished for any health issue that might develop, even if it arose some time after the circumcision. Albania In 1967, all religion in Communist Albania was banned, along with the practice of circumcision. The practice was driven underground and many boys were secretly circumcised. International law Council of Europe On 1 October 2013, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe adopted a non-binding resolution in which they state they are "particularly worried about a category of violation of the physical integrity of children", and included in this category "circumcision of young boys for religious reasons". On 7 October, Israel's president Shimon Peres wrote a personal missive to the Secretary General of the Council of Europe, Thorbjørn Jagland, to stop the "ban", arguing: "The Jewish communities across Europe would be greatly afflicted to see their cultural and religious freedom impeded upon by the Council of Europe, an institution devoted to the protection of these very rights." Two days later, Jagland clarified that the resolution was non-binding and that "Nothing in the body of our legally binding standards would lead us to put on equal footing the issue of female genital mutilation and the circumcision of young boys for religious reasons." European Union A study commissioned by the European Parliament Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs published in February 2013 stated that "Male circumcision for non-therapeutic reasons appears to be practiced with relative regularity and frequency throughout Europe," and said it was "the only scenario, among the topics discussed in the present chapter, in which the outcome of the balancing between the right to physical integrity and religious freedom is in favour of the latter." The study recommended that "the best interests of children should be paramount, while acknowledging the relevance of this practice for Muslims and Jews. Member States should ensure that circumcision of underage children is performed according to the medical profession's art and under conditions that do not put the health of minors at risk. The introduction of regulations by the Member States in order to set the conditions and the appropriate medical training for those called to perform it is warranted." 2013 Nordic ombudsmen statement On 30 September 2013, the children's ombudsmen of all five Nordic countries – Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden – together with the children's spokesperson from Greenland and representatives of associations of Nordic paediatricians and paediatric surgeons, gathered in Oslo to discuss the issue, and released a joint declaration proposing a ban on non-therapeutic circumcision of male minors: Modern laws by country \|image2 \|caption2=Prevalence of circumcision among boys younger than 15 years-old}} As of February 2018, no European country has a ban on male circumcision. Whereas child custody regulations have been applied to cases involving circumcision, there seems to be no state which currently unequivocally bans infant male circumcision for non-therapeutic reasons, albeit the legality of such circumcision is disputed in some legislations. The present table provides a non-exhaustive overview comparing legal restrictions and requirements on non-therapeutic infant circumcision in several countries. Some countries require one or both parents to consent to the operation; some of these (Finland, \| \| \| Parents \| \| \| Parents Royal Australasian College of Physicians}} In 1993, a non-binding research paper of the Queensland Law Reform Commission (Circumcision of Male Infants) concluded that "On a strict interpretation of the assault provisions of the Queensland Criminal Code, routine circumcision of a male infant could be regarded as a criminal act," and that doctors who perform circumcision on male infants may be liable to civil claims by that child at a later date. No prosecutions have occurred in Queensland, and circumcisions continue to be performed. In 1999, a Perth man won A$360,000 in damages after a doctor admitted he botched a circumcision operation at birth which left the man with a badly deformed penis. In 2002, Queensland police charged a father with grievous bodily harm for having his two sons, then aged nine and five, circumcised without the knowledge and against the wishes of the mother. The mother and father were in a family court dispute. The charges were dropped when the police prosecutor revealed that he did not have all family court paperwork in court and the magistrate refused to grant an adjournment. Cosmetic circumcision for newborn males is currently banned in all Australian public hospitals, South Australia being the last state to adopt the ban in 2007; the procedure was not forbidden from being performed in private hospitals. In the same year, the Tasmanian President of the Australian Medical Association, Haydn Walters, stated that they would support a call to ban circumcision for non-medical, non-religious reasons. In 2009, the Tasmanian Law Reform Institute released its Issues Paper investigating the law relating to male circumcision in Tasmania, it "highlights the uncertainty in relation to whether doctors can legally perform circumcision on infant males". The Tasmania Law Reform Institute released its recommendations for reform of Tasmanian law relative to male circumcision on 21 August 2012. The report makes fourteen recommendations for reform of Tasmanian law relative to male circumcision. Belgium The Belgian Advisory Committee on Bioethics finds that circumcision is a radical operation, and that physical integrity of the child takes precedence over parents' belief systems. In 2012, Le Soir reported a 21% increase in the amount of circumcisions in Belgium from 2006 and 2011. In the previous 25 years, one in three Belgian-born boys had allegedly been circumcised. A questionnaire to hospitals in Wallonia and Brussels showed that about 80 to 90% of the procedures had religious or cultural motives. The Ministry of Health stressed the importance of safe circumstances, physicians warned that "no surgical procedure is without risk" and that circumcision was "not a necessary procedure". In 2017, it was estimated that about 15% of Belgian men were circumcised. The incidence has been gradually rising: in 2002, about 17,800 boys or men underwent circumcision, which increased to almost 26,200 in 2016. The expenses of undergoing circumcision are covered by the National Institute for Disease and Disability Insurance (RIZIV/INAMI), costing about 2.7 million euros in 2016. After inquiries were submitted to the Belgian Bioethics Advisory Committee in early 2014, an ethics commission was set up to review the morality of covering the costs of medically unnecessary surgery through taxpayer money, especially considering that many taxpayers regard the practice as immoral. By July 2017, the commission reportedly reached consensus on discontinuing the financial coverage of non-medical circumcision, but was still debating whether to advise the government to institute a total ban of the practice. The commission's final (non-binding) recommendation, presented on 19 September 2017, was to cease public funding for non-medical circumcision, and to not circumcise anyone underage until they can consent or reject the procedure after being properly informed. This was in line with the 1990 Convention on the Rights of the Child, and mirrors the 2013 non-binding Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe's resolution against underage non-therapeutic circumcision. However, Health Minister Maggie De Block rejected the commission's advice, arguing the RIZIV "cannot know whether there is a medical motive or not" when parents request a circumcision, and when they are denied a professional procedure, chances are parents will have a non-expert perform it, leading to worse results for the children. The Health Minister's response was received with mixed reactions. Canada The Canadian Paediatric Society does not recommend routine circumcision, finding that medical necessity has not been clearly established, and as such, that it should be deferred until the individual concerned is able to make his own choices. According to the College of Physicians and Surgeons of British Columbia: Denmark Circumcision is legal in Denmark, and each year 1,000 to 2,000 boys are circumcised for non-medical reasons, the Danish Health Authority estimated in 2013, For boys below the age of 15, circumcision requires consent from the parents, while the boy can consent when he is 15 years or older. Circumcision is classified as an operation and reserved for doctors, though the responsible doctor can delegate the actual operation to non-medical person, as long as the doctor is present. The operation requires "sufficient pain relief (analgesic) and sedation (Anesthesia)" The doctor is responsible for having the necessary qualifications (both for the operation and the pain relief) and for being informed about the newest scientific developments in the area. Other professional organizations followed them, and according to DR, only the Authority and two private clinics that perform circumcisions remain in the committee. The Danish population overwhelmingly support a ban on non-medical circumcision of boys below the age of 18. A 2020 survey measured the support at 86%, while surveys in 2018, 2016 and 2014 measured the support at 83%, 87% and 74%, respectively In 2018, a citizen's initiative calling for such a ban reached the threshold of 50.000 signatures to be put forward in the Folketing. It was subsequently found compliant with the Danish Constitution, in particularly §67 on religious freedom. The Danish Medical Association believes boys should decide for themselves after they turn 18 years old, but does not call for a ban. , the Social Democrats and Venstre, who together hold a majority in the Folketing, oppose a ban, while the Danish People's Party, the Socialist People's Party, Red-Green Alliance, The Alternative, The New Right and Liberal Alliance favour a ban. The Conservative and the Social Liberal Party have no official opinion on the question. ;In favour of a ban * Danish People's PartyFinlandThe Finnish Ombudsman for Equality finds that circumcising young boys without a medical reason is legally highly questionable, The Finnish Supreme Court found that non-therapeutic circumcision of boys is assault, and the Finnish Ombudsman for Children proposed that Finland should ban non-therapeutic circumcision of young boys: Finnish Ombudsman for Equality}} In August 2006, a Finnish court ruled that the circumcision of a four-year-old boy arranged by his mother, who is Muslim, to be an illegal assault. The boy's father, who had not been consulted, reported the incident to the police. A local prosecutor stated that the prohibition of circumcision is not gender-specific in Finnish law. A lawyer for the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health stated that there is neither legislation nor prohibition on male circumcision, and that "the operations have been performed on the basis of common law." The case was appealed and in October 2008 the Finnish Supreme Court ruled that the circumcision, "carried out for religious and social reasons and in a medical manner, did not have the earmarks of a criminal offence. It pointed out in its ruling that the circumcision of Muslim boys is an established tradition and an integral part of the identity of Muslim men". In 2008, the Finnish government was reported to be considering a new law to legalise circumcision if the practitioner is a doctor and if the child consents. In December 2011, Helsinki District Court said that the Supreme Court's decision does not mean that circumcision is legal for any non-medical reasons. The court referred to the Convention on Human rights and Biomedicine of the Council of Europe, which was ratified in Finland in 2010. In November 2020, the Finnish Parliament passed a new law on female genital mutilation. An earlier version of the draft law could also have criminalised nonmedical infant circumcision, but due to intense lobbying by several Islamic and Jewish organisations including the Central Council of Finnish Jewish Communities, Milah UK, and the European Jewish Congress, the wording was changed and instead, the law passed in Parliament now states that the issue of circumcision of boys should be "clarified" in the future. ;In favour of a ban * Social Democratic Party of Finland * Finns Party * Green League German Association of Paediatricians}} In October 2006, a Turkish national who performed ritual circumcisions on seven boys was convicted of causing dangerous bodily harm by the state court in Düsseldorf. In September 2007, a Frankfurt am Main appeals court found that the circumcision of an 11-year-old boy without his approval was an unlawful personal injury. The boy, whose parents were divorced, was visiting his Muslim father during a vacation when his father forced him to be ritually circumcised. The boy had planned to sue his father for . In May 2012, the Cologne regional appellate court ruled that religious circumcision of male children amounts to bodily injury, and is a criminal offense in the area under its jurisdiction. published by Holm Putzke, a German law professor at the University of Passau. The court arrived at its judgment by application of the human rights provisions of the Basic Law, a section of the Civil Code, and some sections of the Criminal Code to non-therapeutic circumcision of male children. Some observers said it could set a legal precedent that criminalizes the practice. Jewish and Muslim groups were outraged by the ruling, viewing it as trampling on freedom of religion. The German ambassador to Israel, Andreas Michaelis, told Israeli lawmakers that Germany was working to resolve the issue and that it does not apply at a national level, but instead only to the local jurisdiction of the court in Cologne. The Council of the Coordination of Muslims in Germany condemned the ruling, stating that it is "a serious attack on religious freedom". Ali Kizilkaya, a spokesman of the council, stated that, "The ruling does not take everything into account, religious practice concerning circumcision of young Muslims and Jews has been carried out over the millennia on a global level." The Roman Catholic archbishop of Aachen, Heinrich Mussinghoff, said that the ruling was "very surprising", and the contradiction between "basic rights on freedom of religion and the well-being of the child brought up by the judges is not convincing in this very case". Hans Ulrich Anke, the head of the Protestant Church in Germany, said the ruling should be appealed since it did not "sufficiently" consider the religious significance of the rite. A spokesman, Steffen Seibert, for German Chancellor Angela Merkel stated that Jewish and Muslim communities will be free to practice circumcision responsibly, and the government would find a way around the local ban in Cologne. The spokesman stated "For everyone in the government it is absolutely clear that we want to have Jewish and Muslim religious life in Germany. Circumcision carried out in a responsible manner must be possible in this country without punishment." In July 2012, a group of rabbis, imams, and others said that they view the ruling against circumcision "an affront on our basic religious and human rights". The joint statement was signed by leaders of groups including Germany's Turkish-Islamic Union for Religious Affairs, the Islamic Center Brussels, the Rabbinical Centre of Europe, the European Jewish Parliament and the European Jewish Association, who met with members of European Parliament from Germany, Finland, Belgium, Italy, and Poland. European rabbis, who urged Jews to continue circumcision, planned further talks with Muslim and Christian leaders to determine how they can oppose the ban together. The Jewish Hospital of Berlin suspended the practice of male circumcision. On 19 July 2012, a joint resolution of the CDU/CSU, SPD and FDP factions in the Bundestag requesting the executive branch to draft a law permitting circumcision of boys to be performed without unnecessary pain in accordance with best medical practice carried with a broad majority. The New York Times reported that the German Medical Association "condemned the ruling for potentially putting children at risk by taking the procedure out of the hands of doctors, but it also warned surgeons note to perform circumcisions for religious reasons until legal clarity was established". The ruling was supported by Deutsche Kinderhilfe, a German child rights organization, which asked for a two-year moratorium to discuss the issue and pointed out that religious circumcision may contravene the Convention on the Rights of the Child (Article 24.3: "States Parties shall take all effective and appropriate measures with a view to abolishing traditional practices prejudicial to the health of children."). The German Academy for Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine (Deutsche Akademie für Kinder- und Jugendmedizin e.V., DAKJ), the German Association for Pediatric Surgery (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Kinderchirurgie, DGKCH) and the Professional Association of Pediatric and Adolescent Physicians (Berufsverband der Kinder- und Jugendärzte) took a firm stand against non-medical routine infant circumcision. In July, in Berlin, a criminal complaint was lodged against Rabbi Yitshak Ehrenberg for "causing bodily harm" by performing religious circumcision, and for vocal support of the continuation of the practice. In September, the prosecutors dismissed the complaint, concluding that "there is no proof to establish that the rabbi's conduct met the 'condition of a criminal' violation". In September, Reuters reported "Berlin's senate said doctors could legally circumcise infant boys for religious reasons in its region, given certain conditions." On 12 December 2012, following a series of hearings and consultations, the Bundestag adopted the proposed law explicitly permitting non-therapeutic circumcision to be performed under certain conditions; it is now §1631(d) in the German Civil Code. The vote tally was 434 ayes, 100 noes, and 46 abstentions. Following approval by the Bundesrat and signing by the Bundespräsident, the new law became effective on 28 December 2012 a day after its publication in the Federal Gazette. Iceland In May 2005, Iceland amended its General Penal Code to criminalise female genital mutilation In February 2018, the Progressive Party proposed a bill that would change the words "girl child" to "child" and "her sexual organs" to "[their] sexual organs", thereby making Iceland the first European country to ban male circumcision for non-medical reasons. The bill was ultimately put on hold later that year following pressure from the United States, Israel, and various lobbyist groups. ;In favour of the proposed ban (March 2018) * Progressive Party In 2003, an expert in medical law suggested that the Constitution of Ireland's guarantees of family autonomy would probably trump concern for the child's bodily autonomy. Until the 1990s the practice was largely confined to the brit milah of the small Jewish community, generally performed by a mohel travelling from Great Britain and certified there by the Initiation Society, with no concern from law enforcement. The boy's parents had enquired about circumcision within the health service, until a review after the death. At the 2005 trial, the prosecution argued that "the carrying out of a circumcision by a non-medical person was not an offence in Ireland", Jurist Máiréad Enright questioned the judge's "radical cultural relativism" and felt as a Circuit Court case it had "limited precedential value". While the Waterford case was pending, the Minister for Health established an advisory committee on "cultural male circumcision". Its 2006 report recommended that circumcision be provided within the health service as an outpatient procedure by trained surgeons and anaesthetists. Circumcisions carried out by "untrained people" should be investigated by the Health Service Executive and might be prosecuted as child abuse. In 2020 another Nigerian traditional circumcisionist was jailed for 3 years after pleading guilty to reckless endangerment of a 10-month-old, who spent two weeks in hospital after a 2015 procedure without anaesthetic or proper sterilisation. The judge called it "a barbaric act of cruelty" and said the man should abide by Irish cultural norms. On 30 July 2024 a London-based rabbi was arrested after performing a circumcision in a Dublin house with the parents' consent. He was charged with carrying out a surgical procedure without being a registered medical practitioner, contrary to the Medical Practitioners Act 2007. The accused is a mohel registered with the Initiation Society. The Chief Rabbi of Ireland said that the client family was not Jewish, but the Jewish community would be offering assistance to the mohel. The Jewish Chronicle suggested the reason the case was singled out for prosecution was because it was a "non-religious circumcision"; On 6 August he was remanded for a further two weeks in anticipation of "multiple further charges" from the Director of Public Prosecutions. On 22 August he was granted bail at a hearing which was told no mohel had previously been prosecuted in such a case. Israel In Israel, Jewish circumcision is entirely legal. The circumcision rate is very high in Israel, although some limited data suggests the practice is slowly declining. According to an online survey by the parents' portal Mamy in 2006, the rate was 95%, while earlier estimates put it at 98–99%. Ben Shalem, an organisation dedicated to the abolition of circumcision, petitioned the Supreme Court in 1999 on the grounds that circumcision violated human dignity, children's rights and criminal law. The petition was rejected. In 2013, a Rabbinical court in Israel ordered a mother in the midst of divorce proceedings to circumcise her son in accordance with the father's wishes, or pay a fine of 500 Israeli Shekel for every day that the child is not circumcised. She appealed against the Rabbinical court ruling and the High Court ruled in her favour stating, among other considerations, the basic right of freedom from religion. Netherlands The Royal Dutch Medical Association (KNMG) finds non-therapeutic circumcision of male minors to be in conflict with children's right to autonomy and physical integrity, and that there are good reasons for its legal prohibition, as exists for female genital mutilation: Royal Dutch Medical Association, 2010}} In May 2008 a father who had his two sons, aged 3 and 6, circumcised against the will of their mother was found not guilty of abuse as the circumcision was performed by a physician and due to the court's restraint in setting a legal precedent; instead he was given a 6-week suspended jail sentence for taking the boys away from their mother against her will. The parquet of the Supreme Court of the Netherlands made an elaborate statement on the legal status of circumcision on 5 July 2011 in the course of a criminal case. First, the parquet notes that there is no law that specifically prohibits the circumcision of boys, nor that the practice falls under the more general crime of (zware) mishandeling ('(grave) assault'). "Genital mutilation of girls in any case undoubtedly falls under (zware) mishandeling (Art. 300–303 Dutch Criminal Code). Whereas most forms of genital cutting of girls are generally marked as genital mutilation, a similar communis opinio regarding genital cutting of boys does not yet exist so far." The Supreme Court acknowledged that society's attitudes on genital cutting of boys had been gradually shifting over the course of years, and that "the increasing concern [in the medical world] about the harm and the risk of complications during a circumcision is indeed relevant", but that overall there were not enough reasons yet to proceed to criminalisation. Neither could intentional infliction of grave bodily harm (Art. 82 Dutch Criminal Code) be applied to the normal circumstances of a competently and hygienically performed circumcision in a clinic. And because young children are incapable of exercising the right to self-determination, parents ought to do this on their behalf. They can both request a circumcision to be performed, as well as consent to it being performed, on the grounds of their parental authority. However, it is important that both parents consent to the procedure. ;In favour of a ban * Christian Union, political party, on the basis of Article 11 of the Constitution concerning bodily integrity (from 2006 to 2011) * Royal Dutch Medical Association (KNMG), federation of physicians (since 2010) * Youth Organisation Freedom and Democracy, youth wing People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD) (since 2014) * Young Democrats, youth wing Democrats 66 (D66) (since 2017, favours a gradual increase of the minimum age for circumcision) * PINK!, youth wing Party for the Animals (PvdD) (since 2018) ;Against a ban * Council of Public Health and Care (RVZ), medical advisory committee for parliament and government (since 2010) * Rabbi Herman Loonstein, president of Federative Jewish Netherlands * Christian Union, political party, on the basis of Article 6 of the Constitution concerning freedom of religion (since 2011 Norwegian Ombudsman for Children}} In June 2012, the centre-right Centre Party proposed a ban on circumcision on males under eighteen, after an Oslo infant died in May following a circumcision. A bill on ritual circumcision of boys was passed (against two votes) in the Norwegian Parliament in June 2014, with the new law going into effect on 1 January 2015. This law explicitly allows Jews to practice brit milah and obligates the Norwegian Health Care regions to offer the Muslim minority a safe and affordable procedure. Local anaesthesia needs to be applied and a licensed physician needs to be present at the circumcision, which hospitals started to perform in March 2015. In May 2017, the right-wing Progress Party proposed to ban circumcision for males under sixteen. ;In favour of a ban * Centre Party (under 18, since 2012) Among other provisions, the minimum age for circumcision is age 18. In 2004, a 22-year-old Rastafarian convert was forcibly circumcised by a group of Xhosa tribal elders and relatives. When he first fled, two police returned him to those who had circumcised him. In another case, a medically circumcised Xhosa man was forcibly recircumcised by his father and community leaders. He laid a charge of unfair discrimination on the grounds of his religious beliefs, seeking an apology from his father and the Congress of Traditional Leaders of South Africa. According to South African newspapers, the subsequent trial became "a landmark case around forced circumcision". In October 2009, the Eastern Cape High Court at Bhisho (sitting as an Equality Court) clarified that circumcision is unlawful unless done with the full consent of the initiate. Slovenia The Slovenian Human Rights Ombudsman found in February 2012, after consulting various relevant expert bodies and studying relevant constitutional and legal stipulations, that circumcision for non-medical reasons is a violation of children's rights, that ritual circumcision for religious reasons is unacceptable in Slovenia for both legal and ethical reasons and should not be performed by doctors: Slovenian Human Rights Ombudsman\|title\|source}} Sweden In 2001, the Parliament of Sweden enacted a law allowing only persons certified by the National Board of Health to circumcise infants. It requires a medical doctor or an anesthesia nurse to accompany the circumciser and for anaesthetic to be applied beforehand. After the first two months of life circumcisions can only be performed by a physician. The stated purpose of the law was to increase the safety of the procedure. Swedish Jews and Muslims objected to the law, and in 2001, the World Jewish Congress called it "the first legal restriction on Jewish religious practice in Europe since the Nazi era". The requirement for an anaesthetic to be administered by a medical professional is a major issue, and the low degree of availability of certified professionals willing to conduct circumcision has also been subject to criticism. According to a survey, two out of three paediatric surgeons said they refuse to perform non-therapeutic circumcision, and less than half of all county councils offer it in their hospitals. However, in 2006, the U.S. State Department stated, in a report on Sweden, that most Jewish mohels had been certified under the law and 3000 Muslim and 40–50 Jewish boys were circumcised each year. An estimated 2000 of these are performed by persons who are neither physicians nor have officially recognised certification. The Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare reviewed the law in 2005 and recommended that it be maintained, but found that the law had failed with regard to the intended consequence of increasing the safety of circumcisions. but this was later abandoned in favour of a non-binding recommendation. aiming at ceasing all non-medically justified circumcision without prior consent: Swedish Medical Association}} In October 2018, the right-wing populist Sweden Democrats party submitted a draft motion to parliament calling for a ban. At the annual conference of the Centre Party in September 2019, 314 to 166 commissioners voted in favor of prohibiting boys' circumcision. Several Jewish and Islamic organisations voiced their opposition to a potential ban. The Left Party has also expressed support for a prohibition on circumcising boys before the age of 18; other parties have so far not backed a potential ban, though the Green Party found the practice "problematic". ;In favour of a ban * Sweden Democrats United Kingdom Male circumcision has traditionally been presumed to be legal under British law, however some authors have argued that there is no solid foundation for this view in English law. While legal, the British Medical Association finds it ethically unacceptable to circumcise a child or young person, either with or without competence, who refuses the procedure, irrespective of the parents' wishes, and that parental preference alone does not constitute sufficient grounds for performing NTMC on a child unable to express his own view: British Medical Association}} The passage of the Human Rights Act 1998 has led to some speculation that the lawfulness of the circumcision of male children is unclear. One 1999 case, ''Re "J" (child's religious upbringing and circumcision)'' said that circumcision in Britain required the consent of all those with parental responsibility (however this comment was not part of the reason for the judgement and therefore is not legally binding), or the permission of the court, acting for the best interests of the child, and issued an order prohibiting the circumcision of a male child of a non-practicing Muslim father and non-practicing Christian mother with custody. The reasoning included evidence that circumcision carried some medical risk; that the operation would be likely to weaken the relationship of the child with his mother, who strongly objected to circumcision without medical necessity; that the child may be subject to ridicule by his peers as the odd one out and that the operation might irreversibly reduce sexual pleasure, by permanently removing some sensory nerves, even though cosmetic foreskin restoration might be possible. The court did not rule out circumcision against the consent of one parent. It cited a hypothetical case of a Jewish mother and an agnostic father with a number of sons, all of whom, by agreement, had been circumcised as infants in accordance with Jewish laws; the parents then have another son who is born after they have separated; the mother wishes him to be circumcised like his brothers; the father for no good reason, refuses his agreement. In such a case, a decision in favor of circumcision was said to be likely. In 2001 the General Medical Council had found a doctor who had botched circumcision operations guilty of abusing his professional position and that he had acted "inappropriately and irresponsibly", and struck him off the register. A doctor who had referred patients to him, and who had pressured a mother into agreeing to the surgery, was also condemned. In 2009 it was reported that a 20-year-old man whose father had him ritually circumcised as a baby is preparing to sue the doctor who circumcised him. This is believed to be the first time a person who was circumcised as an infant has made a claim in the UK. The case is expected to be heard in 2010. In a 2015 case regarding female circumcision, a judge concluded that non-therapeutic circumcision of male children is a "significant harm". In 2016, the Family Court in Exeter ruled that a Muslim father could not have his two sons (aged 6 and 4) circumcised after their mother disagreed. Mrs Justice Roberts declared that the boys should first grow old enough "to the point where each of the boys themselves will make their individual choices once they have the maturity and insight to appreciate the consequences and longer-term effects of the decisions which they reach". Nottingham case In June 2017, Nottinghamshire Police arrested three people on suspicion of "conspiracy to commit grievous bodily harm". The mother first contacted social services and eventually the police in November 2014. The police initially dismissed the complaint, but after the mother got help from the anti-circumcision group Men Do Complain and leading human rights lawyer Saimo Chahal QC, they reopened the case, and ended up arresting three suspects involved. In November 2017, the Crown Prosecution Service explained to the mother in a letter they were not going to prosecute the doctor, who claimed he was unaware of the mother's non-consent. However, Chahal appealed this decision, which she said "lacks any semblance of a considered and reasoned decision and is flawed and irrational", and threatened to bring the case to court. The by then 29-year-old mother finally sued the doctor in April 2018. United States Circumcision of adults who grant personal informed consent for the surgical operation is legal. In the United States, non-therapeutic circumcision of male children has long been assumed to be lawful in every jurisdiction provided that one parent grants surrogate informed consent. Adler (2013) has recently challenged the validity of this assumption. As with every country, doctors who circumcise children must take care that all applicable rules regarding informed consent and safety are satisfied. While anti-circumcision groups have occasionally proposed legislation banning non-therapeutic child circumcision, it has not been supported in any legislature. After a failed attempt to adopt a local ordinance banning circumcision on a San Francisco ballot, the state of California enacted in October 2011 a law protecting circumcision from local attempts to ban the practice. In 2012, New York City required those performing ''metzitzah b'peh'', the oral suction of the open circumcision wound required by Hasidim, to obey stringent consent requirements, including documentation. Agudath Israel of America and other Jewish groups have planned to sue the city in response. Disputes between parents Occasionally the courts are asked to make a ruling when parents cannot agree on whether or not to circumcise a child. In January 2001 a dispute between divorcing parents in New Jersey was resolved when the mother, who sought to have the boy circumcised withdrew her request. The boy had experienced two instances of foreskin inflammation and she wanted to have him circumcised. The father, who had experienced a traumatic circumcision as a child, objected and they turned to the courts for a decision. The Medical Society of New Jersey and the Urological Society of New Jersey both opposed any court ordered medical treatment. As the parties came to an agreement, no precedent was set. In June 2001 a Nevada court settled a dispute over circumcision between two parents but put a strict gag order on the terms of the settlement. In July 2001 a dispute between parents in Kansas over circumcision was resolved when the mother's request to have the infant circumcised was withdrawn. In this case the father opposed circumcision while the mother asserted that not circumcising the child was against her religious beliefs. (The woman's pastor had stated that circumcision was "important" but was not necessary for salvation.) On 24 July 2001 the parents reached agreement that the infant would not be circumcised. On 14 July 2004 a mother appealed to the Missouri Supreme Court to prevent the circumcision of her son after a county court and the Court of Appeals had denied her a writ of prohibition. However, in early August 2004, before the Supreme Court had given its ruling, the father, who had custody of the boy, had him circumcised. In October 2006 a judge in Chicago granted an injunction blocking the circumcision of a 9-year-old boy. In granting the injunction the judge stated that "the boy could decide for himself whether to be circumcised when he turns 18." On 25 January 2008, the Court returned the case to the trial court with instructions to determine whether the child agrees or objects to the proposed circumcision. The father appealed to the US Supreme Court to allow him to have his son circumcised but his appeal was rejected. The case then returned to the trial court. When the trial court interviewed the couple's son, now 14 years old, the boy stated that he did not want to be circumcised. This also provided the necessary circumstances to allow the boy to change residence to live with his mother. The boy was not circumcised. Other disputes In September 2004 the North Dakota Supreme Court rejected a mother's attempt to prosecute her doctor for circumcising her child without fully informing her of the consequences of the procedure. The judge and jury found that the plaintiffs were adequately informed of possible complications, and the jury further found that it is not incumbent on the doctors to describe every "insignificant" risk. In March 2009 a Fulton County, GA, State Court jury awarded $2.3 million in damages to a 4-year-old boy and his mother for a botched circumcision in which too much tissue was removed causing permanent disfigurement. In August 2010 an eight-day-old boy was circumcised in a Florida hospital against the stated wishes of the parents. The hospital admitted that the boy was circumcised by mistake; the mother has sued the hospital and the doctor involved in the case. See also * Khitan * Children's rights * Ethics of circumcision * Forced circumcision * Female genital mutilation * Sexual consent in law Sources * ReferencesExternal links * William E. Brigman. [http://www.cirp.org/library/legal/brigman/ Circumcision as Child Abuse: The Legal and Constitutional Issues.] 23 J Fam Law 337 (1985). * Rich Winkel. [http://www.math.missouri.edu/~rich/MGM/primer.html Male Circumcision in the USA: A Human Rights Primer] * Ross Povenmire. [http://www.cirp.org/library/legal/povenmire/ Do Parents Have the Legal Authority to Consent to the Surgical Amputation of Normal, Healthy Tissue From Their Infant Children?: The Practice of Circumcision in the United States.] 7 Journal of Gender, Social Policy & the Law 87 (1998–1999). * Gregory J Boyle, J. Steven Svoboda, Christopher P Price, J Neville Turner. [http://www.cirp.org/library/legal/boyle1/ Circumcision of Healthy Boys: Criminal Assault?] 7 Journal of Law and Medicine 301 (2000). The authors are leading anti-circumcision campaigners. * Peter W. Adler. [https://scholarship.richmond.edu/jolpi/vol16/iss3/3/ Is Circumcision Legal?] 16(3) Richmond J. L. & Pub. Int. 439 (2013). * Amicus curiae briefs filed in Oregon circumcision case: [https://web.archive.org/web/20080227114043/http://www.doctorsopposingcircumcision.org/pdf/2007-04BoldtReview.pdf Amicus Brief without attachments (Doctors Opposing Circumcision)] [https://web.archive.org/web/20080227114042/http://www.doctorsopposingcircumcision.org/pdf/2007-07BoldtMerits.pdf Amicus Brief on the Merits (Doctors Opposing Circumcision)] ** [https://web.archive.org/web/20080227114042/http://www.ouradio.org/images/uploads/Oregon_Circumcision.pdf Amicus Brief on the Merits (American Jewish Congress, American Jewish Committee, Anti-Defamation League, and Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America)] Category:Circumcision debate Category:Tort law Category:Health law	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumcision_and_law	2025-04-05T18:28:09.216307
7449	Called to Common Mission	Called to Common Mission (CCM) is an agreement between The Episcopal Church (ECUSA) and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) in the United States, establishing full communion between them. It was ratified by the ELCA in 1999, the ECUSA in 2000, after the narrow failure of a previous agreement. Its principal author on the Episcopal side was theological professor J. Robert Wright. Under the agreement, they recognize the validity of each other's baptisms and ordinations. The agreement provided that the ELCA would accept the historical episcopate and the "threefold ministry" of bishop - priest (or pastor) - deacon with respect to ministers of communicant churches serving ELCA congregations; the installation of the ELCA presiding bishop was performed through the laying on of hands by Lutheran bishops in the historic episcopate. This provision was opposed by some in the ELCA, which after its founding merger in 1988, held a lengthy study of the ministry which was undertaken with divided opinions. In response to concerns about the meaning of the CCM, synod bishops in the ELCA drafted the Tucson resolution which presented the official ELCA position. It made clear that there is no requirement to ordain deacons or accept their ministry. It also provided assurance that the ELCA did not and was not required by CCM to change its own theological stance. Lutheran churches of Scandinavian origin, such as the Church of Sweden and Church in Kenya, affirm apostolic succession and are in the historical episcopate; nevertheless, some within the ELCA argued that the historical episcopate would contradict the doctrine that the church exists wherever the Word of God is preached and sacraments are practiced. The traditional ELCA doctrine is affirmed by the Tucson resolution. Others objected on the grounds that adopting the Episcopalian / Anglican view on priestly orders and hierarchical structure was contrary to the Evangelical Lutheran concept of the "priesthood of all believers", which holds that all Christians stand on equal footing before God. They argued that the Old Covenant required a priest to mediate between God and humanity, but that New Covenant explicitly abolishes the need for priestly role by making every Christian a priest with direct access to God's grace. The Tucson resolution explained that the ELCA had not adopted the Episcopal view, but ECUSA or Reformed ordinands accepted by ELCA congregations would follow ELCA practice. Still others objected because of the implied directive that the use of a lay presidency would be abolished. This was a particular issue for rural congregations that periodically "called" a congregation member to conduct communion services consecrating the elements (of bread and wine for service) in the interim period or with the absence of ordained clergy (pastor). The Tucson resolution explicitly affirmed the continued use of lay ministry. See also Churches Beyond Borders Lutheran Congregations in Mission for Christ Porvoo Communion Waterloo Declaration References External links Text of the agreement Lutheran-Episcopal Coordinating Committee Category:Protestant ecumenism Category:Episcopal Church (United States) Category:Evangelical Lutheran Church in America Category:20th-century Lutheranism Category:Anglican ecumenism Category:1999 in Christianity Category:Religious proclamations	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Called_to_Common_Mission	2025-04-05T18:28:09.219963
7450	Context menu	thumb\|300px\|A context menu from LibreOffice Writer, appearing when the user right-clicks on a page element thumb\|300px\|A context menu from Ubuntu desktop A context menu (also called contextual, shortcut, and pop up or pop-up menu) is a menu in a graphical user interface (GUI) that appears upon user interaction, such as a right-click mouse operation. A context menu offers a limited set of choices that are available in the current state, or context, of the operating system or application to which the menu belongs. Usually the available choices are actions related to the selected object. From a technical point of view, such a context menu is a graphical control element. History Context menus first appeared in the Smalltalk environment on the Xerox Alto computer, where they were called pop-up menus; they were invented by Dan Ingalls in the mid-1970s. Microsoft Office v3.0 introduced the context menu for copy and paste functionality in 1990. Borland demonstrated extensive use of the context menu in 1991 at the Second Paradox Conference in Phoenix Arizona. Lotus 1-2-3/G for OS/2 v1.0 added additional formatting options in 1991. Borland Quattro Pro for Windows v1.0 introduced the Properties context menu option in 1992. Implementation Context menus are opened via various forms of user interaction that target a region of the GUI that supports context menus. The specific form of user interaction and the means by which a region is targeted vary: On a computer running Microsoft Windows, macOS, or Unix running the X Window System, clicking the secondary mouse button (usually the right button) opens a context menu for the region that is under the mouse pointer. For quickness, implementations may additionally support hold-and-release selection, meaning the pointer is held down and dragged, and released at desirable menu entry. On systems that support one-button mice, context menus are typically opened by pressing and holding the primary mouse button (this works on the icons in the Dock on macOS) or by pressing a keyboard/mouse button combination (e.g. Ctrl-mouse click in Classic Mac OS and macOS). A keyboard alternative for macOS is to enable Mouse keys in Universal Access. Then, depending on whether a laptop or compact or extended keyboard type is used, the shortcut is ++5 or +5 (numeric keypad) or ++i (laptop). On systems with a multi-touch interface such as MacBook or Surface, the context menu can be opened by pressing or tapping with two fingers instead of just one. Some cameras on smartphones for example recognize a QR code when a picture is taken. Then a pop-up appears if you want to 'open' the QR content. This could be anything like a website or to configure your phone to connect to Wi-Fi. See image. On some user interfaces, context menu items are accompanied by icons for quicker recognition upon navigation. Context menus can also have a top row of icons only for quick access to most frequently used options. Windows mouse click behavior is such that the context menu doesn't open while the mouse button is pressed, but only opens the menu when the button is released, so the user has to click again to select a context menu item. This behavior differs from that of macOS and most free software GUIs. In Microsoft Windows, pressing the Application key or Shift+F10 opens a context menu for the region that has focus. Context menus are sometimes hierarchically organized, allowing navigation through different levels of the menu structure. The implementations differ: Microsoft Word was one of the first applications to only show sub-entries of some menu entries after clicking an arrow icon on the context menu, otherwise executing an action associated with the parent entry. This makes it possible to quickly repeat an action with the parameters of the previous execution, and to better separate options from actions. X Window Managers The following window managers provide context menu functionality: Awesome IceWM—middle-click and right-click context menus on desktop, menu bar, title bars, and title icon olwm openbox sawfish Usability Context menus have received some criticism from usability analysts when improperly used, as some applications make certain features only available in context menus, which may confuse even experienced users (especially when the context menus can only be activated in a limited area of the application's client window). Context menus usually open in a fixed position under the pointer, but when the pointer is near a screen edge the menu will be displaced - thus reducing consistency and impeding use of muscle memory. If the context menu is being triggered by keyboard, such as by using Shift + F10, the context menu appears near the focused widget instead of the position of the pointer, to save recognition efforts. In documentation Microsoft's guidelines call for always using the term context menu, and explicitly deprecate shortcut menu. See also Menu key Pie menu Screen hotspot References External links Category:Graphical control elements Category:Graphical user interface elements Category:Macintosh operating systems user interface Category:Windows administration	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Context_menu	2025-04-05T18:28:09.224008
