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6851	Coronation Street	\| opentheme = "Lancashire Blues" \| theme_music_composer = Eric Spear \| language = English \| country = United Kingdom \| num_episodes = 11,526<!--As of 28th March 2025--> \| producer = \| location = \| camera = Multiple-camera \| runtime = 30–60 minutes \| company = \| network = ITV \| first_aired \| last_aired = present \| related = }} Coronation Street (colloquially referred to as Corrie) is a British television soap opera created by Granada Television and shown on ITV since 9 December 1960. The programme centres on a cobbled, terraced street in the fictional town of Weatherfield in Greater Manchester. The location was itself based on Salford, the hometown of the show's first screenwriter and creator, Tony Warren. Originally broadcast twice weekly, Coronation Street increased its runtime in later years, currently airing three 60-minute episodes per week. Warren developed the concept for the series, which was initially rejected by Granada's founder Sidney Bernstein. Producer Harry Elton convinced Bernstein to commission 13 pilot episodes. The show has since become a significant part of British culture and underpinned the success of its producing Granada franchise. Currently produced by ITV Studios, the successor to Granada, the series is filmed at MediaCityUK and broadcast across all ITV regions, as well as internationally. In 2010, Coronation Street was recognised by Guinness World Records as the world's longest-running television soap opera upon its 50th anniversary. Coronation Street was originally influenced by kitchen-sink realism and is known for portraying a working-class community with a blend of humour and strong, relatable characters. As of 2025, it averages approximately four million viewers per episode. The series aired its 10,000th episode on 7 February 2020 and marked its 60th anniversary later that year. History 1960s The first episode of Coronation Street aired on 9 December 1960 at 7 pm. It initially received mixed reviews; Daily Mirror columnist Ken Irwin predicted the series would last only three weeks. The Daily Mirror also printed: "The programme is doomed from the outset ... For there is little reality in this new serial, which apparently, we have to suffer twice a week." Granada Television had commissioned 13 episodes, with some inside the company doubting the show would last beyond its planned production run. However, viewers quickly connected with the programme's portrayal of relatable, everyday characters. The programme also made use of Northern English language and dialect; affectionate local terms like "eh, chuck?", "nowt" (, from nought, meaning nothing), and "by 'eck!" became widely heard on British television for the first time. Early storylines included student Ken Barlow (William Roache), whose university education set him apart from his working-class family, including his brother David (Alan Rothwell) and parents Frank (Frank Pemberton) and Ida (Noel Dyson). Barlow's character offered commentary on broader social changes, including globalisation, as exemplified by his 1961 line: "You can't go on just thinking about your own street these days. We're living with people on the other side of the world." Roache remains the only original cast member and holds the record as the longest-serving actor in Coronation Street and global soap opera history. In March 1961, the show reached number one in the television ratings and remained there for the rest of the year. In 1964, Tim Aspinall became the series producer and implemented significant changes to the programme. Nine cast members were fired, the first being Lynne Carol, who had played Martha Longhurst since early in Coronation Street<nowiki/>'s run. Carol’s firing caused controversy, prompting her co-star Violet Carson (Ena Sharples) to threaten to quit, although she ultimately remained. The sacking was widely covered in the media, and Carol was mobbed by fans while out in public. Some, including Coronation Street writer H.V. Kershaw, criticised the decision as a bid to boost ratings. Granada considered modernising the show with issue-driven plots, including Lucille Hewitt (Jennifer Moss) becoming addicted to drugs, Jerry Booth (Graham Haberfield) being in a storyline about homosexuality, Emily Nugent (Eileen Derbyshire) having an out-of-wedlock child, and introducing a black family. However, these ideas were abandoned due to concerns about viewer reactions. The first episode filmed in color was broadcast on 3 November 1969. Since then, all episodes have been produced in color, with the exception of those created during the Colour Strike. 1970s Several main cast members departed Coronation Street in the early 1970s. In 1970, Arthur Leslie, who played Jack Walker, the landlord of the Rovers Return Inn, died suddenly, and his character was written out shortly thereafter. Anne Reid left the series in 1971, with her character, Valerie Barlow, dying due to accidental electrocution from a faulty hairdryer. The departure of these cast members in the early 1970s prompted the writing team to expand the roles of supporting characters and introduce new ones. Deirdre Hunt (Anne Kirkbride) was introduced in 1972 and became a regular character in 1973. Bet Lynch (Julie Goodyear), who had become a regular character in 1970, became increasingly prominent as the decade progressed. Rita Littlewood (Barbara Knox), who had made a single appearance in 1964, returned and joined the regular cast in 1972. Mavis Riley (Thelma Barlow) became a regular character in 1973. Ivy Tyldesley (Lynne Perrie, later renamed "Tilsley") was introduced as a recurring character in 1971. Longtime characters Gail Potter (Helen Worth), Blanche Hunt (initially played by Patricia Cutts and later by Maggie Jones), and Vera Duckworth (Liz Dawn) were introduced in 1974. Comic storylines, a hallmark of the series in the 1960s, had become less frequent in the early 1970s. They were revived under new producer Bill Podmore, who joined the programme in 1976 after previously working on Granada’s comedy productions. In September 1977, the News of the World quoted actor Stephen Hancock (Ernest Bishop) as saying "The Street kills an actor. I'm just doing a job, not acting. The scriptwriters have turned me into Ernie Bishop. I've tried to resist it but it is very hard not to play the part all the time, even at home." Hancock also expressed frustration with the payment system, which guaranteed some long-serving actors—including Pat Phoenix, Doris Speed, and Peter Adamson—payment for every episode regardless of their appearances, while others were compensated only for episodes in which they appeared. Hancock's complaints led to a dispute with Podmore, dubbed "The Godfather" by the media, who refused to alter the system. Hancock ultimately resigned. To write out Ernest Bishop while preserving the role of his wife, Emily (Eileen Derbyshire), the writers decided his character would be fatally shot during a payroll robbery at Mike Baldwin's (Johnny Briggs) factory. The episode, which aired on 11 January 1978, marked the first instance of such explicit violence on Coronation Street, leading to a significant viewer backlash. Granada's switchboard was overwhelmed with complaints, and the Lobby Against TV Violence criticised the decision to air the storyline. Granada defended the plot, emphasising its focus on the grief and loss experienced by Emily. Despite its enduring popularity, critics argued that Coronation Street had grown complacent during this period, with the show relying on nostalgic depictions of working-class life rather than addressing contemporary social issues. 1980s Between 1980 and 1984, Coronation Street faced the loss of many original cast members. Violet Carson (Ena Sharples) retired in 1980 and Doris Speed (Annie Walker) retired in 1983, Pat Phoenix (Elsie Tanner) left the programme permanently in 1984. Jack Howarth died in 1984 and his character, Albert Tatlock, was written out off-screen. By May 1984, William Roache (Ken Barlow) was the sole remaining actor from the programme's original cast. Characters like Phyllis Pearce (Jill Summers), Vera and Jack Duckworth (Liz Dawn and Bill Tarmey), and Percy Sugden (Bill Waddington) took on roles reminiscent of earlier characters. The show introduced its first major black character, Shirley Armitage (Lisa Lewis), as a machinist at Baldwin’s Casuals in 1983. Established characters were assigned new roles, and new characters were introduced to fill the gaps left by those who departed. Phyllis Pearce (Jill Summers) was hailed as the new Ena Sharples in 1982, the Duckworths moved into No.9 in 1983 and slipped into the role once held by the Ogdens, while Percy Sugden (Bill Waddington) appeared in 1983 and took over the grumpy war veteran role from Albert Tatlock. The question of who would take over the Rovers Return after Annie Walker's 1983 exit was answered in 1985 when Bet Lynch (who also mirrored the vulnerability and strength of Elsie Tanner) was installed as landlady. In 1983, Shirley Armitage (Lisa Lewis) became the first major Black character in the programme. was dismissed for breaching his contract. Granada had previously warned Adamson for publishing unauthorised newspaper articles that criticised the show and its cast. Producer Bill Podmore terminated Adamson's contract after discovering he had sold his memoirs despite the prior warning. The sacking coincided with allegations of Adamson having indecently assaulted two eight-year-old girls in a swimming pool. Granada Television gave Adamson financial support through his legal problems, with a Crown Court jury finding him not guilty in July 1983. Adamson's dispute over his memoirs and newspaper articles was not known to the public and the media reported that Adamson had been dismissed because of the allegations. Len Fairclough was killed off-screen in a motorway crash while returning home from an affair in December 1983. Adamson celebrated the character's death by delivering an obituary on TV-am dressed as an undertaker. New soap operas began airing on British television in the 1980s, with Channel 4 launching Brookside in 1982 and the BBC debuting EastEnders in 1985. Both soaps presented a grittier, more contemporary view of British life, contrasting with Coronation Street<nowiki/>'s nostalgic tone. EastEnders regularly obtained higher viewing figures than Coronation Street due to its omnibus episodes shown at weekends. Despite this, Coronation Street maintained strong ratings. Between 1988 and 1989, many aspects of the show were modernised by new producer David Liddiment. A new exterior set had been built in 1982, and in 1989 it was redeveloped to include new houses and shops. Production techniques were also changed with a new studio being built, and the inclusion of more location filming, which had moved exterior scenes from being shot on film to videotape in 1988. Due to new pressures, an introduction of the third weekly episode aired on 20 October 1989, to broadcast each Friday at 7:30 pm. informed Granada of his intention to move to the United States to marry Leeza Gibbons and pursue an acting career in Los Angeles. Quinten sought assurances that his role would remain open for a potential return. However, producers decided that Tilsley would be killed off. Quinten was in Los Angeles when the decision was made and threatened to quit abruptly. The storyline attracted viewer complaints, with Mary Whitehouse condemning the portrayal of violence. Deirdre Barlow’s affair with Mike Baldwin (Johnny Briggs) in 1983, garnered significant media attention, and began an ongoing feud that followed between Ken Barlow and Mike Baldwin. Other notable marriages included Alf Roberts (Bryan Mosley) to Audrey Potter (Sue Nicholls) in 1985, Mike Baldwin to Ken Barlow's daughter Susan (Wendy Jane Walker) in 1986, Kevin Webster (Michael Le Vell) to Sally Seddon (Sally Whittaker) in 1986, Bet Lynch to Alec Gilroy (Roy Barraclough) in 1987, and Ivy Tilsley to Don Brennan (Geoffrey Hinsliff) in 1988. The long-awaited marriage of Mavis Riley and Derek Wilton (Peter Baldwin) occurred in 1988 after over a decade of on-and-off romance and a failed marriage attempt in 1984. The psychological abuse of Rita Fairclough by Alan Bradley culminated in his death under a Blackpool tram in December 1989, achieving a combined viewership of 26.93 million for the episodes where Alan went into hiding and later tried to kill Rita. Jean Alexander, who played Hilda Ogden on the programme starting in 1964, left Coronation Street in 1987. Her final aired on Christmas Day 1987 with a combined audience (original and omnibus) of 26.7 million. Between 1986 and 1989, the storyline of Rita Fairclough's (Barbara Knox) domestic abuse at the hands of her partner Alan Bradley (Mark Eden), followed by his death after being struck by a Blackpool tram in December 1989, unfolded. This plotline brought the show its highest-ever combined viewing figure, with nearly 27 million viewers watching a March 1989 episode where Bradley is on the run from the police after attempting to kill Rita. This record is sometimes mistakenly attributed to the tram death episode aired on 8 December 1989. 1990s In 1992, William Rees-Mogg, Chairman of the Broadcasting Standards Council, criticised Coronation Street for its low representation of ethnic minorities and its nostalgic portrayal of a bygone era. This was seen as unreflective of Greater Manchester, where many neighbourhoods had significant Black and Asian populations. Headlines such as "Coronation Street shuts out blacks" (The Times) and "'Put colour in t'Street" (Daily Mirror) reflected the controversy. Patrick Stoddart of The Times defended the show, stating: "the millions who watch Coronation Street – and who will continue to do so despite Lord Rees-Mogg – know real life when they see it ... in the most confident and accomplished soap opera television has ever seen" While Black and Asian characters had appeared sporadically, the first regular non-white family, the Desai family, was introduced in 1999. In 1990, new characters Des Barnes (Philip Middlemiss) and Steph Barnes (Amelia Bullmore) moved to Coronation Street and were labeled yuppies from the media. Raquel Wolstenhulme (Sarah Lancashire) debuted in 1991 and became one of the era's most popular characters, departing in 1996 with a brief return in 2000. The McDonald family–Liz (Beverley Callard), Jim (Charles Lawson), Steve (Simon Gregson), and Andy (Nicholas Cochrane)–were introduced in 1989 and became major characters in the 1990s. Other notable arrivals included Maud Grimes (Elizabeth Bradley), a wheelchair user and pensioner, in 1993; Roy Cropper (David Neilson), a café owner, in 1995; young married couple Gary and Judy Mallett (Ian Mercer and Gaynor Faye) in 1995; and butcher Fred Elliott (John Savident) in 1994 and his son Ashley Peacock (Steven Arnold) in 1995. The 1990s also saw an increase in slapstick and physical humour, exemplified by comedic characters including Reg Holdsworth (Ken Morley), a supermarket manager. In 1997, Brian Park became producer with a vision to modernise the show and focus on younger characters. On his first day, he axed several long-standing characters, including Derek Wilton (Peter Baldwin), Don Brennan (Geoffrey Hinsliff), Percy Sugden (Bill Waddington), Bill Webster (Peter Armitage), Billy Williams (Frank Mills) and Maureen Holdsworth (Sherrie Hewson). The decision prompted Thelma Barlow, who played Mavis Wilton, to resign in protest at her co-star's dismissal. Several longtime writers, including Barry Hill, Adele Rose, and Julian Roach, resigned during this period. Hayley Patterson (Julie Hesmondhalgh), introduced during this era, became the first transgender character in a British soap opera and soon married Roy Cropper. Park, who resigned in 1998, cited this storyline as one of his most significant achievements. Deirdre was released after three weeks, with Granada confirming that her release had always been planned despite the media frenzy. Earlier that year, 13-year-old Sarah-Louise Platt (Tina O'Brien) became pregnant, giving birth to a daughter, Bethany, on 4 June. The February episode where Gail was told of her daughter's pregnancy was watched by 15 million viewers. The programme continued to tackle issue-led storylines, including Toyah Battersby (Georgia Taylor) getting raped, Roy and Hayley Cropper (David Neilson and Julie Hesmondhalgh) abducting their foster child, Sarah Platt’s Internet chat room abduction, and Alma Halliwell's (Amanda Barrie) 2001 death from cervical cancer. These storylines proved unpopular with viewers and led to a decline in ratings. As a result, in October 2001, producer Jane Macnaught was reassigned, and Carolyn Reynolds took over. In 2002, Kieran Roberts became producer, aiming to reintroduce "gentle storylines and humour," steering the show away from competing with other soaps. Todd Grimshaw (Bruno Langley) became ''Corrie's'' first regular homosexual character. In 2003, another gay male character was introduced, Sean Tully (Antony Cotton). The bigamy of Peter Barlow (Chris Gascoyne) and his addiction to alcohol, later in the decade, Maya Sharma's (Sasha Behar) revenge on former lover Dev Alahan (Jimmi Harkishin), Charlie Stubbs's (Bill Ward) psychological abuse of Shelley Unwin (Sally Lindsay), and the deaths of Mike Baldwin (Johnny Briggs), Vera Duckworth (Liz Dawn) and Fred Elliott (John Savident). In 2007, Tracy Barlow (Kate Ford) murdered Charlie Stubbs and claiming it was self-defence; the audience during this storyline peaked at 13.3 million. At the 2007 British Soap Awards, it won Best Storyline, and Ford was voted Best Actress for her portrayal. In July 2007, after 34 years in the role of Vera Duckworth, Liz Dawn left the show due to ill health. After conversation between Dawn and producers Kieran Roberts and Steve Frost, the decision was made to kill Vera off. Tina O'Brien revealed in the British press on 4 April 2007 that she would be leaving Coronation Street later in the year. Sarah-Louise, who was involved in some of the decade's most controversial stories, left in December 2007 with her daughter, Bethany. In 2008, Michelle learning that Ryan (Ben Thompson) was not her biological son, having been accidentally swapped at birth with Alex Neeson (Dario Coates). Carla Connor (Alison King) turned to Liam for comfort and developed feelings for him. In spite of knowing about her feelings, Liam married Maria Sutherland (Samia Longchambon). Maria and Liam's baby son was stillborn in April, and during an estrangement from Maria upon the death of their baby, Liam had a one-night stand with Carla, a story which helped pave the way for his departure. In August 2008, Jed Stone (Kenneth Cope) returned after 42 years. Liam Connor and his ex-sister-in-law Carla gave into their feelings for each other and began an affair. Carla's fiancée Tony Gordon (Gray O'Brien) discovered the affair and had Liam killed in a hit-and-run in October. Carla struggled to come to terms with Liam's death, but decided she still loved Tony and married him on 3 December, in an episode attracting 10.3 million viewers. In April 2009 it was revealed that Eileen Grimshaw's (Sue Cleaver) father, Colin (Edward de Souza) – the son of Elsie Tanner's (Pat Phoenix) cousin Arnley – had slept with Eileen's old classmate, Paula Carp (Sharon Duce) while she was still at school, and that Paula's daughter Julie (Katy Cavanagh) was in fact also Colin's daughter. Other stories in 2009 included Maria giving birth to Liam's son and her subsequent relationship with Liam's killer Tony, Steve McDonald's (Simon Gregson) marriage to Becky Granger (Katherine Kelly) and Kevin Webster's (Michael Le Vell) affair with Molly Dobbs (Vicky Binns). On Christmas Day 2009, Sally Webster (Sally Dynevor) told husband Kevin that she had breast cancer, just as he was about to leave her for lover Molly. 2010s The show began broadcasting in high-definition in May 2010, and on 17 September that year, Coronation Street entered Guinness World Records as the world's longest-running television soap opera after the American soap opera As the World Turns concluded. William Roache was listed as the world's longest-running soap actor. 2020s On 7 February 2020, with its 60th anniversary ten months away, Coronation Street aired its landmark 10,000th episode, the runtime of which was extended to 60 minutes. Producers stated that the episode would contain "a nostalgic trip down memory lane" and "a nod to its own past". A month later, ITV announced that production on the soap would have to be suspended, as the United Kingdom was put into a national lockdown due to the COVID-19 pandemic (see impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on television). After an 11-week intermission for all cast and crew members, filming resumed in June 2020. The episodes featured social distancing to adhere to the guidelines set by the British government, and it was confirmed that all actors over 70, as well as those with underlying health conditions, would not be allowed to be on set until it was safe to do so. This included Coronation Street veterans William Roache (Ken Barlow) at 88, Barbara Knox (Rita Tanner) at 87, Malcolm Hebden (Norris Cole) at 80 and Sue Nicholls (Audrey Roberts) at 76. It was deemed safe for Maureen Lipman (Evelyn Plummer) and David Neilson (Roy Cropper) to continue. By December, all cast members had returned to set, and on Wednesday 9 December 2020, the soap celebrated its 60th anniversary, with original plans for the episode forced to change due to COVID-19 guidelines. The anniversary week saw the conclusion of a long-running coercive control storyline that began in May 2019, with Geoff Metcalfe (Ian Bartholomew) abusing Yasmeen Nazir (Shelley King). The showdown, which resulted in the death of Geoff allowed social distancing rules to be relaxed on the condition that the crew members involved formed a social bubble prior to the filming. In late 2021, series producer Iain MacLeod announced that the original plans for the 60th anniversary would now take place in a special week of episodes in October 2021. On 12 October 2021, it was announced that Coronation Street would partake in a special crossover event involving 7 British soaps to promote the topic of climate change ahead of the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference. During the week, beginning from 1 November, social media clips featuring Liam Cavanagh (Jonny McPherson) and Amelia Spencer (Daisy Campbell) from Emmerdale, as well as Daniel Granger (Matthew Chambers) from Doctors were featured on the programme, while events from Holby City were also referenced. A similar clip featuring Maria Connor (Samia Longchambon) was also featured on EastEnders. In June 2024, ITV announced that Coronation Streets third longest-serving cast member, Helen Worth, had decided to leave the soap after fifty years of portraying Gail Platt. The character made her departure in December 2024. Following this, several other cast exits began to be confirmed, with a mixture of producers axing the characters and cast members deciding to quit. In what the Metro described as a "cast exodus", these have included Sue Cleaver leaving her long-term role as Eileen Grimshaw and Charlotte Jordan leaving her role as Daisy Midgeley, as well as Debbie Webster (Sue Devaney) and Craig Tinker (Colson Smith) being written out of the series. Characters Since 1960, Coronation Street has featured many characters whose popularity with viewers and critics has differed greatly. The original cast was created by Tony Warren, with the characters of Ena Sharples (Violet Carson), Elsie Tanner (Pat Phoenix) and Annie Walker (Doris Speed) as central figures. These three women remained with the show for at least 20 years, and became archetypes of British soap opera, often being emulated by other serials. Ena was the street's busybody, battle-axe and self-proclaimed moral voice. Elsie was the tart with a heart, who was constantly hurt by men in the search for true love. Annie Walker, landlady of the Rovers Return Inn, had delusions of grandeur and saw herself as better than the other residents. Coronation Street became known for the portrayal of strong female characters, including original cast characters like Ena, Annie and Elsie, and later Hilda Ogden (Jean Alexander), who first appeared in 1964; all four became household names during the 1960s. Warren's programme was largely matriarchal, which some commentators put down to the female-dominant environment in which he grew up. Consequently, the show has a long tradition of downtrodden husbands, most famously Stan Ogden (Bernard Youens) and Jack Duckworth (Bill Tarmey), husbands of Hilda and Vera Duckworth (Liz Dawn), respectively. Coronation Street's longest-serving character, Ken Barlow (William Roache) entered the storyline as a young radical, reflecting the youth of 1960s Britain, where figures like the Beatles, the Rolling Stones and the model Twiggy were to reshape the concept of youthful rebellion. Though the rest of the original Barlow family were killed off before the end of the 1970s, Ken, who for 27 years was the only character from the first episode remaining, has remained the constant link throughout the entire series. In 2011, Dennis Tanner (Philip Lowrie), another character from the first episode, returned to Coronation Street after a 43-year absence. Since 1984, Ken Barlow has been the show's only remaining original character. Emily Bishop (Eileen Derbyshire) had appeared in the series since January 1961, when the show was just weeks old, and was the show's longest-serving female character before she departed in January 2016 after 55 years. Rita Tanner (Barbara Knox) appeared on the show for one episode in December 1964, before returning as a full-time cast member in January 1972. She is currently the second longest-serving original cast member on the show. Roache and Knox are also the two oldest-working cast members on the soap at 92 and 91 years-old respectively. Stan and Hilda Ogden were introduced in 1964, with Hilda becoming one of the most famous British soap opera characters of all time. In a 1982 poll, she was voted fourth-most recognisable woman in Britain, after Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, Queen Elizabeth II and Diana, Princess of Wales. Hilda's best-known attributes were her pinny, hair curlers, and the "muriel" in her living room with three "flying" duck ornaments. Hilda Ogden's departure on Christmas Day 1987, remains the highest-rated episode of Coronation Street ever, with nearly 27,000,000 viewers. Stan Ogden had been killed off in 1984 following the death of actor Bernard Youens after a long illness which had restricted his appearances towards the end. Bet Lynch (Julie Goodyear) first appeared in 1966, before becoming a regular in 1970, and went on to become one of the most famous Corrie characters. Bet stood as the central character of the show from 1985 until departing in 1995, often being dubbed as "Queen of the Street" by the media, and indeed herself. The character briefly returned in June 2002 and November 2003. Coronation Street and its characters often rely heavily on archetypes, with the characterisation of some of its current and recent cast based loosely on former characters. Phyllis Pearce (Jill Summers), Blanche Hunt (Maggie Jones) and Sylvia Goodwin (Stephanie Cole) embodied the role of the acid-tongued busybody originally held by Ena, Sally Webster (Sally Dynevor) has grown snobbish, like Annie, and a number of the programme's female characters, such as Carla Connor (Alison King), mirror the vulnerability of Elsie and Bet. Other recurring archetypes include the war veteran such as Albert Tatlock (Jack Howarth), Percy Sugden (Bill Waddington) and Gary Windass (Mikey North), the bumbling retail manager like Leonard Swindley (Arthur Lowe), Reg Holdsworth (Ken Morley) and Norris Cole (Malcolm Hebden), quick-tempered, tough tradesmen like Len Fairclough (Peter Adamson), Jim McDonald (Charles Lawson), Tommy Harris (Thomas Craig) and Owen Armstrong (Ian Puleston-Davies), and the perennial losers such as Stan and Hilda, Jack and Vera, Les Battersby (Bruce Jones), Beth Tinker (Lisa George) and Kirk Sutherland (Andrew Whyment). Villains are also common character types, such as Tracy Barlow (Kate Ford), Alan Bradley (Mark Eden), Jenny Bradley (Sally Ann Matthews), Rob Donovan (Marc Baylis), Frank Foster (Andrew Lancel), Tony Gordon (Gray O'Brien), Caz Hammond (Rhea Bailey), Richard Hillman (Brian Capron), Greg Kelly (Stephen Billington), Will Chatterton (Leon Ockenden), Nathan Curtis (Christopher Harper), Callum Logan (Sean Ward), Karl Munro (John Michie), Pat Phelan (Connor McIntyre), David Platt (Jack P. Shepherd), Maya Sharma (Sasha Behar), Kirsty Soames (Natalie Gumede), John Stape (Graeme Hawley), Geoff Metcalfe (Ian Bartholomew) and Gary Windass (Mikey North). The show's former archivist and scriptwriter Daran Little disagreed with the characterisation of the show as a collection of stereotypes. "Rather, remember that Elsie, Ena and others were the first of their kind ever seen on British television. If later characters are stereotypes, it's because they are from the same original mould. It is the hundreds of programmes that have followed which have copied Coronation Street." Storylines Many topical issues have been tackled on Coronation Street, such as rape, including male and marital, historic sexual abuse, underage pregnancy, transgender issues, the right to die, racism, coercive control, cancer, homosexuality, domestic abuse, child grooming, and suicide, among others. Key storylines have included: Mike and Deirdre's affair (1983), the death of Brian Tilsley (1989), Alan Bradley's abuse of Rita (1989), Kevin and Natalie's affair (1997), Deirdre’s wrongful imprisonment for fraud (1998), Sarah Platt's underage pregnancy (2000), Toyah's rape (2001), Alma's cancer (2001), Richard Hillman's serial killer storyline (2002–2003), Peter Barlow's bigamy (2003), Kevin and Molly's affair (2009), Kirsty's abuse of Tyrone (2012), Hayley's cancer (2013), Faye's underage pregnancy (2015), Bethany's grooming (2017), David's rape (2018), Aidan's suicide (2018), Sinead's diagnosis with cervical cancer (2019), Yasmeen's abuse (2020), Daisy's stalking hell (2023), Paul's MND (2023), Liam's bullying and suicidal thoughts (2023), Lauren's disappearance and possible murder (2024), and Mason’s death from knife crime (2025). Production Broadcast format Studio 2 in 1960.]] Between 9 December 1960 and 3 March 1961, Coronation Street was broadcast twice weekly, on Wednesday and Friday. When the programme went fully networked on 6 March 1961, broadcast days changed to Monday and Wednesday. The last regular episode to be shown live was broadcast on 3 February 1961. The series was transmitted in black and white for the majority of the 1960s. Preparations were made to film episode 923, to be transmitted Wednesday 29 October 1969, in colour. This installment featured the street's residents on a coach trip to the Lake District. In the end, suitable colour film stock for the cameras could not be found and the footage was shot in black and white. The following episode, transmitted Monday 3 November, was videotaped in colour but featured black and white film inserts and title sequence. Like BBC1, the ITV network was officially broadcast in black and white at this point (though programmes were actually broadcast in colour as early as July that year for colour transmission testing and adjustment) so the episode was seen by most in black and white. The ITV network, like BBC1, began full colour transmissions on 15 November 1969. Daran Little, for many years the official programme archivist, claims that the first episode to be transmitted in colour was episode 930 shown on 24 November 1969. In October 1970, a technicians' dispute turned into the Colour Strike when sound staff were denied a pay rise given to camera staff the year before for working with colour recording equipment. The terms of the work-to-rule were that staff refused to work with the new equipment (though the old black and white equipment had been disposed of by then) and therefore programmes were recorded and transmitted in black and white, including Coronation Street. The dispute was resolved in early 1971 and the last black and white episode was broadcast on 10 February 1971, although the episodes transmitted on 22 and 24 February 1971 had contained black and white location inserts. From 22 March 2010, Coronation Street was produced in 1080/50i for transmission on HDTV platforms on ITV HD. The first transmission in this format was episode 7351 on 31 May 2010 with a new set of titles and re-recorded theme tune. On 26 May 2010 ITV previewed the new HD titles on the Coronation Street website. Due to copyright reasons only viewers residing in the UK could see them on the ITV site. On 24 January 2022, ITV announced that as part of an overhaul of their evening programming, Coronation Street would permanently air as three 60-minute episodes per week from March 2022 onwards. This is set to change again in 2026. It was confirmed that half an hour of content would be dropped from the schedule. Another change was the timeslot, with the soap instead set to air every weekday at 8:30pm for 30 minutes. ITV's Managing Director of Media and Entertainment Kevin Lygo explained: "research insights show us that soap viewers are increasingly looking to the soaps for their pacey storytelling. Streaming-friendly, 30 minute episodes better provide the opportunity to meet viewer expectations for storyline pace, pay-off and resolution."Production staff ''Coronation Street's'' creator, Tony Warren, wrote the first 13 episodes of the programme in 1960, and continued to write for the programme intermittently until 1976. He later became a novelist, Harry Kershaw was the script editor for Coronation Street when the programme began in 1960, working alongside Tony Warren. Kershaw was also a script writer for the programme and the show's producer between 1962 and 1971. He remains the only person, along with John Finch, to have held the three posts of script editor, writer and producer. Adele Rose was Coronation Street<nowiki/>'s first female writer and the show's longest-serving writer, completing 455 scripts between 1961 and 1998. She also created Byker Grove. Rose also won a BAFTA award in 1993 for her work on the show. he was renowned for his tough, uncompromising style and was feared by both crew and cast alike. He is known for sacking Peter Adamson, the show's Len Fairclough, in 1983. Iain MacLeod is the current series producer. Michael Apted, known for the Up! series of documentaries, was a director on the programme in the early 1960s. This period of his career marked the first of his many collaborations with writer Jack Rosenthal. Rosenthal, noted for such television plays as Bar Mitzvah Boy, began his career on the show, writing over 150 episodes between 1961 and 1969. Paul Abbott was a story editor on the programme in the 1980s and began writing episodes in 1989, but left in 1993 to produce Cracker, for which he later wrote, before creating his own dramas such as Touching Evil and Shameless. Russell T Davies was briefly a storyliner on the programme in the mid-1990s, also writing the script for the direct-to-video special "Viva Las Vegas!" Jimmy McGovern also wrote some episodes. Theme music The show's theme music, a cornet piece, accompanied by a brass band plus clarinet and double bass, reminiscent of northern band music, was written by Eric Spear. The original theme tune was called "Lancashire Blues" and Spear was paid a £6 commission in 1960 to write it. The identity of the trumpeter was not public knowledge until 1994, when jazz musician and journalist Ron Simmonds revealed that it was the Surrey musician Ronnie Hunt. He added, "an attempt was made in later years to re-record that solo, using Stan Roderick, but it sounded too good, and they reverted to the old one." In 2004, the Manchester Evening News published a contradictory story that a young musician from Wilmslow called David Browning had played the original version. However, after investigating further, his story was found to be false, Browning not knowing that the original trumpet player Ronnie Hunt was still alive, proving that he was the true and rightful player that performed the solo. With his union pay stubs and contract, Browning was proven false. A new, completely re-recorded version of the theme tune replaced the original when the series started broadcasting in HD on 31 May 2010. It accompanied a new montage-style credits sequence featuring images of Manchester and Weatherfield. A reggae version of the theme tune was recorded by The I-Royals and released by Media Marvels and WEA in 1983. Viewing figures Episodes in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, regularly attracted figures of between 18 and 21 million viewers, and during the 1990s and early 2000s, 14 to 16 million per episode would be typical. Like most terrestrial television in the UK, a decline in viewership has taken place and the show posts an average audience of just under 9 million per episode , remaining one of the highest rated programmes in the UK. EastEnders and Coronation Street have often competed for the highest rated show. The episode that aired on 2 January 1985, in which Bet Lynch (Julie Goodyear) finds out she has got the job as manager of the Rovers Return, is the highest-rated single episode in the show's history, attracting 21.40 million viewers. The 25 December 1987 episode, where Hilda Ogden (Jean Alexander) leaves the street to start a new life as a housekeeper for long-term employer Dr Lowther, attracted a combined audience of 26.65 million for its original airing and omnibus repeat on 27 December 1987. This is the second-highest combined rating in the show's history. The show attracted its highest-ever combined rating of 26.93 million for the episode that aired on 15 (and 19) March 1989, where Rita Fairclough (Barbara Knox) is in hospital and Alan Bradley (Mark Eden) is hiding from the police after trying to kill Rita in the previous episode. By the 2020s viewing figures dropped due to increased competition from streaming services and satellite channels, with the usually high-rated Christmas episode being viewed by only 2.6 million households in 2023, However, these figures are based on overnight ratings and do not include viewing via ITV's "catch-up" streaming service. Between 1960 and 1968, street scenes were transmitted/taped before a set constructed in a studio, with the house fronts reduced in scale to 3/4 and constructed from wood. In 1968 Granada built an outside set not all that different from the interior version previously used, with the wooden façades from the studio simply being erected on the new site. In 1982, a permanent full-street set was built in the Granada backlot, an area between Quay Street and Liverpool Road in Manchester. The set was constructed from reclaimed Salford brick. Between 1989 and 1999, the Granada Studios Tour allowed members of the public to visit the set. The exterior set was extended and updated in 1999. This update added to the Rosamund Street and Victoria Street façades, and added a viaduct on Rosamund Street. Most interior scenes are shot in the adjoining purpose-built studio. In 2014, production moved to a new site at Trafford Wharf, a former dock area about two miles to the east, part of the MediaCityUK complex. The Trafford Wharf backlot is built upon a former truck stop site next to the Imperial War Museum North. It took two years from start to finish to recreate the iconic Street. The houses were built to almost full scale after previously being three-quarter size. On 5 April 2014, the staff began to allow booked public visits to the old Quay Street set. An advert, with a voiceover from Victoria Wood, appeared on TV to advertise the tour. The tour was discontinued in December 2015. On 12 March 2018, the extension of the Victoria Street set was officially unveiled. The new set featured a garden, featuring a memorial bench paying tribute to the 22 victims of the Manchester Arena bombing, including Coronation Street "super fan" Martyn Hett. The precinct includes a Greater Manchester Police station called Weatherfield Police station. As part of a product placement deal between three companies and ITV Studios, new additions include a tram stop station which is named Weatherfield North with Transport for Greater Manchester Metrolink branding, while shop front facades of Costa Coffee and the Weatherfield branded Co-op Food store interior scenes have been screened. Exterior scenes at the new set first aired on 20 April 2018. On 20 April 2018, ITV announced that they had been granted official approval of planning permission to allow booked public visits to the MediaCityUK Trafford Wharf set. Tours commenced on weekends from 26 May 2018 onwards. The set was further expanded in March 2022, with the addition of the Weatherfield Precinct, which took six months to build, and was inspired by Salford. The new section of the set included a two-storey construction featuring maisonettes, a staircase and balcony leading to the properties, a piazza and an array of shops and units.BroadcastUnited KingdomFor 60 years, Coronation Street has remained at the centre of ITV's prime time schedule. The programme is currently shown in the UK in three hour-long episodes, over three evenings a week on ITV in the 8 pm time slot - Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays. Additional episodes have been broadcast at other times, such as between 22 and 26 November 2004, when eight episodes were shown including three 10pm outings. These late night episodes allowed for more graphic content when ‘Mad’ Maya (Maya Sharma) sought her revenge on Dev Alahan and Sunita Alahan. From Friday 9 December 1960 until Friday 3 March 1961, the programme was shown in two episodes broadcast on Wednesday and Friday at 7 pm. A second Monday episode was introduced in 2002 and was broadcast at 8:30 pm to usher in the return of Bet Lynch. The Monday 8:30 pm episode was used intermittently during the popular Richard Hillman storyline and became a regular feature from episode 5568 on Monday 25 August 2003. In January 2008, ITV axed the Sunday episode, and instead aired a second episode on Fridays, at 8:30 pm, with the final Sunday episode airing on 6 January 2008, though some episodes thereafter continued to air occasionally on Sundays, usually for when an episode was displaced from one of its regular slots by a live football match. From 23 July 2009 to September 2012 the Wednesday show was replaced with an episode at 8:30 pm on Thursdays. A sixth weekly episode was added on Wednesdays at 8:30 pm from 20 September 2017. Simultaneously, the announcement also mentioned that the elderly cast of the show would be "written off" due to health advice issued by Public Health England and the NHS. On 22 March, ITV released a statement confirming that filming of both Coronation Street and Emmerdale was suspended. In June 2020, ITV announced that filming would resume on 9 June. However, due to the new health and safety measures, cast members over the age of 70 or with underlying health conditions did not come back on set, until the production could determine it is safe for them to return. In July 2020, ITV announced that Coronation Street would return to the normal output of six episodes a week in September that year. In October 2020, Maureen Lipman and David Neilson made their first appearances since July that year, as all cast members over the age of 70 had temporarily left the series earlier in the year. William Roache, Barbara Knox and Sue Nicholls returned in December. On 22 January 2021, ITV announced that filming would be suspended from 25 January in order to rewrite "stories and scripts as a consequence of the coronavirus pandemic" and to "review all health and safety requirements". ITV also confirmed that this decision would not affect their ability to deliver six episodes a week. In January 2022, it was announced that after 60 years in the 7.30 pm slot, Coronation Streets transmission time would move to 8pm due to the ITV Evening News having a longer duration, pushing Emmerdale into the 7.30 pm slot on weeknights. The double-bill episodes on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays have merged into hour-long slots on these days. The new scheduling went live on Monday 7 March 2022.Repeats and classic episodes Repeat episodes, omnibus broadcasts and specials have been shown on various ITV channels. After several years on ITV2, in January 2008 the omnibus returned to the main ITV channel, where it was aired on Saturday mornings or afternoons, depending on the schedule and times. In May 2008, it moved to Sunday mornings, until August 2008, when it returned to Saturdays. In January 2009, it moved back to Sunday mornings, usually broadcasting at around 9.25am until December 2010. In January 2011, the omnibus moved to Saturday mornings on ITV at 9.25am. During the Rugby World Cup, which took place in New Zealand, matches had to be broadcast on a Saturday morning, so the omnibus moved to Saturday lunchtimes/afternoons during September and October 2011. On 22 October 2011, the omnibus moved back to Saturday mornings at 9.25am on ITV. In January 2012, the omnibus moved to ITV2, and then moved to ITV3 in January 2020. In January 2022, the omnibus moved back to ITV2. Older episodes were broadcast by satellite and cable channel Granada Plus from its launch in 1996. The first episodes shown were from episode 1588 (originally transmitted on Monday 5 April 1976) onwards. Originally listed and promoted as Classic Coronation Street, the "classic" was dropped in early 2002, at which stage the episodes were from late 1989. By the time of the channel's closure in 2004, the repeats had reached February 1994. In addition to this, "specials" were broadcast on Saturday afternoons in the early years of the channel, with several episodes based on a particular theme or character(s) shown. The last episode shown in these specials was from 1991. In addition, on 27 and 28 December 2003, several Christmas Day editions of the show were broadcast. ITV3 began airing afternoon timeslot sequential reruns of Classic Coronation Street from 2 October 2017. Two classic episodes were retransmitted from Mondays to Fridays at 2:40 pm until 3:45 pm, starting from episode 2587 (originally transmitted on Wednesday 15 January 1986) onwards. To mark the 60th anniversary of Coronation Street, between 7 and 11 December 2020 at 10:00 pm–11:05 pm, ITV3 aired special episodes of the soap including Episode 1, the tenth anniversary episode from December 1970, two episodes from the twentieth anniversary in December 1980, two episodes from the thirtieth anniversary in December 1990, the 2000 live episode from the fortieth anniversary in December 2000, and the fiftieth anniversary episode which aired after a repeat of The Road to Coronation Street. On Easter Monday 2022, to commemorate the upcoming 90th birthday of William Roache, eight special Coronation Street Ken Barlow episodes were aired on 18 April 2022, at 10:25 am–2:35 pm. The episodes shown were Episode 1 from December 1960, Ken and Deirdre Tie the Knot from July 1981, ''Ken's Affair from December 1989, Deirdre's Fling from January 2003, Steve and Karen's Wedding Shocker from February 2004, Ken and Deirdre's Second Wedding from April 2005, Ken and Deirdre's Holiday from August 2014, and Deirdre's Death from July 2015.International broadcast Coronation Street is shown in various countries worldwide. YouTube has the first episode and many others available as reruns. The programme was first aired in Australia in 1963 on TCN-9 Sydney, GTV-9 Melbourne and NWS-9 Adelaide, and by 1966 Coronation Street was more popular in Australia than in the UK. The show eventually left free-to-air television in Australia. It briefly returned to the Nine Network in a daytime slot during 1994–1995. In 2005, STW-9 Perth began to show episodes before the 6 pm news to improve the lead in to Nine News Perth, but this did not work and the show was cancelled a few months later. In 1996, pay-TV began and Arena began screening the series in one-hour instalments on Saturdays and Sundays at 6:30 pm EST. The series was later moved to pay-TV channel UKTV (now BBC UKTV), where it is still shown. Coronation Street is shown Mon-Thu at 7:20 pm EST and a double episode on Fridays, with episodes on the channel being one week behind UK broadcast. In Canada, Coronation Street'' is broadcast on CBC Television. Until 2011, episodes were shown in Canada approximately 10 months after they aired in Britain; however, beginning in the fall of 2011, the CBC began showing two episodes every weekday, in order to catch up with the ITV showings, at 6:30 pm and 7 pm local time Monday-Friday, with an omnibus on Sundays at 7.30am. By May 2014, the CBC was only two weeks behind Britain, so the show was reduced to a single showing weeknights at 6:30 pm local time. The show debuted on Toronto's CBLT in July 1966. The 2002 edition of the Guinness Book of Records recognises the 1,144 episodes sold to the now-defunct CBC-owned Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, TV station CBKST by Granada TV on 31 May 1971 to be the largest number of TV shows ever purchased in one transaction. The show traditionally aired on weekday afternoons in Canada, with a Sunday morning omnibus. In 2004, CBC moved the weekday airings from their daytime slot to prime time. In light of austerity measures imposed on the CBC in 2012, which includes further cutbacks on non-Canadian programming, one of the foreign shows to remain on the CBC schedule is Coronation Street, according to the CBC's director of content planning Christine Wilson, who commented: "Unofficially I can tell you Coronation Street is coming back. If it didn't come back, something would happen on Parliament Hill." Kirstine Stewart, the head of the CBC's English-language division, once remarked: "Coronation Street fans are the most loyal, except maybe for curling viewers, of all CBC viewers." and then on TV One, which broadcasts it in a 4-episode/2-hour block on Fridays from 7:30 pm. In September 2014, TV One added a 2-episode/1-hour block on Saturday from 8:30 pm. Because TV One did not upgrade to showing the equivalent of five or six episodes per week, New Zealand continued to fall further and further behind with episodes, and was 23 months behind Britain as of March 2014. During the weekday nights of the week ending 11 April 2014 and previous weeks, Coronation Street was the least watched programme on TV One in the 7:30 pm slot by a considerable margin in comparison to other weeknights, The serial aired on Tuesdays and Thursdays at 7:30 pm until October 2011, when the show moved to a 5:30 pm half-hour slot every weekday. The move proved unpopular with fans, and the series was quickly moved into its present prime-time slot within weeks. Episodes 7883, 7884, 7885 and 7886 were screened on 16 May 2014. These were originally aired in the UK between 4 and 11 June 2012. On 10 May 2018 it was announced that the current 2016 episodes would be moved to 1 p.m. Monday-Friday titled 'Catch-up Episodes' and for primetime Wednesday-Friday express episodes would be airing in New Zealand a week behind the United Kingdom titled '2018 Episodes' these changes would be taking place from 11 June 2018. In South Africa, Coronation Street episodes were broadcast three days after the UK air date on ITV Choice until the channel ceased broadcasting in June 2020, episodes temporarily went off the air until they moved to M-Net City, starting in October 2020. In the United States, Coronation Street is available by broadcast or cable only in northern markets where CBC coverage from Canada overlaps the border or is available on local cable systems. It was broadcast on CBC's US cable channel, Trio until the CBC sold its stake in the channel to Universal, before it was shut down in 2006. Beginning in 2009, episodes were available in the United States through Amazon.com's on-demand service, a month behind their original UK airdates. The final series of shows available from Amazon appears to be from November 2012, as no new episodes have been uploaded. On 15 January 2013, online distributor Hulu began airing episodes of the show, posting a new episode daily, two weeks after their original airdates. For a time, Hulu's website stated: "New episodes of Coronation Street will be unavailable as of April 7th, 2016", with the same being said for British soap Hollyoaks, but Hulu is once again showing new episodes of Coronation Street as of April 2017, two weeks behind the UK airdate. The BBC/ITV service Britbox shows new episodes on the same day as the UK airing. Coronation Street was also shown on USA Network for an unknown period starting in 1982. HM Forces and their families stationed overseas can watch Coronation Street on ITV, carried by the British Forces Broadcasting Service, which is also available to civilians in the Falkland Islands. It used to be shown on BFBS1. Satellite channel ITV Choice showed the programme in Asia, Middle East, Cyprus, and Malta, before the channel ceased broadcasting in 2019.Merchandise The Street, a magazine dedicated to the show, was launched in 1989. Edited by Bill Hill, the magazine contained a summary of recent storylines, interviews, articles about classic episodes, and stories that occurred from before 1960. The format was initially A5 size, expanding to A4 from the seventh issue. The magazine folded after issue 23 in 1993 when the publisher's contract with Granada Studios Tour expired and Granada wanted to produce their own magazine. On 25 June 2010, a video game of the show was released on Nintendo DS. The game was developed by Mindscape, and allowed players to complete tasks in the fictitious town of Weatherfield.DiscographyIn 1995, to commemorate the programme's 35th anniversary, a CD titled The Coronation Street Album was released, featuring cover versions of modern songs and standards by contemporary cast members. The album charted a Top 40 hit when "The Coronation Street Single" (a double a-side featuring a cover of Monty Python's "Always Look on the Bright Side of Life" by Bill Waddington – with various cast members on backing vocals – on one side and "Something Stupid" by Johnny Briggs & Amanda Barrie on the other) reached number 35 in the Official UK charts. In 2010, an album featuring songs sung by cast members was released to celebrate 50 years of Coronation Street. The album is titled Rogues, Angels, Heroes & Fools, and was later developed into a musical.Spin-offsTelevisionGranada launched one spin-off in 1965, Pardon the Expression, following the story of clothing store manager Leonard Swindley (Arthur Lowe) after he left Weatherfield. Swindley's management experience was tested when he was appointed assistant manager at a fictional department store, Dobson and Hawks. Granada produced two series of the spin-off, which ended in 1966. In 1967, Arthur Lowe returned as Leonard Swindley in Turn Out the Lights, a short-lived sequel to Pardon the Expression. It ran for just one series of six episodes before it was cancelled. In 1972, Neville Buswell and Graham Haberfield starred as Ray Langton and Jerry Booth in a pilot for a potential spin-off series called Rest Assured. Written and produced by H.V. Kershaw the pilot had an episode title of Lift Off, and featured Fred Feast (later cast as Fred Gee in Coronation Street) as the lift engineer. No series was commissioned. From 1985 to 1988, Granada TV produced a sitcom called The Brothers McGregor featuring a pair of half-brothers (one black, one white) who had appeared in a single episode of Coronation Street as old friends of Eddie Yeats and guests at his wedding. The original actors were unavailable so the characters were recast with Paul Barber and Philip Whitchurch. The show ran for 26 episodes over four series. In 1985, a sister series, Albion Market, was launched. It ran for one year, with 100 episodes produced. Crossovers In 2010, several actors from the show appeared on The Jeremy Kyle Show as their soap characters: David Platt (Jack P. Shepherd), Nick Tilsley (Ben Price), Tina McIntyre (Michelle Keegan) and Graeme Proctor (Craig Gazey). In the fictional, semi-improvised scenario, David accused Nick (his brother) and Tina (his ex-girlfriend) of sleeping together. Coronation Street and rival soap opera EastEnders had a crossover for Children in Need in November 2010 called "East Street". EastEnders stars that visited Weatherfield include Laurie Brett as Jane Beale, Charlie G. Hawkins as Darren Miller, Kylie Babbington as Jodie Gold, Nina Wadia as Zainab Masood and John Partridge as Christian Clarke. On 21 December 2012, Coronation Street produced a Text Santa special entitled A Christmas Corrie which featured Norris Cole in the style of Scrooge, being visited by the ghosts of dead characters. The ghosts were Mike Baldwin, Maxine Peacock, Derek Wilton and Vera Duckworth. Other special guests include Torvill and Dean, Lorraine Kelly and Sheila Reid. The episode concluded with Norris learning the error of his ways and dancing on the cobbles. The original plan for this feature was to have included Jack Duckworth, along with Vera, but actor Bill Tarmey died before filming commenced. In the end a recording of his voice was played. Documentaries Coronation Street: Family Album was several documentaries about various families living on the street. "Farewell ..." was several documentaries featuring the best moments of a single character who had recently left the series—most notably, Farewell Mike (Baldwin), Farewell Vera (Duckworth), Farewell Blanche (Hunt), Farewell Jack (Duckworth), Farewell Janice (Battersby), Farewell Liz (McDonald), Farewell Becky (McDonald), and Farewell Tina (McIntyre). Most of these were broadcast on the same day as the character's final scenes in the series. Stars on the Street was aired around Christmas 2009. It featured actors from the soap talking about the famous guest stars who had appeared in the series including people who were in it before they were famous. In December 2010, ITV made a few special programmes to mark the 50th anniversary. Coronation Street Uncovered: Live, hosted by Stephen Mulhern was shown after the episode with the tram crash was aired on ITV2. On 7 and 9 December, a countdown on the greatest Corrie moments, Coronation Street: 50 Years, 50 Moments, the viewers voted "The Barlows at Alcoholics Anonymous" as the greatest moment. On 10 December Paul O'Grady hosted a quiz show, Coronation Street: The Big 50 with three teams from the soap and a celebrity team answering questions about Coronation Street and other soaps. Also, Come Dine with Me and Celebrity Juice aired Coronation Street specials in the anniversary week. International adaptation The German TV series Lindenstraße took Coronation Street as the model. Lindenstraße started in 1985 and broadcast its final episode on 29 March 2020, after airing for nearly 35 years. Films Over the years, Coronation Street has released several straight-to-video films. Unlike other soaps, which often used straight-to-video films to cover more contentious plot lines that may not be allowed by the broadcaster, Coronation Street has largely used these films to reset their characters in other locations. In 1995, Coronation Street: The Cruise also known as Coronation Street: The Feature Length Special was released on VHS to celebrate the 35th anniversary of the show, featuring Rita Sullivan, Mavis Wilton, Alec Gilroy, Curly Watts and Raquel Watts. ITV heavily promoted the programme as a direct-to-video exclusive, but broadcast a brief version of it on 24 March 1996. The Independent Television Commission investigated the broadcast, as viewers complained that ITV misled them. In 1997, following the controversial cruise spin-off, Coronation Street: Viva Las Vegas! was released on VHS, featuring Vera Duckworth, Jack Duckworth, Fiona Middleton and Maxine Peacock on a trip to Las Vegas, which included the temporary return of Ray Langton. In 1999, six special episodes of Coronation Street were produced, following the story of Steve McDonald and Vikram Desai in Brighton, which included the temporary returns of Bet Gilroy, Reg Holdsworth and Vicky McDonald. This video was titled Coronation Street: Open All Hours and released on VHS. In 2008, ITV announced filming was to get underway for a new special DVD episode, Coronation Street: Out of Africa, featuring Kirk Sutherland, Fiz Brown, Chesney Brown, which included the temporary return of Cilla Battersby-Brown. Sophie Webster, Becky Granger and Tina McIntyre also make brief appearances. In 2009, another DVD special, Coronation Street: Romanian Holiday, was released. The feature-length comedy drama followed Roy, Hayley and Becky as they travelled to Romania for the wedding of a face from their past. Eddie Windass also briefly appears. The BBC commissioned a one-off drama called The Road to Coronation Street, about how the series first came into being. Jessie Wallace plays Pat Phoenix (Elsie Tanner) with Lynda Baron as Violet Carson (Ena Sharples), Celia Imrie as Doris Speed (Annie Walker) and James Roache as his own father William Roache (Ken Barlow). It was broadcast on 16 September 2010 on BBC Four. On 1 November 2010, ''Coronation Street: A Knight's Tale'' was released. Reg Holdsworth and Curly Watts returned in the film. Mary tries to take Norris to an apparently haunted castle where she hoped to seduce him. Rosie gets a job there and she takes Jason with her. Brian Capron also guest starred as an assumed relative of Richard Hillman. He rises out of a lake with a comedic "wink to the audience" after Hillman drowned in 2003. Rita Sullivan also briefly appears. Online On 21 December 2008, a web-based miniseries ran on ITV.com; called Corrie Confidential; the first episode featured the characters Rosie and Sophie Webster in Underworld. ITV.com launched a small spin-off drama series called 'Gary's Army Diaries' which revolves around Gary Windass's experiences in Afghanistan and the loss of his best friend, Quinny. Due to their popularity, the three five-minute episodes were recut into a single 30-minute episode, which was broadcast on ITV2. William Roache and Anne Kirkbride starred as Ken and Deirdre in a series of ten three-minute internet 'webisodes'. The first episode of the series titled, ''Ken and Deirdre's Bedtime Stories'' was activated on Valentine's Day 2011. In 2011, an internet based spin-off starring Helen Flanagan as Rosie Webster followed her on her quest to be a supermodel called Just Rosie. On 3 February 2014, another web-based miniseries ran on ITV.com; called Streetcar Stories. It showed what Steve and Lloyd get up to during the late nights in their Streetcar cab office. The first episode shows Steve and Lloyd making a cup of tea with "The Stripper" playing in the background, referencing Morecambe and Wise's Breakfast Sketch. The second episode involves the pair having a biscuit dunking competition. During the 'Who Attacked Ken' storyline, a mini series of police files was run on the official Coronation Street YouTube channel. They outlined the suspects' details and possible motives. Stage In August 2010, many Coronation Street characters were brought to the stage in Jonathan Harvey's comedy play Corrie!. The play was commissioned to celebrate the 50th Anniversary of the TV series and was presented at The Lowry in Salford, England by ITV Studios and Phil McIntyre Entertainments. Featuring a cast of six actors who alternate roles of favourite characters including Ena Sharples, Hilda Ogden, Hayley and Roy, Richard Hillman, Jack and Vera, Bet Lynch, Steve, Karen and Becky, the play weaves together some of the most memorable moments from the TV show. It toured UK theatres between February 2011 and July 2011 with guest star narrators including Roy Barraclough, Ken Morley and Gaynor Faye. In popular culture The British rock band Queen produced a single "I Want to Break Free" in 1984 that reached number 3 in the UK Singles Chart. The song is memorable for its music video in which the band members dressed in women's clothing, which parodied characters in Coronation Street and is considered an homage to the show. The video depicts Freddie Mercury as a housewife, loosely based on Bet Lynch, who wants to "break free" from his life. Although Lynch was a blonde in the soap opera, Mercury thought he would look too silly as a blonde and chose a dark wig. Guitarist Brian May plays another, more relaxed housewife based on Hilda Ogden. In December 2022, the American singer Bob Dylan was offered a cameo on Coronation Street after revealing to The Wall Street Journal that he is a fan of the ITV soap.SponsorshipCadbury was the first sponsor of Coronation Street, beginning in July 1996. In the summer of 2006, Cadbury Trebor Bassetts had to recall over one million chocolate bars, due to suspected salmonella contamination, and Coronation Street stopped the sponsorship for several months. In 2006, Cadbury did not renew their contract, but agreed to sponsor the show until Coronation Street found a new sponsor. Harveys then sponsored Coronation Street from 30 September 2007 until December 2012. In the Coronation Street: Romanian Holiday film, Roy and Hayley Cropper are filmed in front of a Harveys store, and in Coronation Street: A Knights Tale, a Harveys truck can be seen driving past Mary Taylor's motorhome. Compare The Market took over as sponsor from 26 November 2012 until 30 November 2020. On 10 December 2020, it was announced that Argos would be the new sponsor of Coronation Street, starting on 1 January 2021. In November 2011, a Nationwide Building Society ATM in Dev Alahan's corner shop became the first use of paid-for product placement in a UK primetime show. In 2018, the shop fronts of Co-Op and Costa Coffee were added to the sets, along with characters using shopping bags with the respective logos on as props. aired on Virgin Media One. {\| class="wikitable" \|- style="background:b0c4de; text-align:center;" ! Year ! Title ! Country \|- \| 1996–2007 \| Cadbury's \| rowspan=3\|UK \|- \| 2007–2012 \| Harvey's \|- \| 2012–2020 \| Compare the Market \|- \| 2015–present \| Hyundai \| Republic of Ireland \|- \| 2021–present \| Argos \| UK \|} Awards and nominations Footnotes Print references * * * * * * * * * * * * Video and DVD references * This Is Coronation Street, Dir: John Black (DVD) Acorn Media Publishing, 2003 * Coronation Street: Secrets, Dir: John Black (DVD) Morningstar Entertainment, 2004 * Coronation Street: Early Days, (Video) Granada Media Group, 2001 * Coronation Street: The Jubilee Years, (Video) Granada Media Group, 1985 * Coronation Street: The Magic of, (Video) Granada Media Group, 1985 External links <!-- Please do not add links to fan sites here, they are considered spam. Also, do not add Facebook or Twitter, see WP:ELPEREN --> * * * Category:1960 British television series debuts Category:1960s British television soap operas Category:1970s British television soap operas Category:1980s British television soap operas Category:1990s British television soap operas Category:2000s British television soap operas Category:2010s British television soap operas Category:2020s British television soap operas Category:Television shows about alcohol abuse Category:BAFTA winners (television series) Category:Black-and-white British television shows Category:British Soap Award for Best British Soap winners Category:British television soap operas Category:British English-language television shows Category:Fictional streets and roads Category:History of Manchester Category:ITV soap operas Category:Social realism Category:Television shows produced by Granada Television Category:Television series by ITV Studios Category:Television shows set in Greater Manchester Category:Television productions suspended due to the COVID-19 pandemic Category:Television series impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronation_Street	2025-04-05T18:27:58.978769
6852	Caligula	\| issue = \| full name = \| regnal name Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus<!--Not a repository; full name as Roman emperor, no dates.--> \| dynasty = Julio-Claudian \| father = Germanicus \| mother = Agrippina }} Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (31 August 12 – 24 January 41), also called Gaius and Caligula (), was Roman emperor from AD 37 until his assassination in 41. He was the son of the Roman general Germanicus and Augustus' granddaughter Agrippina the Elder, members of the first ruling family of the Roman Empire. He was born two years before Tiberius became emperor. Gaius accompanied his father, mother and siblings on campaign in Germania, at little more than four or five years old. He had been named after Gaius Julius Caesar, but his father's soldiers affectionately nicknamed him "Caligula" ('little boot').}} Germanicus died in Antioch in 19, and Agrippina returned with her six children to Rome, where she became entangled in a bitter feud with Emperor Tiberius, who was Germanicus' biological uncle and adoptive father. The conflict eventually led to the destruction of her family, with Caligula as the sole male survivor. In 26, Tiberius withdrew from public life to the island of Capri, and in 31, Caligula joined him there. Tiberius died in 37, and Caligula succeeded him as emperor, at the age of 24. Of the few surviving sources about Caligula and his four-year reign, most were written by members of the nobility and senate, long after the events they purport to describe. For the early part of his reign, he is said to have been "good, generous, fair and community-spirited" but increasingly self-indulgent, cruel, sadistic, extravagant and sexually perverted thereafter. Described there as an insane, murderous tyrant who demanded and received worship as a living god, humiliated the Senate, and planned to make his horse a consul, most modern commentaries instead seek to explain Caligula's position, personality and historical context. Some historians dismiss many of the allegations against him as misunderstandings, exaggeration, mockery or malicious fantasy. During his brief reign, Caligula worked to increase the unconstrained personal power of the emperor, as opposed to countervailing powers within the principate. He directed much of his attention to ambitious construction projects and public works to benefit Rome's ordinary citizens, including racetracks, theatres, amphitheatres, and improvements to roads and ports. He began the construction of two aqueducts in Rome: the Aqua Claudia and the Anio Novus. During his reign, the empire annexed the client kingdom of Mauretania as a province. He had to abandon an attempted invasion of Britain, and the installation of his statue in the Temple in Jerusalem. In early 41, Caligula was assassinated as a result of a conspiracy by officers of the Praetorian Guard, senators, and courtiers. At least some of the conspirators might have planned this as an opportunity to restore the Roman Republic and aristocratic privileges. If so, their plan was thwarted by the Praetorians, who seem to have spontaneously chosen Caligula's uncle Claudius as the next emperor. Caligula's death marked the official end of the Julii Caesares in the male line, though the Julio-Claudian dynasty continued to rule until the demise of Caligula's nephew, the Emperor Nero. Early life Caligula was born in Antium on 31 August AD 12, the third of six surviving children of Germanicus and his wife and second cousin, Agrippina the Elder. Germanicus was a grandson of Mark Antony, and Agrippina was the daughter of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia the Elder, making her the granddaughter of Augustus. The future emperor Claudius was Caligula's paternal uncle. Caligula had two older brothers, Nero and Drusus, and three younger sisters, Agrippina the Younger, Julia Drusilla and Julia Livilla. At the age of two or three, he accompanied his father, Germanicus, on campaigns in the north of Germania. He wore a miniature soldier's outfit devised by his mother to please the troops, including army boots (caligae) and armour. The soldiers nicknamed him Caligula ("little boot"). Winterling believes he would have enjoyed the attention of the soldiers, to whom he was something of a mascot, though he later grew to dislike the nickname. '', after which the name Caligula derived. This piece was excavated near Xanten, where Caligula was stationed with his parents during military campaigns in Germania]] Germanicus was a respected, immensely popular figure among his troops and Roman civilians of every class, and was widely expected to eventually succeed his uncle Tiberius as emperor. For his successful northern campaigns, he was awarded the great honour of a triumph. During the triumphal procession through Rome, Caligula and his siblings shared their father's chariot, and the applause of the populace. A few months later, Germanicus was despatched to tour Rome's allies and provinces with his family. They were received with great honour; at Assos Caligula gave a public speech, aged only 6. Somewhere en route, Germanicus contracted what proved to be a fatal illness. He lingered awhile, and died at Antioch, Syria, in AD 19, aged 33, convinced that he had been poisoned by the provincial governor, Gnaius Calpurnius Piso.}} Many believed that he had been killed at the behest of Tiberius, as a potential rival. Germanicus was cremated, and his ashes were taken to Rome, escorted by his wife and children, Pretorian guards, civilian mourners and senators, then placed in the Mausoleum of Augustus. Caligula lived with his mother Agrippina in Rome, in a milieu very different from that of his earlier years. Agrippina made no secret of her imperial ambitions for herself and her sons, and in consequence, her relations with Tiberius rapidly deteriorated. Tiberius believed himself under constant threat from treason, conspiracy and political rivalry. He forbade Agrippina to remarry, for fear that a remarriage would serve her personal ambition, and introduce yet another threat to himself. The last years of his principate were dominated by treason trials, whose outcomes were determined by senatorial vote. Agrippina, and Caligula's brother Nero, were tried and banished in the year 29 on charges of treason. The adolescent Caligula was sent to live with his great-grandmother (Tiberius' mother), Livia. After her death two years later, he was sent to live with his grandmother Antonia Minor. In the year 30, Tiberius had Caligula's brothers, Drusus and Nero, declared public enemies by the Senate, and exiled. Caligula and his three sisters remained in Italy as hostages of Tiberius, kept under close watch. Capri In 31, Caligula's brother Nero died in exile. Caligula was remanded to the personal care of Tiberius at Villa Jovis on Capri. on Capri, where Caligula grew up at the court of Tiberius]] He was befriended by Tiberius' Praetorian prefect, Naevius Sutorius Macro. Macro had been active in the downfall of Sejanus, his ambitious and manipulative predecessor in office, and was a trusted communicant between the emperor, and his senate in Rome. Philo, Jewish diplomat and later witness to several events in Caligula's court, writes that Macro protected and supported Caligula, allaying any suspicions Tiberius might harbour concerning his young ward's ambitions. Macro represented Caligula to Tiberius as "friendly, obedient" and devoted to Tiberius' grandson, Tiberius Gemellus, who was seven years younger than himself. Caligula is described during this time as a first-rate orator, well-informed, cultured and intelligent, a natural actor who recognized the danger he was in, and hid his resentment of Tiberius' maltreatment of himself and his family behind such an obsequious manner that it was said of him that there had never been "a better slave or a worse master". Caligula's failure to protest the destruction of his family is taken by Tacitus as evidence that his "monstrous character was masked by a hypocritical modesty". Winterling observes that a forthright protest would "certainly have cost him his life". In 33, Caligula's mother and his brother Drusus died, while still in exile. In the same year, Tiberius arranged the marriage of Caligula and Junia Claudilla, daughter of one of Tiberius' most influential allies in the Senate, Marcus Junius Silanus. Caligula was given an honorary quaestorship in the , a series of political promotions that could lead to consulship. He would hold this very junior senatorial post until his sudden nomination as emperor. Junia died in childbirth the following year, along with her baby. In 35, Tiberius named Caligula as joint heir with Tiberius' grandson, Gemellus, who was Caligula's junior by seven years and not yet an adult. At the time, Tiberius seemed to be in good health, and likely to survive until Gemellus' majority. In Philo's account, Tiberius was genuinely fond of Gemellus, but doubted his personal capacity to rule and feared for his safety should Caligula come to power. Suetonius claims that Tiberius, ever mistrustful but still shrewd in his mid-70s, saw through Caligula's apparent self-possession to an underlying "erratic and unreliable" temperament, not one to be trusted in government; and he claims that Caligula took pleasure in cruelty, torture, and sexual vice of every kind. Tiberius is said to have indulged the young man's appetite for theatre, dance and singing, in the hope that this would help soften his otherwise savage nature; "he used to say now and then that to allow Gaius to live would prove the ruin of himself and of all men, and that he was rearing a viper for the Roman people and a Phaethon for the world." Winterling points out that this judgment draws on later, not particularly accurate accounts of Caligula's rule; Suetonius credits Tiberius with a knowledge of human nature which in reality was not only foreign to him, but famously unsound. At Capri, Caligula learned to dissimulate. He probably owed his life to that and, as all the ancient sources agree, to Macro.}} Many believed, or claimed to believe, that given a little more time, Tiberius would have eliminated Caligula as a possible successor, but died before this could be done. Emperor Early reign , 1647.]] Tiberius died on 16 March AD 37, a day before the Liberalia festival. He was 77 years old. Suetonius, Tacitus and Cassius Dio repeat variously elaborated rumours which held that Caligula, perhaps with Macro, was directly responsible for his death. Philo and Josephus, the latter a Romano-Jewish writer who served Vespasian a generation later, describe Tiberius' death as natural. On the same day, Caligula was hailed as emperor by members of the Praetorian guard at Misenum. His leadership of the domus Caesaris ("Caesar's household") as its sole heir and pater familias was ratified by the senate, who acclaimed him imperator two days after the death of Tiberius. Caligula entered Rome on 28 or 29 March, and with the consensus of "the three orders" (senate, equestrians and common citizens) the Senate conferred on him the "right and power to decide on all affairs". Princeps In a single day, and with a single piece of legislation, the 25-year-old Caligula, previously a virtual unknown in Rome's political life, and with no military service, was thus granted the same trappings, authority and powers that Augustus had accumulated piecemeal, over a lifetime and sometimes reluctantly. Until his first formal meeting with the Senate, Caligula refrained from using the titles they had granted him. His studied deference must have gone some way to reassure the more astute that he should prove amenable to their guidance. Some must have resented the political manipulations that led to this extraordinary settlement. Caligula was now entitled to make, break or ignore any laws he chose. Augustus had shown, and Tiberius had failed to realise, that the roles of primus inter pares ("first among equals") and princeps legibus solutus ("a princeps not bound by the laws") required the exercise of personal responsibility, self-restraint, and above all, tact; as if the Senate still held the power they had voluntarily surrendered. In the words of scholar Anthony A. Barrett, "Caligula would be restrained only by his own sense of discretion, which became in lamentably short supply as his reign progressed". Caligula dutifully asked the Senate to approve divine honours for his predecessor but was turned down, in line with senatorial and popular opinion regarding the dead emperor's worth. Caligula did not push the issue; he had made the necessary gesture of filial respect. Tiberius' will named two heirs, Caligula and Gemellus, but the latter was still a minor, and could not hold any kind of office. The will was annulled with the standard justification that Tiberius must have been insane when he composed it, incapable of good judgment. Although Tiberius' will had been legally set aside, Caligula honoured many of its terms, and in some cases, improved on them. Tiberius had provided each praetorian guardsman with a generous gratitude payment of 500 sesterces. Caligula doubled this, and took credit for its payment as an act of personal generosity; he also paid bonuses to the city troops and the army outside Italy. }} Every citizen in Rome was given 150 sesterces, and heads of households twice that amount. Building projects on the Palatine hill and elsewhere were also announced, which would have been the largest of these expenditures. Thanks to Macro's preparations on his behalf, Caligula's accession was a "brilliantly stage-managed affair". The legions had already sworn loyalty to Caligula as their imperator. Now Caligula gave the miserly Tiberius a magnificent funeral at public expense, and a tearful eulogy, and met with an ecstatic popular reception along the funeral route and in Rome itself. Among Caligula's first acts as emperor was the provision of public games on a grand scale. Philo describes Caligula in these early days as universally admired. Suetonius writes that Caligula was loved by many, for being the beloved son of the popular Germanicus. Three months of public rejoicing ushered in the new reign. Philo describes the first seven months of Caligula's reign as a "Golden Age" of happiness and prosperity. Josephus claims that in the first two years of his reign, Caligula's "high-minded... even-handed" rule earned him goodwill throughout the Empire. Caligula took up his first consulship on 1 July, two months after his succession. He accepted all titles and honours offered him except pater patriae ("father of the fatherland"), which had been conferred on Augustus. Caligula refused it, protesting his youth, until 21 September 37. He commemorated his own father, Germanicus, with portraits on coinage, adopted his name, and renamed the month of September after him. He granted his sisters and his grandmother Antonia Minor extraordinary privileges, normally reserved for the Vestals, and female priesthoods of the deified Augustus; their powers were entirely ceremonial, not executive, but their names were included in the standard formulas used in the senate house to invoke divine blessings on debates and proceedings, and the annual prayers for the safety of emperor and state. Caligula named his favourite sister, Drusilla, as heir to his imperium. Oaths were sworn in the name of Caligula, and his entire family. One of his sesterces not only identifies each sister by name, but associates her with a particular imperial virtue; "security", "concord" or "fortune". Caligula ordered that an image of his deceased mother, Agrippina, must accompany all festival processions. He made his uncle Claudius his consular colleague, tasked with siting statues of Caligula's two dead brothers, and occasionally standing in for Caligula at games, feasts and ceremonies. Claudius' own family found his limp and stammer "something of a public embarrassment"; he mismanaged the statue commission and his first consulship ended soon after, alongside Caligula's but his appointment elevated him from mere equestrian to senator, and eligible for consulship. Barrett and Yardley describe Claudius' consulship as an "astonishingly enlightened gesture" on Caligula's part, not one of Caligula's attempts to court popularity, as Suetonius would have it. Caligula made a public show of burning Tiberius' secret papers, which gave details of his infamous treason trials. They included accusations of villainy and betrayal against various senators, many of whom had willingly assisted in prosecutions of their own number to gain financial advantage, imperial favour, or to divert suspicion away from themselves; any expression of dissatisfaction with the emperor's rule or decisions could be taken as undermining the State, and lead to prosecution for maiestas (treason). Caligula claimed – falsely, as it later turned out – that he had read none of these documents before burning them. He used a coin issue to advertise his claim that he had restored the security of the laws, which had suffered during Tiberius' prolonged absence from Rome; he reduced a backlog of court cases in Rome by adding more jurors and suspending the requirement that sentences be confirmed by imperial office. Stressing his descent from Augustus, Caligula retrieved the remains of his mother and brothers from their places of exile for interment in the Mausoleum of Augustus. Caligula began work on a temple to Livia, widow of Augustus; she held the honorific title of Augusta while still living, and when she died was eventually made a diva (goddess) of the Roman state under Claudius. The temple had been vowed in her lifetime, but not constructed. Illness and recovery Between approximately mid-October and mid-November 37, Caligula fell seriously ill through unknown causes and hovered for a month or so between life and death. Rome's public places filled with citizens who implored the gods for his recovery, some even offering their own lives in exchange. By late October, their emperor had recovered, and embarked on what might have been a purge of suspected opponents or conspirators. Caligula's relations with his senate had been congenial but were now sullied by the forced suicide, for reasons unknown, of the eminent senator Silanus, formerly Caligula's father-in-law. Gemellus, Caligula's adopted son and heir, now 18 years old and legally adult, was also disposed of. Suetonius offers several versions of Gemellus' death. In one, Gemellus was given the adult toga virilis then charged with having taken an antidote, "implicitly accusing Caligula of wanting to poison him", and forced to kill himself. Several months later, in early 38, Caligula forced suicide on his Praetorian Prefect, Macro, without whose help and protection he would not have survived, let alone gained the throne as sole ruler. Any link between the deaths is speculative, but it is possible that Silanus had conspired to make Gemellus emperor, should Caligula fail to recover; and Caligula might simply have tired of Macro's control and influence. In 38, Caligula nominated Marcus Aemilius Lepidus as his heir, and married him to his beloved sister Drusilla, but on 19 June that year, Drusilla died. She was deified and renamed Panthea ("All Goddesses"); the first mortal woman in Roman history to be made a diva (goddess of state). Caligula, bereft, declared a period of compulsory, universal mourning. Drusilla's death is one of several events approximate to the time of Caligula's illness, besides the death of Antonia and any unreported effects of the illness itself, thought by some to contribute to a fundamental change in Caligula's attitudes. Purges so early in Caligula's reign suggest to Weidemann that "the new emperor had learnt a great deal from Tiberius" and "that attempts to divide his reign into a 'good' beginning followed by unremitting atrocities [...] are misplaced".Public profileCaligula shared many of the popular passions and enthusiasms of the lower classes and young aristocrats: public spectacles, particularly gladiator contests, chariot and horse racing, the theatre and gambling, but all on a scale which the nobility could not match. He trained with professional gladiators and staged exceptionally lavish gladiator games, being granted exemption by the senate from the sumptuary laws that limited the number of gladiators to be kept in Rome. He was openly and vocally partisan in his uninhibited support or disapproval of particular charioteers, racing teams, gladiators and actors, shouting encouragement or scorn, sometimes singing along with paid performers or declaiming the actors' lines, and generally behaving as "one of the crowd". In gladiator contests, he supported the parmularius type, who fought using small, round shields. In chariot races, he supported the Greens, and personally drove his favourite racehorse, Incitatus ("Speedy") as a member of the Green faction. Most of Rome's aristocracy would have found this an unprecedented, unacceptable indignity for any of their number, let alone their emperor. Caligula showed little respect for distinctions of rank, status or privilege among the senate, whose members Tiberius had once described as "men ready to be slaves". Among those whom Caligula recalled from exile were actors and other public performers who had somehow caused Tiberius offence. Caligula seems to have built a loyal following among his own loyal freedmen, citizen-commoners, disreputable public performers on whom he lavished money and other gifts; and the lower nobility (equestrians) rather than the senators and nobles whom he clearly and openly mistrusted, despised and humiliated for their insincere simulations of loyalty. Dio notes, with approval, that Caligula allowed some equestrians senatorial honours, anticipating their later promotion to senator based on their personal merits. To reverse declining membership of the equestrian order, Caligula recruited new, wealthy members empire-wide, and scrupulously vetted the order's membership lists for signs of dishonesty or scandal. He seems to have ignored trivial misdemeanours, and would have anticipated the creation of "new men" (novi homines), first of their families to serve as senators. They would owe him a debt of gratitude and loyalty for their advancement. Barrett describes some of the supposed equestrian offences punished by Caligula as "decidedly trivial", and their punishments as sensationalist. Dio claims that Caligula had more than 26 equestrians executed in a circus "fracas"; in Suetonius' biography "more than 20" lives were lost in what is almost certainly the same event, described as a violent but accidental crush. Some sources claim that Caligula forced equestrians and senators to fight in the arena as gladiators. Condemnation to the gladiator arena as a combatant was a standard punishment, doubling as public entertainment, for non-citizens found guilty of certain offences. Laws of AD 19 by Augustus and Tiberius banned voluntary participation of the elite in any public spectacles, but the ban was never particularly effective, and was broadly ignored in Caligula's reign. During Caligula's illness two citizens, one of whom was an equestrian, offered to fight as gladiators if only the gods would spare the emperor's life. The offers were insincere, intended to flatter and invite reward. When Caligula recovered, he insisted that they be taken at face value, to avoid accusations of perjury: "cynical, but not without wit of a kind". Public reform and finance celebrating the abolition of a tax in AD 38 by Caligula. The obverse of the coin contains a picture of a Pileus which symbolizes the liberation of the people from the tax burden. Caption: caesar divi / , }}.]] In 38, Caligula lifted censorship, and published accounts of public funds and expenditure. Suetonius congratulates this as the first such act by any emperor.}} Very soon after his succession, he restored the right of the popular assembly (comitia) to elect magistrates on behalf of the common citizenry, a right that had been taken over by the Senate under Tiberius and Augustus. The aediles, elected officials who managed public games and festivals, and maintained the fabric of roads and shrines, would now have incentive to spend their own money on lavish, high-profile spectacles and other munera (gifts to the state or people), to win the popular vote. Dio writes that this, "though delighting the rabble, grieved the sensible, who stopped to reflect, that if the offices should fall once more into the hands of the many... many disasters would result". When the Senate outright refused to accept this, Caligula restored control of elections to them. Either way, the emperor ultimately chose which candidates stood for election, and which were elected. Caligula was quite capable of recognising his own plans and decisions as flawed, and abandoning, revising or reversing them when faced with opposition. He was open to good advice, but could just as easily take its offering as an insult to his youth or understanding – Philo quotes his warning "Who dares teach me?" Caligula abandoned his plan to convert the Temple of Jerusalem to a temple of the Imperial cult, with a statue of himself as Zeus, when warned that the plan would arouse extreme protests, and injure the local economy. }} He gave funds where they were needed; he helped those who lost property in fires, and abolished a deeply unpopular tax on sales, but whether his extravagant gifts to favourites during his earliest reign – be they actors, charioteers or other public performers – drew on his personal wealth or state coffers is not known. Personal generosity and magnanimity, coupled with discretion and responsibility, were expected of the ruling elite, and the emperor in particular. At some time, Caligula ruled that bequests to office-holders remain property of the office, not of the office-holder. Tax and treasury Suetonius claims that Caligula squandered 2.7 billion sesterces in his first year and addressed the consequent treasury deficit by confiscating the estates of wealthy individuals, after false accusations, fines or outright seizure, even the death penalty, as a means of raising money. This seems to have started in earnest around the time of Caligula's confrontation with the senate (in early 39). Suetonius's retrospective balance sheet overlooks what would have been owed to Caligula, personally and in his capacity as emperor, on Tiberius' death, and the release of the former emperor's hoarded wealth into the economy at large. Caligula's inheritance included the deceased empress Livia's vast bequest, which Caligula distributed among its nominated public, private and religious beneficiaries. Barrett in Caligula: The Abuse of Power asserts that this "massive cash injection would have given the Roman economy a tremendous boost". Dio remarks the beginnings of a financial crisis in 39, and connects it to the cost of Caligula's extravagant bridge-building project at Baiae. Suetonius has presumably the same financial crisis starting in 38; he does not mention a bridge but lists a broad range of Caligula's extravagances, said to have exhausted the state treasury. To Wilkinson, Caligula's uninterrupted use of precious metals in coin issues does not suggest a bankrupt treasury, though there must have been a blurring of boundaries between Caligula's personal wealth, and his income as head of state. Caligula's immediate successor, Claudius, abolished taxes, embarked on various costly building projects and donated 15,000 sesterces to each Praetorian Guard in 41 as his own reign began, which suggests that Caligula had left him a solvent treasury. In the long term, the occasional windfall aside, Caligula's spending exceeded his income. Fund-raising through taxation became a major preoccupation. Provincial citizens were liable for direct payment of taxes used to fund the military, a payment from which Italians were exempt. Caligula abolished some taxes, including the deeply unpopular sales tax, but he introduced an unprecedented range of new ones, and rather than employ professional tax farmers (publicani) in their collection, he made this a duty of the notoriously forceful Praetorian Guard. Dio and Suetonius describe these taxes as "shameful": some were remarkably petty. Caligula taxed "taverns, artisans, slaves and the hiring of slaves", edibles sold in the city, litigation anywhere in the Empire, weddings or marriages, the wages of porters "or perhaps couriers", and most infamously, a tax on prostitutes (active, retired or married) or their pimps, liable for "a sum equivalent to a single transaction". Citizens of provincial Italy lost their previous tax exemptions. Most individual tax bills were fairly small but cumulative; over Caligula's brief reign, taxes were doubled overall. Even then, the revenue was nowhere near enough, and the imposition was deeply resented by Rome's commoners. Josephus claims that this led to riotous protests at the Circus. Barrett remarks that stories of consequent "mass executions" there by the military should "almost certainly" be dismissed as "standard exaggeration". Property or money left to Tiberius as emperor but not collected on his death would have passed to Caligula as office-holder. Roman inheritance law recognised a legator's obligation to provide for his family; Caligula seems to have considered his fatherly duties to the state entitled him to a share of every will from pious subjects. The army was not exempt; centurions who left nothing or too little to the emperor could be judged guilty of ingratitude, and have their wills set aside. Centurions who had acquired property by plunder were forced to turn over their spoils to the state. Stories of a brothel in the Imperial palace, staffed by Roman aristocrats, matrons and their children, are taken literally by Suetonius and Dio; McGinn believes they could be based on a single incident, extended to an institution in the telling. Similar allegations would be made in the future against Commodus and Elagabalus. Winterling, citing Dio 59.28.9, traces the outline of the story to Cassius Dio's account for AD 40, and his allegation that the noble tenants of newly built suites of rooms at the palace were compelled to pay exorbitant rents for the privilege of living so close to Caligula, and under the protection of the praetorians. No brothel is mentioned in this account. Suetonius appears to reverse the traditional aristocratic client-patron ceremonies of mutual obligation, and have Caligula accepting payments for maintenance from his loyal consular "friends" at morning salutations, evening banquets, and bequest announcements. The sheer numbers of "friends" involved meant that meticulous records were kept of who had paid, how much, and who still owed. His agents would then visit the very same consuls who had been involved in conspiracies against him, rail against the Senate's treachery en masse but ask for "gifts" from individuals to express their loyal friendship in return. A refusal was unthinkable. Winterling describes the families who occupied these rooms as hostage, under the supervision of the Praetorians; some paid up willingly, some reluctantly, but all paid. Caligula made loans available at high interest to those who lacked the necessary funds, to complete the humiliation of Rome's elite, especially the old Republican families. Despite his biographers' attempts to ridicule Caligula's taxes, many were continued after his death. The military remained responsible for all tax collection, and the tax on prostitution continued up to the reign of Severus Alexander. Caligula's ruling that bequests made to any reigning emperor became property of his office, not himself as a private individual, was made constitutional under Antoninus Pius. Coinage Caligula did not change the structure of the monetary system established by Augustus and continued by Tiberius, but the contents of his coinage differed from theirs. The location of the imperial mint for the coins of precious metals (gold and silver) is a matter of debate among ancient numismatists. It seems that Caligula initially produced his precious coins from Lugdunum (now Lyon, France), like his predecessors, then moved the mint to Rome in 37–38, although it is possible that this move occurred later, under Nero. His base metal coinage was struck in Rome. Unlike Tiberius, whose coins remained almost unchanged throughout his reign, Caligula used a variety of types, mostly featuring Divus Augustus, as well as his parents Germanicus and Agrippina, his dead brothers Nero and Drusus, and his three sisters Agrippina, Drusilla, and Livilla. The reason for the extensive emphasis on his relatives was to highlight Caligula's double claim to the Principate, from both the Julian and Claudian sides of the dynasty, and to call for the unity of the family. The sesterce with his three sisters was discontinued after 39, due to Caligula's suspicion regarding their loyalty. He also made a sesterce celebrating the Praetorian cohorts as a mean to give them the bequest of Tiberius at the beginning of his reign. Caligula minted a quadrans, a small bronze coin, to mark the abolition of the ducentesima, a 0.5% tax on sales. The output of the precious metal mints was small and his sesterces were mostly made in limited quantities, which make his coins now very rare. This rarity cannot be attributed to Caligula's alleged damnatio memoriae reported by Dio, as removing his coins from circulation would have been impossible; besides, Mark Antony's coins continued to circulate for two centuries after his death. Caligula's common coins are base metal types with Vesta, Germanicus, and Agrippina the Elder, and the most common is an as with his grandfather Agrippa. Finally, Caligula kept open the mint at Caesarea in Cappadocia, which had been created by Tiberius, in order to pay military expenses in the province with silver drachmae. Numismatists Harold Mattingly and Edward Sydenham consider that the artistic style of Caligula's coins is below those of Tiberius and Claudius; they especially criticize the portraits, which are too hard and lack details. Construction Caligula had a fondness for grandiose, costly building projects, many of which were intended to benefit or entertain the general population but are described in Roman sources as wasteful. In the city of Rome, he completed the temple of Augustus and the theatre of Pompey. He is said to have built a bridge between the temple of Castor and Pollux and the Capitol. }} Barrett (2015) believes that this bridge existed only in Suetonius' account, and should perhaps be dismissed as a fantasy, with possible origins in some jocular remark by Caligula. Caligula began an amphitheatre beside the Saepta Julia; he cleared the latter space for use as an arena, and filled it with water for a single naumachia (a sham naval battle fought as entertainment). He supervised the extension and rebuilding of the imperial palace to include a gallery for his art collection. Philo and his party were given a tour of the gallery during their diplomatic visit. Barrett (2015) considers Philo's description of Caligula as a "would-be connoisseur and aesthete" as "probably not very wide of the mark." To help meet Rome's burgeoning demand for fresh water, he began the construction of aqueducts Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus, which Pliny the Elder considered to be engineering marvels. He built a large racetrack, now known as the Circus of Gaius and Nero. In its central spine he incorporated an Egyptian obelisk, now known as the Vatican obelisk, which he had brought by sea on a gigantic, purpose-built ship, which used 120,000 modi of lentils as ballast. }} At Syracuse, he repaired the city walls and temples. He pushed to keep roads in good condition throughout the empire, and extended the existing network: to this end, Caligula investigated the financial affairs of current and past highway commissioners. Those guilty of negligence, embezzlement or misuse of funds were forced to repay what they had dishonestly used for other purposes, or fulfil their commissions at their own expense. Caligula planned to rebuild the palace of Polycrates at Samos, to finish the temple of Didymaean Apollo at Ephesus, and house his own cult and image there: and to found a city high up in the Alps. He intended to dig a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth in Greece and sent a chief centurion to survey the site. None of these plans came to fruition. Treason trials In the course of 39, Caligula's increasingly tense relationship with his Senate deteriorated into outright hostility and confrontation. This is one of Dio's more confusing accounts, involving conspiracies, denunciations and trials for treason (maiestas), following Caligula's launch of invective at the entire senate, reviewing and condemning their current and past behaviour. He accused them of servility, treachery and hypocrisy in voting honours to Tiberius and Sejanus while they lived, and rescinding those honours once their recipients were safely dead. He declared that it would be folly to seek the love or approval of such men: they hated him, and wanted him dead, so it would be better that they should fear him. Caligula's diatribes exposed the idealised princeps or First Senator as illusion and imposture. When the senate returned next day, they seemed to confirm his suspicions, and voted him a special guard of armed pretorians to protect him and guard his statues. Apparently seeking to please him and assure his safety, the Senate proposed that his senatorial chair be raised "on a high platform even in the very Senate house". They offered a thanksgiving to Caligula, as to a monarch, expressing gratitude for allowing them to live when others had died. Winterling suggests that Caligula's three subsequent consulships, sworn at the Rostra, were vain attempts to make amends, public statements of respect for the senators as his equals. Barrett perceives these later consulships as symbolic of Caligula's continued intention to dominate the senate and the state; }} Barrett describes the change in Caligula's rule as a gradual unravelling, a "descent into serious mismanagement and impenetrable mistrust" – and, latterly, into "arbitrary terror"; but Dio's claim that in fact, "there was nothing but slaughter" is undermined by evidence that most senators managed to survive Caligula's reign with their persons and fortunes intact. Caligula had not, after all, destroyed Tiberius' records of treason trials. He reviewed them and decided that numerous senators discharged from Tiberius' court hearings seemed to have been guilty of conspiracy all along, against emperor and state – the worst form of maiestas (treason). Tiberius' treason trials had encouraged professional delatores (informers), who were loathed by the populace, but many of the accused had testified against each other, and against Caligula's own family, even to the point of initiating the prosecutions themselves. If they had acted against Caligula's family, they might act against Caligula himself. New investigations were launched; Dio names five once-trusted, consular senators tried for maiestas, but his allegation that senators or others were put to death in "great numbers" is unsupported. Two of the five prospered under his rule, and beyond. Caligula preferred to publicly humiliate his enemies in the senate, especially those of ancient families, by stripping them of their inherited honours, dignities and titles. In early September, he dismissed the two suffect consuls, citing their inadequate, low-key celebration of his birthday (August 31) and excessive attention to the anniversary of Actium (September 2). This was the last battle in a damaging civil war between two of Caligula's close ancestors, which he found no cause for celebration. One of the dismissed consuls killed himself: Caligula may have suspected him of conspiracy. Incitatus Suetonius and Dio outline Caligula's supposed proposal to promote his favourite racehorse, Incitatus ("Swift"), to consul, and later, a priest of his own cult. This could have been an extended joke, created by Caligula himself in mockery of the senate. A persistent, popular belief that Caligula actually promoted his horse to consul has become "a byword for the promotion of incompetents", especially in political life. It may have been one of Caligula's many oblique, malicious or darkly humorous insults, mostly directed at the senatorial class, but also against himself and his family. Winterling sees it as an insult to the consulars themselves. An aristocrat's highest ambition, the consulship, could be laid open to ruinous competition and at the same time, to ridicule. David Woods believes it unlikely that Caligula meant to insult the post of consul, as he had held it himself. Suetonius, possibly failing to get the joke, presents it as further proof of Caligula's insanity, adding circumstantial details more usually expected of the senatorial nobility, including palaces, servants and golden goblets, and invitations to banquets. Bridge at Baiae In 39 or 40, by Suetonius' reckoning, Caligula ordered a temporary floating bridge to be built using a double line of ships as pontoons, earth-paved and stretching for over two miles from the resort of Baiae, near Naples, to the neighbouring port of Puteoli, with resting places between. Some ships were built on site but grain ships were also requisitioned, brought to site, secured and temporarily resurfaced. Any practical purpose for the bridge is unclear; Winterling believes that it might have been intended to mark Caligula's attempted invasion of Britain. A two-day ceremonial was performed, with offerings to the sea-god Neptune and Invidia (Envy), and a satisfactory result, in that the sea remained completely calm. The bridge was said to rival the Persian king Xerxes' pontoon bridge across the Hellespont. For the opening ceremony, Caligula donned the supposed breastplate of Alexander the Great, and rode his favourite horse, Incitatus, across the bridge, perhaps defying a prediction, attributed by Suetonius to Tiberius' soothsayer Thrasyllus of Mendes, that Caligula had "no more chance of becoming emperor than of riding a horse across the Bay of Baiae". On the second day, he rode the bridge from end to end several times "at full tilt", accompanied by the soldiery, famous nobles and hostages. Seneca and Dio claim that grain imports were dangerously depleted by Caligula's re-purposing of Rome's grain ships as pontoons. Barrett finds these accusations absurd; if the bridge was finished in 39, that was far too early to have had any effect on the annual grain supply, and "a genuine grain crisis was simply blamed on the most outlandish episode at hand." Dio places this episode soon after Caligula's furious denunciation of the Senate; Barrett speculates that Caligula may have intended the whole event as an object lesson on how completely he was in charge: it may also provide "the most striking example of his wasteful extravagance"; its pointlessness might have been the whole point. Provinces Judaea and Egypt Caligula's reign saw an increase of tensions between Jews native to their homeland of Judea, Jews of the diaspora, and ethnic Greeks. Greeks and Jews had settled throughout the Roman Empire and Judaea was ruled as a Roman client kingdom. Jews and Greeks had settled in Egypt following its conquest by Macedonian Greeks, and remained there after its conquest by Rome. While the Alexandrian Greeks held citizen status, Alexandrian Jews were classified as mere settlers, with no statutory or citizen rights other than those granted them by their Roman governors. The Greeks feared that official recognition of Jews as citizens would undermine their own status and privilege. Caligula had replaced the prefect of Egypt, Aulus Avilius Flaccus, with Herod Agrippa, who was governor of Batanaea and Trachonitis, and was a personal friend. Flaccus had conspired against Caligula's mother and had connections with Egyptian separatists. In 38, Caligula sent Agrippa to Alexandria unannounced to check on Flaccus. According to Philo, the visit was met with jeers and mockery from the Greek population who saw Agrippa as a gimcrack "king of the Jews.” In Philo's account, a mob of Greeks broke into synagogues to erect statues and shrines of Caligula, against Jewish religious law. Flaccus responded by declaring the Jews "foreigners and aliens", and expelled them from all but one of Alexandria's five districts, where they lived under dreadful conditions. Philo gives an account of various atrocities inflicted on Alexandria's Jews within and around this ghetto by the city's Greek population. Caligula held Flaccus responsible for the disturbances, exiled him, and eventually executed him. In 39, Agrippa accused his uncle Herod Antipas, the tetrarch of Galilee and Perea, of planning a rebellion against Roman rule with the help of Parthia. Herod Antipas confessed, Caligula exiled him, and Agrippa was rewarded with his territories. Riots again erupted in Alexandria in 40 between Jews and Greeks, when Jews who refused to venerate the emperor as a god were accused of dishonouring him. In the Judaean city of Jamnia, resident Greeks built a shoddy, sub-standard altar to the Imperial cult, intending to provoke a reaction from the Jews; they immediately tore it down. This was interpreted as an act of rebellion. In response, Caligula ordered the erection of a statue of himself in the Jewish Temple of Jerusalem, a political, rather than a religious act for Rome, but a blasphemy for the Jews, and in conflict with Jewish monotheism. In this context, Philo wrote that Caligula "regarded the Jews with most especial suspicion, as if they were the only persons who cherished wishes opposed to his". In May of 40, Philo accompanied a deputation of Alexandrian Jews and Greeks to Caligula, and a second deputation after 31 August that year, during the worst of the Alexandrian riots. Neither of these encounters proved decisive. Both gave Caligula ample opportunity for casual, friendly banter, which seems to have included humiliating levity, always at the Jewish delegation's expense; but he made no claims of divinity, either in his dress nor his speech, merely asking at the second encounter, more or less rhetorically, why Jews found his veneration so difficult. Philo and Josephus each saw Caligula's behaviour as driven by his claims to divinity, which for a Jew would have virtually defined him as fundamentally insane, despite appearances otherwise. The ethnically Greek population of Alexandria had already made their loyalty to the new emperor clear, with displays of his image as focus for his cult. The destruction of the altar at Jamlia and, presumably, removal of "idolatrous" images placed in synagogues by Greek citizens, might have been intended as an expression of Jewish religious fervour, rather than a response aimed at one tyrant's offensive claims of personal godhood. Philo seems to have loathed Caligula from the start, but his belief that Caligula hated the Jews and was preparing their destruction has no basis in evidence. To place Caligula's statue in Temple precincts, showing him dressed as Jupiter, would have been consistent with the Empire-wide religious phenomenon known as Imperial cult, from whose full expression Jews had so far been exempted; they could offer prayer for the emperor, rather than to him; far from a perfect compromise but the highest honour that Jewish tradition permitted in honour of a mortal. Caligula found this most unsatisfactory, and demanded that his statue be installed in the Temple of Jerusalem forthwith. The Governor of Syria, Publius Petronius, ordered a statue from Sidon, then postponed its installation for as long he could, rather than risk a serious Jewish rebellion. In some versions, Caligula proved amenable to rational discussion with Agrippa and Jewish authorities, and faced with threats of rebellion, destruction of property and loss of the grain-harvest if the plan went ahead, abandoned the project. In more hostile versions Caligula, being demonstrably insane, and incapable of rational discussion, impulsively changed his mind once again, and reissued the order to Petronius along with the threat of enforced suicide if he failed. An even larger statue of Caligula-Zeus was ordered from Rome; the ship carrying it was still under way when news of Caligula's death reached Petronius. Caligula's plan was abandoned, Petronius survived and the statue was never installed. Philo reports a rumour that in 40, Caligula announced to the Senate that he planned to move to Alexandria, and rule the Empire from there as a divine monarch, a Roman pharaoh. Very similar rumours attended Julius Caesar's last days, up to his assassination and very much to his discredit. Caligula's ancestor Mark Antony took refuge in Egypt with Cleopatra, and Augustus had made it a so-called "Imperial province", under his direct control. It was the main source of Italy's grain supply, and was administered by members of the equestrian order, directly responsible to the ruling emperor. Egypt was, more or less, Caligula's property, to dispose of as he wished. Roman knowledge of pharaonic brother-sister marriages to maintain the royal bloodline would have shored up the many flimsy, scandalised allegations of adolescent incest between Caligula and Drusilla, supposedly discovered by Antonia but reported as rumour, and only by Suetonius. Barrett finds no further evidence for these allegations, and advises a skeptical attitude. Germany and the Rhine frontier In late 39 or early 40, Caligula ordered the concentration of military forces and supplies in upper Germany, and made his way there with a baggage train that supposedly included actors, gladiators, women, and a detachment of Praetorians. He might have meant to follow the paths of his father and grandfather, and attack the Germanic tribes along the upper Rhine; but according to ancient historians he was ill-prepared, and retreated in a panic. Modern historians, however, suppose that he had a valid political reason for his Germanic operation, and might even have been successful with that. But the exact locations and enemies of his campaign cannot be determined; possibilities include the Chatti in and around modern-day Hesse or the Suebi east of the Upper Rhine. The ancient sources report that Caligula used the opportunity of his operations in Germany to seize the wealth of rich allies whom he conveniently suspected of treason, "putting some to death on the grounds that they were 'plotting' or 'rebelling'". Caligula accused the Imperial legate, Gaetulicus, of "nefarious plots", and had him executed – according to Dio, he was killed for being popular with his troops. Lepidus, along with Caligula's two sisters, Agrippina and Livilla, was accused of being part of this conspiracy; he too was executed and Caligula's two sisters were exiled after being condemned pro forma for adultery. A senatorial embassy arrived from Rome, headed by Caligula's uncle Claudius, to congratulate the emperor for suppressing this latest conspiracy. It met with a hostile reception, in which Claudius was supposedly ducked in the Rhine (though this might have been the loser's award in a contest of Latin and Greek oratory held by Caligula in Gaul that winter). On Caligula's return from the north, he abandoned the theatre seating plans that Augustus had introduced so that rank alone would determine one's place. In the consequent free-for-all, seating was left to chance; doubtless to Caligula's pleasure, fights broke out as senators competed with common citizens for the best seats. Very late in his reign, possibly in its last few days, Caligula sent a communique in preparation for his imminent ovation in Rome, following his military activities in the North and his suppression of Lepidus. He announced that he would only be returning "to those who wanted him back"; to the "Equestrians and the People"; he did not mention the Senate or senators, of whom he had grown increasingly mistrustful.AuctionsIn late 39, Caligula wintered at Lugdunum (modern Lyon) in Gaul, where he auctioned off his sisters' portable property, including their jewellery, slaves and freedmen. Dio claims that wealthy bidders at these auctions were willing to offer far more than items were worth; some to show their loyalty, and others to rid themselves of some of the wealth that could render their execution worthwhile. Caligula is said to have used intimidation and various auctioneer's tricks and tactics to boost prices. In an event that Suetonius describes as "well known", a Praetorian gentleman, nodding off to sleep after a gladiator match, woke to find that he had bought 13 gladiators for the vastly over-inflated sum of 9 million sesterces. Caligula's first Lugdunum auction proved such a successful fundraiser that he had many of the furnishings of his palace in Rome carted to Lugdunum and auctioned off; they included many precious family heirlooms. Caligula recited their provenance during the auction, in an attempt to help ensure a fair return on objects intrinsically valuable, and seemingly much sought after by the wealthy for their Imperial associations. Income from this second auction was relatively moderate. Kleijwegt (1996) describes Caligula's performance as vendor and auctioneer at this second auction as "completely out of character with the image of a tyrant". Auctions of Imperial property were acceptable ways to "balance the books", practiced by Augustus and later, by Trajan; they were expected to benefit the bidders as well as the vendor; Roman auctioneers were held in very low esteem, but Kleijwegt claims that Caligula seems to have behaved more like a benevolent princeps in this second auction, without malice, greed or intimidation. Britannia In the spring of 40, Caligula tried to extend Roman rule into Britannia. Two legions had been raised for this purpose, both likely named Primigeniae in honour of Caligula's newborn daughter. Ancient sources depict Caligula as being too cowardly to have attacked or as mad, but stories of his threatening a decimation of his troops indicate mutinies. Broadly, "it is impossible to judge why the army never embarked" on the invasion. Beyond mutinies, it may have simply been that British chieftains acceded to Rome's demands, removing any justification for war. Alternatively, it could have been merely a training and scouting mission or a short expedition to accept the surrender of the British chieftain Adminius. Suetonius reports that Caligula ordered his men to collect seashells as "spoils of the sea"; this may also be a mistranslation of , meaning siege engines. The conquest of Britannia was later achieved during the reign of Caligula's successor, Claudius. Mauretania In 40, Caligula annexed Mauretania, a wealthy, strategically significant client kingdom of Rome, inhabited by fiercely independent semi-nomads who resisted Romanisation. Its ruler, Ptolemy of Mauretania, was a noble descendant of Juba II, popular, extremely wealthy and with a reputation as "feckless and incompetent". Ptolemy failed to deal effectively with an uprising and was removed. The usual fate of incompetent client kings was retirement and a comfortable exile, but Caligula ordered Ptolemy to Rome and had him executed, some time after the spring of 40. His removal proved unpopular enough in Mauretania to provoke an uprising. Rome divided Mauretania into two provinces, Mauretania Tingitana and Mauretania Caesariensis, separated by the river Malua. Pliny claims that division was the work of Caligula, but Dio states that the uprising was subdued in 42 (after Caligula's death), by Gaius Suetonius Paulinus and Gnaeus Hosidius Geta, and the division only took place after this. This confusion might mean that Caligula decided to divide the province, but postponed the division because of the rebellion. The first known equestrian governor of the joint provinces was Marcus Fadius Celer Flavianus, in office in 44. Details on the Mauretanian events of 39–44 are lost, including an entire chapter by Dio on the annexation. Dio and Tacitus suggest that Caligula may have been motivated by fear, envy, and consideration of his own ignominious military performance in the north, rather than pressing military or economic needs. The rebellion of Tacfarinas had shown how exposed Africa Proconsularis was to its west and how the Mauretanian client kings were unable to provide protection to the province, and it is thus possible that Caligula's expansion was a prudent and ultimately successful response to potential future threats. Religion , a personification of Rome]] According to Barrett, "[o]f all the manifestations of wild and extravagant behaviour exhibited by Caligula during his brief reign, nothing has better served to confirm the popular notion of his insanity than his apparent demand to be recognised as a god." Philo, Caligula's contemporary, claims that Caligula costumed himself as various heroes and deities, starting with demigods such as Dionysos, Herakles and the Dioscuri, and working up to major deities such as Mercury, Venus and Apollo. Philo describes these impersonations in a context of private pantomime or theatrical performances he may have witnessed or heard of during his diplomatic visit, as evidence that Caligula wanted to be venerated as a living god. Philo, as a Jew and a monotheist, took this as proof of the emperor's insanity. Caligula's impersonations had a precedent; Augustus had once thrown a party in which he and his guests dressed up as the Olympian gods; Augustus was made up and dressed as Apollo. No-one was thought insane in consequence, and none claimed to be the god they impersonated; but the event was not repeated. It showed near-blasphemous disrespect to the gods in question, and insensitivity to the population at large – the feast was staged during a famine. Coin issues of the official Roman mint, dated to the early 20s BC, show Octavian as Apollo, Jupiter and Neptune. This too may have been thought a transgression, and was not repeated. Caligula took his own impersonations less seriously than some, certainly less seriously than Philo did. According to Dio, when a Gallic shoemaker laughed to see Caligula dressed as Jupiter, pronouncing oracles at the crowd from a lofty place, Caligula asked "and who do you think I am?" The shoemaker answered "a complete idiot". Caligula seems to have appreciated his straightforward honesty. Dio claims that Caligula impersonated Jupiter to seduce various women; that he sometimes referred to himself as a divinity in public meetings; and that he was sometimes referred to as "Jupiter" in public documents. Caligula's special interest in Jupiter as Rome's chief deity is confirmed by all surviving sources. Simpson believes that Caligula may have considered Jupiter an equal, perhaps a rival. According to Ittai Gradel, Caligula's performances as various deities prove no more than a penchant for theatrical fancy-dress and a mischievous desire to shock; as emperor, Caligula was also pontifex maximus, one of Rome's most powerful and influential state priests. The promotion of mortal rulers to godlike status, to honour their superior standing and perceived merits, was a commonplace phenomenon among Rome's eastern allies and client states; during their eastern tour, Germanicus, Agrippina and their children, including Caligula, were officially received as living deities by several cities of the Greek East. In Roman culture a client could flatter their living patron as "Jupiter on Earth", without reprimand. }} The divi (deceased members of the Imperial family promoted to divine status) were creations of the Senate, who voted them into official existence, appointed their priesthood and granted them cult at state expense. Cicero could protest at the implications of Caesar's divine honours while living but address Publius Lentulus as parens ac deus (parent and god) to thank him for his help, as aedile, against the conspirator Catiline. Daily reverence was offered as a matter of course to patrons, heads of household and the powerful by their clients, families and social inferiors. In 30 BC, libation-offerings to the genius of Octavian (later Augustus) became a duty at public and private banquets, and from 12 BC, state oaths were sworn by the genius of Augustus as the living emperor. Notwithstanding Dio's claims that cult to living emperors was forbidden in Rome itself, there is abundant evidence of municipal cult to Augustus in his lifetime, in Italy and elsewhere, locally organised and financed. As Gradel observes, no Roman was ever prosecuted for sacrificing to his emperor. Caligula seems to have taken his religious duties very seriously. He found a replacement for the aged priest of Diana at Lake Nemi, reorganised the Salii (priests of Mars), and pedantically insisted that as it was nefas (religiously improper) for Jupiter's leading priest, the Flamen Dialis, to swear any oath, he could not swear the imperial oath of loyalty. }} Caligula wished to take over or share the half-finished but splendid Temple of Apollo in Greek Didyma for his own cult. Seemingly, his statue was prepared, but possibly not installed. When Pausanias visited the still-unfinished temple a century later, its cult statue was of Apollo. Suetonius and Dio mention a temple to Caligula in the city of Rome. Most modern scholarship agrees that if such a temple existed, it was probably on the Palatine. Augustus had already linked the Temple of Castor and Pollux directly to his imperial residence on the Palatine, and established an official priesthood of lesser magistrates, the seviri Augustales, usually drawn from his own freedmen to serve the genius Augusti (his "family spirit") and Lares (the twin ancestral spirits of his household). Dio claims that Caligula stationed himself to receive veneration, dressed as Jupiter Latiaris, between the images of Castor and Pollux, the twin Dioscuri, to whom he referred – humorously – as his doorkeepers. Dio's claim that two temples were built for Caligula in Rome, is unconfirmed. Simpson believes it likely that Caligula, voted a temple on the Palatine by the Senate, funded it himself. An embassy from Greek states to Rome greeted Caligula as the "new god Augustus". In the Greek city of Cyzicus, a public inscription from the beginning of Caligula's reign gives thanks to him as a "New Sun-god". Egyptian provincial coinage and some state dupondii show Caligula enthroned; the first reigning Roman princeps to be described as the "New Sun", () with the radiate crown of the Sun-god, or of Caligula's divine antecedent, the Augustus. Caligula's image on other state coinage carries no such "trappings of divinity". Compared to the full-blown cults to major deities of state, genius cults were quite modest in scope. Augustus, once deceased, was officially worshipped as a – immortal, but somewhat less than a full-blown deity; Tiberius, his successor, forbade his own personal cult outright in Rome itself, probably in consideration of Julius Caesar's assassination following his hubristic promotion as a living divinity. Augustus, and after him, Tiberius, insisted that if temples to honour them in the provinces were proposed by the local elite, they must be shared by the "genius of the Senate", or the personification of the Roman people, or the genius of Rome itself. Dio claims that Caligula sold priesthoods for his unofficial genius cult to the wealthiest nobles, for a per capita fee of 10 million sesterces, and made loans available to those who could not afford immediate full payment. His priests supposedly included his wife, Caesonia, and his uncle Claudius, whom Dio claims was bankrupted by the cost. The circumstances mark this out as private cult and personal humiliation among the wealthy elite, not subsidised by the Roman state. Throughout his reign, Caligula seems to have remained popular with the masses, in Rome and the empire. There is no sound evidence that he caused the removal, replacement or imposition of Roman or other deities, or even that he threatened to do so, outside the hostile anecdotes of his biographers. Barrett (2015) asserts that the "emphatic and unequivocal message of the material evidence is that Caligula had no desire for the world to identify him as a god, even if, like most people, he enjoyed being treated like one." He did not demand worship as a living god; but he permitted it when it was offered; Imperial etiquette, and the examples of Augustus and Tiberius, would have him refuse divine honours but thank those who offered them, inferring their status as equal to his. He seems to have taken his own genius cult very seriously but his fatal offense was to willfully "insult or offend everyone who mattered", including the military officers who assassinated him. Assassination and aftermath , between 1624 and 1703]] On 24 January 41, the day before his due departure for Alexandria, Caligula was assassinated by the Praetorian tribunes Cassius Chaerea and Cornelius Sabinus, and a number of centurions. Josephus names many of Caligula's inner circle as conspirators, and Dio seems to have had access to a senatorial version which purported to name many others. More likely, very few conspirators would have been involved, and not all need have been directly in touch with each other. The fewer who knew, the greater the chance of success. Previous attempts had foundered or faded out when faced with the rewards and risks of betrayal by colleagues, whether through torture, fear of torture or promised reward. The Senate was a disunited body of self-interested, wealthy and mistrustful aristocrats, unwilling to risk their own prospects, and determined to present a virtuous, united front. In Josephus' account of Caligula's assassination, Chaerea was a "noble idealist", deeply committed to "Republican liberties"; he was also motivated by resentment of Caligula's routine personal insults and mockery. Suetonius and all other sources confirm that Caligula had insulted Chaerea, giving him watchwords like the ribald "Priapus" or "Venus", the latter said to refer to Chaerea's weak, high voice, and either his soft-hearted attitude when collecting taxes, or his duty to collect the tax on prostitutes. He was also known to do Caligula's "dirty work" for him, including torture. Chaerea, Sabinus and others accosted Caligula as he addressed an acting troupe of young men beneath the palace during a series of games and dramatics being held for the Divus Augustus. The source details vary, but all agree that Chaerea was first to stab Caligula. The narrow space available offered little room for escape or rescue, and by the time Caligula's loyal Germanic guard could come to his defence, their Emperor was already dead. They killed several of Caligula's party, including some innocent senators and bystanders. The killing only stopped when the Praetorians took control. }} Josephus reports that the Senate tried to use Caligula's death as an opportunity to restore the Republic. This would have meant the abolition of the office of emperor, the end of dynastic rule, and restoration of the former social stature and privilege of nobles and senators. At least one senator, Lucius Annius Vinicianus, seems to have thought it an opportunity for a takeover. Some modern scholars believe he was the conspiracy's main instigator. Most ordinary citizens were taken aback by Caligula's murder, and found no cause to celebrate in losing the benefits of his rule. Almost all the named conspirators were from the elite. When Caligula's death was confirmed, the nobles and senators who had prospered through hypocrisy and sycophancy during his reign dared to claim prior knowledge of the plot, and share the credit for its success with their peers. Others sought to distance themselves from anything to do with it. The assassins, fearing continued support for Caligula's family and allies, sought out and murdered Caligula's wife, Caesonia, and their young daughter Julia Drusilla, but were unable to reach Caligula's uncle, Claudius. In the traditional account, a soldier, Gratus, found Claudius hiding behind a palace curtain. A sympathetic faction of the Praetorian Guard smuggled him out to their nearby camp, and nominated him as emperor. The Senate, faced with what now seemed inevitable, confirmed their choice. Caligula's "most powerful and universally feared adviser", the freedman Callistus, may have engineered this succession, having discreetly shifted his loyalty from Caligula to Claudius while Caligula lived. The killing of Caligula had been extralegal, tantamount to regicide, and those who carried it out had broken their oaths of loyalty to him. Claudius, as a prospective replacement for Caligula, could acknowledge his predecessor's failings but could not be seen to condone his murder, or find fault with the principate as an institution. Caligula had been popular with a clear majority of Rome's lesser citizenry, and the Senate could not afford to ignore the fact. Claudius appointed a new Praetorian prefect, and executed Chaerea, a tribune named Lupus, and the centurions involved. He allowed Sabinus to commit suicide. Claudius refused the Senate's requests to formally declare Caligula hostis (a public enemy), or condemn his memory (see damnatio memoriae). He also turned down a proposal to officially condemn all the Caesars and destroy their temples. Caligula's name was removed from the official lists of oaths and dedications; some inscriptions were removed or obliterated; most of his statues had the heads recut, to resemble Augustus, or Claudius, or in one case, Nero, who would suffer a similar fate. According to Suetonius, Caligula's body was placed under turf until it was burned and entombed by his sisters. Personal life Caligula's childhood health may have been delicate; Augustus appointed two physicians to accompany his journey north to join his parents, in AD 14; Suetonius connects this to possible childhood bouts of epilepsy. As an adult, he was subject to fainting fits. He was a habitually light sleeper, prone to nodding off during banquets, sleeping no more than 3 hours in any one night, and subject to vivid nightmares. Barrett describes him as "nervous and highly strung". When speaking in public, he would fidget and move about, overcome by the flood of his own words and ideas; despite that, he was an eloquent speaker. He grew stronger with age, but was probably never robust or athletic, despite his practise as a charioteer. Little is known of his illness in 38, nor what it changed, if anything, but it was a serious, possibly life-threatening event. Philo blames it on Caligula's habitual over-indulgence in rich foods and wine, general intemperance and a stress-induced nervous breakdown. Philo believed that the illness removed Caligula's pretence of decency, and revealed his inner cruelty and ruthlessness, evident in the murders of his own father-in-law, Silanus, and young cousin Gemellus. The sources are somewhat contradictory on the matter of Caligula's sex life. Seneca claims that during a public banquet he humiliated senator Decimus Valerius Asiaticus, his "especial friend", with a loud first-hand account of Valerius' wife's disappointing performance in bed. Caligula is said to have had "enormous" sexual appetites, several mistresses and male lovers, but in relation to the alleged "perversions" practised at Corfu by Tiberius and, in some sources, shared by Caligula, Barrett finds him remarkably prudish in expelling the so-called spintriae from the island on his accession. }} Caligula's first wife was Junia Claudia, daughter of ex-consul Marcus Junius Silanus. Like most marriages in Rome's upper echelons and, perhaps, all but one of Caligula's four marriages, this was a political alliance, intended to produce a legitimate heir and further Caligula's dynasty. Junia and her baby died in child-birth, less than a year later. Soon after, Macro seems to have persuaded his own wife, Ennia Thrasylla, to take up a sexual affair with Caligula, perhaps to help him through the loss. Suetonius and Dio claim that Caligula met Livia Orestilla at her marriage to Gaius Calpurnius Piso, and abducted her so that he could marry her instead and father a legitimate heir. When she proved faithful to her former husband, Caligula banished her. The Arval Brethren's records confirm her marriage to Piso, but under ordinary Roman custom. Susan Wood dismisses Caligula's "marriage" to her as a drunken party stunt. Caligula's marriage to the "beautiful... very wealthy" and extravagant Lollia Paulina was quickly followed by divorce, on the grounds of her infertility. His fourth and last marriage, to Caesonia, seems to have been a love-match, in which he was both "uxorious and monogamous", and fathered a daughter whom he named Julia Drusilla, in commemoration of his late sister. Caligula's contemporaries could not understand his attraction to Caesonia; she had proved herself fertile in previous marriages but also had a reputation for "high living and low morals", very far from the model of an aristocratic Roman wife. Tales reported by Josephus, Suetonius and the satirist Juvenal regarding Caligula's sexual dynamism are inconsistent with rumours that Caesonia had to arouse his interest with a love potion, which turned his mind and brought on his "madness". Barrett suggests that this rumour might have had no foundation other than Caligula's quip that "he felt like torturing Caesonia to discover why he loved her so passionately.