7451	Jews as the chosen people	In Judaism, the concept of the Jews as chosen people ( hāʿām hanīvḥar) is the belief that the Jews as a people, via descent from the ancient Israelites, are a chosen people, i.e. selected to be in a covenant with God. Israelites being properly the chosen people of God is found directly in the Book of Deuteronomy 7:6 as the verb baḥar (בָּחַר), and is alluded to elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible using other terms such as "holy people" as goy or gentile, Book of Exodus 19:6. Much is written about these topics in rabbinic literature. The three largest Jewish denominations—Orthodox Judaism, Conservative Judaism and Reform Judaism—maintain the belief that the Jews have been chosen by God for a purpose. Sometimes this choice is seen by believers as charging the Jewish people with a specific mission—to be a light unto the nations, and to exemplify the covenant with God as described in the Torah. Isaiah and Jeremiah viewed God's loving choice of Israel as a means to teaching monotheism, combatting idolatry, curbing human arrogance, ending violence, lust, greed, extreme chauvinism and warfare, and ushering in a new society. While the concept of "chosenness" may be understood by some to connote ethnic supremacy, the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) also identifies prophets outside the community of Israel and the prophet Jonah is explicitly told to go prophesize to the non-Jewish people of Nineveh. Jewish tradition is clear that there were interactions of non-Jewish prophets with God which are not recounted in the Torah. Based on these statements and stories, some rabbis theorized that, in the words of Natan'el al-Fayyumi, a Yemenite Jewish theologian of the 12th century, "God permitted to some people that which he forbade to others ... [and] God sends a prophet to every people according to their own language." (Levine, 1907/1966) The Mishnah states that "Humanity was produced from one man, Adam, to show God's greatness. When a man mints a coin in a press, each coin is identical. But when the King of Kings, the Holy One, blessed be He, creates people in the form of Adam not one is similar to any other" (Mishnah Sanhedrin 4:5). Etymological background The term "chosen people" is free translated from the biblical terms ʿam segullah (“treasure people”) and ʿam nahallah (“heritage people”). Deuteronomy 7:5-7:6, "But thus shall ye deal with them; ye shall destroy their altars, and break down their images, and cut down their groves, and burn their graven images with fire. For thou art a holy people unto the LORD thy God: the LORD thy God hath chosen thee to be His own treasure, out of all peoples that are upon the face of the earth." A similar passage speaking of Israel as the chosen people follows prohibitions on baldness and cutting yourself in mourning, "For thou art a holy people". thumb\|Prophet Amos as depicted by Gustave Doré The Torah also says, "Now therefore, if you will obey my voice indeed, and keep my covenant, then you shall be a peculiar treasure unto me from all the peoples, for all the earth is mine." God promises that he will never exchange his people with any other: "And I will establish My covenant between Me and you and your descendants after you in their generations, for an everlasting covenant, to be God to you and your descendants after you." Other Torah verses about chosenness, "And you shall be unto me a kingdom of priests, and a holy nation" "The Lord did not set his love upon you, nor choose you, because you were more in number than any people; for you were the fewest of all people; but because the Lord loved you, and because he would keep the oath which he had sworn unto your ancestors." The obligation imposed upon the Israelites was emphasized by the prophet Amos: "You only have I singled out of all the families of the earth: therefore will I visit upon you all your iniquities." Rabbinic views Most Jewish texts do not state that "God chose the Jews" by itself. Rather, this is usually linked with a mission or purpose, such as proclaiming God's message among all the nations, even though Jews cannot become "unchosen" if they shirk their mission. This implies a special duty, which evolves from the belief that Jews have been pledged by the covenant which God concluded with the biblical patriarch Abraham, their ancestor, and again with the entire Jewish nation at Mount Sinai. In this view, Jews are charged with living a holy life as God's priest-people. In the Jewish prayerbook (the Siddur), chosenness is referred to in a number of ways. The blessing for reading the Torah reads, "Praised are You, Lord our God, King of the Universe, Who has chosen us out of all the nations and bestowed upon us His Torah." In the "Kiddush", a prayer of sanctification, in which the Sabbath is inaugurated over a cup of wine, the text reads, "For you have chosen us and sanctified us out of all the nations, and have given us the Sabbath as an inheritance in love and favour. Praised are you, Lord, who hallows the Sabbath." In the "Kiddush" recited on festivals it reads, "Blessed are You ... who have chosen us from among all nations, raised us above all tongues, and made us holy through His commandments." The Aleinu prayer refers to the concept of Jews as a chosen people: "It is our duty to praise the Master of all, to exalt the Creator of the Universe, who has not made us like the nations of the world and has not placed us like the families of the earth; who has not designed our destiny to be like theirs, nor our lot like that of all their multitude. We bend the knee and bow and acknowledge before the Supreme King of Kings, the Holy One, blessed be he, that it is he who stretched forth the heavens and founded the earth. His seat of glory is in the heavens above; his abode of majesty is in the lofty heights. Sometimes this choice is seen as charging the Jewish people with a specific mission—to be a light unto the nations, and to exemplify the covenant with God as described in the Torah. This view, however, does not always preclude a belief that God has a relationship with other peoples—rather, Judaism held that God had entered into a covenant with all humankind, and that Jews and non-Jews alike have a relationship with God. Biblical references as well as rabbinic literature support this view: Moses refers to the "God of the spirits of all flesh", also identifies prophets outside the community of Israel. Based on these statements, some rabbis theorized that, in the words of Natan'el al-Fayyumi, a Yemenite Jewish theologian of the 12th century, "God permitted to every people something he forbade to others...[and] God sends a prophet to every people according to their own language." The Mishnah states that "Humanity was produced from one man, Adam, to show God's greatness. When a man mints a coin in a press, each coin is identical. But when the King of Kings, the Holy One, blessed be He, creates people in the form of Adam not one is similar to any other." The Tosefta, a collection of important post-Talmudic discourses, also states: "Righteous people of all nations have a share in the world to come." Further interpretations The following section contains information from the Jewish Encyclopedia, originally published between 1901–1906, which is in the public domain. According to the Rabbis, "Israel is of all nations the most willful or headstrong one, and the Torah was to give it the right scope and power of resistance, or else the world could not have withstood its fierceness." "The Lord offered the Law to all nations; but all refused to accept it except Israel." How do we understand "A Gentile who consecrates his life to the study and observance of the Law ranks as high as the high priest", says R. Meïr, by deduction from Lev. xviii. 5; II Sam. vii. 19; Isa. xxvi. 2; Ps. xxxiii. 1, cxviii. 20, cxxv. 4, where all stress is laid not on Israel, but on man or the righteous one. thumb\|Monument to Maimonides in Córdoba, Spain Maimonides states: It is now abundantly clear that the pledges Hashem made to Avraham and his descendants would be fulfilled exclusively first in Yitzchak and then in Yaakov, Yitzchak son. This is confirmed by a passage that states, "He is ever mindful of His covenant ... that He made with Avraham, swore to Yitzchak, and confirmed in a decree for Yaakov, for Yisrael, as an eternal covenant." The Gemara states this regarding a non-Jew who studies Torah [his 7 mitzvot] and regarding this, see Shita Mekubetzes, Bava Kama 38a who says that this is an exaggeration. In any case, this statement was not extolling the non-Jew. The Rishonim explain that it is extolling the Torah. Tosfos explains that it uses the example of a kohen gadol (high priest), because this statement is based on the verse, "y'kara hi mipnimim" (it is more precious than pearls). This is explained elsewhere in the Gemara to mean that the Torah is more precious pnimim (translated here as "inside" instead of as "pearls"; thus that the Torah is introspectively absorbed into the person), which refers to lifnai v'lifnim (translated as "the most inner of places"), that is the Holy of Holies where the kahon gadol went. In any case, in Midrash Rabba this statement is made with an important addition: a non-Jew who converts and studies Torah etc. The Nation of Israel is likened to the olive. Just as this fruit yields its precious oil only after being much pressed and squeezed, so Israel's destiny is one of great oppression and hardship, in order that it may thereby give forth its illuminating wisdom. Poverty is the quality most befitting Israel as the chosen people. Only on account of its good works is Israel among the nations "as the lily among thorns", or "as wheat among the chaff." Modern Orthodox views Rabbi Lord Immanuel Jakobovits, former Chief Rabbi of the United Synagogue of Great Britain (Modern Orthodox Judaism), described chosenness in this way: "Yes, I do believe that the chosen people concept as affirmed by Judaism in its holy writ, its prayers, and its millennial tradition. In fact, I believe that every people—and indeed, in a more limited way, every individual—is "chosen" or destined for some distinct purpose in advancing the designs of Providence. Only, some fulfill their mission and others do not. Maybe the Greeks were chosen for their unique contributions to art and philosophy, the Romans for their pioneering services in law and government, the British for bringing parliamentary rule into the world, and the Americans for piloting democracy in a pluralistic society. The Jews were chosen by God to be 'peculiar unto Me' as the pioneers of religion and morality; that was and is their national purpose." Modern Orthodox theologian Michael Wyschogrod wrote: "[T]he initial election of Abraham himself was not earned. ... We are simply told that God commanded Abraham to leave his place of birth and go to a land that God would show him. He is also promised that his descendants will become a numerous people. But nowhere does the Bible tell us why Abraham rather than someone else was chosen. The implication is that God chooses whom He wishes and that He owes no accounting to anyone for His choices." Rabbi Norman Lamm, a leader of Modern Orthodox Judaism, wrote: "The chosenness of Israel relates exclusively to its spiritual vocation embodied in the Torah; the doctrine, indeed, was announced at Sinai. Whenever it is mentioned in our liturgy—such as the blessing immediately preceding the Shema....it is always related to Torah or Mitzvot (commandments). This spiritual vocation consists of two complementary functions, described as "Goy Kadosh", that of a holy nation, and "Mamlekhet Kohanim", that of a kingdom of priests. The first term denotes the development of communal separateness or differences in order to achieve a collective self-transcendence. ... The second term implies the obligation of this brotherhood of the spiritual elite toward the rest of mankind; priesthood is defined by the prophets as fundamentally a teaching vocation." Conservative views thumb\|The Jewish Theological Seminary of America, the main rabbinical seminary of Conservative Judaism Conservative Judaism views the concept of chosenness in this way: "Few beliefs have been subject to as much misunderstanding as the 'Chosen People' doctrine. The Torah and the Prophets clearly stated that this does not imply any innate Jewish superiority. In the words of Amos (3:2) 'You alone have I singled out of all the families of the earth—that is why I will call you to account for your iniquities.' The Torah tells us that we are to be "a kingdom of priests and a holy nation" with obligations and duties which flowed from our willingness to accept this status. Far from being a license for special privilege, it entailed additional responsibilities not only toward God but to our fellow human beings. As expressed in the blessing at the reading of the Torah, our people have always felt it to be a privilege to be selected for such a purpose. For the modern traditional Jew, the doctrine of the election and the covenant of Israel offers a purpose for Jewish existence which transcends its own self interests. It suggests that because of our special history and unique heritage we are in a position to demonstrate that a people that takes seriously the idea of being covenanted with God can not only thrive in the face of oppression, but can be a source of blessing to its children and its neighbors. It obligates us to build a just and compassionate society throughout the world and especially in the land of Israel where we may teach by example what it means to be a 'covenant people, a light unto the nations.'" Rabbi Reuven Hammer comments on the excised sentence in the Aleinu prayer mentioned above: "Originally the text read that God has not made us like the nations who "bow down to nothingness and vanity, and pray to an impotent god", ... In the Middle Ages these words were censored, since the church believed they were an insult to Christianity. Omitting them tends to give the impression that the Aleinu teaches that we are both different and better than others. The actual intent is to say that we are thankful that God has enlightened us so that, unlike the pagans, we worship the true God and not idols. There is no inherent superiority in being Jewish, but we do assert the superiority of monotheistic belief over paganism. Although paganism still exists today, we are no longer the only ones to have a belief in one God." Reform views Reform Judaism views the concept of chosenness as follows: "Throughout the ages it has been Israel's mission to witness to the Divine in the face of every form of paganism and materialism. We regard it as our historic task to cooperate with all men in the establishment of the kingdom of God, of universal brotherhood, Justice, truth and peace on earth. This is our Messianic goal." In 1999 the Reform movement stated, "We affirm that the Jewish people are bound to God by an eternal covenant, as reflected in our varied understandings of Creation, Revelation and Redemption. ... We are Israel, a people aspiring to holiness, singled out through our ancient covenant and our unique history among the nations to be witnesses to God's presence. We are linked by that covenant and that history to all Jews in every age and place." Alternative views Equality of souls thumb\|alt=Chest high portrait of Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson wearing a black hat\|Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson, the "Lubavitcher Rebbe" Many Kabbalistic sources, notably the Tanya, contain statements to the effect that the Jewish soul is qualitatively different from the non-Jewish soul. A number of known Chabad rabbis offered alternative readings of the Tanya, did not take this teaching literally, and even managed to reconcile it with the leftist ideas of internationalism and class struggle. The original text of the Tanya refers to the "idol worshippers" and does not mention the "nations of the world" at all, although such interpretation was endorsed by Menachem Mendel Schneerson and is popular in contemporary Chabad circles. Hillel Paricher, an early Tanya commentator, wrote that the souls of righteous Gentiles are more similar to the Jewish souls, and are generally good and not egoistic. This teaching was accepted by Schneerson and is considered normative in Chabad. Different in character but not different in value According to the author of the Tanya himself, a righteous non-Jew can achieve a high level of spirituality, similar to an angel, although his soul is still fundamentally different in character, but not value, from a Jewish one. Tzemach Tzedek, the third rebbe of Chabad, wrote that the Muslims are naturally good-hearted people. Rabbi Yosef Jacobson, a popular contemporary Chabad lecturer, teaches that in today's world most non-Jews belong to the category of righteous Gentiles, effectively rendering the Tanya's attitude anachronistic. Altruism An anti-Zionist interpretation of Tanya was offered by Abraham Yehudah Khein, a prominent Ukrainian Chabad rabbi, who supported anarchist communism and considered Peter Kropotkin a great Tzaddik. Khein basically read the Tanya backwards; since the souls of idol worshipers are known to be evil, according to the Tanya, while the Jewish souls are known to be good, he concluded that truly altruistic people are really Jewish, in a spiritual sense, while Jewish nationalists and class oppressors are not. By this logic, he claimed that Vladimir Solovyov and Rabindranath Tagore probably have Jewish souls, while Leon Trotsky and other totalitarians do not, and many Zionists, whom he compared to apes, are merely "Jewish by birth certificate". Righteous non-Jews Nachman of Breslov also believed that Jewishness is a level of consciousness, and not an intrinsic inborn quality. He wrote that, according to the Book of Malachi, one can find "potential Jews" among all nations, whose souls are illuminated by the leap of "holy faith", which "activated" the Jewishness in their souls. These people would otherwise convert to Judaism, but prefer not to do so. Instead, they recognize the Divine unity within their pagan religions. Isaac Arama, an influential philosopher and mystic of the 15th century, believed that righteous non-Jews are spiritually identical to the righteous Jews. Rabbi Menachem Meiri, a famous Catalan Talmudic commentator and Maimonidian philosopher, considered all people, who sincerely profess an ethical religion, to be part of a greater "spiritual Israel". He explicitly included Christians and Muslims in this category. Meiri rejected all Talmudic laws that discriminate between the Jews and non-Jews, claiming that they only apply to the ancient idolators, who had no sense of morality. The only exceptions are a few laws related directly or indirectly to intermarriage, which Meiri did recognize. Meiri applied his idea of "spiritual Israel" to the Talmudic statements about unique qualities of the Jewish people. For example, he believed that the famous saying that Israel is above astrological predestination (Ein Mazal le-Israel) also applied to the followers of other ethical faiths. He also considered countries, inhabited by decent moral non-Jews, such as Languedoc, as a spiritual part of the Holy Land. Spinoza thumb\|Tractatus Theologico-Politicus One Jewish critic of chosenness was the philosopher Baruch Spinoza. In the third chapter of his Theologico-Political Treatise, Spinoza mounts an argument against a naive interpretation of God's choice of the Jews. Bringing evidence from the Bible itself, he argues that God's choice of Israel was not unique (he had chosen other nations before choosing the Hebrew nation) and that the choice of the Jews is neither inclusive (it does not include all of the Jews, but only the 'pious' ones) nor exclusive (it also includes 'true gentile prophets'). Finally, he argues that God's choice is not unconditional. Recalling the numerous times God threatened the complete destruction of the Hebrew nation, he asserts that this choice is neither absolute, nor eternal, nor necessary. Einstein In a German-language letter to philosopher Eric Gutkind, dated 3 January 1954, the physicist Albert Einstein wrote: The word God is for me nothing more than the expression and product of human weaknesses, the Bible a collection of honorable, but still primitive legends which are nevertheless pretty childish. No interpretation no matter how subtle can (for me) change this.... For me the Jewish religion like all other religions is an incarnation of the most childish superstitions. And the Jewish people to whom I gladly belong and with whose mentality I have a deep affinity have no different quality for me than all other people.... I cannot see anything “chosen” about them. Reconstructionist criticism Reconstructionist Judaism rejects the concept of chosenness. Its founder, Rabbi Mordecai Kaplan, said that the idea that God chose the Jewish people leads to racist beliefs among Jews, thus, it must be excised from Jewish theology. This rejection of chosenness is made explicit in the movement's siddurim (prayer books). For example, the original blessing recited before reading from the Torah contains the phrase, "asher bahar banu mikol ha’amim"—"Praised are you Lord our God, ruler of the Universe, who has chosen us from among all peoples by giving us the Torah." The Reconstructionist version is rewritten as "asher kervanu la’avodato", "Praised are you Lord our God, ruler of the Universe, who has drawn us to your service by giving us the Torah." In the mid-1980s, the Reconstructionist movement issued its Platform on Reconstructionism. It states that the idea of chosenness is "morally untenable", because anyone who has such beliefs "implies the superiority of the elect community and the rejection of others." Not all Reconstructionists accept this view. The newest siddur of the movement, Kol Haneshamah, includes the traditional blessings as an option, and some modern Reconstructionist writers have opined that the traditional formulation should be embraced because it is not racist. An original prayer book by the Reconstructionist feminist poet Marcia Falk, The Book of Blessings, has been accepted by many Reform and Reconstructionist Jews. Falk rejects all concepts which are related to hierarchy or distinction; she sees any distinction as leading to the acceptance of other kinds of distinctions, thus leading to prejudice. She writes that as a politically liberal feminist, she must reject distinctions made between men and women, homosexuals and heterosexuals, Jews and non-Jews, and to some extent even distinctions between the Sabbath and the other six days of the week. She thus rejects the idea of chosenness as unethical. She also rejects Jewish theology in general, and instead holds to a form of religious humanism. Falk writes: "The idea of Israel as God's chosen people ... is a key concept in rabbinic Judaism. Yet it is particularly problematic for many Jews today, in that it seems to fly in the face of monotheistic belief that all humanity is created in the divine image—and hence, all humanity is equally loved and valued by God. ... I find it difficult to conceive of a feminist Judaism that would incorporate it in its teaching: the valuing of one people over and above others is all too analogous to the privileging of one sex over another." Reconstructionist author Judith Plaskow also criticises the idea of chosenness, for many of the same reasons as Falk. A politically liberal lesbian, Plaskow rejects most distinctions made between men and women, homosexuals and heterosexuals, and Jews and non-Jews. In contrast to Falk, Plaskow does not reject all concepts of difference as inherently leading to unethical beliefs, and holds to a more classical form of Jewish theism than Falk. A number of responses to these views have been made by Reform and Conservative Jews; they hold the view that these criticisms are against teachings that do not exist within liberal forms of Judaism, and such teachings are rare in Orthodox Judaism (outside certain Haredi communities, such as Chabad). A separate criticism stems from the very existence of feminist forms of Judaism in all denominations of Judaism, which do not have a problem with the concept of chosenness. Views of other religions Islam The children of Israel enjoy a special status in the Islamic holy book, the Quran (2:47 and 2:122). However, Muslim scholars point out that this status did not confer upon Israelites any racial superiority, and was only valid so long as the Israelites maintain their covenant with God. Christianity thumb\|Artist's depiction of Saint Paul Writing His Epistles, 16th century (Blaffer Foundation Collection, Houston, Texas). Paul was the first major figure in Christian history to hold the view that Jewish law is no longer valid. Some Christians believe that the Jews were God's chosen people, but because of Jewish rejection of Jesus, the Christians in turn received that special status. This doctrine is known as Supersessionism. Other Christians, such as the Christadelphians, believe that God has not rejected Israel as his chosen people and that the Jews will in fact accept Jesus as their Messiah at his Second Coming, resulting in their salvation. The view that the Jews still retain their status as the chosen people is also associated with Dispensational theology, promoted by John Nelson Darby and Cyrus Scofield. Augustine criticized Jewish chosenness as "carnal." He reasoned that Israel was chosen "according to the flesh." The Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary similarly argues that God made Israel the "holy nation" to exclusively uphold the promises made to their "pious forefathers". They argue that Jewish supremacist views are unsound, with Jews being frequently described as a small people that engaged in "perverse" moral conduct in the Bible. The Catechism of the Catholic Church describes the "People of God" as referring to all people who have faith in Christ and are baptized. They have characteristics "that distinguish it from all other religious, ethnic, political, or cultural groups found in history". Influence on Judaism's relationship with other religions Avi Beker, an Israeli scholar and former Secretary General of the World Jewish Congress, regarded the idea of the chosen people as Judaism's defining concept and "the central unspoken psychological, historical, and theological problem which is at the heart of Jewish-Gentile relations." In his book The Chosen: The History of an Idea, and the Anatomy of an Obsession, Beker expresses the view that the concept of chosenness is the driving force behind Jewish-Gentile relations, explaining both the admiration and, more pointedly, the envy and the hatred which the world has felt towards the Jews in both religious and secular terms. Beker argues that while Christianity has modified its doctrine on the displacement of the Jews, Islam has neither reversed nor reformed its theology concerning the succession of both the Jews and the Christians. According to Beker, this presents a major barrier to conflict resolution in the Arab-Israeli conflict. Ethnocentrism The Israeli philosopher Ze'ev Levy writes that chosenness can be "(partially) justified only from the historical angle" with respect to its spiritual and moral contribution to Jewish life through the centuries as "a powerful agent of consolation and hope". He points out, however, that modern anthropological theories "do not merely proclaim the inherent universal equality of all people [as] human beings; they also stress the equivalence [emphasis in original] of all human cultures." He continues that "there are no inferior and superior people or cultures but only different, other, ones." He concludes that the concept of chosenness entails ethnocentrism, "which does not go hand in hand with otherness, that is, with unconditional respect of otherness". Some people have said that Judaism's chosen people concept is racist because it implies that Jews are superior to non-Jews. See also Anti-Judaism Antisemitism Criticism of Judaism Promised Land Religious nationalism Notes References Emet Ve-Emunah: Statement of Principles of Conservative Judaism, JTSA, New York, 1988, p. 33–34 Platform on Reconstructionism Federation of Reconstructionist Congregations and Havurot, September 1986, pages D, E Statement of Principles for Reform Judaism, 1999 Pittsburgh convention of the Central Conference of American Rabbis Encyclopaedia Judaica, Keter Publishing Ismar Elbogen Jewish Liturgy: A Comprehensive History JPS, 1993. The most thorough academic study of the Jewish liturgy ever written. Marcia Falk The Book of Blessings Harper San Francisco, 1996 Reuven Hammer, Ed. Or Hadash: A Commentary on Siddur Sim Shalom for Shabbat and Festivals, The Rabbinical Assembly, 2003 Nosson Scherman, Ed. The Complete Artscroll Siddur, Mesorah Publications, 2nd edition, 1986 Further reading (Part 1. Chosenness) External links The Contemporary Rivalry over the Chosen People: Jewish, Christian, and Muslim Perspectives – Avi Beker at the Institute for Global Jewish Affairs Chosen people at the Jewish Encyclopedia Beliefs of Reform Judaism The Jewish concept of chosenness When God Wanted to Destroy the Chosen People, Dr Gili Kugler The Chosen People FAQs Some are Chosen, All are Loved. Rabbi Gilbert S. Rosenthal The Chosen People: Reclaiming Our Sacred Myth, Mitchell Max How does Jewish Pride differ from Nazi Supremacy?, Rabbi Tzvi Freeman Anti-Defamation League paper on Christian Identity The Covenant, the Sword, and the Arm of the Lord – a Christian Identity movement The Real Truth About The Talmud by Rabbi Gil Student. Exposes fraudulent or distorted Talmud quotes used by antisemites Are the Jews the Chosen People? chabad.org OzTorah – Isn't it arrogant and exclusionist for Jews to regard themselves as the Chosen People? Category:Jewish theology Category:Judaism-related controversies Category:Exceptionalism Category:Racism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jews_as_the_chosen_people	2025-04-05T18:28:09.257841
7453	Christian persecution	Christian persecution may refer to: History of Christian thought on persecution and tolerance Persecution of other groups by Christians Historical persecution by Christians Persecution of Heathens (disambiguation) Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire Christian persecution of paganism under Theodosius I Anti-paganism policy of Constantius II Persecution of Germanic Pagans (disambiguation) Persecution of Ottoman Muslims Persecution of Jews Black Death Jewish persecutions Persecutions of Christians by other Christians Anti-Catholicism Anti-Protestantism Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians Persecution of Christians in Mexico Persecution of Christians by other groups Persecution of Christians Persecution of Christians in the New Testament Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire Decian persecution Persecution in Lyon Diocletianic Persecution List of Christians martyred during the reign of Diocletian Gothic persecution of Christians Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians Persecution of Oriental Orthodox Christians Persecution of Copts Persecution of Christians in the modern era Nazi persecution of the Catholic Church in Germany Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany Persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union Persecution of Christians in the Eastern Bloc Eastern Catholic victims of Soviet persecutions Religious persecution during the Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina Anti-Christian violence in India Genocide of Christians by ISIL Persecution of Christians in the Muslim world See also Persecution of Orthodox Christians (disambiguation) Christian persecution complex, the belief that Christianity is oppressed in the Western world Religious persecution	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_persecution	2025-04-05T18:28:09.260220
7455	Chaparral	thumb\|221x221px\|Chaparral in the Santa Ynez Mountains, near Santa Barbara, California Chaparral ( ) is a shrubland plant community found primarily in California, southern Oregon, and northern Baja California. It is shaped by a Mediterranean climate (mild wet winters and hot dry summers) and infrequent, high-intensity crown fires. Many chaparral shrubs have hard sclerophyllous evergreen leaves, as contrasted with the associated soft-leaved, drought-deciduous, scrub community of coastal sage scrub, found often on drier, southern-facing slopes. Three other closely related chaparral shrubland systems occur in southern Arizona, western Texas, and along the eastern side of central Mexico's mountain chains, all having summer rains in contrast to the Mediterranean climate of other chaparral formations. Etymology The name comes from the Spanish word , which translates to "place of the scrub oak". Scrub oak in turn comes from the Basque word , which has the same meaning. Overview In its natural state, chaparral is characterized by infrequent fires, with natural fire return intervals ranging between 30 years and over 150 years. Mature chaparral (at least 60 years since time of last fire) is characterized by nearly impenetrable, dense thickets (except the more open desert chaparral). These plants are flammable during the late summer and autumn months when conditions are characteristically hot and dry. They grow as woody shrubs with thick, leathery, evergreen and often small leaves. The plants are typically drought resistant, with some exceptions. After the first rains following a fire, the landscape is dominated by small flowering herbaceous plants, known as fire followers, which die back with the summer dry period. Similar plant communities are found in the four other Mediterranean climate regions around the world, including the Mediterranean Basin (where it is known as ), central Chile (where it is called ), the South African Cape Region (known there as ), and in Western and Southern Australia (as ). According to the California Academy of Sciences, Mediterranean shrubland contains more than 20% of the world's plant diversity. Chaparral comprises 9% of California's wildland vegetation and contains 20% of its plant species. Conservation International and other conservation organizations consider chaparral to be a biodiversity hotspot – a biological community with a large number of different species that is threatened by human activity. Chaparral characteristically is found in areas with steep topography and shallow stony soils, while adjacent areas with clay soils, even where steep, tend to be colonized by annual plants and grasses. Some chaparral species are adapted to nutrient-poor soils developed over serpentine and other ultramafic rock, with a high ratio of magnesium and iron to calcium and potassium, that are also generally low in essential nutrients such as nitrogen. California chaparral California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion thumb\|Old-growth chaparral more than a century old thumb\|Coastal sage scrub in San Diego County The California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion, of the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biome, has three sub-ecoregions with ecosystem–plant community subdivisions: California coastal sage and chaparral:In coastal Southern California and northwestern coastal Baja California, as well as all of the Channel Islands off California and Guadalupe Island (Mexico). California montane chaparral and woodlands:In southern and central coast adjacent and inland California regions, including covering some of the mountains of the California Coast Ranges, the Transverse Ranges, and the western slopes of the northern Peninsular Ranges. California interior chaparral and woodlands:In central interior California surrounding the Central Valley, covering the foothills and lower slopes of the northeastern Transverse Ranges and the western Sierra Nevada range. Some indicator plants of the California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion include: Quercus species – oaks: Quercus agrifolia – coast live oak Quercus berberidifolia – scrub oak Quercus chrysolepis – canyon live oak Quercus douglasii – blue oak Quercus wislizeni – interior live oak Artemisia species – sagebrush: Artemisia californica – California sagebrush, coastal sage brush Arctostaphylos species – manzanitas: Arctostaphylos glauca – bigberry manzanita Arctostaphylos manzanita – common manzanita Ceanothus species – California lilacs: Ceanothus cuneatus – buckbrush Ceanothus megacarpus – bigpod ceanothus Rhus species – sumacs: Rhus integrifolia – lemonade berry Rhus ovata – sugar bush Eriogonum species – buckwheats: Eriogonum fasciculatum – California buckwheat Salvia species – sages: Salvia mellifera – Californian black sage California cismontane and transmontane chaparral subdivisions Another phytogeography system uses two California chaparral and woodlands subdivisions: the cismontane chaparral and the transmontane (desert) chaparral. California cismontane chaparral Cismontane chaparral ("this side of the mountain") refers to the chaparral ecosystem in the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biome in California, growing on the western (and coastal) sides of large mountain range systems, such as the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada in the San Joaquin Valley foothills, western slopes of the Peninsular Ranges and California Coast Ranges, and south-southwest slopes of the Transverse Ranges in the Central Coast and Southern California regions. Cismontane chaparral plant species In Central and Southern California chaparral forms a dominant habitat. Members of the chaparral biota native to California, all of which tend to regrow quickly after fires, include: thumb\|An old-growth manzanita, a classic member of the chaparral plant community Adenostoma fasciculatum, chamise Adenostoma sparsifolium, redshanks Arctostaphylos spp., manzanita Ceanothus spp., ceanothus Cercocarpus spp., mountain mahogany Cneoridium dumosum, bush rue Eriogonum fasciculatum, California buckwheat Garrya spp., silk-tassel bush Hesperoyucca whipplei, yucca Heteromeles arbutifolia, toyon Acmispon glaber, deerweed Malosma laurina, laurel sumac Marah macrocarpus, wild cucumber Mimulus aurantiacus, bush monkeyflower Pickeringia montana, chaparral pea Prunus ilicifolia, islay or hollyleaf cherry Quercus berberidifolia, scrub oak Q. dumosa, scrub oak Q. wislizenii var. frutescens Rhamnus californica, California coffeeberry Rhus integrifolia, lemonade berry Rhus ovata, sugar bush Salvia apiana, Californian white sage Salvia mellifera, Californian black sage Xylococcus bicolor, mission manzanita Cismontane chaparral bird species The complex ecology of chaparral habitats supports a very large number of animal species. The following is a short list of birds which are an integral part of the cismontane chaparral ecosystems. thumb\|Wrentit, the most characteristic bird of the chaparral Characteristic chaparral bird species include: Wrentit (Chamaea fasciata) California thrasher (Toxostoma redivivum) California towhee (Melozone crissalis) Spotted towhee (Pipilo maculatus) California scrub jay (Aphelocoma californica) Other common chaparral bird species include: Anna's hummingbird (Calypte anna) Bewick's wren (Thryomanes bewickii) Bushtit (Psaltriparus minimus) Costa's hummingbird (Calypte costae) Greater roadrunner (Geococcyx californianus) California transmontane (desert) chaparral Transmontane chaparral or desert chaparral—transmontane ("the other side of the mountain") chaparral—refers to the desert shrubland habitat and chaparral plant community growing in the rainshadow of these ranges. Transmontane chaparral features xeric desert climate, not Mediterranean climate habitats, and is also referred to as desert chaparral. Desert chaparral is a regional ecosystem subset of the deserts and xeric shrublands biome, with some plant species from the California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion. Unlike cismontane chaparral, which forms dense, impenetrable stands of plants, desert chaparral is often open, with only about 50% of the ground covered. It is distinguished from the cismontane chaparral found on the coastal side of the mountains, which experiences higher winter rainfall. Naturally, desert chaparral experiences less winter rainfall than cismontane chaparral. Plants in this community are characterized by small, hard (sclerophyllic) evergreen (non-deciduous) leaves. Desert chaparral grows above California's desert cactus scrub plant community and below the pinyon–juniper woodland. It is further distinguished from the deciduous sub-alpine scrub above the pinyon–juniper woodlands on the same side of the Peninsular ranges. Due to the lower annual rainfall (resulting in slower plant growth rates) when compared to cismontane chaparral, desert chaparral is more vulnerable to biodiversity loss and the invasion of non-native weeds and grasses if disturbed by human activity and frequent fire. Transmontane chaparral distribution Transmontane (desert) chaparral typically grows on the lower ( elevation) northern slopes of the southern Transverse Ranges (running east to west in San Bernardino and Los Angeles counties) and on the lower () eastern slopes of the Peninsular Ranges (running south to north from lower Baja California to Riverside and Orange counties and the Transverse Ranges). It can also be found in higher-elevation sky islands in the interior of the deserts, such as in the upper New York Mountains within the Mojave National Preserve in the Mojave Desert. The California transmontane (desert) chaparral is found in the rain shadow deserts of the following: Sierra Nevada creating the Great Basin Desert and northern Mojave Desert Transverse Ranges creating the western through eastern Mojave Desert Peninsular Ranges creating the Colorado Desert and Yuha Desert. Canis latrans, coyote Lynx rufus, bobcat Neotoma sp., desert pack rat Odocoileus hemionus, mule deer Peromyscus truei, pinyon mouse Puma concolor, mountain lion Stagmomantis californica, California mantis Fire thumb\|Chamise (Adenostoma fasciculatum) resprouting after a high-intensity chaparral fire thumb\|Wildflower display after the 2007 Witch Creek Fire, San Diego County, California thumb\|Impact of high fire frequency: chaparral/sage scrub type converted to non-native grassland Chaparral is a coastal biome with hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters. The chaparral area receives about of precipitation a year. This makes the chaparral most vulnerable to fire in the late summer and fall. The chaparral ecosystem as a whole is adapted to be able to recover from naturally infrequent, high-intensity fire (fires occurring between 30 and 150 years or more apart); indeed, chaparral regions are known culturally and historically for their impressive fires. (This does create a conflict with human development adjacent to and expanding into chaparral systems.) Additionally, Native Americans burned chaparral near villages on the coastal plain to promote plant species for textiles and food. Before a major fire, typical chaparral plant communities are dominated by manzanita, chamise Adenostoma fasciculatum and Ceanothus species, toyon (which can sometimes be interspersed with scrub oaks), and other drought-resistant shrubs with hard (sclerophyllous) leaves; these plants resprout (see resprouter) from underground burls after a fire. Plants that are long-lived in the seed bank or serotinous with induced germination after fire include chamise, Ceanothus, and fiddleneck. Some chaparral plant communities may grow so dense and tall that it becomes difficult for large animals and humans to penetrate, but may be teeming with smaller fauna in the understory. The seeds of many chaparral plant species are stimulated to germinate by some fire cue (heat or the chemicals from smoke or charred wood). Because of the hot, dry conditions that exist in the California summer and fall, chaparral is one of the most fire-prone plant communities in North America. Some fires are caused by lightning, but these are usually during periods of high humidity and low winds and are easily controlled. Nearly all of the very large wildfires are caused by human activity during periods of hot, dry easterly Santa Ana winds. These human-caused fires are commonly ignited by power line failures, vehicle fires and collisions, sparks from machinery, arson, or campfires. Threatened by high fire frequency Though adapted to infrequent fires, chaparral plant communities can be eliminated by frequent fires. A high frequency of fire (less than 10-15 years apart) will result in the loss of obligate seeding shrub species such as Manzanita spp. This high frequency disallows seeder plants to reach their reproductive size before the next fire and the community shifts to a sprouter-dominance. If high frequency fires continue over time, obligate resprouting shrub species can also be eliminated by exhausting their energy reserves below-ground. Today, frequent accidental ignitions can convert chaparral from a native shrubland to non-native annual grassland and drastically reduce species diversity, especially under drought brought about by climate change. Wildfire debate There are two older hypotheses relating to California chaparral fire regimes that caused considerable debate in the past within the fields of wildfire ecology and land management. Research over the past two decades have rejected these hypotheses: That older stands of chaparral become "senescent" or "decadent", thus implying that fire is necessary for the plants to remain healthy, That wildfire suppression policies have allowed dead chaparral to accumulate unnaturally, creating ample fuel for large fires. The perspective that older chaparral is unhealthy or unproductive may have originated during the 1940s when studies were conducted measuring the amount of forage available to deer populations in chaparral stands. However, according to recent studies, California chaparral is extraordinarily resilient to very long periods without fire and continues to maintain productive growth throughout pre-fire conditions. Seeds of many chaparral plants actually require 30 years or more worth of accumulated leaf litter before they will successfully germinate (e.g., scrub oak, Quercus berberidifolia; toyon, Heteromeles arbutifolia; and holly-leafed cherry, Prunus ilicifolia). When intervals between fires drop below 10 to 15 years, many chaparral species are eliminated and the system is typically replaced by non-native, invasive, weedy grassland. The idea that older chaparral is responsible for causing large fires was originally proposed in the 1980s by comparing wildfires in Baja California and southern California. It was suggested that fire suppression activities in southern California allowed more fuel to accumulate, which in turn led to larger fires. Historically, mixed-severity fires likely burned through these forests every decade or so, However, chaparral has a high-intensity crown-fire regime, meaning that fires consume nearly all the above ground growth whenever they burn, with a historical frequency of 30 to 150 years or more. Large, infrequent, high-intensity wildfires are part of the natural fire regime for California chaparral. Extreme weather conditions (low humidity, high temperature, high winds), drought, and low fuel moisture are the primary factors in determining how large a chaparral fire becomes. See also California Chaparral Institute Garrigue Heath International Association of Wildland Fire Keystone species Rewilding References Bibliography Haidinger, T.L., and J.E. Keeley. 1993. Role of high fire frequency in destruction of mixed chaparral. Madrono 40: 141–147. Halsey, R.W. 2008. Fire, Chaparral, and Survival in Southern California. Second Edition. Sunbelt Publications, San Diego, CA. 232 p. Hanes, T. L. 1971. Succession after fire in the chaparral of southern California. Ecol. Monographs 41: 27–52. Hubbard, R.F. 1986. Stand age and growth dynamics in chamise chaparral. Master's thesis, San Diego State University, San Diego, California. Keeley, J. E., C. J. Fotheringham, and M. Morais. 1999. Reexamining fire suppression impacts on brushland fire regimes. Science 284:1829–1832. Keeley, J.E. 1995. Future of California floristics and systematics: wildfire threats to the California flora. Madrono 42: 175–179. Keeley, J.E., A.H. Pfaff, and H.D. Stafford. 2005. Fire suppression impacts on postfire recovery of Sierra Nevada chaparral shrublands. International Journal of Wildland Fire 14: 255–265. Larigauderie, A., T.W. Hubbard, and J. Kummerow. 1990. Growth dynamics of two chaparral shrub species with time after fire. Madrono 37: 225–236. Minnich, R. A. 1983. Fire mosaics in southern California and northern Baja California. Science 219:1287–1294. Moritz, M.A., J.E. Keeley, E.A. Johnson, and A.A. Schaffner. 2004. Testing a basic assumption of shrubland fire management: How important is fuel age? Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 2:67–72. Pratt, R. B., A. L. Jacobsen, A. R. Ramirez, A. M. Helms, C. A. Traugh, M. F. Tobin, M. S. Heffner, and S. D. Davis. 2013. Mortality of resprouting chaparral shrubs after a fire and during a record drought: physiological mechanisms and demographic consequences. Global Change Biology 20:893–907. Syphard, A. D., V. C. Radeloff, J. E. Keeley, T. J. Hawbaker, M. K. Clayton, S. I. Stewart, and R. B. Hammer. 2007. Human influence on California fire regimes. Ecological Applications 17:1388–1402. Vale, T. R. 2002. Fire, Native Peoples, and the Natural Landscape. Island Press, Washington, DC, USA. Venturas, M. D., E. D. MacKinnon, H. L. Dario, A. L. Jacobsen, R. B. Pratt, and S. D. Davis. 2016. Chaparral shrub hydraulic traits, size, and life history types relate to species mortality during California's historic drought of 2014. PLoS ONE 11(7): p.e0159145. Zedler, P.H. 1995. Fire frequency in southern California shrublands: biological effects and management options, pp. 101–112 in J.E. Keeley and T. Scott (eds.), Brushfires in California wildlands: ecology and resource management. International Association of Wildland Fire, Fairfield, Wash. External links The California Chaparral Institute website Category:Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub in the United States Category:Plant communities of California Category:Plants by habitat . . . Category:San Bernardino Mountains Category:San Gabriel Mountains Category:Santa Susana Mountains Category:Santa Ana Mountains Category:Ecology of the Sierra Nevada (United States) Category:Wildfire ecology Category:Nearctic ecoregions Category:Sclerophyll forests	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaparral	2025-04-05T18:28:09.297717
7456	CJD	CJD can mean: Chojoongdong, South Korean newspaper Christliches Jugenddorfwerk Deutschlands, German Christian educational institution Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, rare disease of the brain caused by prions Candilejas Airport, Colombia (by IATA code)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CJD	2025-04-05T18:28:09.298228
7460	Clinker	Clinker may refer to: Cement clinker, a kilned then quenched cement product Clinker (boat building), construction method for wooden boats Clinker (waste), waste from industrial processes, particularly coal burning Clinkers (album), a 1978 album by saxophonist Steve Lacy Clinker brick, rough dark-coloured bricks Clinker Peak, a volcanic peak in British Columbia, Canada Clinker Ridge, a mountain ridge in British Columbia. Canada Gary James Joynes, a.k.a. Clinker Mount Price (British Columbia), formerly known as Clinker Mountain Clinker may also refer to: Small rocks that form in some ʻAʻā lava flows Waste from coal-seam fires Surname Cletus Clinker (1911–1979), American football player and coach Humphry Clinker, title character of Tobias Smollett's 1771 novel The Expedition of Humphry Clinker	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinker	2025-04-05T18:28:09.299186