}} depicting Caligula, AD 38. The reverse shows Caligula's three sisters, Agrippina, Drusilla and Livilla. Caption: C. CAESAR AVG. GERMANICVS PON. M. TR. POT. / AGRIPPINA DRVSILLA IVLIA S. C.]] Allegations of incest between Caligula and his sisters, or just he and his favourite, Drusilla, go back no further than Suetonius, who admits that in his own time, they were hearsay. Seneca and Philo, moralising contemporaries of Caligula, do not mention these stories even after Caligula's death, when it would have been safe to do so. Caligula's devotion to his youngest sister was evident but then as now, allegations of incest fit the amoral, "mad Emperor" stereotype, promiscuous with money, sex and the lives of his subjects. Dio repeats, as fact, the rumour that Caligula also had "improper relations" with his two older sisters, Agrippina and Livilla. bust of Caligula with traces of original paint beside a plaster replica trying to recreate the polychrome traditions of ancient sculpture]] Mental condition There is no reliable evidence of Caligula's mental state at any time in his life. Had he been thought truly insane, his misdeeds would not have been thought his fault: Winterling points out that in Roman law, the insane were not legally responsible for their actions, no matter how extreme. Responsibility for their control and restraint fell on those around them. In the course of their narratives, all the primary and contemporary sources give reasons to discredit and ultimately condemn Caligula, for offences against proprieties of class, religion or his role as emperor. "Thus, his acts should be seen from other angles, and the search for 'mad Caligula' abandoned" Barrett suggests that from a very early age, with the loss of his father, then of his mother and what remained of his family, Caligula was preoccupied with his own survival. Given near limitless powers to use as he saw fit, he used them to feed his sense of self-importance, "practically devoid of any sense of moral responsibility, a man for whom the tenure of the principate was little more than an opportunity to exercise power". Caligula "clearly had a highly developed sense of the absurd, resulting in a form of humour that was often cruel, sadistic and malicious, and which made its impact essentially by cleverly scoring points over those who were in no position to respond in kind." Philo saw Caligula's illness of 37 as a form of nervous collapse, a response to the extreme stresses and strains of Imperial rule, for which Caligula was temperamentally ill-equipped. Philo, Josephus and Seneca see Caligula's apparent "insanity" as an underlying personality trait accentuated through self-indulgence and the unlimited exercise of power. Seneca acknowledges that Caligula's promotion to emperor seemed to make him more arrogant, angry and insulting. Several modern sources suggest underlying medical conditions as explanations for some aspects of his behaviour and appearance. They include mania, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, encephalitis, meningitis, and epilepsy, the so-called "falling sickness". Benediktson refines Suetonius' statement that Caligula could not swim to a diagnosis of interictal temporal lobe epilepsy, and a consequent fear of seizures that prevented his learning to swim. In Romano-Greek medical theory, severe epilepsy attacks were associated with the full moon and the moon goddess Selene, with whom Caligula was claimed to converse and enjoy sexual congress. Suetonius' descriptions of Caligula as physically repulsive are neither reliable nor likely, considering his ecstatic and enthusiastic reception as a youthful princeps by the populace. In the ancient world, a person's physique was believed to be a reliable guide to their character and behaviour. Contemporary historiography depiction of Caligula]] Most facts and circumstances of Caligula's reign are lost to history. The two most important literary sources on Caligula and his reign are Suetonius, a government official of equestrian rank, born around 70 AD; and Cassius Dio, a Bithynian senator who held consulships in AD 205 and 229. Suetonius tends to arrange his material thematically, with little or no chronological framework, more biographer than historian. Dio provides a somewhat inconsistent chronology of Caligula's reign. He dedicates 13–21 chapters to positive features of Caligula's reign but nearly 40 to Caligula as "monster". Philo's works On the Embassy to Gaius and Flaccus give some details on Caligula's early reign, but more on events involving Jews in Judea and Egypt, whose political and religious interests conflicted with those of the ethnically Greek, pro-Roman population. Philo saw Caligula as responsible for the suffering of the Jews, whom he invariably portrays in a morally positive light. Seneca's various works give mostly scattered anecdotes on Caligula's personality, probably written in the reign of Claudius, who had a vested interest in the portrayal of his predecessor as "cruel and despotic, even mad". Seneca was prone to "grovelling flattery" of whoever reigned at the time. His experience under Caligula "could have clouded his judgment". He narrowly avoided a death sentence in AD 39, probably imposed for his association with known conspirators. Caligula had a low opinion of his literary style. Further contemporaneous histories of Caligula's reign are attested by Tacitus, who describes them as biased for or against Caligula; of Tacitus' own work, little of relevance to Caligula survives but Tacitus' works testify to his general hostility to the imperial system. Among the known losses of his works is a substantial portion of the Annals. Fabius Rusticus and Cluvius Rufus wrote histories, now lost, condemning Caligula. Tacitus describes Fabius Rusticus as a friend of Seneca, prone to embellishments and misrepresentations. Cluvius Rufus was a senator involved in Caligula's assassination; his original works are lost, but he was a competent historian, used as a primary source by Josephus, Tacitus, Suetonius and Plutarch. Caligula's sister, Agrippina the Younger, wrote an autobiography that included a detailed account of Caligula's reign, but it too is lost. Agrippina was banished by Caligula for her connection to Marcus Lepidus, who conspired against him. Caligula also seized the inheritance of Agrippina's son, the future emperor Nero. Gaetulicus flattered Caligula in writings now lost. Suetonius wrote his biography of Caligula 80 years after his assassination, and Cassius Dio over 180 years after; the latter offers a loose chronology. Josephus gives a detailed account of Caligula's assassination and its aftermath, published around 93 AD, but it is thought to draw upon a "richly embroidered and historically imaginative" anonymous biography of Herod Agrippa, presented as a Jewish "national hero". Pliny the Elder's Natural History has a few brief references to Caligula, possibly based these on the accounts by his friend Suetonius, or an unnamed, shared source. Of the few surviving sources on Caligula, none paints Caligula in a favourable light. Little has survived on the first two years of his reign, and only limited details on later significant events, such as the annexation of Mauretania, Caligula's military actions in Britannia, and the basis of his feud with the Senate. Modern depictions In film and series * Welsh actor Emlyn Williams was cast as Caligula in the never-completed 1937 film I, Claudius. * He was played by Ralph Bates in the 1968 ITV historical drama series, The Caesars. * American actor Jay Robinson famously portrayed a sinister and scene-stealing Caligula in two epic films of the 1950s, The Robe (1953) and its sequel Demetrius and the Gladiators (1954). * He was played by John Hurt in the 1976 BBC mini-series I, Claudius. * A feature-length historical film, Caligula, was completed in 1979 with Malcolm McDowell in the lead role. * His reign is depicted across the second and third episodes of the miniseries A.D.: Anno Domini, which adapted the Acts of the Apostles in parallel with the history of the Caesars from Tiberus through Nero. He was portrayed by John McEnery. Many of Caligula's connections to the other plotlines are via the fictional brother and sister Caleb and Sarah. However, it is also notable that Cornelius the Centurion is depicted as the man in charge of overseeing the installation of the Emperor's statue in the Temple. * He was portrayed by David Brandon in the 1982 historical exploitation film Caligula... The Untold Story. * He was played by Alexis Arquette in two episodes of Xena: Warrior Princess. * Caligula is a character in the 2015 NBC series A.D. The Bible Continues, and is played by British actor Andrew Gower. His portrayal emphasises Caligula's "debauched and dangerous" persona as well as his sexual appetite, quick temper, and violent nature. * The third season of the Roman Empire series (released on Netflix in 2019) is named Caligula: The Mad Emperor, with South African actor Ido Drent in the leading role. * In the award-winning BBC show Horrible Histories he is portrayed by Simon Farnaby. In literature and theatre * Kajus Cezar Caligula, by Polish author Karol Hubert Rostworowski, is a play premiered in Juliusz Słowacki City Theater, Kraków, 31 March 1917. The title character is presented as a weak and unhappy man who became a victim of circumstances that brought him to power that surpassed him. * Caligula, by French author Albert Camus, is a play in which Caligula returns after deserting the palace for three days and three nights following the death of his beloved sister, Drusilla. The young emperor then uses his unfettered power to "bring the impossible into the realm of the likely". * In the 1934 novel I, Claudius by English writer Robert Graves, Caligula is presented as a murderous sociopath who became clinically insane early in his reign. In the novel, at the age of only ten, Caligula drove his father Germanicus to a state of despair and death by secretly terrorizing him. Graves' Caligula commits incest with all three of his sisters and is implied to have murdered Drusilla. The novel was adapted for television in the 1976 BBC mini-series of the same name. * Incitatus, Caesar's favourite horse, is the subject of Polish poet Zbigniew Herbert's poem Kaligula (in Pan Cogito, 1974). In opera A young Caligula appears as one of the characters in Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber's opera Arminio. Caligula is the main character in Detlev Glanert's opera Caligula, based on the Albert Camus play. Different composers from the Baroque era appear to have composed operatic works about Caligula, but most of these have been lost. See also List of Roman emperors Notes ReferencesBibliographyModern sources * * * <!-- the subtitle did change between the first and second editions; this is correct --> * * * * * * * * * * * * --> \|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idJZLW4-wba7UC&pg=PA198 }} * * * Ancient sources \|orig-date= 38 AD}} [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/On_the_Embassy_to_Gaius On the Embassy to Gaius] [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Flaccus Flaccus] [http://www.stoics.com/seneca_essays_book_1.html On Firmness] [http://www.stoics.com/seneca_essays_book_1.html On Anger] [http://www.stoics.com/seneca_essays_book_2.html On Tranquility of Mind] [http://www.stoics.com/seneca_essays_book_2.html On the Shortness of Life] \|orig-date1st century\|urlhttps://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Seneca}} \|orig-date= 77 AD}} \|orig-date 96 AD\|chapter-url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Antiquities_of_the_Jews/Book_XVIII}} \|orig-date 110 AD}} \|orig-date 121 AD}} \|orig-date 121 AD}} \|orig-date 121 AD}} \|orig-date 121 AD}} \|orig-date= 230}} Further reading * * * * * * External links [http://www.digitalsculpture.org/caligula/index.html The portrait of Caligula in the Digital Sculpture Project] [https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/12/science/caligula-archaeology-rome-horti-lamiani.html Franz Lidz, "Caligula's Garden of Delights, Unearthed and Restored", New York Times, Jan. 12, 2021] Category:12 births Category:41 deaths Category:1st-century murdered monarchs Category:1st-century Roman emperors Category:Capri, Campania Category:Children of Germanicus Category:Deaths by stabbing in ancient Rome Category:Incest Category:Julii Caesares Category:Julio-Claudian dynasty Category:Murdered Roman emperors Category:People from Anzio Category:Royalty and nobility with epilepsy Category:Politicide perpetrators Category:Roman emperors murdered by the Praetorian Guard Category:Roman quaestors Category:Roman emperors to suffer posthumous denigration or damnatio memoriae Category:Roman pharaohs Category:Ancient assassinated people Category:Assassinated heads of state in Europe Category:Damnatio memoriae	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caligula	2025-04-05T18:27:59.041217
6854	Church–Turing thesis	In computability theory, the Church–Turing thesis (also known as computability thesis, the Turing–Church thesis, the Church–Turing conjecture, '''Church's thesis, Church's conjecture, and Turing's thesis') is a thesis about the nature of computable functions. It states that a function on the natural numbers can be calculated by an effective method if and only if it is computable by a Turing machine. The thesis is named after American mathematician Alonzo Church and the British mathematician Alan Turing. Before the precise definition of computable function, mathematicians often used the informal term effectively calculable'' to describe functions that are computable by paper-and-pencil methods. In the 1930s, several independent attempts were made to formalize the notion of computability: * In 1933, Kurt Gödel, with Jacques Herbrand, formalized the definition of the class of general recursive functions: the smallest class of functions (with arbitrarily many arguments) that is closed under composition, recursion, and minimization, and includes zero, successor, and all projections. * In 1936, Alonzo Church created a method for defining functions called the λ-calculus. Within λ-calculus, he defined an encoding of the natural numbers called the Church numerals. A function on the natural numbers is called λ-computable if the corresponding function on the Church numerals can be represented by a term of the λ-calculus. * Also in 1936, before learning of Church's work, Turing quickly completed his paper and rushed it to publication; it was received by the Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society on 28 May 1936, read on 12 November 1936, and published in series 2, volume 42 (1936–1937); it appeared in two sections: in Part 3 (pages 230–240), issued on 30 November 1936 and in Part 4 (pages 241–265), issued on 23 December 1936; Turing added corrections in volume 43 (1937), pp. 544–546.}} Alan Turing created a theoretical model for machines, now called Turing machines, that could carry out calculations from inputs by manipulating symbols on a tape. Given a suitable encoding of the natural numbers as sequences of symbols, a function on the natural numbers is called Turing computable if some Turing machine computes the corresponding function on encoded natural numbers. Church, Kleene, and Turing. Proof outline on p. 153: <math>\lambda\mbox{-definable}</math> <math>\stackrel{triv}{\implies}</math> <math>\lambda\mbox{-}K\mbox{-definable}</math> <math>\stackrel{160}{\implies}</math> <math>\mbox{Turing computable}</math> <math>\stackrel{161}{\implies}</math> <math>\mu\mbox{-recursive}</math> <math>\stackrel{Kleene}{\implies}</math> <math>\lambda\mbox{-definable}</math>}} proved that these three formally defined classes of computable functions coincide: a function is λ-computable if and only if it is Turing computable, and if and only if it is general recursive. This has led mathematicians and computer scientists to believe that the concept of computability is accurately characterized by these three equivalent processes. Other formal attempts to characterize computability have subsequently strengthened this belief (see below). On the other hand, the Church–Turing thesis states that the above three formally-defined classes of computable functions coincide with the informal notion of an effectively calculable function. Although the thesis has near-universal acceptance, it cannot be formally proven, as the concept of effective calculability is only informally defined. Since its inception, variations on the original thesis have arisen, including statements about what can physically be realized by a computer in our universe (physical Church-Turing thesis) and what can be efficiently computed (Church–Turing thesis (complexity theory)). These variations are not due to Church or Turing, but arise from later work in complexity theory and digital physics. The thesis also has implications for the philosophy of mind (see below). Statement in Church's and Turing's words addresses the notion of "effective computability" as follows: "Clearly the existence of CC and RC (Church's and Rosser's proofs) presupposes a precise definition of 'effective'. 'Effective method' is here used in the rather special sense of a method each step of which is precisely predetermined and which is certain to produce the answer in a finite number of steps". Thus the adverb-adjective "effective" is used in a sense of "1a: producing a decided, decisive, or desired effect", and "capable of producing a result". In the following, the words "effectively calculable" will mean "produced by any intuitively 'effective' means whatsoever" and "effectively computable" will mean "produced by a Turing-machine or equivalent mechanical device". Turing's "definitions" given in a footnote in his 1938 Ph.D. thesis Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals, supervised by Church, are virtually the same: We shall use the expression "computable function" to mean a function calculable by a machine, and let "effectively calculable" refer to the intuitive idea without particular identification with any one of these definitions.}} The thesis can be stated as: Every effectively calculable function is a computable function. Church also stated that "No computational procedure will be considered as an algorithm unless it can be represented as a Turing Machine". Turing stated it this way: with effective calculability. [ is the footnote quoted above.] which asked whether there was a mechanical procedure for separating mathematical truths from mathematical falsehoods. This quest required that the notion of "algorithm" or "effective calculability" be pinned down, at least well enough for the quest to begin. But from the very outset Alonzo Church's attempts began with a debate that continues to this day. the notion of "effective calculability" to be (i) an "axiom or axioms" in an axiomatic system, (ii) merely a definition that "identified" two or more propositions, (iii) an empirical hypothesis to be verified by observation of natural events, or (iv) just a proposal for the sake of argument (i.e. a "thesis")? Circa 1930–1952 In the course of studying the problem, Church and his student Stephen Kleene introduced the notion of λ-definable functions, and they were able to prove that several large classes of functions frequently encountered in number theory were λ-definable. The debate began when Church proposed to Gödel that one should define the "effectively computable" functions as the λ-definable functions. Gödel, however, was not convinced and called the proposal "thoroughly unsatisfactory". Rather, in correspondence with Church (c. 1934–1935), Gödel proposed axiomatizing the notion of "effective calculability"; indeed, in a 1935 letter to Kleene, Church reported that: is unsolvable: there is no algorithm that can determine whether a well formed formula has a beta normal form. Many years later in a letter to Davis (c. 1965), Gödel said that "he was, at the time of these [1934] lectures, not at all convinced that his concept of recursion comprised all possible recursions". By 1963–1964 Gödel would disavow Herbrand–Gödel recursion and the λ-calculus in favor of the Turing machine as the definition of "algorithm" or "mechanical procedure" or "formal system". A hypothesis leading to a natural law?: In late 1936 Alan Turing's paper (also proving that the is unsolvable) was delivered orally, but had not yet appeared in print. On the other hand, Emil Post's 1936 paper had appeared and was certified independent of Turing's work. Post strongly disagreed with Church's "identification" of effective computability with the λ-calculus and recursion, stating: Rather, he regarded the notion of "effective calculability" as merely a "working hypothesis" that might lead by inductive reasoning to a "natural law" rather than by "a definition or an axiom". This idea was "sharply" criticized by Church. Thus Post in his 1936 paper was also discounting Gödel's suggestion to Church in 1934–1935 that the thesis might be expressed as an axiom or set of axioms. Turing adds another definition, Rosser equates all three: Within just a short time, Turing's 1936–1937 paper "On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the " Church was quick to recognise how compelling Turing's analysis was. In his review of Turing's paper he made clear that Turing's notion made "the identification with effectiveness in the ordinary (not explicitly defined) sense evident immediately". In a few years (1939) Turing would propose, like Church and Kleene before him, that his formal definition of mechanical computing agent was the correct one. Thus, by 1939, both Church (1934) and Turing (1939) had individually proposed that their "formal systems" should be definitions of "effective calculability"; neither framed their statements as theses. Rosser (1939) formally identified the three notions-as-definitions: 'Kleene proposes Thesis I''''': This left the overt expression of a "thesis" to Kleene. In 1943 Kleene proposed his "Thesis I": Since a precise mathematical definition of the term effectively calculable (effectively decidable) has been wanting, we can take this thesis ... as a definition of it ...}} The Church–Turing Thesis: Stephen Kleene, in Introduction to Metamathematics, finally goes on to formally name "Church's Thesis" and "Turing's Thesis", using his theory of recursive realizability, having switched from presenting his work in the terminology of Church–Kleene lambda definability to that of Gödel–Kleene recursiveness (partial recursive functions). In this transition, Kleene modified Gödel's general recursive functions to allow for proofs of the unsolvability of problems in the intuitionism of E. J. Brouwer. In his graduate textbook on logic, "Church's thesis" is introduced and basic mathematical results are demonstrated to be unrealizable. Next, Kleene proceeds to present "Turing's thesis", where results are shown to be uncomputable, using his simplified derivation of a Turing machine based on the work of Emil Post. Both theses are proven equivalent by use of "Theorem XXX". <!-- In the early twentieth century, mathematicians often used the informal phrase effectively computable, so it was important to find a good formalization of the concept. Modern mathematicians instead use the well-defined term Turing computable (or computable for short). Since the undefined terminology has faded from use, the question of how to define it is now less important.--> Informal usage in proofs Proofs in computability theory often invoke the Church–Turing thesis in an informal way to establish the computability of functions while avoiding the (often very long) details which would be involved in a rigorous, formal proof. To establish that a function is computable by Turing machine, it is usually considered sufficient to give an informal English description of how the function can be effectively computed, and then conclude "by the Church–Turing thesis" that the function is Turing computable (equivalently, partial recursive). Dirk van Dalen gives the following example for the sake of illustrating this informal use of the Church–Turing thesis: {{quote\|1=Example: Each infinite recursively enumerable (RE) set contains an infinite recursive set. Proof: Let A be infinite RE. We list the elements of A effectively, n<sub>0</sub>, n<sub>1</sub>, n<sub>2</sub>, n<sub>3</sub>, ... From this list we extract an increasing sublist: put m<sub>0</sub> n<sub>0</sub>, after finitely many steps we find an n<sub>k</sub> such that n<sub>k</sub> > m<sub>0</sub>, put m<sub>1</sub> n<sub>k</sub>. We repeat this procedure to find m<sub>2</sub> > m<sub>1</sub>, etc. this yields an effective listing of the subset B={m<sub>0</sub>, m<sub>1</sub>, m<sub>2</sub>,...} of A, with the property m<sub>i</sub> < m<sub>i+1</sub>. Claim. B is decidable. For, in order to test k in B we must check if k = m<sub>i</sub> for some i. Since the sequence of m<sub>i</sub>'s is increasing we have to produce at most k+1 elements of the list and compare them with k. If none of them is equal to k, then k not in B. Since this test is effective, B is decidable and, '''by Church's thesis, recursive.}} In order to make the above example completely rigorous, one would have to carefully construct a Turing machine, or λ-function, or carefully invoke recursion axioms, or at best, cleverly invoke various theorems of computability theory. But because the computability theorist believes that Turing computability correctly captures what can be computed effectively, and because an effective procedure is spelled out in English for deciding the set B, the computability theorist accepts this as proof that the set is indeed recursive. Variations The success of the Church–Turing thesis prompted variations of the thesis to be proposed. For example, the physical Church–Turing thesis states: "All physically computable functions are Turing-computable." The Church–Turing thesis says nothing about the efficiency with which one model of computation can simulate another. It has been proved for instance that a (multi-tape) universal Turing machine only suffers a logarithmic slowdown factor in simulating any Turing machine. A variation of the Church–Turing thesis addresses whether an arbitrary but "reasonable" model of computation can be efficiently simulated. This is called the feasibility thesis, also known as the (classical) complexity-theoretic Church–Turing thesis or the extended Church–Turing thesis''', which is not due to Church or Turing, but rather was realized gradually in the development of complexity theory. It states: "A probabilistic Turing machine can efficiently simulate any realistic model of computation." The word 'efficiently' here means up to polynomial-time reductions. This thesis was originally called computational complexity-theoretic Church–Turing thesis by Ethan Bernstein and Umesh Vazirani (1997). The complexity-theoretic Church–Turing thesis, then, posits that all 'reasonable' models of computation yield the same class of problems that can be computed in polynomial time. Assuming the conjecture that probabilistic polynomial time (BPP) equals deterministic polynomial time (P), the word 'probabilistic' is optional in the complexity-theoretic Church–Turing thesis. A similar thesis, called the invariance thesis, was introduced by Cees F. Slot and Peter van Emde Boas. It states: Reasonable' machines can simulate each other within a polynomially bounded overhead in time and a constant-factor overhead in space." The thesis originally appeared in a paper at STOC'84, which was the first paper to show that polynomial-time overhead and constant-space overhead could be simultaneously achieved for a simulation of a Random Access Machine on a Turing machine. If BQP is shown to be a strict superset of BPP, it would invalidate the complexity-theoretic Church–Turing thesis. In other words, there would be efficient quantum algorithms that perform tasks that do not have efficient probabilistic algorithms. This would not however invalidate the original Church–Turing thesis, since a quantum computer can always be simulated by a Turing machine, but it would invalidate the classical complexity-theoretic Church–Turing thesis for efficiency reasons. Consequently, the quantum complexity-theoretic Church–Turing thesis states: They claim that forms of computation not captured by the thesis are relevant today, terms which they call super-Turing computation. Philosophical implications Philosophers have interpreted the Church–Turing thesis as having implications for the philosophy of mind. B. Jack Copeland states that it is an open empirical question whether there are actual deterministic physical processes that, in the long run, elude simulation by a Turing machine; furthermore, he states that it is an open empirical question whether any such processes are involved in the working of the human brain. There are also some important open questions which cover the relationship between the Church–Turing thesis and physics, and the possibility of hypercomputation. When applied to physics, the thesis has several possible meanings: #The universe is equivalent to a Turing machine; thus, computing non-recursive functions is physically impossible. This has been termed the strong Church–Turing thesis, or Church–Turing–Deutsch principle, and is a foundation of digital physics. #The universe is not equivalent to a Turing machine (i.e., the laws of physics are not Turing-computable), but incomputable physical events are not "harnessable" for the construction of a hypercomputer. For example, a universe in which physics involves random real numbers, as opposed to computable reals, would fall into this category. #The universe is a hypercomputer, and it is possible to build physical devices to harness this property and calculate non-recursive functions. For example, it is an open question whether all quantum mechanical events are Turing-computable, although it is known that rigorous models such as quantum Turing machines are equivalent to deterministic Turing machines. (They are not necessarily efficiently equivalent; see above.) John Lucas and Roger Penrose have suggested that the human mind might be the result of some kind of quantum-mechanically enhanced, "non-algorithmic" computation. There are many other technical possibilities which fall outside or between these three categories, but these serve to illustrate the range of the concept. Philosophical aspects of the thesis, regarding both physical and biological computers, are also discussed in Odifreddi's 1989 textbook on recursion theory. Non-computable functions One can formally define functions that are not computable. A well-known example of such a function is the Busy Beaver function. This function takes an input n and returns the largest number of symbols that a Turing machine with n states can print before halting, when run with no input. Finding an upper bound on the busy beaver function is equivalent to solving the halting problem, a problem known to be unsolvable by Turing machines. Since the busy beaver function cannot be computed by Turing machines, the Church–Turing thesis states that this function cannot be effectively computed by any method. Several computational models allow for the computation of (Church-Turing) non-computable functions. These are known as hypercomputers. Mark Burgin argues that super-recursive algorithms such as inductive Turing machines disprove the Church–Turing thesis. His argument relies on a definition of algorithm broader than the ordinary one, so that non-computable functions obtained from some inductive Turing machines are called computable. This interpretation of the Church–Turing thesis differs from the interpretation commonly accepted in computability theory, discussed above. The argument that super-recursive algorithms are indeed algorithms in the sense of the Church–Turing thesis has not found broad acceptance within the computability research community.See also * Abstract machine * Church's thesis in constructive mathematics * Church–Turing–Deutsch principle, which states that every physical process can be simulated by a universal computing device * Computability logic * Computability theory * Decidability * Hypercomputation * Model of computation * Oracle (computer science) * Super-recursive algorithm * Turing completeness Footnotes References * * * * * * * * * * * * Includes original papers by Gödel, Church, Turing, Rosser, Kleene, and Post mentioned in this section. * * * * * * * Cited by . * * * * * * * Reprinted in Davis\|1965}}\|The Undecidable, p. 255ff. Kleene refined his definition of "general recursion" and proceeded in his chapter "12. Algorithmic theories" to posit "Thesis I" (p. 274); he would later repeat this thesis (in ) and name it "Church's Thesis" (i.e., the Church thesis). * * * * * * * * * * * * and (See also: ) * External links * . * —a comprehensive philosophical treatment of relevant issues. * * A [https://projecteuclid.org/euclid.ndjfl/1093637642 special issue] (Vol. 28, No. 4, 1987) of the Notre Dame Journal of Formal Logic was devoted to the Church–Turing thesis. Category:Computability theory Category:Alan Turing Category:Theory of computation Category:Philosophy of computer science	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church–Turing_thesis	2025-04-05T18:27:59.094766
6856	Chomsky (surname)	Chomsky (, , , , , "from (Vyoska) / (nearby Brest, now Belarus)") is a surname of Slavic origin. Notable people with the surname include: Alejandro Chomski (born 1968), Argentine film director and screenwriter Aviva Chomsky (born 1957), American historian Carol (Schatz) Chomsky (1930–2008), American linguist and wife of Noam Chomsky Judith Chomsky (born 1942), American human rights lawyer and co-founder of the Juvenile Law Center Marvin J. Chomsky (1929–2022), American television and film director Noam Chomsky (born 1928), American linguist and political activist, professor emeritus at MIT (born 1957), Polish speedway rider and coach William Chomsky (1896–1977), American scholar of Hebrew (1925–2016), Soviet and Russian theater director See also Gryf coat of arms Odrowąż coat of arms Category:Slavic-language surnames Category:Polish-language surnames Category:Surnames of Polish origin Category:Polish toponymic surnames Khomskiy Category:Ashkenazi surnames Category:Jewish families Category:Belarusian Jews Category:Jewish toponymic surnames	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chomsky_(surname)	2025-04-05T18:27:59.098162
6857	Computer multitasking	thumb\|right\|360px\|Modern desktop operating systems are capable of handling large numbers of different processes at the same time. This screenshot shows Linux Mint running simultaneously Xfce desktop environment, Firefox, a calculator program, the built-in calendar, Vim, GIMP, and VLC media player. thumb\|360px\|Multitasking of Microsoft Windows 1.01 released in 1985, here shown running the MS-DOS Executive and Calculator programs In computing, multitasking is the concurrent execution of multiple tasks (also known as processes) over a certain period of time. New tasks can interrupt already started ones before they finish, instead of waiting for them to end. As a result, a computer executes segments of multiple tasks in an interleaved manner, while the tasks share common processing resources such as central processing units (CPUs) and main memory. Multitasking automatically interrupts the running program, saving its state (partial results, memory contents and computer register contents) and loading the saved state of another program and transferring control to it. This "context switch" may be initiated at fixed time intervals (pre-emptive multitasking), or the running program may be coded to signal to the supervisory software when it can be interrupted (cooperative multitasking). Multitasking does not require parallel execution of multiple tasks at exactly the same time; instead, it allows more than one task to advance over a given period of time. Even on multiprocessor computers, multitasking allows many more tasks to be run than there are CPUs. Multitasking is a common feature of computer operating systems since at least the 1960s. It allows more efficient use of the computer hardware; when a program is waiting for some external event such as a user input or an input/output transfer with a peripheral to complete, the central processor can still be used with another program. In a time-sharing system, multiple human operators use the same processor as if it was dedicated to their use, while behind the scenes the computer is serving many users by multitasking their individual programs. In multiprogramming systems, a task runs until it must wait for an external event or until the operating system's scheduler forcibly swaps the running task out of the CPU. Real-time systems such as those designed to control industrial robots, require timely processing; a single processor might be shared between calculations of machine movement, communications, and user interface. Often multitasking operating systems include measures to change the priority of individual tasks, so that important jobs receive more processor time than those considered less significant. Depending on the operating system, a task might be as large as an entire application program, or might be made up of smaller threads that carry out portions of the overall program. A processor intended for use with multitasking operating systems may include special hardware to securely support multiple tasks, such as memory protection, and protection rings that ensure the supervisory software cannot be damaged or subverted by user-mode program errors. The term "multitasking" has become an international term, as the same word is used in many other languages such as German, Italian, Dutch, Romanian, Czech, Danish and Norwegian. Multiprogramming In the early days of computing, CPU time was expensive, and peripherals were very slow. When the computer ran a program that needed access to a peripheral, the central processing unit (CPU) would have to stop executing program instructions while the peripheral processed the data. This was usually very inefficient. Multiprogramming is a computing technique that enables multiple programs to be concurrently loaded and executed into a computer's memory, allowing the CPU to switch between them swiftly. This optimizes CPU utilization by keeping it engaged with the execution of tasks, particularly useful when one program is waiting for I/O operations to complete. The Bull Gamma 60, initially designed in 1957 and first released in 1960, was the first computer designed with multiprogramming in mind. Its architecture featured a central memory and a Program Distributor feeding up to twenty-five autonomous processing units with code and data, and allowing concurrent operation of multiple clusters. Another such computer was the LEO III, first released in 1961. During batch processing, several different programs were loaded in the computer memory, and the first one began to run. When the first program reached an instruction waiting for a peripheral, the context of this program was stored away, and the second program in memory was given a chance to run. The process continued until all programs finished running. Multiprogramming gives no guarantee that a program will run in a timely manner. Indeed, the first program may very well run for hours without needing access to a peripheral. As there were no users waiting at an interactive terminal, this was no problem: users handed in a deck of punched cards to an operator, and came back a few hours later for printed results. Multiprogramming greatly reduced wait times when multiple batches were being processed. Cooperative multitasking Early multitasking systems used applications that voluntarily ceded time to one another. This approach, which was eventually supported by many computer operating systems, is known today as cooperative multitasking. Although it is now rarely used in larger systems except for specific applications such as CICS or the JES2 subsystem, cooperative multitasking was once the only scheduling scheme employed by Microsoft Windows and classic Mac OS to enable multiple applications to run simultaneously. Cooperative multitasking is still used today on RISC OS systems. As a cooperatively multitasked system relies on each process regularly giving up time to other processes on the system, one poorly designed program can consume all of the CPU time for itself, either by performing extensive calculations or by busy waiting; both would cause the whole system to hang. In a server environment, this is a hazard that makes the entire environment unacceptably fragile. Preemptive multitasking thumb\|Kubuntu (KDE Plasma 5) four Virtual desktops running multiple programs at the same time Preemptive multitasking allows the computer system to more reliably guarantee to each process a regular "slice" of operating time. It also allows the system to deal rapidly with important external events like incoming data, which might require the immediate attention of one or another process. Operating systems were developed to take advantage of these hardware capabilities and run multiple processes preemptively. Preemptive multitasking was implemented in the PDP-6 Monitor and Multics in 1964, in OS/360 MFT in 1967, and in Unix in 1969, and was available in some operating systems for computers as small as DEC's PDP-8; it is a core feature of all Unix-like operating systems, such as Linux, Solaris and BSD with its derivatives, as well as modern versions of Windows. Possibly the earliest preemptive multitasking OS available to home users was Microware's OS-9, available for computers based on the Motorola 6809 such as the TRS-80 Color Computer 2, with the operating system supplied by Tandy as an upgrade for disk-equipped systems. Sinclair QDOS on the Sinclair QL followed in 1984, but it was not a big success. Commodore's Amiga was released the following year, offering a combination of multitasking and multimedia capabilities. Microsoft made preemptive multitasking a core feature of their flagship operating system in the early 1990s when developing Windows NT 3.1 and then Windows 95. In 1988 Apple offered A/UX as a UNIX System V-based alternative to the Classic Mac OS. In 2001 Apple switched to the NeXTSTEP-influenced Mac OS X. A similar model is used in Windows 9x and the Windows NT family, where native 32-bit applications are multitasked preemptively. 64-bit editions of Windows, both for the x86-64 and Itanium architectures, no longer support legacy 16-bit applications, and thus provide preemptive multitasking for all supported applications. Real time Another reason for multitasking was in the design of real-time computing systems, where there are a number of possibly unrelated external activities needed to be controlled by a single processor system. In such systems a hierarchical interrupt system is coupled with process prioritization to ensure that key activities were given a greater share of available process time. Multithreading Threads were born from the idea that the most efficient way for cooperating processes to exchange data would be to share their entire memory space. Thus, threads are effectively processes that run in the same memory context and share other resources with their parent processes, such as open files. Threads are described as lightweight processes because switching between threads does not involve changing the memory context. While threads are scheduled preemptively, some operating systems provide a variant to threads, named fibers, that are scheduled cooperatively. On operating systems that do not provide fibers, an application may implement its own fibers using repeated calls to worker functions. Fibers are even more lightweight than threads, and somewhat easier to program with, although they tend to lose some or all of the benefits of threads on machines with multiple processors. Some systems directly support multithreading in hardware. Memory protection Essential to any multitasking system is to safely and effectively share access to system resources. Access to memory must be strictly managed to ensure that no process can inadvertently or deliberately read or write to memory locations outside the process's address space. This is done for the purpose of general system stability and data integrity, as well as data security. In general, memory access management is a responsibility of the operating system kernel, in combination with hardware mechanisms that provide supporting functionalities, such as a memory management unit (MMU). If a process attempts to access a memory location outside its memory space, the MMU denies the request and signals the kernel to take appropriate actions; this usually results in forcibly terminating the offending process. Depending on the software and kernel design and the specific error in question, the user may receive an access violation error message such as "segmentation fault". In a well designed and correctly implemented multitasking system, a given process can never directly access memory that belongs to another process. An exception to this rule is in the case of shared memory; for example, in the System V inter-process communication mechanism the kernel allocates memory to be mutually shared by multiple processes. Such features are often used by database management software such as PostgreSQL. Inadequate memory protection mechanisms, either due to flaws in their design or poor implementations, allow for security vulnerabilities that may be potentially exploited by malicious software. Memory swapping Use of a swap file or swap partition is a way for the operating system to provide more memory than is physically available by keeping portions of the primary memory in secondary storage. While multitasking and memory swapping are two completely unrelated techniques, they are very often used together, as swapping memory allows more tasks to be loaded at the same time. Typically, a multitasking system allows another process to run when the running process hits a point where it has to wait for some portion of memory to be reloaded from secondary storage. Programming Over the years, multitasking systems have been refined. Modern operating systems generally include detailed mechanisms for prioritizing processes, while symmetric multiprocessing has introduced new complexities and capabilities. See also Process state Task switching References Category:Concurrent computing Category:Operating system technology	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_multitasking	2025-04-05T18:27:59.108262
6859	Chiang Kai-shek	\| native_name_lang = zh-Hant \| honorific_suffix = ONG OBSWS OST OBJ OPC OCB OBS \| image = 蔣中正總統玉照.png \| caption = Official portrait, 1955 \| office = Chairman of the National Government of China \| premier \| term_start = 10 October 1943 \| term_end = 20 May 1948<br />Acting: 1 August 194310 October 1943 \| 1blankname = Vice Chairman \| 1namedata \| predecessor \| successor = Position abolished \| premier1 = \| }} \| term_start1 = 10 October 1928 \| term_end1 = 15 December 1931 \| predecessor1 \| successor1 \| office3 = 1st President of the Republic of China \| premier3 = \| \| \| \| }} \| vicepresident3 = \| \| }} \| term_start3 = 1 March 1950 \| term_end3 = <!--4/-->5 April 1975 \| predecessor3 (acting) \| successor3 \| premier4 = \| \| }} \| vicepresident4 \| term_start4 = 20 May 1948 \| term_end4 = 21 January 1949 \| predecessor4 = Position established \| successor4 (acting) \| office5 = Premier of the National Government \| president7 \| term_start7 = 20 November 1939 \| vicepremier7 = H. H. Kung \| term_end7 = 31 May 1945 \| predecessor7 \| successor7 \| president8 \| term_start8 = 9 December 1935 \| term_end8 = 1 January 1938 \| vicepremier8 = H. H. Kung \| predecessor8 \| successor8 \| term_start9 = 4 December 1930 \| term_end9 = 15 December 1931 \| vicepremier9 \| president9 = Himself \| predecessor9 \| successor9 (acting) \| president6 = Himself \| term_start6 = 1 March 1947 \| term_end6 = 18 April 1947 \| vicepremier6 = Weng Wenhao \| predecessor6 \| successor6 \| office10 = Chairman of the Kuomintang \| term_start10 = 12 May 1936 \| term_end10 = 1 April 1938 \| predecessor10 \| successor10 = Himself as Director-General \| term_start11 = 6 July 1926 \| term_end11 = 11 March 1927 \| predecessor11 \| successor11 and \| office12 = Director-General of the Kuomintang \| predecessor12 = Position established \| successor12 \| term_start12 = 1 April 1938 \| term_end12 = <!--4/-->5 April 1975 \| deputy12 = \| }} \| office2 = Chairman of the Military Affairs Commission \| term_start2 = 15 December 1931 \| term_end2 = 31 May 1946 \| predecessor2 = Position established \| successor2 = Position abolished \| birth_date \| birth_place , Qing China \| death_date <!-- (or 4 April)--> \| death_place = Taipei, Taiwan \| restingplace = Cihu Mausoleum, Taoyuan, Taiwan<!-- Do not wikilink, see MOS:GEOLINK --> \| party = Kuomintang \| alma_mater = \| spouse = * * * }} \| children = \| signature = Chiang Kaishek Signature.svg \| nickname = \| "Red General" \| "Big Gun" \| "The Napoleon of China" }} \| allegiance = \| branch = \| Republic of China Army }} \| serviceyears = 1909–1975 \| rank General Special-Class}} \| battles = \| footnotes = \| module = \| mi \| bpmf ㄐㄧㄤˇ ㄐㄧㄝˋ ㄕˊ \| poj = Chiúⁿ Kài-se̍k \| y Jéung Gaai-sehk \| j Zoeng2 gaai3 sek6 \| hk Cheung Kai-shek \| ci \| lmz = Tsian Ka Zah \| altname = Register name \| t2 蔣周泰 \| s2 蒋周泰 \| p2 Jiǎng Zhōutài \| tp2 Jiǎng Jhou-tài \| gr2 Jeang Joutay \| mi2 \| w2 \| bpmf2 ㄐㄧㄤˇ ㄓㄡㄊㄞˋ \| j2 = Zoeng2 zau1 taai3 \| ci2 = \| poj2 = Chiúⁿ Chiu-thài \| lmz2 = Tsian Tseu Tha \| altname3 = Milk name \| t3 = 蔣瑞元 \| s3 = 蒋瑞元 \| p3 Jiǎng Ruìyuán\| tp3 Jiǎng Ruèi-yuán \| gr3 Jeang Ruey'yuan \| mi3 \| w3 \| bpmf3 ㄐㄧㄤˇ ㄖㄨㄟˋ ㄩㄢˊ \| j3 = Zoeng2 seoi6 jyun4 \| ci3 = \| poj3 = Chiúⁿ Sūi-gôan \| lmz3 = Tsian Zoe Yoe \| altname4 = School name \| t4 蔣志清 \| s4 蒋志清 \| p4 Jiǎng Zhìqīng \| tp4 Jiǎng Jhìh-cing \| gr4 Jeang Jyhching \| mi4 \| w4 \| bpmf4 ㄐㄧㄤˇ ㄓˋ ㄑㄧㄥ \| j4 = Zoeng2 zi3 cing1 \| ci4 = \| poj4 = Chiúⁿ Chì-chheng \| lmz4 = Tsian Tsy Tshin \| altname5 = Adopted name \| t5 = 蔣中正 \| s5 = 蒋中正 \| p5 Jiǎng Zhōngzhèng \| tp5 Jiǎng Jhong-jhèng \| gr5 Jeang Jongjenq \| mi5 \| w5 = \| bpmf5 = ㄐㄧㄤˇ ㄓㄨㄥㄓㄥˋ \| y5 Jéung Jūng-jing \| j5 Zoeng2 zung1 zing3 \| \| poj5 = Chiúⁿ Tiong-chèng \| lmz5 = Tsian Tson Tsen }} \| module2 \| birth_name = Chiang Jui-yüan \| country = China \| nationality = Chinese \| awards = ONG OBSWS OST OBJ OPC OCB OBS HSAL }} Chiang Kai-shek}}}} (31 October 18875 April 1975) was a Chinese politician, revolutionary, and general who led the Republic of China (ROC) from 1928 until his death in 1975. His government was based in mainland China until it was defeated in the Chinese Civil War by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in 1949, after which he continued to lead the Republic of China on the island of Taiwan. Chiang served as leader of the Nationalist Kuomintang (KMT) party and the commander-in-chief of the National Revolutionary Army (NRA) from 1926 until his death, during which he was known as Generalissimo. Born in Zhejiang, Chiang received a military education in China and Japan and joined Sun Yat-sen's Tongmenghui organization in 1908. After the 1911 Revolution, he was a founding member of the KMT and head of the Whampoa Military Academy from 1924. After Sun's death in 1925, Chiang became leader of the party and commander-in-chief of the NRA, and from 1926 to 1928 led the Northern Expedition, which nominally reunified China under a Nationalist government based in Nanjing. The KMT–CCP alliance broke down in 1927 following the KMT's Shanghai Massacre, starting the Chinese Civil War. Chiang sought to modernise and unify the ROC during the Nanjing decade, although hostilities with the CCP continued. After Japan's invasion of Manchuria in 1931, his government tried to avoid a war while pursuing economic and social reconstruction. In 1936, Chiang was kidnapped by his generals in the Xi'an Incident and forced to form an anti-Japanese Second United Front with the CCP, and between 1937 and 1945 led China in the Second Sino-Japanese War, mostly from the wartime capital of Chongqing. As the leader of a major Allied power, he attended the 1943 Cairo Conference to discuss the terms for Japan's surrender in 1945, including the return of Taiwan, where he suppressed the February 28 uprising in 1947. When World War II ended, the civil war with the CCP (led by Mao Zedong) resumed. In 1949, Chiang's government was defeated and retreated to Taiwan, where he imposed martial law and the White Terror, a campaign of mass political repression; they lasted until 1987 and 1992, respectively. Beginning in 1948, he was re-elected five times by the same Eternal Parliament with six-year terms as President of the ROC, the head of a de facto one-party state, for 25 years till his death. Chiang presided over land reform, economic growth, and crises in the Taiwan Strait in 1954–1955 and again in 1958. He was considered the legitimate leader of China by the United Nations until 1971, when the ROC's seat was transferred to the People's Republic of China. After Chiang's death in 1975, he was succeeded as leader of the KMT by his son Chiang Ching-kuo, who was elected president in following terms by the same parliament since 1978. Chiang is a controversial figure. Supporters credit him with unifying the nation and ending the century of humiliation, leading the resistance against Japan, fostering economic development and promoting Chinese culture in contrast to Mao's Cultural Revolution. He is also credited with safeguarding Forbidden City treasures during the wars with Japan and the CCP, eventually relocating some of the best to Taiwan, where he founded the National Palace Museum. Critics fault him for his early pacifism toward Japan's occupation of Manchuria, flooding of the Yellow River, cronyism and corruption with the four big families, and his right-wing dictatorship on both mainland China and Taiwan. Names Like many other Chinese historical figures, Chiang used several names throughout his life. The name inscribed in the genealogical records of his family is Chiang Chou-t‘ai (). This so-called "register name" () is the one by which his extended relatives knew him, and the one he used in formal occasions, such as when he was married. In deference to tradition, family members did not use the register name in conversation with people outside of the family. The concept of a "real" or original name is/was not as clear-cut in China as it is in the Western world. In honor of tradition, Chinese families waited a number of years before officially naming their children. In the meantime, they used a "milk name" (), given to the infant shortly after his birth and known only to the close family. So the name that Chiang received at birth was Chiang Jui-yüan (). In 1903, the 16-year-old Chiang went to Ningbo as a student, and chose a "school name" (). This was the formal name of a person, used by older people to address him, and the one he would use the most in the first decades of his life (as a person grew older, younger generations would use one of the courtesy names instead). Colloquially, the school name is called "big name" (), whereas the "milk name" is known as the "small name" (). The school name that Chiang chose for himself was Chih-ch‘ing (, which means "purity of aspirations"). For the next fifteen years or so, Chiang was known as Chiang Chih-ch‘ing . This is the name by which Sun Yat-sen knew him when Chiang joined the republicans in Kwangtung in the 1910s. In 1912, when Chiang was in Japan, he started to use the name Chiang Kai-shek () as a pen name for the articles that he published in a Chinese magazine he founded: Voice of the Army (). Jieshi is the pinyin romanization of this name, based on Standard Chinese, but the most recognized romanized rendering is Kai-shek which is in Cantonese romanization. Because the Republic of China was based in Canton (a Cantonese-speaking area), Chiang (who never spoke Cantonese but was a native Wu speaker) became known by Westerners under the Cantonese romanisation of his courtesy name, while the family name as known in English seems to be the Mandarin pronunciation of his Chinese family name, transliterated in Wade–Giles. "Kai-shek" soon became Chiang's courtesy name (). Some think the name was chosen from the classic Chinese book the I Ching; , is the beginning of line 2 of Hexagram 16, "". Others note that the first character of his courtesy name is also the first character of the courtesy name of his brother and other male relatives on the same generational line, while the second character of his courtesy name shih (—meaning "stone") suggests the second character of his "register name" tai (—the famous Mount Tai). Courtesy names in China often bore a connection with the personal name of the person. As the courtesy name is the name used by people of the same generation to address the person, Chiang soon became known under this new name. Sometime in 1917 or 1918, as Chiang became close to Sun Yat-sen, he changed his name from Chiang Chih-ch‘ing to Chiang Chung-cheng (). By adopting the name Chung-cheng, he was choosing a name very similar to the name of Sun Yat-sen, who is known among Chinese as Chung-shan (—meaning "central mountain"), thus establishing a link between the two. The meaning of uprightness, rectitude, or orthodoxy, implied by his name, also positioned him as the legitimate heir of Sun Yat-sen and his ideas. It was readily accepted by members of the Kuomintang, and is the name under which Chiang is still commonly known in Taiwan. Often the name is shortened to "Chung-cheng" only. Many public places in Taiwan are named Chungcheng after Chiang. For many years passengers arriving at the Chiang Kai-shek International Airport were greeted by signs in Chinese welcoming them to the "Chung Cheng International Airport". Similarly, the monument erected to Chiang's memory in Taipei, known in English as Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall, was named "Chung Cheng Memorial Hall" in Chinese. In Singapore, Chung Cheng High School was named after him. His name is also written in the free area of the Republic of China as "The Late President Honorable Chiang" (), where the one-character-wide space in front of his name known as Nuo tai shows respect. He is often called Honorable Chiang. The "Chiang Kai-shek" in this article is spelled using a Cantonese transliteration he adopted as opposed to Hanyu Pinyin, though pinyin was adopted by the Republic of China government in 2009 as its official romanization. Early life Chiang was born on 31 October 1887, in Hsikow, a town in Fenghua, Zhejiang, China, about west of central Ningbo. He was born into a family of Wu Chinese-speaking people with their ancestral home—a concept important in Chinese society—in Heqiao, a town in Yixing, Jiangsu, about southwest of central Wuxi and from the shores of Lake Tai. He was the third child and second son of his father (also Chiang Su-an; 1842–1895; ) and the first child of his father's third wife (1863–1921; ) who were members of a prosperous family of salt merchants. Chiang's father died when he was eight, and he wrote of his mother as the "embodiment of Confucian virtues". The young Chiang was inspired throughout his youth by the realization that the reputation of an honored family rested upon his shoulders. He was a naughty child. At a young age he was interested in the military. As he grew older, Chiang became more aware of the issues that surrounded him and in his speech to the Kuomintang in 1945 said: In early 1906, Chiang cut off his queue, the required hairstyle of men during the Ch‘ing dynasty, and had it sent home from school, shocking the people in his hometown.Education in Japan Chiang grew up at a time in which military defeats, natural disasters, famines, revolts, unequal treaties and civil wars had left the Manchu-dominated Ch‘ing dynasty unstable and in debt. Successive demands of the Western powers and Japan since the Opium War had left China owing millions of taels of silver. During his first visit to Japan to pursue a military career from April 1906 to later that year, he describes himself as having strong nationalistic feelings with a desire, among other things, to 'expel the Manchu Ch‘ing and to restore China'. In a 1969 speech, Chiang related a story about his boat trip to Japan at nineteen years old. Another passenger on the ship, a Chinese fellow student who was in the habit of spitting on the floor, was chided by a Chinese sailor who said that Japanese people did not spit on the floor, but instead would spit into a handkerchief. Chiang used the story as an example of how the common man in 1969 Taiwan had not developed the spirit of public sanitation that Japan had. Chiang decided to pursue a military career. He began his military training at the Baoding Military Academy in 1906, the same year Japan left its bimetallic currency standard, devaluing the Japanese yen. He left for Tokyo Shinbu Gakko, a preparatory school for the Imperial Japanese Army Academy intended for Chinese students, in 1907. There, he came under the influence of compatriots to support the revolutionary movement to overthrow the Manchu-dominated Qing dynasty and to set up a Han-dominated Chinese republic. He befriended Chen Qimei, and in 1908 Chen brought Chiang into the Tungmenghui, an important revolutionary brotherhood of the era. Finishing his military schooling at Tokyo Shinbu Gakko, Chiang served in the Imperial Japanese Army from 1909 to 1911.Returning to ChinaAfter learning of the Wuchang uprising, Chiang returned to China in 1911, intending to fight as an artillery officer. He served in the revolutionary forces, leading a regiment in Shanghai under his friend and mentor Chen Qimei, as one of Chen's chief lieutenants. In early 1912 a dispute arose between Chen and Tao Chengzhang, an influential member of the Revolutionary Alliance who opposed both Sun Yat-sen and Chen. Tao sought to avoid escalating the quarrel by hiding in a hospital, but Chiang discovered him there. Chen dispatched assassins. Chiang may not have taken part in the assassination, but would later assume responsibility to help Chen avoid trouble. Chen valued Chiang despite Chiang's already legendary temper, regarding such bellicosity as useful in a military leader. Chiang's friendship with Chen Qimei signaled an association with Shanghai's criminal syndicate (the Green Gang headed by Du Yuesheng and Huang Jinrong). During Chiang's time in Shanghai, the Shanghai International Settlement police observed him and eventually charged him with various felonies. These charges never resulted in a trial, and Chiang was never jailed. Chiang became a founding member of the Nationalist Party (a forerunner of the KMT) after the success (February 1912) of the 1911 Revolution. After the takeover of the Republican government by Yuan Shikai and the failed Second Revolution in 1913, Chiang, like his KMT comrades, divided his time between exile in Japan and the havens of the Shanghai International Settlement. In Shanghai, Chiang cultivated ties with the city's underworld gangs, which were dominated by the notorious Green Gang and its leader Du Yuesheng. On 18 May 1916 agents of Yuan Shikai assassinated Chen Qimei. Chiang then succeeded Chen as leader of the Chinese Revolutionary Party in Shanghai. Sun Yat-sen's political career reached its lowest point during this time—most of his old Revolutionary Alliance comrades refused to join him in the exiled Chinese Revolutionary Party. Establishing the Kuomintang's position In 1917, Sun Yat-sen moved his base of operations to Canton, where Chiang joined him in 1918. At this time Sun remained largely sidelined; without arms or money, he was soon expelled from the city and exiled again to Shanghai, only to return to Canton with mercenary help in 1920. After his return, a rift developed between Sun, who sought to militarily unify China under the KMT, and Canton Governor Chen Chiung-ming, who wanted to implement a federalist system with Canton as a model province. On 16 June 1922 Ye Ju, a general of Chen's whom Sun had attempted to exile, led an assault on Canton's Presidential Palace. Sun had already fled to the naval yard and boarded the SS Haichi, but his wife narrowly evaded shelling and rifle-fire as she fled. They met on the SS Yungfeng, where Chiang joined them as soon as he could return from Shanghai, where he was ritually mourning his mother's death. For about 50 days, Chiang stayed with Sun, protecting and caring for him and earning his lasting trust. They abandoned their attacks on Chen on 9 August, taking a British ship to Hong Kong and traveling to Shanghai by steamer.Rising power (left), 1926]] Sun Yat-sen died on 12 March 1925, creating a power vacuum in the Kuomintang. A contest ensued among Wang Ching-wei, Liao Chung-k‘ai, and Hu Han-min. In August, Liao was assassinated and Hu was arrested for his connections to the murderers. Wang Ching-wei, who had succeeded Sun