7461	Clipper	, a tea clipper built in 1863]] A clipper was a type of mid-19th-century merchant sailing vessel, designed for speed. The term was also retrospectively applied to the Baltimore clipper, which originated in the late 18th century. Clippers were generally narrow for their length, small by later 19th-century standards, could carry limited bulk freight, and had a large total sail area. "Clipper" does not refer to a specific sailplan; clippers may be schooners, brigs, brigantines, etc., as well as full-rigged ships. Clippers were mostly constructed in British and American shipyards, although France, Brazil, the Netherlands, and other nations also produced some. Clippers sailed all over the world, primarily on the trade routes between the United Kingdom and China, in transatlantic trade, and on the New York-to-San Francisco route around Cape Horn during the California gold rush. Dutch clippers were built beginning in the 1850s for the tea trade and passenger service to Java.<!--This needs to be placed someplace in the body of the article as the lead is meant to summarize--> The boom years of the clipper era began in 1843 in response to a growing demand for faster delivery of tea from China and continued with the demand for swift passage to gold fields in California and Australia beginning in 1848 and 1851, respectively. The era ended with the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. Origin and usage of "clipper" The etymological origin of the word clipper is uncertain, but is believed to be derived from the English language verb "to clip", which at the time meant "to run or fly swiftly". The first application of the term "clipper", in a nautical sense, is likewise uncertain. The type known as the Baltimore clipper originated at the end of the 18th century on the eastern seaboard of the USA. At first, these fast sailing vessels were referred to as "Virginia-built" or "pilot-boat model", with the name "Baltimore-built" appearing during the War of 1812. In the final days of the slave trade (circa'' 1835–1850)just as the type was dying outthe term, Baltimore clipper, became common. The common retrospective application of the word "clipper" to this type of vessel has caused confusion. The Oxford English Dictionary's earliest quote (referring to the Baltimore clipper) is from 1824. The dictionary cites Royal Navy officer and novelist Frederick Marryat as using the term in 1830. British newspaper usage of the term can be found as early as 1832 and in shipping advertisements from 1835. A US court case of 1834 has evidence that discusses a clipper being faster than a brig.Definitions ]] A clipper is a sailing vessel designed for speed, a priority that takes precedence over cargo-carrying capacity or building or operating costs. It is not restricted to any one rig (while many were fully rigged ships, others were barques, brigs, or schooners), nor was the term restricted to any one hull type. Howard Chapelle lists three basic hull types for clippers. The first was characterised by the sharp and ends found in the Baltimore clipper. The second was a hull with a full midsection and modest deadrise, but sharp endsthis was a development of the hull form of transatlantic packets. The third was more experimental, with deadrise and sharpness being balanced against the need to carry a profitable quantity of cargo. A clipper carried a large sail area and a fast hull; by the standards of any other type of sailing ship, a clipper was greatly over-canvassed. The last defining feature of a clipper, in the view of maritime historian David MacGregor, was a captain who had the courage, skill, and determination to get the fastest speed possible out of her. In assessing the hull of a clipper, different maritime historians use different criteria to measure "sharpness", "fine lines" or "fineness", a concept which is explained by comparing a rectangular cuboid with the underwater shape of a vessel's hull. The more material one has to carve off the cuboid to achieve the hull shape, the sharper the hull. Ideally, a maritime historian would be able to look at either the block coefficient of fineness or the prismatic coefficient of various clippers, but measured drawings or accurate half models may not exist to calculate either of these figures. An alternative measure of sharpness for hulls of a broadly similar shape is the coefficient of underdeck tonnage, as used by David MacGregor in comparing tea clippers. This could be calculated from the measurements taken to determine the registered tonnage, so can be applied to more vessels. An extreme clipper has a hull of great fineness, as judged either by the prismatic coefficient, the coefficient of underdeck tonnage, or some other technical assessment of hull shape. This term has been misapplied in the past, without reference to hull shape. As commercial vessels, these are totally reliant on speed to generate a profit for their owners, as their sharpness limits their cargo-carrying capacity. A medium clipper has a cargo-carrying hull that has some sharpness. In the right conditions and with a capable captain, some of these achieved notable quick passages. They were also able to pay their way when the high freight rates often paid to a fast sailing ship were not available (in a fluctuating market). The term "clipper" applied to vessels between these two categories. They often made passages as fast as extreme clippers, but had less difficulty in making a living when freight rates were lower.History '' set the record for world's fastest sailing ship in 1854.]] – an American clipper ship of the 1850s]] The first ships to which the term "clipper" seems to have been applied were the Baltimore clippers, developed in the Chesapeake Bay before the American Revolution, and reached their zenith between 1795 and 1815. They were small, rarely exceeding 200 tons OM. In the War of 1812, some were lightly armed, sailing under letters of marque and reprisal, when the typeexemplified by Chasseur, launched at Fells Point, Baltimore in 1814became known for her incredible speed; the deep draft enabled the Baltimore clipper to sail close to the wind. Clippers, running the British blockade of Baltimore, came to be recognized for speed rather than cargo space. The type existed as early as 1780. A 1789 drawing of purchased by the Royal Navy in 1780 in the West Indiesrepresents the earliest draught of what became known as the Baltimore clipper. Vessels of the Baltimore clipper type continued to be built for the slave trade, being useful for escaping enforcement of the British and American legislation prohibiting the trans-Atlantic slave trade. Some of these Baltimore clippers were captured when working as slavers, condemned by the appropriate court, and sold to owners who then used them as opium clippersmoving from one illegal international trade to another. Ann McKim, built in Baltimore in 1833 by the Kennard & Williamson shipyard, is considered by some to be the original clipper ship. (Maritime historians Howard I. Chapelle and David MacGregor decry the concept of the "first" clipper, preferring a more evolutionary, multiple-step development of the type.) She measured 494 tons OM, and was built on the enlarged lines of a Baltimore clipper, with sharply raked stem, counter stern, and square rig. Although Ann McKim was the first large clipper ship ever constructed, she cannot be said to have founded the clipper ship era, or even that she directly influenced shipbuilders, since no other ship was built like her, but she may have suggested the clipper design in vessels of ship rig. She did, however, influence the building of Rainbow in 1845, the first extreme clipper ship. Scottish Maid, 150 tons OM, was the first British clipper ship. The earliest British clipper ships were built for trade within the British Isles (Scottish Maid was built for the Aberdeen to London trade). Then followed the vast clipper trade of tea, opium, spices, and other goods from the Far East to Europe, and the ships became known as "tea clippers". From 1839, larger American clipper ships started to be built beginning with Akbar, 650 tons OM, in 1839, and including the 1844-built Houqua, 581 tons OM. These larger vessels were built predominantly for use in the China tea trade and known as "tea clippers". Antelope was relatively flat-floored and had only an 8-inch deadrise at half-floor. The medium clipper, though still very fast, could carry more cargo. After 1854, extreme clippers were replaced in American shipbuilding yards by medium clippers. The last example of these still in reasonable condition is Cutty Sark, preserved in dry dock at Greenwich, United Kingdom. Damaged by fire on 21 May 2007 while undergoing conservation, the ship was permanently elevated 3.0 m above the dry dock floor in 2010 as part of a plan for long-term preservation. Clippers were built for seasonal trades such as tea, where an early cargo was more valuable, or for passenger routes. One passenger ship survives, the City of Adelaide designed by William Pile of Sunderland. The fast ships were ideally suited to low-volume, high-profit goods, such as tea, opium, spices, people, and mail. The return could be spectacular. The Challenger returned from Shanghai with "the most valuable cargo of tea and silk ever to be laden in one bottom". Competition among the clippers was public and fierce, with their times recorded in the newspapers. The last China clippers had peak speeds over , but their average speeds over a whole voyage were substantially less. The joint winner of the Great Tea Race of 1866 logged about 15,800 nautical miles on a 99-day trip. This gives an average speed slightly over . The key to a fast passage for a tea clipper was getting across the China Sea against the monsoon winds that prevailed when the first tea crop of the season was ready. These difficult sailing conditions (light and/or contrary winds) dictated the design of tea clippers. The US clippers were designed for the strong winds encountered on their route around Cape Horn. Donald McKay's Sovereign of the Seas reported the highest speed ever achieved by a sailing ship of the era, , made while running her easting down to Australia in 1854. (John Griffiths' first clipper, the Rainbow, had a top speed of 14 knots.) Eleven other instances are reported of a ship's logging or over. Ten of these were recorded by American clippers. Besides the breath-taking day's run of the Champion of the Seas, 13 other cases are known of a ship's sailing over in 24 hours. With few exceptions, though, all the port-to-port sailing records are held by the American clippers. The 24-hour record of the Champion of the Seas, set in 1854, was not broken until 1984 (by a multihull), or 2001 (by another monohull). Decline The American clippers sailing from the East Coast to the California goldfields were working in a booming market. Freight rates were high everywhere in the first years of the 1850s. This started to fade in late 1853. The ports of California and Australia reported that they were overstocked with goods that had been shipped earlier in the year. This gave an accelerating fall in freight rates that was halted, however, by the start of the Crimean War in March 1854, as many ships were now being chartered by the French and British governments. The end of the Crimean War in April 1856 released all this capacity back on the world shipping marketsthe result being a severe slump. The next year had the Panic of 1857, with effects on both sides of the Atlantic. The United States was just starting to recover from this in 1861 when the American Civil War started, causing significant disruption to trade in both Union and Confederate states. As the economic situation deteriorated in 1853, American shipowners either did not order new vessels, or specified an ordinary clipper or a medium clipper instead of an extreme clipper. No extreme clipper was launched in an American shipyard after the end of 1854 and only a few medium clippers after 1860. By contrast, British trade recovered well at the end of the 1850s. Tea clippers had continued to be launched during the depressed years, apparently little affected by the economic downturn. The long-distance route to China was not realistically challenged by steamships in the early part of the 1860s. No true steamer (as opposed to an auxiliary steamship) had the fuel efficiency to carry sufficient cargo to make a profitable voyage. The auxiliary steamships struggled to make any profit. The situation changed in 1866 when the Alfred Holt-designed and owned SS Agamemnon made her first voyage to China. Holt had persuaded the Board of Trade to allow higher steam pressures in British merchant vessels. Running at 60 psi instead of the previously permitted 25 psi, and using an efficient compound engine, Agamemnon had the fuel efficiency to steam at 10 knots to China and back, with coaling stops at Mauritius on the outward and return legscrucially carrying sufficient cargo to make a profit. In 1869, the Suez Canal opened, giving steamships a route about shorter than that taken by sailing ships round the Cape of Good Hope. Despite initial conservatism by tea merchants, by 1871, tea clippers found strong competition from steamers in the tea ports of China. A typical passage time back to London for a steamer was 58 days, while the fastest clippers could occasionally make the trip in less than 100 days; the average was 123 days in the 1867–68 tea season.In popular cultureThe clipper legacy appears in collectible cards and in the name of a basketball team. Sailing cards Departures of clipper ships, mostly from New York and Boston to San Francisco, were advertised by clipper-ship sailing cards. These cards, slightly larger than today's postcards, were produced by letterpress and wood engraving on coated card stock. Most clipper cards were printed in the 1850s and 1860s, and represented the first pronounced use of color in American advertising art. Perhaps 3,500 cards survive. With their rarity and importance as artifacts of nautical, Western, and printing history, clipper cards are valued by both private collectors and institutions. Basketball team The Los Angeles Clippers of the National Basketball Association take their name from the type of ship. After the Buffalo Braves moved to San Diego, California in 1978, a contest was held to choose a new name. The winning name highlighted the city's connection with the clippers that frequented San Diego Bay. The team retained the name in its 1984 move to Los Angeles. Airliners The airline Pan Am named its aircraft beginning with the word 'Clipper' and used Clipper as its callsign. This was intended to evoke an image of speed and glamour. See also * List of clipper ships * Clipper route * Packet boat * Sail plan * Windjammer * Clipper card * Europa Clipper People associated with clipper ships * List of people who sailed on clipper ships * Joseph Warren Holmes * Samuel Hartt Pook * William Jardine * Donald McKay * John (or "Jock") "White Hat" Willis Notes References Further reading * Carl C. Cutler, Greyhounds of the Sea (1930, 3rd ed. Naval Institute Press 1984) * Alexander Laing, Clipper Ship Men (1944) * David R. MacGregor, Fast Sailing Ships: Their Design and Construction, 1775–1875 Naval Institute Press, 1988 * Oxford English Dictionary (1987) . * Bruce D. Roberts, Clipper Ship Sailing Cards, 2007, Lulu.com. . * Bruce D. Roberts, Clipper Ship Cards: The High-Water Mark in Early Trade Cards, The Advertising Trade Card Quarterly 1, no. 1 (Spring 1994): 20–22. * Bruce D. Roberts, Clipper Ship Cards: Graphic Themes and Images, The Advertising Trade Card Quarterly 1, no. 2 (Summer 1994): 22–24. * Bruce D. Roberts, Museum Collections of Clipper Ship Cards, The Advertising Trade Card Quarterly 2, no. 1 (Spring 1995): 22–24. * Bruce D. Roberts, Selling Sail with Clipper Ship Cards, Ephemera News 19, no. 2 (Winter 2001): 1, 11–14. * Overview and introduction* * – Beautifully illustrated introduction, by a member of Donald McKay's family * – Basic reading, a favorite of Franklin Delano Roosevelt * [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/award99/mymhihtml/mymhihome.html Westward by Sea: A Maritime Perspective on American Expansion, 1820–1890], digitized source materials from Mystic Seaport, via Library of Congress American Memory * American clipper ships * – The definitive narrative history, useful for checking discrepancies between sources * – The comprehensive reference for design and construction of American-built clipper ships, with numerous drawings, diagrams, and charts. Gives examples of how each design feature varies in different ships. * Articles on individual ships, broader coverage than Crothers Clipper ships by type * * – British and Australian clippers * * – One of the few comprehensive books on these ships External links * [http://cityofadelaide.org.au City of Adelaide Clipper Ship], one of the few surviving clippers * [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collIdmymhiwe&actionbrowse&fileName=c112//mymhiwec112.db Westward by Sea] Library of Congress collection of sailing cards. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20051018172408/http://www.theshipslist.com/ships/descriptions/baltimore.htm The Shipslist: Baltimore Clipper] * [http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/nyhs/clipper/index.html The Clipper Ship Card Collection] at the New-York Historical Society Category:Vehicles introduced in the 18th century Category:Merchant sailing ship types Category:Sailing rigs and rigging Category:Gilded Age Category:Victorian era	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clipper	2025-04-05T18:28:09.316953
7462	Clive Anderson	\| birth_place = Stanmore, London, England \| known_for = Hosting Whose Line Is It Anyway?, Clive Anderson Talks Back and Clive Anderson All Talk \| education = Selwyn College, Cambridge (BA) \| spouse = \| occupation = Comedy author, game show host, barrister, radio presenter, television presenter \| years_active = 1979–present }} Clive Stuart Anderson (born 10 December 1952) is an English television and radio presenter, comedian, writer and former barrister. Winner of a British Comedy Award in 1991, Anderson began experimenting with comedy and writing comedic scripts during his 15-year legal career. He then became host of Whose Line Is It Anyway?, initially a radio show on BBC Radio 4 in 1988, before moving to television on Channel 4 from 1988 to 1999. He was also host of his own chat show Clive Anderson Talks Back, which changed its name to Clive Anderson All Talk in 1996, from 1989 to 1999. He has also hosted many radio programmes and made guest appearances on Have I Got News for You, Mock the Week and QI. Early life Anderson's mother was English and his parents met while serving in the RAF. He was educated at Stanburn Primary School and Harrow County School for Boys then a grammar school which closed in 1975. His group of contemporaries included Geoffrey Perkins and Michael Portillo. His Scottish father originally from Glasgow was promoted to manager Anderson attended Selwyn College, Cambridge, where, from 1974 to 1975, he was President of the Cambridge Footlights. He was called to the bar at the Middle Temple in 1976 and became a practising barrister, specialising in criminal law. While still practising law, he continued performing, including taking a show to the Edinburgh Fringe in 1981 with Griff Rhys Jones. Career Television Anderson was involved in the fledgling alternative comedy scene in the early 1980s and was the first act to appear at The Comedy Store when it opened in 1979. He made his name as host of the original UK version of the improvised television comedy show Whose Line Is It Anyway?, which ran for 10 series on Channel 4 from 1988 to 1999. Anderson hosted his own chat show Clive Anderson Talks Back, which ran for 10 series on Channel 4 from 1989 to 1996. The show then moved to the BBC, with the name changed to Clive Anderson All Talk, running for 4 series from 1996 to 1999. In one incident in 1997, Anderson was deserted by his guests, the Bee Gees, after he made several digs at them and their music. He once had a glass of water poured over his head by a perturbed Richard Branson, to which he replied, "I'm used to that; I've flown Virgin." When singer and actress Cher appeared on the show, Anderson alluded to her alleged cosmetic surgery, asking her "You look like a million dollars – is that how much it cost?" He also said to author and politician Jeffrey Archer, in response to his derogatory comment about the show, "You're a critic too... there's no beginning to your talents." Archer retorted that "The old ones are always the best" for Anderson to reply "Yes, I've read your books." He has made ten appearances on Have I Got News for You. In 1996, a heated exchange occurred on the show when he joked to fellow guest Piers Morgan that the Daily Mirror was now, thanks to Morgan (then its editor), almost as good as The Sun. When asked by Morgan, "What do you know about editing newspapers?" he swiftly replied "About as much as you do". Anderson has also frequently appeared on QI. In 2007, he featured as a regular panellist on the ITV comedy show News Knight. From 2019 to 2020 he co-hosted the television series Mystic Britain on the Sky television channel Smithsonian. In 2005, he presented the short-lived quiz Back in the Day for Channel 4. On 25 February 2008, he started to present Brainbox Challenge, a new game show, for BBC Two. Later that year, he presented a talent show-themed reality TV series produced by the BBC entitled Maestro, starring eight celebrities. In 2009, Anderson was the television host of the BBC's Last Night of the Proms. In November 2023, Anderson appeared on TV game show ''Richard Osman's House of Games, winning the show by one point. Radio Anderson presents legal show Unreliable Evidence on BBC Radio 4. He also covered the Sunday morning 11 a.m. to 1 p.m. show on BBC Radio 2 until the end of January 2008. In early 1988, Anderson hosted the original radio version of Whose Line Is It Anyway?'', which ran for 6 episodes on BBC Radio 4 before the show moved to television later that year. It was announced in April 2008 that Anderson, who had previously filled in for host Ned Sherrin from 2006 until Sherrin's death in 2007, would be taking over as permanent host of Loose Ends. He also hosted six series of ''Clive Anderson's Chat Room'' on BBC Radio 2 from 2004 to 2009. Anderson has appeared on BBC Radio 4's The Unbelievable Truth hosted by David Mitchell. Anderson also presented the radio show The Guessing Game on BBC Radio Scotland. Anderson has also appeared on BBC Radio 5 Live's Fighting Talk.Comedy and newspaper writingAnderson is a comedy sketch writer who has written for Frankie Howerd, ''Not the Nine O'Clock News, and Griff Rhys Jones and Mel Smith. The couple have three children. He supports Arsenal, and Rangers football teams. He is President of the Woodland Trust and became Vice Patron of the Solicitors' Benevolent Association, a registered charity. Awards The show Whose Line is it Anyway? won a BAFTA award in 1990. Later, Anderson won both the "Top Entertainment Presenter" and "Top Radio Comedy Personality" at the British Comedy Awards in 1991. In 2023 he was made an Honorary Fellow of Selwyn College, Cambridge.ReferencesExternal links * * *[https://www.curtisbrown.co.uk/client/clive-anderson Representation at Curtis Brown Talent Agency] Category:1952 births Category:Living people Category:Alumni of Selwyn College, Cambridge Category:English barristers Category:English comedy writers Category:English game show hosts Category:English people of Scottish descent Category:Radio presenters from London Category:English television presenters Category:People from Stanmore Category:Members of the Middle Temple Category:People educated at Harrow High School Category:English television talk show hosts Category:English male comedians Category:Comedians from the London Borough of Harrow	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clive_Anderson	2025-04-05T18:28:09.344482
7463	Cold fusion	}} used at the New Hydrogen Energy Institute in Japan]] Cold fusion is a hypothesized type of nuclear reaction that would occur at, or near, room temperature. It would contrast starkly with the "hot" fusion that is known to take place naturally within stars and artificially in hydrogen bombs and prototype fusion reactors under immense pressure and at temperatures of millions of degrees, and be distinguished from muon-catalyzed fusion. There is currently no accepted theoretical model that would allow cold fusion to occur. In 1989, two electrochemists at the University of Utah, Martin Fleischmann and Stanley Pons, reported that their apparatus had produced anomalous heat ("excess heat") of a magnitude they asserted would defy explanation except in terms of nuclear processes. They further reported measuring small amounts of nuclear reaction byproducts, including neutrons and tritium. The small tabletop experiment involved electrolysis of heavy water on the surface of a palladium (Pd) electrode. The reported results received wide media attention and raised hopes of a cheap and abundant source of energy. Many scientists tried to replicate the experiment with the few details available. Expectations diminished as a result of numerous failed replications, the retraction of several previously reported positive replications, the identification of methodological flaws and experimental errors in the original study, and, ultimately, the confirmation that Fleischmann and Pons had not observed the expected nuclear reaction byproducts. By late 1989, most scientists considered cold fusion claims dead, and cold fusion subsequently gained a reputation as pathological science. In 1989 the United States Department of Energy (DOE) concluded that the reported results of excess heat did not present convincing evidence of a useful source of energy and decided against allocating funding specifically for cold fusion. A second DOE review in 2004, which looked at new research, reached similar conclusions and did not result in DOE funding of cold fusion. Presently, since articles about cold fusion are rarely published in peer-reviewed mainstream scientific journals, they do not attract the level of scrutiny expected for mainstream scientific publications. Nevertheless, some interest in cold fusion has continued through the decades—for example, a Google-funded failed replication attempt was published in a 2019 issue of Nature. A small community of researchers continues to investigate it, often under the alternative designations low-energy nuclear reactions (LENR) or condensed matter nuclear science (CMNS).HistoryNuclear fusion is normally understood to occur at temperatures in the tens of millions of degrees. This is called "thermonuclear fusion". Since the 1920s, there has been speculation that nuclear fusion might be possible at much lower temperatures by catalytically fusing hydrogen absorbed in a metal catalyst. In 1989, a claim by Stanley Pons and Martin Fleischmann (then one of the world's leading electrochemists) that such cold fusion had been observed caused a brief media sensation before the majority of scientists criticized their claim as incorrect after many found they could not replicate the excess heat. Since the initial announcement, cold fusion research has continued by a small community of researchers who believe that such reactions happen and hope to gain wider recognition for their experimental evidence.Early researchThe ability of palladium to absorb hydrogen was recognized as early as the nineteenth century by Thomas Graham. In the late 1920s, two Austrian-born scientists, Friedrich Paneth and Kurt Peters, originally reported the transformation of hydrogen into helium by nuclear catalysis when hydrogen was absorbed by finely divided palladium at room temperature. However, the authors later retracted that report, saying that the helium they measured was due to background from the air. In 1927, Swedish scientist John Tandberg reported that he had fused hydrogen into helium in an electrolytic cell with palladium electrodes. On the basis of his work, he applied for a Swedish patent for "a method to produce helium and useful reaction energy". Due to Paneth and Peters's retraction and his inability to explain the physical process, his patent application was denied. After deuterium was discovered in 1932, Tandberg continued his experiments with heavy water. The final experiments made by Tandberg with heavy water were similar to the original experiment by Fleischmann and Pons. Fleischmann and Pons were not aware of Tandberg's work.Fleischmann–Pons experimentThe most famous cold fusion claims were made by Stanley Pons and Martin Fleischmann in 1989. After a brief period of interest by the wider scientific community, their reports were called into question by nuclear physicists. Pons and Fleischmann never retracted their claims, but moved their research program from the US to France after the controversy erupted.Events preceding announcementMartin Fleischmann of the University of Southampton and Stanley Pons of the University of Utah hypothesized that the high compression ratio and mobility of deuterium that could be achieved within palladium metal using electrolysis might result in nuclear fusion. To investigate, they conducted electrolysis experiments using a palladium cathode and heavy water within a calorimeter, an insulated vessel designed to measure process heat. Current was applied continuously for many weeks, with the heavy water being renewed at intervals. Some deuterium was thought to be accumulating within the cathode, but most was allowed to bubble out of the cell, joining oxygen produced at the anode. For most of the time, the power input to the cell was equal to the calculated power leaving the cell within measurement accuracy, and the cell temperature was stable at around 30 °C. But then, at some point (in some of the experiments), the temperature rose suddenly to about 50 °C without changes in the input power. These high temperature phases would last for two days or more and would repeat several times in any given experiment once they had occurred. The calculated power leaving the cell was significantly higher than the input power during these high temperature phases. Eventually the high temperature phases would no longer occur within a particular cell. In 1988, Fleischmann and Pons applied to the United States Department of Energy for funding towards a larger series of experiments. Up to this point they had been funding their experiments using a small device built with $100,000 out-of-pocket. The grant proposal was turned over for peer review, and one of the reviewers was Steven Jones of Brigham Young University. Jones had worked for some time on muon-catalyzed fusion, a known method of inducing nuclear fusion without high temperatures, and had written an article on the topic entitled "Cold nuclear fusion" that had been published in Scientific American in July 1987. Fleischmann and Pons and co-workers met with Jones and co-workers on occasion in Utah to share research and techniques. During this time, Fleischmann and Pons described their experiments as generating considerable "excess energy", in the sense that it could not be explained by chemical reactions alone. They felt that such a discovery could bear significant commercial value and would be entitled to patent protection. Jones, however, was measuring neutron flux, which was not of commercial interest. To avoid future problems, the teams appeared to agree to publish their results simultaneously, though their accounts of their 6 March meeting differ. Announcement In mid-March 1989, both research teams were ready to publish their findings, and Fleischmann and Jones had agreed to meet at an airport on 24 March to send their papers to Nature via FedEx. Fleischmann and Pons, however, pressured by the University of Utah, which wanted to establish priority on the discovery, (they claimed in the press release that it would be published in Nature}} as well as attention from the scientific community. The 1986 discovery of high-temperature superconductivity had made scientists more open to revelations of unexpected but potentially momentous scientific results that could be replicated reliably even if they could not be explained by established theories. Many scientists were also reminded of the Mössbauer effect, a process involving nuclear transitions in a solid. Its discovery 30 years earlier had also been unexpected, though it was quickly replicated and explained within the existing physics framework. The announcement of a new purported clean source of energy came at a crucial time: adults still remembered the 1973 oil crisis and the problems caused by oil dependence, anthropogenic global warming was starting to become notorious, the anti-nuclear movement was labeling nuclear power plants as dangerous and getting them closed, people had in mind the consequences of strip mining, acid rain, the greenhouse effect and the Exxon Valdez oil spill, which happened the day after the announcement. In the press conference, Chase N. Peterson, Fleischmann and Pons, backed by the solidity of their scientific credentials, repeatedly assured the journalists that cold fusion would solve environmental problems, and would provide a limitless inexhaustible source of clean energy, using only seawater as fuel. They said the results had been confirmed dozens of times and they had no doubts about them. In the accompanying press release Fleischmann was quoted saying: "What we have done is to open the door of a new research area, our indications are that the discovery will be relatively easy to make into a usable technology for generating heat and power, but continued work is needed, first, to further understand the science and secondly, to determine its value to energy economics."Response and falloutAlthough the experimental protocol had not been published, physicists in several countries attempted, and failed, to replicate the excess heat phenomenon. The first paper submitted to Nature reproducing excess heat, although it passed peer review, was rejected because most similar experiments were negative and there were no theories that could explain a positive result; while CERN physicist Douglas R. O. Morrison said that "essentially all" attempts in Western Europe had failed. Even those reporting success had difficulty reproducing Fleischmann and Pons' results. On 10 April 1989, a group at Texas A&M University published results of excess heat and later that day a group at the Georgia Institute of Technology announced neutron production—the strongest replication announced up to that point due to the detection of neutrons and the reputation of the lab. became the only scientific support for cold fusion in 26 April US Congress hearings. and his research was derided by scientists who saw it later. For the next six weeks, competing claims, counterclaims, and suggested explanations kept what was referred to as "cold fusion" or "fusion confusion" in the news. In April 1989, Fleischmann and Pons published a "preliminary note" in the Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry. This paper notably showed a gamma peak without its corresponding Compton edge, which indicated they had made a mistake in claiming evidence of fusion byproducts. Fleischmann and Pons replied to this critique, but the only thing left clear was that no gamma ray had been registered and that Fleischmann refused to recognize any mistakes in the data. A much longer paper published a year later went into details of calorimetry but did not include any nuclear measurements. Nevertheless, Fleischmann and Pons and a number of other researchers who found positive results remained convinced of their findings. The University of Utah asked Congress to provide $25 million to pursue the research, and Pons was scheduled to meet with representatives of President Bush in early May. On 30 April 1989, cold fusion was declared dead by The New York Times. The Times called it a circus the same day, and the Boston Herald attacked cold fusion the following day. On 1 May 1989, the American Physical Society held a session on cold fusion in Baltimore, including many reports of experiments that failed to produce evidence of cold fusion. At the end of the session, eight of the nine leading speakers stated that they considered the initial Fleischmann and Pons claim dead, with the ninth, Johann Rafelski, abstaining. Steven E. Koonin of Caltech called the Utah report a result of "the incompetence and delusion of Pons and Fleischmann," which was met with a standing ovation. Douglas R. O. Morrison, a physicist representing CERN, was the first to call the episode an example of pathological science. On 4 May, due to all this new criticism, the meetings with various representatives from Washington were cancelled. From 8 May, only the A&M tritium results kept cold fusion afloat. In July and November 1989, Nature published papers critical of cold fusion claims. Negative results were also published in several other scientific journals including Science, Physical Review Letters, and Physical Review C (nuclear physics). However, no further DOE nor NSF funding resulted from the panel's recommendation. By this point, however, academic consensus had moved decidedly toward labeling cold fusion as a kind of "pathological science". University faculty were then "stunned" when a lawyer representing Pons and Fleischmann demanded the Salamon paper be retracted under threat of a lawsuit. The lawyer later apologized; Fleischmann defended the threat as a legitimate reaction to alleged bias displayed by cold-fusion critics. In early May 1990, one of the two A&M researchers, Kevin Wolf, acknowledged the possibility of spiking, but said that the most likely explanation was tritium contamination in the palladium electrodes or simply contamination due to sloppy work. In June 1990 an article in Science by science writer Gary Taubes destroyed the public credibility of the A&M tritium results when it accused its group leader John Bockris and one of his graduate students of spiking the cells with tritium. In October 1990 Wolf finally said that the results were explained by tritium contamination in the rods. An A&M cold fusion review panel found that the tritium evidence was not convincing and that, while they couldn't rule out spiking, contamination and measurements problems were more likely explanations, it found no excess heat, and its reports of tritium production were met with indifference. On 1 January 1991, Pons left the University of Utah and went to Europe. In 1992, Pons and Fleischmann resumed research with Toyota Motor Corporation's IMRA lab in France. Fleischmann left for England in 1995, and the contract with Pons was not renewed in 1998 after spending $40 million with no tangible results. The IMRA laboratory stopped cold fusion research in 1998 after spending £12 million. Pons has made no public declarations since, and only Fleischmann continued giving talks and publishing papers. Mostly in the 1990s, several books were published that were critical of cold fusion research methods and the conduct of cold fusion researchers. Over the years, several books have appeared that defended them. Around 1998, the University of Utah had already dropped its research after spending over $1 million, and in the summer of 1997, Japan cut off research and closed its own lab after spending $20 million. After 1991, cold fusion research only continued in relative obscurity, conducted by groups that had increasing difficulty securing public funding and keeping programs open. These small but committed groups of cold fusion researchers have continued to conduct experiments using Fleischmann and Pons electrolysis setups in spite of the rejection by the mainstream community. In 2021, following ''Nature's'' 2019 publication of anomalous findings that might only be explained by some localized fusion, scientists at the Naval Surface Warfare Center, Indian Head Division announced that they had assembled a group of scientists from the Navy, Army and National Institute of Standards and Technology to undertake a new, coordinated study. The researchers who continue their investigations acknowledge that the flaws in the original announcement are the main cause of the subject's marginalization, and they complain of a chronic lack of funding and no possibilities of getting their work published in the highest impact journals. University researchers are often unwilling to investigate cold fusion because they would be ridiculed by their colleagues and their professional careers would be at risk. In 1994, David Goodstein, a professor of physics at Caltech, advocated increased attention from mainstream researchers and described cold fusion as: }} United States (2005)]] United States Navy researchers at the Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center (SPAWAR) in San Diego have been studying cold fusion since 1989. This and other published papers prompted a 2004 Department of Energy (DOE) review. 2004 DOE panel In August 2003, the U.S. Secretary of Energy, Spencer Abraham, ordered the DOE to organize a second review of the field. This was thanks to an April 2003 letter sent by MIT's Peter L. Hagelstein, In March 2013 Graham K. Hubler, a nuclear physicist who worked for the Naval Research Laboratory for 40 years, was named director. One of the SKINR projects is to replicate a 1991 experiment in which a professor associated with the project, Mark Prelas, says bursts of millions of neutrons a second were recorded, which was stopped because "his research account had been frozen". He claims that the new experiment has already seen "neutron emissions at similar levels to the 1991 observation". In May 2016, the United States House Committee on Armed Services, in its report on the 2017 National Defense Authorization Act, directed the Secretary of Defense to "provide a briefing on the military utility of recent U.S. industrial base LENR advancements to the House Committee on Armed Services by September 22, 2016".ItalySince the Fleischmann and Pons announcement, the Italian national agency for new technologies, energy and sustainable economic development (ENEA) has funded Franco Scaramuzzi's research into whether excess heat can be measured from metals loaded with deuterium gas. Such research is distributed across ENEA departments, CNR laboratories, INFN, universities and industrial laboratories in Italy, where the group continues to try to achieve reliable reproducibility (i.e. getting the phenomenon to happen in every cell, and inside a certain frame of time). In 2006–2007, the ENEA started a research program which claimed to have found excess power of up to 500 percent, and in 2009, ENEA hosted the 15th cold fusion conference.JapanBetween 1992 and 1997, Japan's Ministry of International Trade and Industry sponsored a "New Hydrogen Energy (NHE)" program of US$20 million to research cold fusion. In 1999 the Japan C-F Research Society was established to promote the independent research into cold fusion that continued in Japan. The society holds annual meetings. Perhaps the most famous Japanese cold fusion researcher was Yoshiaki Arata, from Osaka University, who claimed in a demonstration to produce excess heat when deuterium gas was introduced into a cell containing a mixture of palladium and zirconium oxide, A special section in the Indian multidisciplinary journal Current Science published 33 cold fusion papers in 2015 by major cold fusion researchers including several Indian researchers.Reported results A cold fusion experiment usually includes: * a metal, such as palladium or nickel, in bulk, thin films or powder; and * deuterium, hydrogen, or both, in the form of water, gas or plasma. Electrolysis cells can be either open cell or closed cell. In open cell systems, the electrolysis products, which are gaseous, are allowed to leave the cell. In closed cell experiments, the products are captured, for example by catalytically recombining the products in a separate part of the experimental system. These experiments generally strive for a steady state condition, with the electrolyte being replaced periodically. There are also "heat-after-death" experiments, where the evolution of heat is monitored after the electric current is turned off. The most basic setup of a cold fusion cell consists of two electrodes submerged in a solution containing palladium and heavy water. The electrodes are then connected to a power source to transmit electricity from one electrode to the other through the solution. Even when anomalous heat is reported, it can take weeks for it to begin to appear—this is known as the "loading time," the time required to saturate the palladium electrode with hydrogen (see "Loading ratio" section). The Fleischmann and Pons early findings regarding helium, neutron radiation and tritium were never replicated satisfactorily, and its levels were too low for the claimed heat production and inconsistent with each other. Neutron radiation has been reported in cold fusion experiments at very low levels using different kinds of detectors, but levels were too low, close to background, and found too infrequently to provide useful information about possible nuclear processes.Excess heat and energy productionAn excess heat observation is based on an energy balance. Various sources of energy input and output are continuously measured. Under normal conditions, the energy input can be matched to the energy output to within experimental error. In experiments such as those run by Fleischmann and Pons, an electrolysis cell operating steadily at one temperature transitions to operating at a higher temperature with no increase in applied current. If the higher temperatures were real, and not an experimental artifact, the energy balance would show an unaccounted term. In the Fleischmann and Pons experiments, the rate of inferred excess heat generation was in the range of 10–20% of total input, though this could not be reliably replicated by most researchers. Researcher Nathan Lewis discovered that the excess heat in Fleischmann and Pons's original paper was not measured, but estimated from measurements that didn't have any excess heat. Unable to produce excess heat or neutrons, and with positive experiments being plagued by errors and giving disparate results, most researchers declared that heat production was not a real effect and ceased working on the experiments. In 1993, after their original report, Fleischmann reported "heat-after-death" experiments—where excess heat was measured after the electric current supplied to the electrolytic cell was turned off. This type of report has also become part of subsequent cold fusion claims. Helium, heavy elements, and neutrons plastic radiation detector claimed as evidence for neutron emission from palladium deuteride]] Known instances of nuclear reactions, aside from producing energy, also produce nucleons and particles on readily observable ballistic trajectories. In support of their claim that nuclear reactions took place in their electrolytic cells, Fleischmann and Pons reported a neutron flux of 4,000 neutrons per second, as well as detection of tritium. The classical branching ratio for previously known fusion reactions that produce tritium would predict, with 1 watt of power, the production of 10<sup>12</sup> neutrons per second, levels that would have been fatal to the researchers. In 2009, Mosier-Boss et al. reported what they called the first scientific report of highly energetic neutrons, using CR-39 plastic radiation detectors, but the claims cannot be validated without a quantitative analysis of neutrons. Several medium and heavy elements like calcium, titanium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, copper and zinc have been reported as detected by several researchers, like Tadahiko Mizuno or George Miley. The report presented to the United States Department of Energy (DOE) in 2004 indicated that deuterium-loaded foils could be used to detect fusion reaction products and, although the reviewers found the evidence presented to them as inconclusive, they indicated that those experiments did not use state-of-the-art techniques. In response to doubts about the lack of nuclear products, cold fusion researchers have tried to capture and measure nuclear products correlated with excess heat. Considerable attention has been given to measuring <sup>4</sup>He production. However, the reported levels are very near to background, so contamination by trace amounts of helium normally present in the air cannot be ruled out. In the report presented to the DOE in 2004, the reviewers' opinion was divided on the evidence for <sup>4</sup>He, with the most negative reviews concluding that although the amounts detected were above background levels, they were very close to them and therefore could be caused by contamination from air. One of the main criticisms of cold fusion was that deuteron-deuteron fusion into helium was expected to result in the production of gamma rays—which were not observed and were not observed in subsequent cold fusion experiments. Cold fusion researchers have since claimed to find X-rays, helium, neutrons and nuclear transmutations. Some researchers also claim to have found them using only light water and nickel cathodes. The 2004 DOE panel expressed concerns about the poor quality of the theoretical framework cold fusion proponents presented to account for the lack of gamma rays.Proposed mechanismsResearchers in the field do not agree on a theory for cold fusion. One proposal considers that hydrogen and its isotopes can be absorbed in certain solids, including palladium hydride, at high densities. This creates a high partial pressure, reducing the average separation of hydrogen isotopes. However, the reduction in separation is not enough to create the fusion rates claimed in the original experiment, by a factor of ten. In muon-catalyzed fusion there are more fusions because the presence of the muon causes deuterium nuclei to be 207 times closer than in ordinary deuterium gas. But deuterium nuclei inside a palladium lattice are further apart than in deuterium gas, and there should be fewer fusion reactions, not more. Paneth and Peters in the 1920s already knew that palladium can absorb up to 900 times its own volume of hydrogen gas, storing it at several thousands of times the atmospheric pressure. This led them to believe that they could increase the nuclear fusion rate by simply loading palladium rods with hydrogen gas. Tandberg then tried the same experiment but used electrolysis to make palladium absorb more deuterium and force the deuterium further together inside the rods, thus anticipating the main elements of Fleischmann and Pons' experiment. and even then there would be measurable levels of radiation. Also, experiments indicate that the ratios of deuterium fusion remain constant at different energies. In general, pressure and chemical environment cause only small changes to fusion ratios. Errors in these assumptions have been offered as non-nuclear explanations for excess heat. One assumption made by Fleischmann and Pons is that the efficiency of electrolysis is nearly 100%, meaning nearly all the electricity applied to the cell resulted in electrolysis of water, with negligible resistive heating and substantially all the electrolysis product leaving the cell unchanged. This assumption gives the amount of energy expended converting liquid D<sub>2</sub>O into gaseous D<sub>2</sub> and O<sub>2</sub>. The efficiency of electrolysis is less than one if hydrogen and oxygen recombine to a significant extent within the calorimeter. Several researchers have described potential mechanisms by which this process could occur and thereby account for excess heat in electrolysis experiments. Another assumption is that heat loss from the calorimeter maintains the same relationship with measured temperature as found when calibrating the calorimeter. This assumption ceases to be accurate if the temperature distribution within the cell becomes significantly altered from the condition under which calibration measurements were made. This can happen, for example, if fluid circulation within the cell becomes significantly altered. Recombination of hydrogen and oxygen within the calorimeter would also alter the heat distribution and invalidate the calibration. Publications The ISI identified cold fusion as the scientific topic with the largest number of published papers in 1989, of all scientific disciplines. The Nobel Laureate Julian Schwinger declared himself a supporter of cold fusion in the fall of 1989, after much of the response to the initial reports had turned negative. He tried to publish his theoretical paper "Cold Fusion: A Hypothesis" in Physical Review Letters, but the peer reviewers rejected it so harshly that he felt deeply insulted, and he resigned from the American Physical Society (publisher of PRL) in protest. The number of papers sharply declined after 1990 because of two simultaneous phenomena: first, scientists abandoned the field; second, journal editors declined to review new papers. Consequently, cold fusion fell off the ISI charts. Researchers who got negative results turned their backs on the field; those who continued to publish were simply ignored. A 1993 paper in Physics Letters A was the last paper published by Fleischmann, and "one of the last reports [by Fleischmann] to be formally challenged on technical grounds by a cold fusion skeptic." Critics and skeptics stopped attending these conferences, with the notable exception of Douglas Morrison, who died in 2001. With the founding in 2004 of the International Society for Condensed Matter Nuclear Science (ISCMNS), the conference was renamed the International Conference on Condensed Matter Nuclear Science—for reasons that are detailed in the subsequent research section above—but reverted to the old name in 2008. Cold fusion research is often referenced by proponents as "low-energy nuclear reactions", or LENR, Since 2007, the American Chemical Society (ACS) meetings also include "invited symposium(s)" on cold fusion. An ACS program chair, Gopal Coimbatore, said that without a proper forum the matter would never be discussed and, "with the world facing an energy crisis, it is worth exploring all possibilities." On 22–25 March 2009, the American Chemical Society meeting included a four-day symposium in conjunction with the 20th anniversary of the announcement of cold fusion. Researchers working at the U.S. Navy's Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center (SPAWAR) reported detection of energetic neutrons using a heavy water electrolysis setup and a CR-39 detector, Without quantitative analysis of the number, energy, and timing of the neutrons and exclusion of other potential sources, this interpretation is unlikely to find acceptance by the wider scientific community. Patents Although details have not surfaced, it appears that the University of Utah forced the 23 March 1989 Fleischmann and Pons announcement to establish priority over the discovery and its patents before the joint publication with Jones. The U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) now rejects patents claiming cold fusion. When asked about the resemblance to cold fusion, the patent holder said that it used nuclear processes involving "new nuclear physics" unrelated to cold fusion. The episode explores its potential benefits and viability within the ongoing post-apocalyptic global warming scenario of the series. In the 2023 video game Atomic Heart, cold fusion is responsible for nearly all of the technological advances. The video game and television series Fallout also features cold fusion as a major source of energy.See also * Bubble fusion * Cold fission * Energy Catalyzer (E-cat) * Faraday-efficiency effect * Incredible utility (patent concept) * Lattice confinement fusion * Muon-catalyzed fusion * Nuclear transmutation * Patterson power cell * Pyroelectric fusion * Widom–Larsen theory Notes References Citations }} Citations of quotations Bibliography * * * * * * * * [http://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/50230 MIT Open Access Articles]. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * (manuscript). * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * In the foreword by the president of ENEA the belief is expressed that the cold fusion phenomenon is proved. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * External links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130406141010/http://www.iscmns.org/ International Society for Condensed Matter Nuclear Science] (iscmns.org), organizes the ICCF conferences and publishes the Journal of Condensed Matter Nuclear Science. See: [http://www.iscmns.org/library.htm library.htm] of published papers and proceedings. * [http://www.lenr-forum.com/forum/index.php/Attachment/386-IEEE-brief-DeChiaro-9-2015-pdf/ Low Energy Nuclear Reactions (LENR) Phenomena and Potential Applications] : Naval Surface Warfare Center report NSWCDD-PN-15-0040 by Louis F. DeChiaro, PhD, 23 September 2015 Category:1989 in science Category:Discovery and invention controversies Category:Electrolysis Category:Fringe physics Category:Nuclear fusion Category:Nuclear physics Category:Palladium	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_fusion	2025-04-05T18:28:09.429135