as chairman of the Canton regime, seemed ascendant but was forced into exile by Chiang following the Canton Coup. The , renamed the Chung-shan in Sun's honour, had appeared off Changzhou, the location of the Whampoa Academy, on apparently-falsified orders and amid a series of unusual phone calls trying to ascertain Chiang's location. He initially considered fleeing Guangdong and even booked passage on a Japanese steamer but then decided to use his military connections to declare martial law on 20 March 1926 and to crack down on Communist and Soviet influence over the National Revolutionary Army, the military academy, and the party. The right wing of the party supported him, and Joseph Stalin, anxious to maintain Soviet influence in the area, had his lieutenants agree to Chiang's demands on a reduced Communist presence in the KMT leadership in exchange for certain other concessions. The rapid replacement of leadership enabled Chiang to effectively end civilian oversight of the military after 15 May, though his authority was somewhat limited by the army's own regional composition and divided loyalties. On 5 June 1926, he was named commander-in-chief of the National Revolutionary Army [NRA] and, on 27 July, he finally launched Sun's long-delayed Northern Expedition, aimed at conquering the northern warlords and bringing China together under the KMT. The NRA branched into three divisions: to the west was the returned Wang Jingwei, who led a column to take Wuhan; Bai Chongxi's column went east to take Shanghai; Chiang himself led in the middle route, planning to take Nanjing before pressing ahead to capture Beijing. However, in January 1927, Wang Jingwei and his KMT leftist allies took the city of Wuhan amid much popular mobilization and fanfare. Allied with a number of Chinese Communists and advised by Soviet agent Mikhail Borodin, Wang declared the national government as having moved to Wuhan. In 1927, when he was setting up the Nationalist government in Nanjing, he was preoccupied with "the elevation of our leader Dr. Sun Yat-sen to the rank of 'Father of our Chinese Republic'. Dr. Sun worked for 40 years to lead our people in the Nationalist cause, and we cannot allow any other personality to usurp this honored position". He asked Chen Guofu to purchase a photograph that had been taken in Japan or 1898. It showed members of the Revive China Society with Yeung Ku-wan as president, in the place of honor, and Sun, as secretary, on the back row, along with members of the Japanese Chapter of the Revive China Society. When told that it was not for sale, Chiang offered a million dollars to recover the photo and its negative, "The party must have this picture and the negative at any price. They must be destroyed as soon as possible. It would be embarrassing to have our Father of the Chinese Republic shown in a subordinate position". On 12 April 1927, Chiang carried out a purge of thousands of suspected Communists and dissidents in Shanghai, and began large-scale massacres across the country collectively known as the "White Terror". During April, more than people were killed in Shanghai. The killings drove most Communists from urban cities and into the rural countryside, where the KMT was less powerful. In the year after April 1927, over 300,000 people died across China in the anti-communist suppression campaigns, executed by the KMT. One of the most famous quotes from Chiang (during that time) was, that he would rather mistakenly kill 1,000 innocent people, than allow one Communist to escape. Some estimates claim the White Terror in China took millions of lives, most of them in rural areas. No concrete number can be verified. Chiang allowed Soviet agent and advisor Mikhail Borodin and Soviet general Vasily Blücher (Galens) to "escape" to safety after the purge. The NRA formed by the KMT swept through southern and central China until it was checked in Shandong, where confrontations with the Japanese garrison escalated into armed conflict. The conflicts were collectively known as the Jinan incident of 1928. Now with an established national government in Nanjing, and supported by conservative allies including Hu Hanmin, Chiang's expulsion of the Communists and their Soviet advisers led to the beginning of the Chinese Civil War. Wang Jingwei's National Government was weak militarily, and was soon ended by Chiang with the support of a local warlord (Li Zongren of Guangxi). Eventually, Wang and his leftist party surrendered to Chiang and joined him in Nanjing. However, the cracks between Chiang and Hu's traditionally Right-Wing KMT faction, the Western Hills Group, began to show soon after the cleansing against the communists, and Chiang later imprisoned Hu. Though Chiang had consolidated the power of the KMT in Nanjing, it was still necessary to capture Beijing to claim the legitimacy needed for international recognition. Beijing was taken in June 1928, from an alliance of the warlords Feng Yuxiang and Yan Xishan. Yan Xishan moved in and captured Beiping on behalf of his new allegiance after the death of Zhang Zuolin in 1928. His successor, Zhang Xueliang, accepted the authority of the KMT leadership, and the Northern Expedition officially concluded, completing Chiang's nominal unification of China and ending the Warlord Era. After the Northern Expedition ended in 1928, Yan, Feng, Li Zongren and Zhang Fakui broke off relations with Chiang shortly after a demilitarization conference in 1929, and together they formed an anti-Chiang coalition to openly challenge the legitimacy of the Nanjing government. In the Central Plains War, they were defeated. Chiang made great efforts to gain recognition as the official successor of Sun Yat-sen. In a pairing of great political significance, Chiang was Sun's brother-in-law. He had married Soong Mei-ling, the younger sister of Soong Ching-ling, Sun's widow, on 1 December 1927. Originally rebuffed in the early 1920s, Chiang managed to ingratiate himself to some degree with Soong Mei-ling's mother by first divorcing his wife and concubines and promising to sincerely study the precepts of Christianity. He read the copy of the Bible that May-ling had given him twice before making up his mind to become a Christian, and three years after his marriage he was baptized in the Soong's Methodist church. Although some observers felt that he adopted Christianity as a political move, studies of his recently opened diaries suggest that his faith was strong and sincere and that he felt that Christianity reinforced Confucian moral teachings. Upon reaching Beijing, Chiang paid homage to Sun Yat-sen and had his body moved to the new capital of Nanjing to be enshrined in a mausoleum, the Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum. in 1928]] In the West and in the Soviet Union, Chiang Kai-shek was known as the "Red General". Movie theaters in the Soviet Union showed newsreels and clips of Chiang. At Moscow, Sun Yat-sen University portraits of Chiang were hung on the walls; and, in the Soviet May Day parades that year, Chiang's portrait was to be carried along with the portraits of Karl Marx, Vladimir Lenin, Joseph Stalin, and other Communist leaders. The United States consulate and other Westerners in Shanghai were concerned about the approach of "Red General" Chiang as his army was seizing control of large areas of the country in the Northern Expedition.Rule Having gained control of China, Chiang's party remained surrounded by defeated warlords who remained relatively autonomous within their own regions. On 10 October 1928, Chiang was named director of the State Council, the equivalent to President of the country, in addition to his other titles. As with his predecessor Sun Yat-sen, the Western media dubbed him "generalissimo". According to Sun Yat-sen's plans, the KMT was to rebuild China in three steps: military rule, political tutelage, and constitutional rule. The ultimate goal of the KMT revolution was democracy, which was not considered to be feasible in China's fragmented state. Since the KMT had completed the first step of revolution through seizure of power in 1928, Chiang's rule thus began a period of what his party considered to be "political tutelage" in Sun Yat-sen's name. During this so-called Republican Era, many features of a modern, functional Chinese state emerged and developed. From 1928 to 1937, known as the Nanjing decade, various aspects of foreign imperialism, concessions and privileges in China were moderated by diplomacy. The government acted to modernize the legal and penal systems and attempted to stabilize prices, amortize debts, reform the banking and currency systems, build railroads and highways, improve public health facilities, legislate against traffic in narcotics, and augment industrial and agricultural production. Efforts were made to improve education standards, and the national academy of sciences, Academia Sinica, was founded. In an effort to unify Chinese society, the New Life Movement was launched to encourage Confucian moral values and personal discipline. Guoyu ("national language") was promoted as the official language, and the establishment of communications facilities (including radio) was used to encourage a sense of Chinese nationalism in a way that had not been possible when the nation lacked an effective central government. Under that context, the Chinese Rural Reconstruction Movement was implemented by some social activists who graduated as professors of the United States with tangible but limited progress in modernizing the tax, infrastructural, economic, cultural, and educational equipment and the mechanisms of rural regions. The social activists actively co-ordinated with the local governments in the towns and villages since the early 1930s. However, the policy was subsequently neglected and canceled by Chiang's government because of rampant wars and the lack of resources after the Japanese War and the civil war. Despite being a conservative, Chiang supported modernization policies such as scientific advancement, universal education, and women's rights. The Kuomintang supported women's suffrage and education and the abolition of polygamy and foot binding. Under Chiang's leadership, the Republic of China government also enacted a women's quota in the parliament, with reserved seats for women. During the Nanjing Decade, average Chinese citizens received education that they had been denied by the dynasties. That increased the literacy rate across China and also promoted the ideals of Tridemism of democracy, republicanism, science, constitutionalism, and Chinese nationalism based on the Dang Guo of the KMT. Any successes that the Nationalists achieved, however, were met with constant political and military upheavals. Many of the urban areas were now under the control of the KMT, but much of the countryside remained under the influence of weakened-but -undefeated warlords, landlords, and Communists. Chiang often resolved issues of warlord obstinacy through military action, but such action was costly in terms of men and material. The Central Plains War alone nearly bankrupted the Nationalist government and caused almost casualties on both sides. In 1931, Hu Hanmin, an old supporter of Chiang, publicly voiced a popular concern that Chiang's position as both premier and president flew in the face of the democratic ideals of the Nationalist government. Chiang had Hu put under house arrest, but Hu was released after national condemnation. Hu then left Nanjing and supported a rival government in Canton. The split resulted in a military conflict between Hu's Guangdong government and Chiang's Nationalist government. '' magazine, 26 October 1931]] Throughout his rule, complete eradication of the Communists remained Chiang's dream. After he had assembled his forces in Jiangxi, Chiang led his armies against the newly established Chinese Soviet Republic. With help from foreign military advisers such as Max Bauer and Alexander von Falkenhausen, Chiang's Fifth Campaign finally surrounded the Chinese Red Army in 1934. The Communists, tipped off that a Nationalist offensive was imminent, retreated in the Long March during which Mao rose from a mere military official to the most influential leader of the Chinese Communist Party. Some academics and historians have classified Chiang's rule as fascist. The New Life Movement, initiated by Chiang, was based upon Confucianism mixed with Christianity, nationalism, and authoritarianism that have some similarities to fascism. Frederic Wakeman argued that the New Life Movement was "Confucian fascism". Chiang also sponsored the creation of the Blue Shirts Society, in conscious imitation of the Blackshirts in the Italian Fascist Party and the Sturmabteilung of the Nazi Party. Its ideology was to expel foreign (Japanese and Western) imperialists from China and to crush communism. Close ties with Nazi Germany also gave the Nationalist government access to German military and economic assistance during the mid-1930s. In a 1935 speech, Chiang stated that "fascism is what China now most needs" and described fascism as the stimulant for a declining society. Sino-German relations rapidly deteriorated as Germany grew closer to Japan and almost completely broke down when Japan launched a full-scale invasion of China in 1937, which Germany failed to mediate. However, China did not declare war on Germany, Italy, or even Japan until after the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941. Chinese Communists and many conservative anti-communist writers have argued that Chiang was pro-capitalist based on the alliance thesis (the alliance between Chiang and the capitalists to purge the communist and the leftist elements in Shanghai, as well as in the resulting civil war). However, Chiang also antagonized the capitalists of Shanghai by often attacking them and confiscating their capital and assets for government use even while he denounced and fought against communists. Critics have called that "bureaucratic capitalism". Historian Parks M. Coble argues that the phrase "bureaucratic capitalism" is too simplistic to adequately characterize this phenomenon. Instead, he says, the regime weakened all social forces so that the government could pursue policies without being responsible nor responsive to any outside political groups. By defeating any potential challenge to its power, government officials could amass sizable fortunes. With that motive, Chiang cracked down pro-communist worker and peasant organizations, as well as rich Shanghai capitalists. Chiang also continued the anti-capitalist rhetoric of Sun Yat-sen and directed the Kuomintang media to attack the capitalists and capitalism openly. He supported government-controlled industries instead. Coble says that the rhetoric had no impact on governmental policy and that its use was to prevent the capitalists from claiming legitimacy within the party or society and to control them and their wealth. Authority within the Nationalist government ultimately lay with Chiang. All major policy changes on military, diplomatic, or economic issues required his approval. The Soong family embezzled $20 million in the course of the 1930s and the 1940s when the Nationalist government's revenues were less than $30 million per year. Soong Mei-ling and Soong Ai-ling lived luxurious lifestyles and held millions in property, clothes, art, and jewelry. Soong Ai-ling and Soong Mei-ling were also the two richest women in China. Despite living a luxurious life for almost her entire life, Soong Mei-ling left only a $120,000 inheritance, and the reason is that according to her niece, that she donated most of her wealth when she was still alive. Chiang, requiring support, tolerated corruption with people in his inner circles, as well as high-ranking nationalist officials, but not of lower-ranking officers. In 1934, he ordered seven military officers who embezzled state property to be shot. In another case, several division commanders pleaded with Chiang to pardon a criminal officer, but as soon as the division commanders had left, Chiang ordered him shot. The deputy editor and chief reporter at the Central Daily News, Lu Keng, made headline international news by exposing the corruption of two senior officials, Kong Xiangxi (H. H. Kung) and T. V. Soong. Chiang then ordered a thorough investigation of the Central Daily News to find the source. However, Lu, risked execution by refusing to comply and protecting his journalists. Chiang wanting to avoid an international response and so jailed Lu instead. Chiang realized the widespread problems that corruption was creating and so he undertook several anti-corruption campaigns before and after World War II with varying success. Before the war, both campaigns, the Nanjing Decade Cleanup of 1927–1930 and the Wartime Reform Movement of 1944–1947, failed. After the World War II and the Civil War, both campaigns, the Kuomintang Reconstruction of 1950–1952 and the Governmental Rejuvenation of 1969–1973, succeeded. Chiang, who viewed all of the foreign great powers with suspicion, wrote in a letter that they "all have it in their minds to promote the interests of their own respective countries at the cost of other nations" and saw it as hypocritical for any of them to condemn one another's foreign policy. He used diplomatic persuasion on the United States, Nazi Germany, and the Soviet Union to regain lost Chinese territories, as he viewed all foreign powers as imperialists that were attempting to exploit China. First phase of Chinese Civil War During April 1931, Chiang Kai-shek attended a national leadership conference in Nanjing with Zhang Xueliang and General Ma Fuxiang during which Chiang and Zhang dauntlessly upheld that Manchuria was part of China in the face of the Japanese invasion. After the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, Chiang resigned as Chairman of the National Government. He returned shortly afterward and adopted the slogan "first internal pacification, then external resistance." However, his policy of avoiding a frontal war against Japan and prioritizing anti-communist suppression was widely unpopular and provoked nationwide protests. In 1932, while Chiang was seeking first to defeat the Communists, Japan launched an advance on Shanghai and bombarded Nanjing. That disrupted Chiang's offensives against the Communists for a time, but it was the northern factions of Hu Hanmin's Guangdong government (notably the 19th Route Army) that primarily led the offensive against the Japanese during the skirmish. Brought into the NRA immediately after the battle, the 19th Route Army's career under Chiang would be cut short by being disbanded for demonstrating socialist tendencies. In December 1936, Chiang flew to Xi'an to co-ordinate a major assault on the Red Army and the CPC, which had retreated into Yan'an. However, Chiang's allied commander Zhang Xueliang, whose forces were used in his attack and whose homeland of Manchuria had been recently invaded by the Japanese, did not support the attack on the Communists. On 12 December, Zhang and several other Nationalist generals, headed by Yang Hucheng of Shaanxi kidnapped Chiang for two weeks in what is known as the Xi'an Incident. They forced Chiang into making a "Second United Front" with the Communists against Japan. After releasing Chiang and returning to Nanjing with him, Zhang was placed under house arrest, and the generals who had assisted him were executed. The Second United Front had a commitment by Chiang that was nominal at best and was all but dissolved in 1941. Second Sino-Japanese War , The Young Companion featured Chiang on its cover.]] The Second Sino-Japanese War broke out in July 1937, and in August, Chiang sent of his best-trained and equipped soldiers to defend Shanghai. With over 200,000 Chinese casualties, Chiang lost the political cream of his Whampoa-trained officers. Although Chiang lost militarily, the battle dispelled Japan's claims that it could conquer China in three months and also demonstrated to the Western powers that the Chinese would continue the fight. By December, the capital city of Nanjing had fallen to the Japanese resulting in the Nanjing Massacre. Chiang moved the government inland first to Wuhan and later to Chongqing. Having lost most of China's economic and industrial centers, Chiang withdrew into the hinterlands, stretched the Japanese supply lines, and bogged down Japanese soldiers in the vast Chinese interior. As part of a policy of protracted resistance, Chiang authorized the use of scorched-earth tactics, which resulted in many civilian deaths. During the Nationalists' retreat from Zhengzhou, the dams around the city were deliberately destroyed by the National Revolutionary Army to delay the Japanese advance, and the subsequent 1938 Yellow River flood killed 800,000 to one million people. Four million Chinese were left homeless. In 1939, the Muslim leaders Isa Yusuf Alptekin and Ma Fuliang were sent by Chiang to several Middle Eastern countries, including Egypt, Turkey, and Syria, to gain support for the war against Japan and to express his support for Muslims. The Japanese, controlling the puppet state of Manchukuo and much of China's eastern seaboard, appointed Wang Jingwei as a puppet ruler of the occupied Chinese territories around Nanjing. Wang named himself President of the Executive Yuan and chairman, and he led a surprisingly large minority of anti-Chiang and anti-Communist Chinese against his old comrades. He died in 1944, a year before the end of World War II. The Hui Xidaotang sect pledged allegiance to the Kuomintang after the party's rise to power, and Hui general Bai Chongxi acquainted Chiang with the Xidaotang Juaozhu Ma Mingren in 1941 in Chongqing. In 1942 Chiang went on tour in northwestern China in Xinjiang, Gansu, Ningxia, Shaanxi, and Qinghai, where he met the Muslim Generals Ma Buqing and Ma Bufang. He also met the Muslim Generals Ma Hongbin and Ma Hongkui separately. , Egypt, in November 1943]] A border crisis erupted with Tibet in 1942. Under orders from Chiang, Ma Bufang repaired Yushu Airport to prevent Tibetan separatists from seeking independence. Chiang also ordered Ma Bufang to put his Muslim soldiers on alert for an invasion of Tibet in 1942. Ma Bufang complied and moved several thousand troops to the Tibetan border. Chiang also threatened the Tibetans with aerial bombardment if they worked with the Japanese. Ma Bufang attacked the Tibetan Buddhist Tsang monastery in 1941. He also constantly attacked the Labrang Monastery. After the attack on Pearl Harbor and the opening of the Pacific War, China became one of the Allies. During and after World War II, Chiang and his American-educated wife, Soong Mei-ling, known in the United States as "Madame Chiang", held the support of the American China Lobby, which saw in them the hope of a Christian and democratic China. Chiang was even named the Supreme Commander of Allied forces in the China war zone. He was appointed Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath in 1942. General Joseph Stilwell, an American military advisor to Chiang during World War II, strongly criticized Chiang and his generals for what Stilwell saw as their incompetence and corruption. In 1944, the United States Army Air Corps commenced Operation Matterhorn to bomb Japan's steel industry from bases to be constructed in mainland China. That was meant to fulfill US President Franklin D. Roosevelt's promise to Chiang to begin bombing operations against Japan by November 1944. However, Chiang's subordinates refused to take air base construction seriously until enough capital had been delivered to permit embezzlement on a massive scale. Stilwell estimated that at least half of the $100 million spent on construction of air bases was embezzled by Nationalist party officials. The poor performance of Nationalist forces during the Japanese Ichigo campaign contributed to the view that Chiang was incompetent. In 1945, Chiang adopted a eugenic population policy that was intended to promote hybrid vigor by encouraging intermarriage between whites and Chinese to combine European fair skin with superior Chinese intelligence. After the war, 200,000 Chinese troops under General Lu Han were sent by Chiang to northern Indochina (north of the 16th parallel) to accept the surrender of Japanese occupying forces there, and the Chinese forces remained in Indochina until 1946, when the French returned. The Chinese used the VNQDD, the Vietnamese branch of the Kuomintang, to increase their influence in Indochina and to put pressure on their opponents. Chiang threatened the French with war in response to maneuvering by the French and Ho Chi Minh's forces against each other and forced them to come to a peace agreement. In February 1946, he also forced the French to surrender all of their concessions in China and to renounce their extraterritorial privileges in exchange for the Chinese withdrawing from northern Indochina and allowing French troops to reoccupy the region. After France's agreement to those demands, 20,000 French soldiers landed in Haiphong, North Vietnam, on 6 March 1946, under the leadership of general Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque, followed by the withdrawal of Chinese troops which began in March 1946.RyukyusAccording to Republic of China's notes of a dinner meeting during the Cairo Conference in 1943, Roosevelt asked Chiang whether China desired the Ryukyu Islands as territories restored from Japan. Chiang said he would be agreeable to joint occupation and administration by China and the United States. Second phase of Chinese Civil War Treatment and use of Japanese soldiers Because of Chiang's focus on his communist opponents, he allowed some Japanese forces and forces from the Japanese puppet regimes to remain on duty in occupied areas in an effort to prevent the communists from accepting their surrender. In 1949, a Nationalist court acquitted General Okamura Yasuji, the chief commander of Japanese forces in China, of alleged war crimes, Nationalist China repeatedly intervened to protect Okamura from repeated American requests to testify at the Tokyo war crimes trial. The war had severely weakened the Nationalists, and the Communists were strengthened by their popular land reform policies and by a rural population that supported and trusted them. The Nationalists initially had superiority in arms and men, but their lack of popularity, infiltration by Communist agents, low morale, and disorganization soon allowed the Communists to gain the upper hand in the civil war. After World War II, the United States encouraged peace talks between Chiang and the Communist leader, Mao Zedong, in Chongqing. Concerns about widespread and well-documented corruption in Chiang's government throughout his rule made the US government limit aid to Chiang for much of the period of 1946 to 1948 despite the fighting against Mao's Red Army. Alleged infiltration of the US government by CCP agents may have also played a role in the suspension of American aid. Chiang's right-hand man, the secret police chief Dai Li, was anti-American and anti-Communist and a self-declared fascist. Dai ordered Kuomintang agents to spy on American officers. Earlier, Dai had been involved with the Blue Shirts Society, a fascist-inspired paramilitary group within the Kuomintang that wanted to expel Western and Japanese imperialists, crush the Communists, and eliminate feudalism. Dai Li died in a plane crash, which some suspect to be an assassination orchestrated by Chiang; however, the assassination was also rumoured to have been arranged by the American Office of Strategic Services because of Dai's anti-Americanism and since it happened on an American plane. Conflict with Li Zongren A new constitution was promulgated in 1947, and Chiang was elected by the National Assembly as the first President of the Republic of China on 20 May 1948. That marked the beginning of what was termed the "democratic constitutional government" period by the KMT political orthodoxy, but the Communists refused to recognize the new Constitution, and its government as legitimate. Chiang resigned as president on 21 January 1949, as Nationalist forces suffered terrible losses and defections to the Communists. After Chiang's resignation, vice-president Li Zongren became China's acting president. Shortly after Chiang's resignation, the Communists halted their advances and attempted to negotiate the Nationalists' virtual surrender. Li tried to negotiate milder terms to end the civil war but had no success. When it became clear that Li was unlikely to accept Mao's terms, the Communists issued an ultimatum in April 1949 that warned that they would resume their attacks if Li did not agree within five days. Li refused. Li's attempts to carry out his policies faced varying degrees of opposition from Chiang's supporters and were generally unsuccessful. Taylor has noted that Chiang had a superstitious belief in holding Manchuria. After the Nationalist military defeat in the province, Chiang lost faith in winning the war and started to prepare for the retreat to Taiwan. Chiang especially antagonized Li by taking possession of and moving to Taiwan US$200 million of gold and US dollars that belonged to the central government. Li desperately needed them to cover the government's soaring expenses. When the Communists captured the Nationalist capital of Nanjing in April 1949, Li refused to accompany the central government as it fled to Guangdong and instead expressed his dissatisfaction with Chiang by retiring to Guangxi. in 1949]] The former warlord Yan Xishan, who had fled to Nanjing only one month earlier, quickly insinuated himself within the Li-Chiang rivalry and attempted to have Li and Chiang reconcile their differences in the effort to resist the Communists. At Chiang's request, Yan visited Li to convince Li not to withdraw from public life. Yan broke down in tears while he talked of the loss of his home province of Shanxi to the Communists, and he warned Li that the Nationalist cause was doomed unless Li went to Guangdong. Li agreed to return if Chiang surrendered most of the gold and US dollars in his possession that belonged to the central government, and Chiang stopped overriding Li's authority. After Yan communicated those demands and Chiang agreed to comply with them, Li departed for Guangdong. In Guangdong, Li attempted to create a new government composed of both supporters and opponents of Chiang. Li's first choice of premier was Chu Cheng, a veteran member of the Kuomintang who had been virtually driven into exile for his strong opposition to Chiang. After the Legislative Yuan jas rejected Chu, Li was obliged to choose Yan Xishan instead. By then, Yan was well known for his adaptability, and Chiang welcomed his appointment. The conflict between Chiang and Li persisted. Although he had agreed to do so as a prerequisite of Li's return, Chiang refused to surrender more than a fraction of the wealth that he had sent to Taiwan. Without being backed by gold or foreign currency, the money that was issued by Li and Yan quickly declined in value until it became virtually worthless. Although he did not hold a formal executive position in the government, Chiang continued to issue orders to the army, and many officers continued to obey Chiang, rather than Li. The inability of Li to co-ordinate KMT military forces led him to put into effect a plan of defense that he had contemplated in 1948. Instead of attempting to defend all of southern China, Li ordered what remained of the Nationalist armies to withdraw to Guangxi and Guangdong. He hoped that he could concentrate all available defenses on the smaller area, which would be more easily defensible. The object of Li's strategy was to maintain a foothold on the Chinese mainland in the hope that the United States would eventually be compelled to enter the war in China on the Nationalist side. Final Communist advance (1946–1950)]] Chiang opposed Li's plan of defense because it would have placed most of the troops who were still loyal to Chiang under the control of Li and Chiang's other opponents in the central government. To overcome Chiang's intransigence Li began ousting Chiang's supporters within the central government. Yan Xishan continued in his attempts to work with both sides, which created the impression among Li's supporters that he was a stooge of Chiang, and those who supported Chiang began to bitterly resent Yan for his willingness to work with Li. Because of the rivalry between Chiang and Li, Chiang refused to allow Nationalist troops loyal to him to aid in the defense of Guangxi and Canton. That let Communist forces occupy Canton in October 1949. After Canton fell to the Communists, Chiang relocated the government to Chongqing, and Li effectively surrendered his powers and flew to New York for treatment of his chronic duodenum illness at the Hospital of Columbia University. Li visited President Truman, and denounced Chiang as a dictator and an usurper. Li vowed that he would "return to crush" Chiang once he returned to China. Li remained in exile and did not return to Taiwan. In the early morning of 10 December 1949, Communist troops laid siege to Chengdu, the last KMT-controlled city in mainland China, where Chiang Kai-shek and his son Chiang Ching-kuo directed the defense at the Chengtu Central Military Academy. Flying out of Chengdu Fenghuangshan Airport, father and son were evacuated to Taiwan via Guangdong on the aircraft May-ling and arrived the same day. Chiang Kai-shek would never return to the mainland. Historian Odd Arne Westad says the Communists won the Civil War because they made fewer military mistakes than Chiang had. Also, his search for a powerful centralized government made Chiang antagonize too many interest groups in China. Furthermore, his party was weakened by the war against Japan. Meanwhile, the Communists told different groups, such as peasants, exactly what they wanted to hear and cloaked themselves in the cover of Chinese nationalism. Chiang did not reassume the presidency until 1 March 1950. In January 1952, Chiang commanded the Control Yuan, now in Taiwan, to impeach Li in the "Case of Li Zongren's Failure to carry out Duties due to Illegal Conduct" (李宗仁違法失職案). Chiang relieved Li of the position as vice-president of the National Assembly in March 1954. In Taiwan Preparations to retake the mainland Chiang moved the government to Taipei, Taiwan, where he resumed his duties as president on 1 March 1950. Chiang was re-elected by the National Assembly to be the President of the Republic of China on 20 May 1954, and again in 1960, 1966, and 1972. He continued to claim sovereignty over all of China, including the territories held by his government and the People's Republic, as well as territory the latter ceded to foreign governments, such as Tuva and Outer Mongolia. In the context of the Cold War, most of the Western world recognized that position, and the ROC represented China in the United Nations and other international organizations until the 1970s. , in 1957]] During his presidency on Taiwan, Chiang continued making preparations to take back mainland China. He developed the JROTC army to prepare for an invasion of the mainland and to defend Taiwan in case of an attack by the Communist forces. He also financed armed groups in mainland China, such as Muslim soldiers of the ROC Army who had been left in Yunnan under Li Mi and continued to fight. It was not until the 1980s that those troops were finally airlifted to Taiwan. He promoted the Uyghur Yulbars Khan to governor during the Islamic insurgency on the mainland for resisting the Communists even though the government had already evacuated to Taiwan. He planned an invasion of the mainland in 1962. In the 1950s, Chiang's airplanes dropped supplies to Kuomintang Muslim insurgents in Qinghai, in the traditional Tibetan area of Amdo. Regime in Taiwan Despite an ostensibly democratic constitution, the government under Chiang was a de facto one-party state, consisting almost completely of mainlanders; the "Temporary Provisions Effective During the Period of Communist Rebellion" greatly enhanced the executive's powers, and the goal of retaking mainland China allowed the KMT to maintain a monopoly on power and to prohibit real parliamentary opposition. The government's official line for the martial law provisions stemmed from the claim that emergency provisions were necessary since the Communists and the Nationalists were still in a state of war. Seeking to promote Chinese nationalism, Chiang's government actively ignored and suppressed local cultural expression and even forbade the use of local languages in mass media broadcasts or during class sessions. As a result of Taiwan's anti-government uprising in 1947, known as the February 28 incident, the KMT-led political repression resulted in the death or the disappearance of up to 30,000 Taiwanese intellectuals, activists, and people suspected of opposition to the KMT. The first decades after the Nationalists had moved the seat of government to the province of Taiwan are associated with the organized effort to resist Communism, which was known as the "White Terror"; about 140,000 Taiwanese were imprisoned for their real or perceived opposition to the Kuomintang. Most of those prosecuted were labeled by the Kuomintang as "bandit spies" (匪諜), meaning spies for Chinese Communists, and punished as such or "Taiwanese Separatists" (台獨分子). Under the pretext that new elections could not be held in Communist-occupied constituencies, the National Assembly, Legislative Yuan, and Control Yuan members held their posts indefinitely. The Temporary Provisions also allowed Chiang to remain as president beyond the two-term limit in the Constitution. He was re-elected by the National Assembly as president four times: in 1954, 1960, 1966, and 1972. ]] Believing that corruption and the lack of morals were key reasons that the KMT had lost mainland China to the Communists, Chiang attempted to purge corruption by dismissing members of the KMT who were accused of graft. Some major figures in the previous mainland Chinese government, such as Chiang's brothers-in-law H. H. Kung and T. V. Soong, exiled themselves to the United States. Although politically authoritarian and, to some extent, dominated by government-owned industries, Chiang's new Taiwanese state also encouraged economic development, especially in the export sector. A popular sweeping Land Reform Act, as well as American foreign aid during the 1950s, laid the foundation for Taiwan's economic success to become one of the Four Asian Tigers. After retreating to Taiwan, Chiang learned from his mistakes and failures in the mainland and blamed them for failing to pursue Sun Yat-sen's ideals of Tridemism and welfarism. Chiang's land reform more than doubled the land ownership of Taiwanese farmers. It removed the rent burdens on them, with former landowners using the government compensation to become the new capitalist class. He promoted a mixed economy of state and private ownership with economic planning. Chiang also promoted a nine-year free education and the importance of science in Taiwanese education and values. Those measures generated great success, with consistent and strong growth and the stabilization of inflation. After the government of the Republic of China had moved to Taiwan, Chiang Kai-shek's economic policy turned towards to economic liberalism and used Sho-Chieh Tsiang and other liberal economists to promote economic liberalization reforms in Taiwan. However, Taylor has noted that the developmental model of Chiangism in Taiwan still had elements of socialism, and the Gini index of Taiwan was around 0.28 by the 1970s, which was lower than the relatively-egalitarian West Germany. ROC (Taiwan) was one of the most equal countries in the pro-western bloc. Those in the lower 40% of income doubled their share to 22% of the total income, with the upper 20% shrinking their share from 61% to 39%, from the time of Japanese rule. The Chiangist economic model can be seen as a form of dirigisme, with the state playing a crucial role in directing the market economy. Small businesses and state-owned enterprises in Taiwan flourished under the economic model, but the economy did not see the emergence of corporate monopolies, unlike in most other major capitalist countries. After the democratization of Taiwan, it began to slowly drift away from the Chiangist economic policy to embrace a more free market system, as part of the economic globalization process under the context of neoliberalism. Chiang had the personal power to review the rulings of all military tribunals, which during the martial law period tried civilians as well. In 1950, Lin Pang-chun and two other men were arrested on charges of financial crimes and sentenced to 3–10 years in prison. Chiang reviewed the sentences of all three and ordered them executed instead. In 1954, the Changhua monk Kao Chih-te and two others were sentenced to 12 years in prison for providing aid to accused communists. Chiang sentenced them to death after he had reviewed the case. That control over the decision of military tribunals violated the ROC constitution. After Chiang's death, the next president, his son, Chiang Ching-kuo, and Chiang Ching-kuo's successor, Lee Teng-hui, a native Taiwanese, would in the 1980s and 1990s increase native Taiwanese representation in the government and loosen the many authoritarian controls of the early era of ROC control in Taiwan, paving way for the democratization process. Relations with Japan In 1971, the former Australian opposition leader Gough Whitlam became Prime Minister in 1972, and swiftly relocated the Australian mission from Taipei to Beijing, visited Japan. After meeting with Japanese Prime Minister Eisaku Sato Whitlam observed that the reason that Japan was hesitant to withdraw recognition from the Nationalist government was "the presence of a treaty between the Japanese government and that of Chiang Kai-shek." Sato explained that the continued recognition of Japan towards the Nationalist government was largely because of the personal relationship that various members of the Japanese government felt towards Chiang. This relationship was rooted largely in the generous and lenient treatment of Japanese prisoners-of-war by the Nationalist government in the years immediately after the Japanese surrender in 1945, and was felt especially strongly as a bond of personal obligation by the most senior members who were in power. Although Japan recognized the People's Republic in 1972, shortly after Kakuei Tanaka had succeeded Sato as Prime Minister of Japan, the memory of the relationship was strong enough to be reported by The New York Times (15 April 1978) as a significant factor inhibiting trade between Japan and the mainland. There is speculation that a clash between Communist forces and a Japanese warship in 1978 was caused by Chinese anger over Japanese Prime Minister Takeo Fukuda attending Chiang's funeral. Historically, Japan's attempts to normalize its relationship with the People's Republic were met with accusations of ingratitude in Taiwan.Relations with United States in June 1960]] Chiang was suspicious that covert operatives of the United States were plotting a coup against him. In 1950, Chiang Ching-kuo became director of the secret police (Bureau of Investigation and Statistics), which he remained until 1965. Chiang Kai-shek was also suspicious of politicians who were overly friendly to the United States and considered them his enemies. In 1953, seven days after surviving an assassination attempt, Wu Kuo-chen lost his position as governor of Taiwan Province to Chiang Ching-kuo. After fleeing to United States the same year, Wu became a vocal critic of Chiang's family and government. Chiang Ching-kuo, who had been educated in the Soviet Union, initiated Soviet-style military organization in the Republic of China Armed Forces. He reorganized and Sovietized the political officer corps and propagated Kuomintang ideology throughout the military. Sun Li-jen, who had been educated at the American Virginia Military Institute, opposed those practices. Chiang Ching-kuo orchestrated the controversial court-martial and arrest of General Sun Li-jen in August 1955 for plotting a coup d'état with the CIA against his father, Chiang Kai-shek, and the Kuomintang. The CIA allegedly wanted to help Sun take control of Taiwan and declare its independence. Death is a famous monument, landmark, and tourist attraction in Taipei, Taiwan.]] In 1975, 26 years after Chiang had come to Taiwan, he died in Taipei at the age of 87. He had suffered a heart attack and pneumonia in the foregoing months, and died from kidney failure aggravated by advanced heart failure on 5 April. Chiang's funeral was held on 16 April. A month of mourning was declared. The Chinese music composer Hwang Yau-tai wrote the "Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Song". In mainland China, however, Chiang's death was met with little apparent mourning, and Communist state-run newspapers gave the brief headline "Chiang Kai-shek Has Died". Chiang's body was put in a copper coffin and temporarily interred at his favorite residence in Cihu, Daxi, Taoyuan. His funeral was attended by dignitaries from many nations, including US Vice President Nelson Rockefeller, South Korean Prime Minister Kim Jong-pil, and two former Japanese prime ministers: Nobusuke Kishi and Eisaku Sato. was established on 5 April. The memorial day was disestablished in 2007. The response by Japanese media was swift and shaped by a cult of personality around Chiang Kai-shek. Japanese conservatives had long promoted to counter the China policy and the historical narratives of their leftist pro-PRC opponents. The nationalist leader of Taiwan had been trained in Japanese military schools and shared a particular fondness for the Japanese Empire. When his son, Chiang Ching-kuo, died in 1988, he was entombed in a separate mausoleum in nearby Touliao. The hope was to have both of them buried at their birthplace in Fenghua when that would be possible. In 2004, Chiang Fang-liang, the widow of Chiang Ching-kuo, asked for both father and son to be buried at Wuzhi Mountain Military Cemetery in Xizhi, Taipei County (now New Taipei City). Chiang's ultimate funeral ceremony became a political battle between the wishes of the state and those of his family. Chiang was succeeded as president by Vice President Yen Chia-kan and as Kuomintang party ruler by his son Chiang Ching-kuo, who retired Chiang Kai-shek's title of Director-General and instead assumed the position of chairman. Yen's presidency was interim; Chiang Ching-kuo, who was the Premier, became president after the end of Yen's term three years later. Cult of personality proclaiming "Long Live the President"]] Chiang's portrait hung over Tiananmen Square until 1949, when it was replaced with Mao's portrait. Portraits of Chiang were common in private homes and in public on the streets. After his death, the Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Song was written in 1988 to commemorate Chiang Kai-shek. In Cihu, there are several statues of Chiang Kai-shek. Chiang was popular among many people and dressed in plain, simple clothes, unlike contemporary Chinese warlords who dressed extravagantly. Quotes from the Quran and hadith were used by Muslims in the Kuomintang-controlled Muslim publication, the Yuehua, to justify Chiang Kai-shek's rule over China. When the Muslim general and warlord Ma Lin was interviewed, he was described as having "high admiration for and unwavering loyalty to Chiang Kai-shek". Philosophy The Kuomintang used traditional Chinese religious ceremonies, and promulgated martyrdom. Kuomintang ideology subserved and promulgated the view that the souls of Party martyrs who died fighting for the Kuomintang, the revolution, and the party founder Sun Yat-sen were sent to heaven. Chiang Kai-shek believed that these martyrs witnessed events on Earth from heaven after their deaths. Unlike Sun's original Tridemist ideology that was heavily influenced by Western enlightenment theorists such as Henry George, Abraham Lincoln, Bertrand Russell, and John Stuart Mill, the traditional Chinese Confucian influence on Chiang's ideology is much stronger. Chiang rejected the Western progressive ideologies of individualism, liberalism, and the cultural aspects of Marxism. Therefore, Chiang is generally more culturally and socially conservative than Sun Yat-sen. Jay Taylor has described Chiang Kai-shek as a revolutionary nationalist and a "left-leaning Confucian-Jacobinist". When the Northern Expedition was complete, Kuomintang Generals led by Chiang Kai-shek paid tribute to Sun's soul in heaven with a sacrificial ceremony at the Xiangshan Temple in Beijing in July 1928. Among the Kuomintang Generals present were the Muslim Generals Bai Chongxi and Ma Fuxiang. Chiang Kai-shek considered both Han Chinese and all ethnic minorities of China, the Five Races Under One Union, as descendants of the Yellow Emperor, the mythical founder of the Chinese nation, and belonging to the Chinese Nation Zhonghua Minzu. He introduced this into Kuomintang ideology which was propagated into the educational system of the Republic of China. Chiang, as a Chinese nationalist and a Confucian, was against the iconoclasm of the May Fourth Movement. Motivated by his sense of nationalism, he viewed some Western ideas as foreign and believed that the great introduction of Western ideas and literature, which the May Fourth Movement promoted, was not beneficial to China. He and Sun criticized the May Fourth intellectuals as corrupting the morals of China's youth. Chiang Kai-shek once said: Contemporary perception , Taiwan]] Chiang's legacy has been subjected to heated debates. For some, Chiang was a national hero who led the victorious Northern Expedition against the Beiyang warlords in 1927 and helped achieve Chinese unification. His initial image as the leader of China against Japan's invasion, both before and after the attack on Pearl Harbor, led him to be featured on the cover of Time magazine ten times. Even though China received little American aid compared to Britain and the Soviet Union, it did not fold, as Chiang called on his countrymen to fight to the "bitter end" until their ultimate victory against Japan in 1945. Some also see him as a champion of anti-communism, being a key figure during the formative years of the World Anti-Communist League. During the subsequent Cold War, he was seen as the leader who led Free China and the bulwark against a possible communist invasion. However, historian Rudolph Rummel documented that the Nationalist government under Chiang led to millions of excess deaths from calamities such as its persecution against actual or perceived communists and its conscription of soldiers, confiscation of food, and flooding of downstream regions of the Yellow River during the Second Sino-Japanese War. His government was also accused of being corrupt and allying with known criminals such as Du Yuesheng for political and financial gains, and his critics often accuse him of fascism. His popularity in Taiwan is divided along political lines, enjoying better support in the Kuomintang (KMT) while being widely unpopular among Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) voters and those who blame him for the thousands killed during the February 28 Incident and criticise his dictatorial rule. In contrast, his image has partially improved in mainland China. He had been portrayed as a villain and a "bourgeoisie reactionary lackey" who fought against the "liberation" of China by the communists, but since the 2000s, the media and popular culture have depicted him in a less negative manner. In the context of the Second Sino-Japanese War, aspects of Chiang's trip to India, or meeting with Roosevelt and Churchill in Cairo can be viewed positively. Chiang's ancestral home in Fenghua, Zhejiang, has become a museum and tourist attraction. Historian Rana Mitter notes that the displays inside were very positive about Chiang's role during the Second Sino-Japanese War. Mitter further observed that, ironically, today's China is closer to Chiang's vision than to Mao's and wrote, "One can imagine Chiang Kai-shek's ghost wandering round China today nodding in approval, while Mao's ghost follows behind him, moaning at the destruction of his vision". Liang Shuming opined that Chiang Kai-shek's "greatest contribution was to make the CCP successful. If he had been a bit more trustworthy, if his character was somewhat better, the CCP would have been unable to beat him". Some Chinese historians argue that the main determinants for Chiang's defeat were not corruption or the lack of US support, but his decision to start the civil war with 70% of government expenditures in the military, his overestimation of the Nationalist forces equipped with US arms, and the loss of popularity and morales of his soldiers. Other historians argue that his failure was largely caused by external factors outside of Chiang's control. They include the refusal of the Truman administration to support Chiang by withdrawing aid, the foisting of an arms embargo by George C. Marshall, the failed pursuit of a détente between the nationalists and the communists, the American push for a coalition government with the CCP, and the USSR's consistent aid and support for the CCP during the civil war. In the United States and Europe, Chiang was often perceived negatively as the one who lost China to the communists. His persistent demands for United States support and funding also prompted jokes from American officials that Chiang's name was actually General "Cash-My-Check". In recent years, Chiang's image has been somewhat rehabilitated, and he has been increasingly perceived as a man overwhelmed by the events in China, having to fight the communists, Japanese, and provincial warlords simultaneously while trying to reconstruct and unify the country. His sincere, albeit often unsuccessful attempts to build a more powerful and modern nation have been noted by scholars such as Jonathan Fenby, Rana Mitter, and biographer Jay Taylor. Family Wives <gallery class"center" classes"center"> File:Mao Fumei.jpg\|Mao Fumei (1882–1939), who died in the Second Sino-Japanese War during a bombardment, is the mother of his son and successor Chiang Ching-kuo File:Yao Zhicheng.jpg\|Yao Yecheng (1889–1972), who came to Taiwan and died in Taipei File:Chen Jieru.jpg\|Chen Jieru ("Jennie", 1906–1971), who lived in Shanghai, but moved to Hong Kong later and died there File:Soong May-ling wearing China Air Force pin.jpg\|Soong Mei-ling (1898–2003), who moved to the United States after Chiang Kai-shek's death, is arguably his most famous wife even though they had no children together </gallery> In 1901, in an arranged marriage at age 14, Chiang was married to Mao Fumei, an illiterate villager five years his senior. While married to Mao, Chiang adopted two concubines (concubinage was still a common practice for well-to-do, non-Christian males in China): he took Yao Yecheng (, 1887–1966) as concubine in late 1912 and married Chen Jieru (1906–1971) in December 1921. While he was still living in Shanghai, Chiang and Yao adopted a son, Wei-kuo. Chen adopted a daughter in 1924, named Yaoguang, who later adopted her mother's surname. Chen's autobiography refuted the idea that she was a concubine. Chen claiming that, by the time she married Chiang, he had already divorced Yao, and that Chen was therefore his wife. Chiang and Mao had a son, Ching-kuo. According to the memoirs of Chen Jieru, Chiang's second wife, she contracted gonorrhea from Chiang soon after their marriage. He told her that he acquired this disease after separating from his first wife and living with his concubine Yao Yecheng, as well as with many other women he consorted with. His doctor explained to her that Chiang had sex with her before completing his treatment for the disease. As a result, both Chiang and Chen Jieru believed that they had become sterile; however, a purported miscarriage by Soong Mei-ling in August 1928 would, if it actually occurred, cast serious doubt on whether this was true. Family tree The Xikou Chiangs were descended from Chiang Shih-chieh, who during the 1600s moved there from Fenghua district, and whose ancestors in turn came to southeastern China's Zhejiang (Chekiang) province after moving out of Northern China in the 13th century CE. The 12th century BCE Duke of Zhou's (Duke of Chou) third son was the ancestors of the Chiangs. His great-grandfather was Chiang Qi-zeng, his grandfather was Chiang Si-qian, his uncle was Chiang Zhao-hai, and his father was Chiang Zhao-cong. Religion and relationships with religious communities Chiang personally dealt extensively with religions, power figures, and factions in China during his regime. Religious views Chiang Kai-shek was born and raised as a Buddhist, but became a Methodist upon his marriage to his fourth wife, Soong Mei-ling. It was previously believed that this was a political move, but further studies of his personal diaries suggest that his faith was sincere. Relationship with Muslims ]] Chiang developed relationships with other generals. Chiang became a sworn brother of the Chinese Muslim general Ma Fuxiang and appointed him to high ranking positions. Chiang addressed Ma Fuxiang's son Ma Hongkui as Shao Yun Shixiong Ma Fuxiang attended national leadership conferences with Chiang during battles against Japan. Ma Hongkui was eventually scapegoated for the failure of the Ningxia Campaign against the Communists, so he moved to the US instead of remaining in Taiwan with Chiang. When Chiang became President of China after the Northern Expedition, he carved out Ningxia and Qinghai out of Gansu province, and appointed Muslim generals as military governors of all three provinces: Ma Hongkui, Ma Hongbin, and Ma Qi. The three Muslim governors, known as Xibei San Ma (), controlled armies composed entirely of Muslims. Chiang called on the three and their subordinates to wage war against the Soviet peoples, Tibetans, Communists, and the Japanese. Chiang continued to appoint Muslims as governors of the three provinces, including Ma Lin and Ma Fushou. Chiang's appointments, the first time that Muslims had been appointed as governors of Gansu, increased the prestige of Muslim officials in northwestern China. The armies raised by this "Ma Clique", most notably their Muslim cavalry, were incorporated into the KMT army. Chiang appointed Hui general Bai Chongxi as the Minister of National Defence of the Republic of China, which controlled the ROC military. Chiang also supported the Muslim General Ma Zhongying, whom he had trained at Whampoa Military Academy during the Kumul Rebellion, in a jihad against Jin Shuren, Sheng Shicai, and the Soviet Union during the Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang. Chiang designated Ma's Muslim army as the 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army) and gave his troops KMT flags and uniforms. Chiang then supported Muslim General Ma Hushan against Sheng and the Soviet Union in the Xinjiang War (1937). All Muslim generals commissioned by Chiang in the National Revolutionary Army swore allegiance to him. Several, like Ma Shaowu and Ma Hushan were loyal to Chiang and Kuomintang hardliners. The Ili Rebellion and Pei-ta-shan Incident plagued relations with the Soviet Union during Chiang's rule and caused trouble with the Uyghurs. During the Ili Rebellion and Peitashan incident, Chiang deployed Hui troops against Uyghur mobs in Turfan, and against Soviet Russian and Mongols at Peitashan. During Chiang's rule, attacks on foreigners and ethnic minorities by the allied warlords of the Nationalist government such as the Ma Clique flared up in several incidents. One of these was the Battle of Kashgar where a Muslim army loyal to the Kuomintang massacred 4,500 Uyghurs, and killed several Britons at the British consulate in Kashgar. Hu Songshan, a Muslim Imam, backed Chiang Kai-shek's regime and gave prayers for his government. ROC flags were saluted by Muslims in Ningxia during prayer along with exhortations to nationalism during Chiang's rule. Chiang sent Muslim students abroad to study at places like Al-Azhar University and Muslim schools throughout China that taught loyalty to his regime. The Yuehua, a Chinese Muslim publication, quoted the Quran and hadith to justify submitting to Chiang Kai-shek as the leader of China, and as justification for Jihad in the war against Japan. The Yihewani (Ikhwan al Muslimun a.k.a. Muslim brotherhood) was the predominant Muslim sect backed by the Chiang government during Chiang's regime. Other Muslim sects, like the Xidaotang and Sufi brotherhoods like Jahriyya and Khuffiya were also supported by his regime. The Chinese Muslim Association, a pro-Kuomintang and anti-Communist organization, was set up by Muslims working in his regime. Salafists attempted to gain a foothold in China during his regime, but the Yihewani and Hanafi Sunni Gedimu denounced the Salafis as radicals, engaged in fights against them, and declared them heretics, forcing the Salafis to form a separate sect. Ma Ching-chiang, a Muslim General, served as an advisor to Chiang Kai-shek. Ma Buqing was another Muslim General who fled to Taiwan along with Chiang. His government donated money to build the Taipei Grand Mosque on Taiwan. Relationship with Buddhists and Christians Chiang had uneasy relations with the Tibetans. He fought against them in the Sino-Tibetan War, and he supported the Muslim General Ma Bufang in his war against Tibetan rebels in Qinghai. Chiang ordered Ma Bufang to prepare his Islamic army to invade Tibet several times, to deter Tibetan independence, and threatened the Tibetans with aerial bombardment. Ma Bufang attacked the Tibetan Buddhist Tsang monastery in 1941. Honours ]] ; Republic of China national honours * Order of National Glory * Order of Blue Sky and White Sun * Order of the Sacred Tripod * Order of Brilliant Jade * Order of Propitious Clouds * Order of the Cloud and Banner * Order of Brilliant Star * Honour Sabre of the Awakened Lion ; Foreign honours * Dominican Republic: Order of Merit of Duarte, Sánchez and Mella (January 1940) Order of Christopher Columbus (July 1948) ** Grand Cross of the Order of Christopher Columbus (October 1971) * Philippines: Chief Commander of the Philippine Legion of Honor (1949) Grand Collar of the Ancient Order of Sikatuna (2 May 1960) * United States: Chief Commander of the Legion of Merit (9 July 1943) Distinguished Service Medal (U.S. Army) (March 1946) * South Korea: Order of Merit for National Foundation (27 November 1953) Grand Order of Mugunghwa (15 February 1966) * Thailand: Order of the Rajamitrabhorn (5 June 1963) * Colombia: Order of Boyaca (October 1963) * United Kingdom: Order of the Bath (1941) * Peru: Order of the Sun of Peru (October 1944) * Czechoslovakia: Order of the White Lion (30 May 1945) * France: Legion of Honour (9 January 1945) * Chile: Order of Merit (Chile) (29 January 1944) * Mexico: Order of the Aztec Eagle (April 1945) * Greece: Order of the Redeemer (22 March 1957) * Jordan: Supreme Order of the Renaissance (9 March 1959) * Brazil: Order of the Southern Cross (1944) * Italy: Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus (April 1948) * Sweden: Royal Order of the Seraphim (4 June 1948) * Spain: Order of Isabella the Catholic (May 1936) Order of Civil Merit (1965) * Venezuela: Order of the Liberator (July 1954) * Vietnam (Republic of Vietnam): Order of Kim Khánh (January 1960) * Belgium: Order of Leopold (Belgium) (4 June 1946) * Malawi: Order of the Lion (Malawi) (5 August 1967) * Bolivia: Order of the Condor of the Andes (March 1966) * Gambia: Order of the Republic of The Gambia (November 1972) * Argentina: Order of the Liberator General San Martín (October 1960) * Guatemala: Order of the Quetzal (7 December 1956) * Nicaragua: National Order of Miguel Larreynaga (November 1974) Order of Ruben Dario (October 1958) * Panama: Order of Vasco Núñez de Balboa (February 1960) * Paraguay: Collar of Marshal Francisco Solano Lopez Grade of National Order of Merit (May 1962) Selected writings * Includes foreword, by J. Leighton Stuart.--What China has faced, by Mme. Chiang Kai-shek.--Sian: a coup d'e´tat, by Mme. Chiang Kai-shek.--A fortnight in Sian: extracts from a diary, by Chiang Kai-shek.--The Generalissimo's admonition to Chiang Hsueh-liang (sic: i.e. Zhang Xueliang) and Yang Hu-chen (sic: i.e. Yang Hucheng) prior to his departure from Sian.--Names of Chinese persons and places mentioned in the story and diary. * Authorized translation of 中国之命运 (Zhongguo zhi mingyun) (1943). . Introduction by Lin Yutang. * . Unauthorized translation of 中国之命运 (Zhongguo zhi mingyun) (1943) by Philip Jaffe, with his notes and extensive critical commentary. * [https://archive.org/details/collectedwartime008681mbp The Collected Wartime Messages Of Generalissimo Chiang Kai Shek] at Netarchive * * —, Works at Internet Archive [https://archive.org/search.php?querycreator%3A%28Chiang+Kai-shek%29&sorttitleSorter HERE] See also * Guesthouses of Chiang Kai-shek * History of the Republic of China * History of China–United States relations to 1948 * List of kidnappings * Politics of the Republic of China * Republic of China Armed Forces * Shilin Official Residence * Timeline of Chiang Kai-shek Notes References Bibliography and further reading * * * * Crozier, Brian. 2009. The Man Who Lost China. * Fairbank, John King, and Denis Twitchett, eds. 1983. The Cambridge History of China: Volume 12, Republican China, 1912–1949, Part 1. * [https://archive.org/details/chiangkaishekchi0000fenb Alt URL] ** * Garver, John W. ''China's Quest: The History of the Foreign Relations of the People's Republic (2nd ed. 2018) comprehensive scholarly history. [https://www.amazon.com/Chinas-Quest-History-Relations-Republic/dp/0190884355/ excerpt] * * * Li, Laura Tyson. 2006. Madame Chiang Kai-shek: China's Eternal First Lady. Grove Press. * * May, Ernest R. 2002. "1947–48: When Marshall Kept the U.S. out of War in China". Journal of Military History 66(4): 1001–1010. [https://www.marshallfoundation.org/newsroom/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2016/01/May-2002.pdf online free] * Paine, S. C. M. The Wars for Asia, 1911–1949 (2014) * * * Romanus, Charles F., and Riley Sunderland. 1959. Time Runs Out in CBI. Official U.S. Army history [https://www.questia.com/library/book/time-runs-out-in-cbi-by-charles-f-romanus-riley-sunderland.jsp online edition] * Sainsbury, Keith. 1985. The Turning Point: Roosevelt, Stalin, Churchill, and Chiang-Kai-shek, 1943. The Moscow, Cairo, and Teheran Conferences. Oxford University Press. * Seagrave, Sterling. 1996. The Soong Dynasty. Corgi Books. * Stueck, William. 1984. The Wedemeyer Mission: American Politics and Foreign Policy during the Cold War. University of Georgia Press. * Tang Tsou. 1963. America's Failure in China, 1941–50. University of California Press. * * * Tuchman, Barbara W. 1971. Stillwell and the American Experience in China, 1911–45. * * van de Ven, Hans, et al. eds. Negotiating China's Destiny in World War II (Stanford University Press, 2014). 336 pp. [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id42871 H-Net online review] * Vogel, Ezra F. China and Japan: Facing History (2019) [https://www.amazon.com/China-Japan-Ezra-F-Vogel/dp/0674916573/ excerpt] External links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170614182245/http://www.president.gov.tw/1_roc_intro/e_xpresident/e_b_cha.html ROC Government Biography] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070329012515/http://www.time.com/time/subscriber/personoftheyear/archive/stories/1937.html Time'' "Man and Wife of the Year", 1937] * [http://www.cksmh.gov.tw/ The National Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall Official Site] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110430211939/http://www.chungcheng.org.tw/ewelcome.html The Chungcheng Cultural and Educational Foundation] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110424223621/http://chiang2006.world.edoors.com/index.php Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek Association Hong Kong] * [http://www.taiwandocuments.org/surrender03.htm Order of Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek supplementing the Act of Surrender] – by Japan on 9 September 1945 * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071212100247/http://www.xikou114.com/index.php?title=%E6%AD%A6%E5%B2%AD%E8%92%8B%E6%B0%8F%E4%B8%96%E7%B3%BB Family tree of his descendants] (in Simplified Chinese) * [http://docs.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/psf/box2/folo15.html The Chiang Kai-shek Index at the Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20040226235850/http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/av/sou_sig/sight01_2.htm 1966 GIO Biographical video] * [http://gpwd.mnd.gov.tw/web2/web2_a/music/mp3_01/04.mp3 "The Memorial Song of Late President Chiang Kai-shek" (Ministry of National Defence of ROC)] * [http://www.spartacus-educational.com/2WWchaing.htm Chiang Kai-shek Biography] – From Spartacus Educational * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100103061217/http://www.ntch.edu.tw/ The National Chiang Kai-shek Cultural Center Official Site] * [http://www.hoover.org/library-archives/collections/chiang-kai-shek-diaries Chiang Kai-shek Diaries at the Hoover Institution Archives] * [http://blog.udn.com/mobile/skyfleet/22339171 蔣介石的勳章 ORDERS of CHIANG KAI SHEK – SKYFLEET/LUFTFLOTT的部落格/天艦 – udn部落格] * }} Category:1887 births Category:1975 deaths Category:20th-century Chinese heads of government Category:20th-century Chinese military personnel Category:20th-century Chinese politicians Category:20th-century presidents in Asia Category:Baoding Military Academy cadets Category:Chinese anti-capitalists Category:Chinese anti-communists Category:Chinese Christians Category:Chinese diarists Category:Chinese Methodists Category:Chinese military personnel of World War II Category:Chinese Nationalist heads of state Category:Chinese nationalists Category:Chinese revolutionaries Category:Conservatism in China Category:Conservatism in Taiwan Category:Converts to Christianity from Buddhism Category:Converts to Methodism Category:Deaths from kidney failure Category:Deified Chinese men Category:Far-right politics in Taiwan Category:Foreign recipients of the Legion of Merit Category:Foreign supporters of Korean independence Category:Generalissimos Category:Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath Category:Imperial Japanese Army officers Category:Kidnapped Chinese people Category:Kuomintang politicians in Taiwan Category:Kuomintang presidential nominees Category:Marshals of China Category:People of the 1911 Revolution Category:People of the Central Plains War Category:People of the Chinese Civil War Category:People of the Northern Expedition Category:Political repression in Taiwan Category:Politicians from Ningbo Category:Politicide perpetrators Category:Premiers of the Republic of China Category:Presidents of the Republic of China on Taiwan Category:Recipients of the Order of Isabella the Catholic Category:Recipients of the Order of Merit for National Foundation Category:Recipients of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus Category:Recipients of the Order of the Sacred Tripod Category:Recipients of the Order of the Sun of Peru Category:Recipients of the Grand Order of Mugunghwa Category:Recipients of the Order of the White Lion Category:Republic of China politicians from Zhejiang Category:Taiwanese anti-communists Category:Taiwanese people from Zhejiang Category:Time Person of the Year Category:Tongmenghui members Category:World War II political leaders	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek	2025-04-05T18:27:59.194162