7466	Coal tar	\| MedlinePlus \| pregnancy_AU <!-- A/B1/B2/B3/C/D/X --> \| pregnancy_AU_comment \| pregnancy_US C \| pregnancy_category\| routes_of_administration Topical \| legal_AU = <!-- S2, S3, S4, S5, S6, S7, S8, S9 or Unscheduled--> \| legal_AU_comment \| legal_CA <!-- OTC, Rx-only, Schedule I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII --> \| legal_DE = <!-- Anlage I, II, III --> \| legal_NZ = <!-- Class A, B, C --> \| legal_UK = <!-- GSL, P, POM, CD, CD Lic, CD POM, CD No Reg POM, CD (Benz) POM, CD (Anab) POM or CD Inv POM / Class A, B, C --> \| legal_US = OTC \| legal_US_comment = / Rx-only \| legal_UN = <!-- N I, II, III, IV / P I, II, III, IV--> \| legal_status = <!-- Pharmacokinetic data --> \| bioavailability \| protein_bound \| metabolism \| metabolites \| onset \| elimination_half-life \| duration_of_action \| excretion <!-- Identifiers --> \| CAS_number = 8007-45-2 \| UNII_Ref = \| UNII = R533ESO2EC \| class \| ATCvet \| ATC_prefix = D05 \| ATC_suffix = AA \| PubChem \| DrugBank \| ChemSpiderID = none <!-- Chemical and physical data --> \| chemical_formula \| molecular_weight }} <!-- Definition and medical uses --> Coal tar is a thick dark liquid which is a by-product of the production of coke and coal gas from coal. It is a type of creosote. It has both medical and industrial uses. Industrially it is a railroad tie preservative and used in the surfacing of roads. <!-- History and culture --> Coal tar was discovered circa 1665 and used for medical purposes as early as the 1800s. Circa 1850, the discovery that it could be used as the main raw material for the synthesis of dyes engendered an entire industry. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Coal tar is available as a generic medication and over the counter. <!-- side effects and mechanism --> Side effects include skin irritation, sun sensitivity, allergic reactions, and skin discoloration. The exact mechanism of action is unknown. It demonstrates antifungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-itch, and antiparasitic properties. Composition Coal tar is produced through thermal destruction (pyrolysis) of coal. Its composition varies with the process and type of coal used – lignite, bituminous or anthracite. Coal tar is a mixture of approximately 10,000 chemicals, of which only about 50% have been identified. Most of the chemical compounds are polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon: * polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (4-rings: chrysene, fluoranthene, pyrene, triphenylene, naphthacene, benzanthracene, 5-rings: picene, [[Benzo(a)pyrene\|benzo[a]pyrene]], [[Benzo(e)pyrene\|benzo[e]pyrene]], benzofluoranthenes, perylene, 6-rings: dibenzopyrenes, dibenzofluoranthenes, benzoperylenes, 7-rings: coronene) * methylated and polymethylated derivatives, mono- and polyhydroxylated derivatives, and heterocyclic compounds. Others: benzene, toluene, xylenes, cumenes, coumarone, indene, benzofuran, naphthalene and methyl-naphthalenes, acenaphthene, fluorene, phenol, cresols, pyridine, picolines, phenanthracene, carbazole, quinolines, fluoranthene. Derivatives Various phenolic coal tar derivatives have analgesic (pain-killer) properties. These included acetanilide, phenacetin, and paracetamol aka acetaminophen. Paracetamol may be the only coal-tar derived analgesic still in use today. Industrial phenol is now usually synthesized from crude oil rather than coal tar. Coal tar derivatives are contra-indicated for people with the inherited red cell blood disorder glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency (G6PD deficiency), as they can cause oxidative stress leading to red blood cell breakdown. Mechanism of action The exact mechanism of action is unknown. Named brands include Denorex, Balnetar, Psoriasin, Tegrin, T/Gel, and Neutar. When used in the extemporaneous preparation of topical medications, it is supplied in the form of coal tar topical solution USP, which consists of a 20% w/v solution of coal tar in alcohol, with an additional 5% w/v of polysorbate 80 USP; this must then be diluted in an ointment base, such as petrolatum. Construction Coal tar was a component of the first sealed roads. In its original development by Edgar Purnell Hooley, tarmac was tar covered with granite chips. Later the filler used was industrial slag. Today, petroleum derived binders and sealers are more commonly used. These sealers are used to extend the life and reduce maintenance cost associated with asphalt pavements, primarily in asphalt road paving, car parks and walkways. Coal tar is incorporated into some parking-lot sealcoat products used to protect the structural integrity of the underlying pavement. Sealcoat products that are coal-tar based typically contain 20 to 35 percent coal-tar pitch. shows it is used throughout the United States of America, however several areas have banned its use in sealcoat products, including the District of Columbia; the city of Austin, Texas; Dane County, Wisconsin; the state of Washington; and several municipalities in Minnesota and others. Industry In modern times, coal tar is mostly traded as fuel and an application for tar, such as roofing. The total value of the trade in coal tar is around US$20 billion each year. * As a fuel. * In the manufacture of paints, synthetic dyes (notably tartrazine/Yellow #5), and photographic materials. * For heating or to fire boilers. Like most heavy oils, it must be heated before it will flow easily. * As a source of carbon black. * As a binder in manufacturing graphite; a considerable portion of the materials in "green blocks" is coke oven volatiles (COV). During the baking process of the green blocks as a part of commercial graphite production, most of the coal tar binders are vaporised and are generally burned in an incinerator to prevent release into the atmosphere, as COV and coal tar can be injurious to health. * As a main component of the electrode paste used in electric arc furnaces. Coal tar pitch act as the binder for solid filler that can be either coke or calcined anthracite, forming electrode paste, also widely known as Söderberg electrode paste. * As a feed stock for higher-value fractions, such as naphtha, creosote and pitch. In the coal gas era, companies distilled coal tar to separate these out, leading to the discovery of many industrial chemicals. :Some British companies included: Bonnington Chemical Works British Tar Products Lancashire Tar Distillers Midland Tar Distillers Newton, Chambers & Company (owners of Izal brand disinfectant) Sadlers Chemicals Safety Side effects of coal tar products include skin irritation, sun sensitivity, allergic reactions, and skin discoloration. According to the National Psoriasis Foundation, coal tar is a valuable, safe and inexpensive treatment option for millions of people with psoriasis and other scalp or skin conditions. According to the FDA, coal tar concentrations between 0.5% and 5% are considered safe and effective for psoriasis. Cancer Long-term, consistent exposure to coal tar likely increases the risk of non-melanoma skin cancers. Evidence is inconclusive whether medical coal tar, which does not remain on the skin for the long periods seen in occupational exposure, causes cancer, because there is insufficient data to make a judgment. While coal tar consistently causes cancer in cohorts of workers with chronic occupational exposure, animal models, and mechanistic studies, It's possible that the skin can repair itself from this damage after short-term exposure to PAHs but not after long-term exposure. The International Agency for Research on Cancer lists coal tars as Group 1 carcinogens, meaning they directly cause cancer. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services lists coal tars as known human carcinogens. In response to public health concerns regarding the carcinogenicity of PAHs some municipalities, such as the city of Milwaukee, have banned the use of common coal tar-based road and driveway sealants citing concerns of elevated PAH content in groundwater. Other Coal tar causes increased sensitivity to sunlight, so skin treated with topical coal tar preparations should be protected from sunlight. The residue from the distillation of high-temperature coal tar, primarily a complex mixture of three or more membered condensed ring aromatic hydrocarbons, was listed on 13 January 2010 as a substance of very high concern by the European Chemicals Agency. Regulation Exposure to coal tar pitch volatiles can occur in the workplace by breathing, skin contact, or eye contact. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the permissible exposure limit) to 0.2 mg/m<sup>3</sup> benzene-soluble fraction over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 0.1 mg/m<sup>3</sup> cyclohexane-extractable fraction over an 8-hour workday. At levels of 80 mg/m<sup>3</sup>, coal tar pitch volatiles are immediately dangerous to life and health. When used as a medication in the United States, coal tar preparations are considered over-the-counter drug pharmaceuticals and are subject to regulation by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). See also Coal oil Wood tar References External links * * * * Category:Antipsoriatics Category:Coal Category:IARC Group 1 carcinogens Category:Materials Category:World Health Organization essential medicines Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate Category:Drugs with unknown mechanisms of action	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal_tar	2025-04-05T18:28:09.450196
7467	Cobbler	Cobbler(s) may refer to: A person who repairs shoes Cobbler (food), a type of pie Places The Cobbler, a mountain located near the head of Loch Long in Scotland Mount Cobbler, Australia Art, entertainment and media The Cobbler (1923 film), a short comedy by Hal Roach The Cobbler (2014 film), a comedy-drama starring Adam Sandler "Cobbler" (Better Call Saul), an episode of the TV series Better Call Saul Animals Cobbler or river cobbler, a marketing name in the UK for Southeast Asian Pangasius bocourti and Pangasius pangasius (also marketed as "basa", "pangasius" and "panga") Cobbler, a common name for Cnidoglanis macrocephalus, a species of catfish found along the coasts of Australia Cobbler, a common name for the South Australian cobbler, a brown fish found in estuaries in southern Australia Cobbler (Condica sutor), a North American moth in the family Noctuidae Other uses Sherry cobbler, a type of cocktail Cobbler (software), a network-oriented install server for Linux , a United States Navy ship name , a former submarine in the United States Navy "The Cobblers", a nickname for the English association football club Northampton Town F.C. Cobblers, a slang term for "nonsense" Hoboken Squat Cobbler, a fictitious fetish in Better Call Saul See also Cobble (disambiguation)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cobbler	2025-04-05T18:28:09.452485
7471	Catherine of Siena	\| birth_place = Siena, Republic of Siena \| birth_name = Caterina di Jacopo di Benincasa \| death_date \| death_place = Rome, Papal States \| venerated_in \|beatified_date 29 December 1460 \|beatified_by \|canonized_date = 29 April 1461 \|canonized_by = Pope Pius II \|major_shrine = Santa Maria sopra Minerva, Rome and the Sanctuary of Saint Catherine, Siena \| feast_day = 29 April; 30 April (Roman Calendar, 1628–1969); 4 October (in Italy) \| attributes = habit of a Dominican tertiary, ring, lily, cherubim, crown of thorns, stigmata, crucifix, book, heart, skull, dove, rose, miniature church, miniature ship bearing papal coat of arms \| patronage = against fire; bodily ills; people ridiculed for their piety; nurses; sick people; miscarriages; Europe; Italy; Diocese of Allentown, Pennsylvania, U.S.; Bambang, Nueva Vizcaya, Philippines; Samal, Bataan, Philippines }} Caterina di Jacopo di Benincasa, TOSD (25 March 1347 – 29 April 1380), known as Catherine of Siena (), was an Italian Catholic mystic and pious laywoman who engaged in papal and Italian politics through extensive letter-writing and advocacy. Canonized in 1461, she is revered as a saint and as a Doctor of the Church due to her extensive theological authorship. She is also considered to have influenced Italian literature. Born and raised in Siena, Catherine wanted from an early age to devote herself to God, which was against the will of her parents. She joined the "mantellates", a group of pious women, primarily widows, informally devoted to Dominican spirituality; later these types of urban pious groups would be formalized as the Third Order of the Dominicans, but not until after Catherine's death. She dictated to secretaries her set of spiritual treatises, The Dialogue of Divine Providence. Her influence on Pope Gregory XI played a role in his 1376 decision to leave Avignon for Rome. The Pope then sent Catherine to negotiate peace with the Florentine Republic. After Gregory XI's death (March 1378) and the conclusion of peace (July 1378), she returned to Siena. The Great Schism of the West led Catherine of Siena to go to Rome with the pope. She sent numerous letters to princes and cardinals to promote obedience to Pope Urban VI and to defend what she calls the "vessel of the Church". She died on 29 April 1380, exhausted by her rigorous fasting. Urban VI celebrated her funeral and burial in the Basilica of Santa Maria sopra Minerva in Rome. Devotion to Catherine of Siena developed rapidly after her death. Pope Pius II canonized her in 1461; she was declared a patron saint of Rome in 1866 by Pope Pius IX, and of Italy (together with Francis of Assisi) in 1939 by Pope Pius XII. She was the second woman to be declared a Doctor of the Church, on 4 October 1970 by Pope Paul VI – only days after Teresa of Ávila. In 1999 Pope John Paul II proclaimed her a Patron Saint of Europe.Early life ]] Caterina di Jacopo di Benincasa was born on 25 March 1347 (shortly before the Black Death ravaged Europe) in Siena, Republic of Siena (today Italy), to Lapa Piagenti, the daughter of a local poet, and Jacopo di Benincasa, a cloth dyer who ran his enterprise with the help of his sons. The house where Catherine grew up still exists. Lapa was about 40 years old when she gave birth prematurely to her 23rd and 24th children, twin daughters, named Catherine and Giovanna. After birth, Giovanna was handed over to a wet nurse and died soon after. Catherine was nursed by her mother and developed into a healthy child. She was two years old when Lapa had her 25th child, another daughter named Giovanna. As a child, Catherine was so merry that the family gave her the pet name of "Euphrosyne", which is Greek for "joy", and the name of an Euphrosyne of Alexandria. Catherine is said by her confessor and biographer Raymond of Capua's Life to have had her first vision of Christ when she was five or six years old: she and a brother were on the way home from visiting a married sister when she is said to have experienced a vision of Christ seated in glory with the Apostles Peter, Paul, and John. Raymond continues that at age seven, Catherine vowed to give her whole life to God. Around the age of 15 Catherine's family started to look for a husband for Catherine. Catherine's hagiographer, Raymond of Capua, states that her older sister Bonaventura had some success in convincing Catherine to use make-up and otherwise improve her appearance. But after Bonaventura died in childbirth, Catherine redoubled her commitment to remain a virgin. She was advised by her confessor to signal her commitment to her parents by cutting her hair (a tactic that other female saints had used to express their resolve to remain unmarried.) This led to a protracted battle with her family, during which her family treated her in effect as a servant in the family home. by Neroccio di Bartolomeo de' Landi (1475)]] Catherine would later advise Raymond of Capua to do during times of trouble what she did now as a teenager: "Build a cell inside your mind, from which you can never flee." In this inner cell, she made her father into a representation of Christ, her mother into the Blessed Virgin Mary, and her brothers into the Apostles in the New Testament. Serving them humbly became an opportunity for spiritual growth. Catherine resisted the accepted course of marriage and motherhood on the one hand, or a nun's veil on the other. She chose to live an active and prayerful life outside a convent's walls, following the model of the Dominicans. Eventually, her parents gave up and permitted her to live as she pleased and stay unmarried. <!--It was during this time of solitude that Catherine began to build herself a "spiritual body" and thus go beyond the gender roles that were assigned to women in the society and Church of her time.--> A vision of Dominic de Guzmán gave strength to Catherine, but her wish to join his order was no comfort to Lapa, who took her daughter with her to the baths in Bagno Vignoni to improve her health. Catherine fell seriously ill with a violent rash, fever and pain, which conveniently made her mother accept her wish to join the "Mantellate", the local association of devout women. The Mantellate taught Catherine how to read, and she lived in almost total silence and solitude in the family home. Later life , The Mystic Marriage of Saint Catherine of Siena]] According to Raymond of Capua, at the age of 21 (), Catherine experienced what she described in her letters as a "Mystical Marriage" with Jesus, later a popular subject in art as the Mystic marriage of Saint Catherine. Caroline Walker Bynum imagines one surprising and controversial aspect of this marriage: "Underlining the extent to which the marriage was a fusion with Christ's physicality[...] Catherine received, not the ring of gold and jewels that her biographer reports in his bowdlerized version, but the ring of Christ's foreskin." Catherine herself mentions the ring ‘of flesh’ motif in one of her letters (#221), equating the wedding ring of a virgin with the flesh of Jesus; she typically claimed that her own wedding ring to Christ was simply invisible. She wrote in a letter (to encourage a nun who seems to have been undergoing a prolonged period of spiritual trial and torment): "Bathe in the blood of Christ crucified. See that you don't look for or want anything but the crucified, as a true bride ransomed by the blood of Christ crucified – for that is my wish. You see very well that you are a bride and that he has espoused you – you and everyone else – and not with a ring of silver but with a ring of his own flesh." Raymond of Capua also records that Catherine was told by Christ to leave her withdrawn life and enter the public life of the world. Catherine rejoined her family and began helping the ill and the poor, where she took care of them in hospitals or homes. Her early pious activities in Siena attracted a group of followers, women and men, who gathered around her. With her help in the Hospital of Santa Maria della Scala and within the neighborhood that she was living, Catherine's acts of charity became well known. This led to her being known as , or a holy woman. This reputation of holiness eventually led to her involvement in politics and a hearing with the pope. As social and political tensions mounted in Siena, Catherine found herself drawn to intervene in wider politics. She made her first journey to Florence in 1374, probably to be interviewed by the Dominican authorities at the General Chapter held in Florence in May 1374, though this is disputed (if she was interviewed, then the absence of later evidence suggests she was deemed sufficiently orthodox). It seems that at this time she acquired Raymond of Capua as her confessor and spiritual director. After this visit, she began travelling with her followers throughout northern and central Italy advocating reform of the clergy and advising people that repentance and renewal could be done through "the total love for God." In Pisa, in 1375, she used what influence she had to sway that city and Lucca away from alliance with the anti-papal league whose force was gaining momentum and strength. She also lent her enthusiasm toward promoting the launch of a new crusade. It was during this time in Pisa, according to Raymond of Capua's biography, that she received the stigmata (visible, at Catherine's request, only to herself). Her physical travels were not the only way in which Catherine made her views known. From 1375 onward, she began dictating letters to scribes. In June 1376 Catherine went to Avignon as ambassador of the Republic of Florence to make peace with the Papal States (on 31 March 1376 Gregory XI had placed Florence under interdict). She was unsuccessful and was disowned by the Florentine leaders, who sent ambassadors to negotiate on their own terms as soon as Catherine's work had paved the way for them. Catherine sent an appropriately scorching letter back to Florence in response. While in Avignon, Catherine also tried to convince Pope Gregory XI, the last Avignon Pope, to return to Rome. Gregory did indeed return his administration to Rome in January 1377; to what extent this was due to Catherine's influence is a topic of much modern debate. Catherine returned to Siena and spent the early months of 1377 founding a women's monastery of strict observance outside the city in the old fortress of Belcaro. She spent the rest of 1377 at Rocca d'Orcia, about from Siena, on a local mission of peace-making and preaching. During this period, in autumn 1377, she had the experience which led to the writing of her Dialogue and learned to write, although she still seems to have chiefly relied upon her secretaries for her correspondence. Late in 1377 or early in 1378 Catherine again travelled to Florence, at the order of Gregory XI, to seek peace between Florence and Rome. Following Gregory's death in March 1378 riots, the revolts of the Ciompi broke out in Florence on June 18, and in the ensuing violence Catherine was nearly assassinated. Eventually, in July 1378, peace was agreed between Florence and Rome and Catherine returned quietly to Florence. She received the Holy Eucharist almost daily. This extreme fasting appeared unhealthy in the eyes of the clergy and her own sisterhood. Her confessor, Raymond, ordered her to eat properly. But Catherine replied that she was unable to, describing her inability to eat as an (illness). From the beginning of 1380, Catherine could neither eat nor swallow water. On February 26, she lost the use of her legs. She was said to have levitated while in prayer, and a priest claimed to have seen the consecrated host flying from his hand straight to Catherine's tongue. Catherine died in Rome on April 29, 1380, at the age of 33, eight days after suffering a massive stroke, which paralyzed her from the waist down. Her last words were "Father, into Your Hands I commend my soul and my spirit." Works Three genres of work by Catherine survive: * Her major treatise is The Dialogue of Divine Providence, which is thought to have been begun in October 1377 and finished by November 1378. Contemporaries of Catherine are united in asserting that much of the book was dictated while Catherine was in ecstasy, though it also seems possible that Catherine herself may then have re-edited many passages in the book. This text is described as a dialogue between God and a soul. Other correspondents include her various confessors, among them Raymond of Capua, the kings of France and Hungary, the infamous mercenary John Hawkwood, the Queen of Naples, members of the Visconti family of Milan, and numerous religious figures. * 26 prayers of Catherine of Siena also survive, mostly composed in the last 18 months of her life. The University of Alcalá conserves a unique handwritten Spanish manuscript, while other available texts are printed copies collected by the National Library of France. Theology Catherine's theology can be described as mystical, and was employed toward practical ends for her own spiritual life or those of others. She used the language of medieval scholastic philosophy to elaborate her experiential mysticism. Interested mainly with achieving an incorporeal union with God, Catherine practiced extreme fasting and asceticism, eventually to the extent of living solely on the Eucharist every day. For Catherine, this practice was the means to fully realize her love of Christ in her mystical experience, with a large proportion of her ecstatic visions relating to the consumption or rejection of food during her life. She viewed Christ as a "bridge" between the soul and God and transmitted that idea, along with her other teachings, in her book The Dialogue. The Dialogue is highly systematic and explanatory in its presentation of her mystical ideas; however, these ideas themselves are not so much based on reason or logic as they are based in her ecstatic mystical experience. Her work was widely read across Europe, and survives in a Middle English translation called The Orchard of Syon. In one of her letters she sent to her confessor, Raymond of Capua, she recorded this revelation from her conversation with Christ, in which he said: "Do you know what you are to Me, and what I am to you, my daughter? I am He who is, you are she who is not". This mystical concept of God as the wellspring of being is seen in the works and ideas of Aquinas and can be seen as a simplistic rendering of apotheosis and a more rudimentary form of the doctrine of divine simplicity. She describes God in her work, The Dialogue (which she referred to simply as "her book"), as a "sea, in which we are the fish", the point being that the relationship between God and man should not be seen as man contending against the Divine and vice versa, but as God being the endless being that supports all things. According to the writings attributed to Catherine, in 1377 she had a vision in which the Virgin confirmed to her a thesis supported by the Dominican Order, to which Catherine belonged: the Virgin said that she had been conceived the original sin. The Virgin thus contradicted the future dogma of the Immaculate Conception. Cardinal Lambertini (later Pope Benedict XIV) in his treatise , 1734–1738, cites theologians who believed that Catherine's directors or editors had falsified her words; he also cites Father Lancicius, who believed that Catherine had made a mistake as a result of preconceived ideas. Veneration of Saint Catherine beneath the High Altar of Santa Maria sopra Minerva, Rome]] Catherine was initially buried in the (Roman) cemetery of Santa Maria sopra Minerva which lies near the Pantheon. After miracles were reported to take place at her grave, Raymond moved her inside Santa Maria sopra Minerva, where she lies to this day. ]] Her head, however, was parted from her body and inserted in a gilt bust of bronze. This bust was later taken to Siena, and carried through that city in a procession to the Dominican church. Behind the bust walked Lapa, Catherine's mother, who lived until she was 89 years old. By then she had seen the end of the wealth and the happiness of her family, and followed most of her children and several of her grandchildren to the grave. She helped Raymond of Capua write his biography of her daughter, and said, "I think God has laid my soul athwart in my body, so that it can't get out." The incorrupt head and thumb were entombed in the Basilica of San Domenico at Siena, where they remain. Pope Pius II himself canonized Catherine on 29 April 1461. On 4 October 1970, Pope Paul VI named Catherine a Doctor of the Church; making them the first women to receive this honour. However, Catherine's feast day was not initially included in the General Roman Calendar. When it was added in 1597, it was put on the day of her death, 29 April; however, because this conflicted with the feast of Saint Peter of Verona, which also fell on 29 April, Catherine's feast day was moved in 1628 to the new date of 30 April. In the 1969 revision of the calendar, it was decided to leave the celebration of the feast of St Peter of Verona to local calendars, because he was not as well known worldwide, and Catherine's feast was restored to 29 April. Catherine is remembered in the Church of England and in the Episcopal Church on 29 April. The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) also commemorates Catherine of Siena on 29 April. Legacy Catherine ranks high among the mystics and spiritual writers of the Catholic Church. Severed head The people of Siena wished to have Catherine's body. A story is told of a miracle whereby they were partially successful: knowing that they could not smuggle her whole body out of Rome, they decided to take only her head which they placed in a bag. When stopped by the Roman guards, they prayed to Catherine to help them, confident that she would rather have her body (or at least part thereof) in Siena. When they opened the bag to show the guards, it appeared no longer to hold her head but to be full of rose petals.SanteríaIn some traditions of Santería, Saint Catherine of Siena has been syncretized with the orisha (deity) Ọba and is venerated. Biographical sources showing the vision of the mystic wedding of Catherine and Christ. Bruges Public Library, MS 767.]] There is some internal evidence of Catherine's personality, teaching and work in her nearly four hundred letters, her Dialogue, and her prayers. Details about her life have also been drawn from the various sources written shortly after her death to promote her cult and canonization. Though much of the material is heavily hagiographic, written to promote her sanctity, it is an important early source for historians seeking to reconstruct Catherine's life. Various sources are particularly important, especially the works of Raymond of Capua, who was Catherine's spiritual director and close friend from 1374 to her death and himself became Master General of the Order in 1380. Raymond wrote what is known as the , his Life of Catherine which was completed in 1395, fifteen years after Catherine's death. It was soon translated into other European languages, including German and English. Another important work written after Catherine's death was (Little Supplement Book), written between 1412 and 1418 by Tommaso d'Antonio Nacci da Siena (commonly called Thomas of Siena, or Tommaso Caffarini); the work is an expansion of Raymond's making heavy use of the notes of Catherine's first confessor, Tommaso della Fonte, that do not survive anywhere else. Caffarini later published a more compact account of Catherine's life, the . From 1411 onward, Caffarini also coordinated the compiling of the of Venice, the set of documents submitted as part of the process of canonisation of Catherine, which provides testimony from nearly all of Catherine's disciples. There is also an anonymous piece, (Miracle of Blessed Catherine), written by an anonymous Florentine. A few other relevant pieces survive.Main sanctuaries The main churches in honor of Catherine of Siena are: * Santa Maria sopra Minerva in Rome, where her body is preserved. * Basilica of San Domenico in Siena, where her incorrupt head is preserved.Images <gallery> File:Catherine of Siena (by Diego de Robles, c. 16th century).jpg\|Catherine of Siena, by Diego de Robles (c. 16th century). Santo Domingo Convent, Quito. File:St Catherine of Siena.jpg\|A statue of St. Catherine of Siena at the Parish of St. Catherine of Siena Church in Trumbull, Connecticut File:CatherineSienaMeo.jpg\|Michele de Meo, Catherine of Siena, Patroness of Europe, 2003, Chapel of St. James, Church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva File:CatherineCommunionBeccafumi.jpg\|Domenico Beccafumi, The Miraculous Communion of St. Catherine of Siena, c. 1513–1515, Getty Center, Los Angeles, California File:CSienaStigmataBeccafumi.jpg\|Domenico Beccafumi, St. Catherine of Siena Receiving the Stigmata, c. 1513–1515, Getty Center, Los Angeles, California File:RosaryStaAgata.jpg\|The Virgin Mary Giving the Rosary to St. Dominic and St. Catherine of Siena, Church of Santa Agata in Trastevere, Rome (Bottom of painting: the souls in Purgatory await the prayers of the faithful) File:Franceschini, Baldassare - St Catherine of Siena - Google Art Project.jpg\|Baldassare Franceschini, Saint Catherine of Siena, 17th century, Dulwich Picture Gallery File:Giovanni di paolo, St Catherine of Siena.jpg\|Giovanni di Paolo, St. Catherine of Siena, c. 1475, tempera and gold on panel. Fogg Art Museum, Cambridge, England. File:Lesser Poland St. Catherine of Siena.jpg\|St Catherine and the Demons by an unknown artist, c. 1500, tempera on panel. National Museum, Warsaw. File:Revelación del Santísimo Rosario a Santo Domingo de Guzmán.jpg\|This painting depicts the Virgin giving the rosary to St. Dominic; in the scene also appear Fray Pedro de Santa María Ulloa, Saint Catherine of Siena and Servant of God, Mary of Jesus de León y Delgado. The fresco is located in the Church of Santo Domingo in San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain. File:San Domenico74.jpg\|''St Catherine's mystic communion by Francesco Brizzi </gallery> Bibliography Modern editions and English translations * The Italian critical edition of the Dialogue is Catherine of Siena, , 2nd edition, edited by Giuliana Cavallini (Siena: Cantagalli, 1995; 1st edition, 1968). Cavallini demonstrated that the standard division of the Dialogue'' in into four treatises entitled the 'Treatise on Discretion', 'On Prayer', 'On Providence', and 'On Obedience', was in fact a result of a misreading of the text in the 1579 edition of the Dialogue. Modern editors and translators, including , have followed Cavallini in rejecting this fourfold division. * The Italian critical edition of the 26 Prayers is Catherine of Siena, , edited bt Giuliana Cavallini (Rome: Cateriniane, 1978) * The most recent Italian critical edition of the Letters is , (2002), edited by Antonio Volpato English translations of The Dialogue include: * [https://books.google.com/books?id=bsGXhNZyUSgC The Dialogue], trans. Suzanne Noffke, OP Paulist Press (Classics of Western Spirituality), 1980. * The Dialogue of St. Catherine of Siena, TAN Books, 2009. * Phyllis Hodgson and Gabriel M. Liegey, eds., The Orcherd of Syon, (London; New York: Oxford UP, 1966) [A Middle English translation of the Dialogo from the early fifteenth century, first printed in 1519]. The Letters are translated into English as: * (Republished as The letters of Catherine of Siena, 4 vols, trans Suzanne Noffke, (Tempe, AZ: Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 2000–2008)) The Prayers are translated into English as: * The Prayers of Catherine of Siena, trans. Suzanne Noffke, 2nd edn 1983, (New York, 2001) Raymond of Capua's Life was translated into English in 1493 and 1609, and in Modern English is translated as: * Letter Excerpts translated into English: * [https://catherineofsiena-spirituality.org/letters-illustrative-passages/ Letter Excerpts], translations by Diana L. Villegas, Ph.D. from the [https://centrostudicateriniani.it/it/santa-caterina-da-siena/scritti Volpato critical edition]. See also * * Saint Catherine of Siena, patron saint archive * Churches dedicated to Catherine of Siena References Sources * }} \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/dialogue00cath}} * Further reading * * Girolamo Gigli, ed., ''L'opere di Santa Caterina da Siena, 4 vols, (Siena e Lucca, 1707–1721) * * * * Carolyn Muessig, George Ferzoco, and Beverly Mayne Kienzle, eds., [https://books.google.com/books?id6TQAtAtPDiAC A Companion to Catherine of Siena], (Leiden: Brill, 2012), / .External links * ** [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext05/8ltcb10.txt Letters of Catherine from Gutenberg] * * [http://www.intratext.com/Catalogo/Autori/AUT59.HTM Saint Catherine of Siena: Text with concordances and frequency list] * [http://www.drawnbylove.com Drawn by Love, The Mysticism of Catherine of Siena] * [http://www.christianiconography.info/catherineSiena.html St. Catherine of Siena] at the [http://www.christianiconography.info Christian Iconography] web site * [http://purl.stanford.edu/rm504km6504 Divae Catharinae Senensis Vita 15th-century manuscript] at Stanford Digital Repository'' * [http://www.stpetersbasilica.info/Exterior/Colonnades/Saints/St%20Catherine%20of%20Siena-117/StCatherineofSiena.htm St Catherine statue – St Peter's Square Colonnade Saints] * * [https://catherineofsiena-spirituality.org Catherine of Siena's Spirituality] Category:1347 births Category:1380 deaths Category:14th-century Christian mystics Category:14th-century Christian saints Category:14th-century Italian Roman Catholic religious sisters and nuns Category:14th-century Italian Roman Catholic theologians Category:14th-century Italian women writers Category:14th-century people from the Republic of Florence Category:14th-century Italian philosophers Category:Medieval letter writers Category:Ambassadors of the Republic of Florence Category:Anglican saints Category:Burials at Santa Maria sopra Minerva Category:Catholic philosophers Category:Christian ethicists Category:Deaths from anorexia nervosa Category:Doctors of the Church Category:Dominican mystics Category:Dominican saints Category:Dominican theologians Category:Female saints of medieval Italy Category:Incorrupt saints Category:Italian hermits Category:Italian letter writers Category:Women letter writers Category:Italian Roman Catholic saints Category:Italian women ambassadors Category:Italian women philosophers Category:Lay Dominicans Category:Neurological disease deaths in Lazio Category:Roman Catholic mystics Category:People from Siena Category:Pre-Reformation saints of the Lutheran liturgical calendar Category:Stigmatics Category:Women Christian theologians Category:Women mystics Category:Women religious writers	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_of_Siena	2025-04-05T18:28:09.502162
7472	Charles Lyell	\| image = Charles Lyell00.jpg \| caption = Portrait of Lyell by George J. Stodart \| birth_date \| birth_place = Kinnordy House, Angus, Scotland \| death_date \| death_place = Harley Street, London, England \| resting_place = The Nave of Westminster Abbey \| residence \| field Geology \| work_institutions = King's College London \| alma_mater = Exeter College, Oxford \| known_for = Uniformitarianism \| author_abbrev_bot \| author_abbrev_zoo \| prizes = Royal Medal (1834)<br />Copley Medal (1858)<br />Wollaston Medal (1866) \| footnotes \| signature \| spouse = Mary Horner Lyell }} Sir Charles Lyell, 1st Baronet, (14 November 1797 – 22 February 1875) was a Scottish geologist who demonstrated the power of known natural causes in explaining the earth's history. He is best known today for his association with Charles Darwin and as the author of Principles of Geology (1830–33), which presented to a wide public audience the idea that the earth was shaped by the same natural processes still in operation today, operating at similar intensities. The philosopher William Whewell dubbed this gradualistic view "uniformitarianism" and contrasted it with catastrophism, which had been championed by Georges Cuvier and was better accepted in Europe. The combination of evidence and eloquence in Principles convinced a wide range of readers of the significance of "deep time" for understanding the earth and environment. Lyell's scientific contributions included a pioneering explanation of climate change, in which shifting boundaries between oceans and continents could be used to explain long-term variations in temperature and rainfall. Lyell also gave influential explanations of earthquakes and developed the theory of gradual "backed up-building" of volcanoes. In stratigraphy his division of the Tertiary period into the Pliocene, Miocene, and Eocene was highly influential. He incorrectly conjectured that icebergs were the impetus behind the transport of glacial erratics, and that silty loess deposits might have settled out of flood waters. His creation of a separate period for human history, entitled the 'Recent', is widely cited as providing the foundations for the modern discussion of the Anthropocene. Building on the innovative work of James Hutton and his follower John Playfair, Lyell favoured an indefinitely long age for the earth, despite evidence suggesting an old but finite age. He was a close friend of Charles Darwin, and contributed significantly to Darwin's thinking on the processes involved in evolution. As Darwin wrote in On the Origin of Species, "He who can read Sir Charles Lyell's grand work on the Principles of Geology, which the future historian will recognise as having produced a revolution in natural science, yet does not admit how incomprehensibly vast have been the past periods of time, may at once close this volume." Lyell helped to arrange the simultaneous publication in 1858 of papers by Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace on natural selection, despite his personal religious qualms about the theory. He later published evidence from geology of the time man had existed on the earth.Biography Lyell was born into a wealthy family, on 14 November 1797, at the family's estate house, Kinnordy House, near Kirriemuir in Forfarshire. He was the eldest of ten children. Lyell's father, also named Charles Lyell, was noted as a translator and scholar of Dante. An accomplished botanist, it was he who first exposed his son to the study of nature. Lyell's grandfather, also Charles Lyell, had made the family fortune supplying the Royal Navy at Montrose, enabling him to buy Kinnordy House. The family seat is located in Strathmore, near the Highland Boundary Fault. Round the house, in the strath, is good farmland, but within a short distance to the north-west, on the other side of the fault, are the Grampian Mountains in the Highlands. His family's second country home was in a completely different geological and ecological area: he spent much of his childhood at Bartley Lodge in the New Forest, in Hampshire in southern England. Lyell entered Exeter College, Oxford, in 1816, and attended William Buckland's geological lectures. He graduated with a BA Hons. second class degree in classics, in December 1819, and gained his M.A. 1821. After graduation he took up law as a profession, entering Lincoln's Inn in 1820. He completed a circuit through rural England, where he could observe geological phenomena. In 1821 he attended Robert Jameson's lectures in Edinburgh, and visited Gideon Mantell at Lewes, in Sussex. In 1823 he was elected joint secretary of the Geological Society. As his eyesight began to deteriorate, he turned to geology as a full-time profession. His first paper, "On a recent formation of freshwater limestone in Forfarshire", was presented in 1826. By 1827, he had abandoned law and embarked on a geological career that would result in fame and the general acceptance of uniformitarianism, a working out of the ideas proposed by James Hutton a few decades earlier. meeting in Glasgow 1840. Painting by Alexander Craig.]] In 1832, Lyell married Mary Horner in Bonn, daughter of Leonard Horner (1785–1864), also associated with the Geological Society of London. The new couple spent their honeymoon in Switzerland and Italy on a geological tour of the area. During the 1840s, Lyell travelled to the United States and Canada, and wrote two popular travel-and-geology books: Travels in North America (1845) and A Second Visit to the United States (1849). In 1866, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. After the Great Chicago Fire in 1871, Lyell was one of the first to donate books to help found the Chicago Public Library. In 1841, Lyell was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society. Lyell's wife died in 1873, and two years later (in 1875) Lyell himself died as he was revising the twelfth edition of Principles. He is buried in Westminster Abbey where there is a bust to him by William Theed in the north aisle. Lyell was knighted (Kt) in 1848, and later, in 1864, made a baronet (Bt), which is an hereditary honour. He was awarded the Copley Medal of the Royal Society in 1858 and the Wollaston Medal of the Geological Society in 1866. Mount Lyell, the highest peak in Yosemite National Park, is named after him; the crater Lyell on the Moon and a crater on Mars were named in his honour; Mount Lyell in western Tasmania, Australia, located in a profitable mining area, bears Lyell's name; and the Lyell Range in north-west Western Australia is named after him as well. In Southwest Nelson in the South Island of New Zealand, the Lyell Range, Lyell River and the gold mining town of Lyell (now only a camping site) were all named after Lyell. Lyall Bay in Wellington, New Zealand was possibly named after Lyell. The jawless fish Cephalaspis lyelli, from the Old Red Sandstone of southern Scotland, was named by Louis Agassiz in honour of Lyell. Sir Charles Lyell was buried at Westminster Abbey on 27 February 1875. The pallbearers included T. H. Huxley, the Rev. W. S. Symonds and Mr John Carrick Moore.Career and major writingsLyell had private means, and earned further income as an author. He came from a prosperous family, worked briefly as a lawyer in the 1820s, and held the post of Professor of Geology at King's College London in the 1830s. From 1830 onward his books provided both income and fame. Each of his three major books was a work continually in progress. All three went through multiple editions during his lifetime, although many of his friends (such as Darwin) thought the first edition of the Principles was the best written. Lyell used each edition to incorporate additional material, rearrange existing material, and revisit old conclusions in light of new evidence. 's Heritage Collections]] Throughout his life, Lyell kept a remarkable series of nearly three hundred manuscript notebooks and diaries. These span Lyell's long scientific career (1825–1874), and offer an unrivalled insight into personal influences, field observations, thoughts and relationships. They were acquired in 2019 by the University of Edinburgh's Heritage Collections, thanks to a fundraising campaign, with many generous individual and institutional donors from the UK and overseas. Highlights include his travels throughout Europe and the United States of America, the drafts of his correspondence with the likes of Charles Darwin, his geological and landscape sketches and his constant gathering of evidence and refinement of his theories. Lyell's collection held at the University of Edinburgh, including digital images of his five series of notebooks, and with links to other Lyell material held elsewhere, is now available on a [https://lyell.ed.ac.uk/ dedicated website]. Principles of Geology, Lyell's first book, was also his most famous, most influential, and most important. First published in three volumes in 1830–33, it established Lyell's credentials as an important geological theorist and propounded the doctrine of uniformitarianism. It was a work of synthesis, backed by his own personal observations on his travels. The central argument in Principles was that the present is the key to the past – a concept of the Scottish Enlightenment which David Hume had stated as "all inferences from experience suppose ... that the future will resemble the past", and James Hutton had described when he wrote in 1788 that "from what has actually been, we have data for concluding with regard to that which is to happen thereafter." Geological remains from the distant past can, and should, be explained by reference to geological processes now in operation and thus directly observable. Lyell's interpretation of geological change as the steady accumulation of minute changes over enormously long spans of time was a powerful influence on the young Charles Darwin. Lyell asked Robert FitzRoy, captain of HMS Beagle, to search for erratic boulders on the survey voyage of the Beagle, and just before it set out FitzRoy gave Darwin Volume 1 of the first edition of Lyell's Principles. When the Beagle made its first stop ashore at St Jago in the Cape Verde islands, Darwin found rock formations which seen "through Lyell's eyes" gave him a revolutionary insight into the geological history of the island, an insight he applied throughout his travels. While in South America Darwin received Volume 2 which considered the ideas of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck in some detail. Lyell rejected Lamarck's idea of organic evolution, proposing instead "Centres of Creation" to explain diversity and territory of species. However, as discussed below, many of his letters show he was fairly open to the idea of evolution. In geology Darwin was very much Lyell's disciple, and brought back observations and his own original theorising, including ideas about the formation of atolls, which supported Lyell's uniformitarianism. On the return of the Beagle (October 1836) Lyell invited Darwin to dinner and from then on they were close friends. Although Darwin discussed evolutionary ideas with him from 1842, Lyell continued to reject evolution in each of the first nine editions of the Principles. He encouraged Darwin to publish, and following the 1859 publication of On the Origin of Species, Lyell finally offered a tepid endorsement of evolution in the tenth edition of Principles. Elements of Geology began as the fourth volume of the third edition of Principles: Lyell intended the book to act as a suitable field guide for students of geology. The systematic, factual description of geological formations of different ages contained in Principles grew so unwieldy, however, that Lyell split it off as the Elements in 1838. The book went through six editions, eventually growing to two volumes and ceasing to be the inexpensive, portable handbook that Lyell had originally envisioned. Late in his career, therefore, Lyell produced a condensed version titled ''Student's Elements of Geology that fulfilled the original purpose. Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man'' brought together Lyell's views on three key themes from the geology of the Quaternary Period of earth history: glaciers, evolution, and the age of the human race. First published in 1863, it went through three editions that year, with a fourth and final edition appearing in 1873. The book was widely regarded as a disappointment because of Lyell's equivocal treatment of evolution. Lyell, a highly religious man with a strong belief in the special status of human reason, had great difficulty reconciling his beliefs with natural selection." shows his pupils the skull of extinct man, caricature of Lyell by Henry De la Beche (1830)]]Scientific contributionsLyell's geological interests ranged from volcanoes and geological dynamics through stratigraphy, palaeontology, and glaciology to topics that would now be classified as prehistoric archaeology and paleoanthropology. He is best known, however, for his role in elaborating the doctrine of uniformitarianism. He played a critical role in advancing the study of loess. Uniformitarianism From 1830 to 1833 his multi-volume Principles of Geology was published. The work's subtitle was "An attempt to explain the former changes of the earth's surface by reference to causes now in operation", and this explains Lyell's impact on science. He drew his explanations from field studies conducted directly before he went to work on the founding geology text. He was, along with the earlier John Playfair, the major advocate of James Hutton's idea of uniformitarianism, that the earth was shaped entirely by slow-moving forces still in operation today, acting over a very long time. This was in contrast to catastrophism, an idea of abrupt geological changes, which had been adapted in England to explain landscape features—such as rivers much smaller than their associated valleys—that seemed impossible to explain other than through violent action. Criticizing the reliance of his contemporaries on what he argued were ad hoc explanations, Lyell wrote, <blockquote>Never was there a doctrine more calculated to foster indolence, and to blunt the keen edge of curiosity, than this assumption of the discordance between the former and the existing causes of change... The student was taught to despond from the first. Geology, it was affirmed, could never arise to the rank of an exact science... [With catastrophism] we see the ancient spirit of speculation revived, and a desire manifestly shown to cut, rather than patiently untie, the Gordian Knot.<small>-Sir Charles Lyell, Principles of Geology, 1854 edition, p. 196; quoted by Stephen Jay Gould.</small></blockquote> Lyell saw himself as "the spiritual saviour of geology, freeing the science from the old dispensation of Moses." The two terms, uniformitarianism and catastrophism, were both coined by William Whewell; in 1866 R. Grove suggested the simpler term continuity for Lyell's view, but the old terms persisted. In various revised editions (12 in all, through 1872), Principles of Geology was the most influential geological work in the middle of the 19th century and did much to put geology on a modern footing.Geological surveysLyell noted the "economic advantages" geological surveys could provide, citing their felicity in mineral-rich countries and provinces. Modern surveys, like the British Geological Survey (founded in 1835), and the US Geological Survey (founded in 1879), map and exhibit the natural resources within their countries. Over time, these surveys have been used extensively by modern extractive industries, such as nuclear, coal, and oil.Volcanoes and geological dynamics had built up gradually.]] Before Lyell's work, phenomena's such as earthquakes were understood by the destruction that they brought. One of the contributions that Lyell made in Principles was to explain the cause of earthquakes. Lyell, in contrast, focused on more recent earthquakes (150 yrs), evidenced by surface irregularities such as faults, fissures, stratigraphic displacements and depressions. Lyell's work on volcanoes focused largely on Vesuvius and Etna, both of which he had earlier studied. His conclusions supported gradual building of volcanoes, so-called "backed up-building", as opposed to the upheaval argument supported by other geologists. Stratigraphy and human history Lyell was a key figure in establishing the classification of more recent geological deposits, long known as the Tertiary period. From May 1828, until February 1829, he travelled with Roderick Impey Murchison (1792–1871) to the south of France (Auvergne volcanic district) and to Italy. In these areas he concluded that the recent strata (rock layers) could be categorised according to the number and proportion of marine shells encased within. Based on this the third volume of his Principles of Geology, published in 1833, proposed dividing the Tertiary period into four parts, which he named the Eocene, Miocene, Pliocene, and Recent. In 1839, Lyell termed the Pleistocene epoch, distinguishing a more recent fossil layer from the Pliocene. The Recent epoch renamed the Holocene by French paleontologist Paul Gervais in 1867 included all deposits from the era subject to human observation. In recent years Lyell's subdivisions have been widely discussed with debates about the Anthropocene. Glaciers on a glacier joining the Gorner Glacier, Zermatt, Switzerland.]] In Principles of Geology (first edition, vol. 3, ch. 2, 1833) Lyell proposed that icebergs could be the means of transport for erratics. During periods of global warming, ice breaks off the poles and floats across submerged continents, carrying debris with it, he conjectured. When the iceberg melts, it rains down sediments upon the land. Because this theory could account for the presence of diluvium, the word drift became the preferred term for the loose, unsorted material, today called till. Furthermore, Lyell believed that the accumulation of fine angular particles covering much of the world (today called loess) was a deposit settled from mountain flood water. Today some of Lyell's mechanisms for geological processes have been disproven, though many have stood the test of time. His observational methods and general analytical framework remain in use today as foundational principles in geology.EvolutionLyell initially accepted the conventional view of other men of science, that the fossil record indicated a directional geohistory in which species went extinct. Around 1826, when he was on circuit, he read Lamarck's Zoological Philosophy and on 2 March 1827 wrote to Mantell, expressing admiration, but cautioning that he read it "rather as I hear an advocate on the wrong side, to know what can be made of the case in good hands".: :I devoured Lamarck... his theories delighted me... I am glad that he has been courageous enough and logical enough to admit that his argument, if pushed as far as it must go, if worth anything, would prove that men may have come from the Ourang-Outang. But after all, what changes species may really undergo!... That the earth is quite as old as he supposes, has long been my creed... He struggled with the implications for human dignity, and later in 1827 wrote private notes on Lamarck's ideas. Lyell reconciled transmutation of species with natural theology by suggesting that it would be as much a "remarkable manifestation of creative Power" as creating each species separately. He countered Lamarck's views by rejecting continued cooling of the earth in favour of "a fluctuating cycle", a long-term steady-state geohistory as proposed by James Hutton. The fragmentary fossil record already showed "a high class of fishes, close to reptiles" in the Carboniferous period which he called "the first Zoological era", and quadrupeds could also have existed then. In November 1827, after William Broderip found a Middle Jurassic fossil of the early mammal Didelphis, Lyell told his father that "There was everything but man even as far back as the Oolite." Lyell inaccurately portrayed Lamarckism as a response to the fossil record, and said it was falsified by a lack of progress. He said in the second volume of Principles that the occurrence of this one fossil of the higher mammalia "in these ancient strata, is as fatal to the theory of successive development, as if several hundreds had been discovered." In the first edition of Principles, the first volume briefly set out Lyell's concept of a steady state with no real progression of fossils. The sole exception was the advent of humanity, with no great physical distinction from animals, but with absolutely unique intellectual and moral qualities. The second volume dismissed Lamarck's claims of animal forms arising from habits, continuous spontaneous generation of new life, and man having evolved from lower forms. Lyell explicitly rejected Lamarck's concept of transmutation of species, drawing on Cuvier's arguments, and concluded that species had been created with stable attributes. He discussed the geographical distribution of plants and animals, and proposed that every species of plant or animal was descended from a pair or individual, originated in response to differing external conditions. Species would regularly go extinct, in a "struggle for existence" between hybrids, or a "war one with another" due to population pressure. He was vague about how replacement species formed, portraying this as an infrequent occurrence which could rarely be observed. The leading man of science Sir John Herschel wrote from Cape Town on 20 February 1836, thanking Lyell for sending a copy of Principles and praising the book as opening a way for bold speculation on "that mystery of mysteries, the replacement of extinct species by others" – by analogy with other intermediate causes, "the origination of fresh species, could it ever come under our cognizance, would be found to be a natural in contradistinction to a miraculous process". Lyell replied: "In regard to the origination of new species, I am very glad to find that you think it probable that it may be carried on through the intervention of intermediate causes. I left this rather to be inferred, not thinking it worth while to offend a certain class of persons by embodying in words what would only be a speculation." Whewell subsequently questioned this topic, and in March 1837 Lyell told him: : in 1862.]]If I had stated... the possibility of the introduction or origination of fresh species being a natural, in contradistinction to a miraculous process, I should have raised a host of prejudices against me, which are unfortunately opposed at every step to any philosopher who attempts to address the public on these mysterious subjects... As a result of his letters and, no doubt, personal conversations, Huxley and Ernst Haeckel were convinced that, at the time he wrote Principles, he believed new species had arisen by natural methods. Adam Sedgwick wrote worried letters to him about this. By the time Darwin returned from the Beagle survey expedition in 1836, he had begun to doubt Lyell's ideas about the permanence of species. He continued to be a close personal friend, and Lyell was one of the first scientists to support On the Origin of Species, though he did not subscribe to all its contents. Lyell was also a friend of Darwin's closest colleagues, Joseph Dalton Hooker and Huxley, but unlike them he struggled to square his religious beliefs with evolution. This inner struggle has been much commented on. He had particular difficulty in believing in natural selection as the main motive force in evolution. Lyell and Hooker were instrumental in arranging the peaceful co-publication of the theory of natural selection by Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace in 1858: each had arrived at the theory independently. Lyell's views on gradual change and the power of a long time scale were important because Darwin thought that populations of an organism changed very slowly. Although Lyell rejected evolution at the time of writing the Principles, after the Darwin–Wallace papers and the Origin Lyell wrote in one of his notebooks on 3 May 1860: :Mr. Darwin has written a work which will constitute an era in geology & natural history to show that... the descendants of common parents may become in the course of ages so unlike each other as to be entitled to rank as a distinct species, from each other or from some of their progenitors... Lyell's acceptance of natural selection, Darwin's proposed mechanism for evolution, was equivocal, and came in the tenth edition of Principles. The Antiquity of Man (published in early February 1863, just before Huxley's ''Man's place in nature'') drew these comments from Darwin to Huxley: "I am fearfully disappointed at Lyell's excessive caution" and "The book is a mere 'digest'". with a memorial to Lyell]]Quite strong remarks: no doubt Darwin resented Lyell's repeated suggestion that he owed a lot to Lamarck, whom he (Darwin) had always specifically rejected. Darwin's daughter Henrietta (Etty) wrote to her father: "Is it fair that Lyell always calls your theory a modification of Lamarck's?" In other respects Antiquity was a success. It sold well, and it "shattered the tacit agreement that mankind should be the sole preserve of theologians and historians". But when Lyell wrote that it remained a profound mystery how the huge gulf between man and beast could be bridged, Darwin wrote "Oh!" in the margin of his copy. Legacy Places named after Lyell: * Lyell, New Zealand * Lyell Butte, in the Grand Canyon * Lyell Canyon in Yosemite National Park * Lyell Fork, one of two large forks of the Tuolumne River * Lyell Land (Greenland) * Lyell Glacier * Lyell Glacier, South Georgia * Mount Lyell (California) * Mount Lyell (Canada) * Mount Lyell (Tasmania) Lyell Avenue (Rochester, NY) Bibliography Principles of Geology Principles of Geology 1st edition, 1st vol. Jan. 1830 (John Murray, London). * Principles of Geology 1st edition, 2nd vol. Jan. 1832 * Principles of Geology 1st edition, 3rd vol. May 1833 * Principles of Geology 2nd edition, 1st vol. 1832 * Principles of Geology 2nd edition, 2nd vol. Jan. 1833 * Principles of Geology 3rd edition, 4 vols. May 1834 * Principles of Geology 4th edition, 4 vols. June 1835 * Principles of Geology 5th edition, 4 vols. March 1837 * Principles of Geology 6th edition, 3 vols. June 1840 * Principles of Geology 7th edition, 1 vol. Feb. 1847 * Principles of Geology 8th edition, 1 vol. May 1850 * Principles of Geology 9th edition, 1 vol. June 1853 * Principles of Geology 10th edition, 1866–68 * Principles of Geology 11th edition, 2 vols. 1872 * Principles of Geology 12th edition, 2 vols. 1875 (published posthumously) Elements of Geology * [https://archive.org/details/elementsgeology06lyelgoog Elements of Geology] 1 vol. 1st edition, July 1838 (John Murray, London) * Elements of Geology 2 vols. 2nd edition, July 1841 * Elements of Geology (Manual of Elementary Geology) 1 vol. 3rd edition, Jan. 1851 * Elements of Geology (Manual of Elementary Geology) 1 vol. 4th edition, Jan. 1852 * Elements of Geology (Manual of Elementary Geology) 1 vol. 5th edition, 1855 * Elements of Geology 6th edition, 1865 * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080513031028/http://geology.com/publications/lyell/ ''Elements of Geology, The Student's Series, 1871] Travels in North America * * * * * Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man 1 vol. 2nd edition, April 1863 * Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man 1 vol. 3rd edition, Nov. 1863 * Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man 1 vol. 4th edition, May 1873 Life, Letters, and Journals * * <ref name=QuartRev1882/> Notes References * * * * * * * * * * * * * * \|year1982\|publisherFarrar, Straus and Giroux\|isbn978-0-374-70856-6}} * * * * * * * \|lastLyell\|firstSir Charles \|editor-lastWilson\|editor-firstLeonard G\|editor-linkLeonard Gilchrist Wilson \|titleSir Charles Lyell's Scientific Journals on the Species Question\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idY-_GjwEACAAJ\|year1970\|publisherYale University Press\|isbn978-0-300-01231-6}} * ;Image source * Portraits of Honorary Members of the Ipswich Museum (Portfolio of 60 lithographs by T.H. Maguire) (George Ransome, Ipswich 1846–1852) Further reading * ''Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle'' (1978), a book by Stephen Jay Gould that reassesses Lyell's work * Worlds Before Adam: The Reconstruction of Geohistory in the Age of Reform (2008), a major overview of Lyell's work in its scientific context by Martin J. S. Rudwick * Principles of Geology: Penguin Classics (1997), the key chapters of Lyell's most famous work with an introduction by James A. Secord External links * * * * * * * [http://www.esp.org/books/lyell/principles/facsimile/title3.html Principles of Geology 1st edition] at ESP. * [http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/earththeory/id/17524 Principles of Geology] (7th edition, 1847) from Linda Hall Library * Category:1797 births Category:1875 deaths Category:19th-century British geologists Category:Academics of King's College London Category:Alumni of Exeter College, Oxford Category:Burials at Westminster Abbey Category:Fellows of the Royal Society Category:Knights Bachelor Category:Members of Lincoln's Inn Category:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences Category:People from Angus, Scotland Category:Presidents of the Geological Society of London Category:Recipients of the Copley Medal Category:Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class) Category:Royal Medal winners Category:Scottish deists Category:Scottish geologists Category:Scottish knights Category:Scottish travel writers Category:Wollaston Medal winners Lyell, Charles, 1st Baronet Category:People educated at Midhurst Grammar School Category:International members of the American Philosophical Society	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Lyell	2025-04-05T18:28:09.534381
7473	Chelsea F.C.	\| ground = Stamford Bridge \| capacity 40,173 \| owner BlueCo \| chrtitle \| chairman Todd Boehly \| manager = Enzo Maresca \| mgrtitle = Head coach \| league = \| season = \| position = \| current = 2024–25 Chelsea F.C. season \| website = \| pattern_la1 = _chelsea2425h \| pattern_b1 = _chelsea2425h \| pattern_ra1 = _chelsea2425h \| pattern_sh1 = _chelsea2425h \| pattern_so1 = _chelsea2425hl \| leftarm1 = 0040D0 \| body1 = 0040D0 \| rightarm1 = 0040D0 \| shorts1 = 0040D0 \| socks1 = FFFFFF \| pattern_la2 = _chelsea2425a \| pattern_b2 = _chelsea2425a \| pattern_ra2 = _chelsea2425a \| pattern_sh2 = _chelsea2425a \| pattern_so2 \| leftarm2 FEEEEE \| body2 = FEEEEE \| rightarm2 = FEEEEE \| shorts2 = FEEEEE \| socks2 = 0033ff \| pattern_la3 = _chelsea2425t \| pattern_b3 = _chelsea2425t \| pattern_ra3 = _chelsea2425t \| pattern_sh3 = _chelsea2425t \| pattern_so3 \| leftarm3 \| body3 \| rightarm3 \| shorts3 \| socks3 090909 }} Chelsea Football Club is a professional football club based in Fulham, West London, England. Named after neighbouring area Chelsea, they compete in the Premier League, the top tier of English football. Founded in 1905, the team play their home games at Stamford Bridge. The club won their first major honour, the League championship, in 1955. They won the FA Cup for the first time in 1970, won their first European honour, the Cup Winners' Cup, in 1971, and became the third English club to win the Club World Cup in 2022. Chelsea is one of five clubs and the first English club to have won all three pre-1999 main European club competitions, the "European Treble" of the European Cup/UEFA Champions League, European/UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, and UEFA Cup/UEFA Europa League. They are the only club to have won all three major European competitions twice. They are the only London club to have won the Champions League and the Club World Cup. Domestically, the club has won six league titles, eight FA Cups, five League Cups, and four FA Community Shields. Internationally, they have won the UEFA Champions League, the UEFA Europa League, the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup and the UEFA Super Cup twice each, and the FIFA Club World Cup once. In terms of overall trophies won, Chelsea is the fifth-most successful club in English football. The club has rivalries with fellow London teams Arsenal and Tottenham Hotspur, and a historic rivalry with Leeds United. In terms of club value, Chelsea is the ninth-most-valuable football club in the world (), worth $3.13 billion, and is the ninth-highest-earning football club in the world. History Founding and early years (1905–1952) In 1904, Gus Mears acquired the Stamford Bridge athletics stadium in Fulham with the aim of turning it into a football ground. An offer to lease it to nearby Fulham F.C. was turned down, so Mears opted to found his own club to use the stadium. As there was already a team named Fulham in the borough, the name of the adjacent borough of Chelsea was chosen for the new club; names like Kensington FC, Stamford Bridge FC and London FC were considered. Chelsea F.C. was founded on 10 March 1905 at The Rising Sun pub (now The Butcher's Hook), opposite the present-day main entrance to the ground on Fulham Road, and were elected to the Football League shortly afterwards. Chelsea won promotion to the First Division in their second season, and yo-yoed between the First and Second Divisions in its early years. The team reached the 1915 FA Cup final, where they lost to Sheffield United at Old Trafford, and finished third in the First Division in 1920, the club's best league campaign to that point. Chelsea had a reputation for signing star players and attracted large crowds. The club had the highest average attendance in English football in ten separate seasons including 1907–08, 1909–10, 1911–12, 1912–13, 1913–14 and 1919–20. They were FA Cup semi-finalists in 1920 and 1932 and remained in the First Division throughout the 1930s, but success eluded the club in the inter-war years. Modernisation and the first league championship (1952–1983) Former Arsenal and England centre-forward Ted Drake was appointed manager in 1952 and proceeded to modernise the club. He removed the club's Chelsea pensioner crest, improved the youth set-up and training regime, rebuilt the side with shrewd signings from the lower divisions and amateur leagues, and led Chelsea to their first major trophy success – the League championship – in 1954–55. The following season saw UEFA create the European Champions' Cup, but after objections from The Football League, Chelsea were persuaded to withdraw from the competition before it started. Chelsea failed to build on this success, and spent the remainder of the 1950s in mid-table. Drake was dismissed in 1961 and replaced by player-coach Tommy Docherty. Docherty built a new team around the group of talented young players emerging from the club's youth set-up, and Chelsea challenged for honours throughout the 1960s, enduring several near-misses. They were on course for a treble of League, FA Cup and League Cup going into the final stages of the 1964–65 season, winning the League Cup but faltering late on in the other two. In three seasons the side were beaten in three major semi-finals and were FA Cup runners-up. Under Docherty's successor, Dave Sexton, Chelsea won the FA Cup in 1970, beating Leeds United 2–1 in a final replay. The following year, Chelsea took their first European honour, a UEFA Cup Winners' Cup triumph, with another replayed win, this time over Real Madrid in Athens. Redevelopment and financial crisis (1983–2003) The late 1970s through to the '80s was a turbulent period for Chelsea. An ambitious redevelopment of Stamford Bridge threatened the financial stability of the club, star players were sold and the team were relegated. Further problems were caused by a notorious hooligan element among the support, which was to plague the club throughout the decade. In 1982, at the nadir of their fortunes, Chelsea were acquired by Ken Bates from Mears' great-nephew Brian Mears, for the nominal sum of £1. Bates bought a controlling stake in the club and floated Chelsea on the AIM stock exchange in March 1996 although by now the Stamford Bridge freehold had been sold to property developers, meaning the club faced losing their home. On the pitch, the team had fared little better, coming close to relegation to the Third Division for the first time, but in 1983 manager John Neal put together an impressive new team for minimal outlay. Chelsea won the Second Division title in 1983–84 and established themselves in the top division with two top-six finishes, before being relegated again in 1988. The club bounced back immediately by winning the Second Division championship in 1988–89. After a long-running legal battle, Bates reunited the stadium freehold with the club in 1992 by doing a deal with the banks of the property developers, who had been bankrupted by a market crash. In the mid-1990s Chelsea fan and businessman Matthew Harding became a director and loaned the club £26 million to build the new North Stand and invest in new players. Chelsea's form in the new Premier League was unconvincing, although they did reach the 1994 FA Cup final. The appointment of Ruud Gullit as player-manager in 1996 began an upturn in the team's fortunes. He added several top international players to the side and led the club to their first major honour since 1971, the FA Cup. Gullit was replaced by Gianluca Vialli, whose reign saw Chelsea win the League Cup, the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup and the UEFA Super Cup in 1998, and the FA Cup in 2000. They mounted a strong title challenge in 1998–99, finishing four points behind champions Manchester United, and made their first appearance in the UEFA Champions League. Vialli was sacked in favour of Claudio Ranieri, who guided Chelsea to the 2002 FA Cup final and Champions League qualification in 2002–03. Abramovich ownership (2003–2022) during a 4–0 victory over Portsmouth, August 2008]] With the club facing an apparent financial crisis, Bates unexpectedly sold Chelsea F.C. in June 2003 for £60 million. In so doing, he reportedly recognised a personal profit of £17 million on the club he had bought for £1 in 1982 (his stake had been diluted to just below 30% over the years). The club's new owner was Russian oligarch and billionaire Roman Abramovich, who took on responsibility for the club's £80 million of debt, quickly paying some of it<!--NOT all of it. Some of the bondholders preferred to keep on receiving the 8.5% interest, and he couldn't force them to sell tradeable securities if they did not want to. I think the bonds mature in 2007 and the remainder will be paid off then-->. Sergei Pugachev alleged Chelsea was bought on Putin's orders, an allegation Abramovich has denied. Bates mentioned that Abramovich was in talks to buy Manchester United and Tottenham Hotspur before he bought Chelsea in a deal sealed in a day. against Bayern Munich (2012).]] Over £100 million was spent on new players, but Ranieri was unable to deliver any trophies, and was replaced by José Mourinho. Under Mourinho, Chelsea became the fifth English team to win back-to-back league championships since the Second World War (2004–05 and 2005–06), in addition to winning an FA Cup (2007) and two League Cups (2005 and 2007). After a poor start to the 2007–08 season, Mourinho was replaced by Avram Grant, who led the club to their first UEFA Champions League final, which they lost on penalties to Manchester United. The club did not turn a profit in the first nine years of Abramovich's ownership, and made record losses of £140m in June 2005. Abramovich discussing two trophy-laden years at Chelsea (2006). \|quote=I am a fan of special nature. I'm excited before every single game. The trophy at the end is less important than the process itself. }} In 2009, under caretaker manager Guus Hiddink, Chelsea won another FA Cup. In 2009–10, his successor Carlo Ancelotti led them to their first Premier League and FA Cup Double, becoming the first English top-flight club to score 100 league goals in a season since 1963. In 2012, Roberto Di Matteo led Chelsea to their seventh FA Cup, and their first UEFA Champions League title, beating Bayern Munich 4–3 on penalties, the first London club to win the trophy. The following year the club won the UEFA Europa League, making them the first club to hold two major European titles simultaneously and one of five clubs to have won the three main UEFA trophies. Mourinho returned as manager in 2013 and led Chelsea to League Cup success in March 2015, and the Premier League title two months later. Mourinho was sacked after four months of the following season after a poor start. In November 2012, Chelsea announced a profit of £1.4 million for the year ending 30 June 2012, the first time the club had made a profit under Abramovich's ownership. This was followed by a loss in 2013 and then their highest ever profit of £18.4 million for the year to June 2014. In 2018 Chelsea announced a record after-tax profit of £62 million. In 2017, under new coach Antonio Conte, Chelsea won their sixth English title and the following season won their eighth FA Cup. In 2018 Conte was sacked after a fifth-place finish and replaced with Maurizio Sarri, under whom Chelsea reached the League Cup final, which they lost on penalties to Manchester City and won the Europa League for a second time, beating Arsenal 4–1 in the final. Sarri then left the club to become manager of Juventus and was replaced by former Chelsea player Frank Lampard. In Lampard's first season, he guided Chelsea to fourth place in the Premier League and reached the FA Cup final, losing 2–1 to Arsenal. Lampard was dismissed in January 2021 and replaced with Thomas Tuchel. title (2021) after beating Brazilian side Palmeiras in the final]] Under Tuchel, Chelsea reached the FA Cup final, losing 1–0 to Leicester City, and won their second UEFA Champions League title with a 1–0 win over Manchester City in Porto. The club subsequently won the 2021 UEFA Super Cup for the second time by defeating Villarreal 6–5 in a penalty shootout, after it had ended 1–1 in Belfast after extra time, and the 2021 FIFA Club World Cup (the first for the club) in Abu Dhabi after beating Brazilian Palmeiras 2–1. On 18 April 2021, Chelsea announced it would be joining a new European Super League, a league competition comprising the biggest European clubs. After a backlash from supporters, the club announced their withdrawal days later. The club opted against furloughing their non-matchday staff during the COVID-19 pandemic, with the decision reportedly coming from Abramovich himself. Chelsea, one of the first clubs to help the National Health Service, lent the club-owned Millennium Hotel for the NHS staff. Gary Neville on Abramovich's legacy. \|quote="[Chelsea] have been a success machine for the last 1020 years. That doesn't just come with money, we've seen at Manchester United and Arsenal where they've put billions into the team and not had the success that Chelsea have had. Chelsea can feel comfortable that they'll have rich owners, but will they have football-smart owners? Because that's what Abramovich has been. }} Roman Abramovich, in an interview with the BBC following the takeover. \|quote="I don't want to throw my money away but it's really about having fun and that means success and trophies." }} Amidst financial sanctions leveled at Russian oligarchs by Western governments in response to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Abramovich stated on 26 February that he would hand over the stewardship of Chelsea to the trustees of the Chelsea Foundation. The trustees did not immediately agree, due to legal concerns regarding the rules of the Charity Commission for England and Wales. A week later, Abramovich wrote-off the £1.5 billion the club owed him, and put the club up for sale, pledging to donate net proceeds from it to the victims of the war in Ukraine. On 10 March 2022, the British government announced sanctions on Abramovich with Chelsea allowed to operate under a special license until 31 May. In the following weeks, reports emerged of Abramovich's involvement in brokering a peace deal between Ukraine and Russia and securing safe evacuation corridors in besieged Ukrainian cities. An American government official revealed that the Ukrainian president, Volodymyr Zelenskyy had requested that the US government not levy sanctions against Abramovich given his importance to war relief efforts. BlueCo ownership (2022–present) Todd Boehly, addressing the press after the takeover. \|quote=We're all in – 100% – every minute of every match. Our vision as owners is clear: we want to make the fans proud. }} On 7 May 2022, Chelsea confirmed that terms had been agreed for a new ownership group, led by Todd Boehly, Clearlake Capital, Mark Walter and Hansjörg Wyss, to acquire the club. The group was later known as BlueCo. The UK government approved the £4.25bn takeover, ending Abramovich's 19-year ownership of the club. Bruce Buck, who served as chairman since 2003, was replaced by Boehly, while long-serving club director and de facto sporting director Marina Granovskaia left, as did Petr Čech from the role of technical and performance advisor. The club brought in Graham Potter from Brighton & Hove Albion to replace Tuchel on 8 September 2022. Chelsea won six of the first 11 games of the 2022–23 season, but only five of the remaining 27. Potter would be sacked on 2 April 2023 and eventually be replaced by Frank Lampard as caretaker manager. Under Lampard the club would only win one of their last 11 matches resulting in a 9% win percentage. Lampard's win percentage was the worst for any Chelsea manager who managed three games or more. Chelsea scored a record-low 38 goals across the entire season and finished in the bottom half of the table for the first time since 1995–96. Mauricio Pochettino was announced as Lampard's replacement in 2023. He led Chelsea to a 6th-place finish, and a place in the Conference League play-off round qualification. After clashing with the sporting directors Laurence Stewart and Paul Winstanley over strategy and management of the young squad, Pochettino agreed to leave the club at the end of the season. On 3 June 2024, Enzo Maresca was announced as Pochettino's replacement, with the Italian beginning his term as manager on 1 July 2024.League history{\| class"wikitable" \|- style="vertical-align: top; font-size: 95%;" \| * 1905–1907 Division 2 (L2) * 1907–1910 Division 1 (L1) * 1910–1912 Division 2 (L2) * 1912–1924 Division 1 (L1) * 1924–1930 Division 2 (L2) \| * 1930–1962 Division 1 (L1) * 1962–1963 Division 2 (L2) * 1963–1975 Division 1 (L1) * 1975–1977 Division 2 (L2) * 1977–1979 Division 1 (L1) \| * 1979–1984 Division 2 (L2) * 1984–1988 Division 1 (L1) * 1988–1989 Division 2 (L2) * 1989–1992 Division 1 (L1) * 1992–present Premier League (L1) \|} Stadium , West Stand]] Chelsea have only had one home ground, Stamford Bridge, where they have played since the team's foundation. The stadium was officially opened on 28 April 1877 and for the next 28 years it was used by the London Athletic Club as an arena for athletics meetings. In 1904, the ground was acquired by businessman Gus Mears and his brother Joseph, who had purchased nearby land (formerly a large market garden) with the aim of staging football matches on the now 12.5 acre (51,000 m<sup>2</sup>) site. Most football clubs were founded first, and then sought grounds in which to play, but Chelsea were founded for Stamford Bridge. Starting with an open bowl-like design and one grandstand with seating, Stamford Bridge had an original capacity of around 100,000, making it the second biggest stadium in England after Crystal Palace. In 1939, another small seated stand was added, the North Stand, which remained until its demolition in 1975. at Stamford Bridge on 23 September 1905; Chelsea won 1–0.]] When Stamford Bridge was redeveloped in the Bates era many additional features were added to the complex including two Millennium & Copthorne hotels, apartments, bars, restaurants, the Chelsea Megastore, and an interactive visitor attraction called Chelsea World of Sport. The intention was that these facilities would provide extra revenue to support the football side of the business, but they were less successful than hoped and before the Abramovich takeover in 2003 the debt taken on to finance them was a major burden on the club. Soon after the takeover a decision was taken to drop the "Chelsea Village" brand and refocus on Chelsea as a football club. However, the stadium is sometimes still referred to as part of "Chelsea Village" or "The Village". The Stamford Bridge freehold, the pitch, the turnstiles and Chelsea's naming rights are now owned by Chelsea Pitch Owners, a non-profit organisation in which fans are the shareholders. The CPO was created to ensure the stadium could never again be sold to developers. As a condition for using the Chelsea FC name, the club has to play its first team matches at Stamford Bridge, which means that if the club moves to a new stadium, they may have to change their name. Chelsea's training ground is located in Cobham, Surrey. Chelsea moved to Cobham in 2004. Their previous training ground in Harlington was taken over by QPR in 2005. The new training facilities in Cobham were completed in 2007. ]] Stamford Bridge hosted the FA Cup final from 1920 to 1922, has held 10 FA Cup Semi-finals (most recently in 1978), ten FA Charity Shield matches (the last in 1970), and three England international matches, the last in 1932; it was the venue for an unofficial Victory International in 1946. The 2013 UEFA Women's Champions League final was played at Stamford Bridge as well. The stadium has been used for a variety of other sports. In October 1905 it hosted a rugby union match between the All Blacks and Middlesex, and in 1914 hosted a baseball match between the touring New York Giants and the Chicago White Sox. It was the venue for a boxing match between world flyweight champion Jimmy Wilde and Joe Conn in 1918. The running track was used for dirt track racing between 1928 and 1932, greyhound racing from 1933 to 1968, and Midget car racing in 1948. In 1980, Stamford Bridge hosted the first international floodlit cricket match in the UK, between Essex and the West Indies. It was the home stadium of the London Monarchs American Football team for the 1997 season. The previous owner Abramovich and the club's then executive board determined that a larger stadium is necessary in order for Chelsea to stay competitive with rival clubs who have significantly larger stadia, such as Arsenal and Manchester United. Owing to its location next to a main road and two railway lines, fans can only enter Stamford Bridge via the Fulham Road, which places constraints on expansion due to health and safety regulations. The club have consistently affirmed their desire to keep Chelsea at their current home, but have nonetheless been linked with a move to various nearby sites, including the Earls Court Exhibition Centre, Battersea Power Station and the Chelsea Barracks. In October 2011, a proposal from the club to buy back the freehold to the land on which Stamford Bridge sits was voted down by Chelsea Pitch Owners shareholders. In May 2012, the club made a formal bid to purchase Battersea Power Station, with a view to developing the site into a new stadium, but lost out to a Malaysian consortium. The club subsequently announced plans to redevelop Stamford Bridge into a 60,000-seater stadium, and in January 2017 these plans were approved by Hammersmith and Fulham council. However, on 31 May 2018, the club released a statement saying that the new stadium project had been put on hold indefinitely, citing "the current unfavourable investment climate". In July 2022, it was reported that the club's new owner Todd Boehly had appointed American architect Janet Marie Smith to oversee the renovation of the stadium. Identity Crest Chelsea has had four main crests, which all underwent minor variations. The first, adopted when the club was founded, was the image of a Chelsea Pensioner, the army veterans who reside at the nearby Royal Hospital Chelsea. This contributed to the club's original "pensioner" nickname, and remained for the next half-century, though it never appeared on the shirts. When Ted Drake became Chelsea manager in 1952, he began to modernise the club. Believing the Chelsea pensioner crest to be old-fashioned, he insisted that it be replaced. A stop-gap badge which comprised the initials C.F.C. was adopted for a year. In 1953, the club crest was changed to an upright blue lion looking backwards and holding a staff. It was based on elements in the coat of arms of the Metropolitan Borough of Chelsea with the "lion rampant regardant" taken from the arms of then club president Viscount Chelsea and the staff from the Abbots of Westminster, former Lords of the Manor of Chelsea. It featured three red roses, to represent England, and two footballs. In 1986, with Ken Bates owner of the club, Chelsea's crest was changed again as part of another attempt to modernise and because the old rampant lion badge could not be trademarked. The new badge featured a more naturalistic non-heraldic lion, in white and not blue, standing over the C.F.C. initials. This lasted for the next 19 years, with some modifications such as the use of different colours, including red from 1987 to 1995, and yellow from 1995 until 1999, before the white returned. With the new ownership of Roman Abramovich, and the club's centenary approaching, combined with demands from fans for the popular 1950s badge to be restored, it was decided that the crest should be changed again in 2005. The new crest was officially adopted for the start of the 2005–06 season and marked a return to the older design, used from 1953 to 1986, featuring a blue heraldic lion holding a staff. For the centenary season this was accompanied by the words '100 Years' and 'Centenary 2005–2006' on the top and bottom of the crest respectively. Colours ) }} Chelsea have always worn blue shirts, although they originally used the paler eton blue, which was taken from the racing colours of then club president, Earl Cadogan, and was worn with white shorts and dark blue or black socks. The light blue shirts were replaced by a royal blue version in around 1912. In the 1960s Chelsea manager Tommy Docherty changed the kit again, switching to blue shorts (which have remained ever since) and white socks, believing it made the club's colours more modern and distinctive, since no other major side used that combination; this kit was first worn during the 1964–65 season. Since then Chelsea have always worn white socks with their home kit apart from a short spell from 1985 to 1992, when blue socks were reintroduced. Chelsea's away colours are usually all yellow or all white with blue trim. More recently, the club have had a number of black or dark blue away kits which alternate every year. As with most teams, they have had some more unusual ones. At Docherty's behest, in the 1966 FA Cup semi-final they wore blue and black stripes, based on Inter Milan's kit. In the mid-1970s, the away strip was a red, white and green kit inspired by the Hungarian national side of the 1950s. Other away kits include an all jade strip worn from 1986 to 1989, red and white diamonds from 1990 to 1992, graphite and tangerine from 1994 to 1996, and luminous yellow from 2007 to 2008. Songs and fan chants The song "Blue is the Colour" was released as a single in the build-up to the 1972 League Cup final, with all members of Chelsea's first team squad singing; it reached number five in the UK Singles Chart. The song has since been adopted by a number of other sports teams around the world, including the Vancouver Whitecaps (as "White is the Colour") and the Saskatchewan Roughriders (as "Green is the Colour"). Chelsea released the song "No One Can Stop Us Now" in 1994 for reaching the 1994 FA Cup final. It reached number 23 in the UK Singles Chart. In the build-up to the 1997 FA Cup final, the song "Blue Day", performed by Suggs and members of the Chelsea squad, reached number 22 in the UK chart. In 2000, Chelsea released the song "Blue Tomorrow". It reached number 22 in the UK Singles Chart. "Ten Men Went to Mow", "We All Follow the Chelsea" (to the tune of "Land of Hope and Glory"), "Zigga Zagga", and the celebratory "Celery". The latter is often accompanied by fans throwing celery at each other, although the vegetable was banned inside Stamford Bridge after an incident involving midfielder Cesc Fàbregas at the 2007 League Cup final. Popular fan chants include, "Super Chelsea", "Super Frank" (dedicated to all-time leading goal scorer Frank Lampard), "We love you Chelsea" and "Come on Chelsea". There are situation-specific or team-specific chants meant to rile up opposition teams, managers or players.Support , on 11 March 2006]] Chelsea is among the most widely supported football clubs in the world. It has the sixth-highest average attendance in the history of English football, and regularly attract over 40,000 fans to Stamford Bridge; they were the ninth best-supported Premier League team in the 2023–24 season, with an average gate of 39,700. Chelsea's traditional fanbase comes from all over the Greater London area including working-class parts such as Hammersmith and Battersea, wealthier areas like Chelsea and Kensington, and from the home counties. There are numerous official supporters clubs in the United Kingdom and all over the world. Between 2007 and 2012, Chelsea were ranked fourth worldwide in annual replica kit sales, with an average of 910,000. As of 2023, Chelsea has 118.9 million followers on social media, the fourth highest among football clubs. During the 1970s and 1980s in particular, Chelsea supporters were associated with football hooliganism. The club's "football firm", originally known as the Chelsea Shed Boys, and subsequently as the Chelsea Headhunters, were nationally notorious for football violence, alongside hooligan firms from other clubs such as West Ham United's Inter City Firm and Millwall's Bushwackers, before, during and after matches. The increase of hooligan incidents in the 1980s led chairman Ken Bates to propose erecting an electric fence to deter them from invading the pitch, a proposal that the Greater London Council rejected. Since the 1990s, there has been a marked decline in crowd trouble at matches, as a result of stricter policing, CCTV in grounds and the advent of all-seater stadia. In 2007, the club launched the Back to the Shed campaign to improve the atmosphere at home matches, with notable success. According to Home Office statistics, 126 Chelsea fans were arrested for football-related offences during the 2009–10 season, the third highest in the division, and 27 banning orders were issued, the fifth-highest in the division. Rivalries Chelsea have long-standing rivalries with North London clubs Arsenal and Tottenham Hotspur. A strong rivalry with Leeds United dates back to several heated and controversial matches in the 1960s and 1970s, particularly the 1970 FA Cup final. More recently a rivalry with Liverpool has grown following repeated clashes in cup competitions. Fellow West London clubs Brentford, Fulham and Queens Park Rangers are considered rivals, but less so in recent times as matches have only taken place intermittently due to the teams often being in separate divisions. A 2004 survey by Planetfootball.com found that Chelsea fans consider their main rivalries to be with (in descending order): Arsenal, Tottenham Hotspur and Manchester United. In the same survey, fans of Arsenal, Fulham, Leeds United, QPR, Tottenham, and West Ham United named Chelsea as one of their three main rivals. A 2012 survey, conducted among 1,200 supporters of the top four league divisions across the country, found that many clubs' main rivals had changed since 2003 and reported that Chelsea fans consider Tottenham to be their main rivals, above Arsenal and Manchester United. Additionally, fans of Arsenal, Brentford, Fulham, Liverpool, Manchester United, QPR, Tottenham and West Ham identified Chelsea as one of their top three rivals. Records and statistics is Chelsea's all-time highest goalscorer.]] Chelsea's highest appearance-maker is ex-captain Ron Harris, who played in 795 competitive games for the club between 1961 and 1980. Five other players made more than 500 appearances for the club: Peter Bonetti (729; 1959–79), John Terry (717; 1998–2017), Frank Lampard (648; 2001–2014), John Hollins (592; 1963–1975 and 1983–1984), and César Azpilicueta (508; 2012–2023). With 103 caps (101 while at the club) for England, Lampard is Chelsea's most capped international player. Every starting player in Chelsea's 57 games of the 2013–14 season was a full international – a new club record. Lampard is Chelsea's all-time top goalscorer, having scored 211 goals in 648 games (2001–2014); Eight other players have scored over 100 goals for Chelsea: George Hilsdon (1906–1912), George Mills (1929–1939), Roy Bentley (1948–1956), Jimmy Greaves (1957–1961), Peter Osgood (1964–1974 and 1978–1979), Kerry Dixon (1983–1992), Didier Drogba (2004–2012 and 2014–2015), and Eden Hazard (2012–2019). Greaves holds the club record for the most goals scored in one season (43 in 1960–61). While a Chelsea player, Greaves became the youngest ever player to score 100 goals in the English top-flight, at 20 years and 290 days. Chelsea's biggest winning scoreline in a competitive match is 13–0, achieved against Jeunesse Hautcharage in the Cup Winners' Cup in 1971. The club's biggest top-flight win was an 8–0 victory against Wigan Athletic in 2010, which was matched in 2012 against Aston Villa. Chelsea's biggest loss was an 8–1 reverse against Wolverhampton Wanderers in 1953. The club's 21–0 aggregate victory over Jeunesse Hautcharage in the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup in 1971 is a record in European competition. Officially, Chelsea's highest home attendance is 82,905 for a First Division match against Arsenal on 12 October 1935. However, an estimated crowd of over 100,000 attended a friendly