6863	Compression ratio	thumb\|right\|225px\|In piston engines, static compression ratio is determined using the cylinder volume when the piston is at the top and bottom of its travel. The compression ratio is the ratio between the maximum and minimum volume during the compression stage of the power cycle in a piston or Wankel engine. A fundamental specification for such engines, it can be measured in two different ways. The simpler way is the static compression ratio: in a reciprocating engine, this is the ratio of the volume of the cylinder when the piston is at the bottom of its stroke to that volume when the piston is at the top of its stroke. The dynamic compression ratio is a more advanced calculation which also takes into account gases entering and exiting the cylinder during the compression phase. Effect and typical ratios A high compression ratio is desirable because it allows an engine to extract more mechanical energy from a given mass of air–fuel mixture due to its higher thermal efficiency. This occurs because internal combustion engines are heat engines, and higher compression ratios permit the same combustion temperature to be reached with less fuel, while giving a longer expansion cycle, creating more mechanical power output and lowering the exhaust temperature. Petrol engines In petrol (gasoline) engines used in passenger cars for the past 20 years, compression ratios have typically been between 8:1 and 12:1. Several production engines have used higher compression ratios, including: Cars built from 1955 to 1972 which were designed for high-octane leaded gasoline, which allowed compression ratios up to 13:1. Some Mazda SkyActiv engines released since 2012 have compression ratios up to 16:1. The SkyActiv engine achieves this compression ratio with ordinary unleaded gasoline (95 RON in the United Kingdom) through improved scavenging of exhaust gases (which ensures cylinder temperature is as low as possible before the intake stroke), in addition to direct injection. Toyota Dynamic Force engine has a compression ratio up to 14:1. The 2014 Ferrari 458 Speciale also has a compression ratio of 14:1. When forced induction (e.g. a turbocharger or supercharger) is used, the compression ratio is often lower than naturally aspirated engines. This is due to the turbocharger or supercharger already having compressed the air before it enters the cylinders. Engines using port fuel-injection typically run lower boost pressures and/or compression ratios than direct injected engines because port fuel injection causes the air–fuel mixture to be heated together, leading to detonation. Conversely, directly injected engines can run higher boost because heated air will not detonate without a fuel being present. Higher compression ratios can make gasoline (petrol) engines subject to engine knocking (also known as "detonation", "pre-ignition", or "pinging") if lower octane-rated fuel is used. This can reduce efficiency or damage the engine if knock sensors are not present to modify the ignition timing. Diesel engines Diesel engines use higher compression ratios than petrol engines, because the lack of a spark plug means that the compression ratio must increase the temperature of the air in the cylinder sufficiently to ignite the diesel using compression ignition. Compression ratios are often between 14:1 and 23:1 for direct injection diesel engines, and between 18:1 and 23:1 for indirect injection diesel engines. At the lower end of 14:1, NOx emissions are reduced at a cost of more difficult cold-start. Mazda's Skyactiv-D, the first such commercial engine from 2013, used adaptive fuel injectors among other techniques to ease cold start. Other fuels The compression ratio may be higher in engines running exclusively on liquefied petroleum gas (LPG or "propane autogas") or compressed natural gas, due to the higher octane rating of these fuels. Kerosene engines typically use a compression ratio of 6.5 or lower. The petrol-paraffin engine version of the Ferguson TE20 tractor had a compression ratio of 4.5:1 for operation on tractor vaporising oil with an octane rating between 55 and 70. Motorsport engines Motorsport engines often run on high-octane petrol and can therefore use higher compression ratios. For example, motorcycle racing engines can use compression ratios as high as 14.7:1, and it is common to find motorcycles with compression ratios above 12.0:1 designed for 95 or higher octane fuel. Ethanol and methanol can take significantly higher compression ratios than gasoline. Racing engines burning methanol and ethanol fuel often have a compression ratio of 14:1 to 16:1. Mathematical formula In a reciprocating engine, the static compression ratio (\mathrm{CR}) is the ratio between the volume of the cylinder and combustion chamber when the piston is at the bottom of its stroke, and the volume of the combustion chamber when the piston is at the top of its stroke. It is therefore calculated by the formula \mathrm{CR} = \frac { V_d + V_c} {V_c} where V_d is the displacement volume. This is the volume inside the cylinder displaced by the piston from the beginning of the compression stroke to the end of the stroke. V_c is the clearance volume. This is the volume of the space in the cylinder left at the end of the compression stroke. V_d can be estimated by the cylinder volume formula: V_d = \tfrac{\pi} {4} b^2 s where b is the cylinder bore (diameter) s is the piston stroke length Because of the complex shape of V_c it is usually measured directly. This is often done by filling the cylinder with liquid and then measuring the volume of the used liquid. Variable compression ratio engines Most engines use a fixed compression ratio, however a variable compression ratio engine is able to adjust the compression ratio while the engine is in operation. The first production engine with a variable compression ratio was introduced in 2019. Variable compression ratio is a technology to adjust the compression ratio of an internal combustion engine while the engine is in operation. This is done to increase fuel efficiency while under varying loads. Variable compression engines allow the volume above the piston at top dead centre to be changed. Higher loads require lower ratios to increase power, while lower loads need higher ratios to increase efficiency, i.e. to lower fuel consumption. For automotive use this needs to be done as the engine is running in response to the load and driving demands. The 2019 Infiniti QX50 is the first commercially available car that uses a variable compression ratio engine. Dynamic compression ratio The static compression ratio discussed above — calculated solely based on the cylinder and combustion chamber volumes — does not take into account any gases entering or exiting the cylinder during the compression phase. In most automotive engines, the intake valve closure (which seals the cylinder) takes place during the compression phase (i.e. after bottom dead centre, BDC), which can cause some of the gases to be pushed back out through the intake valve. On the other hand, intake port tuning and scavenging can cause a greater amount of gas to be trapped in the cylinder than the static volume would suggest. The dynamic compression ratio accounts for these factors. The dynamic compression ratio is higher with more conservative intake camshaft timing (i.e. soon after BDC), and lower with more radical intake camshaft timing (i.e. later after BDC). Regardless, the dynamic compression ratio is always lower than the static compression ratio. Absolute cylinder pressure is used to calculate the dynamic compression ratio, using the following formula: P_\text{cylinder} = P_\text{atmospheric} \times \text{CR}^\gamma where \gamma is a polytropic value for the ratio of specific heats for the combustion gases at the temperatures present (this compensates for the temperature rise caused by compression, as well as heat lost to the cylinder) Under ideal (adiabatic) conditions, the ratio of specific heats would be 1.4, but a lower value, generally between 1.2 and 1.3 is used, since the amount of heat lost will vary among engines based on design, size and materials used. For example, if the static compression ratio is 10:1, and the dynamic compression ratio is 7.5:1, a useful value for cylinder pressure would be 7.51.3 × atmospheric pressure, or 13.7 bar (relative to atmospheric pressure). The two corrections for dynamic compression ratio affect cylinder pressure in opposite directions, but not in equal strength. An engine with high static compression ratio and late intake valve closure will have a dynamic compression ratio similar to an engine with lower compression but earlier intake valve closure. See also Mean effective pressure References Category:Engine technology Category:Engineering ratios Category:Piston engines	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compression_ratio	2025-04-05T18:27:59.203487
6865	Concordat of Worms	on Vellum]] The Concordat of Worms (; ), also referred to as the Pactum Callixtinum or Pactum Calixtinum, was an agreement between the Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Empire which regulated the procedure for the appointment of bishops and abbots in the Empire. Signed on 23 September 1122 in the German city of Worms by Pope Callixtus II and Emperor Henry V, the agreement set an end to the Investiture Controversy, a conflict between state and church over the right to appoint religious office holders that had begun in the middle of the 11th century. By signing the concordat, Henry renounced his right to invest bishops and abbots with ring and crosier, and opened ecclesiastical appointments in his realm to canonical elections. Callixtus, in turn, agreed to the presence of the emperor or his officials at the elections and granted the emperor the right to intervene in the case of disputed outcomes. The emperor was also allowed to perform a separate ceremony in which he would invest bishops and abbots with a sceptre, representing the lands that constituted the temporalities associated with their episcopal see. Background During the middle of the 11th century, a reformist movement within the Christian Church sought to reassert the rights of the Holy See at the expense of the European monarchs. Having been elected in 1073, the reformist Pope Gregory VII proclaimed several edicts aimed at strengthening the authority of the papacy, some of which were formulated in the Dictatus papae of 1075. Gregory's edicts postulated that secular rulers were answerable to the pope and forbade them to make appointments to clerical offices (a process known as investiture). The pope's doctrines were vehemently rejected by Henry IV, the Holy Roman Emperor, who habitually invested the bishops and abbots of his realm. The ensuing conflict between the Empire and the papacy is known as the Investiture Controversy. The dispute continued after the death of Gregory VII in 1084 and the abdication of Henry IV in 1105. Even though Henry's son and successor, the Emperor Henry V, looked towards reconciliation with the reformist movement, no lasting compromise was achieved in the first 16 years of his reign. In 1111, Henry V brokered an agreement with Pope Paschal II at Sutri, whereby he would abstain from investing clergy in his realm in exchange for the restoration of church property that had originally belonged to the Empire. The Sutri agreement, Henry hoped, would convince Paschal to assent to Henry's official coronation as emperor. The agreement failed to be implemented, leading Henry to imprison the pope. After two months of captivity, Paschal vowed to grant the coronation and to accept the emperor's role in investiture ceremonies. He also agreed never to excommunicate Henry. Given that these concessions had been won by force, ecclesiastical opposition to the Empire continued. The following year, Paschal reneged on his promises. Mouzon summit In January 1118, Pope Paschal died. He was succeeded by Gelasius II, who died in January 1119. His successor, the Burgundian Callixtus II, resumed negotiations with the Emperor with the aim of settling the dispute between the church and the Empire. In the autumn of 1119, two papal emissaries, William of Champeaux and Pons of Cluny, met Henry at Strasbourg, where the emperor agreed in principle to abandon the secular investiture ceremony that involved giving new bishops and abbots a ring and a crosier. The two parties scheduled a final summit between Henry and Callixtus at Mouzon, but the meeting ended abruptly after the emperor refused to accept a short-notice change in Callixtus's demands. The church leaders, who were deliberating their position at a council in Reims, reacted by excommunicating Henry. However, they did not endorse the pope's insistence upon the complete abandonment of secular investiture. The negotiations ended in failure. Historians disagree as to whether Calixtus actually wanted peace or fundamentally mistrusted Henry. Due to his uncompromising position in 1111, Calixtus has been termed an "ultra", and his election to the papacy may indicate that the College of Cardinals saw no reason to show weakness to the emperor.\|groupnote}} This optimism about victory was founded on the very visible, and very vocal opposition to Henry from within his own nobility, and the cardinals may have seen the emperor's internal weaknesses as an opportunity for outright victory. Further negotiations After the failure of the Mouzon negotiations, and the disappearance into the horizon of the chances of Henry's unconditional surrender, the majority of the clergy became willing to compromise in order to settle the dispute. The polemic writings and pronouncements that had figured so highly during the Investiture Dispute had died down by this point. Historian Gerd Tellenbach argues that, despite appearances, these years were "no longer marked by an atmosphere of bitter conflict". This was in part the result of the papacy's realization that it could not win two different disputes on two separate fronts, as it had been trying to do. Calixtus had been personally involved in negotiations with the Emperor over the last decade, and his intimate knowledge of the delicate situation made him the perfect candidate for the attempt. The difference between 1119 and 1122, argues Stroll, was not Henry, who had been willing to make concessions in 1119, but Calixtus, who had then been intransigent, but who now was intent upon reaching an agreement". \| image2 = Calixtus II.jpg \| alt2 = Pope Calixtus II. From: from the "Liber ad honorem Augusti" of Petrus of Ebulo, 1196 \| caption2 = \| footer = }} The same sentiment prevailed in much of the German nobility. In 1121, pressured by a faction of nobles from the Lower Rhine and Duchy of Saxony under the leadership of the archbishop Adalbert of Mainz, Henry agreed to submit to make peace with the pope. In response in February 1122, Calixtus wrote to Henry in a conciliatory tone via the Bishop of Acqui. His letter has been described as "a carefully crafted overture". In his letter, Calixtus drew attention to their blood relationship, suggesting that while their shared ancestry compelled them to love each other as brothers, it was fundamental that the German kings draw their authority from God, but via his servants, not directly. However, Calixtus also emphasised for the first time that he blamed not Henry personally for the dispute but his bad advisors who had dictated unsound policy to him. In a major shift in policy since the Council of Reims of 1119, the pope stated that the church gifts what it possesses to all its children, without making claims upon them. This was intended to reassure Henry that in the event of peace between them, his position and Empire were secure. Shifting from the practical to the spiritual, Calixtus next asked Henry to bear in mind that he was a king, but like all men limited on his earthly capability; he had armies, and kings below him, but the church had Christ and the Apostles. Continuing his theme, he referred, indirectly, to Henry's excommunication by himself\|groupnote}} (twice), he begged Henry to allow the conditions for peace to be created, as a result of which the church's, and God's glory would be increased, as concomitantly would the Emperor's. Conversely, he made sure to include a threat: if Henry did not change his ways, Calixtus threatened to place "the protection of the church in the hands of wise men". Historian Mary Stroll argues that, in taking this approach, Calixtus was taking advantage of the fact that, while he himself "was hardly in a position to sabre rattle" due to his military defeat in the south and his difficulty with his own Cardinals, Henry was also under pressure in Germany in both the military and spiritual spheres. The Emperor replied through the Bishop of Speyer and the Abbot of Fulda, who travelled to Rome and collected the pope's emissaries under the Cardinal Bishop of Ostia. Speyer was a representative of Henry's political opponents in Germany, whereas Fulda was a negotiator rather than politically partisan. Complicating matters was a disputed election to the bishopric of Wurzburg in February 1122 of the kind that was at the heart of the Investiture Dispute. Although this almost led to an outbreak of civil war, a truce was arranged in August, allowing the parties to return to the papal negotiations. In the summer of 1122, a synod was convened in Mainz, at which imperial emissaries concluded the terms of their agreement with representatives of the church. In a sign that the Pope intended the impending negotiations to be successful, a Lateran council was announced for the following year. Worms The Emperor received the papal legates in Worms with due ceremony, where he awaited the outcome of the negotiations which appear to have actually taken place in nearby Mainz, which was hostile territory to Henry. As such, he had to communicate via messenger to keep up with events. Abbot Ekkehard of Aura chronicles that discussions took over a week to conclude. On 8 September, he met the papal legates and their final agreements were codified for publication. Although a possible compromise solution had already been received from England, this does not seem to have ever been considered in depth, probably on account of it containing an oath of Homage between Emperor and Pope, which had been a historical sticking point in earlier negotiations. The papal delegation was led by Cardinal bishop Lamberto Scannabecchi of Ostia, the future Pope Honorius II. Both sides studied previous negotiations between them, including those from 1111, which were considered to have created precedent. On 23 September 1122, papal and imperial delegates signed a series of documents outside the walls of Worms. There was insufficient room in the city for the number of attendees and watchers. Adalbert, Archbishop of Mainz wrote to Calixtus of how complex the negotiations had been, given that, as he said, Henry regarded the powers he was being asked to renounce as being hereditary in the Imperial throne. It is probable that what was eventually promulgated was the result of almost every word being carefully considered. The main difference between what was to be agreed at Worms and previous negotiations were the concessions from the pope. Concordat The agreements come to at Worms were in the nature of both concessions and assurances to the other party. Henry, on oath before God, the apostles and the church renounced his right to invest bishops and abbots with ring and crosier, and opened ecclesiastical appointments in his realm to canonical elections, regno vel imperio. He also recognised the traditional extent and boundaries of the papal patrimony as a legal entity rather than one malleable to the emperor. Henry promised to return to the church those lands rightfully belonging to the church seized by himself or his father to the church; furthermore, he would assist the pope in regaining those that were taken by others, and "he will do the same thing for all other churches and princes, both ecclesiastical and lay". If the pope requested Imperial assistance, he would receive it, and if the church came to the empire for justice, it would be treated fairly. He also swore to abstain from "all investiture by ring and staff", marking the end of an ancient imperial tradition. Callixtus made similar reciprocal promises regarding the empire in Italy. He agreed to the presence of the emperor or his officials at the elections and granted the emperor the right to ajudge in the case of disputed outcomes on episcopal advice—as long as they had been held peacefully and without simony—which had officially been the case ever since precedent had been set by the London Accord of 1107.\|groupnote}} This right to judge was constrained by an assurance that he would support the majority vote among electors, and further that he would take the advice of his other bishops before doing so. The emperor was also allowed to perform a separate ceremony in which he would invest bishops and abbots with their regalia, a sceptre representing the imperial lands associated with their episcopal see.\|groupnote}} This clause also contained a "cryptic" condition that once the elect had been so endowed, the new bishop "should do what he ought to do according to imperial rights". In the German imperial lands this was to take place prior to the bishop-elect's consecration; elsewhere in the empire—Burgundy and Italy, exempting the Papal States—within six months of the ceremony. The differentiating between the German portion of the Empire and the rest was of particular importance to Calixtus as the papacy had traditionally felt threatened more from it in the peninsular than the broader Empire. Finally, the pope granted "true peace" on the emperor and all those who had supported him. Calixtus had effectively overturned wholesale the strategy he had pursued during the Mouzon negotiation; episcopal investitures in Germany were to take place with very little substantive change in ceremony, while temporal involvement remained, only replacing investiture with homage, although the word itself—hominium—was studiously avoided. Adalbert, from whom Calixtus first received news of the final concordat, emphasized that it still had to be approved in Rome; this suggests, argues Stroll, that the Archbishop—and probably the papal legation as a whole—were against making concessions to the emperor, and probably wanted Calixtus to disown the agreement. Adalbert believed the agreement would make it easier for the Emperor to legalise intimidation of episcopal electors, writing that "through the opportunity of [the emperor's] presence, the Church of God must undergo the same slavery as before, or an even more oppressive one". \| source Calixtus II to the Emperor Henry, 19 February 1122: MS 55 Stadtbibliothek Schaffhausen, 12th century, fol. 185v \| align = left \| width = 25em \| bgcolor = #FFFFF0 }} However, argues Stroll, the concessions Calixtus made were an "excellent bargain" in return for eradicating the danger on the papacy's northern border and therefore allowing him to focus, without threat or distraction, on the Normans to the south. It had achieved its peace, argues Norman Cantor, by allowing local national custom and practice to determine future relations between crown and pope; in most cases, he notes, this "favored the continuance of royal control over the church". The concordat was published as two distinct charters, each laying out the concessions the one party was making to the other. They are known respectively as the Papal (or the Calixtinum) and the Imperial (Henricianum) charters. Calixtus's is addressed to the emperor—in quite personal terms—while Henry's is made out to God. The bishop of Ostia gave the emperor the kiss of peace on behalf of the pope and said Mass. By these rites was Henry returned to the church, the negotiators were lauded for succeeding in their delicate mission and the concordat was called "peace at the will of the pope". Neither charter was signed; both contained probably intentional vagaries and unanswered questions—such as the position of the papacy's churches that lay outside both the patrimony and Germany—which were subsequently addressed on a case-by-case basis. Indeed, Robert Benson has suggested that the brevity of the charters was deliberate and that the agreement as a whole is as important for what it omits as for what it includes. The term regalia, for example, was not only undefined but literally meant two different things to each party. In the Henricianum it referred to the feudal duty owed to a monarch; in the Calixtinium, it was the episcopal temporalities. Broader question, such as the nature of the church and Empire relationship, were also not addressed, although some ambiguity was removed by an 1133 Papal privilege. The Concordat was widely, and deliberately, publicised around Europe. Calixtus was not in Rome when the concordat was delivered. He had left the city by late August and was not to return until mid- to late October, making a progress to Anagni, taking the bishopric of Anagni and Casamari Abbey under his protection. Agreements {\| class="wikitable" \|+ !Agreement of Calixtus II !Edict of Henry V \|- \|I, Calixtus, bishop, servant of the servants of God, do grant to thee, beloved son, Henry—by the grace of God emperor of the Romans, Augustus—that the elections of bishops and abbots of the German kingdom, who belong to that kingdom, shall take place in thy presence, without simony or any violence; so that if any dispute shall arise between the parties concerned, thou, with the counsel or judgment of the metropolitan and the coprovincial bishops, shalt give consent and aid to the party which has the more right. The one elected shall receive the regalia from thee by the scepter and shall perform his lawful duties to thee on that account. But he who is consecrated in the other parts of thy empire [i.e., Burgundy and Italy] shall, within six months, and without any exaction, receive the regalia from thee by the scepter, and shall perform his lawful duties to thee on that account (saving all rights which are known to belong to the Roman Church). Concerning matters in which thou shalt make complaint to me, and ask aid—I, according to the duty of my office, will furnish aid to thee. I give unto thee true peace, and to all who are or have been of thy party in this conflict. \|In the name of the holy and indivisible Trinity I, Henry, by the grace of God emperor of the Romans, Augustus, for the love of God and of the Holy Roman Church and of our lord Pope Calixtus, and for the salvation of my soul, do surrender to God, and to the holy apostles of God, Peter and Paul, and to the Holy Catholic Church, all investiture through ring and staff; and do grant that in all the churches that are in my kingdom or empire there may be canonical election and free consecration. All the possessions and regalia of St. Peter which, from the beginning of this discord unto this day, whether in the time of my father or in mine have been seized, and which I hold, I restore to that same Holy Roman Church. And I will faithfully aid in the restoration of those things which I do not hold. The possessions also of all other churches and princes, and of all other persons lay and clerical which have been lost in that war: according to the counsel of the princes, or according to justice, I will restore, as far as I hold them; and I will faithfully aid in the restoration of those things which I do not hold. And I grant true peace to our lord Pope Calixtus, and to the Holy Roman Church, and to all those who are or have been on its side. And in matters where the Holy Roman Church shall ask aid I will grant it; and in matters concerning which it shall make complaint to me I will duly grant to it justice. All these things have been done by the consent and counsel of the princes. Whose names are here adjoined: Adalbert archbishop of Mainz; F. archbishop of Cologne; H. bishop of Ratisbon; O. bishop of Bamberg; B. bishop of Spires; H. of Augsburg; G. of Utrecht; Ou. of Constance; E. abbot of Fulda; Henry, duke; Frederick, duke; S. duke; Pertolf, duke; Margrave Teipold; Margrave Engelbert; Godfrey, count Palatine; Otto, count Palatine; Berengar, count. I, Frederick, archbishop of Cologne and arch-chancellor, have ratified this. \|} renounced his right to invest bishops and abbots with ring and crosier (pictured).]] Preservation The concordat was ratified at the First Council of the Lateran and the original Henricianum charter is preserved at the Vatican Apostolic Archive; the Calixtinum has not survived except in subsequent copies. A copy of the former is also held in the Codex Udalrici, but this is an abridged version for political circulation, as it reduces the number of imperial concessions made. Indicating the extent that he saw the agreement as a papal victory, Calixtus had a copy of the Henricianum painted on a Lateran Palace chamber wall; while nominally portraying the concordat as a victory for the papacy, it also ignored the numerous concessions made to the emperor.\|groupnote}} This was part of what Hartmut Hoffmann has called "a conspiracy of silence" regarding papal concessions. Indeed, while the Pope is pictured enthroned, and Henry only standing, the suggestion is still that they were jointly wielding their respective authority to come to this agreement. An English copy of the Calixtinum made by William of Malmsbury is reasonably accurate but omits the clause mentioning the use of a sceptre in the granting of the regalia. He then, having condemned Henry's "Teuton fury", proceeds to praise him, comparing him favourably to Charlemagne for his devotion to God and the peace of Christendom. Aftermath The first invocation of the concordat was not in the empire, as it turned out, but by Henry I of England the following year. Following a long-running dispute between Canterbury–York which ended up in the Papal court, Joseph Huffman argues that it would have been controversial for the Pope "to justify one set of concessions in Germany and another in England". The concordat ended once and for all the "Imperial church system of the Ottonians and Salians". The First Lateran Council was convoked to confirm the Concordat of Worms. The council was most representative with nearly 300 bishops and 600 abbots from every part of Catholic Europe being present. It convened on March 18, 1123. One of its primary concerns was to emphasise the independence of diocesan clergy, and to do so it forbade monks to leave their monasteries to provide pastoral care, which would in future be the sole preserve of the diocese. In ratifying the Concordat, the Council confirmed that in future bishops would be elected by their clergy, although, also per the Concordat, the Emperor could refuse the homage of German bishops. Decrees were passed directed against simony, concubinage among the clergy, church robbers, and forgers of Church documents; the council also reaffirmed indulgences for Crusaders. These, argues C. Colt Anderson "established important precedents in canon law restricting the influence of the laity and the monks". While this led to a busy period of reform, it was important for those advocating reform not to allow themselves to be confused with the myriad heretical sects and schismatics who were making similar criticisms. The Concordat was the last major achievement for Emperor Henry, as he died in 1125; an attempted invasion of France came to nothing in 1124 in the face of "determined opposition". Fuhrmann comments that, as Henry had shown in his life "even less interest in new currents of thought and feeling than his father", he probably did not understand the significance of the events he had lived through. The peace only lasted until his death; when Imperial Electors met to choose his successor, reformists took the opportunity to attack the imperial gains of Worms on the grounds that they had been granted to him personally rather than Emperors generally. However, later emperors, such as Frederick I and Henry VI, continued to wield as much, if intangible, power as their predecessors in episcopal elections, and to a greater degree to that allowed them by Calixtus' charter. Successive emperors found the Concordat sufficiently favourable that it remained, almost unaltered until the empire was dissolved by Francis II in 1806 on account of Napoleon. Popes, likewise, were able to use the powers codified to them in the Concordatto their advantage in future internal disputes with their Cardinals. Reception The most detailed contemporary description of the Concordat comes to historians through a brief chronicle known as the 1125 continuation chronicle. This pro-papal document lays the blame for the schism squarely upon Henry—by his recognition of Gregory VIII—and the praise for ending it on Calixtus, through his making only temporary compromises. I. S. Robinson, writing in The New Cambridge Medieval History, suggests that this was a deliberate ploy to leave further negotiations open with a more politically malleable Emperor in future. To others it was not so clear cut; Honorius of Autun, for example, writing later in the century discussed lay investiture as an aspect of papal-Imperial relations and, even a century later the Sachsenspiegel still stated that Emperors nominated bishops in Germany. Robinson suggests that, by the end of the 12th century, "it was the imperial, rather than the papal version of the Concordat of Worms that was generally accepted by German churchmen". The contemporary English historian William of Malmesbury praised the Concordat for curtailing what he perceived as the emperor's overreach, or as he put it, "severing the sprouting necks of Teuton fury with the axe of Apostolic power". However, he regarded the final settlement not as a defeat of the Empire at the hands of the church, but rather as a reconciliatory effort by the two powers. Although polemicism had died down in the years preceding the Concordat, it did not finish them completely, and factionalism within the church especially continued. Gerhoh of Reichersberg believed that the emperor now had the right to request German bishops pay homage to him, something that would never have been allowed under Paschal, due to the vague clause instructing newly-elects to the things the emperor wished. Gerhoh argued that now imperial intervention in episcopal elections had been curtailed, Henry would use this clause to extend his influence in the church by means of homage. Gerhoh was torn between viewing the concordat as the end of a long struggle between pope and empire, or whether it marked the beginning of a new one within the church itself. Likewise Adelbert of Mainz—who had casually criticised the agreement in his report to Calixtus—continued to lobby against it, and continued to bring complaints against Henry, whom, for example, he alleged had illegally removed the Bishop of Strassburg who was suspected of complicity in the death of Duke Berthold of Zaehringen.\|groupnote}} The reformist party within the church took a similar view, criticising the Concordat for failing to remove all secular influence on the church. For this reason, a group of followers of Paschal II unsuccessfully attempted to prevent the agreement's ratification at the Lateran Council, crying non placet! when asked to do so: "it was only when it was pointed out that much had to be accepted for the sake of peace that the atmosphere quietened". Calixtus told them that they had "not to approve but tolerate" it. At a council in Bamberg in 1122 Henry gathered those nobles who had not attended the Concordat to seek their approval of the agreement, which they did. The following month he sent cordial letters to Calixtus agreeing with the pope's position that as brothers in Christ they were bound by God to work together, etc., and that he would soon visit personally to discuss the repatriation of papal land. These letters were, in turn, responded to positively by Calixtus, who instructed his delegates to make good the promises they had made at Worms. Historiography Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz called the agreements made at Worms "the oldest concordat in German history, an international treaty", while Augustin Fliche argued that the Concordat effectively instituted the statutes of Ivo of Chartres, a prominent reformer in the early years of the Investiture Contest, a view, it has been suggested, that most historians agree with. The historian Uta-Renate Blumenthal writes that, despite its shortcomings, the Concordat freed "[the church and the Empire] from antiquated concepts with their increasingly anachronistic restrictions". According to the historian William Chester Jordan, the Concordat was "of enormous significance" because it demonstrated that the emperor, in spite of his great secular power, did not have any religious authority. On the other hand, argues Karl F. Morrison, any victory the papacy felt it had won was pyrrhic, as "the king was left in possession of the field". The new peace also now allowed the papacy to expand its territories in Italy, such as the Sabina, which were unobtainable while the dispute with Henry was ongoing, while in Germany, a new class of ecclesiastics was created, what Horst Fuhrmann calls the "ecclesiastical princes of the Empire". While most historians agree that the Concordat marks a clear close to the fifty-year-old struggle between church and empire, disagreement continues on just how decisive a termination that was. Historians are also unclear as to the commitment of the pope to the concordat. Stroll, for example, notes that, while Henry's oaths were made to the church corporate, so in perpetuity, while Calixtus's may have been in a personal capacity. This, Stroll argues, would mean that it could be argued that while Henry's commitments to the church applied forever, Calixtus's applied only for the duration of Henry's reign, and at least one contemporary, Otto of Freising, wrote later in the century that he believed this to be the church's position. Stroll considers it "implausible" that Henry and his counsel would ever have entered into such a one-sided agreement. Indeed, John O'Malley has argued that the emperor had effectively been granted a veto from Calixtus; while in the strictest interpretation of the Gregorian reformers the only two important things in the making of a bishop were his election and consecration, Calixtus had effectively codified a role—however small—for the emperor in this process. Conversely, Benson reckons that while Henry's agreement was with the church in perpetuity, Calixtus'—based on the personal mode of address—was with him personally, and as such not binding on his successors. However, this was also an acknowledgement, he suggests, that much of what the pope did not address was already considered customary, and so did not need addressing. There has also been disagreement in why the Investiture contest ended with the Concordat as it did. Benson notes that, as a truce, it was primarily intended to stop the fighting rather than to address its original causes. It was "a straightforward, political engagement...a pragmatic agreement" between two political bodies. Indeed, controversy over investiture continued for at least another decade; in that light, suggests Benson, it could be argued that the Concordat did not end the dispute at all. There were "many problems unsolved, and [it] left much room for the free play of power". Political scientist Bruce Bueno de Mesquita has argued that, in the long term, the Concordat was an essential component to the later—gradual—creation of the European nation state.See also* The Diet of Worms of 1521 Notes References Bibliography * * * * \|url-accesssubscription}} * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Category:1120s in the Holy Roman Empire Category:1122 in Europe Category:Catholic canonical documents Category:History of the Catholic Church Category:History of the papacy Category:Investiture Controversy Category:Pope Callixtus II Category:Salian dynasty Category:Worms, Germany Category:Treaties of the Holy See (754–1870) Category:12th-century treaties Category:Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concordat_of_Worms	2025-04-05T18:27:59.248493
6867	Context-free language	In formal language theory, a context-free language (CFL), also called a Chomsky type-2 language, is a language generated by a context-free grammar (CFG). Context-free languages have many applications in programming languages, in particular, most arithmetic expressions are generated by context-free grammars. Background Context-free grammar Different context-free grammars can generate the same context-free language. Intrinsic properties of the language can be distinguished from extrinsic properties of a particular grammar by comparing multiple grammars that describe the language. Automata The set of all context-free languages is identical to the set of languages accepted by pushdown automata, which makes these languages amenable to parsing. Further, for a given CFG, there is a direct way to produce a pushdown automaton for the grammar (and thereby the corresponding language), though going the other way (producing a grammar given an automaton) is not as direct. Examples An example context-free language is L = \{a^nb^n:n\geq1\}, the language of all non-empty even-length strings, the entire first halves of which are 's, and the entire second halves of which are 's. is generated by the grammar S\to aSb ~\|~ ab. This language is not regular. It is accepted by the pushdown automaton M=(\{q_0,q_1,q_f\}, \{a,b\}, \{a,z\}, \delta, q_0, z, \{q_f\}) where \delta is defined as follows: \begin{align} \delta(q_0, a, z) &= (q_0, az) \\ \delta(q_0, a, a) &= (q_0, aa) \\ \delta(q_0, b, a) &= (q_1, \varepsilon) \\ \delta(q_1, b, a) &= (q_1, \varepsilon) \\ \delta(q_1, \varepsilon, z) &= (q_f, \varepsilon) \end{align} Unambiguous CFLs are a proper subset of all CFLs: there are inherently ambiguous CFLs. An example of an inherently ambiguous CFL is the union of \{a^n b^m c^m d^n \| n, m > 0\} with \{a^n b^n c^m d^m \| n, m > 0\}. This set is context-free, since the union of two context-free languages is always context-free. But there is no way to unambiguously parse strings in the (non-context-free) subset \{a^n b^n c^n d^n \| n > 0\} which is the intersection of these two languages. Dyck language The language of all properly matched parentheses is generated by the grammar S\to SS ~\|~ (S) ~\|~ \varepsilon. Properties Context-free parsing The context-free nature of the language makes it simple to parse with a pushdown automaton. Determining an instance of the membership problem; i.e. given a string w, determine whether w \in L(G) where L is the language generated by a given grammar G; is also known as recognition. Context-free recognition for Chomsky normal form grammars was shown by Leslie G. Valiant to be reducible to Boolean matrix multiplication, thus inheriting its complexity upper bound of O(n2.3728596). Conversely, Lillian Lee has shown O(n3−ε) Boolean matrix multiplication to be reducible to O(n3−3ε) CFG parsing, thus establishing some kind of lower bound for the latter. Practical uses of context-free languages require also to produce a derivation tree that exhibits the structure that the grammar associates with the given string. The process of producing this tree is called parsing. Known parsers have a time complexity that is cubic in the size of the string that is parsed. Formally, the set of all context-free languages is identical to the set of languages accepted by pushdown automata (PDA). Parser algorithms for context-free languages include the CYK algorithm and Earley's Algorithm. A special subclass of context-free languages are the deterministic context-free languages which are defined as the set of languages accepted by a deterministic pushdown automaton and can be parsed by a LR(k) parser. See also parsing expression grammar as an alternative approach to grammar and parser. Closure properties The class of context-free languages is closed under the following operations. That is, if L and P are context-free languages, the following languages are context-free as well: the union L \cup P of L and P the reversal of L the concatenation L \cdot P of L and P the Kleene star L^* of L the image \varphi(L) of L under a homomorphism \varphi the image \varphi^{-1}(L) of L under an inverse homomorphism \varphi^{-1} the circular shift of L (the language \{vu : uv \in L \}) the prefix closure of L (the set of all prefixes of strings from L) the quotient L/R of L by a regular language R Nonclosure under intersection, complement, and difference The context-free languages are not closed under intersection. This can be seen by taking the languages A \{a^n b^n c^m \mid m, n \geq 0 \} and B \{a^m b^n c^n \mid m,n \geq 0\}, which are both context-free. Their intersection is A \cap B \{ a^n b^n c^n \mid n \geq 0\}, which can be shown to be non-context-free by the pumping lemma for context-free languages. As a consequence, context-free languages cannot be closed under complementation, as for any languages A and B, their intersection can be expressed by union and complement: A \cap B \overline{\overline{A} \cup \overline{B}} . In particular, context-free language cannot be closed under difference, since complement can be expressed by difference: \overline{L} = \Sigma^* \setminus L. However, if L is a context-free language and D is a regular language then both their intersection L\cap D and their difference L\setminus D are context-free languages. Decidability In formal language theory, questions about regular languages are usually decidable, but ones about context-free languages are often not. It is decidable whether such a language is finite, but not whether it contains every possible string, is regular, is unambiguous, or is equivalent to a language with a different grammar. The following problems are undecidable for arbitrarily given context-free grammars A and B: Equivalence: is L(A)=L(B)? Disjointness: is L(A) \cap L(B) = \emptyset ? However, the intersection of a context-free language and a regular language is context-free, hence the variant of the problem where B is a regular grammar is decidable (see "Emptiness" below). Containment: is L(A) \subseteq L(B) ? Again, the variant of the problem where B is a regular grammar is decidable, while that where A is regular is generally not. Universality: is L(A)=\Sigma^*? Regularity: is L(A) a regular language? Ambiguity: is every grammar for L(A) ambiguous? The following problems are decidable for arbitrary context-free languages: Emptiness: Given a context-free grammar A, is L(A) = \emptyset ? Finiteness: Given a context-free grammar A, is L(A) finite? Membership: Given a context-free grammar G, and a word w, does w \in L(G) ? Efficient polynomial-time algorithms for the membership problem are the CYK algorithm and Earley's Algorithm. According to Hopcroft, Motwani, Ullman (2003), many of the fundamental closure and (un)decidability properties of context-free languages were shown in the 1961 paper of Bar-Hillel, Perles, and Shamir Languages that are not context-free The set \{a^n b^n c^n d^n \| n > 0\} is a context-sensitive language, but there does not exist a context-free grammar generating this language. So there exist context-sensitive languages which are not context-free. To prove that a given language is not context-free, one may employ the pumping lemma for context-free languages Notes References Works cited Further reading Category:Formal languages Category:Syntax	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Context-free_language	2025-04-05T18:27:59.271799
6868	Caffeine	\| tradename \| Drugs.com \| MedlinePlus \| DailyMedID Caffeine \| pregnancy_AU = A \| pregnancy_AU_comment \| pregnancy_category \| dependency_liability Physical: Moderate 13% and variable low–high 10–73% \| elimination_half-life Adults: 3–7 hours<br />Infants (full term): 8 hours \| excretion = Urine (100%) <!-- Identifiers -->\| CAS_number = 58-08-2 \| CAS_supplemental \| PubChem 2519 \| IUPHAR_ligand = 407 \| DrugBank = DB00201 \| ChemSpiderID = 2424 \| UNII = 3G6A5W338E \| KEGG = D00528 \| ChEBI = 27732 \| ChEMBL = 113 \| NIAID_ChemDB = none \| PDB_ligand = CFF \| synonyms Guaranine<!-- Pubchem --><br />Methyltheobromine<!-- Pubchem --><br />1,3,7-Trimethylxanthine<!-- Pubchem --><br />7-methyltheophylline Theine <!-- Chemical and physical data -->\| IUPAC_name = 1,3,7-Trimethyl-3,7-dihydro-1H-purine-2,6-dione \| C = 8 \| H = 10 \| N = 4 \| O = 2 \| SMILES CN1CNC2C1C(O)N(C(=O)N2C)C \| StdInChI = 1S/C8H10N4O2/c1-10-4-9-6-5(10)7(13)12(3)8(14)11(6)2/h4H,1-3H3 \| StdInChI_comment \| StdInChIKey RYYVLZVUVIJVGH-UHFFFAOYSA-N \| density = 1.23 \| density_notes <!-- Reference: --> \| melting_point = 235 \| melting_high = 238 <!-- Ref:Pubchem --> \| melting_notes (anhydrous) \| boiling_point = <!-- 178 Ref:Pubchem --> \| boiling_notes = <!-- (sublimes) --> \| solubility = <!-- This field will append " mg/mL (20 °C)" to the end of any value --> \| sol_units \| specific_rotation }} Caffeine is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant of the methylxanthine class and is the most commonly consumed psychoactive substance globally. It is mainly used for its eugeroic (wakefulness promoting), ergogenic (physical performance-enhancing), or nootropic (cognitive-enhancing) properties. Caffeine acts by blocking binding of adenosine at a number of adenosine receptor types, inhibiting the centrally depressant effects of adenosine and enhancing the release of acetylcholine. Caffeine has a three-dimensional structure similar to that of adenosine, which allows it to bind and block its receptors. Caffeine also increases cyclic AMP levels through nonselective inhibition of phosphodiesterase, increases calcium release from intracellular stores, and antagonizes GABA receptors, although these mechanisms typically occur at concentrations beyond usual human consumption. <!-- Physical and chemical properties, natural occurrence --> Caffeine is a bitter, white crystalline purine, a methylxanthine alkaloid, and is chemically related to the adenine and guanine bases of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). It is found in the seeds, fruits, nuts, or leaves of a number of plants native to Africa, East Asia and South America and helps to protect them against herbivores and from competition by preventing the germination of nearby seeds, as well as encouraging consumption by select animals such as honey bees. The best-known source of caffeine is the coffee bean, the seed of the Coffea plant. People may drink beverages containing caffeine to relieve or prevent drowsiness and to improve cognitive performance. To make these drinks, caffeine is extracted by steeping the plant product in water, a process called infusion. Caffeine-containing drinks, such as coffee, tea, and cola, are consumed globally in high volumes. In 2020, almost 10 million tonnes of coffee beans were consumed globally. Caffeine is the world's most widely consumed psychoactive drug. Unlike most other psychoactive substances, caffeine remains largely unregulated and legal in nearly all parts of the world. Caffeine is also an outlier as its use is seen as socially acceptable in most cultures with it even being encouraged. <!-- Medical uses and adverse effects --> Caffeine has both positive and negative health effects. It can treat and prevent the premature infant breathing disorders bronchopulmonary dysplasia of prematurity and apnea of prematurity. Caffeine citrate is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines. It may confer a modest protective effect against some diseases, including Parkinson's disease. Some people experience sleep disruption or anxiety if they consume caffeine, but others show little disturbance. Evidence of a risk during pregnancy is equivocal; some authorities recommend that pregnant women limit caffeine to the equivalent of two cups of coffee per day or less. Caffeine can produce a mild form of drug dependence – associated with withdrawal symptoms such as sleepiness, headache, and irritability – when an individual stops using caffeine after repeated daily intake. Tolerance to the autonomic effects of increased blood pressure and heart rate, and increased urine output, develops with chronic use (i.e., these symptoms become less pronounced or do not occur following consistent use). <!-- Toxicity --> Caffeine is classified by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as generally recognized as safe. Toxic doses, over 10 grams per day for an adult, are much higher than the typical dose of under 500 milligrams per day. The European Food Safety Authority reported that up to 400 mg of caffeine per day (around 5.7 mg/kg of body mass per day) does not raise safety concerns for non-pregnant adults, while intakes up to 200 mg per day for pregnant and lactating women do not raise safety concerns for the fetus or the breast-fed infants. A cup of coffee contains 80–175 mg of caffeine, depending on what "bean" (seed) is used, how it is roasted, and how it is prepared (e.g., drip, percolation, or espresso). Thus it requires roughly 50–100 ordinary cups of coffee to reach the toxic dose. However, pure powdered caffeine, which is available as a dietary supplement, can be lethal in tablespoon-sized amounts. Uses Medical Caffeine is used for both prevention and treatment of bronchopulmonary dysplasia in premature infants. It may improve weight gain during therapy and reduce the incidence of cerebral palsy as well as reduce language and cognitive delay. On the other hand, subtle long-term side effects are possible. Caffeine is used as a primary treatment for apnea of prematurity, but not prevention. Some people use caffeine-containing beverages such as coffee or tea to try to treat their asthma. Evidence to support this practice is poor.<!-- Quote Caffeine appears to improve airways function modestly, for up to four hours --> The addition of caffeine (100–130 mg) to commonly prescribed pain relievers such as paracetamol or ibuprofen modestly improves the proportion of people who achieve pain relief. Consumption of caffeine after abdominal surgery shortens the time to recovery of normal bowel function and shortens length of hospital stay. Caffeine was formerly used as a second-line treatment for ADHD. It is considered less effective than methylphenidate or amphetamine but more so than placebo for children with ADHD. Children, adolescents, and adults with ADHD are more likely to consume caffeine, perhaps as a form of self-medication. Enhancing performance Cognitive performance Caffeine is a central nervous system stimulant that may reduce fatigue and drowsiness. The amount of caffeine needed to produce these effects varies from person to person, depending on body size and degree of tolerance. Shift workers who use caffeine make fewer mistakes that could result from drowsiness. Caffeine in a dose dependent manner increases alertness in both fatigued and normal individuals. A systematic review and meta-analysis from 2014 found that concurrent caffeine and -theanine use has synergistic psychoactive effects that promote alertness, attention, and task switching; Physical performance Caffeine is a proven ergogenic aid in humans. Moderate doses of caffeine (around 5 mg/kg cycling and running time trial performance, and cycling power output. Caffeine ingestion prior to aerobic exercise increases fat oxidation, particularly in persons with low physical fitness. Caffeine improves muscular strength and power, and may enhance muscular endurance. Caffeine also enhances performance on anaerobic tests. Caffeine consumption before constant load exercise is associated with reduced perceived exertion. While this effect is not present during exercise-to-exhaustion exercise, performance is significantly enhanced. This is congruent with caffeine reducing perceived exertion, because exercise-to-exhaustion should end at the same point of fatigue. Caffeine also improves power output and reduces time to completion in aerobic time trials, an effect positively (but not exclusively) associated with longer duration exercise. Specific populations Adults For the general population of healthy adults, Health Canada advises a daily intake of no more than 400 mg. Children In healthy children, moderate caffeine intake under 400 mg produces effects that are "modest and typically innocuous". As early as six months old, infants can metabolize caffeine at the same rate as that of adults. Higher doses of caffeine (>400 mg) can cause physiological, psychological and behavioral harm, particularly for children with psychiatric or cardiac conditions. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that caffeine consumption, particularly in the case of energy and sports drinks, is not appropriate for children and adolescents and should be avoided. This recommendation is based on a clinical report released by American Academy of Pediatrics in 2011 with a review of 45 publications from 1994 to 2011 and includes inputs from various stakeholders (Pediatricians, Committee on nutrition, Canadian Pediatric Society, Centers for Disease Control & Prevention, Food and Drug Administration, Sports Medicine & Fitness committee, National Federations of High School Associations). {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! scope="col" \| Age range ! scope="col" \| Maximum recommended daily caffeine intake \|- \| 4–6 \| 45 mg (slightly more than in 355 ml (12 fl. oz) of a typical caffeinated soft drink) \|- \| 7–9 \| 62.5 mg \|- \| 10–12 \| 85 mg (about cup of coffee) \|} Adolescents Health Canada has not developed advice for adolescents because of insufficient data. However, they suggest that daily caffeine intake for this age group be no more than 2.5 mg/kg body weight. This is because the maximum adult caffeine dose may not be appropriate for light-weight adolescents or for younger adolescents who are still growing. The daily dose of 2.5 mg/kg body weight would not cause adverse health effects in the majority of adolescent caffeine consumers. This is a conservative suggestion since older and heavier-weight adolescents may be able to consume adult doses of caffeine without experiencing adverse effects. The American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) concluded in 2010 that caffeine consumption is safe up to 200 mg per day in pregnant women. A 2011 review found that caffeine during pregnancy does not appear to increase the risk of congenital malformations, miscarriage or growth retardation even when consumed in moderate to high amounts. Other reviews, however, concluded that there is some evidence that higher caffeine intake by pregnant women may be associated with a higher risk of giving birth to a low birth weight baby, and may be associated with a higher risk of pregnancy loss. A systematic review, analyzing the results of observational studies, suggests that women who consume large amounts of caffeine (greater than 300 mg/day) prior to becoming pregnant may have a higher risk of experiencing pregnancy loss. Adverse effects Physiological Caffeine in coffee and other caffeinated drinks can affect gastrointestinal motility and gastric acid secretion. In postmenopausal women, high caffeine consumption can accelerate bone loss. Caffeine, alongside other factors such as stress and fatigue, can also increase the pressure in various muscles, including the eyelids. Acute ingestion of caffeine in large doses (at least 250–300 mg, equivalent to the amount found in 2–3 or 5–8 ) results in a short-term stimulation of urine output in individuals who have been deprived of caffeine for a period of days or weeks. This increase is due to both a diuresis (increase in water excretion) and a natriuresis (increase in saline excretion); it is mediated via proximal tubular adenosine receptor blockade. The acute increase in urinary output may increase the risk of dehydration. However, chronic users of caffeine develop a tolerance to this effect and experience no increase in urinary output. Psychological Minor undesired symptoms from caffeine ingestion not sufficiently severe to warrant a psychiatric diagnosis are common and include mild anxiety, jitteriness, insomnia, increased sleep latency, and reduced coordination. Caffeine can have negative effects on anxiety disorders. According to a 2011 literature review, caffeine use may induce anxiety and panic disorders in people with Parkinson's disease. At high doses, typically greater than 300 mg, caffeine can both cause and worsen anxiety. For some people, discontinuing caffeine use can significantly reduce anxiety. In moderate doses, caffeine has been associated with reduced symptoms of depression and lower suicide risk. Two reviews indicate that increased consumption of coffee and caffeine may reduce the risk of depression. Some textbooks state that caffeine is a mild euphoriant, while others state that it is not a euphoriant. Caffeine-induced anxiety disorder is a subclass of the DSM-5 diagnosis of substance/medication-induced anxiety disorder. Some diagnostic sources, such as the and ICD-10, include a classification of caffeine addiction under a broader diagnostic model. Some state that certain users can become addicted and therefore unable to decrease use even though they know there are negative health effects. Caffeine does not appear to be a reinforcing stimulus, and some degree of aversion may actually occur, with people preferring placebo over caffeine in a study on drug abuse liability published in an NIDA research monograph. Some state that research does not provide support for an underlying biochemical mechanism for caffeine addiction. Other research states it can affect the reward system. "Caffeine addiction" was added to the ICDM-9 and ICD-10. However, its addition was contested with claims that this diagnostic model of caffeine addiction is not supported by evidence. The American Psychiatric Association's does not include the diagnosis of a caffeine addiction but proposes criteria for the disorder for more study.Dependence and withdrawal Caffeine withdrawal can cause mild to clinically significant distress or impairment in daily functioning. The frequency at which this occurs is self-reported at 11%, but in lab tests only half of the people who report withdrawal actually experience it, casting doubt on many claims of dependence. and most cases of caffeine withdrawal were 13% in the moderate sense. Moderately physical dependence and withdrawal symptoms may occur upon abstinence, with greater than 100 mg caffeine per day, although these symptoms last no longer than a day. Following 24 hours of a marked reduction in consumption, a minimum of 3 of these signs or symptoms is required to meet withdrawal criteria: difficulty concentrating, depressed mood/irritability, flu-like symptoms, headache, and fatigue. Caffeine use disorder refers to dependence on caffeine characterized by failure to control caffeine consumption despite negative physiological consequences. Due to this inconclusive evidence on clinical significance, the DSM-5 classifies caffeine-use disorder as a "condition for further study". Some coffee drinkers develop tolerance to its undesired sleep-disrupting effects, but others apparently do not. Risk of other diseases A neuroprotective effect of caffeine against Alzheimer's disease and dementia is possible but the evidence is inconclusive. Caffeine may lessen the severity of acute mountain sickness if taken a few hours prior to attaining a high altitude. One meta analysis has found that caffeine consumption is associated with a reduced risk of type 2 diabetes. Regular caffeine consumption may reduce the risk of developing Parkinson's disease and may slow the progression of Parkinson's disease. The DSM-5 also includes other caffeine-induced disorders consisting of caffeine-induced anxiety disorder, caffeine-induced sleep disorder and unspecified caffeine-related disorders. The first two disorders are classified under "Anxiety Disorder" and "Sleep-Wake Disorder" because they share similar characteristics. Other disorders that present with significant distress and impairment of daily functioning that warrant clinical attention but do not meet the criteria to be diagnosed under any specific disorders are listed under "Unspecified Caffeine-Related Disorders".Energy crashCaffeine is reputed to cause a fall in energy several hours after drinking, but this is not well researched. Overdose }} Consumption of per day is associated with a condition known as <dfn>caffeinism</dfn>. Caffeinism usually combines caffeine dependency with a wide range of unpleasant symptoms including nervousness, irritability, restlessness, insomnia, headaches, and palpitations after caffeine use. Caffeine overdose can result in a state of central nervous system overstimulation known as caffeine intoxication, a clinically significant temporary condition that develops during, or shortly after, the consumption of caffeine. This syndrome typically occurs only after ingestion of large amounts of caffeine, well over the amounts found in typical caffeinated beverages and caffeine tablets (e.g., more than 400–500 mg at a time). According to the DSM-5, caffeine intoxication may be diagnosed if five (or more) of the following symptoms develop after recent consumption of caffeine: restlessness, nervousness, excitement, insomnia, flushed face, diuresis, gastrointestinal disturbance, muscle twitching, rambling flow of thought and speech, tachycardia or cardiac arrhythmia, periods of inexhaustibility, and psychomotor agitation. According to the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11), cases of very high caffeine intake (e.g. > 5 g) may result in caffeine intoxication with symptoms including mania, depression, lapses in judgment, disorientation, disinhibition, delusions, hallucinations or psychosis, and rhabdomyolysis. Intralipid infusion therapy is indicated in cases of imminent risk of cardiac arrest in order to scavenge the free serum caffeine.