match against Soviet team Dynamo Moscow on 13 November 1945. for £50 million; the record stood until 2014]] From 20 March 2004 to 26 October 2008, Chelsea went a record 86 consecutive league matches at home without defeat, beating the previous record of 63 matches unbeaten set by Liverpool between 1978 and 1980. Chelsea hold the English record for the fewest goals conceded during a league season (15), the highest number of clean sheets overall in a Premier League season (25) (both set during the 2004–05 season), and the most consecutive clean sheets from the start of a league season (6, set during the 2005–06 season). Chelsea is the only Premier League side to have won its opening nine league games of the season, doing so in 2005–06. From 2009 to 2013, Chelsea were unbeaten in a record 29 consecutive FA Cup matches (excluding penalty shoot-outs). On 25 August 1928, Chelsea, along with Arsenal, became the first club to play with shirt numbers, in their match against Swansea Town. They were the first English side to travel by aeroplane to a domestic away match, when they visited Newcastle United on 19 April 1957, and the first First Division side to play a match on a Sunday, when they faced Stoke City on 27 January 1974. On 26 December 1999, Chelsea became the first British side to field an entirely foreign starting line-up (no British or Irish players) in a Premier League match against Southampton. In May 2007, Chelsea were the first team to win the FA Cup at the new Wembley Stadium, having been the last to win it at the old Wembley. They were the first English club to be ranked No. 1 under UEFA's five-year coefficient system in the 21st century. They were the first Premier League team, and the first team in the English top flight since 1962–63, to score at least 100 goals in a single season, reaching the milestone during the 2009–10 season. Upon winning the 2012–13 UEFA Europa League, Chelsea became the first English club to win all four UEFA club trophies and the only club to hold the Champions League and the Europa League at the same time. Chelsea have broken the record for the highest transfer fee paid by a British club three times. Their £30.8 million purchase of Andriy Shevchenko from A.C. Milan in June 2006 was a British record until surpassed by the £32.5 million paid by Manchester City for Robinho in September 2008. The club's £50 million purchase of Fernando Torres from Liverpool in January 2011 held the record until Ángel Di María signed for Manchester United in August 2014 for £59.7 million. The club's £71 million purchase of Kepa Arrizabalaga in August 2018 remains a world record fee paid for a goalkeeper. On 12 February 2022, Chelsea became the first London club to win the FIFA Club World Cup. In the final it beat Palmeiras with Kai Havertz scoring a late penalty. Chelsea broke the spending record in the winter transfer window with a £289 million spending spree on eight new signings, with the £107 million signing of Enzo Fernandez breaking the British transfer record.Ownership and finances , chairman and one of the co-owners of Chelsea]] Chelsea Football Club was founded by Gus Mears in 1905. After his death in 1912, his descendants continued to own the club until 1982, when Ken Bates bought the club from Mears' great-nephew Brian Mears for £1. Bates bought a controlling stake in the club and floated Chelsea on the AIM stock exchange in March 1996. At the time of the Abramovich takeover, the club had debts of around £100 million, which included a 10-year £75 million Eurobond taken out in 1997 by the Bates regime to buy the freehold of Stamford Bridge and finance the redevelopment of the stadium. The 9% interest on the loan cost the club around £7 million a year and according to Bruce Buck, Chelsea were struggling to pay an instalment due in July 2003. Abramovich paid off some of that debt immediately, but the outstanding £36 million on the Eurobond was not fully repaid until 2008. Since then, the club had no external debt. Abramovich changed the ownership name to Chelsea FC plc, whose ultimate parent company was Fordstam Limited, which was controlled by him. Chelsea were additionally funded by Abramovich via interest free soft loans channelled through his holding company Fordstam Limited. The loans stood at £709 million in December 2009, when they were all converted to equity by Abramovich, leaving the club themselves debt free, although the debt remained with Fordstam. Chelsea did not turn a profit in the first nine years of Abramovich's ownership, and made record losses of £140m in June 2005. In 2016, Forbes magazine ranked Chelsea the seventh most valuable football club in the world, at £1.15 billion ($1.66 billion). , Chelsea was ranked eighth in the Deloitte Football Money League with an annual commercial revenue of £322.59 million. As of May 2022, Chelsea was ranked the eighth-most valuable club in the world according to Forbes, and eighth according to Deloitte, with an annual commercial revenue of €493.1 million. The club's recent accounting records highlight £26.6m they lost in compensation to former head coach Antonio Conte for sacking and to pay off his backroom staff and the legal costs that followed. On 26 February 2022, during the Russo-Ukrainian War, Abramovich handed over "stewardship and care" of Chelsea FC to the Chelsea Charitable Foundation. Abramovich released an official statement on 2 March 2022 confirming that he was selling the club due to the ongoing situation in Ukraine. Although the UK government froze Abramovich's assets in United Kingdom on 10 March due to his "close ties with Kremlin", it was made clear that the Chelsea club will be allowed to operate in terms of activities which are football related. On 12 March, the Premier League disqualified Abramovich as a director of Chelsea Football Club. On 19 March 2022, there were five confirmed bids to acquire Chelsea FC: submitted to Raine Capital which was handling the sale of the club. Some of these were a consortium led by ex-Liverpool chairman Sir Martin Broughton, a group of investors led by the Ricketts family (among them Joe and Pete Ricketts), Swiss and American businessmen Hansjörg Wyss and Todd Boehly, Aethel Partners headed by Portuguese Ricardo Santos Silva and British businessman Nick Candy, supported by former Chelsea striker Gianluca Vialli. On 7 May, the club finally confirmed that "terms have been agreed" for a new ownership group led by Todd Boehly and Clearlake Capital. On 30 May, it was confirmed that the Boehly consortium had completed the purchase of the club. The consortium includes Wyss and Mark Walter. Walter and Boehly are also owners of the Los Angeles Dodgers, the Los Angeles Lakers, and the Los Angeles Sparks. The consortium was later known as BlueCo. The transaction had received all necessary approvals from the governments of the United Kingdom and, the Premier League, and other authorities. Sponsorship Chelsea's kit has been manufactured by Nike since July 2017. Previously, the kit was manufactured by Adidas, which was originally contracted to supply the club's kit from 2006 to 2018. The partnership was extended in October 2010 in a deal worth £160 million over eight years. This deal was again extended in June 2013 in a deal worth £300 million over another 10 years. In May 2016, Adidas announced that by mutual agreement, the kit sponsorship would end six years early on 30 June 2017. Chelsea had to pay £40m in compensation to Adidas. In October 2016, Nike was announced as the new kit sponsor, in a deal worth £900m over 15 years, until 2032. Previously, the kit was manufactured by Umbro (1975–81), Le Coq Sportif (1981–86), The Chelsea Collection (1986–87), Umbro (1987–2006), and Adidas (2006–2017). Chelsea's first shirt sponsor was Gulf Air, agreed during the 1983–84 season. The club was then sponsored by Grange Farms, Bai Lin Tea and Simod before a long-term deal was signed with Commodore International in 1989; Amiga, an offshoot of Commodore, appeared on the shirts. Chelsea was subsequently sponsored by Coors beer (1994–97), Autoglass (1997–2001), Emirates (2001–05), Samsung Mobile (2005–08), Samsung (2008–15) and Yokohama Tyres (2015–20). From July 2020, Chelsea's sponsor was Three; however, it temporarily suspended its sponsorship in March 2022 in response to sanctions leveled by the UK government against Abramovich. It restored its sponsorship after the change of ownership of the club. Following the introduction of sleeve sponsors in the Premier League, Chelsea had Alliance Tyres as its first sleeve sponsor in the 2017–18 season, followed by Hyundai Motor Company in 2018–19 season. In 2022–23 season, Amber Group became the new sleeve sponsor, with the flagship digital asset platform WhaleFin appearing on the sleeves of both men's and women's teams. The club has a variety of other sponsors and official partners, which include Cadbury, EA Sports, FICO, Hilton Worldwide, 3 (company), Levy Restaurants, MSC Cruises, Oman Air, Parimatch, Rexona, Singha, The St. James, Trivago and BingX. Kit suppliers and shirt sponsors {\| class"wikitable" style="text-align:center" \|- !Period !Kit manufacturer !Shirt sponsor (chest) !Shirt sponsor (sleeve) \|- \| 1975–1981 \| Umbro \| rowspan="2" \| – \| rowspan="14" \| – \|- \| 1981–1983 \| rowspan="3" \| Le Coq Sportif \|- \| 1983–1984 \| Gulf Air \|- \| 1984–1986 \| – \|- \| 1986–1987 \| rowspan="2" \| The Chelsea Collection \| Bai Lin Tea \|- \| 1987 \| Simod \|- \| 1987–1993 \| rowspan="6" \| Umbro \| Commodore \|- \| 1993–1994 \| Amiga \|- \| 1994–1997 \| Coors \|- \| 1997–2001 \| Autoglass \|- \| 2001–2005 \| Emirates \|- \| 2005–2006 \| rowspan="2" \| Samsung \|- \| 2006–2015 \| rowspan="2" \| Adidas \|- \| 2015–2017 \| rowspan="3" \| Yokohama Tyres \|- \| 2017–2018 \| rowspan="7" \| Nike \| Alliance Tire Company \|- \| 2018–2020 \| rowspan="2" \| Hyundai \|- \| 2020–2022 \| rowspan="2" \| Three \|- \| 2022–2023 \| WhaleFin \|- \| 2023–2024 \| Infinite Athlete \| BingX \|- \| 2024–2025 \| – \| Fever \|- \| 2025 \| – \| Live Nation \|} Popular culture In 1930, Chelsea featured in one of the earliest football films, The Great Game. One-time Chelsea centre forward, Jack Cock, who by then was playing for Millwall, was the star of the film and several scenes were shot at Stamford Bridge, including on the pitch, the boardroom, and the dressing rooms. It included guest appearances by then-Chelsea players Andrew Wilson, George Mills, and Sam Millington. Owing to the notoriety of the Chelsea Headhunters, a football firm associated with the club, Chelsea have featured in films about football hooliganism, including 2004's The Football Factory. Chelsea appeared in the Hindi film Jhoom Barabar Jhoom. In April 2011, Montenegrin comedy series Nijesmo mi od juče made an episode in which Chelsea played against FK Sutjeska Nikšić for qualification of the UEFA Champions League. Up until the 1950s, the club had a long-running association with the music halls; their underachievement often provided material for comedians such as George Robey. It culminated in comedian Norman Long's release of a comic song in 1933, ironically titled "On the Day That Chelsea Went and Won the Cup", the lyrics of which describe a series of bizarre and improbable occurrences on the hypothetical day when Chelsea finally won a trophy. Scenes in a 1980 episode of Minder were filmed during a real match at Stamford Bridge between Chelsea and Preston North End with Terry McCann (Dennis Waterman) standing on the terraces. Players First-team squad Development Squad and Academy * Players to have at least one first-team appearance for Chelsea. Out on loan Management Coaching staff is the team's current head coach]] {\|class="wikitable" \|- !Position !Staff \|- \|Head coach\|\| Enzo Maresca \|- \|Assistant coach\|\| Willy Caballero \|- \|rowspan="2"\|First team coach\|\| Roberto Vitiello \|- \|\| Danny Walker \|- \|rowspan="2"\|Goalkeeper coaches\|\| Michele De Bernardin \|- \|\| Hilário \|- \|Assistant goalkeeper coach\|\| James Russell \|- \|Head of global goalkeeping\|\|\| Ben Roberts \|- \|Fitness coaches\|\| Marcos Alvarez \|- \|Player support and development officer\|\| Willie Isa \|- \|Technical analyst\|\| Bernardo Cueva \|- \|Match analyst\|\| Javi Molina \|- \|Loan technical coaches\|\| Carlo Cudicini \|- \|Under-21s head coach\|\| Filipe Coelho \|- \|rowspan="2"\|Under-21s assistant\|\| Jack Mesure \|- \| James Simmonds \|- \|Under-18s head coach\|\| Hassan Sulaiman \|- \|rowspan="2"\|Under-18s assistant\|\| Andy Ross \|- \| Jimmy Smith \|- Notable managers The following managers won at least one trophy when in charge of Chelsea: {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Name ! Period ! Trophies \|- \| Ted Drake \|1952–1961 \|First Division Championship, Charity Shield \|- \| Tommy Docherty \|1962–1967 \|League Cup \|- \| Dave Sexton \|1967–1974 \|FA Cup, UEFA Cup Winners' Cup \|- \| John Neal \|1981–1985 \|Second Division Championship \|- \| John Hollins \|1985–1988 \|Full Members Cup \|- \| Bobby Campbell \|1988–1991 \|Second Division Championship, Full Members Cup \|- \| Ruud Gullit \|1996–1998 \|FA Cup \|- \| Gianluca Vialli \|1998–2000 \|FA Cup, League Cup, Charity Shield, UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, UEFA Super Cup \|- \| José Mourinho \|2004–2007<br />2013–2015 \|3 Premier Leagues, 3 League Cups, FA Cup, Community Shield \|- \| Guus Hiddink \|2009<br />2015–2016 \|FA Cup \|- \| Carlo Ancelotti \|2009–2011 \|Premier League, FA Cup, Community Shield \|- \| Roberto Di Matteo \|2012 \|FA Cup, UEFA Champions League \|- \| Rafael Benítez \|2012–2013 \|UEFA Europa League \|- \| Antonio Conte \|2016–2018 \|Premier League, FA Cup \|- \| Maurizio Sarri \|2018–2019 \|UEFA Europa League \|- \| Thomas Tuchel \|2021–2022 \|UEFA Champions League, UEFA Super Cup, FIFA Club World Cup \|- \|} <!-- NOTE: PLEASE DISCUSS CONTROVERSIAL CHANGES ON THE ARTICLE'S TALK PAGE. PLEASE DO NOT EDIT WAR --> Club personnel {\|class="wikitable" \|- !Position !Name \|- \|Chairman\|\| Todd Boehly \|- \|Life president\|\| Richard Attenborough (1923–2014) \|- \|rowspan="9"\|Directors\|\| David Barnard \|- \| Barbara Charone \|- \| Behdad Eghbali \|- \| José E. Feliciano \|- \| Daniel Finkelstein \|- \| Jonathan Goldstein \|- \| James Pade \|- \| Mark Walter \|- \| Hansjörg Wyss \|- \|Chief executive officer\|\| Chris Jurasek \|- \|President of business\|\| Tom Glick \|- \|Director of football operations\|\| David Barnard \|- \|rowspan="3"\|Vice presidents\|\| Joe Hemani \|- \| Anthony Reeves \|- \| Alan Spence \|- Honours Upon winning the 2012–13 UEFA Europa League, Chelsea became the fourth club in history to have won the "European Treble" of European Cup/UEFA Champions League, UEFA Cup/UEFA Europa League, and European Cup Winners' Cup/UEFA Cup Winners' Cup after Juventus, Ajax and Bayern Munich. Chelsea is the first English club to have won all three major UEFA trophies. {\| class"wikitable plainrowheaders" style"font-size:95%; text-align:center;" \|+Chelsea F.C. Honours !style="width: 1%;"\|Type !style="width: 5%;"\|Competition !style="width: 1%;"\|Titles !style="width: 21%;"\|Seasons \|- \|rowspan="6" \|Domestic ! scopecol\| First Division/Premier League \|align="center"\|6 \|align="left"\|1954–55, 2004–05, 2005–06, 2009–10, 2014–15, 2016–17 \|- ! scopecol\|Second Division and are part of the club's Community Development programme. They play their home games at Kingsmeadow, formerly the home ground of the EFL League Two club AFC Wimbledon. The club were promoted to the Premier Division for the first time in 2005 as Southern Division champions and won the Surrey County Cup nine times between 2003 and 2013. In 2010, Chelsea Ladies were one of the eight founder members of the FA Women's Super League. In 2015, Chelsea Ladies won the FA Women's Cup for the first time, beating Notts County Ladies at Wembley Stadium, and a month later clinched their first FA WSL title to complete a league and cup double. In 2018, they won a second league and FA Cup double. Two years later, in 2020, they repeated their double success by winning the third league title and the FA Women's League Cup for the first time. In the 2020–21 season, Chelsea won a domestic treble by winning the league, FA Cup and League Cup. They reached the final of the UEFA Women's Champions League for the first time, losing to Barcelona 4–0. John Terry, former captain of the Chelsea men's team, is the president of Chelsea Women.Notes <references group"nb" />See also* List of world champion football clubsFootnotesReferences* * * * * * * * * External links <!--Please explain your reasoning on the talk page before adding fansites etc.--> * Independent websites * * [https://www.skysports.com/Chelsea Chelsea] at Sky Sports * [https://www.premierleague.com/clubs/4/Chelsea/overview Chelsea FC] at Premier League * [https://www.uefa.com/nationalassociations/teams/52914--chelsea/ Chelsea FC] at UEFA }} Category:Chelsea F.C. Category:1905 establishments in England Category:Association football clubs established in 1905 Category:BlueCo Category:EFL Cup winners Category:FA Cup winners Category:Football clubs in England Category:Football clubs in London Category:English Football League clubs Category:Fulham Category:Companies established in 1905 Category:History of the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham Category:Premier League clubs Category:Sport in the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham Category:UEFA Champions League winning clubs Category:UEFA Cup Winners' Cup winning clubs Category:UEFA Europa League winning clubs Category:UEFA Super Cup winning clubs Category:FIFA Club World Cup–winning clubs	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelsea_F.C.	2025-04-05T18:28:09.654957
7475	CANDU reactor	Phase III units 1 and 2, located in Zhejiang, China.]] The CANDU (CANada Deuterium Uranium) is a Canadian pressurized heavy-water reactor design used to generate electric power. targeting the development of small modular reactors (SMRs). In response, SNC-Lavalin developed a 300 MW<sub>e</sub> SMR version of the CANDU, the CANDU SMR, which it began to highlight on its website. In 2020, the CANDU SMR was not selected for further design work for a Canadian demonstration project. SNC-Lavalin is still looking at marketing a 300 MW SMR in part due to projected demand due to climate change mitigation. Design and operation s are known). }} ]] The basic operation of the CANDU design is similar to other nuclear reactors. Fission reactions in the reactor core heat pressurized water in a primary cooling loop. A heat exchanger, also known as a steam generator, transfers the heat to a secondary cooling loop, which powers a steam turbine with an electric generator attached to it (for a typical Rankine thermodynamic cycle). The exhaust steam from the turbines is then cooled, condensed and returned as feedwater to the steam generator. The final cooling often uses cooling water from a nearby source, such as a lake, river, or ocean. Newer CANDU plants, such as the Darlington Nuclear Generating Station near Toronto, Ontario, use a diffuser to spread the warm outlet water over a larger volume and limit the effects on the environment. Although all CANDU plants to date have used open-cycle cooling, modern CANDU designs can use cooling towers instead. Where the CANDU design differs from most other designs is in the details of the fissile core and the primary cooling loop. Natural uranium consists of a mix of mostly uranium-238 with small amounts of uranium-235 and trace amounts of other isotopes. Fission in these elements releases high-energy neutrons, which can cause other <sup>235</sup>U atoms in the fuel to undergo fission as well. This process is more effective when the neutron energies are lower than what the reactions release naturally. Most reactors use some form of neutron moderator to lower the energy of the neutrons, or "thermalize" them, which makes the reaction more efficient. The energy lost by the neutrons during this moderation process heats the moderator, and this heat is extracted for power. Most commercial reactor designs use normal water as the moderator. Water absorbs some of the neutrons, enough that it is not possible to keep the reaction going in natural uranium. CANDU replaces this "light" water with heavy water. Heavy water's extra neutron decreases its ability to absorb excess neutrons, resulting in a better neutron economy. This allows CANDU to run on unenriched natural uranium, or uranium mixed with a wide variety of other materials such as plutonium and thorium. This was a major goal of the CANDU design; by operating on natural uranium the cost of enrichment is removed. This also presents an advantage in nuclear proliferation terms, as there is no need for enrichment facilities, which might also be used for weapons. <!--- Calandria (nuclear reactor) is a redirect to here; this is where the term is defined in wikipedia. ---> Calandria and fuel design In conventional light-water reactor (LWR) designs, the entire fissile core is placed in a large pressure vessel. The amount of heat that can be removed by a unit of a coolant is a function of the temperature; by pressurizing the core, the water can be heated to much greater temperatures before boiling, thereby removing more heat and allowing the core to be smaller and more efficient. Building a pressure vessel of the required size is a significant challenge, and at the time of the CANDU's design, Canada's heavy industry lacked the requisite experience and capability to cast and machine reactor pressure vessels of the required size. This problem is amplified by natural uranium fuel's lower fissile density, which requires a larger reactor core. This issue was so major that even the relatively small pressure vessel originally intended for use in the NPD prior to its mid-construction redesign could not be fabricated domestically and had to be manufactured in Scotland instead. Domestic development of the technology required to produce pressure vessels of the size required for commercial-scale heavy water moderated power reactors was thought to be very unlikely. In CANDU the fuel bundles of about 10 cm diameter are composed of many smaller metal tubes. The bundles are contained in pressure tubes within a larger vessel containing additional heavy water acting as a moderator. This larger vessel, known as a calandria, is not pressurized and remains at lower temperatures, making it easier to fabricate. In order to prevent the heat from the pressure tubes from leaking into the surrounding moderator, each pressure tube is enclosed in a calandria tube. Carbon dioxide gas in the gap between the two tubes acts as an insulator. The moderator tank also acts as a large heat sink that provides an additional safety feature. In a conventional pressurized water reactor, refuelling the system requires to shut down the core and to open the pressure vessel. In CANDU reactors, the tube being refuelled remains pressurized. This allows the CANDU system to be continually refuelled without shutting down, another major design goal. In modern systems, two robotic machines attach to the reactor faces and open the end caps of a pressure tube. One machine pushes in the new fuel, whereby the depleted fuel is pushed out and collected at the other end. A significant operational advantage of online refuelling is that a failed or leaking fuel bundle can be removed from the core once it has been located, thus reducing the radiation levels in the primary cooling loop. Each fuel bundle is a cylinder assembled from thin tubes filled with ceramic pellets of uranium oxide fuel (fuel elements). In older designs, the bundle had 28 or 37 half-meter-long fuel elements with 12–13 such assemblies lying end-to-end in a pressure tube. The newer CANFLEX bundle has 43 fuel elements, with two element sizes (so the power rating can be increased without melting the hottest fuel elements). It is about in diameter, long, weighs about , and is intended to eventually replace the 37-element bundle. To allow the neutrons to flow freely between the bundles, the tubes and bundles are made of neutron-transparent zircaloy (zirconium + 2.5% wt niobium). Purpose of using heavy water , operating eight CANDU reactors]] Natural uranium is a mix of isotopes: approximately 99.28% uranium-238 and 0.72% uranium-235 by atom fraction. Nuclear power reactors are usually operated at constant power for long periods of time, which requires a constant rate of fission over time. In order to keep the fission rate constant, the neutrons released by fission must produce an equal number of fissions in other fuel atoms. This balance is referred to as "criticality." Neutrons released by nuclear fission are fairly energetic and are not readily absorbed (or "captured") by the surrounding fissile material. In order to improve the capture rate, the neutron energy must be reduced, or "moderated", to be as low as possible. In practice, the lower energy limit is the energy where the neutrons are in thermal equilibrium with the moderator. When neutrons approach this lower energy limit, they are referred to as "thermal neutrons." During moderation it helps to separate the neutrons and uranium, since <sup>238</sup>U has a large affinity for intermediate-energy neutrons ("resonance" absorption), but is only easily fissioned by the few energetic neutrons above ≈1.5–2 MeV. Since most of the fuel material is usually <sup>238</sup>U, most reactor designs are based on thin fuel rods separated by moderator, allowing the neutrons to travel in the moderator before entering the fuel again. More neutrons are released than the minimum needed to maintain the chain reaction; when uranium-238 absorbs neutrons, plutonium is created, which helps to make up for the depletion of uranium-235. Eventually the build-up of fission products that are more neutron-absorbing than <sup>238</sup>U slows the reaction and calls for refuelling. Light water makes an excellent moderator: the light hydrogen atoms are very close in mass to a neutron and can absorb a lot of energy in a single collision (like a collision of two billiard balls). However, light hydrogen can absorb neutrons, reducing the number available to react with the small amount of <sup>235</sup>U in natural uranium, preventing criticality. In order to allow criticality, the fuel must be enriched, increasing the amount of <sup>235</sup>U to a usable level. In light-water reactors, the fuel is typically enriched to between 2% and 5% <sup>235</sup>U (the leftover fraction with less <sup>235</sup>U is called depleted uranium). Enrichment facilities are expensive to build and operate. They may also pose a proliferation concern, as they can be used to enrich the <sup>235</sup>U much further, up to weapons-grade material (90% or more <sup>235</sup>U). This can be remedied if the fuel is supplied and reprocessed by an internationally approved supplier. The main advantage of heavy water moderator over light water is the reduced absorption of the neutrons that sustain the chain reaction, allowing a lower concentration of fissile atoms (to the point of using unenriched natural uranium fuel). Deuterium ("heavy hydrogen") already has the extra neutron that light hydrogen would absorb, reducing the tendency to capture neutrons. Deuterium has twice the mass of a single neutron (vs light hydrogen, which has about the same mass); the mismatch means that more collisions are needed to moderate the neutrons, requiring a larger thickness of moderator between the fuel rods. This increases the size of the reactor core and the leakage of neutrons. It is also the practical reason for the calandria design, otherwise, a very large pressure vessel would be needed. The low <sup>235</sup>U density in natural uranium also implies that less of the fuel will be consumed before the fission rate drops too low to sustain criticality, because the ratio of <sup>235</sup>U to fission products + <sup>238</sup>U is lower. In CANDU most of the moderator is at lower temperatures than in other designs, reducing the spread of speeds and the overall speed of the moderator particles. This means that most of the neutrons will end up at a lower energy and be more likely to cause fission, so CANDU not only "burns" natural uranium, but it does so more effectively as well. Overall, CANDU reactors use 30–40% less mined uranium than light-water reactors per unit of electricity produced. This is a major advantage of the heavy-water design; it not only requires less fuel, but as the fuel does not have to be enriched, it is much less expensive as well. A further unique feature of heavy-water moderation is the greater stability of the chain reaction. This is due to the relatively low binding energy of the deuterium nucleus (2.2 MeV), leading to some energetic neutrons and especially gamma rays breaking the deuterium nuclei apart to produce extra neutrons. Both gammas produced directly by fission and by the decay of fission fragments have enough energy, and the half-lives of the fission fragments range from seconds to hours or even years. The slow response of these gamma-generated neutrons delays the response of the reactor and gives the operators extra time in case of an emergency. Since gamma rays travel for meters through water, an increased rate of chain reaction in one part of the reactor will produce a response from the rest of the reactor, allowing various negative feedbacks to stabilize the reaction. On the other hand, the fission neutrons are thoroughly slowed down before they reach another fuel rod, meaning that it takes neutrons a longer time to get from one part of the reactor to the other. Thus if the chain reaction accelerates in one section of the reactor, the change will propagate itself only slowly to the rest of the core, giving time to respond in an emergency. The independence of the neutrons' energies from the nuclear fuel used is what allows such fuel flexibility in a CANDU reactor, since every fuel bundle will experience the same environment and affect its neighbors in the same way, whether the fissile material is uranium-235, uranium-233 or plutonium. Canada developed the heavy-water-moderated design in the post–World War II era to explore nuclear energy while lacking access to enrichment facilities. War-era enrichment systems were extremely expensive to build and operate, whereas the heavy water solution allowed the use of natural uranium in the experimental ZEEP reactor. A much less expensive enrichment system was developed, but the United States classified work on the cheaper gas centrifuge process. The CANDU was therefore designed to use natural uranium. Safety features The CANDU includes several active and passive safety features in its design. Some of these are a side effect of the physical layout of the system. CANDU designs have a positive void coefficient, as well as a small power coefficient, normally considered bad in reactor design. This implies that steam generated in the coolant will increase the reaction rate, which in turn would generate more steam. This is one of the many reasons for the cooler mass of moderator in the calandria, as even a serious steam incident in the core would not have a major impact on the overall moderation cycle. Only if the moderator itself starts to boil would there be any significant effect, and the large thermal mass ensures that this will occur slowly. The deliberately "sluggish" response of the fission process in CANDU allows controllers more time to diagnose and deal with problems. The fuel channels can only maintain criticality if they are mechanically sound. If the temperature of the fuel bundles increases to the point where they are mechanically unstable, their horizontal layout means that they will bend under gravity, shifting the layout of the bundles and reducing the efficiency of the reactions. Because the original fuel arrangement is optimal for a chain reaction, and the natural uranium fuel has little excess reactivity, any significant deformation will stop the inter-fuel pellet fission reaction. This will not stop heat production from fission product decay, which would continue to supply a considerable heat output. If this process further weakens the fuel bundles, the pressure tube they are in will eventually bend far enough to touch the calandria tube, allowing heat to be transferred into the moderator tank. The moderator vessel has a considerable thermal capability on its own and is normally kept relatively cool. Fuel cycle A heavy-water design can sustain a chain reaction with a lower concentration of fissile atoms than light-water reactors, allowing it to use some alternative fuels; for example, "recovered uranium" (RU) from used LWR fuel. CANDU was designed for natural uranium with only 0.7% <sup>235</sup>U, so reprocessed uranium with 0.9% <sup>235</sup>U is a comparatively rich fuel. This extracts a further 30–40% energy from the uranium. The Qinshan CANDU reactor in China has used recovered uranium. The DUPIC (Direct Use of spent PWR fuel in CANDU) process under development can recycle it even without reprocessing. The fuel is sintered in air (oxidized), then in hydrogen (reduced) to break it into a powder, which is then formed into CANDU fuel pellets. CANDU reactors can also breed fuel from the more abundant thorium. This is being investigated by India to take advantage of its natural thorium reserves. Even better than LWRs, CANDU can utilize a mix of uranium and plutonium oxides (MOX fuel), the plutonium either from dismantled nuclear weapons or reprocessed reactor fuel. The mix of isotopes in reprocessed plutonium is not attractive for weapons, but can be used as fuel (instead of being simply nuclear waste), while consuming weapons-grade plutonium eliminates a proliferation hazard. If the aim is explicitly to utilize plutonium or other actinides from spent fuel, then special inert-matrix fuels are proposed to do this more efficiently than MOX. Since they contain no uranium, these fuels do not breed any extra plutonium. Economics The neutron economy of heavy-water moderation and precise control of on-line refueling allow CANDU to use a wide range of fuels other than enriched uranium, e.g., natural uranium, reprocessed uranium, thorium, plutonium, and used LWR fuel. Given the expense of enrichment, this can make fuel much cheaper. There is an initial investment into the tonnes of 99.75% pure heavy water to fill the core and heat-transfer system. In the case of the Darlington plant, costs released as part of a freedom of information act request put the overnight cost of the plant (four reactors totalling 3,512 MW<sub>e</sub> net capacity) at $5.117 billion CAD (about US$4.2 billion at early-1990s exchange rates). Total capital costs including interest were $14.319 billion CAD (about US$11.9 billion) with the heavy water accounting for $1.528 billion, or 11%, of this. Since heavy water is less efficient than light water at slowing neutrons, CANDU needs a larger moderator-to-fuel ratio and a larger core for the same power output. Although a calandria-based core is cheaper to build, its size increases the cost for standard features like the containment building. Generally nuclear plant construction and operations are ≈65% of overall lifetime cost; for CANDU, costs are dominated by construction even more. Fueling CANDU is cheaper than other reactors, costing only ≈10% of the total, so the overall price per kWh electricity is comparable. The next-generation Advanced CANDU reactor (ACR) mitigates these disadvantages by having light-water coolant and using a more compact core with less moderator. When first introduced, CANDUs offered much better capacity factor (ratio of power generated to what would be generated by running at full power, 100% of the time) than LWRs of a similar generation. The light-water designs spent, on average, about half the time being refueled or maintained. Since the 1980s, dramatic improvements in LWR outage management have narrowed the gap, with several units achieving capacity factors ~90% and higher, with an overall US fleet performance of 92% in 2010. The latest-generation CANDU 6 reactors have an 88–90% CF, but overall performance is dominated by the older Canadian units with CFs on the order of 80%. Refurbished units had historically demonstrated poor performance, on the order of 65%. This has since improved with the return of Bruce units A1 and A2 to operation, which have post-refurbishment (2013+) capacity factors of 90.78% and 90.38%, respectively. Some CANDU plants suffered from cost overruns during construction, often from external factors such as government action. For instance, imposed construction delays led to roughly a doubling of the cost of the Darlington Nuclear Generating Station near Toronto, Ontario. Technical problems and redesigns added about another billion to the resulting $14.4 billion price. In 2002 two CANDU 6 reactors at Qinshan in China were completed on-schedule and on-budget, an achievement attributed to tight control over scope and schedule. The station consists of four operating and four shut down CANDU reactors housed in domed containment buildings. The cylindrical Vacuum Building is an additional safety system where steam is condensed in the event of a major leak.]] Nuclear nonproliferation In terms of safeguards against nuclear weapons proliferation, CANDUs meet a similar level of international certification as other reactors. The plutonium for India's first nuclear detonation, Operation Smiling Buddha in 1974, was produced in a CIRUS reactor supplied by Canada and partially paid for by the Canadian government using heavy water supplied by the United States. In addition to its two PHWR reactors, India has some safeguarded pressurised heavy-water reactors (PHWRs) based on the CANDU design, and two safeguarded light-water reactors supplied by the US. Plutonium has been extracted from the spent fuel from all of these reactors; India mainly relies on an Indian designed and built military reactor called Dhruva. The design is believed to be derived from the CIRUS reactor, with the Dhruva being scaled-up for more efficient plutonium production. It is this reactor which is thought to have produced the plutonium for India's more recent (1998) Operation Shakti nuclear tests. Although heavy water is relatively immune to neutron capture, a small amount of the deuterium turns into tritium in this way. This tritium is extracted from some CANDU plants in Canada, mainly to improve safety in case of heavy-water leakage. The gas is stockpiled and used in a variety of commercial products, notably "powerless" lighting systems and medical devices. In 1985 what was then Ontario Hydro sparked controversy in Ontario due to its plans to sell tritium to the United States. The plan, by law, involved sales to non-military applications only, but some speculated that the exports could have freed American tritium for the United States nuclear weapons program. Future demands appear to outstrip production, in particular the demands of future generations of experimental fusion reactors like ITER, with up to 10kg of tritium being required in order to start up a fusion reactor and so dozens of kilograms being required for a fleet. Between of tritium were recovered annually at the Darlington separation facility by 2003, of which a minor fraction was sold. Consequently, the Canadian Nuclear Laboratories in 2024 announced a decades-long program to refurbish existing CANDU plants and equip them with tritium breeding facilities. The 1998 Operation Shakti test series in India included one bomb of about yield that India has publicly claimed was a hydrogen bomb. An offhand comment in the BARC publication Heavy Water – Properties, Production and Analysis appears to suggest that the tritium was extracted from the heavy water in the CANDU and PHWR reactors in commercial operation. Janes Intelligence Review quotes the Chairman of the Indian Atomic Energy Commission as admitting to the tritium extraction plant, but refusing to comment on its use. India is also capable of creating tritium more efficiently by irradiation of lithium-6 in reactors. Tritium production Tritium, <sup>3</sup>H, is a radioactive isotope of hydrogen, with a half-life of 12.3 years. It is produced in small amounts in nature (about 4 kg per year globally) by cosmic ray interactions in the upper atmosphere. Tritium is considered a weak radionuclide because of its low-energy radioactive emissions (beta particle energy up to 18.6 keV). The beta particles travel 6 mm in air and only penetrate skin up to 6 micrometers. The biological half-life of inhaled, ingested, or absorbed tritium is 10–12 days. (for example, the maximal permitted drinking-water concentration for tritium in Canada, 7,000 Bq/L, corresponds to 1/10 of the ICRP's dose limit for members of the public). Tritium emissions from other CANDU plants are similarly low. In general, there is significant public controversy about radioactive emissions from nuclear power plants, and for CANDU plants one of the main concerns is tritium. In 2007 Greenpeace published a critique of tritium emissions from Canadian nuclear power plants by Ian Fairlie. by Richard Osborne.HistoryThe CANDU development effort has gone through four major stages over time. The first systems were experimental and prototype machines of limited power. These were replaced by a second generation of machines of 500 to 600 MW<sub>e</sub> (the CANDU 6), a series of larger machines of 900 MW<sub>e</sub>, and finally developing into the CANDU 9 and ACR-1000 effort.Early efforts The first heavy-water-moderated design in Canada was the ZEEP, which started operation just after the end of World War II. ZEEP was joined by several other experimental machines, including the NRX in 1947 and NRU in 1957. These efforts led to the first CANDU-type reactor, the Nuclear Power Demonstration (NPD), in Rolphton, Ontario. It was intended as a proof-of-concept and rated for only 22 MW<sub>e</sub>, a very low power for a commercial power reactor. NPD produced the first nuclear-generated electricity in Canada and ran successfully from 1962 to 1987. The second CANDU was the Douglas Point reactor, a more powerful version rated at roughly 200 MW<sub>e</sub> and located near Kincardine, Ontario. It went into service in 1968 and ran until 1984. Uniquely among CANDU stations, Douglas Point had an oil-filled window with a view of the east reactor face, even when the reactor was operating. Douglas Point was originally planned to be a two-unit station, but the second unit was cancelled because of the success of the larger 515 MW<sub>e</sub> units at Pickering. Gentilly-1, in Bécancour, Quebec, near Trois-Rivières, Quebec, was also an experimental version of CANDU, using a boiling light-water coolant and vertical pressure tubes, but was not considered successful and closed after seven years of fitful operation. Gentilly-2, a CANDU-6 reactor, began operating in 1983. Following statements from the in-coming Parti Québécois government in September 2012 that Gentilly would close, the operator, Hydro-Québec, decided to cancel a previously announced refurbishment of the plant and announced its shutdown at the end of 2012, citing economic reasons for the decision. The company has started a 50-year decommissioning process estimated to cost $1.8 billion. In parallel with the classic CANDU design, experimental variants were being developed. WR-1, located at the AECL's Whiteshell Laboratories in Pinawa, Manitoba, used vertical pressure tubes and organic oil as the primary coolant. The oil used has a higher boiling point than water, allowing the reactor to operate at higher temperatures and lower pressures than a conventional reactor. WR-1's outlet temperature was about 490 °C compared to the CANDU 6's nominal 310 °C; the higher temperature and thus thermodynamic efficiency offsets to some degree the fact that oils have about half the heat capacity of water. The higher temperatures also result in more efficient conversion to steam, and ultimately, electricity. WR-1 operated successfully for many years and promised a significantly higher efficiency than water-cooled versions. 600 MW<sub>e</sub> designs The successes at NPD and Douglas Point led to the decision to construct the first multi-unit station in Pickering, Ontario. Pickering A, consisting of Units 1 to 4, went into service in 1971. Pickering B with units 5 to 8 came online in 1983, giving a full-station capacity of 4,120 MW<sub>e</sub>. The station is very close to the city of Toronto, in order to reduce transmission costs. A series of improvements to the basic Pickering design led to the CANDU 6 design, which first went into operation in the early 1980s. CANDU 6 was essentially a version of the Pickering power plant that was redesigned to be able to be built in single-reactor units. CANDU 6 was used in several installations outside Ontario, including the Gentilly-2 in Quebec, and Point Lepreau Nuclear Generating Station in New Brunswick. CANDU 6 forms the majority of foreign CANDU systems, including the designs exported to Argentina, Romania, China and South Korea. Only India operates a CANDU system that is not based on the CANDU 6 design. 