<!-- sectionEtiology --> In 2016, 3702 caffeine-related exposures were reported to Poison Control Centers in the United States, of which 846 required treatment at a medical facility, and 16 had a major outcome; and several caffeine-related deaths are reported in case studies. There are cases where doses as low as 57 milligrams per kilogram have been fatal. A number of fatalities have been caused by overdoses of readily available powdered caffeine supplements, for which the estimated lethal amount is less than a tablespoon. The lethal dose is lower in individuals whose ability to metabolize caffeine is impaired due to genetics or chronic liver disease. A death was reported in 2013 of a man with liver cirrhosis who overdosed on caffeinated mints. Interactions Caffeine is a substrate for CYP1A2, and interacts with many substances through this and other mechanisms.Alcohol According to DSST, alcohol causes a decrease in performance on their standardized tests, and caffeine causes a significant improvement. When alcohol and caffeine are consumed jointly, the effects of the caffeine are changed, but the alcohol effects remain the same. For example, consuming additional caffeine does not reduce the effect of alcohol. The Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend avoidance of concomitant consumption of alcohol and caffeine, as taking them together may lead to increased alcohol consumption, with a higher risk of alcohol-associated injury.SmokingSmoking tobacco has been shown to increase caffeine clearance by 56% as a result of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons inducing the CYP1A2 enzyme.Birth controlBirth control pills can extend the half-life of caffeine by as much as 40%, requiring greater attention to caffeine consumption.MedicationsCaffeine sometimes increases the effectiveness of some medications, such as those for headaches. Caffeine was determined to increase the potency of some over-the-counter analgesic medications by 40%. The pharmacological effects of adenosine may be blunted in individuals taking large quantities of methylxanthines like caffeine. Some other examples of methylxanthines include the medications theophylline and aminophylline, which are prescribed to relieve symptoms of asthma or COPD.PharmacologyPharmacodynamics in the brain.\|alt=Two skeletal formulas: left – caffeine, right – adenosine.]] In the absence of caffeine and when a person is awake and alert, little adenosine is present in CNS neurons. With a continued wakeful state, over time adenosine accumulates in the neuronal synapse, in turn binding to and activating adenosine receptors found on certain CNS neurons; when activated, these receptors produce a cellular response that ultimately increases drowsiness. When caffeine is consumed, it antagonizes adenosine receptors; in other words, caffeine prevents adenosine from activating the receptor by blocking the location on the receptor where adenosine binds to it. As a result, caffeine temporarily prevents or relieves drowsiness, and thus maintains or restores alertness. Antagonism of adenosine receptors by caffeine also stimulates the medullary vagal, vasomotor, and respiratory centers, which increases respiratory rate, reduces heart rate, and constricts blood vessels. adenosine acts as an inhibitory neurotransmitter that suppresses activity in the central nervous system. Heart palpitations are caused by blockade of the A<sub>1</sub> receptor. In addition to its activity at adenosine receptors, caffeine is an inositol trisphosphate receptor 1 antagonist and a voltage-independent activator of the ryanodine receptors (RYR1, RYR2, and RYR3). It is also a competitive antagonist of the ionotropic glycine receptor. Effects on striatal dopamine While caffeine does not directly bind to any dopamine receptors, it influences the binding activity of dopamine at its receptors in the striatum by binding to adenosine receptors that have formed GPCR heteromers with dopamine receptors, specifically the A<sub>1</sub>–D<sub>1</sub> receptor heterodimer (this is a receptor complex with one adenosine A<sub>1</sub> receptor and one dopamine D<sub>1</sub> receptor) and the A<sub>2A</sub>–D<sub>2</sub> receptor heterotetramer (this is a receptor complex with two adenosine A<sub>2A</sub> receptors and two dopamine D<sub>2</sub> receptors). Caffeine also causes the release of dopamine in the dorsal striatum and nucleus accumbens core (a substructure within the ventral striatum), but not the nucleus accumbens shell, by antagonizing A<sub>1</sub> receptors in the axon terminal of dopamine neurons and A<sub>1</sub>–A<sub>2A</sub> heterodimers (a receptor complex composed of one adenosine A<sub>1</sub> receptor and one adenosine A<sub>2A</sub> receptor) in the axon terminal of glutamate neurons.Enzyme targetsCaffeine, like other xanthines, also acts as a phosphodiesterase inhibitor. As a competitive nonselective phosphodiesterase inhibitor, caffeine raises intracellular cyclic AMP, activates protein kinase A, inhibits TNF-alpha and leukotriene synthesis, and reduces inflammation and innate immunity.Pharmacokinetics, resulting in three primary metabolites, paraxanthine (84%), theobromine (12%), and theophylline (4%), depending on which methyl group is removed.\|altA diagram featuring 4 skeletal chemical formulas. Top (caffeine) relates to similar compounds paraxanthine, theobromine and theophylline.]] Caffeine from coffee or other beverages is absorbed by the small intestine within 45 minutes of ingestion and distributed throughout all bodily tissues. Peak blood concentration is reached within 1–2 hours. It is eliminated by first-order kinetics. Caffeine can also be absorbed rectally, evidenced by suppositories of ergotamine tartrate and caffeine (for the relief of migraine) and of chlorobutanol and caffeine (for the treatment of hyperemesis). However, rectal absorption is less efficient than oral: the maximum concentration (C<sub>max</sub>) and total amount absorbed (AUC) are both about 30% (i.e., 1/3.5) of the oral amounts. Caffeine's biological half-life – the time required for the body to eliminate one-half of a dose – varies widely among individuals according to factors such as pregnancy, other drugs, liver enzyme function level (needed for caffeine metabolism) and age. In healthy adults, caffeine's half-life is between 3 and 7 hours. Caffeine is metabolized in the liver by the cytochrome P450 oxidase enzyme system (particularly by the CYP1A2 isozyme) into three dimethylxanthines, each of which has its own effects on the body: * Paraxanthine (84%): Increases lipolysis, leading to elevated glycerol and free fatty acid levels in blood plasma. * Theobromine (12%): Dilates blood vessels and increases urine volume. Theobromine is also the principal alkaloid in the cocoa bean (chocolate). * Theophylline (4%): Relaxes smooth muscles of the bronchi, and is used to treat asthma. The therapeutic dose of theophylline, however, is many times greater than the levels attained from caffeine metabolism. Each of the above metabolites is further metabolized and then excreted in the urine. Caffeine can accumulate in individuals with severe liver disease, increasing its half-life. A 2011 review found that increased caffeine intake was associated with a variation in two genes that increase the rate of caffeine catabolism. Subjects who had this mutation on both chromosomes consumed 40 mg more caffeine per day than others. This is presumably due to the need for a higher intake to achieve a comparable desired effect, not that the gene led to a disposition for greater incentive of habituation. Chemistry Pure anhydrous caffeine is a bitter-tasting, white, odorless powder with a melting point of 235–238 °C. It is weakly basic (pK<sub>a</sub> of conjugate acid ~0.6) requiring strong acid to protonate it. Caffeine does not contain any stereogenic centers and hence is classified as an achiral molecule. The xanthine core of caffeine contains two fused rings, a pyrimidinedione and imidazole. The pyrimidinedione in turn contains two amide functional groups that exist predominantly in a zwitterionic resonance the location from which the nitrogen atoms are double bonded to their adjacent amide carbons atoms. Hence all six of the atoms within the pyrimidinedione ring system are sp<sup>2</sup> hybridized and planar. The imidazole ring also has a resonance. Therefore, the fused 5,6 ring core of caffeine contains a total of ten pi electrons and hence according to Hückel's rule is aromatic.Synthesisof caffeine, as performed by Camellia and Coffea species]] of caffeine Caffeine may be synthesized in the lab starting with 1,3-dimethylurea and malonic acid. Production of synthesized caffeine largely takes place in pharmaceutical plants in China. Synthetic and natural caffeine are chemically identical and nearly indistinguishable. The primary distinction is that synthetic caffeine is manufactured from urea and chloroacetic acid, while natural caffeine is extracted from plant sources, a process known as decaffeination. Despite the different production methods, the final product and its effects on the body are identical. Research on synthetic caffeine supports that it has the same stimulating effects on the body as natural caffeine. And although many claim that natural caffeine is absorbed slower and therefore leads to a gentler caffeine crash, there is little scientific evidence supporting the notion. Over half of the decaf coffee sold in the U.S. first travels from the tropics to Germany for caffeine removal before making its way to American consumers. Extraction of caffeine from coffee, to produce caffeine and decaffeinated coffee, can be performed using various solvents. Following are main methods: * Water extraction: Coffee beans are soaked in water. The water, which contains many other compounds in addition to caffeine and contributes to the flavor of coffee, is then passed through activated charcoal, which removes the caffeine. The water can then be put back with the beans and evaporated dry, leaving decaffeinated coffee with its original flavor. Coffee manufacturers recover the caffeine and resell it for use in soft drinks and over-the-counter caffeine tablets. * Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction: Supercritical carbon dioxide is an excellent nonpolar solvent for caffeine, and is safer than the organic solvents that are otherwise used. The extraction process is simple: is forced through the green coffee beans at temperatures above 31.1 °C and pressures above 73 atm. Under these conditions, is in a "supercritical" state: It has gaslike properties that allow it to penetrate deep into the beans but also liquid-like properties that dissolve 97–99% of the caffeine. The caffeine-laden is then sprayed with high-pressure water to remove the caffeine. The caffeine can then be isolated by charcoal adsorption (as above) or by distillation, recrystallization, or reverse osmosis. Detection in body fluids Caffeine can be quantified in blood, plasma, or serum to monitor therapy in neonates, confirm a diagnosis of poisoning, or facilitate a medicolegal death investigation. Plasma caffeine levels are usually in the range of 2–10 mg/L in coffee drinkers, 12–36 mg/L in neonates receiving treatment for apnea, and 40–400 mg/L in victims of acute overdosage. Urinary caffeine concentration is frequently measured in competitive sports programs, for which a level in excess of 15 mg/L is usually considered to represent abuse. Analogs Some analog substances have been created which mimic caffeine's properties with either function or structure or both. Of the latter group are the xanthines DMPX and 8-chlorotheophylline, which is an ingredient in dramamine. Members of a class of nitrogen substituted xanthines are often proposed as potential alternatives to caffeine. Many other xanthine analogues constituting the adenosine receptor antagonist class have also been elucidated. Some other caffeine analogs: * Dipropylcyclopentylxanthine * 8-Cyclopentyl-1,3-dimethylxanthine * 8-Phenyltheophylline Precipitation of tannins Caffeine, as do other alkaloids such as cinchonine, quinine or strychnine, precipitates polyphenols and tannins. This property can be used in a quantitation method. Natural occurrence Around thirty plant species are known to contain caffeine. Common sources are the "beans" (seeds) of the two cultivated coffee plants, Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora (the quantity varies, but 1.3% is a typical value); and of the cocoa plant, Theobroma cacao; the leaves of the tea plant; and kola nuts. Other sources include the leaves of yaupon holly, South American holly yerba mate, and Amazonian holly guayusa; and seeds from Amazonian maple guarana berries. Temperate climates around the world have produced unrelated caffeine-containing plants. Caffeine in plants acts as a natural pesticide: it can paralyze and kill predator insects feeding on the plant. High caffeine levels are found in coffee seedlings when they are developing foliage and lack mechanical protection. In addition, high caffeine levels are found in the surrounding soil of coffee seedlings, which inhibits seed germination of nearby coffee seedlings, thus giving seedlings with the highest caffeine levels fewer competitors for existing resources for survival. Caffeine is stored in tea leaves in two places. Firstly, in the cell vacuoles where it is complexed with polyphenols. This caffeine probably is released into the mouth parts of insects, to discourage herbivory. Secondly, around the vascular bundles, where it probably inhibits pathogenic fungi from entering and colonizing the vascular bundles. Caffeine in nectar may improve the reproductive success of the pollen producing plants by enhancing the reward memory of pollinators such as honey bees. Products {\| class"sortable wikitable" style"width:35%; float:right; clear:right; margin:0 0 0.5em 1em; font-size:85%;" \|+ Caffeine content in select food and drugs \| –418 <!-- computed from preceding 2 rows --> \|- \| Guayakí yerba mate (loose leaf) \| }} \| \| \|- \| Coca-Cola \| }} \| \| \|- \| Mountain Dew \| }} \| \| \|- \| Pepsi Zero Sugar \| }} \| \| \|- \| Guaraná Antarctica \| }} \| \| \|- \| Jolt Cola \| }} \| \| \|- \| Red Bull \| }} \| \| \|- \| Coffee-flavored milk drink \| }} \| –197 \|— \|- \| Cocoa solids, defatted, Criollo strain \| 100 g \| 1130 \|— \|- \| Cocoa solids, defatted, Nacional strain \| 100 g \| 240 \|— \|- \| Chocolate, dark, 60-69% cacao solids \| 100 g \| 86 \|— \|- \| Chocolate, dark, 45- 59% cacao solids \| 100 g \| 43 \|— \|- \| Candies, milk chocolate \| 100 g \| 20 \|— \|- \| Hershey's Special Dark (45% cacao content) \| )}} \| \|— \|- \| Hershey's Milk Chocolate (11% cacao content) \| )}} \| \|— \|} Products containing caffeine include coffee, tea, soft drinks ("colas"), energy drinks, other beverages, chocolate, caffeine tablets, other oral products, and inhalation products. According to a 2020 study in the United States, coffee is the major source of caffeine intake in middle-aged adults, while soft drinks and tea are the major sources in adolescents. Energy drinks are more commonly consumed as a source of caffeine in adolescents as compared to adults. even beans within a given bush can show variations in concentration. In general, one serving of coffee ranges from 80 to 100 milligrams, for a single shot (30 milliliters) of arabica-variety espresso, to approximately 100–125 milligrams for a cup (120 milliliters) of drip coffee. Arabica coffee typically contains half the caffeine of the robusta variety. Tea contains small amounts of theobromine and slightly higher levels of theophylline than coffee. Preparation and many other factors have a significant impact on tea, and color is a poor indicator of caffeine content. Teas like the pale Japanese green tea, gyokuro, for example, contain far more caffeine than much darker teas like lapsang souchong, which has minimal caffeine content. By contrast, energy drinks, such as Red Bull, can start at 80 milligrams of caffeine per serving. The caffeine in these drinks either originates from the ingredients used or is an additive derived from the product of decaffeination or from chemical synthesis. Guarana, a primary ingredient of energy drinks, contains large amounts of caffeine with small amounts of theobromine and theophylline in a naturally occurring slow-release excipient.Other beverages* Maté is a drink popular in many parts of South America. Its preparation consists of filling a gourd with the leaves of the South American holly yerba mate, pouring hot but not boiling water over the leaves, and drinking with a straw, the bombilla, which acts as a filter so as to draw only the liquid and not the yerba leaves. * Guaraná is a soft drink originating in Brazil made from the seeds of the Guaraná fruit. * The leaves of Ilex guayusa, the Ecuadorian holly tree, are placed in boiling water to make a guayusa tea. * The leaves of Ilex vomitoria, the yaupon holly tree, are placed in boiling water to make a yaupon tea. * Commercially prepared coffee-flavoured milk beverages are popular in Australia. Examples include Oak's Ice Coffee and Farmers Union Iced Coffee. The amount of caffeine in these beverages can vary widely. Caffeine concentrations can differ significantly from the manufacturer's claims.Cacao solidsCocoa solids (derived from cocoa bean) contain 230 mg caffeine per 100 g.TabletsTablets offer several advantages over coffee, tea, and other caffeinated beverages, including convenience, known dosage, and avoidance of concomitant intake of sugar, acids, and fluids. The use of caffeine in this form is said to improve mental alertness. These tablets are commonly used by students studying for their exams and by people who work or drive for long hours.Other oral productsOne U.S. company is marketing oral dissolvable caffeine strips. Another intake route is SpazzStick, a caffeinated lip balm. Alert Energy Caffeine Gum was introduced in the United States in 2013, but was voluntarily withdrawn after an announcement of an investigation by the FDA of the health effects of added caffeine in foods. Inhalants Similar to an e-cigarette, a caffeine inhaler may be used to deliver caffeine or a stimulant like guarana by vaping. In 2012, the FDA sent a warning letter to one of the companies marketing an inhaler, expressing concerns for the lack of safety information available about inhaled caffeine. Combinations with other drugs * Some beverages combine alcohol with caffeine to create a caffeinated alcoholic drink. The stimulant effects of caffeine may mask the depressant effects of alcohol, potentially reducing the user's awareness of their level of intoxication. Such beverages have been the subject of bans due to safety concerns. In particular, the United States Food and Drug Administration has classified caffeine added to malt liquor beverages as an "unsafe food additive". * Ya ba contains a combination of methamphetamine and caffeine. * Painkillers such as propyphenazone/paracetamol/caffeine combine caffeine with an analgesic. History Discovery and spread of use in Palestine, \|alt=An old photo of a dozen old and middle-aged men sitting on the ground around a mat. A man in front sits next to a mortar and holds a bat, ready for grinding. A man opposite to him holds a long spoon.]] According to Chinese legend, the Chinese emperor Shennong, reputed to have reigned in about 3000 BCE, inadvertently discovered tea when he noted that when certain leaves fell into boiling water, a fragrant and restorative drink resulted. Shennong is also mentioned in Lu Yu's Cha Jing, a famous early work on the subject of tea. The earliest credible evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee plant appears in the middle of the fifteenth century, in the Sufi monasteries of the Yemen in southern Arabia. From Mokha, coffee spread to Egypt and North Africa, and by the 16th century, it had reached the rest of the Middle East, Persia and Turkey. From the Middle East, coffee drinking spread to Italy, then to the rest of Europe, and coffee plants were transported by the Dutch to the East Indies and to the Americas. Kola nut use appears to have ancient origins. It is chewed in many West African cultures, in both private and social settings, to restore vitality and ease hunger pangs. The earliest evidence of cocoa bean use comes from residue found in an ancient Mayan pot dated to 600 BCE. Also, chocolate was consumed in a bitter and spicy drink called xocolatl, often seasoned with vanilla, chile pepper, and achiote. Xocolatl was believed to fight fatigue, a belief probably attributable to the theobromine and caffeine content. Chocolate was an important luxury good throughout pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, and cocoa beans were often used as currency. Xocolatl was introduced to Europe by the Spaniards, and became a popular beverage by 1700. The Spaniards also introduced the cacao tree into the West Indies and the Philippines. The leaves and stems of the yaupon holly (Ilex vomitoria) were used by Native Americans to brew a tea called asi or the "black drink". Archaeologists have found evidence of this use far into antiquity, possibly dating to Late Archaic times. In 1821, caffeine was isolated both by the French chemist Pierre Jean Robiquet and by another pair of French chemists, Pierre-Joseph Pelletier and Joseph Bienaimé Caventou, according to Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius in his yearly journal. Furthermore, Berzelius stated that the French chemists had made their discoveries independently of any knowledge of Runge's or each other's work. However, Berzelius later acknowledged Runge's priority in the extraction of caffeine, stating: "However, at this point, it should not remain unmentioned that Runge (in his Phytochemical Discoveries, 1820, pages 146–147) specified the same method and described caffeine under the name Caffeebase a year earlier than Robiquet, to whom the discovery of this substance is usually attributed, having made the first oral announcement about it at a meeting of the Pharmacy Society in Paris." Pelletier's article on caffeine was the first to use the term in print (in the French form from the French word for coffee: ). It corroborates Berzelius's account: Robiquet was one of the first to isolate and describe the properties of pure caffeine, whereas Pelletier was the first to perform an elemental analysis. In 1827, M. Oudry isolated "théine" from tea, but in 1838 it was proved by Mulder and by Carl Jobst that theine was actually the same as caffeine. In 1895, German chemist Hermann Emil Fischer (1852–1919) first synthesized caffeine from its chemical components (i.e. a "total synthesis"), and two years later, he also derived the structural formula of the compound. This was part of the work for which Fischer was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1902. Historic regulations Because it was recognized that coffee contained some compound that acted as a stimulant, first coffee and later also caffeine has sometimes been subject to regulation. For example, in the 16th century Islamists in Mecca and in the Ottoman Empire made coffee illegal for some classes. Charles II of England tried to ban it in 1676, Frederick II of Prussia banned it in 1777, and coffee was banned in Sweden at various times between 1756 and 1823.<!-- Original edit never provided cite for ref name"svkemtid1914" / --> In 1911, caffeine became the focus of one of the earliest documented health scares, when the US government seized 40 barrels and 20 kegs of Coca-Cola syrup in Chattanooga, Tennessee, alleging the caffeine in its drink was "injurious to health". Although the Supreme Court later ruled in favor of Coca-Cola in United States v. Forty Barrels and Twenty Kegs of Coca-Cola, two bills were introduced to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1912 to amend the Pure Food and Drug Act, adding caffeine to the list of "habit-forming" and "deleterious" substances, which must be listed on a product's label.Society and cultureRegulations United StatesThe US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) considers safe beverages containing less than 0.02% caffeine; but caffeine powder, which is sold as a dietary supplement, is unregulated. It is a regulatory requirement that the label of most prepackaged foods must declare a list of ingredients, including food additives such as caffeine, in descending order of proportion. However, there is no regulatory provision for mandatory quantitative labeling of caffeine, (e.g., milligrams caffeine per stated serving size). There are a number of food ingredients that naturally contain caffeine. These ingredients must appear in food ingredient lists. However, as is the case for "food additive caffeine", there is no requirement to identify the quantitative amount of caffeine in composite foods containing ingredients that are natural sources of caffeine. While coffee or chocolate are broadly recognized as caffeine sources, some ingredients (e.g., guarana, yerba maté) are likely less recognized as caffeine sources. For these natural sources of caffeine, there is no regulatory provision requiring that a food label identify the presence of caffeine nor state the amount of caffeine present in the food. The FDA guidance was updated in 2018.ConsumptionGlobal consumption of caffeine has been estimated at 120,000 tonnes per year, making it the world's most popular psychoactive substance. The consumption of caffeine has remained stable between 1997 and 2015. Coffee, tea and soft drinks are the most common caffeine sources, with energy drinks contributing little to the total caffeine intake across all age groups. Some from these religions believe that one is not supposed to consume a non-medical, psychoactive substance, or believe that one is not supposed to consume a substance that is addictive. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has said the following with regard to caffeinated beverages: "... the Church revelation spelling out health practices (Doctrine and Covenants 89) does not mention the use of caffeine. The Church's health guidelines prohibit alcoholic drinks, smoking or chewing of tobacco, and 'hot drinks' – taught by Church leaders to refer specifically to tea and coffee." Gaudiya Vaishnavas generally also abstain from caffeine, because they believe it clouds the mind and overstimulates the senses. To be initiated under a guru, one must have had no caffeine, alcohol, nicotine or other drugs, for at least a year. Caffeinated beverages are widely consumed by Muslims. In the 16th century, some Muslim authorities made unsuccessful attempts to ban them as forbidden "intoxicating beverages" under Islamic dietary laws.Other organismss\|altCaffeine effects on spider webs]] The bacteria Pseudomonas putida CBB5 can live on pure caffeine and can cleave caffeine into carbon dioxide and ammonia. Caffeine is toxic to birds and to dogs and cats, and has a pronounced adverse effect on mollusks, various insects, and spiders. This is at least partly due to a poor ability to metabolize the compound, causing higher levels for a given dose per unit weight. See also * Adderall * Amphetamine * Cocaine * Health effects of coffee<!-- This is indirectly linked above already, but for symmetry with the following link to health effects of tea, it is repeated here under its own name --> * Health effects of tea * List of chemical compounds in coffee * Low caffeine coffee * Methylliberine * Nootropic * Theobromine * Theophylline * Wakefulness-promoting agent References Bibliography * * * * External links * [http://gmd.mpimp-golm.mpg.de/Spectrums/43595824-4FD6-4B29-AFC2-2771E487F6F3.aspx GMD MS Spectrum] * [http://chemsub.online.fr/name/Caffeine.html Caffeine: ChemSub Online] * [http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/mv_caffeine.htm Caffeine] at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham) }} Category:Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors Category:Adenosine receptor antagonists Category:Alkaloids found in plants Category:Anxiogenics Category:Bitter compounds Category:Components of chocolate Category:Diuretics Category:Ergogenic aids Category:Glycine receptor antagonists Category:IARC Group 3 carcinogens X Category:Mutagens Category:Phosphodiesterase inhibitors Category:Plant toxin insecticides Category:Pro-motivational agents Category:Stimulants Category:Wakefulness-promoting agents Category:Vasoconstrictors Category:Xanthines	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caffeine	2025-04-05T18:27:59.408753
6874	Cyc	\| discontinued \| latest release version 6.1 \| latest release date = \| latest preview version \| latest preview date <!-- --> \| programming language = Lisp, CycL, SubL \| operating system \| platform \| size \| language \| genre = Knowledge representation language and inference engine \| license \| alexa \| website = }} Cyc (pronounced ) is a long-term artificial intelligence project that aims to assemble a comprehensive ontology and knowledge base that spans the basic concepts and rules about how the world works. Hoping to capture common sense knowledge, Cyc focuses on implicit knowledge. The project began in July 1984 at MCC and was developed later by the Cycorp company. The name "Cyc" (from "encyclopedia") is a registered trademark owned by Cycorp. CycL has a publicly released specification, and dozens of HL (Heuristic Level) modules were described in Lenat and Guha's textbook, but the Cyc inference engine code and the full list of HL modules are Cycorp-proprietary. History The project began in July 1984 by Douglas Lenat as a project of the Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation (MCC), a research consortium started by two United States–based corporations "to counter a then ominous Japanese effort in AI, the so-called 'fifth-generation' project." The US passed the National Cooperative Research Act of 1984, which for the first time allowed US companies to "collude" on long-term research. Since January 1995, the project has been under active development by Cycorp, where Douglas Lenat was the CEO. The CycL representation language started as an extension of RLL (the Representation Language Language, developed in 1979–1980 by Lenat and his graduate student Russell Greiner while at Stanford University). In 1989, CycL had expanded in expressive power to higher-order logic (HOL). Cyc's ontology grew to about 100,000 terms in 1994, and as of 2017, it contained about 1,500,000 terms. The Cyc knowledge base involving ontological terms was largely created by hand axiom-writing; it was at about 1 million in 1994, and as of 2017, it is at about 24.5 million. In 2008, Cyc resources were mapped to many Wikipedia articles. Cyc is presently connected to Wikidata. Knowledge base The knowledge base is divided into microtheories. Unlike the knowledge base as a whole, each microtheory must be free from monotonic contradictions. Each microtheory is a first-class object in the Cyc ontology; it has a name that is a regular constant. The concept names in Cyc are CycL terms or constants. It also performs inductive reasoning, statistical machine learning and symbolic machine learning, and abductive reasoning. The Cyc inference engine separates the epistemological problem from the heuristic problem. For the latter, Cyc used a community-of-agents architecture in which specialized modules, each with its own algorithm, became prioritized if they could make progress on the sub-problem. Releases OpenCyc The first version of OpenCyc was released in spring 2002 and contained only 6,000 concepts and 60,000 facts. The knowledge base was released under the Apache License. Cycorp stated its intention to release OpenCyc under parallel, unrestricted licences to meet the needs of its users. The CycL and SubL interpreter (the program that allows users to browse and edit the database as well as to draw inferences) was released free of charge, but only as a binary, without source code. It was made available for Linux and Microsoft Windows. The open source Texai project released the RDF-compatible content extracted from OpenCyc. The user interface was in Java 6. Cycorp was a participant of a working group for the Semantic Web, Standard Upper Ontology Working Group, which was active from 2001 to 2003. A Semantic Web version of OpenCyc was available starting in 2008, but ending sometime after 2016. OpenCyc 4.0 was released in June 2012. OpenCyc 4.0 contained 239,000 concepts and 2,093,000 facts; however, these are mainly taxonomic assertions. 4.0 was the last released version, and around March 2017, OpenCyc was shutdown for the purported reason that "because such “fragmenting” led to divergence, and led to confusion amongst its users and the technical community generally that that OpenCyc fragment was Cyc.".ResearchCycIn July 2006, Cycorp released the executable of ResearchCyc 1.0, a version of Cyc aimed at the research community, at no charge. (ResearchCyc was in beta stage of development during all of 2004; a beta version was released in February 2005.) In addition to the taxonomic information, ResearchCyc includes more semantic knowledge; it also includes a large lexicon, English parsing and generation tools, and Java-based interfaces for knowledge editing and querying. It contains a system for ontology-based data integration.ApplicationsIn 2001, GlaxoSmithKline was funding the Cyc, though for unknown applications. In 2007, the Cleveland Clinic has used Cyc to develop a natural-language query interface of biomedical information on cardiothoracic surgeries. A query is parsed into a set of CycL fragments with open variables. The Terrorism Knowledge Base was an application of Cyc that tried to contain knowledge about "terrorist"-related descriptions. The knowledge is stored as statements in mathematical logic. The project lasted from 2004 to 2008. Lycos used Cyc for search term disambiguation, but stopped in 2001. CycSecure was produced in 2002, a network vulnerability assessment tool based on Cyc, with trials at the US STRATCOM Computer Emergency Response Team. One Cyc application has the stated aim to help students doing math at a 6th grade level. The application, called MathCraft, was supposed to play the role of a fellow student who is slightly more confused than the user about the subject. As the user gives good advice, Cyc allows the avatar to make fewer mistakes. Criticisms The Cyc project has been described as "one of the most controversial endeavors of the artificial intelligence history". Catherine Havasi, CEO of Luminoso, says that Cyc is the predecessor project to IBM's Watson. Machine-learning scientist Pedro Domingos refers to the project as a "catastrophic failure" for the unending amount of data required to produce any viable results and the inability for Cyc to evolve on its own. Gary Marcus, a cognitive scientist and the cofounder of an AI company called Geometric Intelligence, says "it represents an approach that is very different from all the deep-learning stuff that has been in the news." This is consistent with Doug Lenat's position that "Sometimes the veneer of intelligence is not enough".Notable employees This is a list of some of the notable people who work or have worked on Cyc either while it was a project at MCC (where Cyc was first started) or Cycorp. * Douglas Lenat * Michael Witbrock * Pat Hayes * Ramanathan V. Guha * Stuart J. Russell * Srinija Srinivasan * Jared Friedman * John McCarthy See also * BabelNet * DARPA Agent Markup Language * DBpedia * Fifth generation computer * Freebase * List of notable artificial intelligence projects References Further reading * Alan Belasco et al. (2004). [http://www.springeronline.com/sgw/cda/frontpage/0,11855,1-40109-22-36983341-0,00.html "Representing Knowledge Gaps Effectively"]. In: D. Karagiannis, U. Reimer (Eds.): Practical Aspects of Knowledge Management, Proceedings of PAKM 2004, Vienna, Austria, December 2–3, 2004. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg. * * John Cabral & others (2005). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927210738/http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/ilp2005-semantic-ILP.pdf "Converting Semantic Meta-Knowledge into Inductive Bias"]. In: Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Inductive Logic Programming. Bonn, Germany, August 2005. * Jon Curtis et al. (2005). [https://web.archive.org/web/20060325020231/http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/KRAQ2005.pdf "On the Effective Use of Cyc in a Question Answering System"]. In: Papers from the IJCAI Workshop on Knowledge and Reasoning for Answering Questions. Edinburgh, Scotland: 2005. * Chris Deaton et al. (2005). [https://web.archive.org/web/20080517172142/http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/TKB-IA2005.pdf "The Comprehensive Terrorism Knowledge Base in Cyc"]. In: Proceedings of the 2005 International Conference on Intelligence Analysis, McLean, Virginia, May 2005. * Kenneth Forbus et al. (2005) .[https://web.archive.org/web/20060325020423/http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/CombiningAnalogy-IA2005.pdf "Combining analogy, intelligent information retrieval, and knowledge integration for analysis: A preliminary report"]. In: Proceedings of the 2005 International Conference on Intelligence Analysis, McLean, Virginia, May 2005 * douglas foxvog (2010), "Cyc". In: [http://marte.aslab.upm.es/redmine/files/dmsf/p_oasys/160623124554_195_Poli_-_Theory_and_Applications_of_Ontology.pdf Theory and Applications of Ontology: Computer Applications] , Springer. * Fritz Lehmann and d. foxvog (1998), "[http://www.aaai.org/Papers/Workshops/1998/WS-98-04/WS98-04-007.pdf Putting Flesh on the Bones: Issues that Arise in Creating Anatomical Knowledge Bases with Rich Relational Structures]". In: Knowledge Sharing across Biological and Medical Knowledge Based Systems, AAAI. * Douglas Lenat and R. V. Guha (1990). Building Large Knowledge-Based Systems: Representation and Inference in the Cyc Project. Addison-Wesley. . * James Masters (2002). [https://web.archive.org/web/20060325020711/http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/fusion2002.pdf "Structured Knowledge Source Integration and its applications to information fusion"]. In: Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Information Fusion. Annapolis, MD, July 2002. * James Masters and Z. Güngördü (2003). <!-- [http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/kimas2003.pdf -->."Structured Knowledge Source Integration: A Progress Report" In: Integration of Knowledge Intensive Multiagent Systems. Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, 2003. * Cynthia Matuszek et al. (2006). [https://web.archive.org/web/20121025045607/http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/AAAI06SS-SyntaxAndContentOfCyc.pdf "An Introduction to the Syntax and Content of Cyc."]. In: Proc. of the 2006 AAAI Spring Symposium on Formalizing and Compiling Background Knowledge and Its Applications to Knowledge Representation and Question Answering. Stanford, 2006 * Cynthia Matuszek et al. (2005) .[https://web.archive.org/web/20060325020518/http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/AAAI051MatuszekC.pdf "Searching for Common Sense: Populating Cyc from the Web"]. In: Proceedings of the Twentieth National Conference on Artificial Intelligence. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, July 2005. * Tom O'Hara et al. (2003). [https://web.archive.org/web/20060325020408/http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/inducing-criteria-for-mass.pdf "Inducing criteria for mass noun lexical mappings using the Cyc Knowledge Base and its Extension to WordNet"]. In: Proceedings of the Fifth International Workshop on Computational Semantics. Tilburg, 2003. * Fabrizio Morbini and Lenhart Schubert (2009). [https://web.archive.org/web/20150923211804/http://www.cs.rochester.edu/~morbini/files/commonsense09.pdf "Evaluation of EPILOG: a Reasoner for Episodic Logic"]. University of Rochester, Commonsense '09 Conference (describes Cyc's library of ~1600 'Commonsense Tests') * Kathy Panton et al. (2002). [https://web.archive.org/web/20060325020252/http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/iaai.pdf "Knowledge Formation and Dialogue Using the KRAKEN Toolset"]. In: Eighteenth National Conference on Artificial Intelligence. Edmonton, Canada, 2002. * Deepak Ramachandran P. Reagan & K. Goolsbey (2005). [http://reason.cs.uiuc.edu/deepak/CO05-FORCyc.pdf "First-Orderized ResearchCyc: Expressivity and Efficiency in a Common-Sense Ontology"] . In: Papers from the AAAI Workshop on Contexts and Ontologies: Theory, Practice and Applications. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, July 2005. * Stephen Reed and D. Lenat (2002). [https://web.archive.org/web/20091122191538/http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/mapping-ontologies-into-cyc_v31.pdf "Mapping Ontologies into Cyc"]. In: AAAI 2002 Conference Workshop on Ontologies For The Semantic Web. Edmonton, Canada, July 2002. * Benjamin Rode et al. (2005). [https://web.archive.org/web/20060325020543/http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/PatternRecovery-IA2005.pdf "Towards a Model of Pattern Recovery in Relational Data"]. In: Proceedings of the 2005 International Conference on Intelligence Analysis. McLean, Virginia, May 2005. * Dave Schneider et al. (2005). [https://web.archive.org/web/20060325020457/http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/GatheringAndManagingFacts-IA2005.pdf "Gathering and Managing Facts for Intelligence Analysis"]. In: Proceedings of the 2005 International Conference on Intelligence Analysis. McLean, Virginia, May 2005. * Schneider, D., & Witbrock, M. J. (2015, May). [http://www.www2015.it/documents/proceedings/companion/p673.pdf "Semantic construction grammar: bridging the NL/Logic divide"] In Proceedings of the 24th International Conference on World Wide Web (pp. 673–678). * Blake Shepard et al. (2005). [https://web.archive.org/web/20060325020558/http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/IAAI-05-CycSecure.pdf "A Knowledge-Based Approach to Network Security: Applying Cyc in the Domain of Network Risk Assessment"]. In: Proceedings of the Seventeenth Innovative Applications of Artificial Intelligence Conference. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, July 2005. * Nick Siegel et al. (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20060303134555/http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/WS804SiegelN.pdf "Agent Architectures: Combining the Strengths of Software Engineering and Cognitive Systems"]. In: Papers from the AAAI Workshop on Intelligent Agent Architectures: Combining the Strengths of Software Engineering and Cognitive Systems. Technical Report WS-04-07, pp. 74–79. Menlo Park, California: AAAI Press, 2004. * Nick Siegel et al. (2005). [https://web.archive.org/web/20060325020643/http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/HypothesisGeneration-IA2005.pdf Hypothesis Generation and Evidence Assembly for Intelligence Analysis: Cycorp's Nooscape Application"]. In Proceedings of the 2005 International Conference on Intelligence Analysis, McLean, Virginia, May 2005. * Michael Witbrock et al. (2002). [https://web.archive.org/web/20060325020212/http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/IJCAI-paper-v5.pdf "An Interactive Dialogue System for Knowledge Acquisition in Cyc"]. In: Proceedings of the Eighteenth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence. Acapulco, Mexico, 2003. * Michael Witbrock et al. (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20060325020304/http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/SemAnnot2004-20041001.pdf "Automated OWL Annotation Assisted by a Large Knowledge Base"]. In: Workshop Notes of the 2004 Workshop on Knowledge Markup and Semantic Annotation at the 3rd International Semantic Web Conference ISWC2004. Hiroshima, Japan, November 2004, pp. 71–80. * Michael Witbrock et al. (2005). [http://www.aaai.org/Papers/Symposia/Spring/2005/SS-05-03/SS05-03-015.pdf "Knowledge Begets Knowledge: Steps towards Assisted Knowledge Acquisition in Cyc"]. In: Papers from the 2005 AAAI Spring Symposium on Knowledge Collection from Volunteer Contributors (KCVC). pp. 99–105. Stanford, California, March 2005. * William Jarrold (2001). [http://www.aaai.org/Library/Symposia/Spring/2001/ss01-04-009.php "Validation of Intelligence in Large Rule-Based Systems with Common Sense"]. "Model-Based Validation of Intelligence: Papers from the 2001 AAAI Symposium" (AAAI Technical Report SS-01-04). * William Jarrold. (2003). [https://web.archive.org/web/20181112101459/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/9f62/34eb20b8f626fc0f33f54f10375aa6676b2a.pdf Using an Ontology to Evaluate a Large Rule Based Ontology: Theory and Practice]. {\em Performance Metrics for Intelligent Systems PerMIS '03} (NIST Special Publication 1014). External links * [http://www.cyc.com/ Cycorp website] Category:Common Lisp (programming language) software Category:Ontology (information science) Category:Knowledge bases Category:Cognitive architecture	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyc	2025-04-05T18:27:59.428506
6876	CE	CE, Ce, ce, Će, or variants may refer to: Business CE marking (stylized 18px\|baseline\|alt=CЄ), a mandatory administrative marking asserting conformity with relevant standards, applied to certain products offered for sale within the European Economic Area Customer equity, the total combined customer lifetime values of all of the company's customers Combustion Engineering, a former American manufacturer of power systems Nationwide Airlines (South Africa) (IATA airline designator CE) Calendar Common Era (abbreviated CE), an alternative term to Anno Domini (AD) "Christian Era", also known as Anno Domini Education College English, an official publication of the American National Council of Teachers of English Common Entrance Examination, tests used by independent schools in the UK Conductive education, an educational system developed for people with motor disorders Continuing education, a broad spectrum of post-secondary learning activities and programs Chartered engineer (UK), a professional engineer licensed by a professional body (modern abbreviation CEng) Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination, a standardized examination from 1974 to 2011 Entertainment cê, a 2006 music album by Caetano Veloso Chaotic Evil, an alignment in the tabletop game Dungeons and Dragons Collector's edition, describing some special editions of software, movies, and books Cash Explosion, Ohio Lottery's scratch off game and weekly game show Halo: Combat Evolved, sometimes abbreviated as Halo: CE Job titles Chief Executive, administrative head of some regions County executive, the head of the executive branch of county government, common in the U.S. Construction Electrician (US Navy), a Seabee occupational rating in the U.S. Navy Languages Canadian English Chechen language (ISO 639-1 language code: ce) Commonwealth English Tshe, a letter of the Cyrillic script also transcribed as Će Tse (Cyrillic), a letter of the Cyrillic script also transcribed as Ce Organizations Church of England, the state church of the U.K. and mother church of the Anglican Communion, also referred to as the C of E Command element (United States Marine Corps), headquarters component of U.S. Marine Corps Marine Air-Ground Task Force (MAGTF) European Community (, , , , ) Places Cé (Pictish territory), an early medieval Pictish territory in modern-day Scotland Province of Caserta (ISO 3166-2:IT code CE), a province of Italy County Clare, Ireland (vehicle registration plate code CE) Ceará (ISO 3166-2:BR code CE), a state in Brazil Ceper railway station, a railway station in Indonesia (station code) Lough Key, known in Irish as Loch Cé Sri Lanka (FIPS Pub 10-4 and obsolete NATO country code CE) Science and technology Computing Central European, an alternate name for Windows-1250 Cheat Engine, a system debugger and cheating tool Clear Entry, a button on a standard electronic calculator that clears the last number entered Computably enumerable, a property of some sets in computability theory, abbreviated c.e. Computer engineering, a branch of engineering specialized in computer hardware Congestion Experienced, a protocol element of the Explicit Congestion Notification data networking protocol Customer edge router, a router at the customer premises that is connected to a Multi-protocol Label Switching network Windows CE, "Consumer Edition", a version of the Windows operating system designed for mobile devices Other uses in science and technology Capillary electrophoresis, a technique used to separate ionic species by their charge and frictional forces CE phase, the phase between carrier and envelope of an electromagnetic wave Cerium, symbol Ce, a chemical element Cholesteryl ester Civil engineering Common envelope, gas containing a binary system. Conjugated estrogen Consumer electronics Customer engineer Other uses Copy editing, improving the formatting, style, and accuracy of text See also Œ (OE ligature) ₠ (U-20A0, European Currency Unit) (former)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CE	2025-04-05T18:27:59.434768
6878	Carlos Valderrama	\| birth_place = Santa Marta, Colombia \| height 1.75 m \| position = Attacking midfielder \| youthyears1 \| youthclubs1 Liceo Celedón \| youthyears2 \| youthclubs2 Unión Magdalena \| years1 = 1980–1984 \| clubs1 = Unión Magdalena \| caps1 = 94 \| goals1 = 5 \| years2 = 1984–1985 \| clubs2 = Millonarios \| caps2 = 33 \| goals2 = 0 \| years3 = 1985–1987 \| clubs3 = Deportivo Cali \| caps3 = 131 \| goals3 = 22 \| years4 = 1987–1991 \| clubs4 = Montpellier \| caps4 = 77 \| goals4 = 4 \| years5 = 1991–1992 \| clubs5 = Real Valladolid \| caps5 = 17 \| goals5 = 1 \| years6 = 1992–1993 \| clubs6 = Independiente Medellín \| caps6 = 10 \| goals6 = 1 \| years7 = 1993–1995 \| clubs7 = Atlético Junior \| caps7 = 82 \| goals7 = 5 \| years8 = 1995–1997 \| clubs8 = Tampa Bay Mutiny \| caps8 = 43 \| goals8 = 7 \| years9 = 1996–1997 \| clubs9 = → Deportivo Cali (loan) \| caps9 = 18 \| goals9 = 4 \| years10 = 1997–1999 \| clubs10 = Miami Fusion \| caps10 = 22 \| goals10 = 3 \| years11 = 1999–2001 \| clubs11 = Tampa Bay Mutiny \| caps11 = 71 \| goals11 = 5 \| years12 = 2001–2002 \| clubs12 = Colorado Rapids \| caps12 = 39 \| goals12 = 1 \| totalcaps = 637 \| totalgoals = 58 \| nationalyears1 = 1985–1998 \| nationalteam1 = Colombia \| nationalcaps1 = 111 \| nationalgoals1 = 11 \| manageryears1 = 2007 \| managerclubs1 = Atlético Junior (assistant) \| medaltemplates = }} }} Carlos Alberto Valderrama Palacio (<small>Colombian Spanish:</small> ; born 2 September 1961), also known as "El Pibe" ("The Kid"), is a Colombian former professional footballer and sports commentator for Fútbol de Primera, who played as an attacking midfielder. Valderrama is considered by many to be one of the greatest South American players in history and one of the best players of his era. In 2004, he was named by Pelé in the FIFA 100 list of the world's greatest living players. A creative playmaker, he is regarded as one of the best Colombian footballers of all time, and by some, as Colombia's greatest player ever. His distinctive hairstyle, as well as his precise passing and technical skills made him one of South America's most recognisable footballers in the late 1980s and early 1990s. He won the South American Footballer of the Year award in 1987 and 1993, He is the fifth highest assister in the history of national teams and the twelfth overall, including clubs, and in 1999, he was also named one of the top 100 players of the 20th century by World Soccer. Valderrama was a member of the Colombia national football team from 1985 until 1998. He represented Colombia in 111 full internationals and scored 11 times, making him the second-most capped player in the country's history, behind only David Ospina. He played a major role during the golden era of Colombian football in the 1990s, representing his national side in three FIFA World Cups and five Copa América tournaments. After spending most of his career playing club football in South America and Europe, towards the end of his career Valderrama played in Major League Soccer, joining the league in its first season. One of the most recognisable players in the league at the time of its inception, he helped popularise the league during the second half of the 1990s. To this day, he is an icon and is considered one of the most decorated players to ever play in MLS; in 2005, he was named to the MLS All-Time Best XI.Club careerColombia and EuropeBorn in Santa Marta, Colombia, Valderrama began his career at Unión Magdalena of the Colombian First Division in 1981. He also later played for Millonarios in 1984. He joined Deportivo Cali in 1985, where he played most of his Colombian football. In 1988, he moved to the French First Division side Montpellier. He struggled to adapt to the less technical and the faster, more physical, and tactical brand of football being played in Europe, losing his place in the squad. However, his passing ability later saw him become the club's main creative force, and he played a decisive role as his side won the Coupe de France in 1990. In 1991, he remained in Europe and joined Spanish side Real Valladolid for a season. He then returned to Colombia in 1992 and went on to play for Independiente Medellín, and subsequently Atlético Junior in 1993, with whom he won the Colombian championship in 1993 and 1995.MLS career fan meet in 1998]] Valderrama began his Major League Soccer career with the US side Tampa Bay Mutiny in the league's inaugural 1996 season. The team won the first ever Supporters' Shield, awarded for having the league's best regular season record, while Valderrama was the league's first Most Valuable Player, finishing the season with 4 goals and 17 assists. He remained with the club for the 1997 season, and also spent a spell on loan back at Deportivo Cali in Colombia, before moving to another MLS side, Miami Fusion, in 1998, where he also remained for two seasons. He returned to Tampa Bay in 2000, spending two more seasons with the club; while a member of the Mutiny, the team would sell Carlos Valderrama wigs at Tampa Stadium. In 2001, Valderrama joined the Colorado Rapids, and remained with the team until 2002, when he retired. He played his last career match in a 1–1 draw with the Kansas City Wizards on 20 September 2002, with Valderrama assisting Mark Chung's goal, and in doing so at the age of 41 years and 18 days, he became the oldest player in the league's history at the time, a record that has since been surpassed by four other players, including three goalkeepers. His American soccer league career spanned a total of eight years, during which he made 175 appearances. In the MLS, Valderrama scored relatively few goals (16) for a midfielder, but is the league's fourth all-time leader in assists (114) after Brad Davis (123), Steve Ralston (135) – a former teammate, and Landon Donovan (145). In 2005, he was named to the MLS All-Time Best XI. International career Valderrama was a member of the Colombia national football team from 1985 until 1998; he made 111 international appearances, scoring 11 goals, making him the most capped outfield player in the country's history. He represented and captained his national side in the 1990, 1994, and 1998 FIFA World Cups, and also took part in the 1987, 1989, 1991, 1993, and 1995 Copa América tournaments. Valderrama made his international debut on 27 October 1985, in a 3–0 defeat to Paraguay in a 1986 World Cup qualifying match, at the age of 24. In his first major international tournament, he helped Colombia to a third-place finish at the 1987 Copa América in Argentina, as his team's captain, where he was named the tournament's best player; during the tournament, he scored the opening goal in Colombia's 2–0 over Bolivia on 1 July, their first match of the group stage. On 5 September 1993, Valderrama contributed to Colombia's historic 5–0 victory over South American rivals Argentina at the Monumental in Buenos Aires, which allowed them to qualify for the 1994 World Cup. Although much was expected of Valderrama at the World Cup, an injury during a pre-tournament warm-up game put his place in the squad in jeopardy; although he was able to regain match fitness in time for the tournament, Colombia disappointed and suffered a first-round elimination following defeats to Romania and the hosts USA. However, it is widely believed that internal problems and threats by drug cartel groups at the time contributed to the team's underwhelming results in the competition, in particular following the murder of Andrés Escobar after Colombia's 2–1 defeat to the host nation in the second group match; during the match, the Colombian defender had netted an own goal to open the scoring, which ultimately proved to be decisive, despite a 2–0 win over Switzerland in the final first round fixture. Four years later, Valderrama led his nation to qualify for the 1998 World Cup in France, scoring three goals during the qualifying stages. His impact in the final tournament at the advancing age of 37, however, was less decisive, and, despite defeating Tunisia, Colombia once again suffered a first round exit, following a 2–0 defeat against England, which was Valderrama's final international appearance. his tactical intelligence, positioning, reading of the game, efficient movement, and versatile range of passing enabled him to find space for himself to distribute and receive the ball, which allowed him both to set the tempo of his team in midfield with short, first time exchanges, or create chances with long lobbed passes or through balls. Valderrama's most instantly recognisable physical features were his big afro-blonde hairstyle, jewelry, and moustache, Former French defender Laurent Blanc, who played with Valderrama in Montpellier, described him thusly: "In the fast and furious European game he wasn't always at his ease. He was a natural exponent of 'toque', keeping the ball moving. But he was so gifted that we could give him the ball when we didn't know what else to do with it knowing he wouldn't lose it... and often he would do things that most of us only dream about." In 2006, a 22-foot bronze statue of Valderrama, created by Colombian artist Amilkar Ariza, was erected outside Estadio Eduardo Santos in Valderrama's birthplace of Santa Marta. Valderrama was the only Colombian to be featured by Pelé in FIFA's 125 Top Living Football Players list in March 2004. In the Nintendo 64 version of the game, he is referred to by his nickname, El Pibe. Valderrama has also appeared in EA Sports' FIFA football video game series; he was named one of the Ultimate Team Legend cards in FIFA 15. Besides his link to videogames, Valderrama has been present in sports media through his work with Fútbol de Primera, Andrés Cantor's radio station. He works as a color commentator during broadcasts of different matches, mostly participating during the FIFA World Cup, alongside play-by-play commentators like Sammy Sadovnik or Cantor himself. Coaching career Since retiring from professional football, Valderrama has become assistant manager of Atlético Junior. On 1 November 2007, Valderrama accused a referee of corruption by waving cash in the face of Oscar Julian Ruiz when the official awarded a penalty to América de Cali. Junior lost the match 4–1, which ended the club's hopes of playoff qualification. He later also served as a coach for a football academy called Clearwater Galactics in Clearwater, Florida. Personal life Valderrama is married and has six children. Career statistics Club {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" \|+ Appearances and goals by club, season and competition \|- !rowspan="2"\|Club !rowspan="2"\|Season !colspan="3"\|League !colspan="2"\|Cup !colspan="2"\|Continental !colspan="2"\|Other !colspan="2"\|Total \|- !Division!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals \|- \|rowspan="4"\|Unión Magdalena \|1981 \|rowspan"3"\|Categoría Primera A\|\|15\|\|1\|\|1\|\|0\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan="2"\|–\|\|16\|\|1 \|- \|1982 \|43\|\|2\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan="2"\|–\|\|43\|\|2 \|- \|1983 \|36\|\|2\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan="2"\|–\|\|36\|\|2 \|- !colspan="2"\|Total !94!!5!!1!!0!!colspan"2"\|–!!colspan"2"\|–!!95!!5 \|- \|Millonarios \|1984 \|rowspan"4"\|Categoría Primera A\|\|33\|\|0\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|33\|\|0 \|- \|rowspan="4"\|Deportivo Cali \|1985 \|48\|\|13\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan="2"\|–\|\|48\|\|13 \|- \|1986 \|46\|\|5\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|6\|\|0\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|52\|\|5 \|- \|1987 \|37\|\|4\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|6\|\|1\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|43\|\|5 \|- !colspan="2"\|Total !131!!22!!colspan"2"\|–!!12!!1!!colspan"2"\|–!!143!!23 \|- \|rowspan="4"\|Montpellier \|1988–89 \|rowspan="3"\|Division 1 \|24\|\|1\|\|2\|\|0\|\|1\|\|0\|\|colspan="2"\|–\|\|27\|\|1 \|- \|1989–90 \|18\|\|1\|\|5\|\|1\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|23\|\|2 \|- \|1990–91 \|35\|\|2\|\|2\|\|0\|\|4\|\|0\|\|colspan="2"\|–\|\|41\|\|2 \|- !colspan="2"\|Total !77!!4!!9!!1!!5!!0!!colspan="2"\|–!!91!!5 \|- \|Real Valladolid \|1991–92 \|La Liga \|17\|\|1\|\|4\|\|0\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|21\|\|\|1 \|- \|Independiente Medellín \|1992 \|rowspan="4"\|Categoría Primera A \|10\|\|1\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan="2"\|–\|\|10\|\|1 \|- \|rowspan="4"\|Atlético Junior \|1993 \|35\|\|4\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan="2"\|–\|\|35\|\|4 \|- \|1994 \|18\|\|1\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|7\|\|\|0\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|25\|\|1 \|- \|1995 \|29\|\|0\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan="2"\|–\|\|29\|\|0 \|- !colspan="2"\|Total !82!!5!!colspan"2"\|–!!7!!0!!colspan"2"\|–!!89!!5 \|- \|rowspan="3"\|Tampa Bay Mutiny \|1996 \|rowspan="2"\|MLS \|23\|\|4\|\|1\|\|1\|\|colspan="2"\|–\|\|4\|\|0\|\|28\|\|5 \|- \|1997 \|20\|\|3\|\|1\|\|0\|\|colspan="2"\|–\|\|2\|\|0\|\|23\|\|3 \|- !colspan="2"\|Total !43!!7!!2!!1!!colspan="2"\|–!!6!!0!!51!!8 \|- \|Deportivo Cali (loan) \|1996–97 \|Categoría Primera A \|18\|\|4\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|3\|\|1\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|21\|\|5 \|- \|rowspan="3"\|Miami Fusion \|1998 \|rowspan="2"\|MLS \|18\|\|2\|\|1\|\|0\|\|colspan="2"\|–\|\|2\|\|0\|\|21\|\|2 \|- \|1999 \|4\|\|1\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan="2"\|–\|\|4\|\|1 \|- !colspan="2"\|Total !22!!3!!1!!0!!colspan="2"\|–!!2!!0!!25!!3 \|- \|rowspan="4"\|Tampa Bay Mutiny \|1999 \|rowspan="3"\|MLS \|27\|\|3\|\|2\|\|0\|\|colspan="2"\|–\|\|2\|\|0\|\|31\|\|3 \|- \|2000 \|32\|\|1\|\|2\|\|0\|\|colspan="2"\|–\|\|2\|\|0\|\|36\|\|1 \|- \|2001 \|12\|\|1\|\|1\|\|0\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|13\|\|1 \|- !colspan="2"\|Total !71!!5!!5!!0!!colspan="2"\|–!!4!!0!!80!!5 \|- \|rowspan="3"\|Colorado Rapids \|2001 \|rowspan="2"\|MLS \|12\|\|0\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan="2"\|–\|\|12\|\|0 \|- \|2002 \|27\|\|1\|\|2\|\|0\|\|colspan="2"\|–\|\|5\|\|1\|\|34\|\|2 \|- !colspan="2"\|Total !39!!1!!2!!0!!colspan="2"\|–!!5!!1!!46!!2 \|- !colspan="3"\|Career total !637!!58!!24!!2!!27!!2!!17!!1!!705!!63 \|} International :''Scores and results list Colombia's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Valderrama goal.'' {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|+ List of international goals scored by Carlos Valderrama \|- !scope="col"\|No. !scope="col"\|Date !scope="col"\|Venue !scope="col"\|Opponent !scope="col"\|Score !scope="col"\|Result !scope="col"\|Competition \|- \| align"center"\|1 \|\| 1 July 1987 \|\| Estadio Gigante de Arroyito, Rosario, Argentina \|\| \|\| align"center"\|1–0 \|\| align="center"\|2–0 \|\| 1987 Copa América \|- \| align"center"\|2 \|\| 30 March 1988 \|\| Estadio Centenario, Armenia, Colombia \|\| \|\| align"center"\|2–0 \|\| align="center"\|3–0 \|\| Friendly \|- \| align"center"\|3 \|\| 24 June 1989 \|\| rowspan"2"\|Miami Orange Bowl, Miami, United States \|\| \|\| align"center"\|1–0 \|\| align"center"\|1–0 \|\| Friendly \|- \| align"center"\|4 \|\| 27 June 1989 \|\| \|\| align"center"\|3–0 \|\| align="center"\|4–0 \|\| Friendly \|- \| align"center"\|5 \|\| 9 June 1990 \|\| Stadio Renato Dall'Ara, Bologna, Italy \|\| \|\| align"center"\|2–0 \|\| align="center"\|2–0 \|\| 1990 FIFA World Cup \|- \| align"center"\|6 \|\| 22 July 1995 \|\| Estadio Domingo Burgueño, Maldonado, Uruguay \|\| \|\| align"center"\|2–0 \|\| align="center"\|4–1 \|\| 1995 Copa América \|- \| align"center"\|7 \|\| 7 July 1996 \|\| rowspan"2"\|Estadio Metropolitano Roberto Meléndez, Barranquilla, Colombia \|\| \|\| align"center"\|2–0 \|\| align"center"\|3–1 \|\| 1998 FIFA World Cup qualification \|- \| align"center"\|8 \|\| 20 August 1997 \|\| \|\| align"center"\|2–0 \|\| align="center"\|3–0 \|\| 1998 FIFA World Cup qualification \|- \| align"center"\|9 \|\| 16 November 1997 \|\| Estadio Alberto J. Armando, Buenos Aires, Argentina \|\| \|\| align"center"\|1–0 \|\| align="center"\|1–1 \|\| 1998 FIFA World Cup qualification \|- \| align"center"\|10 \|\| 23 May 1998 \|\| Giants Stadium, East Rutherford, United States \|\| \|\| align"center"\|1–0 \|\| align="center"\|2–2 \|\| Friendly \|- \| align"center"\|11 \|\| 31 May 1998 \|\| Waldstadion, Frankfurt, Germany \|\| \|\| align"center"\|1–3 \|\| align="center"\|1–3 \|\| Friendly \|} Honours Montpellier Coupe de France: 1990 Atletico Junior Colombian Championship: 1993, 1995 Tampa Bay Mutiny MLS Supporters' Shield: 1996 Individual Copa América MVP: 1987 MLS Best XI: 1996, 1997, 2000 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000 Major League Soccer MVP: 1996 Colombian Player of the Century: 1999 Copa América Historical Dream Team: 2011 Golden Foot: 2013, as football legendSee alsoList of men's footballers with 100 or more international capsReferencesExternal links * * [https://www.rsssf.org/miscellaneous/valderrama-intl.html International statistics] at Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation * [http://www.colombia.com/biografias/autonoticias/DetalleNoticia590.asp Profile] at Colombia.com * [http://www.mlssoccer.com/video/2012/06/22/power-5-unbreakable-records-valderramas-26-assists-2000 Power 5 Unbreakable Records – Valderrama's 26 assists in 2000] at mlssoccer.com }} }} Category:1961 births Category:Living people Category:Footballers from Santa Marta Category:Colombian men's footballers Category:Men's association football midfielders Category:Categoría Primera A players Category:Ligue 1 players Category:La Liga players Category:Major League Soccer players Category:Colombian expatriate men's footballers Category:Expatriate men's footballers in France Category:Expatriate men's footballers in Spain Category:Expatriate men's soccer players in the United States Category:Colombian expatriate sportspeople in France Category:Colombian expatriate sportspeople in Spain Category:Colombian expatriate sportspeople in the United States Category:Unión Magdalena footballers Category:Millonarios F.C. players Category:Deportivo Cali footballers Category:Montpellier HSC players Category:Real Valladolid players Category:Independiente Medellín footballers Category:Atlético Junior footballers Category:Tampa Bay Mutiny players Category:Miami Fusion players Category:Colorado Rapids players Category:Colombia men's international footballers Category:1987 Copa América players Category:1989 Copa América players Category:1990 FIFA World Cup players Category:1991 Copa América players Category:1993 Copa América players Category:1994 FIFA World Cup players Category:1995 Copa América players Category:1998 FIFA World Cup players Category:FIFA Men's Century Club Category:FIFA 100 Category:South American Footballer of the Year winners Category:Major League Soccer All-Stars Category:Colombian people of African descent Category:Footballers from Magdalena Department Category:20th-century Colombian sportsmen	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos_Valderrama	2025-04-05T18:27:59.473282
6880	Caesar salad	\| served = Chilled or room temperature \| main_ingredient = Romaine lettuce, croutons, Parmesan cheese, lemon juice, olive oil, egg yolks, Worcestershire sauce, anchovies, (optionally) Dijon mustard, black pepper \| variations = Multiple }} A Caesar salad (also spelled Cesar, César and Cesare), also known as '''Caesar's salad''', is a green salad of romaine lettuce and croutons dressed with lemon juice (or lime juice), olive oil, eggs, Worcestershire sauce, anchovies, garlic, Dijon mustard, Parmesan and black pepper. The salad was created on July 4, 1924, by Caesar Cardini at Caesar's in Tijuana, Mexico, when the kitchen was overwhelmed and short on ingredients. It was originally prepared tableside, and it is still prepared tableside at the original venue. History in Avenida Revolución in Tijuana]] <!-- Please do not add the claim that this salad is attributed to Julius Caesar. Reliable sources do not exist for this claim, so if it is added, it will just be deleted again. --> The salad's creation is generally attributed to the restaurateur Caesar Cardini, an Italian immigrant who operated restaurants in Mexico and the United States. Cardini lived in San Diego, but ran one of his restaurants, Caesar's, in Tijuana, Mexico, to attract American customers seeking to circumvent the restrictions of Prohibition. His daughter, Rosa, recounted that her father invented the salad at the Tijuana restaurant when a Fourth of July rush in 1924 depleted the kitchen's supplies. Cardini made do with what he had, adding the dramatic flair of table-side tossing by the chef. Some other accounts of the history state that Alex Cardini, Caesar Cardini's brother, made the salad, and that the salad was previously named the "Aviator Salad" because it was made for aviators who traveled over during Prohibition. A number of Cardini's staff have also said that they invented the dish. A popular myth attributes its invention to Julius Caesar. A 2024 book confirmed the claim that Caesar Cardini originated the recipe. Livio Santini's son, Aldo, countered that his father provided the recipe while working as a cook in Cardini's restaurant. The American chef and writer Julia Child said that she had eaten a Caesar salad at Cardini's restaurant in her youth during the 1920s, made with whole romaine lettuce leaves, which were meant to be lifted by the stem and eaten with the fingers, tossed with olive oil, salt, pepper, lemon juice, Worcestershire sauce, coddled eggs, Parmesan, and croutons made with garlic-infused oil. In 1946, the newspaper columnist Dorothy Kilgallen wrote of a Caesar containing anchovies, differing from Cardini's version: <blockquote>The big food rage in Hollywood—the Caesar salad—will be introduced to New Yorkers by Gilmore's Steak House. It's an intricate concoction that takes ages to prepare and contains (zowie!) lots of garlic, raw or slightly coddled eggs, croutons, romaine, anchovies, parmeasan cheese, olive oil, vinegar and plenty of black pepper.</blockquote> In a 1952 interview, Cardini said the salad became well known in 1937, when Manny Wolf, story editor and Paramount Pictures writer's department head, provided the recipe to Hollywood restaurants. In the 1970s, Child published a recipe in her book ''From Julia Child's Kitchen'', based on an interview with Cardini's daughter, in which the ingredients are tossed one-at-a-time with the lettuce leaves. Dressing Bottled Caesar dressings are produced and marketed by many companies, including Cardini's, Bolthouse Farms, Ken's Foods, Marzetti, Newman's Own, Panera Bread, Trader Joe's, and Whole Foods Market. The trademark brands, "Cardini's", "Caesar Cardini's" and "The Original Caesar Dressing" are all claimed to date to February 1950, although they were only registered decades later. Ingredients Common ingredients in many recipes: While the original Caesar's in Tijuana uses lime juice in their current recipe, most modern recipes use lemon juice or vinegar. Vegan versions can replace anchovies with capers and the eggs with tahini. See also * List of salads References Further reading * * * * * External links * [http://whatscookingamerica.net/History/SaladHistory.htm History of salads] Category:1924 in Mexico Category:American salads Category:California culture Category:Cuisine of the Western United States Category:Mexican cuisine Category:Salad dressings Category:Vegetable dishes	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_salad	2025-04-05T18:27:59.485384
6881	Cecilia Beaux	\| birth_name = Eliza Cecilia Beaux \| birth_date = \| birth_place = Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S. \| death_date = \| death_place = Gloucester, Massachusetts, U.S. \| nationality = American \| field = Portrait painting \| training = Francis Adolf Van der Wielen, Académie Julian, Académie Colarossi \| movement = Impressionism \| awards = Mary Smith Prize, PAFA (1885, 1887, 1891, 1892)<br/>First Prize, Carnegie Institute (1899)<br/>Temple Gold Medal, PAFA (1900)<br/>Gold Medal, Exposition Universelle (1900) }} Eliza Cecilia Beaux (May 1, 1855 – September 17, 1942) was an American artist and the first woman to teach art at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts. Known for her elegant and sensitive portraits of friends, relatives, and Gilded Age patrons, Beaux painted many famous subjects including First Lady Edith Roosevelt, Admiral Sir David Beatty and Georges Clemenceau. Beaux was trained in Philadelphia and went on to study in Paris where she was influenced by academic artists Tony Robert-Fleury and William-Adolphe Bouguereau as well as the work of Édouard Manet and Edgar Degas. Her style was compared to that of John Singer Sargent; at one exhibition, Bernard Berenson joked that her paintings were the best Sargents in the room. Like her instructor William Sartain, she believed there was a connection between physical characteristics and behavioral traits. Beaux was awarded a gold medal for lifetime achievement by the National Institute of Arts and Letters, and honored by Eleanor Roosevelt as "the American woman who had made the greatest contribution to the culture of the world". Early life and education ]] in Philadelphia]] Beaux was born on May 1, 1855, in Philadelphia, the younger daughter of French silk manufacturer Jean Adolphe Beaux and teacher Cecilia Kent Leavitt. Her mother was the daughter of prominent businessman John Wheeler Leavitt of New York City and his wife, Cecilia Kent of Suffield, Connecticut. Cecilia Kent Leavitt died from puerperal fever 12 days after giving birth at age 33. Cecilia and her sister Etta were subsequently raised by their maternal grandmother and aunts, primarily in Philadelphia. Her father, unable to bear the grief of his loss, and feeling adrift in a foreign country, returned to his native France for 16 years, with only one visit back to Philadelphia. He returned when Cecilia was two, but left four years later after his business failed. As she confessed later, "We didn't love Papa very much, he was so foreign. We thought him peculiar." Her father did have a natural aptitude for drawing and the sisters were charmed by his whimsical sketches of animals. Later, Beaux would discover that her French heritage would serve her well during her pilgrimage and training in France. In Philadelphia, Beaux's aunt Emily married mining engineer William Foster Biddle, whom Beaux would later describe as "after my grandmother, the strongest and most beneficent influence in my life." For fifty years, he cared for his nieces-in-law with consistent attention and occasional financial support. Her grandmother, on the other hand, provided day-to-day supervision and kindly discipline. Whether with housework, handiwork, or academics, Grandma Leavitt offered a pragmatic framework, stressing that "everything undertaken must be completed, conquered." The Civil War years were particularly challenging, but the extended family survived despite little emotional or financial support from Beaux's father. After the war, Beaux began to spend some time in the household of "Willie" and Emily, both proficient musicians. Beaux learned to play the piano but preferred singing. The musical atmosphere later proved an advantage for her artistic ambitions. Beaux recalled, "They understood perfectly the spirit and necessities of an artist's life." In her early teens, she had her first major exposure to art during visits with Willie to the nearby Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, one of America's foremost art schools and museums. Though fascinated by the narrative elements of some of the pictures, particularly the Biblical themes of the massive paintings of Benjamin West, at this point Beaux had no aspirations of becoming an artist. Her childhood was a sheltered though generally happy one. As a teen she already manifested the traits, as she described, of "both a realist and a perfectionist, pursued by an uncompromising passion for carrying through." She attended the Misses Lyman School and was just an average student, though she did well in French and Natural History. However, she was unable to afford the extra fee for art lessons. At age 16, Beaux began art lessons with a relative, Catherine Ann Drinker, an accomplished artist who had her own studio and a growing clientele. Drinker became Beaux's role model, and she continued lessons with Drinker for a year. She then studied for two years with the painter Francis Adolf Van der Wielen, who offered lessons in perspective and drawing from casts during the time that the new Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts was under construction. Given the bias of the Victorian age, female students were denied direct study in anatomy and could not attend drawing classes with live models (who were often prostitutes) until a decade later. At 18, Beaux was appointed as a drawing teacher at Miss Sanford's School, taking over Drinker's post. She also gave private art lessons and produced decorative art and small portraits. Her own studies were mostly self-directed. Beaux received her first introduction to lithography doing copy work for Philadelphia printer Thomas Sinclair and she published her first work in St. Nicholas magazine in December 1873. Beaux demonstrated accuracy and patience as a scientific illustrator, creating drawings of fossils for Edward Drinker Cope, for a multi-volume report sponsored by the U.S. Geological Survey. However, she did not find technical illustration suitable for a career (the extreme exactitude required gave her pains in the "solar plexus"). At this stage, she did not yet consider herself an artist. Beaux began attending the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts in Philadelphia in 1876, then under the dynamic influence of Thomas Eakins, whose work The Gross Clinic had "horrified Philadelphia Exhibition-goers as a gory spectacle" at the Centennial Exhibition of 1876. She steered clear of the controversial Eakins, though she much admired his work. His progressive teaching philosophy, focused on anatomy and live study and allowed the female students to partake in segregated studios, eventually led to his firing as director of the academy. She did not ally herself with Eakins' ardent student supporters, and later wrote, "A curious instinct of self-preservation kept me outside the magic circle." Instead, she attended costume and portrait painting classes for three years taught by the ailing director Christian Schussele. Beaux won the Mary Smith Prize at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts exhibitions in 1885, 1887, 1891, and 1892. After leaving the academy, the 24-year-old Beaux decided to try her hand at porcelain painting and she enrolled in a course at the National Art Training School. She was well suited to the precise work but later wrote, "this was the lowest depth I ever reached in commercial art, and although it was a period when youth and romance were in their first attendance on me, I remember it with gloom and record it with shame." She studied privately with William Sartain, a friend of Eakins and a New York artist invited to Philadelphia to teach a group of art students, starting in 1881. Though Beaux admired Eakins more and thought his painting skill superior to Sartain's, she preferred the latter's gentle teaching style which promoted no particular aesthetic approach. Unlike Eakins, however, Sartain believed in phrenology and Beaux adopted a lifelong belief that physical characteristics correlated with behaviors and traits. It was awarded a prize for the best painting by a female artist at the academy, and further exhibited in Philadelphia and New York. Following that seminal painting, she painted over 50 portraits in the next three years with the zeal of a committed professional artist. Her invitation to serve as a juror on the hanging committee of the academy confirmed her acceptance amongst her peers. In the mid-1880s, she was receiving commissions from notable Philadelphians and earning $500 per portrait, comparable to what Eakins commanded. When her friend Margaret Bush-Brown insisted that Les Derniers was good enough to be exhibited at the famed Paris Salon, Beaux relented and sent the painting abroad in the care of her friend, who managed to get the painting into the exhibition. the largest art school in Paris, and at the Académie Colarossi, receiving weekly critiques from established masters like Tony Robert-Fleury and William-Adolphe Bouguereau. She wrote, "Fleury is much less benign than Bouguereau and don't temper his severities…he hinted of possibilities before me and as he rose said the nicest thing of all, 'we will do all we can to help you'…I want these men…to know me and recognize that I can do something." Though advised regularly of Beaux's progress abroad and to "not be worried about any indiscretions of ours", her Aunt Eliza repeatedly reminded her niece to avoid the temptations of Paris, "Remember you are first of all a Christian – then a woman and last of all an Artist." When Beaux arrived in Paris, the Impressionists, a group of artists who had begun their own series of independent exhibitions from the official Salon in 1874, were beginning to lose their solidarity. Also known as the "Independents" or "Intransigents", the group which at times included Degas, Monet, Sisley, Caillebotte, Pissarro, Renoir, and Berthe Morisot, had been receiving the wrath of the critics for several years. Their art, though varying in style and technique, was the antithesis of the type of Academic art in which Beaux was trained and of which her teacher William-Adolphe Bouguereau was a leading master. In the summer of 1888, with classes in summer recess, Beaux worked in the fishing village of Concarneau with the American painters Alexander Harrison and Charles Lazar. She tried applying the plein-air painting techniques used by the Impressionists to her own landscapes and portraiture, with little success. Unlike her predecessor Mary Cassatt, who had arrived near the beginning of the Impressionist movement 15 years earlier and who had absorbed it, Beaux's artistic temperament, precise and true to observation, would not align with Impressionism and she remained a realist painter for the rest of her career, even as Cézanne, Matisse, Gauguin, and Picasso were beginning to take art into new directions. Beaux mostly admired classic artists like Titian and Rembrandt. Her European training did influence her palette, however, and she adopted more white and paler coloration in her oil painting, particularly in depicting female subjects, an approach favored by Sargent as well. Return to Philadelphia in Paris]] Back in the United States in 1889, Beaux proceeded to paint portraits in the grand manner, taking as her subjects members of her sister's family and of Philadelphia's elite. In making her decision to devote herself to art, she also thought it was best not to marry, and in choosing male company she selected men who would not threaten to sidetrack her career. She resumed life with her family, and they supported her fully, acknowledging her chosen path and demanding of her little in the way of household responsibilities, "I was never once asked to do an errand in town, some bit of shopping…so well did they understand." She developed a structured, professional routine, arriving promptly at her studio, and expected the same from her models. The five years that followed were highly productive, resulting in over forty portraits. In 1890 she exhibited at the Paris Exposition, obtained in 1893 the gold medal of the Philadelphia Art Club, and also the Dodge prize at the New York National Academy of Design. She exhibited her work at the Palace of Fine Arts and The Woman's Building at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, Illinois. Her portrait of The Reverend Matthew Blackburne Grier was particularly well-received, as was Sita and Sarita, a portrait of her cousin Charles W. Leavitt's wife Sarah (Allibone) Leavitt in white, with a small black cat perched on her shoulder, both gazing out mysteriously. The mesmerizing effect prompted one critic to point out "the witch-like weirdness of the black kitten" and for many years, the painting solicited questions by the press. But the result was not pre-planned, as Beaux's sister later explained, "Please make no mystery about it—it was only an idea to put the black kitten on her cousin's shoulder. Nothing deeper." Beaux donated Sita and Sarita to the Musée du Luxembourg, but only after making a copy for herself. Another highly regarded portrait from that period is New England Woman (1895), a nearly all-white oil painting which was purchased by the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts. In 1895, Beaux became the first woman to have a regular teaching position at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, where she instructed in portrait drawing and painting for the next twenty years. That rare type of achievement by a woman prompted one local newspaper to state, "It is a legitimate source of pride to Philadelphia that one of its most cherished institutions has made this innovation." She was a popular instructor. In 1898, Beaux painted probably her finest portrait, Man with the Cat (Henry Sturgis Drinker), now in Smithsonian American Art Museum. Drinker was Beaux's very successful brother-in-law. Cecilia Beaux considered herself a "New Woman", a 19th-century woman who explored educational and career opportunities that had generally been denied to women. In the late 19th century Charles Dana Gibson depicted the "New Woman" in his painting, The Reason Dinner was Late, which is "a sympathetic portrayal of artistic aspiration on the part of young women" as she paints a visiting policeman. This "New Woman" was successful, highly trained, and often did not marry; other such women included Ellen Day Hale, Mary Cassatt, Elizabeth Nourse and Elizabeth Coffin. Beaux was a member of Philadelphia's The Plastic Club. Other members included Elenore Abbott, Jessie Willcox Smith, Violet Oakley, Emily Sartain, and Elizabeth Shippen Green. Many of the women who founded the organization had been students of Howard Pyle. It was founded to provide a means to encourage one another professionally and create opportunities to sell their works of art.New York City By 1900 the demand for Beaux's work brought clients from Washington, D.C., to Boston, prompting the artist to move to New York City, where she spent the winters, while summering at Green Alley, the home and studio she had built in Gloucester, Massachusetts. Beaux's friendship with Richard Gilder, editor-in-chief of the literary magazine The Century, helped promote her career and he introduced her to the elite of society. Among her portraits which followed from that association are those of Georges Clemenceau; First Lady Edith Roosevelt and her daughter; and Admiral Sir David Beatty. She also sketched President Teddy Roosevelt during her White House visits in 1902, during which "He sat for two hours, talking most of the time, reciting Kipling, and reading scraps of Browning." Beaux also became very close with Gilder's daughter Dorothea, and the two women exchanged affectionate letters for many years. Her portraits Fanny Travis Cochran, Dorothea and Francesca, and Ernesta and her Little Brother, are fine examples of her skill in painting children; Ernesta with Nurse, one of a series of essays in luminous white, was a highly original composition, seemingly without precedent. She became a member of the National Academy of Design in 1902. and won the Logan Medal of the arts at the Art Institute of Chicago in 1921.Green Alley By 1906, Beaux began to live year-round at Green Alley, in a comfortable colony of "cottages" belonging to her wealthy friends and neighbors. All three aunts had died and she needed an emotional break from Philadelphia and New York City. She managed to find new subjects for portraiture, working in the mornings and enjoying a leisurely life the rest of the time. She carefully regulated her energy and her activities to maintain a productive output, and considered that a key to her success. On why so few women succeeded in art as she did, she stated, "Strength is the stumbling block. They (women) are sometimes unable to stand the hard work of it day in and day out. They become tired and cannot reenergize themselves." While Beaux stuck to her portraits of the elite, American art was advancing into urban and social subject matter, led by artists such as Robert Henri who espoused a totally different aesthetic, "Work with great speed..Have your energies alert, up and active. Do it all in one sitting if you can. In one minute if you can. There is no use delaying…Stop studying water pitchers and bananas and paint everyday life." He advised his students, among them Edward Hopper and Rockwell Kent, to live with the common man and paint the common man, in total opposition to Cecilia Beaux's artistic methods and subjects. The clash of Henri and William Merritt Chase (representing Beaux and the traditional art establishment) resulted in 1907 in the independent exhibition by the urban realists known as "The Eight" or the Ashcan School. Beaux and her art friends defended the old order, and many thought (and hoped) the new movement to be a passing fad, but it turned out to be a revolutionary turn in American art. In 1910, her beloved Uncle Willie died. Though devastated by the loss, at 55 year old, Beaux remained highly productive. In the next five years she painted almost 25 percent of her lifetime output and received a steady stream of honors. She had a major exhibition of 35 paintings at the Corcoran Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., in 1912. Despite her continuing production and accolades, however, Beaux was working against the current of tastes and trends in art. The famed "Armory Show" of 1913 in New York City was a landmark presentation of 1,200 paintings showcasing Modernism. Beaux believed that the public, initially of mixed opinion about the "new" art, would ultimately reject it and return its favor to the Pre-Impressionists. Beaux was crippled after breaking her hip while walking in Paris in 1924. With her health impaired, her work output dwindled for the remainder of her life. In 1930 she published an autobiography, Background with Figures. In 1942 The National Institute of Arts and Letters awarded her a gold medal for lifetime achievement. Death Beaux died at the age of 87 on September 17, 1942, in Gloucester, Massachusetts. Legacy Beaux was included in the 2018 exhibit Women in Paris 1850-1900 at the Clark Art Institute. Though Beaux was an individualist, comparisons to Sargent would prove inevitable, and often favorable. Her strong technique, her perceptive reading of her subjects, and her ability to flatter without falsifying, were traits similar to his. "The critics are very enthusiastic. (Bernard) Berenson, Mrs. Coates tells me, stood in front of the portraits – Miss Beaux's three – and wagged his head. 'Ah, yes, I see!' Some Sargents. The ordinary ones are signed John Sargent, the best are signed Cecilia Beaux, which is, of course, nonsense in more ways than one, but it is part of the generous chorus of praise." Though overshadowed by Mary Cassatt and relatively unknown to museum-goers today, Beaux's craftsmanship and extraordinary output were highly regarded in her time. While presenting the Carnegie Institute's Gold Medal to Beaux in 1899, William Merritt Chase stated "Miss Beaux is not only the greatest living woman painter, but the best that has ever lived. Miss Beaux has done away entirely with sex [gender] in art." During her long productive life as an artist, she maintained her personal aesthetic and high standards against all distractions and countervailing forces. She constantly struggled for perfection. "A perfect technique in anything," she stated in an interview, "means that there has been no break in continuity between the conception and the act of performance." She summed up her driving work ethic, "I can say this: When I attempt anything, I have a passionate determination to overcome every obstacle…And I do my own work with a refusal to accept defeat that might almost be called painful." Gallery <gallery mode"packed" heights"200"> File:Landscape with Farm Building Cecilia Beaux.jpeg\|Landscape with Farm Building, 1888 File:Cecilia Beaux - Portrait of Mrs. Albert J. Beveridge (Catherine Eddy, Lady Primrose Portrait) - 1999.44 - Indianapolis Museum of Art.jpg\|Portrait of Mrs. Albert J. Beveridge, 1916 File:William Henry Howell (painting, 1911).jpg\|Painting of William Henry Howell (1919) File:Cecilia Beaux painting Cardinal Mercier.jpg\|Cecilia Beaux painting of Cardinal Mercier () File:Portrait of Cecil Kent Drinker.jpg\|Portrait of Cecil Kent Drinker, 1891 File:Lady George Darwin by Cecilia Beaux 1889.jpeg\|Lady George Darwin, Beaux's pastel portrait of the former Martha du Puy of Philadelphia, who married Sir George Darwin. 1889 File:Mother and Daughter Cecilia Beaux 1898 PAFA.jpg\|Mother and Daughter Cecilia Beaux 1898 File:Mrs. Robert Chapin and Daughter Christina by Cecilia Beaux.jpg\|Mrs. Robert Chapin and Daughter Christina by Cecilia Beaux, 1902 File:A Little Girl by Cecilia Beaux.png\|A Little Girl (1887) File:The Green Cloak by Cecilia Beaux.jpg\|The Green Cloak, a portrait of George Dudley Seymour, on display at the Wadsworth Atheneum (1925) </gallery> References Sources * Grafly, Dorothy. "Cecilia Beaux" in Edward T. James, Janet Wilson James, and Paul S. Boyer, eds. Notable American Women, 1607–1950: A Biographical Dictionary (1971) * Beaux, Cecilia. Background with Figures: Autobiography of Cecilia Beaux. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1930. * Goodyear Jr., Frank H., and others., Cecilia Beaux: Portrait of an Artist. Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, 1974. Library of Congress Catalog No. 74-84248 * Tappert, Tara Leigh, Cecilia Beaux and the Art of Portraiture. Smithsonian Institution, 1995. * External links * [http://americanart.si.edu/search/artist_bio.cfm?StartRow1&ID300 Cecilia Beaux] from Smithsonian American Art Museum * [http://www.aaa.si.edu/collectionsonline/beauceci/ A finding aid to the Cecilia Beaux Papers, 1863-1968, in the Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution] * [http://www.explorepahistory.com/displayimage.php?imgId=708 Portrait of Mrs. John Wheeler Leavitt, 1885, grandmother of Cecilia Beaux, Westmoreland Museum of American Art, Greensburg, Pa., ExplorePAHistory.com] * [http://www.tfaoi.com/aa/3aa/3aa335.htm Aimee Ernesta and Eliza Cecilia: Two Sisters, Two Choices, Tara Leigh Tappert, The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, July 2000, pp. 249–291] * [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/03/07/AR2008030701013.html Cecilia Beaux's Contemporaries Judged Her to Be the Cat's Meow; History Sees a Bit of a Chameleon, The Washington Post, March 9, 2008, washingtonpost.com] * [http://gildedage2.omeka.net/exhibits/show/highlights/artists/womansartclub Documenting the Gilded Age: New York City Exhibitions at the Turn of the 20th Century]. A New York Art Resources Consortium project. Woman's Art Club of New York exhibition catalog. Category:1855 births Category:1942 deaths Category:19th-century American painters Category:19th-century American women painters Category:20th-century American painters Category:20th-century American women painters Category:Académie Colarossi alumni Category:Académie Julian alumni Category:American expatriates in France Category:American Impressionist painters Category:American people of French descent Category:American portrait painters Category:American women academics Category:Burials at West Laurel Hill Cemetery Category:Drinker family Category:Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters Category:Leavitt family Category:Painters from Philadelphia Category:Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts alumni Category:Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts faculty	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cecilia_Beaux	2025-04-05T18:27:59.507625
6882	Chrysler	\| type = Subsidiary \| industry = Automotive \| founded = \| founder = Walter Chrysler \| hq_location = 1000 Chrysler Drive \| hq_location_city = Auburn Hills, Michigan \| hq_location_country = United States \| num_locations = See List of Stellantis North America factories \| area_served = North America \| key_people = \| predecessor = \| num_employees = 81,341 \| num_employees_year = 2023 \| parent = Stellantis \| brands = \| subsid = Stellantis Canada \| footnotes }} FCA US, LLC, doing business as Stellantis North America and known historically as Chrysler ( ), is one of the "Big Three" automobile manufacturers in the United States, headquartered in Auburn Hills, Michigan. It is the American subsidiary of the multinational automotive company Stellantis. Stellantis North America sells vehicles worldwide under the Chrysler, Dodge, Jeep, and Ram Trucks nameplates. It also includes Mopar, its automotive parts and accessories division, and SRT, its performance automobile division. The division also distributes Alfa Romeo, Fiat, and Maserati vehicles in North America. The original Chrysler Corporation was founded in 1925 by Walter Chrysler from the remains of the Maxwell Motor Company. In 1998, it merged with Daimler-Benz, which renamed itself DaimlerChrysler but in 2007 sold off its Chrysler stake. The company operated as Chrysler LLC through 2009, then as Chrysler Group LLC. In 2014, it was acquired by Fiat S.p.A.; it subsequently operated as a subsidiary of the new Fiat Chrysler Automobiles ("FCA"), then as a subsidiary of Stellantis, the company formed from the 2021 merger of FCA and PSA Group (Peugeot Société Anonyme). After founding the company, Walter Chrysler used the General Motors brand diversification and hierarchy strategy that he had become familiar with when he worked in the Buick division at General Motors. He then acquired Fargo Trucks and the Dodge Brothers Company, and created the Plymouth and DeSoto brands in 1928.<!-- We're skipping over the Depression here. Unlike GM and Ford, Chrysler's sales and profits increased during the Depression, due to Chrysler's much greater reliance on outside parts suppliers, insulating it from the economic downturn, and the low-priced Plymouth brand. During the fat years (below), Ford & GM were more profitable for exactly the same reason, because they kept the profits from parts supplier subsidiaries, leading to Chrysler's cash flow problems of the 1970s. --> Facing postwar declines in market share, productivity, and profitability, as GM and Ford were growing, Chrysler borrowed $250 million in 1954 from Prudential Insurance to pay for expansion and updated car designs. Chrysler expanded into Europe by taking control of French, British, and Spanish auto companies in the 1960s; Chrysler Europe was sold in 1978 to PSA Peugeot Citroën for a nominal $1. The company struggled to adapt to changing markets, increased U.S. import competition, and safety and environmental regulation in the 1970s. It began an engineering partnership with Mitsubishi Motors, and began selling Mitsubishi vehicles branded as Dodge and Plymouth in North America. On the verge of bankruptcy in the late 1970s, it was saved by $1.5 billion in loan guarantees from the U.S. government. New CEO Lee Iacocca was credited with returning the company to profitability in the 1980s. In 1985, Diamond-Star Motors was created, further expanding the Chrysler-Mitsubishi relationship. In 1987, Chrysler acquired American Motors Corporation (AMC), which brought the profitable Jeep, as well as the newly formed Eagle, brands under the Chrysler umbrella. In 1998, Chrysler merged with German automaker Daimler-Benz to form DaimlerChrysler AG; the merger proved contentious with investors. As a result, Chrysler was sold to Cerberus Capital Management and renamed Chrysler LLC in 2007. Like the other Big Three automobile manufacturers, Chrysler was impacted by the automotive industry crisis of 2008–2010. The company remained in business through a combination of negotiations with creditors, filing for Chapter 11 bankruptcy reorganization on April 30, 2009, and participating in a bailout from the U.S. government through the Troubled Asset Relief Program. On June 10, 2009, Chrysler emerged from the bankruptcy proceedings with the United Auto Workers pension fund, Fiat S.p.A., and the U.S. and Canadian governments as principal owners. The bankruptcy resulted in Chrysler defaulting on over $4 billion in debts. In May 2011, Chrysler finished repaying its obligations to the U.S. government five years early, although the cost to the American taxpayer was $1.3 billion. Over the next few years, Fiat S.p.A. gradually acquired the other parties' shares. In January 2014, Fiat acquired the rest of Chrysler from the United Auto Workers retiree health trust, making Chrysler Group a subsidiary of Fiat S.p.A. In May 2014, Fiat Chrysler Automobiles was established by merging Fiat S.p.A. into the company. Chrysler Group LLC remained a subsidiary until December 15, 2014, when it was renamed FCA US LLC, to reflect the Fiat-Chrysler merger. As a result of the merger between FCA and PSA, on 17 January 2021 it became a subsidiary of the Stellantis Group.History1925–1998: Chrysler CorporationThe Chrysler company was founded by Walter Chrysler on June 6, 1925, when the Maxwell Motor Company (est. 1904) was re-organized into the Chrysler Corporation. The company was headquartered in the Detroit enclave of Highland Park, where it remained until completing the move to its present Auburn Hills location in 1996. Chrysler had arrived at the ailing Maxwell-Chalmers company in the early 1920s, hired to overhaul the company's troubled operations (after a similar rescue job at the Willys-Overland car company). In late 1923, production of the Chalmers automobile was ended. The original 1924 Chrysler included a carburetor air filter, high compression engine, full pressure lubrication, and an oil filter, features absent from most autos at the time. Among the innovations in its early years were the first practical mass-produced four-wheel hydraulic brakes, a system nearly completely engineered by Chrysler with patents assigned to Lockheed, and rubber engine mounts, called "Floating Power" to reduce vibration. Chrysler also developed a wheel with a ridged rim, designed to keep a deflated tire from flying off the wheel. This wheel was eventually adopted by the auto industry worldwide. The Maxwell brand was dropped after the 1925 model year, with the new, lower-priced four-cylinder Chryslers introduced for the 1926 year being badge-engineered Maxwells. The advanced engineering and testing that went into Chrysler Corporation cars helped to push the company to the second-place position in U.S. sales by 1936, which it held until 1949. In 1928, the Chrysler Corporation began dividing its vehicle offerings by price class and function. The Plymouth brand was introduced at the low-priced end of the market (created essentially by once again reworking and rebadging the Chrysler Series 50 four-cylinder model). automobile and truck company and continued the successful Dodge line of automobiles and Fargo range of trucks. By the mid-1930s, the DeSoto and Dodge divisions would trade places in the corporate hierarchy. The Imperial name had been used since 1926 but was never a separate make, just the top-of-the-line Chrysler. However, in 1955, the company decided to offer it as its own make/brand and division to better compete with its rivals, Lincoln and Cadillac. This addition changed the company's traditional four-make lineup to five (in order of price from bottom to top): Plymouth, Dodge, DeSoto, Chrysler, and the now-separate Imperial. all-transistor car radio – "Breaking News" radio broadcast announcement]] On April 28, 1955, Chrysler and Philco announced the development and production of the World's First All-Transistor car radio. The all-transistor car radio, Mopar model 914HR, developed and produced by Chrysler and Philco, was a $150 option on the 1956 Imperial automobile models. Philco began manufacturing this radio in the fall of 1955 at its Sandusky Ohio plant. On September 28, 1957, Chrysler announced the first production electronic fuel injection (EFI), as an option on some of its new 1958 car models (Chrysler 300D, Dodge D500, DeSoto Adventurer, Plymouth Fury). The first attempt to use this system was by American Motors on the 1957 Rambler Rebel. Bendix Corporation's Electrojector used a transistor computer brain modulator box, but teething problems on pre-production cars meant very few cars were made. The EFI system in the Rambler ran fine in warm weather, but suffered hard starting in cooler temperatures and AMC decided not to use this EFI system on its 1957 Rambler Rebel production cars that were sold to the public. Owners of EFI Chryslers were so dissatisfied that all but one were retrofitted with carburetors (while that one has been completely restored, with original EFI electronic problems resolved). The Valiant was also introduced for the 1960 model year as a distinct brand. In the U.S. market, Valiant was made a model in the Plymouth line for 1961 and the DeSoto make was discontinued in 1961. With those exceptions per applicable year and market, Chrysler's range from lowest to highest price from the 1940s through the 1970s was Valiant, Plymouth, Dodge, DeSoto, Chrysler, and Imperial. In 1954, Chrysler was the exclusive provider of its Hemi V8 engine in the Facel Vega, a French coachbuilder that offered their own line of hand-built luxury performance cars, coupled with the PowerFlite and TorqueFlite automatic transmissions. The Facel Vega Excellence was a four-door hardtop with rear-hinged coach doors that listed for US$12,800 ($}} in dollars ). In 1960 Facel Vega introduced the smaller Facellia sports car to capitalize on their sales success with Chrysler supplied engines. At the time, Chrysler didn't produce a four-cylinder engine, and the company had to find alternatives before production began. From 1963 through 1969, Chrysler increased its existing stakes to take complete control of the French Simca, British Rootes, and Spanish Barreiros companies, merging them into Chrysler Europe in 1967. In the 1970s, an engineering partnership was established with Mitsubishi Motors, and Chrysler began selling Mitsubishi vehicles branded as Dodge and Plymouth in North America. Chrysler struggled to adapt to the changing environment of the 1970s. When consumer tastes shifted to smaller cars in the early 1970s, particularly after the 1973 oil crisis, Chrysler could not meet the demand, although their compact models on the "A" body platform, the Dodge Dart and Plymouth Valiant, had proven economy and reliability and sold very well. Additional burdens came from increased US import competition, and tougher government regulation of car safety, fuel economy, and emissions. As the smallest of the Big 3 US automakers, Chrysler lacked the financial resources to meet all of these challenges. In 1976, with the demise of the reliable Dart/Valiant, quality control declined. Their replacements, the Dodge Aspen and Plymouth Volare, were comfortable and had good roadability, but owners soon experienced major reliability problems which crept into other models as well. Engines failed and/or did not run well, and premature rust plagued bodies. In 1978, Lee Iacocca was brought in to turn the company around, and in 1979 Iacocca sought US government help. Congress later passed the Loan Guarantee Act providing $1.5 billion in loan guarantees. The Loan Guarantee Act required that Chrysler also obtain $2 billion in concessions or aid from sources outside the federal government, which included interest rate reductions for $650 million of the savings, asset sales of $300 million, local and state tax concessions of $250 million, and wage reductions of about $590 million along with a $50 million stock offering. $180 million was to come from concessions from dealers and suppliers. Also in 1978, Iacocca offloaded the ailing European operation to PSA Peugeot Citroën for a nominal $1, taking with it the group's substantial losses and debts which had been dragging the rest of the business down. After a period of plant closures and salary cuts agreed to by both management and the auto unions, the Plymouth Reliant and Dodge Aries compact was introduced in 1981 on the all-new Chrysler K platform, which was developed from the Plymouth Horizon and Dodge Omni hatchbacks, which were introduced in 1978. Chrysler returned to profitability in 1980, repaying the loans with interest in 1983. The Omni/Horizon were first offered with four-cylinder engines provided by Chrysler Europe brand Simca, then Volkswagen, until the all-new Chrysler engineered Chrysler K engine arrived. Chrysler had not manufactured a four-cylinder engine since 1933 when the Chrysler flathead four-cylinder was canceled. In November 1983, the Dodge Caravan/Plymouth Voyager was introduced, built on a modified K platform, establishing the minivan as a major category, and initiating Chrysler's return to stability. In 1985, Diamond-Star Motors was created, further expanding the Chrysler-Mitsubishi relationship. in Auburn Hills, Michigan, completed in 1996. Photo was taken in 2002.]] In 1985, Chrysler entered an agreement with American Motors Corporation to produce Chrysler M platform rear-drive, as well as Dodge Omnis front wheel drive cars, in AMC's Kenosha, Wisconsin, plant. In 1987, Chrysler acquired the 47% ownership of AMC that was held by Renault. The remaining outstanding shares of AMC were bought on the NYSE by August 5, 1987, making the deal valued somewhere between US$1.7 billion and US$2 billion, depending on how costs were counted. Chrysler CEO Lee Iacocca wanted the Jeep brand, particularly the Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ) that was under development, the new world-class manufacturing plant in Bramalea, Ontario, and AMC's engineering and management talent that became critical for Chrysler's future success. Chrysler established the Jeep/Eagle division as a "specialty" arm to market products distinctly different from the K-car-based products with the Eagle cars targeting import buyers. Former AMC dealers sold Jeep vehicles and various new Eagle models, as well as Chrysler products, strengthening the automaker's retail distribution system. Eurostar, a joint venture between Chrysler and Steyr-Daimler-Puch, began producing the Chrysler Voyager in Austria for European markets in 1992. 1998–2007: DaimlerChrysler In 1998, Chrysler and its subsidiaries entered into a partnership dubbed a "merger of equals" with German-based Daimler-Benz AG, creating the combined entity DaimlerChrysler AG. To the surprise of many stockholders, Daimler acquired Chrysler in a stock swap before Chrysler CEO Bob Eaton retired. Under DaimlerChrysler, the company was named DaimlerChrysler Motors Company LLC, with its U.S. operations generally called "DCX". The Eagle brand was retired soon after Chrysler's merger with Daimler-Benz in 1998 Jeep became a stand-alone division, and efforts were made to merge the Chrysler and Jeep brands as one sales unit. In 2001, the Plymouth brand was also discontinued. Eurostar also built the Chrysler PT Cruiser in 2001 and 2002. The Austrian venture was sold to Magna International in 2002 and became Magna Steyr. The Voyager continued in production until 2007, whereas the Chrysler 300C, Jeep Grand Cherokee, and Jeep Commander were also built at the plant from 2005 until 2010. On May 14, 2007, DaimlerChrysler announced the sale of 80.1% of Chrysler Group to American private equity firm Cerberus Capital Management, L.P., thereafter known as Chrysler LLC, although Daimler (renamed as Daimler AG) continued to hold a 19.9% stake.2007–2014: Effects of Great RecessionThe economic collapse during the Financial crisis of 2007–2008 pushed the company to the brink. On April 30, 2009, the automaker filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection to be able to operate as a going concern, while renegotiating its debt structure and other obligations, which resulted in the corporation defaulting on over $4 billion in secured debts. The US Treasury, through the Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP), invested $12.5 billion in Chrysler and recovered $11.2 billion when the company shares were sold in May 2011, resulting in a $1.3 billion loss. On July 21, 2011, Fiat bought the Chrysler shares held by the US Treasury. The purchase made Chrysler foreign-owned again, this time as the luxury division. The Chrysler 300 was badged Lancia Thema in some European markets (with additional engine options), giving Lancia a much-needed replacement for its flagship.2014–2021: Fiat Chrysler AutomobilesOn January 21, 2014, Fiat bought the remaining shares of Chrysler owned by the VEBA worth $3.65 billion. The most challenging launch for this new company came immediately in January 2014 with a completely redesigned Chrysler 200. The vehicle's creation is from the completely integrated company, FCA, executing from a global compact-wide platform. On December 16, 2014, Chrysler Group LLC announced a name change to FCA US LLC. On January 12, 2017, FCA shares traded at the New York Stock Exchange lost value after the EPA accused FCA US of using emissions cheating software to evade diesel-emissions tests, however the company countered the accusations, and the chairman and CEO Sergio Marchionne sternly rejected them. The following day, shares rose as investors played down the effect of the accusations. Analysts gave estimates of potential fines from several hundred million dollars to $4 billion, although the likelihood of a hefty fine was low. Senior United States Senator Bill Nelson urged the FTC to look into possible deceptive marketing of the company's diesel-powered SUVs. Shares dropped 2.2% after the announcement. FCA US would in 2022, plead guilty to a criminal charge of conspiring to defraud the US, to wire fraud, and to violate the Clean Air Act. On July 21, 2018, Sergio Marchionne stepped down as chairman and CEO for health reasons, and was replaced by John Elkann and Michael Manley, respectively. As a result of ending domestic production of more fuel-efficient passenger automobiles such as the Dodge Dart and Chrysler 200 sedans, FCA US elected to pay $77 million in fines for violating the anti-backsliding provision of fuel economy standards set under the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 for its model year 2016 fleet. It was again fined for the 2017 model year for not meeting the minimum domestic passenger car standard. FCA described the $79 million civil penalty as "not expected to have a material impact on its business." As part of a January 2019 settlement, Fiat Chrysler was to recall and repair approximately 100,000 automobiles equipped with a 3.0-liter V6 EcoDiesel engine having a prohibited defeat device, pay $311 million in total civil penalties to US regulators and CARB, pay $72.5 million for state civil penalties, implement corporate governance reforms, and pay $33.5 million to mitigate excess pollution. The company was also to pay affected consumers up to $280 million and offer extended warranties on such vehicles worth $105 million. The total value of the settlement was about $800 million, though FCA did not admit liability, and it did not resolve an ongoing criminal investigation. In February 2024, Chrysler unveiled a concept for its first electric vehicle, the Chrysler Halcyon, a battery-electric sedan. Logo evolution <gallery widths85 heights85 > First chrysler logo 1925.png\|1925–1955 Chrysler_Corporation_Logo_(1955_-_1962).svg\|1955–1962 Chrysler_logo_1962.png\|1962–1998 DaimlerChrysler wordmark.svg\|1998–2007 Chrysler Group logo.svg\|2007–2014 Fiat_Chrysler_Automobiles_logo.svg\|2014–2021 Stellantis.svg\|2021–present </gallery> ;Notes Corporate governance landmark executive offices in the Detroit Financial District]] , management positions of Stellantis North America include:Board of directors * Carlos Zarlenga, COO (since February 2024) * Richard Palmer, CFO Management team * Jeffrey Kommor: head of US sales * Lottie Holland: head of diversity, inclusion, and engagement, FCA - North America * Bruno Cattori: president and CEO, FCA Mexico, S.A. de C.V. * Mark Champine: head of quality, FCA - North America * Mark Chernoby: chief technical compliance officer, Stellantis N.V. * Martin Horneck: head of purchasing and supply chain management, FCA - North America * Mamatha Chamarthi: chief information officer, FCA - North America and Asia Pacific * Marissa Hunter: head of marketing * Philip Langley: head of network development, FCA - North America * Ralph Gilles: head of design * Michael Resha: head of manufacturing, FCA - North America * Roger "Shane" Karr: head of external affairs, FCA - North America * Michael J. Keegan: chief audit; sustainability and compliance officer * Timothy Kuniskis: brand chief executive officer, Dodge and, Ram Trucks (left May 31, 2024) * Christine Feuell: brand chief executive officer, Chrysler * Jim Morisson: head of Jeep brand, FCA - North America * João Laranjo: chief financial officer, FCA - North America * Michael Bly: head of global propulsion systems, Stellantis N.V. * Jeffrey P. Lux: head of transmission powertrain, FCA - North America * Chris Pardi: general counsel and corporate secretary, FCA - North America * Barbara J. Pilarski: head of business development, FCA - North America * Carlos Zarlenga: chief operating officer * Scott Thiele: head of portfolio planning, FCA - North America; head of global long-range plan coordination * Joseph Veltri: head of investor relations * Rob Wichman: ad interim head of product development, FCA - North America * Larry Dominique: senior vice president, Alfa Romeo - North America * Christopher G. Fields: vice president, U.S. employee relations Sales and marketing United States sales Chrysler is the smallest of the "Big Three" U.S. automakers (Stellantis North America, Ford Motor Company, and General Motors). In 2020, FCA US sold just over 1.8 million vehicles.Global salesChrysler was the world's 11th largest vehicle manufacturer as ranked by OICA in 2012. Total Chrysler vehicle production was about 2.37 million that year. The company has since become a wholly-owned subsidiary and no longer reports global sales. Marketing Lifetime powertrain warranty In 2007, Chrysler began to offer vehicle lifetime powertrain warranty for the first registered owner or retail lessee. The deal covered owner or lessee in U.S., Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands, for 2009 model year vehicles, and 2006, 2007, and 2008 model year vehicles purchased on or after July 26, 2007. Covered vehicles excluded SRT models, Diesel vehicles, Sprinter models, Ram Chassis Cab, Hybrid System components (including transmission), and certain fleet vehicles. The warranty is non-transferable. After Chrysler's restructuring, the warranty program was replaced by five-year/100,000 mile transferable warranty for 2010 or later vehicles."Let's Refuel America"In 2008, as a response to customer feedback citing the prospect of rising gas prices as a top concern, Chrysler launched the "Let's Refuel America" incentive campaign, which guaranteed new-car buyers a gasoline price of $2.99 for three years. With the U.S. purchase of eligible Chrysler, Jeep, and Dodge vehicles, customers could enroll in the program and receive a gas card that immediately lowers their gas price to $2.99 a gallon, and keeps it there for the three years.Lancia co-brandingChrysler plans for Lancia to codevelop products, with some vehicles being shared. Olivier Francois, Lancia's CEO, was appointed to the Chrysler division in October 2009. Francois plans to reestablish the Chrysler brand as an upscale brand. Ram trucks In October 2009, Dodge's car and truck lines were separated, with the name "Dodge" being used for cars, minivans, and crossovers and "Ram" for light- and medium-duty trucks and other commercial-use vehicles. {\| class"wikitable" style"float:right; margin-left:10px; margin-bottom:10px;" \|- ! Calendar year ! U.S. Chrysler sales ! %Chg/yr. \|- \| 1999 \| 2,638,561 \| \|- \| 2000 \| 2,522,695 \| 4.4% \|- \| 2001 \| 2,273,208 \| 9.9% \|- \| 2002 \| 2,205,446 \| 3% \|- \| 2003 \| 2,127,451 \| 3.5% \|- \| 2004 \| 2,206,024 \| 3.7% \|- \| 2005 \| 2,142,505 \| 7% \|- \| 2007 \| 1,453,122 \| 30% \|- \| 2009 \| 931,402 \| 36% \|- \| 2010 \| 1,085,211 \| 17% \|- \| 2011 \| 1,369,114 \| 26% \|- \| 2012 \| 1,651,787 \| 21% \|- \| 2013 \| 1,800,368 \| 9% \|- \| 2014 \| 2,090,639 \| 16% \|- \| 2015 \| 2,243,907 \| 7% \|- \|2016 \|2,244,315 \| 0.0% \|- \|2017 \|2,059,376 \| 0.8% \|- \|2018 \|2,235,204 \| 8.5% \|- \|2019 \|2,203,663 \| 1.4% \|- \|2020 \|1,820,636 \| 17.4% \|- \|2021 \|1,777,394 \| 2.4% \|- \|2022 \|1,547,076 \| 13.0% \|- \|2023 \|1,527,090 \| 1.3% \|- \|2024 \|1,303,570 \| 14.6% \|} "Imported From Detroit" In 2011, Chrysler unveiled their "Imported From Detroit" campaign with ads featuring Detroit rapper Eminem, one of which aired during the Super Bowl. The campaign highlighted the rejuvenation of the entire product lineup, which included the new, redesigned, and repackaged 2011 model year 200 sedans and 200 convertibles, the Chrysler 300 sedan, and the Chrysler Town & Country minivan. As part of the campaign, Chrysler sold a line of clothing items featuring the Monument to Joe Louis, with proceeds being funneled to Detroit-area charities, including the Boys and Girls Clubs of Southeast Michigan, Habitat for Humanity Detroit and the Marshall Mathers Foundation. In March 2011, Chrysler Group LLC filed a lawsuit against Moda Group LLC (owner of Pure Detroit clothing retailer) for copying and selling merchandise with the "Imported from Detroit" slogan. Chrysler claimed it had notified defendant of its pending trademark application February 14, but the defendant argued Chrysler had not secured a trademark for the "Imported From Detroit" phrase. On June 18, 2011, U.S. District Judge Arthur Tarnow ruled that Chrysler's request did not show that it would suffer irreparable harm or that it had a strong likelihood of winning its case. Therefore, Pure Detroit's owner, Detroit retailer Moda Group LLC, can continue selling its "Imported from Detroit" products. Tarnow also noted that Chrysler does not have a trademark on "Imported from Detroit" and rejected the automaker's argument that trademark law is not applicable to the case. In March 2012, Chrysler Group LLC and Pure Detroit agreed to a March 27 mediation to try to settle the lawsuit over the clothing company's use of "Imported from Detroit" slogan. Pure Detroit stated that Chrysler has made false claims about the origins of three vehicles - Chrysler 200, Chrysler 300 and Chrysler Town & Country - none of which are built in Detroit. Pure Detroit also said that Chrysler's Imported From Detroit merchandise is not being made in Detroit. In 2012 Chrysler and Pure Detroit came to an undisclosed settlement. Chrysler's Jefferson North Assembly, which makes the Jeep Grand Cherokee and Dodge Durango, is the only car manufacturing plant of any company remaining entirely in Detroit (General Motors operates a plant that is partly in Detroit and partly in Hamtramck). In 2011, Eminem settled a lawsuit against Audi alleging the defendant had ripped off the Chrysler 300 Super Bowl commercial in the Audi A6 Avant ad. "Halftime in America" Again in 2012, Chrysler advertised during the Super Bowl. Its two-minute February 5, 2012 Super Bowl XLVI advertisement was titled "Halftime in America". The ad drew criticism from several leading U.S. conservatives, who suggested that its messaging implied that President Barack Obama deserved a second term and, as such, was political payback for Obama's support for the federal bailout of the company. Asked about the criticism in a 60 Minutes interview with Steve Kroft, Sergio Marchionne responded "just to rectify the record I paid back the loans at 19.7% Interest. I don't think I committed to do to a commercial on top of that" and characterized the Republican reaction as "unnecessary and out of place".America's ImportIn 2014, Chrysler started using a new slogan, "America's Import" in ads introducing their all-new 2015 Chrysler 200, targeting foreign automakers from Germany to Japan with such ads (German performance and Japanese quality), and at the ending of selected ads, the advertisement will say, "We Built This", indicating being built in America, instead of overseas.Slogans * Engineered to be Great Cars (1998–2001) * Drive = Love (2002–2004) * Inspiration comes standard (2004–2007) * Engineered Beautifully (2007–mid 2010) * Imported From Detroit (2011–2014) * ''America's Import'' (2014–2016) It connects to the Internet via the mobile network of AT&T, providing the car with its own IP address. In July 2015, IT security researchers announced a severe security flaw assumed to affect every Chrysler vehicle with Uconnect produced from late 2013 to early 2015. \|- \| \|\| Chrysler Amplex \|\| 1932 \|\| 1932–1988 \|\| Sold to ICM Industries \|- \| \|\| Graham Brothers\|\| 1916 \|\| 1928-1929 \|\| discontinued and trucks continued under Dodge and Fargo- Passenger car division continued independently as Graham-Paige \|- \| \|\| Chrysler Marine \|groupn\|name=boat}} \|\| 1927 \|\|1927–1980 \|\| Discontinued \|- \| \|\| DeSoto \|\| 1928 \|\| 1928–1961 \|\| Models consolidated and replaced by Chrysler Newport. \|- \| \|\| Eagle \|\| 1988 \|\| 1988–1998 \|\| Discontinued \|- \| \|\| Fargo \|\|1913 \|\| 1913–1972 \|\| Discontinued \|- \| \|\| Global Electric Motorcars \|\| 1992 \|\| 1998–2011 \|\| Sold to Polaris Industries \|- \| \|\| Imperial \|\| 1955 \|\| 1955–1983 \|\| Discontinued \|- \| \|\| Plymouth \|\| 1928 \|\| 1928–2001 \|\| Discontinued, all unique/incoming models integrated into Chrysler Line up. \|- \| \|\| Valiant \|\| 1959 \|\|1959–1976 \|\| Discontinued \|- \| \|\| Lamborghini \|\| 1963 \|\| 1987–1994 \|\| Sold to Mycom / V'Power Corp. \|- \| \|\| Barreiros \|\| 1954 \|\| 1969–1978 \|\| Discontinued, became part of Chrysler Europe \|- \| \|\| Simca \|\| 1934 \|\| 1967–1970 \|\| Discontinued, became part of Chrysler Europe \|- \| \|\| Matra \|\| 1964 \|\| 1970–1979 \|\| Joint venture; stake acquired by Peugeot \|- \| \|\| Humber \|\| 1887 \|\| 1967–1976 \|\| Discontinued, became part of Chrysler Europe \|- \| \|\| Commer \|\| 1905 \|\| 1967–1979 \|\| Discontinued, became part of Chrysler Europe \|- \| \|\| Karrier \|\| 1908 \|\| 1967–1979 \|\| Discontinued, became part of Chrysler Europe \|- \| \|\| Hillman \|\| 1907 \|\| 1967–1976 \|\| Discontinued, became part of Chrysler Europe \|- \| \|\| Sunbeam \|\| 1905 \|\| 1967–1976 \|\| Discontinued, became part of Chrysler Europe \|- \| \|\| Singer \|\| 1875 \|\| 1967–1970 \|\| Discontinued, became part of Chrysler Europe \|} ;Notes Brand predecessors Maxwell-Chalmers * Maxwell (1904–1926), US; new models renamed Chrysler and Plymouth * Chalmers (1908–1923) US for luxury cars; merged with Maxwell in 1922 United States Motor Company (1908–1913); reorganized and folded into Maxwell * Brush (1907–1913) * Dayton (1905–1913) * Alden-Sampson (1910–1913) * Columbia (1899–1910) * Riker (1897–1907) Electric Vehicle Company (1899–1907) Argo * Hackett * Lorraine * Detroit * Thomas (1906–1908) * Sampson (1903–1913) * Stoddard * Courier (1909–1913) * Providence * Gray Marine Motor Company Chrysler Corporation * Graham Brothers (1916–1929) US; acquired by The Dodge Brothers Company in 1925 with the passenger car division split to form Graham-Paige and folded into Dodge after Chrysler's ownership * Fargo (1913–1935) US, (1920–1972) Canada for trucks and vans; replaced by Plymouth Trucks in the US in 1937 and folded into the Dodge Division after 1972 in CanadaRootes Group (1913–1971), UK; minority interest purchased by Chrysler in 1964, progressively taking controlling interest in 1967, renamed Chrysler Europe in 1971 * Sunbeam (1901–1976), UK * Humber (1898–1976), UK * Singer (1905–1970), UK * Commer (1905–1979), UK * Hillman (1907–1976), UK * Karrier (1908–1977), UK * Talbot (1903–1958; 1979–1994), UK * Simca (1934–1977), France * Barreiros (1959–1978), Spain American Motors Corporation (1954–1988), US; purchased by Chrysler and renamed Jeep-Eagle Division * AMC (Brand), (1967–1987) US; rebranded Eagle * Hudson (1909–1957), US Aerocar (1905–1908) US; Brand discontinued and Reorganized into Hudson Motors Essex (1918–1933), US; Folded into the main Hudson line ** Terraplane (1932–1938), US * Nash (1917–1957), US Jeffery (1903–1917), US; line dissolved and renamed Nash in 1915 LaFayette (1919–1940) US; folded into Nash Ajax (1925–1926), US Mitchell (1903–1923), US; purchased and renamed Ajax * Rambler (1900–1914; 1950–1969), US * Metropolitan (1959–1962), US * AM General US 1970–1983; the former contract division of AMC Kaiser Motors Corporation * Kaiser (1946–1955) US for entry level; renamed Willys-Kaiser Motors, then to Kaiser-Jeep Corporation, purchased by AMC in 1970 * Frazer (1946–1951) US for entry level luxury; discontinued models incorporated in Kaiser Graham-Paige (1927–1947), mid-priced cars; purchased by Henry Kaiser and reorganized into Kaiser-Frazer Motors * Paige-Detroit (1908–1928) ** Jewett (1922–1926) Willys-Overland Motors (1912–1963) US; acquired by Kaiser Motors, later Kaiser Jeep, then by AMC in 1970 * Willys (1908–1955) US; withdrawn from the US market in 1955, used as Jeep Wrangler trim Overland (1903–1926) US; acquired by Willys Motors in 1912, used as Jeep Wrangler trim Russell (1904–1916) Canada Curtiss (1917–1920) US; sold to Clement M. Keys and merged with Wright Aeronautical Stearns-Knight (1898–1929) US; purchased by Willys in 1925 Environmental initiatives In 1979, Chrysler, in cooperation with the United States Department of Energy, produced an experimental battery electric vehicle, the Chrysler ETV-1. In 1992, Chrysler developed the Dodge EPIC concept minivan. In 1993, Chrysler sold a limited-production electric minivan called the TEVan; only 56 were produced, mostly for electric utilities. A second generation, the EPIC (unrelated to the concept), was released in 1997 and discontinued in 1999. Chrysler once owned the Global Electric Motorcars company, building low-speed neighborhood electric vehicles, but sold GEM to Polaris Industries in 2011. In September 2007, Chrysler established ENVI, an in-house organization focused on electric-drive vehicles and related technologies which was disbanded by late 2009. In August 2009, Chrysler took US$70 million in grants from the U.S. Department of Energy to develop a test fleet of 220 hybrid pickup trucks and minivans. The first hybrid models, the Chrysler Aspen hybrid and the Dodge Durango hybrid, were discontinued a few months after production in 2008, sharing their GM-designed hybrid technology with GM, Daimler and BMW. Chrysler was on the Advisory Council of the PHEV Research Center, and undertook a government sponsored demonstration project with Ram and minivan vehicles. In 2012, FCA CEO Sergio Marchionne stated that Chrysler and Fiat planned to focus primarily on alternative fuels, such as compressed natural gas and Diesel, instead of hybrid and electric drivetrains for their consumer products. Fiat Chrysler bought a total of 8.2 million megagrams of U.S. greenhouse gas emission credits from competitors including Toyota, Honda, Tesla and Nissan for the 2010, 2011, 2013, and 2014 model years. It had the worst fleet average fuel economy among major manufacturers selling in the US from model years 2012–2022.Chrysler Defense The dedicated tank building division of Chrysler, this division was founded as the Chrysler Tank division in 1940, originally with the intention of providing another production line for the M2 Medium Tank, so that the U.S. Army could more rapidly build up its inventory of the type. Its first plant was the Detroit Arsenal Tank Plant. When the M2A1 was unexpectedly declared obsolete in August of the same year, plans were altered (though not without considerable difficulty) to produce the M3 Grant instead, primarily for the British as part of the United States under the counter support for the United Kingdom against Nazi Germany (the U.S. not yet being formally in the war), with the balance of the revised order going to the U.S. Army as the Lee. After December 1941 and the United States' entry into the war against the Axis powers, the Tank division rapidly expanded, with new facilities such as the Tank Arsenal Proving Ground at (then) Utica, Michigan. It also quickly widened the range of products it was developing and producing, including the M4 Sherman tank and the Chrysler A57 multibank tank engine. Special programs During World War II, essentially all of Chrysler's facilities were devoted to building military vehicles (the Jeep brand came later, after Chrysler acquired American Motors Corporation). They were also designing V12 and V16 hemi-engines producing for airplanes, but they did not make it into production as jets were developed and were seen as the future for air travel. During the 1950s Cold War period, Chrysler made air raid sirens powered by its Hemi V-8 engines. Radar antennas When the Radiation Laboratory at MIT was established in 1941 to develop microwave radars, one of the first projects resulted in the SCR-584, the most widely recognized radar system of the war era. This system included a parabolic antenna six feet in diameter that was mechanically aimed in a helical pattern (round and round as well as up and down). One of Chrysler's most significant contributions to the war effort was in radar technology. For the final production design of this antenna and its highly complex drive mechanism, the Army's Signal Corps Laboratories turned to Chrysler's Central Engineering Office. There, the parabola was changed from aluminum to steel, allowing production to form using standard automotive presses. To keep weight down, 6,000 equally spaced holes were drilled in the face (this had no effect on the radiation pattern). The drive mechanism was completely redesigned, using technology derived from Chrysler's research in automotive gears and differentials. The changes resulted in improved performance, reduced weight, and easier maintenance. A large portion of the Dodge plant was used in building 1,500 of the SCR-584 antennas as well as the vans used in the systems.Aircraft* Chrysler VZ-6Missiles In April 1950, the U.S. Army established the Ordnance Guided Missile Center (OGMC) at Redstone Arsenal, adjacent to Huntsville, Alabama. To form OGMC, over 1,000 civilian and military personnel were transferred from Fort Bliss, Texas. Included was a group of German scientists and engineers led by Wernher von Braun; this group had been brought to America under Project Paperclip. OGMC designed the Army's first short-range ballistic missile, the PGM-11 Redstone, based on the WWII German V-2 missile. Chrysler established the Missile Division to serve as the Redstone prime contractor, setting up an engineering operation in Huntsville and for production obtaining use from the U.S. Navy of a large plant in Sterling Heights, Michigan. The Redstone was in active service from 1958 until 1964; it was also the first missile to test-launch a live nuclear weapon, first detonated in a 1958 test in the South Pacific. Working together, the Missile Division and von Braun's team greatly increased the capability of the Redstone, resulting in the PGM-19 Jupiter, a medium-range ballistic missile. In May 1959, a Jupiter missile launched two small monkeys into space in a nose cone; this was America's first successful flight and recovery of live space payloads. Responsibility for deploying Jupiter missiles was transferred from the Army to the Air Force; armed with nuclear warheads, they were first deployed in Italy and Turkey during the early 1960s. Space boosters In July 1959, NASA chose the Redstone missile as the basis for the Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle to be used for suborbital test flights of the Project Mercury spacecraft. Three uncrewed MRLV launch attempts were made between November 1960 and March 1961, two of which were successful. The MRLV successfully launched the chimpanzee Ham, and astronauts Alan Shepard and Gus Grissom on three suborbital flights in January, May, and July 1961, respectively. America's more ambitious crewed space travel plans included the design of the Saturn series of heavy-lift launch vehicles by a team headed by Wernher von Braun. Chrysler's Huntsville operation, then designated the Space Division, became Marshall Space Flight Center's prime contractor for the first stage of the Saturn I and Saturn IB versions. The design was based on a cluster of Redstone and Jupiter fuel tanks and Chrysler built it for the Apollo program in the Michoud Assembly Facility in East New Orleans, one of the largest manufacturing plants in the world. Between October 1961 and July 1975, NASA used ten Saturn Is and nine Saturn IBs for suborbital and orbital flights, all of which were successful; Chrysler missiles and boosters never suffered a launch failure. The division was also a subcontractor which modified one of the mobile launcher platforms for use with the Saturn IB rockets using Saturn V infrastructure.See also * Carl Breer * Chrysler Building * Chrysler World Headquarters and Technology Center * Chrysler Hemi engine * Chrysler Proving Grounds * Frederick Morrell Zeder * History of Chrysler * Lee Iacocca * List of automobile manufacturers of the United States * List of Chrysler engines * List of Chrysler factories * List of Chrysler platforms * List of Chrysler vehicles * Mopar * Owen Ray Skelton * Virginia Sink * Seida * The Three Musketeers (Studebaker engineers) * Walter P. Chrysler Museum * Maxwell-Chalmers Automobiles * United States Motor Company * American Motors Corporation Countries * Chrysler Fevre Argentina - sold to Volkswagen in 1980 * Chrysler Kamyon Turkey - sold to the ASKAM in 2003. * Fiat Chrysler Australia * Stellantis Canada References Further reading * * * * Goolsbee, Austan D., and Alan B. Krueger. "A retrospective look at rescuing and restructuring General Motors and Chrysler." Journal of Economic Perspectives 29.2 (2015): 3-24. [https://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1257/jep.29.2.3 online] * External links * * [http://www.chryslertestservices.com/ Chrysler Scientific Labs and Test Services] * [http://www.secdatabase.com/CIK/1513153/Company-Name/CHRYSLER-GROUP-LLC Chrysler SEC Filings] * Historic American Engineering Record (HAER) documentation, filed under 12200 East Jefferson Avenue, Detroit, Wayne County, MI: ** * [https://americanarchive.org/catalog/cpb-aacip-240-322bw4pc "Chrysler; Once Upon A Time and Now,"], The American Archive of Public Broadcasting }} Category:Stellantis Category:Car manufacturers of the United States Category:Defense companies of the United States Category:Historic American Engineering Record in Michigan Category:Motor vehicle manufacturers based in Michigan Category:Luxury motor vehicle manufacturers Category:Marine engine manufacturers Category:Truck manufacturers of the United States Category:Auburn Hills, Michigan Category:Companies based in Oakland County, Michigan Category:Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2009 Category:Former components of the Dow Jones Industrial Average Category:Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1925 Category:American companies established in 1925 Category:Motor vehicle engine manufacturers Category:2007 mergers and acquisitions Category:2014 mergers and acquisitions Category:American subsidiaries of foreign companies Category:1925 establishments in Michigan Category:Companies formerly listed on the New York Stock Exchange	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysler	2025-04-05T18:27:59.589592