900 MW<sub>e</sub> designs The economics of nuclear power plants generally scale well with size. This improvement at larger sizes is offset by the sudden appearance of large quantities of power on the grid, which leads to a lowering of electricity prices through supply and demand effects. Predictions in the late 1960s suggested that growth in electricity demand would overwhelm these downward pricing pressures, leading most designers to introduce plants in the 1000 MW<sub>e</sub> range. Pickering A was quickly followed by such an upscaling effort for the Bruce Nuclear Generating Station, constructed in stages between 1970 and 1987. It is the largest nuclear facility in North America and second largest in the world (after Kashiwazaki-Kariwa in Japan), with eight reactors at around 800 MW<sub>e</sub> each, in total 6,232 MW (net) and 7,276 MW (gross). Another, smaller, upscaling led to the Darlington Nuclear Generating Station design, similar to the Bruce plant, but delivering about 880 MW<sub>e</sub> per reactor in a four-reactor station. As was the case for the development of the Pickering design into the CANDU 6, the Bruce design was also developed into the similar CANDU 9. Like the CANDU 6, the CANDU 9 is essentially a repackaging of the Bruce design, so that it can be built as a single-reactor unit. No CANDU 9 reactors have been built. Generation III+ designs Through the 1980s and 1990s the nuclear power market suffered a major crash, with few new plants being constructed in North America or Europe. Design work continued throughout, and new design concepts were introduced that dramatically improved safety, capital costs, economics and overall performance. These generation III+ and generation IV machines became a topic of considerable interest in the early 2000s, as it appeared that a nuclear renaissance was underway and large numbers of new reactors would be built over the next decade. AECL had been working on a design known as the ACR-700, using elements of the latest versions of the CANDU 6 and CANDU 9, with a design power of 700 MW<sub>e</sub>. The design also requires the use of slightly enriched uranium, enriched by about 1 or 2%. The main reason for this is to increase the burn-up ratio, allowing bundles to remain in the reactor longer, so that only a third as much spent fuel is produced. This also has effects on operational costs and timetables, as the refuelling frequency is reduced. As is the case with earlier CANDU designs, the ACR-1000 also offers online refuelling. Sales efforts in Canada By most measures, the CANDU is "the Ontario reactor". The system was developed almost entirely in Ontario, and only two experimental designs were built in other provinces. Of the 29 commercial CANDU reactors built, 22 are in Ontario. Of these 22, a number of reactors have been removed from service. Two new CANDU reactors have been proposed for Darlington with Canadian government help with financing, but these plans ended in 2009 due to high costs. AECL has heavily marketed CANDU within Canada, but has found a limited reception. To date, only two non-experimental reactors have been built in other provinces, one each in Quebec and New Brunswick, other provinces have concentrated on hydro and coal-fired plants. Several Canadian provinces have developed large amounts of hydro power. Alberta and Saskatchewan do not have extensive hydro resources, and use mainly fossil fuels to generate electric power. Interest has been expressed in Western Canada, where CANDU reactors are being considered as heat and electricity sources for the energy-intensive oil sands extraction process, which currently uses natural gas. Energy Alberta Corporation announced 27 August 2007 that they had applied for a licence to build a new nuclear plant at Lac Cardinal (30 km west of the town of Peace River, Alberta), with two ACR-1000 reactors going online in 2017 producing 2.2 gigawatts (electric). A 2007 parliamentary review suggested placing the development efforts on hold. The company was later purchased by Bruce Power, who proposed expanding the plant to four units of a total 4.4 gigawatts. These plans were upset and Bruce later withdrew its application for the Lac Cardinal, proposing instead a new site about 60 km away. The plans are currently moribund after a wide consultation with the public demonstrated that while about of the population were open to reactors, were opposed. Foreign sales During the 1970s, the international nuclear sales market was extremely competitive, with many national nuclear companies being supported by their governments' foreign embassies. In addition, the pace of construction in the United States had meant that cost overruns and delayed completion was generally over, and subsequent reactors would be cheaper. Canada, a relatively new player on the international market, had numerous disadvantages in these efforts. The CANDU was deliberately designed to reduce the need for very large machined parts, making it suitable for construction by countries without a major industrial base. Sales efforts have had their most success in countries that could not locally build designs from other firms. In the late 1970s, AECL noted that each reactor sale would employ 3,600 Canadians and result in $300 million in balance-of-payments income. These sales efforts were aimed primarily at countries being run by dictatorships or similar, a fact that led to serious concerns in parliament. These efforts also led to a scandal when it was discovered millions of dollars had been given to foreign sales agents, with little or no record of who they were, or what they did to earn the money. This led to a Royal Canadian Mounted Police investigation after questions were raised about sales efforts in Argentina, and new regulations on full disclosure of fees for future sales. CANDU's first success was the sale of early CANDU designs to India. In 1963, an agreement was signed for export of a 200 MWe power reactor based on the Douglas Point reactor. The success of the deal led to the 1966 sale of a second reactor of the same design. The first reactor, then known as RAPP-1 for "Rajasthan Atomic Power Project", began operation in 1972. A serious problem with cracking of the reactor's end shield led to the reactor being shut down for long periods, and the reactor was finally downrated to 100 MW. Construction of the RAPP-2 reactor was still underway when India detonated its first atomic bomb in 1974, leading to Canada ending nuclear dealings with the country. Part of the sales agreement was a technology transfer process. When Canada withdrew from development, India continued construction of CANDU-like plants across the country. By 2010, CANDU-based reactors were operational at the following sites: Kaiga (3), Kakrapar (2), Madras (2), Narora (2), Rajasthan (6), and Tarapur (2). In Pakistan, the Karachi Nuclear Power Plant with a gross capacity of 137 MW<sub>e</sub> was built between 1966 and 1971. In 1972, AECL submitted a design based on the Pickering plant to Argentina's Comision Nacional de Energia Atomica process, in partnership with the Italian company Italimpianti. High inflation during construction led to massive losses, and efforts to re-negotiate the deal were interrupted by the March 1976 coup led by General Videla. The Embalse Nuclear Power Station began commercial operation in January 1984. There have been ongoing negotiations to open more CANDU 6 reactors in the country, including a 2007 deal between Canada, China and Argentina, but to date no firm plans have been announced. A licensing agreement with Romania was signed in 1977, selling the CANDU 6 design for $5 million per reactor for the first four reactors, and then $2 million each for the next twelve. In addition, Canadian companies would supply a varying amount of equipment for the reactors, about $100 million of the first reactor's $800 million price tag, and then falling over time. In 1980, Nicolae Ceaușescu asked for a modification to provide goods instead of cash, in exchange the amount of Canadian content was increased and a second reactor would be built with Canadian help. Economic troubles in the country worsened throughout the construction phase. The first reactor of the Cernavodă Nuclear Power Plant only came online in April 1996, a decade after its December 1985 predicted startup. Further loans were arranged for completion of the second reactor, which went online in November 2007. In January 1975, a deal was announced for a single CANDU 6 reactor to be built in South Korea, now known as the Wolsong-1 Power Reactor. Construction started in 1977 and commercial operation began in April 1983. In December 1990 a further deal was announced for three additional units at the same site, which began operation in the period 1997–1999. South Korea also negotiated development and technology transfer deals with Westinghouse for their advanced System-80 reactor design, and all future development is based on locally built versions of this reactor. In June 1998, construction started on a CANDU 6 reactor in Qinshan China Qinshan Nuclear Power Plant, as Phase III (units 4 and 5) of the planned 11 unit facility. Commercial operation began in December 2002 and July 2003, respectively. These are the first heavy water reactors in China. Qinshan is the first CANDU-6 project to use open-top reactor building construction, and the first project where commercial operation began earlier than the projected date. CANDU Energy is continuing marketing efforts in China. In addition, China and Argentina have agreed a contract to build a 700 MWe CANDU-6 derived reactor. Construction is planned to start in 2018 at Atucha.Economic performanceThe cost of electricity from any power plant can be calculated by roughly the same selection of factors: capital costs for construction or the payments on loans made to secure that capital, the cost of fuel on a per-watt-hour basis, and fixed and variable maintenance fees. In the case of nuclear power, one normally includes two additional costs, the cost of permanent waste disposal, and the cost of decommissioning the plant when its useful lifetime is over. Generally, the capital costs dominate the price of nuclear power, as the amount of power produced is so large that it overwhelms the cost of fuel and maintenance. The World Nuclear Association calculates that the cost of fuel, including all processing, accounts for less than one cent (US$0.01) per kWh. Information on economic performance on CANDU is somewhat lopsided; the majority of reactors are in Ontario, which is also the "most public" among the major CANDU operators. Several anti-nuclear organizations like the Ontario Clean Air Alliance (OCAA) and Pembina have claimed that every CANDU design in Ontario went over budget by at least 25%, and average over 150% higher than estimated. However, this is predicated on using "dollar of the day" figures that are not adjusted for inflation. With inflation accounted for, all plants were on or under budget with the exception of Darlington. Even accounting for inflation, Darlington went far over budget, at almost double the original estimate, but this project was stopped in-progress thereby incurring additional interest charges during a period of high interest rates, which is a special situation that was not expected to repeat itself. In the 1980s, the pressure tubes in the Pickering A reactors were replaced ahead of design life due to unexpected deterioration caused by hydrogen embrittlement. Extensive inspection and maintenance has avoided this problem in later reactors. All the Pickering A and Bruce A reactors were shut down in 1999 in order to focus on restoring operational performance in the later generations at Pickering, Bruce, and Darlington. Before restarting the Pickering A reactors, OPG undertook a limited refurbishment program. The original cost and time estimates based on inadequate project scope development were greatly below the actual time and cost and it was determined that Pickering units 2 and 3 would not be restarted for commercial reasons. These overruns were repeated at Bruce, with Units 3 and 4 running 90% over budget. and Gentilly-2 plant was shut down on 28 December 2012. Based on the projected capital costs, and the low cost of fuel and in-service maintenance, in 1994 power from CANDU was predicted to be well under 5 cents/kWh. In 1999, Ontario Hydro was broken up and its generation facilities re-formed into Ontario Power Generation (OPG). In order to make the successor companies more attractive for private investors, $19.4 billion in "stranded debt" was placed in the control of the Ontario Electricity Financial Corporation. This debt is slowly paid down through a variety of sources, including a 0.7-cent/kWh tariff on all power, all income taxes paid by all operating companies, and all dividends paid by the OPG and Hydro One. As of October 2022, Darlington is into the final half of the 10-year major refurbishment project of all four units, having reached their design mid-life. The budget is set at $12.5 billion, and planned to produce power at 6 to 8 cents/kWh. The project is currently on-time and on-budget. Darlington Units 1, 3 and 4 have operated with an average lifetime annual capacity factor of 85% and Unit 2 with a capacity factor of 78%, As of 2010, refurbished units at Pickering and Bruce had lifetime capacity factors between 59 and 69%. This includes periods of several years while the units were shut down for the retubing and refurbishing. Post-refurbishment capacity factors are much higher with Bruce A1 at 90.78%, Bruce A2 at 90.38% (2013+), In 2009, Bruce A units 3 and 4 had capacity factors of 80.5% and 76.7% respectively, in a year when they had a major Vacuum Building outage.Active CANDU reactors Today there are 31 CANDU reactors in use around the world, and 18 "CANDU-derivatives" in India, developed from the CANDU design. After India detonated a nuclear bomb in 1974, Canada stopped nuclear dealings with India. The breakdown is: * Canada: 19 and 5 decommissioned. * South Korea: 3, and 1 shutdown. * China: 2 * India: 2, 18 active CANDU-derivatives, and 6 CANDU-derivatives under construction. * Argentina: 1 * Romania: 2, and 3 dormant part-constructed. * Pakistan: 1 shutdown. See also * ZEEP reactor * Nuclear power in Canada * List of nuclear reactors * CANDU Owners Group References External links * [http://www.nuclearfaq.ca/brat_fuel.htm The Evolution of CANDU Fuel Cycles and Their Potential Contribution to World Peace] * [http://www.candu.com/ Candu Energy Inc.] * * [http://www.candu.org/ CANDU Owner's Group] * [http://www.cbc.ca/archives/categories/science-technology/energy-production/candu-the-canadian-nuclear-reactor/topic---candu-the-canadian-nuclear-reactor.html CBC Digital Archives – Candu: The Canadian Nuclear Reactor] * [https://thewalrus.ca/2006-09-energy/ Will CANDU do? Walrus Magazine] Category:Nuclear power reactor types Category:Atomic Energy of Canada Limited	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CANDU_reactor	2025-04-05T18:28:09.678819
7477	Cuitláhuac	Cuitláhuac (, ) (c. 1476 – 1520) or Cuitláhuac (in Spanish orthography; , , honorific form: Cuitlahuatzin) was the 10th Huey Tlatoani (emperor) of the Aztec city of Tenochtitlan for 80 days during the year Two Flint (1520). He is credited with leading the resistance to the Spanish and Tlaxcalteca conquest of the Mexica Empire, following the death of his kinsman Moctezuma II. Biography Cuitláhuac was the eleventh son of the ruler Axayacatl and a younger brother of Moctezuma II, the late Emperor of Tenochtitlan, who died during the Spanish occupation of the city. His mother's father, also called Cuitlahuac, had been ruler of Iztapalapa, and the younger Cuitláhuac also ruled there initially. Cuitláhuac was an experienced warrior and an adviser to Moctezuma, warning him not to allow the Spaniards to enter Tenochtitlan. Hernán Cortés imprisoned both Moctezuma and Cuitláhuac. Cortes had to leave the city in order to meet a Spanish force sent by Diego Velasquez, Spanish governor of Cuba. Following the massacre of Aztec elites when Cortés was away from Tenochtitlan, the Mexica besieged the Spanish and their indigenous allies. Cuitláhuac was released on the pretense to reopen the market to get food to the invaders. Moctezuma was stoned to death after trying to tell his people to withdraw from the battle between the Aztecs and the Spanish, and Cuitláhuac was elected tlatoani following the flight of the Spaniards and their allies from Tenochtitlan on June 30, 1520. Some sources claim he was serving in that role even before Moctezuma's death. Cuitláhuac was ritually married to Moctezuma's eldest daughter, a ten- or eleven-year-old girl, who later was called Isabel Moctezuma. thumb\|right\|220px\|Cuitláhuac Cuitláhuac ruled just 80 days, perhaps dying from smallpox Immediately after Cuitláhuac's death, Cuauhtémoc was made the next tlatoani. Legacy The modern Mexican municipality of Cuitláhuac, Veracruz and the Mexico City Metro station Metro Cuitláhuac are named in honor of Cuitláhuac. The asteroid 2275 Cuitláhuac is also named after this ruler. There is an Avenue in Mexico City Called Cuitláhuac (Eje 3 Norte) that runs from Avenue Insurgentes to Avenue Mexico-Tacuba and that is part of an inner ring; also many streets in other towns and villages in Mexico are so called. See also List of Tenochtitlan rulers Notes References External links Category:Aztec nobility Category:Tenochca tlatoque Category:16th-century monarchs in North America Category:16th-century indigenous leaders of the Americas Category:1470s births Category:1520 deaths Category:Deaths from smallpox	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuitláhuac	2025-04-05T18:28:09.685542
7478	Cuauhtémoc	\| burial_place = Ixcateopan de Cuauhtémoc\| }} Cuauhtémoc (, ), also known as Cuauhtemotzín, Guatimozín, or Guatémoc, was the Aztec ruler (tlatoani) of Tenochtitlan from 1520 to 1521, and the last Aztec Emperor. The name Cuauhtemōc means "one who has descended like an eagle", and is commonly rendered in English as "Descending Eagle", as in the moment when an eagle folds its wings and plummets down to strike its prey; the name thus implies aggressiveness and determination. Cuauhtémoc took power in 1520 as successor of Cuitláhuac and was a cousin of the late emperor Moctezuma II. His young wife, who was later known as Isabel Moctezuma, was one of Moctezuma's daughters. He ascended to the throne when he was around 25 years old, while Tenochtitlan was being besieged by the Spanish and devastated by an epidemic of smallpox brought to the Americas by Spanish conquerors. After the killings in the Great Temple, there were probably few Aztec captains available to take the position. Early life Cuauhtemoc's date of birth is unknown, as he does not enter the historical record until he became emperor. He was the eldest legitimate son of Emperor Ahuitzotl and may well have attended the last New Fire ceremony, marking the beginning of a new 52-year cycle in the Aztec calendar. According to several sources his mother, Tiyacapantzin, was a Tlatelolcan princess. Like the rest of Cuauhtemoc's early biography, that is inferred from knowledge of his age, and the likely events and life path of someone of his rank. Following education in the calmecac, the school for elite boys, and then his military service, he was named ruler of Tlatelolco, with the title cuauhtlatoani ("eagle ruler") in 1515. To have reached this position of rulership, Cuauhtemoc had to be a male of high birth and a warrior who had captured enemies for sacrifice. Cuauhtemoc married the Aztec princess who later became known as Isabel Moctezuma.RuleWhen Cuauhtemoc was elected tlatoani in 1520, Tenochtitlan had already been rocked by the invasion of the Spanish and their indigenous allies, the death of Moctezuma II, and the death of Moctezuma's brother Cuitlahuac, who succeeded him as ruler, but died of smallpox shortly afterwards. In keeping with traditional practice, the most able candidate among the high noblemen was chosen by vote of the highest noblemen, and Cuauhtemoc assumed the rulership. Although under Cuitlahuac Tenochtitlan began mounting a defense against the invaders, it was increasingly isolated militarily and largely faced the crisis alone, as the numbers of Spanish allies increased with the desertion of many polities previously under its control. According to the same Spanish accounts, Cortés refused the offer and treated his foe magnanimously. "You have defended your capital like a brave warrior," he declared. "A Spaniard knows how to respect valor, even in an enemy." At Cuauhtémoc's request, Cortés also allowed the defeated Mexica to depart the city unmolested. Subsequently, however, when the booty found did not measure up to the Spaniards' expectations, Cuauhtémoc was subjected to "torture by fire", whereby the soles of his bare feet were slowly broiled over red-hot coals, in an unsuccessful attempt to discover its whereabouts. On the statue to Cuauhtemoc, on the Paseo de la Reforma in Mexico City, there is a bas relief showing the Spaniards' torture of the emperor. Eventually, some gold was recovered but far less than Cortés and his men expected. Cuauhtémoc, now baptized as Fernando Cuauhtémotzín, continued to hold his position under the Spanish, keeping the title of tlatoani, but he was no longer the sovereign ruler.ExecutionIn 1525, Cortés took Cuauhtémoc and several other indigenous nobles on his expedition to Honduras, as he feared that Cuauhtémoc could have led an insurrection in his absence. While the expedition was stopped in the Chontal Maya capital of Itzamkanac, known as Acalan in Nahuatl, Cortés had Cuauhtémoc executed for allegedly conspiring to kill him and the other Spaniards. ]] There are a number of discrepancies in the various accounts of the event. According to Cortés himself, on 27 February 1525, he learned from a citizen of Tenochtitlan, Mexicalcingo, that Cuauhtémoc, Coanacoch (the ruler of Texcoco), and Tetlepanquetzal, the ruler of Tlacopan, were plotting his death. Cortés interrogated them until each confessed and then had Cuauhtémoc, Tetlepanquetzal, and another lord, Tlacatlec, hanged. Cortés wrote that the other lords would be too frightened to plot against him again, as they believed he had uncovered the plan through magic powers. Cortés's account was accepted by contemporary historian Francisco López de Gómara. According to Bernal Díaz del Castillo, a conquistador serving under Cortés who recorded his experiences in his book The True History of the Conquest of New Spain, the supposed plot was revealed by two men, named Tapia and Juan Velásquez. Díaz portrays the executions as unjust and based on no evidence, and he admits to having liked Cuauhtémoc personally. He also records Cuauhtémoc giving the following speech to Cortés through his interpreter Malinche: Díaz wrote that afterwards, Cortés suffered from insomnia because of guilt and badly injured himself while he was wandering at night. Fernando de Alva Cortés Ixtlilxóchitl, a castizo historian and descendant of Coanacoch, wrote an account of the executions in the 17th century partly based on Texcocan oral tradition. Tlacotzin, Cuauhtémoc's cihuacoatl, was appointed his successor as tlatoani. He died the next year before he could return to Tenochtitlan. Bones The modern-day town of Ixcateopan in the state of Guerrero is home to an ossuary purportedly containing Cuauhtémoc's remains. Archeologist Eulalia Guzmán, a "passionate indigenista", excavated the bones in 1949, which were discovered shortly after bones of Cortés, found in Mexico City, had been authenticated by the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH). Initially, Mexican scholars congratulated Guzmán, but after a similar examination by scholars at INAH, their authenticity as Cuauhtemoc's was rejected, as the bones in the ossuary belonged to several different persons, several of them seemingly women. The finding caused a public uproar. A panel assembled by Guzmán gave support to the initial contention. The Secretariat of Public Education (SEP) had another panel examine the bones, which gave support to INAH's original finding, but did not report on the finding publicly. A scholarly study of the controversy was published in 2011 and argued that the available data suggests that the grave is an elaborate hoax prepared by a local of Ichcateopan as a way of generating publicity, and that subsequently supported by Mexican nationalists such as Guzman who wished to use the find for political purposes. Legacy on Avenida Reforma in Mexico City. The inscription at the bottom of the statue translates as "In memory of Cuauhtémoc (spelled Quautemoc) and his warriors who battled heroically in defense of their country."]] , Brazil. Dedicated in 1922, the monument was a gift from the Mexican government to Brazil in celebration of the 100th anniversary of the Brazilian independence.]] Cuauhtemoc is the embodiment of indigenist nationalism in Mexico, being the only Aztec emperor who survived the conquest by the Spanish Empire (and their native allies). He is honored by a monument on the Paseo de la Reforma, his face has appeared on Mexican coins, banknotes, and he is celebrated in paintings, music, and popular culture. Many places in Mexico are named in honour of Cuauhtémoc. These include Ciudad Cuauhtémoc in Chihuahua and the Cuauhtémoc borough of Mexico City. Smaller towns include Ciudad Cuauhtémoc, Veracruz and Ciudad Cuauhtémoc, Chiapas. The Cuauhtémoc is a vessel of the Mexican Navy that serves as a cultural ambassador with frequent visits to world ports. There is a Cuauhtémoc station on Line 1 of the Mexico City metro as well as one for Moctezuma. There is also a metro station in Monterrey named after him. Cuauhtémoc is also one of the few non-Spanish given names for Mexican boys that is perennially popular. Individuals with this name include the politician Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas and footballer Cuauhtémoc Blanco. In the Aztec campaign of the PC game Age of Empires II: The Conquerors, the player plays as Cuauhtémoc, despite the name Montezuma for the campaign itself, and Cuauhtémoc narrates the openings and closings to each scenario. In the next installment to the series, Age of Empires 3: The War Chiefs, Cuauhtémoc is the leader of Aztecs. In the 1996 Rage Against the Machine single People of the Sun, lyricist Zack De La Rocha rhymes "When the fifth sun sets get back reclaimed, The spirit of Cuauhtémoc alive and untamed". Cuauhtémoc, in the name Guatemoc, is portrayed sympathetically in the adventure novel Montezuma's Daughter'', by H. Rider Haggard. First appearing in Chapter XIV, he becomes friends with the protagonist after they save each other's lives. His coronation, torture, and death are described in the novel. See also List of Tenochtitlan rulers References Further reading Andrews, J. Richard, Introduction to Classical Nahuatl Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 2003. * De Leon, Ann. "Archeology, Monuments and Writing the Mexican Nation" Antonio Peñafiel and the 'Aztec Palimpsest'”, The Colorado Review of Hispanic Studies. Vol. 6, Fall 2008. * Gillingham, Paul. ''Cuauhtémoc's Bones: Forging National Identity in Modern Mexico. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. * Johnson, Lyman L. "Digging Up Cuauhtémoc" in Death, Dismemberment, and Memory: Body Politics in Latin America, Lyman L. Johnson, ed. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2004, pp. 207–244. León-Portilla, Miguel ed. The Broken Spears: Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico''. Boston, 1992. Presents Nahuatl texts about Cuauhtémoc's deeds during the siege of Tenochtitlan. Restall, Matthew, Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press 2004. Scholes, France V., and Ralph Roys. The Maya Chontal Indians of Acalan-Tixchel. Washington, D.C., 1948. Includes a unique text in Chontal that tells about the death of Cuauhtémoc. External links Category:Tenochca tlatoque Category:16th-century monarchs in North America Category:16th-century indigenous leaders of the Americas Category:1490s births Category:1525 deaths Category:1520s in the Aztec civilization<!--Tlatoani--> Category:Executed monarchs Category:Executed Mexican people Category:Mexican torture victims Category:People executed by New Spain Category:People executed by Spain by hanging Category:Spanish masculine given names Category:Masculine given names Category:1520s in Mexico<!--Tlatoani--> Category:1520s in New Spain<!--Tlatoani--> Category:Dethroned monarchs Category:Monarchs taken prisoner in wartime	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuauhtémoc	2025-04-05T18:28:09.692777
7480	Cross section (physics)	Radar scattering cross section}} In physics, the cross section is a measure of the probability that a specific process will take place in a collision of two particles. For example, the Rutherford cross-section is a measure of probability that an alpha particle will be deflected by a given angle during an interaction with an atomic nucleus. Cross section is typically denoted (sigma) and is expressed in units of area, more specifically in barns. In a way, it can be thought of as the size of the object that the excitation must hit in order for the process to occur, but more exactly, it is a parameter of a stochastic process. When two discrete particles interact in classical physics, their mutual cross section is the area transverse to their relative motion within which they must meet in order to scatter from each other. If the particles are hard inelastic spheres that interact only upon contact, their scattering cross section is related to their geometric size. If the particles interact through some action-at-a-distance force, such as electromagnetism or gravity, their scattering cross section is generally larger than their geometric size. When a cross section is specified as the differential limit of a function of some final-state variable, such as particle angle or energy, it is called a differential cross section (see detailed discussion below). When a cross section is integrated over all scattering angles (and possibly other variables), it is called a total cross section or integrated total cross section. For example, in Rayleigh scattering, the intensity scattered at the forward and backward angles is greater than the intensity scattered sideways, so the forward differential scattering cross section is greater than the perpendicular differential cross section, and by adding all of the infinitesimal cross sections over the whole range of angles with integral calculus, we can find the total cross section. Scattering cross sections may be defined in nuclear, atomic, and particle physics for collisions of accelerated beams of one type of particle with targets (either stationary or moving) of a second type of particle. The probability for any given reaction to occur is in proportion to its cross section. Thus, specifying the cross section for a given reaction is a proxy for stating the probability that a given scattering process will occur. The measured reaction rate of a given process depends strongly on experimental variables such as the density of the target material, the intensity of the beam, the detection efficiency of the apparatus, or the angle setting of the detection apparatus. However, these quantities can be factored away, allowing measurement of the underlying two-particle collisional cross section. Differential and total scattering cross sections are among the most important measurable quantities in nuclear, atomic, and particle physics. With light scattering off of a particle, the cross section specifies the amount of optical power scattered from light of a given irradiance (power per area). Although the cross section has the same units as area, the cross section may not necessarily correspond to the actual physical size of the target given by other forms of measurement. It is not uncommon for the actual cross-sectional area of a scattering object to be much larger or smaller than the cross section relative to some physical process. For example, plasmonic nanoparticles can have light scattering cross sections for particular frequencies that are much larger than their actual cross-sectional areas. Collision among gas particles In a gas of finite-sized particles there are collisions among particles that depend on their cross-sectional size. The average distance that a particle travels between collisions depends on the density of gas particles. These quantities are related by : <math>\sigma = \frac{1}{n \lambda},</math> where : is the cross section of a two-particle collision (SI unit: m<sup>2</sup>), : is the mean free path between collisions (SI unit: m), : is the number density of the target particles (SI unit: m<sup>−3</sup>). If the particles in the gas can be treated as hard spheres of radius that interact by direct contact, as illustrated in Figure 1, then the effective cross section for the collision of a pair is : <math>\sigma = \pi \left(2r\right)^2</math> If the particles in the gas interact by a force with a larger range than their physical size, then the cross section is a larger effective area that may depend on a variety of variables such as the energy of the particles. Cross sections can be computed for atomic collisions but also are used in the subatomic realm. For example, in nuclear physics a "gas" of low-energy neutrons collides with nuclei in a reactor or other nuclear device, with a cross section that is energy-dependent and hence also with well-defined mean free path between collisions. Attenuation of a beam of particles If a beam of particles enters a thin layer of material of thickness , the flux of the beam will decrease by according to : <math>\frac{\mathrm d \Phi}{\mathrm d z} = -n \sigma \Phi,</math> where is the total cross section of all events, including scattering, absorption, or transformation to another species. The volumetric number density of scattering centers is designated by . Solving this equation exhibits the exponential attenuation of the beam intensity: : <math>\Phi = \Phi_0 e^{-n \sigma z},</math> where is the initial flux, and is the total thickness of the material. For light, this is called the Beer–Lambert law. Differential cross section Consider a classical measurement where a single particle is scattered off a single stationary target particle. Conventionally, a spherical coordinate system is used, with the target placed at the origin and the axis of this coordinate system aligned with the incident beam. The angle is the scattering angle, measured between the incident beam and the scattered beam, and the is the azimuthal angle. : The impact parameter is the perpendicular offset of the trajectory of the incoming particle, and the outgoing particle emerges at an angle . For a given interaction (coulombic, magnetic, gravitational, contact, etc.), the impact parameter and the scattering angle have a definite one-to-one functional dependence on each other. Generally the impact parameter can neither be controlled nor measured from event to event and is assumed to take all possible values when averaging over many scattering events. The differential size of the cross section is the area element in the plane of the impact parameter, i.e. b dφ db}}. The differential angular range of the scattered particle at angle is the solid angle element sin θ dθ dφ}}. The differential cross section is the quotient of these quantities, }}. It is a function of the scattering angle (and therefore also the impact parameter), plus other observables such as the momentum of the incoming particle. The differential cross section is always taken to be positive, even though larger impact parameters generally produce less deflection. In cylindrically symmetric situations (about the beam axis), the azimuthal angle is not changed by the scattering process, and the differential cross section can be written as : <math> \frac{\mathrm{d} \sigma}{\mathrm{d}(\cos \theta)} =\int_0^{2\pi} \frac{\mathrm{d} \sigma}{\mathrm{d} \Omega} \,\mathrm{d}\varphi </math>. In situations where the scattering process is not azimuthally symmetric, such as when the beam or target particles possess magnetic moments oriented perpendicular to the beam axis, the differential cross section must also be expressed as a function of the azimuthal angle. For scattering of particles of incident flux off a stationary target consisting of many particles, the differential cross section }} at an angle is related to the flux of scattered particle detection in particles per unit time by : <math>\frac{\mathrm d \sigma}{\mathrm d \Omega}(\theta,\varphi) = \frac{1}{n t \Delta\Omega} \frac{F_\text{out}(\theta,\varphi)}{F_\text{inc}}.</math> Here is the finite angular size of the detector (SI unit: sr), is the number density of the target particles (SI unit: m<sup>−3</sup>), and is the thickness of the stationary target (SI unit: m). This formula assumes that the target is thin enough that each beam particle will interact with at most one target particle. The total cross section may be recovered by integrating the differential cross section }} over the full solid angle ( steradians): : <math>\sigma \oint_{4\pi} \frac{\mathrm d \sigma}{\mathrm d \Omega} \, \mathrm d \Omega \int_0^{2\pi} \int_0^\pi \frac{\mathrm d \sigma}{\mathrm d \Omega} \sin \theta \, \mathrm d \theta \, \mathrm d \varphi.</math> It is common to omit the "differential" qualifier when the type of cross section can be inferred from context. In this case, may be referred to as the integral cross section or total cross section. The latter term may be confusing in contexts where multiple events are involved, since "total" can also refer to the sum of cross sections over all events. The differential cross section is extremely useful quantity in many fields of physics, as measuring it can reveal a great amount of information about the internal structure of the target particles. For example, the differential cross section of Rutherford scattering provided strong evidence for the existence of the atomic nucleus. Instead of the solid angle, the momentum transfer may be used as the independent variable of differential cross sections. Differential cross sections in inelastic scattering contain resonance peaks that indicate the creation of metastable states and contain information about their energy and lifetime. Quantum scattering In the time-independent formalism of quantum scattering, the initial wave function (before scattering) is taken to be a plane wave with definite momentum : : <math>\phi_-(\mathbf r) \;\stackrel{r \to \infty}{\longrightarrow}\; e^{i k z},</math> where and are the relative coordinates between the projectile and the target. The arrow indicates that this only describes the asymptotic behavior of the wave function when the projectile and target are too far apart for the interaction to have any effect. After scattering takes place it is expected that the wave function takes on the following asymptotic form: : <math>\phi_+(\mathbf r) \;\stackrel{r \to \infty}{\longrightarrow}\; f(\theta,\phi) \frac{e^{i k r}}{r},</math> where is some function of the angular coordinates known as the scattering amplitude. This general form is valid for any short-ranged, energy-conserving interaction. It is not true for long-ranged interactions, so there are additional complications when dealing with electromagnetic interactions. The full wave function of the system behaves asymptotically as the sum : <math>\phi(\mathbf r) \;\stackrel{r \to \infty}{\longrightarrow}\; \phi_-(\mathbf r) + \phi_+(\mathbf r).</math> The differential cross section is related to the scattering amplitude: : <math>\frac{\mathrm d \sigma}{\mathrm d \Omega}(\theta, \phi) = \bigl\|f(\theta, \phi)\bigr\|^2.</math> This has the simple interpretation as the probability density for finding the scattered projectile at a given angle. A cross section is therefore a measure of the effective surface area seen by the impinging particles, and as such is expressed in units of area. The cross section of two particles (i.e. observed when the two particles are colliding with each other) is a measure of the interaction event between the two particles. The cross section is proportional to the probability that an interaction will occur; for example in a simple scattering experiment the number of particles scattered per unit of time (current of scattered particles ) depends only on the number of incident particles per unit of time (current of incident particles ), the characteristics of target (for example the number of particles per unit of surface ), and the type of interaction. For we have : <math>\begin{align} I_\text{r} &= I_\text{i}N\sigma, \\ \sigma &= \frac{I_\text{r}}{I_\text{i}} \frac{1}{N} \\ &= \text{probability of interaction} \times \frac{1}{N}. \end{align}</math> Relation to the S-matrix If the reduced masses and momenta of the colliding system are , and , before and after the collision respectively, the differential cross section is given by : <math>\frac{\mathrm d\sigma}{\mathrm d\Omega} = \left(2\pi\right)^4 m_\text{i} m_\text{f} \frac{p_\text{f}}{p_\text{i}} \bigl\|T_{\text{f}\text{i}}\bigr\|^2,</math> where the on-shell matrix is defined by : <math>S_{\text{f}\text{i}} = \delta_{\text{f}\text{i}} - 2\pi i \delta\left(E_\text{f} - E_\text{i}\right) \delta\left(\mathbf{p}_\text{i} - \mathbf{p}_\text{f}\right) T_{\text{f}\text{i}}</math> in terms of the S-matrix. Here is the Dirac delta function. The computation of the S-matrix is the main goal of the scattering theory. Units Although the SI unit of total cross sections is m<sup>2</sup>, a smaller unit is usually used in practice. In nuclear and particle physics, the conventional unit is the barn b, where 1 b 10<sup>−28</sup> m<sup>2</sup> 100 fm<sup>2</sup>. Smaller prefixed units such as mb and μb are also widely used. Correspondingly, the differential cross section can be measured in units such as mb/sr. When the scattered radiation is visible light, it is conventional to measure the path length in centimetres. To avoid the need for conversion factors, the scattering cross section is expressed in cm<sup>2</sup>, and the number concentration in cm<sup>−3</sup>. The measurement of the scattering of visible light is known as nephelometry, and is effective for particles of 2–50 μm in diameter: as such, it is widely used in meteorology and in the measurement of atmospheric pollution. The scattering of X-rays can also be described in terms of scattering cross sections, in which case the square ångström is a convenient unit: 1 Å<sup>2</sup> 10<sup>−20</sup> m<sup>2</sup> 10<sup>8</sup> b. The sum of the scattering, photoelectric, and pair-production cross-sections (in barns) is charted as the "atomic attenuation coefficient" (narrow-beam), in barns. Scattering of light For light, as in other settings, the scattering cross section for particles is generally different from the geometrical cross section of the particle, and it depends upon the wavelength of light and the permittivity, shape, and size of the particle. The total amount of scattering in a sparse medium is proportional to the product of the scattering cross section and the number of particles present. In the interaction of light with particles, many processes occur, each with their own cross sections, including absorption, scattering, and photoluminescence. The sum of the absorption and scattering cross sections is sometimes referred to as the attenuation or extinction cross section. : <math>\sigma = \sigma_\text{abs} + \sigma_\text{sc} + \sigma_\text{lum}.</math> The total extinction cross section is related to the attenuation of the light intensity through the Beer–Lambert law, which says that attenuation is proportional to particle concentration: : <math>A_\lambda = C l \sigma,</math> where is the attenuation at a given wavelength , is the particle concentration as a number density, and is the path length. The absorbance of the radiation is the logarithm (decadic or, more usually, natural) of the reciprocal of the transmittance : : <math>A_\lambda = -\log \mathcal{T}.</math> Combining the scattering and absorption cross sections in this manner is often necessitated by the inability to distinguish them experimentally, and much research effort has been put into developing models that allow them to be distinguished, the Kubelka-Munk theory being one of the most important in this area. Cross section and Mie theory Cross sections commonly calculated using Mie theory include efficiency coefficients for extinction <math display"inline">Q_\text{ext}</math>, scattering <math display"inline">Q_\text{sc}</math>, and Absorption <math display"inline">Q_\text{abs}</math> cross sections. These are normalized by the geometrical cross sections of the particle <math display"inline">\sigma_\text{geom} \pi a^2</math> as <math display"block"> Q_\alpha \frac{\sigma_\alpha}{\sigma_\text{geom}}, \qquad \alpha \text{ext}, \text{sc}, \text{abs}. </math> The cross section is defined by : <math> \sigma_\alpha = \frac{W_\alpha}{I_{\text{inc}}} </math> where <math>\left[W_\alpha \right] \left[ \text{W} \right]</math> is the energy flow through the surrounding surface, and <math> \left[I_{\text{inc}}\right] \left[ \frac{\text{W}}{\text{m}^2} \right]</math> is the intensity of the incident wave. For a plane wave the intensity is going to be <math>I_{\text{inc}} \|\mathbf{E}\|^2 / (2 \eta)</math>, where <math>\eta \sqrt{\mu \mu_0 / (\varepsilon \varepsilon_0)}</math> is the impedance of the host medium. The main approach is based on the following. Firstly, we construct an imaginary sphere of radius <math>r</math> (surface <math>A</math>) around the particle (the scatterer). The net rate of electromagnetic energy crosses the surface <math>A</math> is : <math> W_\text{a} = - \oint_A \mathbf{\Pi} \cdot \hat{\mathbf{r}} dA </math> where <math display"inline">\mathbf{\Pi} \frac{1}{2} \operatorname{Re} \left[ \mathbf{E}^* \times \mathbf{H} \right]</math> is the time averaged Poynting vector. If <math>W_\text{a} > 0</math> energy is absorbed within the sphere, otherwise energy is being created within the sphere. We will not consider this case here. If the host medium is non-absorbing, the energy must be absorbed by the particle. We decompose the total field into incident and scattered parts <math>\mathbf{E} \mathbf{E}_\text{i} + \mathbf{E}_\text{s}</math>, and the same for the magnetic field <math>\mathbf{H}</math>. Thus, we can decompose <math>W_a</math> into the three terms <math> W_\text{a} W_\text{i} - W_\text{s} + W_{\text{ext}} </math>, where : <math> W_\text{i} = - \oint_A \mathbf{\Pi}_\text{i} \cdot \hat{\mathbf{r}} dA \equiv 0, \qquad W_\text{s} = \oint_A \mathbf{\Pi}_\text{s} \cdot \hat{\mathbf{r}} dA, \qquad W_{\text{ext}} = \oint_A \mathbf{\Pi}_{\text{ext}} \cdot \hat{\mathbf{r}} dA. </math> where <math>\mathbf{\Pi}_\text{i} \frac{1}{2} \operatorname{Re} \left[ \mathbf{E}_\text{i}^* \times \mathbf{H}_\text{i} \right] </math>, <math>\mathbf{\Pi}_\text{s} \frac{1}{2} \operatorname{Re} \left[ \mathbf{E}_\text{s}^* \times \mathbf{H}_\text{s} \right] </math>, and <math>\mathbf{\Pi}_{\text{ext}} = \frac{1}{2} \operatorname{Re} \left[ \mathbf{E}_s^* \times \mathbf{H}_i + \mathbf{E}_i^* \times \mathbf{H}_s \right] </math>. All the field can be decomposed into the series of vector spherical harmonics (VSH). After that, all the integrals can be taken. In the case of a uniform sphere of radius <math>a</math>, permittivity <math>\varepsilon</math>, and permeability <math>\mu</math>, the problem has a precise solution. The scattering and extinction coefficients are <math display="block"> Q_\text{sc} \frac{2}{k^2a^2}\sum_{n1}^\infty (2n+1)(\|a_{n}\|^2+\|b_{n}\|^2) </math> <math display="block"> Q_\text{ext} \frac{2}{k^2a^2}\sum_{n1}^\infty (2n+1)\Re(a_{n}+b_{n}) </math> Where <math display"inline">k n_\text{host} k_0</math>. These are connected as <math display="block"> \sigma_\text{ext} \sigma_\text{sc} + \sigma_\text{abs} \qquad \text{or} \qquad Q_\text{ext} Q_\text{sc} + Q_\text{abs} </math> Dipole approximation for the scattering cross section Let us assume that a particle supports only electric and magnetic dipole modes with polarizabilities <math display"inline">\mathbf{p} \alpha^e \mathbf{E}</math> and <math display"inline">\mathbf{m} (\mu \mu_0)^{-1}\alpha^m \mathbf{H}</math> (here we use the notation of magnetic polarizability in the manner of Bekshaev et al. rather than the notation of Nieto-Vesperinas et al.) expressed through the Mie coefficients as <math display="block"> \alpha^e 4 \pi \varepsilon_0 \cdot i \frac{3 \varepsilon}{2 k^3} a_1, \qquad \alpha^m 4 \pi \mu_0 \cdot i \frac{3 \mu}{2 k^3} b_1. </math> Then the cross sections are given by <math display="block"> \sigma_{\text{ext}} \sigma_{\text{ext}}^{\text{(e)}} + \sigma_{\text{ext}}^{\text{(m)}} \frac{1}{4\pi \varepsilon \varepsilon_0} \cdot 4\pi k \Im(\alpha^e) + \frac{1}{4\pi \mu \mu_0} \cdot 4\pi k \Im(\alpha^m) </math> <math display="block"> \sigma_{\text{sc}} \sigma_{\text{sc}}^{\text{(e)}} + \sigma_{\text{sc}}^{\text{(m)}} \frac{1}{(4\pi \varepsilon \varepsilon_0)^2} \cdot \frac{8\pi}{3} k^4 \|\alpha^e\|^2 + \frac{1}{(4\pi \mu \mu_0)^2} \cdot \frac{8\pi}{3} k^4 \|\alpha^m\|^2 </math> and, finally, the electric and magnetic absorption cross sections <math display"inline">\sigma_{\text{abs}} \sigma_{\text{abs}}^{\text{(e)}} + \sigma_{\text{abs}}^{\text{(m)}}</math> are <math display="block"> \sigma_{\text{abs}}^{\text{(e)}} = \frac{1}{4 \pi \varepsilon \varepsilon_0} \cdot 4\pi k \left[ \Im(\alpha^e) - \frac{k^3}{6 \pi \varepsilon \varepsilon_0} \|\alpha^e\|^2\right] </math> and <math display="block"> \sigma_{\text{abs}}^{\text{(m)}} = \frac{1}{4 \pi \mu \mu_0} \cdot 4\pi k \left[ \Im(\alpha^m) - \frac{k^3}{6 \pi \mu \mu_0} \|\alpha^m\|^2\right] </math> For the case of a no-inside-gain particle, i.e. no energy is emitted by the particle internally (<math display"inline">\sigma_{\text{abs}} > 0</math>), we have a particular case of the Optical theorem <math display"block"> \frac{1}{4\pi \varepsilon \varepsilon_0} \Im(\alpha^e) + \frac{1}{4\pi \mu \mu_0} \Im(\alpha^m) \geq \frac{2 k^3}{3} \left[ \frac{\|\alpha^e\|^2}{(4\pi \varepsilon \varepsilon_0)^2} + \frac{\|\alpha^m\|^2}{(4\pi \mu \mu_0)^2} \right] </math> Equality occurs for non-absorbing particles, i.e. for <math display"inline">\Im(\varepsilon) \Im(\mu) 0</math>. Scattering of light on extended bodies In the context of scattering light on extended bodies, the scattering cross section, , describes the likelihood of light being scattered by a macroscopic particle. In general, the scattering cross section is different from the geometrical cross section of a particle, as it depends upon the wavelength of light and the permittivity in addition to the shape and size of the particle. The total amount of scattering in a sparse medium is determined by the product of the scattering cross section and the number of particles present. In terms of area, the total cross section () is the sum of the cross sections due to absorption, scattering, and luminescence: :<math>\sigma = \sigma_\text{abs} + \sigma_\text{sc} + \sigma_\text{lum}.</math> The total cross section is related to the absorbance of the light intensity through the Beer–Lambert law, which says that absorbance is proportional to concentration: Clσ}}, where is the absorbance at a given wavelength , is the concentration as a number density, and is the path length. The extinction or absorbance of the radiation is the logarithm (decadic or, more usually, natural) of the reciprocal of the transmittance : Examples Elastic collision of two hard spheres The following equations apply to two hard spheres that undergo a perfectly elastic collision. Let and denote the radii of the scattering center and scattered sphere, respectively. The differential cross section is : <math> \frac{d\sigma}{d\Omega} = \frac{R^2}{4}, </math> and the total cross section is : <math> \sigma_\text{tot} = \pi \left(r + R\right)^2. </math> In other words, the total scattering cross section is equal to the area of the circle (with radius ) within which the center of mass of the incoming sphere has to arrive for it to be deflected. Rutherford scattering In Rutherford scattering, an incident particle with charge and energy scatters off a fixed particle with charge . The differential cross section is : <math> \frac{d \sigma}{d \Omega} = \left(\frac{q \, Q}{16\pi\varepsilon_0 E \sin^2(\theta/2)} \right)^2 </math> where <math>\varepsilon_0</math> is the vacuum permittivity. The total cross section is infinite unless a cutoff for small scattering angles <math>\theta</math> is applied. This is due to the long range of the <math>1/r</math> Coulomb potential. Scattering from a 2D circular mirror The following example deals with a beam of light scattering off a circle with radius and a perfectly reflecting boundary. The beam consists of a uniform density of parallel rays, and the beam-circle interaction is modeled within the framework of geometric optics. Because the problem is genuinely two-dimensional, the cross section has unit of length (e.g., metre). Let be the angle between the light ray and the radius joining the reflection point of the ray with the center point of the mirror. Then the increase of the length element perpendicular to the beam is : <math>\mathrm dx = r \cos \alpha \,\mathrm d \alpha.</math> The reflection angle of this ray with respect to the incoming ray is , and the scattering angle is : <math>\theta = \pi - 2 \alpha.</math> The differential relationship between incident and reflected intensity is : <math>I \,\mathrm d \sigma I \,\mathrm dx(x) I r \cos \alpha \,\mathrm d \alpha I \frac{r}{2} \sin \left(\frac{\theta}{2}\right) \,\mathrm d \theta I \frac{\mathrm d \sigma}{\mathrm d \theta} \,\mathrm d \theta.</math> The differential cross section is therefore ( dθ}}) : <math>\frac{\mathrm d \sigma}{\mathrm d \theta} = \frac{r}{2} \sin \left(\frac{\theta}{2}\right).</math> Its maximum at π}} corresponds to backward scattering, and its minimum at 0}} corresponds to scattering from the edge of the circle directly forward. This expression confirms the intuitive expectations that the mirror circle acts like a diverging lens. The total cross section is equal to the diameter of the circle: : <math>\sigma \int_0^{2 \pi} \frac{\mathrm d \sigma}{\mathrm d \theta} \,\mathrm d \theta \int_0^{2 \pi} \frac{r}{2} \sin \left(\frac{\theta}{2}\right) \,\mathrm d \theta 2 r.</math> Scattering from a 3D spherical mirror The result from the previous example can be used to solve the analogous problem in three dimensions, i.e., scattering from a perfectly reflecting sphere of radius . The plane perpendicular to the incoming light beam can be parameterized by cylindrical coordinates and . In any plane of the incoming and the reflected ray we can write (from the previous example): : <math>\begin{align} r &= a \sin \alpha,\\ \mathrm dr &= a \cos \alpha \,\mathrm d \alpha, \end{align}</math> while the impact area element is : <math> \mathrm d \sigma \mathrm d r(r) \times r \,\mathrm d \varphi \frac{a^2}{2} \sin \left(\frac{\theta}{2}\right) \cos \left(\frac{\theta}{2}\right) \,\mathrm d \theta \,\mathrm d \varphi.</math> In spherical coordinates, : <math>\mathrm d\Omega = \sin \theta \,\mathrm d \theta \,\mathrm d \varphi.</math> Together with the trigonometric identity : <math>\sin \theta = 2 \sin \left(\frac{\theta}{2}\right) \cos \left(\frac{\theta}{2}\right),</math> we obtain : <math>\frac{\mathrm d \sigma}{\mathrm d \Omega} = \frac{a^2}{4}.</math> The total cross section is : <math>\sigma \oint_{4 \pi} \frac{\mathrm d \sigma}{\mathrm d \Omega} \,\mathrm d \Omega \pi a^2.</math> See also * Cross section (geometry) * Flow velocity * Luminosity (scattering theory) * Linear attenuation coefficient * Mass attenuation coefficient * Neutron cross section * Nuclear cross section * Gamma ray cross section * Partial wave analysis * Particle detector * Radar cross-section * Rutherford scattering * Scattering amplitude References Bibliography * * * J. D. Bjorken, S. D. Drell, Relativistic Quantum Mechanics, 1964 * P. Roman, Introduction to Quantum Theory, 1969 * W. Greiner, J. Reinhardt, Quantum Electrodynamics, 1994 * R. G. Newton. Scattering Theory of Waves and Particles. McGraw Hill, 1966. * External links * [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/Hbase/nuclear/nucrea.html#c3 Nuclear Cross Section] * [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/Hbase/nuclear/crosec.html#c1 Scattering Cross Section] * [https://www-nds.iaea.org/ IAEA – Nuclear Data Services] * [https://www.nndc.bnl.gov/ BNL – National Nuclear Data Center] * [http://pdg.lbl.gov/ Particle Data Group – The Review of Particle Physics] * [https://goldbook.iupac.org/html/R/R05169.html IUPAC Goldbook – Definition: Reaction Cross Section] * [https://goldbook.iupac.org/html/C/C01161.html IUPAC Goldbook – Definition: Collision Cross Section] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20181002070852/http://www.cross-section-plotter.com/ ShimPlotWell cross section plotter for nuclear data] Category:Atomic physics Category:Physical quantities Category:Dimensional analysis Category:Experimental particle physics Category:Measurement Category:Nuclear physics Category:Particle physics Category:Scattering theory Category:Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics) Category:Scattering Category:Spectroscopy	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross_section_(physics)	2025-04-05T18:28:09.709632
7482	Christian mythology	thumb\|Saint George and the Dragon by Gustave Moreau, 1889–90 Christian mythology is the body of myths associated with Christianity. The term encompasses a broad variety of legends and narratives, especially those considered sacred narratives. Mythological themes and elements occur throughout Christian literature, including recurring myths such as ascending a mountain, the axis mundi, myths of combat, descent into the Underworld, accounts of a dying-and-rising god, a flood myth, stories about the founding of a tribe or city, and myths about great heroes (or saints) of the past, paradises, and self-sacrifice. Various authors have also used it to refer to other mythological and allegorical elements found in the Bible, such as the story of the Leviathan. The term has been applied to myths and legends from the Middle Ages, such as the story of Saint George and the Dragon, the stories of King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table, and the legends of the Parsival. Multiple commentators have classified John Milton's epic poem Paradise Lost as a work of Christian mythology. The term has also been applied to modern stories revolving around Christian themes and motifs, such as the writings of C. S. Lewis, J. R. R. Tolkien, Madeleine L'Engle, and George MacDonald. Over the centuries, Christianity has divided into many denominations. Not all of these denominations hold the same set of sacred traditional narratives. For example, the books of the Bible accepted by the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox churches include a number of texts and stories (such as those narrated in the Book of Judith and Book of Tobit) that many Protestant denominations do not accept as canonical. Attitudes Christian theologian and professor of New Testament, Rudolf Bultmann wrote that: The cosmology of the New Testament is essentially mythical in character. The world is viewed as a three storied structure, with the earth in the center, the heaven above, and the underworld beneath. Heaven is the abode of God and of celestial beings – the angels. The underworld is hell, the place of torment. Even the earth is more than the scene of natural, everyday events, of the trivial round and common task. It is the scene of the supernatural activity of God and his angels on the one hand, and of Satan and his demons on the other. These supernatural forces intervene in the course of nature and in all that men think and will and do. Miracles are by no means rare. Man is not in control of his own life. Evil spirits may take possession of him. Satan may inspire him with evil thoughts. Alternatively, God may inspire his thought and guide his purposes. He may grant him heavenly visions. He may allow him to hear his word of succor or demand. He may give him the supernatural power of his Spirit. History does not follow a smooth unbroken course; it is set in motion and controlled by these supernatural powers. This æon is held in bondage by Satan, sin, and death (for "powers" is precisely what they are), and hastens towards its end. That end will come very soon, and will take the form of a cosmic catastrophe. It will be inaugurated by the "woes" of the last time. Then the Judge will come from heaven, the dead will rise, the last judgment will take place, and men will enter into eternal salvation or damnation. Myths as traditional or sacred stories thumb\|Saint Brendan's voyage, from a German manuscript In its broadest academic sense, the word myth simply means a traditional story. However, many scholars restrict the term "myth" to sacred stories. Folklorists often go further, defining myths as "tales believed as true, usually sacred, set in the distant past or other worlds or parts of the world, and with extra-human, inhuman, or heroic characters". In classical Greek, muthos, from which the English word myth derives, meant "story, narrative." By the time of Christ, muthos had started to take on the connotations of "fable, fiction," and early Christian writers often avoided calling a story from canonical scripture a "myth". Paul warned Timothy to have nothing to do with "godless and silly myths" (bebēthous kai graōdeis muthous). This negative meaning of "myth" passed into popular usage. Some modern Christian scholars and writers have attempted to rehabilitate the term "myth" outside academia, describing stories in canonical scripture (especially the Christ story) as "true myth"; examples include C. S. Lewis and Andrew Greeley. Several modern Christian writers, such as C. S. Lewis, have described elements of Christianity, particularly the story of Christ, as "myth" which is also "true" ("true myth"). Others object to associating Christianity with "myth" for a variety of reasons: the association of the term "myth" with polytheism, the use of the term "myth" to indicate falsehood or non-historicity, and the lack of an agreed-upon definition of "myth". Christian tradition contains many stories that do not come from canonical Christian texts yet still illustrate Christian themes. These non-canonical Christian myths include legends, folktales, and elaborations on canonical Christian mythology. Christian tradition has produced a rich body of legends that were never incorporated into the official scriptures. Legends were a staple of medieval literature. Examples include hagiographies such as the stories of Saint George or Saint Valentine. A case in point is the historical and canonized Brendan of Clonfort, a 6th-century Irish churchman and founder of abbeys. Round his authentic figure was woven a tissue that is arguably legendary rather than historical: the Navigatio or "Journey of Brendan". The legend discusses mythic events in the sense of supernatural encounters. In this narrative, Brendan and his shipmates encounter sea monsters, a paradisal island and a floating ice island and a rock island inhabited by a holy hermit: literal-minded devotés still seek to identify "Brendan's islands" in actual geography. This voyage was recreated by Tim Severin, suggesting that whales, icebergs and Rockall were encountered. Folktales form a major part of non-canonical Christian tradition. Folklorists define folktales (in contrast to "true" myths) as stories that are considered purely fictitious by their tellers and that often lack a specific setting in space or time. Christian-themed folktales have circulated widely among peasant populations. One widespread folktale genre is that of the Penitent Sinner (classified as Type 756A, B, C, in the Aarne-Thompson index of tale types); another popular group of folktales describe a clever mortal who outwits the Devil. Not all scholars accept the folkloristic convention of applying the terms "myth" and "folktale" to different categories of traditional narrative. Christian tradition produced many popular stories elaborating on canonical scripture. According to an English folk belief, certain herbs gained their current healing power from having been used to heal Christ's wounds on Mount Calvary. In this case, a non-canonical story has a connection to a non-narrative form of folklore — namely, folk medicine. Arthurian legend contains many elaborations upon canonical mythology. For example, Sir Balin discovers the Lance of Longinus, which had pierced the side of Christ. According to a tradition widely attested in early Christian writings, Adam's skull lay buried at Calvary; when Christ was crucified, his blood fell over Adam's skull, symbolizing humanity's redemption from Adam's sin. Christ The Gospel accounts of Jesus Christ, his life and death. Here the narrative is combined by the author with a story of how all Christian theology "came to be". For example, the story of Jesus as the "word" or "Logos" (John 1:1), the Incarnation of the Logos or Son of God as the man Jesus (e.g., Luke 1:35), and Christ's atonement for humanity's sins (e.g., Matthew 26:28). Important narratives within the Gospel accounts include: Christ's miraculous conception and birth from the Virgin Mary The baptism of Jesus Satan's temptation of Christ The Transfiguration of Jesus Parables of Jesus The Last Supper The death and resurrection of Jesus The Ascension The Acts of the Apostles – the story of the Early Christian church, the ministry of the Twelve Apostles and of Paul the Apostle. The descent of the Holy Spirit on Jesus' disciples after the Ascension. Eschatology The coming of the Antichrist The Second Coming The resurrection of the dead Judgement Day The final and total establishment of the Kingdom of God on earth Other examples thumb\|right\|Dante and Beatrice gaze upon the highest Heaven (The Empyrean), illustration for the Divine Comedy by Gustave Doré (1832–1883), Paradiso Canto 31. Examples of (1) Christian myths not mentioned in canon and (2) literary and traditional elaborations on canonical Christian mythology: Versions of Christian mythology used by Gnostic Christianity The Valentinian creation myth involving Sophia and the demiurge. The Manichaean creation myth. The Gnostic accounts of Jesus, some of which present a Docetic view of Jesus; see Gnostic Gospels. Literary treatments of Christian canon or theology John Milton's Paradise Lost, which describes Satan's rebellion against God and the Fall of Man, and his Paradise Regained, which describes Satan's temptation of Christ. Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy, a literary allegory that describes a visit to Hell, Purgatory, and Heaven. John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, a Christian spiritual allegory. C. S. Lewis's The Pilgrim's Regress, a more modern Christian spiritual allegory. According to some interpretations, Aslan's role in C. S. Lewis's The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe allegorically represents Christ's death and resurrection (although Lewis denies that the story is a direct allegory; see section on "Mythopoeia" above). Legends about Christian saints and heroes. Examples include Abgarus of Edessa, John the Dwarf, and Saint George. Legends about saints are commonly called hagiographies. Some such stories are heavily miraculous, such as those found in Jacobus de Voragine's Golden Legend; others, less so. Stories about artifacts such as the Holy Grail, Holy Lance, and Shroud of Turin. Names and biographical details supplied for unnamed Biblical characters; see List of names for the Biblical nameless The legends of King Arthur and Charlemagne as Christian kings, notably the Quest for the Holy Grail. Legendary history of the Christian churches, such as the tales from the Crusades or the paladins in medieval romance. Legends of the Knights Templar and the Priory of Sion. Medieval Christian stories about angels and guardian angels. Non-canonical elaborations or amendments to Biblical tales, such as the tales of Salomé, the Three Wise Men, or St. Dismas. Connections to other belief systems Jewish mythology Cosmogony The 7-day creation week narrative (Genesis 1:1—2:3) The Eden narrative (Genesis 2:4—3:24) Origins The Fall of Man: Although the Book of Genesis does not mention original sin, many Christians interpret the Fall as the origin of sin. Noah's Ark The Tower of Babel: the origin and division of nations and languages The life of Abraham The Exodus of the Hebrews from Egypt The Hebrews' conquest of the Promised Land The period of the Hebrew prophets. One example is the apocryphal part of the Book of Daniel (14:1–30; excluded from the Hebrew and Protestant canon) that tells the story of Bel and the dragon. Zoroastrianism Some scholars believe that many elements of Christian mythology, particularly its linear portrayal of time, originated with the Persian religion of Zoroastrianism. Mary Boyce, an authority on Zoroastrianism, writes: Mircea Eliade believes the Hebrews had a sense of linear time before Zoroastrianism influenced them. However, he argues, "a number of other [Jewish] religious ideas were discovered, revalorized, of systematized in Iran". These ideas include a dualism between good and evil, belief in a future savior and resurrection, and "an optimistic eschatology, proclaiming the final triumph of Good". The Zoroastrian concepts of Ahriman, Amesha Spentas, Yazatas, and Daevas probably gave rise to the Christian understanding of Satan, archangels, angels, and demons. Other connections In Buddhist mythology, the demon Mara tries to distract the historical Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama, before he can reach enlightenment. Huston Smith, a professor of philosophy and a writer on comparative religion, notes the similarity between Mara's temptation of the Buddha before his ministry and Satan's temptation of Christ before his ministry. In the Book of Revelation, the author sees a vision of a pregnant woman in the sky being pursued by a huge red dragon. The dragon tries to devour her child when she gives birth, but the child is "caught up to God and his throne". This appears to be an allegory for the triumph of Christianity: the child presumably represents Christ; the woman may represent God's people of the Old and New Testaments (who produced Christ); and the Dragon symbolizes Satan, who opposes Christ. According to Catholic scholars, the images used in this allegory may have been inspired by pagan mythology: Mythical themes and types Academic studies of mythology often define mythology as deeply valued stories that explain a society's existence and world order: those narratives of a society's creation, the society's origins and foundations, their god(s), their original heroes, mankind's connection to the "divine", and their narratives of eschatology (what happens in the "after-life"). This is a very general outline of some of the basic sacred stories with those themes. Cosmogonic myths The Christian texts use the same creation myth as Jewish mythology as written in the Old Testament. According to the Book of Genesis, the world was created out of a darkness and water in seven days. (Unlike a Jew, a Christian might include the miracle of Jesus' birth as a sort of second cosmogonic event) Canonical Christian scripture incorporates the two Hebrew cosmogonic myths found in Genesis 1:1—2:2 and Genesis 2:4—3:24. Genesis 1:1—2:3 In the first text on the creation (Genesis 1:1—2:3), the Creator is called Elohim (commonly translated simply as "God"). He creates the universe over a six-day period, creating a new feature each day: first he creates day and night; then he creates the firmament to separate the "waters above" from the "waters below"; then he separates the dry land from the water; then he creates plants on the land; then he places the Sun, Moon, and stars in the sky; then he creates swimming and flying animals; then he creates land animals; and finally he creates man and woman together, "in his own image". On the seventh day, God rests, providing the rationale for the custom of resting on Sabbath. Genesis 2:4—3:24 The second creation myth in Genesis differs from the first in a number of important elements. Here the Creator is called Yahweh elohim (commonly translated "Lord God" or "LORD God" (with small caps), although Yahweh is in fact the personal name of the God of Israel and does not literally mean "Lord"). This myth begins with the words, "When the LORD God made the earth and the heavens, and no shrub of the field was yet in the earth, and no plant of the field had yet sprouted, for the LORD God had not sent rain upon the earth …" (Genesis 2:4–5 NASB). It then proceeds to describe Yahweh creating a man called Adam out of dust. Yahweh creates the Garden of Eden as a home for Adam, and tells Adam not to eat the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil in the center of the Garden (next to the Tree of Life). Yahweh also creates animals, and shows them to man, who names them. Yahweh sees that there is no suitable companion for the man among the beasts, and he subsequently puts Adam to sleep and takes out one of Adam's ribs, creating from it a woman whom Adam names Eve. A talking serpent tempts Eve to eat from the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil, and she succumbs, offering the fruit to Adam as well. As a punishment, Yahweh banishes the couple from the Garden and "placed on the east side of the Garden of Eden the cherubim with a fiery revolving sword to guard the way to the Tree of Life". The Lord says he must banish humans from the Garden because they have become like him, knowing good and evil (because of eating the forbidden fruit), and now only immortality (which they could get by eating from the Tree of Life) stands between them and godhood: "The man has now become like one of us, knowing good and evil. He must not be allowed to reach out his hand and take also from the tree of life and eat, and live forever" (Genesis 3:22). Although the text of Genesis does not identify the tempting serpent with Satan, Christian tradition equates the two. This tradition has made its way into non-canonical Christian "myths" such as John Milton's Paradise Lost. Ascending the mountain left\|thumb\|Jesus' Sermon on the Mount depicted by Carl Bloch According to Lorena Laura Stookey, many myths feature sacred mountains as "the sites of revelations": "In myth, the ascent of the holy mountain is a spiritual journey, promising purification, insight, wisdom, or knowledge of the sacred". As examples of this theme, Stookey includes the revelation of the Ten Commandments on Mount Sinai, Christ's ascent of a mountain to deliver his Sermon on the Mount, and Christ's ascension into Heaven from the Mount of Olives. A number of scholars have connected the Christian story of the crucifixion at Golgotha with this theme of a cosmic center. In his Creation Myths of the World, David Leeming argues that, in the Christian story of the crucifixion, the cross serves as "the axis mundi, the center of a new creation". George Every discusses the connection between the cosmic center and Golgotha in his book Christian Mythology, noting that the image of Adam's skull beneath the cross appears in many medieval representations of the crucifixion. A number of scholars have argued that the ancient Israelites incorporated the combat myth into their religious imagery, such as the figures of Leviathan and Rahab, the Song of the Sea, The idea of Satan as God's opponent may have developed under the influence of the combat myth. Scholars have also suggested that the Book of Revelation uses combat myth imagery in its descriptions of cosmic conflict. Descent to the underworld thumb\|right\|The Harrowing of Hell, depicted in the Petites Heures de Jean de Berry, 14th-century illuminated manuscript According to David Leeming, writing in The Oxford Companion to World Mythology, the harrowing of hell is an example of the motif of the hero's descent to the underworld, which is common in many mythologies. Dying God Many myths, particularly from the Near East, feature a God who dies and is resurrected; this figure is sometimes called the "dying god". An important study of this figure is James George Frazer's The Golden Bough, which traces the dying God theme through a large number of myths. The dying God is often associated with fertility. A number of scholars, including Frazer, have suggested that the Christ story is an example of the "dying God" theme. In the article "Dying God" in The Oxford Companion to World Mythology, David Leeming notes that Christ can be seen as bringing fertility, though of a spiritual as opposed to physical kind. Flood myths Many cultures have myths about a flood that cleanses the world in preparation for rebirth. Such stories appear on every inhabited continent on earth. In The Oxford Companion to World Mythology, David Leeming notes that, in the Bible story, as in other flood myths, the flood marks a new beginning and a second chance for creation and humanity. Frankiel claims that these founding myths are "structurally equivalent" to the creation myths in other religions, because they are "the pivot around which the religion turns to and which it returns", establishing the "meaning" of the religion and the "essential Christian practices and attitudes". Christian mythology of their society's founding would start with Jesus and his many teachings, and include the stories of Christian disciples starting the Christian Church and congregations in the 1st century. This might be considered the stories in the four canonical gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. The heroes of the first Christian society would start with Jesus and those chosen by Jesus, the twelve apostles including Peter, John, James, as well as Paul and Mary (mother of Jesus). Hero myths In his influential 1909 work The Myth of the Birth of the Hero, Otto Rank argued that the births of many mythical heroes follow a common pattern. Rank includes the story of Christ's birth as a representative example of this pattern. An example from the Late Middle Ages comes from Dieudonné de Gozon, third Grand Master of the Knights of Rhodes, famous for slaying the dragon of Malpasso. Eliade writes: "Legend, as was natural, bestowed upon him the attributes of St. George, famed for his victorious fight with the monster. [...] In other words, by the simple fact that he was regarded as a hero, de Gozon was identified with a category, an archetype, which [...] equipped him with a mythical biography from which it was impossible to omit combat with a reptilian monster." calling the Christ story "a particularly complete example of the heroic monomyth". in which the resurrected heroes often become sources of "material or spiritual food for their people"; in this connection, Leeming notes that Christians regard Jesus as the "bread of life". Sacrifice Sacrifice is an element in many religious traditions and often represented in myths. In The Oxford Companion to World Mythology, David Leeming lists the story of Abraham and Isaac and the story of Christ's death as examples of this theme. Wendy Doniger describes the gospel accounts as a "meta-myth" in which Jesus realizes that he is part of a "new myth […] of a man who is sacrificed in hate" but "sees the inner myth, the old myth of origins and acceptance, the myth of a god who sacrifices himself in love". Eucharist Related to the doctrine of transsubstantiation, the Christian practice of eating the flesh and blood of Jesus Christ during the Eucharist is an instance of theophagy. Transference of evil The theological concept of Jesus being born to atone for original sin is central to the Christian narrative. According to Christian theology, by Adam disobeying God in the Garden of Eden, humanity acquired an ingrained flaw that keeps humans in a state of moral imperfection, generally called "original sin". According to Paul the Apostle, Adam's sin brought sin and death to all humanity: "Through one man, sin entered the world, and through sin, death" (Romans 5:12). According to the orthodox Christian view, Jesus saved humanity from final death and damnation by dying for them. Most Christians believe that Christ's sacrifice supernaturally reversed death's power over humanity, proved when he was resurrected, and abolished the power of sin on humanity. According to Paul, "if the many died by the trespass of the one man, how much more did God's grace and the gift that came by the grace of the one man, Jesus Christ, overflow to the many" (Romans 5:15). For many Christians, atonement doctrine leads naturally into the eschatological narratives of Christian people rising from the dead and living again, or immediately entering heaven to join Jesus. Atonement in canonical scripture Paul's theological writings lay out the basic framework of the atonement doctrine in the New Testament. However, Paul's letters contain relatively little mythology (narrative). The majority of narratives in the New Testament are in the Gospels and the Book of Revelation. Although the Gospel stories do not lay out the atonement doctrine as fully as does Paul, they do have the story of the Last Supper, crucifixion, death and resurrection. Atonement is also suggested in the parables of Jesus in his final days. According to Matthew's gospel, at the Last Supper, Jesus calls his blood "the blood of the new covenant, which will be poured out for the forgiveness of many" (Matthew 26:28). John's gospel is especially rich in atonement parables and promises: Jesus speaks of himself as "the living bread that came down from heaven"; "and the bread that I shall give is My flesh, which I shall give for the life of the world" (John 6:51); "Truly, truly, I say to you, unless a grain of wheat falls to the ground and dies, it remains alone; but if it dies, it bears much fruit" (John 12:24). Atonement in non-canonical literature The sacrifice and atonement narrative appears explicitly in many non-canonical writings as well. For instance, in Book 3 of Milton's Paradise Lost, the Son of God offers to become a man and die, thereby paying mankind's debt to God the Father. The Harrowing of Hell is a non-canonical myth extrapolated from the atonement doctrine. According to this story, Christ descended into the land of the dead after his crucifixion, rescuing the righteous souls that had been cut off from heaven due to the taint of original sin. The story of the harrowing was popular during the Middle Ages. An Old English poem called "The Harrowing of Hell" describes Christ breaking into Hell and rescuing the Old Testament patriarchs. (The Harrowing is not the only explanation that Christians have put forth for the fate of the righteous who died before Christ accomplished the atonement.) In modern literature, atonement continues to be theme. In the first of C. S. Lewis's Narnia novels, The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, a boy named Edmund is condemned to death by a White Witch, and the magical lion-king Aslan offers to die in Edmund's place, thereby saving him. Aslan's life is sacrificed on an altar, but returns to life again. Aslan's self-sacrifice for Edmund is often interpreted as an allegory for the story of Christ's sacrifice for humanity; although Lewis denied that the novel is a mere allegory. Eschatological myths Christian eschatological myths include stories of the afterlife: the narratives of Jesus Christ rising from the dead and now acting as a saviour of all generations of Christians, and stories of heaven and hell. Eschatological myths would also include the prophesies of end of the world and a new millennium in the Book of Revelation, and the story that Jesus will return to earth some day. The major features of Christian eschatological mythology include afterlife beliefs, the Second Coming, the resurrection of the dead, and the final judgment. Immediate afterlife (heaven and hell) thumb\|right\|Jesus as the Good Shepherd, painting on ceiling of S. Callisto catacomb, early Christian art, mid 3rd century A.D.. Example of earliest Christian art showing a pastoral scene in the afterlife. Most Christian denominations hold some belief in an immediate afterlife when people die. Christian scripture gives a few descriptions of an immediate afterlife and a heaven and hell; however, for the most part, both New and Old Testaments focus much more on the myth of a final bodily resurrection than any beliefs about a purely spiritual afterlife away from the body. Much of the Old Testament does not express a belief in a personal afterlife of reward or punishment:"All the dead go down to Sheol, and there they lie in sleep together–whether good or evil, rich or poor, slave or free (Job 3:11–19). It is described as a region "dark and deep," "the Pit," and "the land of forgetfulness," cut off from both God and human life above (Psalms 6:5; 88:3–12). Though in some texts Yahweh's power can reach down to Sheol (Psalms 139:8), the dominant idea is that the dead are abandoned forever. This idea of Sheol is negative in contrast to the world of life and light above, but there is no idea of judgment or of reward and punishment." Later Old Testament writings, particularly the works of the Hebrew prophets, describe a final resurrection of the dead, often accompanied by spiritual rewards and punishments:"Many who sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake. Some shall live forever; others shall be in everlasting contempt. But the wise shall shine brightly like the splendor of the firmament, and those who lead the many to justice shall be like the stars forever" (Daniel 12:2). However, even here, the emphasis is not on an immediate afterlife in heaven or hell, but rather on a future bodily resurrection. The New Testament also devotes little attention to an immediate afterlife. Its primary focus is the resurrection of the dead. Some New Testament passages seem to mention the (non-resurrected) dead experiencing some sort of afterlife (for example, the parable of rich man and Lazarus); yet the New Testament includes only a few myths about heaven and hell. Specifically, heaven is a place of peaceful residence, where Jesus goes to "prepare a home" or room for his disciples (John 14:2). Drawing on scriptural imagery (John 10:7, John 10:11–14), many Christian narratives of heaven include a nice green pasture land and a meeting with a benevolent God. Some of the earliest Christian art depicts heaven as a green pasture where people are sheep led by Jesus as "the good shepherd" as in interpretation of heaven. As the doctrines of heaven and hell (and also Catholic purgatory) developed, non-canonical Christian literature began to develop an elaborate mythology about these locations. Dante's three-part Divine Comedy is a prime example of such afterlife mythology, describing Hell (in Inferno), Purgatory (in Purgatorio), and Heaven (in Paradiso). Nowadays, conceptualizations of hell differ quite widely across various denominations. Second Coming thumb\|right\|The Wandering Jew by Gustave Doré. The Second Coming of Christ holds a central place in Christian mythology. The Second Coming is the return of Christ to Earth during the period of transformation preceding the end of this world and the establishment of the Kingdom of Heaven on Earth. According to Matthew's gospel, when Jesus is on trial before the Roman and Jewish authorities, he claims, "In the future you will see the Son of Man sitting at the right hand of the Mighty One and coming on the clouds of heaven." The legend of the Wandering Jew concerns a Jew who taunted Jesus on the way to the Crucifixion and was then cursed to walk the earth until the Second Coming. Resurrection and final judgment Christian mythology incorporates the Old Testament's prophecies of a future resurrection of the dead. Like the Hebrew prophet Daniel (e.g., Daniel 12:2), the Christian Book of Revelation (among other New Testament scriptures) describes the resurrection: "The sea gave up the dead that were in it, and death and Hades gave up the dead that were in them; and they were judged, every one of them according to their deeds." The righteous and/or faithful enjoy bliss in the earthly Kingdom of Heaven, but the evil and/or non-Christian are "cast into the lake of fire". The Kingdom of Heaven on Earth Christian eschatological myths feature a total world renovation after the final judgment. According to the Book of Revelation, God "will wipe every tear from their eyes, and there will be no more death or mourning, wailing or pain, for the old order has passed away". According to Old and New Testament passages, a time of perfect peace and happiness is coming: "They will beat their swords into plowshares and their spears into pruning hooks. One nation will not raise the sword against another; nor will they train for war again." Certain scriptural passages even suggest that God will abolish the current natural laws in favor of immortality and total peace: "Then the wolf will be a guest of the lamb, and the leopard will lie down with the kid. The calf and the young lion will browse together, with a little child to guide them. […] There will be no harm or ruin on all my holy mountain, for the earth will be filled with knowledge of the LORD as water fills the sea." "On this mountain, [God] will destroy the veil that veils all peoples, the web that is woven over all nations: he will destroy Death forever." "The trumpet will sound, and the dead will be raised imperishable, and we will be changed." "Night will be no more, nor will they need light from lamp or sun, for the Lord God shall give them light, and they shall reign forever and ever." Millennialism and amillennialism When Christianity was a new and persecuted religion, many Christians believed the end times were imminent. Scholars debate whether Jesus was an apocalyptic preacher; however, his early followers, "the group of Jews who accepted him as messiah in the years immediately after his death, understood him in primarily apocalyptic terms". Prevalent in the early church and especially during periods of persecution, this Christian belief in an imminent end is called "millennialism". (It takes its name from the thousand-year ("millennial") reign of Christ that, according to the Book of Revelation, will precede the final world renovation; similar beliefs in a coming paradise are found in other religions, and these phenomena are often also called "millennialism") Millennialism comforted Christians during times of persecution, for it predicted an imminent deliverance from suffering. From the perspective of millennialism, human action has little significance: millennialism is comforting precisely because it predicts that happiness is coming no matter what humans do: "The seeming triumph of Evil made up the apocalyptic syndrome which was to precede Christ's return and the millennium." However, as time went on, millennialism lost its appeal. Christ had not returned immediately, as earlier Christians had predicted. Moreover, many Christians no longer needed the comfort that millennialism provided, for they were no longer persecuted: "With the triumph of the Church, the Kingdom of Heaven was already present on earth, and in a certain sense the old world had already been destroyed." (Millennialism has revived during periods of historical stress, In the Roman Church's condemnation of millennialism, Eliade sees "the first manifestation of the doctrine of [human] progress" in Christianity. Thus, after taking the amillennial position, the Church not only waited for God to renovate the world (as millennialists had) but also believed itself to be improving the world through human action. Major works in Christian demonology, such as Malleus Maleficarum, were dedicated to the implementation of Exodus 22:18 of the Old Testament: "You shall not permit a sorceress to live." The concept of witches' sabbath was well articulated by the 17th century. Theologian Martin Delrio was one of the first to provide a vivid description in his influential Disquisitiones magicae: There, on most occasions, once a foul, disgusting fire has been lit, an evil spirit sits on a throne as president of the assembly. His appearance is terrifying, almost always that of a male goat or a dog. The witches come forward to worship him in different ways. Sometimes they supplicate him on bended knee; sometimes they stand with their back turned to him. They offer candles made of pitch or a child's umbilical cord, and kiss him on the anal orifice as a sign of homage. Sometimes they imitate the sacrifice of the Mass (the greatest of all their crimes), as well as purifying with water and similar Catholic ceremonies. After the feast, each evil spirit takes by the hand the disciple of whom he has charge, and so that they may do everything with the most absurd kind of ritual, each person bends over backwards, joins hands in a circle, and tosses his head as frenzied fanatics do. Then they begin to dance. They sing very obscene songs in his [Satan's] honour. They behave ridiculously in every way, and in every way contrary to accepted custom. Then their demon-lovers copulate with them in the most repulsive fashion. Legend and folklore Legendary Prester John Saint George and the Dragon Wandering Jew Legendary creatures Numerous legendary creatures are attested in Christian mythology. These include the Behemoth, Leviathan, Angels, Demons, Nephilim, Re'em, Ziz and dragons. Attitudes toward time right\|thumb\|One traditional depiction of the cherubim and chariot vision, based on the description by Ezekiel. According to Mircea Eliade, many traditional societies have a cyclic sense of time, periodically reenacting mythical events. Through this reenactment, these societies achieve an "eternal return" to the mythical age. According to Eliade, Christianity retains a sense of cyclical time, through the ritual commemoration of Christ's life and the imitation of Christ's actions; Eliade calls this sense of cyclical time a "mythical aspect" of Christianity. However, Judeo-Christian thought also makes an "innovation of the first importance", Eliade says, because it embraces the notion of linear, historical time; in Christianity, "time is no longer [only] the circular Time of the Eternal Return; it has become linear and irreversible Time". Summarizing Eliade's statements on this subject, Eric Rust writes, "A new religious structure became available. In the Judaeo-Christian religions — Judaism, Christianity, Islam — history is taken seriously, and linear time is accepted. […] The Christian myth gives such time a beginning in creation, a center in the Christ-event, and an end in the final consummation." In contrast, the myths of many traditional cultures present a cyclic or static view of time. In these cultures, all the "[important] history is limited to a few events that took place in the mythical times". In other words, these cultures place events into two categories, the mythical age and the present, between which there is no continuity. Everything in the present is seen as a direct result of the mythical age: "Just as modern man considers himself to be constituted by [all of] History, the man of the archaic societies declares that he is the result of [only] a certain number of mythical events." Because of this view, Eliade argues, members of many traditional societies see their lives as a constant repetition of mythical events, an "eternal return" to the mythical age: "In imitating the exemplary acts of a god or of a mythical hero, or simply by recounting their adventures, the man of an archaic society detaches himself from profane time and magically re-enters the Great Time, the sacred time." According to Eliade, Christianity shares in this cyclic sense of time to an extent. "By the very fact that it is a religion", he argues, Christianity retains at least one "mythical aspect" — the repetition of mythical events through ritual. Eliade gives a typical church service as an example:"Just as a church constitutes a break in plane in the profane space of a modern city, [so] the service celebrated inside [the church] marks a break in profane temporal duration. It is no longer today's historical time that is present — the time that is experienced, for example, in the adjacent streets — but the time in which the historical existence of Jesus Christ occurred, the time sanctified by his preaching, by his passion, death, and resurrection." Heinrich Zimmer also notes Christianity's emphasis on linear time; he attributes this emphasis specifically to the influence of Augustine of Hippo's theory of history. Zimmer does not explicitly describe the cyclical conception of time as itself "mythical" per se, although he notes that this conception "underl[ies] Hindu mythology". Neil Forsyth writes that "what distinguishes both Jewish and Christian religious systems […] is that they elevate to the sacred status of myth narratives that are situated in historical time". Legacy Concepts of progress According to Carl Mitcham, "the Christian mythology of progress toward transcendent salvation" created the conditions for modern ideas of scientific and technological progress. Hayden White describes "the myth of Progress" as the "secular, Enlightenment counterpart" of "Christian myth". Reinhold Niebuhr described the modern idea of ethical and scientific progress as "really a rationalized version of the Christian myth of salvation". According to Irwin, from the perspective of the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament), "history is a tale of progress". Christianity inherited the Hebrew sense of history through the Old Testament. Thus, although most Christians believe that human nature is inherently "fallen" (see original sin) and cannot become perfected without divine grace, they do believe that the world can and will change for the better, either through human and divine action or through divine action alone. Political and philosophical ideas According to Mircea Eliade, the medieval "Gioacchinian myth […] of universal renovation in a more or less imminent future" has influenced a number of modern theories of history, such as those of Lessing (who explicitly compares his views to those of medieval "enthusiasts"), Fichte, Hegel, and Schelling; and has also influenced a number of Russian writers. In his article "The Christian Mythology of Socialism", Will Herberg argues that socialism inherits the structure of its ideology from the influence of Christian mythology upon western thought. In The Oxford Companion to World Mythology, David Leeming claims that Judeo-Christian messianic ideas have influenced 20th-century totalitarian systems, citing the state ideology of the Soviet Union as an example. According to Hugh S. Pyper, the biblical "founding myths of the Exodus and the exile, read as stories in which a nation is forged by maintaining its ideological and racial purity in the face of an oppressive great power", entered "the rhetoric of nationalism throughout European history", especially in Protestant countries and smaller nations. Christmas stories in popular culture Christmas stories have become prevalent in Western literature and culture. The Bible Old Testament right\|thumb\|Destruction of Leviathan. 1865 engraving by Gustave Doré Mythic patterns such as the primordial struggle between good and evil appear in passages throughout the Hebrew Bible, including passages that describe historical events. A distinctive characteristic of the Hebrew Bible is the reinterpretation of myth on the basis of history, as in the Book of Daniel, a record of the experience of the Jews of the Second Temple period under foreign rule, presented as a prophecy of future events and expressed in terms of "mythic structures" with "the Hellenistic kingdom figured as a terrifying monster that cannot but recall [the Near Eastern pagan myth of] the dragon of chaos". For example, Eliade says, the portrayal of Nebuchadnezzar as a dragon in Jeremiah 51:34 is a case in which the Hebrews "interpreted contemporary events by means of the very ancient cosmogonico-heroic myth" of a battle between a hero and a dragon. According to scholars including Neil Forsyth and John L. McKenzie, the Old Testament incorporates stories, or fragments of stories, from extra-biblical mythology. According to the New American Bible, a Catholic Bible translation produced by the Confraternity of Christian Doctrine, the story of the Nephilim in Genesis 6:1–4 "is apparently a fragment of an old legend that had borrowed much from ancient mythology", and the "sons of God" mentioned in that passage are "celestial beings of mythology". The New American Bible also says that Psalm 93 alludes to "an ancient myth" in which God battles a personified Sea. Some scholars have identified the biblical creature Leviathan as a monster from Canaanite mythology. According to Howard Schwartz, "the myth of the fall of Lucifer" existed in fragmentary form in Isaiah 14:12 and other ancient Jewish literature; Schwartz claims that the myth originated from "the ancient Canaanite myth of Athtar, who attempted to rule the throne of Ba'al, but was forced to descend and rule the underworld instead". Some scholars have argued that the calm, orderly, monotheistic creation story in Genesis 1 can be interpreted as a reaction against the creation myths of other Near Eastern cultures. In connection with this interpretation, David and Margaret Leeming describe Genesis 1 as a "demythologized myth", and John L. McKenzie asserts that the writer of Genesis 1 has "excised the mythical elements" from his creation story. Perhaps the most famous topic in the Bible that could possibly be connected with mythical origins is the topic of Heaven (or the sky) as the place where God (or angels, or the saints) resides, with stories such as the ascension of Elijah (who disappeared in the sky), war of man with an angel, flying angels. Even in the New Testament Paul the Apostle is said to have visited the third heaven, and Jesus was portrayed in several books as going to return from Heaven on a cloud, in the same way he ascended thereto. The official text repeated by the attendees during Roman Catholic mass (the Apostles' Creed) contains the words "He ascended into Heaven, and is Seated at the Right Hand of God, The Father. From thence He will come again to judge the living and the dead". New Testament and early Christianity According to a number of scholars, the Christ story contains mythical themes such as descent to the underworld, the heroic monomyth, and the "dying god" (see section above on "mythical themes and types"). Some scholars have argued that the Book of Revelation incorporates imagery from ancient mythology. According to the New American Bible, the image in Revelation 12:1–6 of a pregnant woman in the sky, threatened by a dragon, "corresponds to a widespread myth throughout the ancient world that a goddess pregnant with a savior was pursued by a horrible monster; by miraculous intervention, she bore a son who then killed the monster". Bernard McGinn suggests that the image of the two Beasts in Revelation stems from a "mythological background" involving the figures of Leviathan and Behemoth. The Pastoral Epistles contain denunciations of "myths" (muthoi). This may indicate that Rabbinic or Gnostic mythology was popular among the early Christians to whom the epistles were written and that the epistles' author was attempting to resist that mythology. The Sibylline oracles contain predictions that the dead Roman Emperor Nero, infamous for his persecutions, would return one day as an Antichrist-like figure. According to Bernard McGinn, these parts of the oracles were probably written by a Christian and incorporated "mythological language" in describing Nero's return. Historical development thumb\|left\|Medieval painting of Death playing chess from Täby Church in Sweden From Roman Empire to Europe After Christian theology was accepted by the Roman Empire, promoted by St. Augustine in the 5th century, Christian mythology began to predominate the Roman Empire. Later the theology was carried north by Charlemagne and the Frankish people, and Christian themes began to weave into the framework of European mythologies. The pre-Christian Germanic and Celtic mythology that were native to the tribes of Northern Europe were denounced and submerged, while saint myths, Mary stories, Crusade myths, and other Christian myths took their place. However, pre-Christian myths never went entirely away, they mingled with the (Roman Catholic) Christian framework to form new stories, like myths of the mythological kings and saints and miracles, for example (Eliade 1963:162–181). Stories such as that of Beowulf and Icelandic, Norse, and Germanic sagas were reinterpreted somewhat, and given Christian meanings. The legend of King Arthur and the quest for the Holy Grail is a striking example. The thrust of incorporation took on one of two directions. When Christianity was on the advance, pagan myths were Christianized; when it was in retreat, Bible stories and Christian saints lost their mythological importance to the culture. Middle Ages According to Mircea Eliade, the Middle Ages witnessed "an upwelling of mythical thought" in which each social group had its own "mythological traditions". Often a profession had its own "origin myth" which established models for members of the profession to imitate; for example, the knights tried to imitate Lancelot or Parsifal. In many cases, medieval mythology appears to have inherited elements from myths of pagan gods and heroes. According to Every, one example may be "the myth of St. George" and other stories about saints battling dragons, which were "modelled no doubt in many cases on older representations of the creator and preserver of the world in combat with chaos". Eliade notes that some "mythological traditions" of medieval knights, namely the Arthurian cycle and the Grail theme, combine a veneer of Christianity with traditions regarding the Celtic Otherworld. According to Eliade, "eschatological myths" became prominent during the Middle Ages during "certain historical movements". These eschatological myths appeared "in the Crusades, in the movements of a Tanchelm and an Eudes de l'Etoile, in the elevation of Fredrick II to the rank of Messiah, and in many other collective messianic, utopian, and prerevolutionary phenomena". Renaissance and Reformation During the Renaissance, there arose a critical attitude that sharply distinguished between apostolic tradition and what George Every calls "subsidiary mythology"—popular legends surrounding saints, relics, the cross, etc.—suppressing the latter. right\|thumb\|Unicorn mosaic on a 1213 church floor in Ravenna The works of Renaissance writers often included and expanded upon Christian and non-Christian stories such as those of creation and the Fall. Rita Oleyar describes these writers as "on the whole, reverent and faithful to the primal myths, but filled with their own insights into the nature of God, man, and the universe". An example is John Milton's Paradise Lost, an "epic elaboration of the Judeo-Christian mythology" and also a "veritable encyclopedia of myths from the Greek and Roman tradition". Every argues that "the disparagement of myth in our own civilization" stems partly from objections to perceived idolatry, objections which intensified in the Reformation, both among Protestants and among Catholics reacting against the classical mythology revived during the Renaissance. Enlightenment The philosophes of the Enlightenment used criticism of myth as a vehicle for veiled criticisms of the Bible and the church. According to Bruce Lincoln, the philosophes "made irrationality the hallmark of myth and constituted philosophy—rather than the Christian kerygma—as the antidote for mythic discourse. By implication, Christianity could appear as a more recent, powerful, and dangerous instance of irrational myth". Since the end of the 18th century, the biblical stories have lost some of their mythological basis to western society, owing to the scepticism of the Enlightenment, 19th-century freethinking, and 20th century modernism. Most westerners no longer found Christianity to be their primary imaginative and mythological framework by which they understand the world. However other scholars believe mythology is in our psyche, and that mythical influences of Christianity are in many of our ideals, for example the Judeo-Christian idea of an after-life and heaven. The book Virtual Faith: The Irreverent Spiritual Quest of Generation X by Tom Beaudoin explores the premise that Christian mythology is present in the mythologies of pop-culture, such as Madonna's Like a Prayer or Soundgarden's Black Hole Sun. Modern myths are strong in comic book stories (as stories of culture heroes) and detective novels as myths of good versus evil. Modern period Some commentators have categorized a number of modern fantasy works as "Christian myth" or "Christian mythopoeia". Examples include the fiction of C. S. Lewis, Madeleine L'Engle, J.R.R. Tolkien, and George MacDonald. In The Eternal Adam and the New World Garden, written in 1968, David W. Noble argued that the Adam figure had been "the central myth in the American novel since 1830". As examples, he cites the works of Cooper, Hawthorne, Melville, Twain, Hemingway, and Faulkner. See also Abraham Abulafia Allegory in the Middle Ages George Arundale Biblical cosmology Christian mysticism Esoteric Christianity Folk religion Islamic mythology Joseph of Arimathea Charles Webster Leadbeater Mormon folklore Panbabylonism Superstitions in Muslim societies Notes References Citations Sources Barrett, C.K. "Myth and the New Testament: the Greek word μύθος". Myth: Critical Concepts in Literary and Cultural Studies. Vol. 4. Ed. Robert A. Segal. London: Routledge, 2007. 65–71. Burkert, Walter. Structure and History in Greek Mythology and Ritual. London: University of California Press, 1979. Cain, Tom. "Donne's Political World". The Cambridge Companion to John Donne. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. 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