6883	City of London	<br /> "O Lord Direct us"<br /> (motto of City of London Corporation) \| image_skyline = \| image_flag = Flag of the City of London.svg \| image_shield = Coat of Arms of The City of London.svg \| shield_link = Coat of arms of the City of London \| image_map = City of London in Greater London.svg \| map_caption = Location within Greater London \| nicknames = the Square Mile, the City \| subdivision_type = Status \| subdivision_name = ; city and ceremonial county \| subdivision_type1 = Sovereign state \| subdivision_name1 = United Kingdom \| subdivision_type2 = Country \| subdivision_name2 = England \| subdivision_type3 = Region \| subdivision_name3 = London \| established_title = Roman settlement \| established_date = () \| established_title2 = Wessex resettlement \| established_date2 = 886 AD () \| parts_type = Wards \| parts_style = coll \| parts = \| p1 = Aldersgate \| p2 = Aldgate \| p3 = Bassishaw \| p4 = Billingsgate \| p5 = Bishopsgate \| p6 = Bread Street \| p7 = Bridge \| p8 = Broad Street \| p9 = Candlewick \| p10 = Castle Baynard \| p11 = Cheap \| p12 = Coleman Street \| p13 = Cordwainer \| p14 = Cornhill \| p15 = Cripplegate \| p16 = Dowgate \| p17 = Farringdon Within \| p18 = Farringdon Without \| p19 = Langbourn \| p20 = Lime Street \| p21 = Portsoken \| p22 = Queenhithe \| p23 = Tower \| p24 = Vintry \| p25 = Walbrook \| governing_body = City of London Corporation \| leader_title = Lord Mayor \| leader_name = Alastair John Naisbitt King \| leader_title1 = Town Clerk \| leader_name1 = Ian Thomas \| leader_title2 = Admin HQ \| leader_name2 = Guildhall \| leader_title3 = London Assembly \| leader_name3 = Unmesh Desai (Labour; City and East) \| leader_title4 = UK Parliament \| leader_name4 = Rachel Blake (Labour; Cities of London and Westminster) \| total_type = City \| unit_pref = Imperial<!-- the template will determine automatically if the subdivision_name equals some variation of the US or the UK, except the Sui generis City of London --> \| area_total_km2 = 2.90 \| area_total_sq_mi = <!-- if unit_pref will go auto or has been defined, then enter only one of area_total_km2 or area_total_sq_mi, and template auto displays both --> \| population_as_of = \| population_footnotes = <!-- for references: use to distinguish it as such on their mapping and in their datasets.}} that contains the ancient centre, and constitutes, along with Canary Wharf and the West End, the primary central business district (CBD) of London and one of the leading financial centres of the world. It constituted most of London from its settlement by the Romans in the 1st century AD to the Middle Ages, but the modern area referred to as London has since grown far beyond the City of London boundary. The City is now only a small part of the metropolis of Greater London, though it remains a notable part of central London. The City of London is not one of the London boroughs, a status reserved for the other 32 districts (including Greater London's only other city, the City of Westminster). It is also a separate ceremonial county, being an enclave surrounded by the ceremonial county of Greater London, and is the smallest ceremonial county in England. The City of London is known colloquially as the Square Mile, as it is in area. Both the terms the City and the Square Mile are often used as metonyms for the UK's trading and financial services industries, which continue a notable history of being largely based in the City. The name London is now ordinarily used for a far wider area than just the City. London most often denotes the sprawling London metropolis, or the 32 Greater London boroughs, in addition to the City of London itself. The local authority for the City, the City of London Corporation, is unique in the UK and has some unusual responsibilities for a local council, such as being the police authority, and in having responsibilities and ownerships beyond its boundaries, e.g. Hampstead Heath. The corporation is headed by the Lord Mayor of the City of London (an office separate from, and much older than, the Mayor of London). The current Lord Mayor is Alastair King. The City is made up of 25 wards, with administration at the historic Guildhall. Other historic sites include St Paul's Cathedral, Royal Exchange, Mansion House, Old Bailey, and Smithfield Market. Although not within the City, the adjacent Tower of London, built to dominate the City, is part of its old defensive perimeter. Beyond the City, the developments of Westminster (and the West End) Eastminster (and the East End) and Southwark, established the early geography of the metropolis. The City has responsibility for five bridges across the Thames: Blackfriars Bridge, Millennium Bridge, Southwark Bridge, London Bridge and Tower Bridge. The City is a major business and financial centre, with both the Bank of England and the London Stock Exchange based in the City. Throughout the 19th century, the City was the world's primary business centre, and it continues to be a major meeting point for businesses. London was ranked second (after New York) in the Global Financial Centres Index, published in 2022. The insurance industry is concentrated in the eastern side of the city, around Lloyd's building. Since about the 1980s, a secondary financial district has existed outside the city, at Canary Wharf, to the east. The legal profession has a major presence in the northern and western sides of the City, especially in the Temple and Chancery Lane areas where the Inns of Court are located, two of which (Inner Temple and Middle Temple) fall within the City of London boundary. Primarily a business district, the City has a small resident population of 8,583 based on 2021 census figures, but over 500,000 are employed there (as of 2019) and some estimates put the number of workers in the City to be over 1 million. About three-quarters of the jobs in the City of London are in the financial, professional, and associated business services sectors. History Origins , –50 BC, found in the River Thames]] ]] The Roman legions established a settlement known as "Londinium" on the current site of the City of London around AD 43. Its bridge over the River Thames turned the city into a road nexus and major port, serving as a major commercial centre in Roman Britain until its abandonment during the 5th century. Archaeologist Leslie Wallace notes that, because extensive archaeological excavation has not revealed any signs of a significant pre-Roman presence, "arguments for a purely Roman foundation of London are now common and uncontroversial." At its height, the Roman city had a population of approximately 45,000–60,000 inhabitants. Londinium was an ethnically diverse city, with inhabitants from across the Roman Empire, including natives of Britannia, continental Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. The Romans built the London Wall some time between AD 190 and 225. The boundaries of the Roman city were similar to those of the City of London today, though the City extends further west than Londinium's Ludgate, and the Thames was undredged and thus wider than it is today, with Londinium's shoreline slightly north of the city's present shoreline. The Romans built a bridge across the river, as early as AD 50, near to today's London Bridge. Decline By the time the London Wall was constructed, the city's fortunes were in decline, and it faced problems of plague and fire. The Roman Empire entered a long period of instability and decline, including the Carausian Revolt in Britain. In the 3rd and 4th centuries, the city was under attack from Picts, Scots, and Saxon raiders. The decline continued, both for Londinium and the Empire, and in AD 410 the Romans withdrew entirely from Britain. Many of the Roman public buildings in Londinium by this time had fallen into decay and disuse, and gradually after the formal withdrawal the city became almost (if not, at times, entirely) uninhabited. The centre of trade and population moved away from the walled Londinium to Lundenwic ("London market"), a settlement to the west, roughly in the modern-day Strand/Aldwych/Covent Garden area.Anglo-Saxon restoration During the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy, the London area came in turn under the Kingdoms of Essex, Mercia, and later Wessex, though from the mid 8th century it was frequently under threat from raids by different groups including the Vikings. noting the activities around the time of King Alfred]] Bede records that in AD 604 St Augustine consecrated Mellitus as the first bishop to the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of the East Saxons and their king, Sæberht. Sæberht's uncle and overlord, Æthelberht, king of Kent, built a church dedicated to St Paul in London, as the seat of the new bishop. It is assumed, although unproven, that this first Anglo-Saxon cathedral stood on the same site as the later medieval and the present cathedrals. Alfred the Great, King of Wessex occupied and began the resettlement of the old Roman walled area, in 886, and appointed his son-in-law Earl Æthelred of Mercia over it as part of their reconquest of the Viking occupied parts of England. The refortified Anglo-Saxon settlement was known as Lundenburh ("London Fort", a borough). The historian Asser said that "Alfred, king of the Anglo-Saxons, restored the city of London splendidly ... and made it habitable once more." Alfred's "restoration" entailed reoccupying and refurbishing the nearly deserted Roman walled city, building quays along the Thames, and laying a new city street plan. Alfred's taking of London and the rebuilding of the old Roman city was a turning point in history, not only as the permanent establishment of the City of London, but also as part of a unifying moment in early England, with Wessex becoming the dominant English kingdom and the repelling (to some degree) of the Viking occupation and raids. While London, and indeed England, were afterwards subjected to further periods of Viking and Danish raids and occupation, the establishment of the City of London and the Kingdom of England prevailed. In the 10th century, Athelstan permitted eight mints to be established, compared with six in his capital, Winchester, indicating the wealth of the city. London Bridge, which had fallen into ruin following the Roman evacuation and abandonment of Londinium, was rebuilt by the Saxons, but was periodically destroyed by Viking raids and storms. As the focus of trade and population was moved back to within the old Roman walls, the older Saxon settlement of Lundenwic was largely abandoned and gained the name of Ealdwic (the "old settlement"). The name survives today as Aldwych (the "old market-place"), a name of a street and an area of the City of Westminster between Westminster and the City of London. Medieval era , 1381: their leader Wat Tyler is stabbed by William Walworth, Lord Mayor.]] Following the Battle of Hastings, William the Conqueror marched on London, reaching as far as Southwark, but failed to get across London Bridge or defeat the Londoners. He eventually crossed the River Thames at Wallingford, pillaging the land as he went. Rather than continuing the war, Edgar the Ætheling, Edwin of Mercia and Morcar of Northumbria surrendered at Berkhamsted. William granted the citizens of London a charter in 1075; the city was one of a few examples of the English retaining some authority. The city was not covered by the Domesday Book. William built three castles around the city, to keep Londoners subdued: * Tower of London, which is still a major establishment. * Baynard's Castle, which no longer exists but gave its name to a city ward. * Montfichet's Tower or Castle on Ludgate Hill, which was dismantled and sold off in the 13th century. Around 1132 the City was given the right to appoint its own sheriffs rather than having sheriffs appointed by the monarch. London's chosen sheriffs also served as the sheriffs for the county of Middlesex. This meant that the City and Middlesex were regarded as one administratively for addressing crime and keeping the peace (not that the county was a dependency of the city). London's sheriffs continued to serve Middlesex until the county was given its own sheriffs again following the Local Government Act 1888. By 1141 the whole body of the citizenry was considered to constitute a single community. This 'commune' was the origin of the City of London Corporation and the citizens gained the right to appoint, with the king's consent, a mayor in 1189—and to directly elect the mayor from 1215. From medieval times, the city has been composed of 25 ancient wards, each headed by an alderman, who chairs Wardmotes, which still take place at least annually. A Folkmoot, for the whole of the City held at the outdoor cross of St Paul's Cathedral, was formerly also held. Many of the medieval offices and traditions continue to the present day, demonstrating the unique nature of the City and its Corporation. In 1381, the Peasants' Revolt affected London. The rebels took the City and the Tower of London, but the rebellion ended after its leader, Wat Tyler, was killed during a confrontation that included Lord Mayor William Walworth. In 1450, rebel forces again occupied the City during Jack Cade's Rebellion before being ousted by London citizens following a bloody battle on London Bridge. In 1550, the area south of London Bridge in Southwark came under the control of the City with the establishment of the ward of Bridge Without. , dating from the 1560s]] , which destroyed nearly 80% of the City]] at left, churches, houses, and the Tower of London at right, as seen from a boat near Tower Wharf.]] The city was burnt severely on a number of occasions, the worst being in 1123 and in the Great Fire of London in 1666. Both of these fires were referred to as the Great Fire. After the fire of 1666, a number of plans were drawn up to remodel the city and its street pattern into a renaissance-style city with planned urban blocks, squares and boulevards. These plans were almost entirely not taken up, and the medieval street pattern re-emerged almost intact. Early modern period In the 1630s the Crown sought to have the Corporation of the City of London extend its jurisdiction to surrounding areas. In what is sometimes called the "great refusal", the Corporation said no to the King, which in part accounts for its unique government structure to the present. By the late 16th century, London increasingly became a major centre for banking, international trade and commerce. The Royal Exchange was founded in 1565 by Sir Thomas Gresham as a centre of commerce for London's merchants, and gained Royal patronage in 1571. Although no longer used for its original purpose, its location at the corner of Cornhill and Threadneedle Street continues to be the geographical centre of the city's core of banking and financial services, with the Bank of England moving to its present site in 1734, opposite the Royal Exchange. Immediately to the south of Cornhill, Lombard Street was the location from 1691 of Lloyd's Coffee House, which became the world-leading insurance market. London's insurance sector continues to be based in the area, particularly in Lime Street. In 1708, Christopher Wren's masterpiece, St Paul's Cathedral, was completed on his birthday. The first service had been held on 2 December 1697, more than 10 years earlier. It replaced the original St Paul's, which had been completely destroyed in the Great Fire of London, and is considered to be one of the finest cathedrals in Britain and a fine example of Baroque architecture. Growth of London The 18th century was a period of rapid growth for London, reflecting an increasing national population, the early stirrings of the Industrial Revolution, and London's role at the centre of the evolving British Empire. The urban area expanded beyond the borders of the City of London, most notably during this period towards the West End and Westminster. Expansion continued and became more rapid by the beginning of the 19th century, with London growing in all directions. To the East the Port of London grew rapidly during the century, with the construction of many docks, needed as the Thames at the City could not cope with the volume of trade. The arrival of the railways and the Tube meant that London could expand over a much greater area. By the mid-19th century, with London still rapidly expanding in population and area, the City had already become only a small part of the wider metropolis. 19th and 20th centuries An attempt was made in 1894 with the Royal Commission on the Amalgamation of the City and County of London to end the distinction between the city and the surrounding County of London, but a change of government at Westminster meant the option was not taken up. The city as a distinct polity survived despite its position within the London conurbation and numerous local government reforms. Supporting this status, the city was a special parliamentary borough that elected four members to the unreformed House of Commons, who were retained after the Reform Act 1832; reduced to two under the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885; and ceased to be a separate constituency under the Representation of the People Act 1948. Since then the city is a minority (in terms of population and area) of the Cities of London and Westminster. (pictured 1896) dominated the skyline of the City for centuries — its current structure by Christopher Wren was completed in 1706, after its medieval predecessor burned with much of the City in the Great Fire of 1666.]] The city's population fell rapidly in the 19th century and through most of the 20th century, as people moved outwards in all directions to London's vast suburbs, and many residential buildings were demolished to make way for office blocks. Like many areas of London and other British cities, the City fell victim to large scale and highly destructive aerial bombing during World War II, especially in the Blitz. Whilst St Paul's Cathedral survived the onslaught, large swathes of the area did not and the particularly heavy raids of late December 1940 led to a firestorm called the Second Great Fire of London. There was a major rebuilding programme in the decades following the war, in some parts (such as at the Barbican) dramatically altering the urban landscape. But the destruction of the older historic fabric allowed the construction of modern and larger-scale developments, whereas in those parts not so badly affected by bomb damage the City retains its older character of smaller buildings. The street pattern, which is still largely medieval, was altered slightly in places, although there is a more recent trend of reversing some of the post-war modernist changes made, such as at Paternoster Square. The City suffered terrorist attacks including the 1993 Bishopsgate bombing (IRA) and the 7 July 2005 London bombings (Islamist). In response to the 1993 bombing, a system of road barriers, checkpoints and surveillance cameras referred to as the "ring of steel" has been maintained to control entry points to the city. The 1970s saw the construction of tall office buildings including the 600-foot (183 m), 47-storey NatWest Tower, the first skyscraper in the UK. By the 2010s, office space development had intensified in the City, especially in the central, northern and eastern parts, with skyscrapers including 30 St. Mary Axe ("the Gherkin"'), Leadenhall Building ("the Cheesegrater"), 20 Fenchurch Street ("the Walkie-Talkie"), the Broadgate Tower, the Heron Tower and 22 Bishopsgate. The main residential section of the City today is the Barbican Estate, constructed between 1965 and 1976. The Museum of London was based there until March 2023 (due to reopen in West Smithfield in 2026), whilst a number of other services provided by the corporation are still maintained on the Barbican Estate. Governance is the ceremonial and administrative centre of the city.]] is the official residence of the Lord Mayor.]] , Lord Mayor of the City of London 2006–2007, during the Lord Mayor's Show of 2006]] The city has a unique political status, a legacy of its uninterrupted integrity as a corporate city since the Anglo-Saxon period and its singular relationship with the Crown. Historically its system of government was not unusual, but it was not reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 and little changed by later reforms, so that it is the only local government in the UK where elections are not run on the basis of one vote for every adult citizen. It is administered by the City of London Corporation, headed by the Lord Mayor of London (not to be confused with the separate Mayor of London, an office created only in the year 2000), which is responsible for a number of functions and has interests in land beyond the city's boundaries. Unlike other English local authorities, the corporation has two council bodies: the (now largely ceremonial) Court of Aldermen and the Court of Common Council. The Court of Aldermen represents the wards, with each ward (irrespective of size) returning one alderman. The chief executive of the Corporation holds the ancient office of Town Clerk of London. The city is a ceremonial county which has a Commission of Lieutenancy headed by the Lord Mayor instead of a Lord-Lieutenant and has two Sheriffs instead of a High Sheriff (see list of Sheriffs of London), quasi-judicial offices appointed by the livery companies, an ancient political system based on the representation and protection of trades (guilds). Senior members of the livery companies are known as liverymen and form the Common Hall, which chooses the lord mayor, the sheriffs and certain other officers. Wards The city is made up of 25 wards. They are survivors of the medieval government system that allowed a very local area to exist as a self-governing unit within the wider city. They can be described as electoral/political divisions; ceremonial, geographic and administrative entities; sub-divisions of the city. Each ward has an Alderman, who until the mid-1960s held office for life but since put themselves up for re-election at least every 6 years, and are the only directly elected Aldermen in the United Kingdom. Wards continue to have a Beadle, an ancient position which is now largely ceremonial whose main remaining function is the running of an annual Wardmote of electors, representatives and officials. At the Wardmote the ward's Alderman appoints at least one Deputy for the year ahead, and Wardmotes are also held during elections. Each ward also has a Ward Club, which is similar to a residents' association. The wards are ancient and their number has changed three times since time immemorial: in 1394 Farringdon was divided into Farringdon Within and Farringdon Without in 1550 the ward of Bridge Without, south of the river, was created, the ward of Bridge becoming Bridge Within; in 1978 these Bridge wards were merged as Bridge ward. Following boundary changes in 1994, and later reform of the business vote in the city, there was a major boundary and electoral representation revision of the wards in 2003, and they were reviewed again in 2010 for change in 2013, though not to such a dramatic extent. The review was conducted by senior officers of the corporation and senior judges of the Old Bailey; the wards are reviewed by this process to avoid malapportionment. The procedure of review is unique in the United Kingdom as it is not conducted by the Electoral Commission or a local government boundary commission every 8 to 12 years, which is the case for all other wards in Great Britain. Particular churches, livery company halls and other historic buildings and structures are associated with a ward, such as St Paul's Cathedral with Castle Baynard, and London Bridge with Bridge; boundary changes in 2003 removed some of these historic connections. Each ward elects an alderman to the Court of Aldermen, and commoners (the City equivalent of a councillor) to the Court of Common Council of the corporation. Only electors who are Freemen of the City of London are eligible to stand. The number of commoners a ward sends to the Common Council varies from two to ten, depending on the number of electors in each ward. Since the 2003 review it has been agreed that the four more residential wards: Portsoken, Queenhithe, Aldersgate and Cripplegate together elect 20 of the 100 commoners, whereas the business-dominated remainder elect the remaining 80 commoners. 2003 and 2013 boundary changes have increased the residential emphasis of the mentioned four wards. Census data provides eight nominal rather than 25 real wards, all of varying size and population. Being subject to renaming and definition at any time, these census 'wards' are notable in that four of the eight wards accounted for 67% of the 'square mile' and held 86% of the population, and these were in fact similar to and named after four City of London wards: {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Extract of census 'wards' where approximate to underlying legal wards \|- ! rowspan="2"\|Census ward ! rowspan="2"\|% of the City<br />of London ! rowspan="2"\|Residents ! colspan="2"\|% of built-upon land \|- !Commercial !Residential \|- \|Cripplegate (east half of Barbican neighbourhood)\|\|10.0% \|\|2,782 \|\|79% \|\|21% \|- \|Aldersgate (west half of Barbican neighbourhood)\|\|4.5% \|\|1,465 \|\|81% \|\|19% \|- \|Farringdon Without (and much of Castle Baynard)\|\|22.1%\|\|1,099 \|\|90% \|\|10% \|- \|Portsoken (contains Aldgate Underground station)\|\|6.6%\|\|985\|\|86%\|\|14% \|} Elections The city has a unique electoral system. Most of its voters are representatives of businesses and other bodies that occupy premises in the city. Its ancient wards have very unequal numbers of voters. In elections, both the businesses based in the city and the residents of the City vote. The City of London Corporation was not reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835, because it had a more extensive electoral franchise than any other borough or city; in fact, it widened this further with its own equivalent legislation allowing one to become a freeman without being a liveryman. In 1801, the city had a population of about 130,000, but increasing development of the city as a central business district led to this falling to below 5,000 after the Second World War. It has risen slightly to around 9,000 since, largely due to the development of the Barbican Estate. In 2009, the business vote was about 24,000, greatly exceeding residential voters. As the City of London Corporation has not been affected by other municipal legislation over the period of time since then, its electoral practice has become increasingly anomalous. Uniquely for city or borough elections, its elections remain independent-dominated. The business or "non-residential vote" was abolished in other UK local council elections by the Representation of the People Act 1969, but was preserved in the City of London. The principal reason given by successive UK governments for retaining this mechanism for giving businesses representation, is that the city is "primarily a place for doing business". About 330,000 non-residents constitute the day-time population and use most of its services, far outnumbering residents, who number around 7,000 (2011). By contrast, opponents of the retention of the business vote argue that it is a cause of institutional inertia. The City of London (Ward Elections) Act 2002 (c. vi), a local act of Parliament, reformed the voting system and greatly increased the business franchise, allowing many more businesses to be represented. Under the new system, the number of non-resident voters has doubled from 16,000 to 32,000. Previously disenfranchised firms (and other organisations) are entitled to nominate voters, in addition to those already represented, and all such bodies are now required to choose their voters in a representative fashion. Bodies employing fewer than 10 people may appoint 1 voter; those employing 10 to 50 people 1 voter for every 5 employees; those employing more than 50 people 10 voters and 1 additional voter for each 50 employees beyond the first 50. The Act also changed other aspects of an earlier act relating to elections in the city, from 1957. The Temple Inner Temple and Middle Temple (which neighbour each other) in the western ward of Farringdon Without are within the boundaries and liberties of the City, but can be thought of as independent enclaves. They are two of the few remaining liberties, an old name for a geographic division with special rights. They are extra-parochial areas, historically not governed by the City of London Corporation (and are today regarded as local authorities for most purposes) and equally outside the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the Bishop of London.Other functions is a historic market nestled between Gracechurch Street and Lime Street.]] Within the city, the Corporation owns and runs both Smithfield Market and Leadenhall Market. It owns land beyond its boundaries, including open spaces (parks, forests and commons) in and around Greater London, including most of Epping Forest and Hampstead Heath. The Corporation owns Old Spitalfields Market and Billingsgate Fish Market, in the neighbouring London Borough of Tower Hamlets. It owns and helps fund the Old Bailey, the Central Criminal Court for England and Wales, as a gift to the nation, having begun as the City and Middlesex Sessions. The Honourable The Irish Society, a body closely linked with the corporation, also owns many public spaces in Northern Ireland. The city has its own independent police force, the City of London Police—the Common Council (the main body of the corporation) is the police authority. The corporation also run the Hampstead Heath Constabulary, Epping Forest Keepers and the City of London market constabularies (whose members are no longer attested as constables but retain the historic title). The majority of Greater London is policed by the Metropolitan Police Service, based at New Scotland Yard. The city has one hospital, St Bartholomew's Hospital, also known as 'Barts'. Founded in 1123, it is located at Smithfield, and is undergoing a long-awaited regeneration after doubts as to its continuing use during the 1990s. The city is the third largest UK patron of the arts. It oversees the Barbican Centre and subsidises several important performing arts companies. The London Port Health Authority, which is the responsibility of the corporation, is responsible for all port health functions on the tidal part of the Thames, including the Port of London and related seaports, and London City Airport. The Corporation oversees the Bridge House Estates, which maintains Blackfriars Bridge, Millennium Bridge, Southwark Bridge, London Bridge and Tower Bridge. The City's flag flies over Tower Bridge, although neither footing is in the city.<!-- London within the Bars redirects here-->The boundary of the City on approach to London Bridge]] The size of the city was constrained by a defensive perimeter wall, known as London Wall, which was built by the Romans in the late 2nd century to protect their strategic port city. However the boundaries of the City of London no longer coincide with the old city wall, as the City expanded its jurisdiction slightly over time. During the medieval era, the city's jurisdiction expanded westwards, crossing the historic western border of the original settlement—the River Fleet—along Fleet Street to Temple Bar. The city also took in the other "City bars" which were situated just beyond the old walled area, such as at Holborn, Aldersgate, West Smithfield, Bishopsgate and Aldgate. These were the important entrances to the city and their control was vital in maintaining the city's special privileges over certain trades. monument, which marks the boundary between the City of London and City of Westminster]] Most of the wall has disappeared, but several sections remain visible. A section near the Museum of London was revealed after the devastation of an air raid on 29 December 1940 at the height of the Blitz. Other visible sections are at St Alphage, and there are two sections near the Tower of London. The River Fleet was canalised after the Great Fire of 1666 and then in stages was bricked up and has been since the 18th century one of London's "lost rivers or streams", today underground as a storm drain. The boundary of the city was unchanged until minor boundary changes on 1 April 1994, when it expanded slightly to the west, north and east, taking small parcels of land from the London Boroughs of Westminster, Camden, Islington, Hackney and Tower Hamlets. The main purpose of these changes was to tidy up the boundary where it had been rendered obsolete by changes in the urban landscape. In this process the city also lost small parcels of land, though there was an overall net gain (the City grew from 1.05 to 1.12 square miles). Most notably, the changes placed the (then recently developed) Broadgate estate entirely in the city. Southwark, to the south of the city on the other side of the Thames, was within the City between 1550 and 1899 as the Ward of Bridge Without, a situation connected with the Guildable Manor. The city's administrative responsibility there had in practice disappeared by the mid-Victorian period as various aspects of metropolitan government were extended into the neighbouring areas. Today it is part of the London Borough of Southwark. The Tower of London has always been outside the city and comes under the London Borough of Tower Hamlets. Arms, motto and flag during the Lord Mayor's Show, 2011]] The Corporation of the City of London has a full achievement of armorial bearings consisting of a shield on which the arms are displayed, a crest displayed on a helm above the shield, supporters on either side and a motto displayed on a scroll beneath the arms. The Latin motto of the city is "Domine dirige nos", which translates as "Lord, direct us". It is thought to have been adopted in the 17th century, as the earliest record of it is in 1633. A banner of the arms (the design on the shield) is flown as a flag. Geography The City of London is the smallest ceremonial county of England by area and population, and the fourth most densely populated. Of the 326 English districts, it is the second smallest by population, after the Isles of Scilly, and the smallest by area. It is also the smallest English city by population (and in Britain, only two cities in Wales are smaller), and the smallest in the UK by area. The elevation of the City ranges from sea level at the Thames to at the junction of High Holborn and Chancery Lane. Two small but notable hills are within the historic core, Ludgate Hill to the west and Cornhill to the east. Between them ran the Walbrook, one of the many "lost" rivers or streams of London (another is the Fleet). Boundary s and the pre-1994 boundary (where changed) in red. The area covered by the Inner and Middle Temple is marked in green.]] Beginning in the west, where the City borders Westminster, the boundary crosses the Victoria Embankment from the Thames, passes to the west of Middle Temple, then turns for a short distance along the Strand and near Temple Bar then north up Chancery Lane, where it borders Camden. It turns east along Holborn to Holborn Circus and then goes northeast to Charterhouse Street. As it crosses Farringdon Road it becomes the boundary with Islington. It continues to Aldersgate, goes north, and turns east into some back streets soon after Aldersgate becomes Goswell Road, since 1994 embracing all of the corporation's Golden Lane Estate. Here, at Baltic Street West, is the most northerly extent. The boundary includes all of the Barbican Estate and continues east along Ropemaker Street and its continuation on the other side of Moorgate, becomes South Place. It goes north, reaching the border with Hackney, then east, north, east on back streets, with Worship Street forming a northern boundary, so as to include the Broadgate estate. The boundary then turns south at Norton Folgate and becomes the border with Tower Hamlets. It continues south into Bishopsgate, and takes some backstreets to Middlesex Street (Petticoat Lane) where it continues south-east then south. It then turns south-west, crossing the Minories so as to exclude the Tower of London, and then reaches the Thames. The boundary then runs up the centre of the low-tide channel of the Thames, with the exception that Blackfriars Bridge (including the river beneath and land at its south end) is entirely part of the City, making the City and Borough of Richmond upon Thames the only London districts to span north and south of the river. The span and southern abutment of London Bridge is part of the city for some purposes (and as such is part of Bridge ward). The boundaries are marked by black bollards bearing the city's emblem, and by dragon boundary marks at major entrances, such as Holborn and the south end of London Bridge. A more substantial monument marks the boundary at Temple Bar on Fleet Street. In some places, the financial district extends slightly beyond the boundaries, notably to the north and east, into the London boroughs of Tower Hamlets, Hackney and Islington, and informally these locations are regarded as being part of the "Square Mile". Since the 1990s the eastern fringe, extending into Hackney and Tower Hamlets, has increasingly been a focus for large office developments due to the availability of large sites compared to within the city. Gardens and public art , the largest public open space, seen from Tower 42]] The city has no sizeable parks within its boundary, but does have a network of a large number of gardens and small open spaces, many of them maintained by the corporation. These range from formal gardens such as the one in Finsbury Circus, containing a bowling green and bandstand, to churchyards such as St Olave Hart Street, to water features and artwork in courtyards and pedestrianised lanes. Gardens include: Barber-Surgeon's Hall Garden, London Wall Cleary Garden, Queen Victoria Street Finsbury Circus, Blomfield Street/London Wall/Moorgate Jubilee Garden, Houndsditch Portsoken Street Garden, Portsoken Street/Goodman's Yard Postman's Park, Little Britain Seething Lane Garden, Seething Lane St Dunstan-in-the-East, St Dunstan's Hill St Mary Aldermanbury, Aldermanbury St Olave Hart Street churchyard, Seething Lane St Paul's churchyard, St Paul's Cathedral West Smithfield Garden, West Smithfield Whittington Gardens, College Street There are a number of private gardens and open spaces, often within courtyards of the larger commercial developments. Two of the largest are those of the Inner Temple and Middle Temple Inns of Court, in the far southwest. The Thames and its riverside walks are increasingly being valued as open space and in recent years efforts have been made to increase the ability for pedestrians to access and walk along the river. Climate The nearest weather station has historically been the London Weather Centre at Kingsway/ Holborn, although observations ceased in 2010. Now St. James Park provides the nearest official readings. The city has an oceanic climate (Köppen "Cfb") modified by the urban heat island in the centre of London. This generally causes higher night-time minima than outlying areas. For example, the August mean minimum of compares to a figure of for Greenwich and Heathrow whereas is at Wisley in the middle of several square miles of Metropolitan Green Belt. All figures refer to the observation period 1971–2000. Accordingly, the weather station holds the record for the UK's warmest overnight minimum temperature, , recorded on 4 August 1990. The maximum is , set on 10 August 2003. The absolute minimum for the weather station is a mere , compared to readings around towards the edges of London. Unusually, this temperature was during a windy and snowy cold spell (mid-January 1987), rather than a cold clear night—cold air drainage is arrested due to the vast urban area surrounding the city. The station holds the record for the highest British mean monthly temperature, (mean maximum , mean minimum during July 2006). However, in terms of daytime maximum temperatures, Cambridge NIAB and Botanical Gardens with a mean maximum of , and Heathrow with all exceeded this. Public services Police and security ]] The city is a police area and has its own police force, the City of London Police, separate from the Metropolitan Police Service covering the majority of Greater London. The City Police previously had three police stations, at Snow Hill, Wood Street and Bishopsgate. They now only retain Bishopsgate along with an administrative headquarters at Guildhall Yard East. The force comprises 735 police officers including 273 detectives. It is the smallest territorial police force in England and Wales, in both geographic area and the number of police officers. Where the majority of British police forces have silver-coloured badges, those of the City of London Police are black and gold featuring the City crest. The force has rare red and white chequered cap bands and unique red and white striped duty arm bands on the sleeves of the tunics of constables and sergeants (red and white being the colours of the city), which in most other British police forces are black and white. City police sergeants and constables wear crested custodian helmets whilst on foot patrol. These helmets do not feature either St Edward's Crown or the Brunswick Star, which are used on most other police helmets in England and Wales. The city's position as the United Kingdom's financial centre and a critical part of the country's economy, contributing about 2.5% of the UK's gross national product, has resulted in it becoming a target for political violence. The Provisional IRA exploded several bombs in the early 1990s, including the 1993 Bishopsgate bombing. The area is also spoken of as a possible target for al-Qaeda. For instance, when in May 2004 the BBC's Panorama programme examined the preparedness of Britain's emergency services for a terrorist attack on the scale of the 11 September 2001 attacks, they simulated a chemical explosion on Bishopsgate in the east of the city. The "Ring of Steel" was established in the wake of the IRA bombings to guard against terrorist threats. Fire brigade The city has fire risks in many historic buildings, including St Paul's Cathedral, Old Bailey, Mansion House, Smithfield Market, the Guildhall, and also in numerous high-rise buildings. There is one London Fire Brigade station in the city, at Dowgate, with one pumping appliance. The City relies upon stations in the surrounding London boroughs to support it at some incidents. The first fire engine is in attendance in roughly five minutes on average, the second when required in a little over five and a half minutes. Demography The Office for National Statistics recorded the population in 2011 as 7,375; slightly higher than in the previous census, 2001, and estimates the population as at mid-2016 to be 9,401. At the 2001 census the ethnic composition was 84.6% White, 6.8% South Asian, 2.6% Black, 2.3% Mixed, 2.0% Chinese and 1.7% were listed as "other". There is a large inequality of income between genders (£1,085.90 in men compared to £653.50 in women), and this can be explained by job type and length of employment respectively. ! colspan"2" \|1991 ! colspan"2" \|2001 ! colspan"2" \|2011 ! colspan"2" \|2021 \|- !Number !% !Number !% !Number !% !Number !% !Number !% \|- \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- ! style="text-align:left" \| White: Total !3,732 !95.5% !3,840 !92.7%!! 6,075 !! 84.6% !! 5,799 !! 78.5% !5,955 !69.4% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| White: British \|– \|– \|– \|–\|\| 4,909 \|\| 68.3% \|\| 4,243 \|\| 57.5% \|3,649 \|42.5% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| White: Irish \|– \|– \|– \|–\|\| 241 \|\| % \|\| 180 \|\| 2.4% \|185 \|2.2% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| White: Gypsy or Irish Traveller \|– \|– \|– \|–\|\| \|\| \|\| 3 \|\| 0.0% \|0 \|0.0% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| White: Roma \|– \|– \| \| \| \| \| \| \|59 \|0.7% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| White: Other \|– \|– \|– \|–\|\| 925 \|\|12.8% \|\| 1,373 \|\| 18.6% \|2,062 \|24.0% \|- ! style="text-align:left" \| Asian or Asian British: Total !– !– !217 !5.2%!! 638 !! 8.9% !! 940 !! 12.5% !1,445 !16.7% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| Asian or Asian British: Indian \|– \|– \|69 \|1.7%\|\| 159 \|\|2.2 % \|\| 216 \|\| 2.9% \|321 \|3.7% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| Asian or Asian British: Pakistani \|– \|– \|20 \|0.5%\|\| 23 \|\|0.3 % \|\| 16 \|\| 0.2% \|33 \|0.4% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| Asian or Asian British: Bangladeshi \|– \|– \|9 \|–\|\| 276 \|\|3.8 % \|\| 232 \|\| 3.1% \|287 \|3.3% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| Asian or Asian British: Chinese \|– \|– \|56 \|1.3%\|\| 147 \|\|2 % \|\| 263 \|\| 3.5% \|545 \|6.3% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| Asian or Asian British: Other Asian \|– \|– \|63 \|1.5%\|\| 33 \|\| % \|\| 213 \|\| 2.8% \|259 \|3.0% \|- ! style="text-align:left" \| Black or Black British: Total !– !– !38 !0.9%!! 184 !! 2.6% !! 193 !! 2.5% !232 !2.7% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| Black or Black British: African \|– \|– \|12 \|0.3%\|\| 117 \|\|1.6 % \|\| 98 \|\| 1.3% \|153 \|1.8% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| Black or Black British: Caribbean \|– \|– \|12 \|0.3%\|\| 51 \|\| % \|\| 46 \|\| 0.6% \|54 \|0.6% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| Black or Black British: Other Black \|– \|– \|14 \|0.3%\|\| 16 \|\| % \|\| 49 \|\| 0.6% \|25 \|0.3% \|- ! style="text-align:left" \| Mixed or British Mixed: Total !– !– !– !–!! 163 !! 2.3% !! 289 !! 3.8% !470 !5.5% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| Mixed: White and Black Caribbean \|– \|– \|– \|–\|\| 33 \|\| % \|\| 38 \|\| 0.5% \|53 \|0.6% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| Mixed: White and Black African \|– \|– \|– \|–\|\| 16 \|\| % \|\| 37 \|\| 0.5% \|49 \|0.6% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| Mixed: White and Asian \|– \|– \|– \|–\|\| 57 \|\| % \|\| 111 \|\| 1.5% \|179 \|2.1% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| Mixed: Other Mixed \|– \|– \|– \|–\|\| 57 \|\| % \|\| 103 \|\| 1.3% \|189 \|2.2% \|- ! style="text-align:left" \| Other: Total !– !– !47 !1.1%!! 125 !! 1.7% !! 154 !! 2% !482 !5.6% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| Other: Arab \|– \|– \|– \|–\|\| \|\| \|\| 69 \|\| 0.9% \|114 \|1.3% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| Other: Any other ethnic group \|– \|– \|47 \|1.1%\|\| 125 \|\|1.7 % \|\| 85 \|\| 1.1% \|368 \|4.3% \|- ! style="text-align:left" \| Ethnic minority: Total !177 !4.5% !302 !7.3%!! 1,110 !! 15.4% !! 1,576 !! 21.5% !2,629 !30.6% \|- \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- ! style="text-align:left" \| Total !3,909 !100% !4,142 !100%!! 7,185 !! 100% !! 7,375 !! 100% !8584 !100% \|} Economy , on Threadneedle Street, is the central bank of the United Kingdom.]] The City of London vies with New York City's Lower Manhattan for the distinction of the world's pre-eminent financial centre. The London Stock Exchange (shares and bonds), Lloyd's of London (insurance) and the Bank of England are all based in the city. Over 500 banks have offices in the city. The Alternative Investment Market, a market for trades in equities of smaller firms, is a recent development. In 2009, the City of London accounted for 2.4% of UK GDP. Of the $3.98 trillion daily global turnover, as measured in 2009, trading in London accounted for around $1.85 trillion, or 46.7% of the total. and the fourth most held reserve currency. Canary Wharf, a few miles east of the City in Tower Hamlets, which houses many banks and other institutions formerly located in the Square Mile, has since 1991 become another centre for London's financial services industry. Although growth has continued in both locations, and there have been relocations in both directions, the Corporation has come to realise that its planning policies may have been causing financial firms to choose Canary Wharf as a location. In 2022, 12.3% of City of London residents had been granted non-domicile status in order to avoid their paying tax in the UK. Headquarters , since 2004 the home of the London Stock Exchange]] Many major global companies have their headquarters in the city, including Aviva, BT Group, Lloyds Banking Group, Quilter, Prudential, Schroders, Standard Chartered, and Unilever. A number of the world's largest law firms are headquartered in the city, including four of the "Magic Circle" law firms (Allen & Overy, Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer, Linklaters and Slaughter & May), as well as other firms such as Ashurst LLP, DLA Piper, Eversheds Sutherland, Herbert Smith Freehills and Hogan Lovells. Other sectors Whilst the financial sector, and related businesses and institutions, continue to dominate, the economy is not limited to that sector. The legal profession has a strong presence, especially in the west and north (i.e., towards the Inns of Court). Retail businesses were once important, but have gradually moved to the West End of London, though it is now Corporation policy to encourage retailing in some locations, for example at Cheapside near St Paul's. The city has a number of visitor attractions, mainly based on its historic heritage as well as the Barbican Centre and adjacent Museum of London, though tourism is not at present a major contributor to the city's economy or character. The city has many pubs, bars and restaurants, and the "night-time" economy does feature in the Bishopsgate area, towards Shoreditch. The meat market at Smithfield, wholly within the city, continues to be one of London's main markets (the only one remaining in central London) and the country's largest meat market. In the east is Leadenhall Market, a fresh food market that is also a visitor attraction. Retail and residential The trend for purely office development is beginning to reverse as the Corporation encourages residential use, albeit with development occurring when it arises on windfall sites. The city has a target of 90 additional dwellings per year. Some of the extra accommodation is in small pre-World War II listed buildings, which are not suitable for occupation by the large companies which now provide much of the city's employment. Recent residential developments include "the Heron", a high-rise residential building on the Milton Court site adjacent to the Barbican, and the Heron Plaza development on Bishopsgate is also expected to include residential parts. Since the 1990s, the City has diversified away from near exclusive office use in other ways. For example, several hotels and the first department store opened in the 2000s. A shopping centre was more recently opened at One New Change, Cheapside (near St Paul's Cathedral) in October 2010, which is open seven days a week. However, large sections remain quiet at weekends, especially in the eastern section, and it is quite common to find shops, pubs and cafes closed on these days. Landmarks Historic buildings Fire, bombing and post-World War II redevelopment have meant that the city, despite its history, has fewer intact historic structures than one might expect. Nonetheless, there remain many dozens of (mostly Victorian and Edwardian) fine buildings, typically in historicist and neoclassical style. They include the Monument to the Great Fire of London ("the Monument"), St Paul's Cathedral, the Guildhall, the Royal Exchange, Dr. Johnson's House, Mansion House and a great many churches, many designed by Sir Christopher Wren, who also designed St Paul's. Prince Henry's Room and 2 King's Bench Walk are notable historic survivors of heavy bombing of the Temple area, which has largely been rebuilt to its historic form. Another example of a bomb-damaged place having been restored is Staple Inn on Holborn. A few small sections of the Roman London Wall exist, for example near the Tower of London and in the Barbican area. Among the twentieth-century listed buildings are Bracken House, the first post World War II buildings in the country to be given statutory protection, and the whole of the Barbican and Golden Lane Estate. The Tower of London is not in the city, but is a notable visitor attraction which brings tourists to the southeast of the city. Other landmark buildings with historical significance include the Bank of England, the Old Bailey, the Custom House, Smithfield Market, Leadenhall Market and St Bartholomew's Hospital. Noteworthy contemporary buildings include a number of modern high-rise buildings (see section below) as well as the Lloyd's building. Skyscrapers and tall buildings , the Leadenhall Building, 30 St Mary Axe & 22 Bishopgate, the tallest building in the City of London. London Bridge to the bottom left.]] ;Completed A growing number of tall buildings and skyscrapers are principally used by the financial sector. Almost all are situated in the eastern side around Bishopsgate, Leadenhall Street and Fenchurch Street, in the financial core of the city. In the north there is a smaller cluster comprising the Barbican Estate's three tall residential towers and the commercial CityPoint tower. In 2007, the tall Drapers' Gardens building was demolished and replaced by a shorter tower. The city's buildings of at least in height are: {\|class"wikitable sortable" style"border:#999; background:#fff;" \|- ! rowspan="2"\|Rank ! rowspan="2"\|Name ! rowspan="2"\|Completed ! rowspan="2" \|Image ! rowspan="2"\|Architect ! rowspan="2"\|Use ! colspan="2"\|Height to roof ! rowspan="2"\|Floors ! rowspan="2"\|Location \|- ! style"width:50px"\|metres !! style"width:50px"\|feet \|- \| style="text-align:center; background:#edecff;"\| 1 \|\|Twentytwo \|\| 2020 \|\|\| PLP Architects\|\| Office \|\| 278 \|\| 912 \|\| 62 \|\| 22 Bishopsgate \|- style="background:#efefef;" \| style="text-align:center; background:#edecff;"\| 2 \|\| Heron Tower \|\| 2010 \|\|\| Kohn Pedersen Fox \|\| Office \|\| 230 \|\| 754 \|\| 46 \|\| 110 Bishopsgate \|- \| style="text-align:center; background:#edecff;"\| 3 \|\|Leadenhall Building \|\| 2014 \|\|\| Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners \|\| Office \|\| 225 \|\| 737 \|\| 48 \|\| 122 Leadenhall Street \|- style="background:#efefef;" \| style="text-align:center; background:#edecff;"\| 4 \|\| 8 Bishopsgate\|\| 2022 \|\|\| WilkinsonEyre \|\| Office \|\| 204 \|\| 669 \|\| 51 \|\| 8 Bishopsgate \|- \| style="text-align:center; background:#edecff;"\| 5 \|\| The Scalpel \|\| 2018 \|\|\| Kohn Pedersen Fox \|\| Office \|\| 190 \|\| 630 \|\| 39 \|\| 52 Lime Street \|- style="background:#efefef;" \| style="text-align:center; background:#edecff;"\| 6 \|\| Tower 42 \|\| 1980 \|\|\| R Siefert & Partners \|\| Office \|\| 183 \|\| 600 \|\| 47 \|\| 25 Old Broad Street \|- \| style="text-align:center; background:#edecff;"\| 7 \|\| 30 St Mary Axe \|\| 2003 \|\|\| Foster and Partners \|\| Office \|\| 180 \|\| 590 \|\| 40 \|\| 30 St Mary Axe \|- style="background:#efefef;" \| style="text-align:center; background:#edecff;"\| 8 \|\| 100 Bishopsgate \|\| 2019 \|\|\| Allies and Morrison \|\| Office \|\| 172 \|\| 563 \|\| 40 \|\| 100 Bishopsgate \|- \| style="text-align:center; background:#edecff;"\| 9 \|\| Broadgate Tower \|\| 2008 \|\|\| SOM \|\| Office \|\| 164 \|\| 538 \|\| 35 \|\| 201 Bishopsgate \|- style="background:#efefef;" \| style="text-align:center; background:#edecff;"\| 10 \|\| 20 Fenchurch Street \|\| 2014 \|\|\| Rafael Viñoly \|\| Office \|\| 160 \|\| 525 \|\| 37 \|\| 20 Fenchurch Street \|- \| style="text-align:center; background:#edecff;"\| 11 \|\| 40 Leadenhall Street \|\| 2022 \|\|\| Make Architects \|\| Office \|\| 154 \|\| 505 \|\| 34 \|\| 40 Leadenhall Street \|- style="background:#efefef; \| style="text-align:center; background:#edecff;"\| 12 \|\| One Bishopsgate Plaza \|\| 2020 \| \|\| MSMR \|\| Hotel \|\| 135 \|\| 443 \|\| 44 \|\| 150 Bishopsgate \|- \| style"text-align:center; background:#edecff;"\| 13 \|\| CityPoint \|\| 1967 \|\|\| F. Milton Cashmore and H. N. W. Grosvenor \|\| Office \|\| 127 \|\| 417 \|\| 36 \|\| 1 Ropemaker Street \|- style="background:#efefef;" \| style="text-align:center; background:#edecff;"\| 14 \|\| Willis Building \|\| 2007 \|\|\| Foster and Partners \|\| Office \|\| 125 \|\| 410 \|\| 26 \|\| 51 Lime Street \|- \| style"text-align:center; background:#edecff;"\|15 \|\| Cromwell Tower \|\| 1973 \|\|\| Chamberlin, Powell and Bon \|\| Residential \|\| 123 \|\| 404 \|\| 42 \|\| Barbican Estate \|- style="background:#efefef;" \| style"text-align:center; background:#edecff;"\|15 \|\| Lauderdale Tower \|\| 1974 \|\|\| Chamberlin, Powell and Bon \|\| Residential \|\| 123 \|\| 404 \|\| 42 \|\| Barbican Estate \|- \| style"text-align:center; background:#edecff;"\|15 \|\| Shakespeare Tower \|\| 1976 \|\|\| Chamberlin, Powell and Bon \|\| Residential \|\| 123 \|\| 404 \|\| 42 \|\| Barbican Estate \|- style="background:#efefef;" \| style="text-align:center; background:#edecff;"\| 18 \|\| St. Helen's \|\| 1969 \|\|\| GMW Architects \|\| Office \|\| 118 \|\| 387 \|\| 28 \|\| 1 Undershaft \|- \| style="text-align:center; background:#edecff;"\| 19 \|\| The Heron \|\| 2013 \|\|\| David Walker Architects\|\| Residential \|\| 112 \|\| 367 \|\| 35 \|\| Milton Court \|- style="background:#efefef;" \| style="text-align:center; background:#edecff;"\| 20 \|\| St Paul's Cathedral \|\| 1710 \|\|\| Sir Christopher Wren \|\| Cathedral \|\| 111 \|\| 365 \|\| n/a \|\| Ludgate Hill \|- \| style="text-align:center; background:#edecff;"\| 21 \|\| 99 Bishopsgate \|\| 1976 \|\|\| GMW Architects \|\| Office \|\| 104 \|\| 340 \|\| 26 \|\| 99 Bishopsgate \|- style="background:#efefef;" \| style="text-align:center; background:#edecff;"\| 22 \|\| One Angel Court \|\| 2017 \|\|\| Fletcher Priest \|\| Office \|\| 101 \|\| 331 \|\| 24 \|\| 1 Angel Court \|- \| style="text-align:center; background:#edecff;"\| 23 \|\| Stock Exchange Tower \|\| 1970 \|\|\| Richard Llewelyn-Davies, Baron Llewelyn-Davies, Weeks, Forestier-Walker and Bar \|\| Office \|\| 100 \|\| 328 \|\| 27 \|\| 125 Old Broad Street \|- \|} ;Timeline The timeline of the tallest building in the city is as follows: {\|class="wikitable" \|- !Name<br /> !Years as tallest<br /> !Height to roof (m)<br /> !class="unsortable"\|Height to roof (ft)<br /> !Floors<br /> \|- \| Twentytwo \|\| 2019–present \|\| 278 \|\| 912 \|\| 62 \|- \| Heron Tower \|\| 2010–2019 \|\| 230 \|\| 754 \|\| 46 \|- \| Tower 42 \|\| 1980–2010 \|\| 183 \|\| 600 \|\| 47 \|- \| CityPoint \|\| 1967–1980 \|\| 122 \|\| 400 \|\| 35 \|- \| St Paul's Cathedral \|\| 1710–1967 \|\| 111 \|\| 365 \|\| n/a \|- \| St Mary-le-Bow \|\| 1683–1710 \|\| 72 \|\| 236 \|\| n/a \|- \| Monument to the Great Fire of London \|\| 1677–1683 \|\| 62 \|\| 202 \|\| n/a \|- \| Old St Paul's Cathedral \|\| 1310–1677 \|\| 150 \|\| 493 \|\| n/a \|} Transport roundel (flanked by City dragons) at Bank station\|283x283px]] Rail and Tube The city is well served by the London Underground ("tube") and National Rail networks. Seven London Underground lines serve the city; the underground stations include: Aldgate Bank and Monument Barbican Blackfriars Cannon Street Chancery Lane Liverpool Street Mansion House Moorgate St. Paul's In addition, Aldgate East ( ), Farringdon ( ), Temple ( ) and Tower Hill ( ) tube stations are all situated within metres of the City of London boundary. The Elizabeth line (constructed by the Crossrail project) runs east–west underneath the City of London. The line serves two stations in the City – Farringdon and Liverpool Street – which additionally serves the Barbican and Moorgate areas. Elizabeth line services link the City directly to destinations such as Canary Wharf, Heathrow Airport, and the M4 Corridor high-technology hub (serving Slough and Reading). The city is served by a frequent Thameslink rail service which runs north–south through London. Thameslink services call at Farringdon, City Thameslink, and London Blackfriars. This provides the city with a direct link to key destinations across London, including Elephant & Castle, London Bridge, and St Pancras International (for the Eurostar to mainland Europe). There are also regular, direct trains from these stations to major destinations across East Anglia and the South East, including Bedford, Brighton, Cambridge, Gatwick Airport, Luton Airport, and Peterborough. departs from Liverpool Street Station in the city and runs directly to Stansted Airport in Essex.]] There are several "London Terminals" in the city: London Blackfriars – Thameslink services and some Southeastern services to South East London and Kent. London Cannon Street – Southeastern services to South East London and Kent. London Fenchurch Street – C2c services along the Thames Estuary towards East London, south Essex, and Southend. London Liverpool Street – Greater Anglia and some C2c services towards destinations in East London and East Anglia, including Stratford, Cambridge, Chelmsford, Ipswich, Norwich, Southend, and Southend Airport. Stansted Express to Stansted Airport. London Overground () to destinations in north and east London including Hackney Downs, Seven Sisters, Walthamstow, Chingford, Enfield, and Cheshunt. Moorgate – Great Northern towards Finsbury Park, Enfield, and other destinations in North London and Hertfordshire, including Hertford and Welwyn Garden City. All stations in the city are in London fare zone 1. Cycle Superhighway 1 runs from Tottenham to the city. It is a signposted cycle route, passing through Stoke Newington and Hackney before entering the City south of Old Street. Cycle Superhighway 2 runs from Stratford to the city, via Bow, Mile End, and Whitechapel. The route enters the city near Aldgate. The route runs primarily on segregated cycle track. Cycleway 3 is an east–west bike freeway through the city. The route runs along the southern rim of the city, following the route of the Thames. Eastbound, Cycleway 3 provides cyclists with a direct, signposted cycle link to Shadwell, Poplar and Canary Wharf, and Barking. The route runs Westbound on traffic-free track to Lancaster Gate via Parliament Square, Buckingham Palace, and Hyde Park. Cycleway 6 runs north–south through the city on traffic-free cycle track. The track passes Farringdon Station, the Holborn Viaduct, Ludgate Circus, Blackfriars station, and Blackfriars Bridge. Northbound, the route passes through Clerkenwell, Bloomsbury, King's Cross, and Kentish Town. The route southbound carries cyclists to Elephant and Castle. Cycle Superhighway 7 begins in the City at an interchange with Cycleway 3. It leaves the City over Southwark Bridge and provides cyclists with an unbroken, signposted route to Colliers Wood via Elephant and Castle, Clapham, and Tooting, amongst other destinations. Quietway 11 is a northbound continuation of Cycleway 7. It is a signposted cycle route which runs from Southwark Bridge to Hoxton, via the Barbican and Moorgate. The Sandander Cycles and Beryl bike sharing systems operate in the City of London. River One London River Services pier is on the Thames in the city, Blackfriars Millennium Pier, though the Tower Millennium Pier lies adjacent to the boundary near the Tower of London. One of the Port of London's 25 safeguarded wharves, Walbrook Wharf, is adjacent to Cannon Street station, and is used by the corporation to transfer waste via the river. Swan Lane Pier, just upstream of London Bridge, is proposed to be replaced and upgraded for regular passenger services, planned to take place in 2012–2015. Before then, Tower Pier is to be extended. There is a public riverside walk along the river bank, part of the Thames Path, which opened in stages – the route within the city was completed by the opening of a stretch at Queenhithe in 2023. The walk along Walbrook Wharf is closed to pedestrians when waste is being transferred onto barges. Travel to work (by residents) According to a survey conducted in March 2011, the methods by which employed residents 16–74 get to work varied widely: 48.4% go on foot; 19.5% via light rail, (i.e. the Underground, DLR, etc.); 9.2% work mainly from home; 5.8% take the train; 5.6% travel by bus, minibus, or coach; and 5.3% go by bicycle; with just 3.4% commuting by car or van, as driver or passenger.Education (using its former name)]] The city is home to a number of higher education institutions including: the Guildhall School of Music and Drama, the Cass Business School, The London Institute of Banking & Finance and parts of three of the universities in London: the Maughan Library of King's College London on Chancery Lane, the business school of London Metropolitan University, and a campus of the University of Chicago Booth School of Business. The College of Law has its London campus in Moorgate. Part of Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry is on the Barts hospital site at West Smithfield. The city has only one directly maintained primary school, The Aldgate School (formerly Sir John Cass's Foundation Primary School) at Aldgate (ages 4 to 11). It is a Voluntary-Aided (VA) Church of England school, maintained by the Education Service of the City of London. City residents send their children to schools in neighbouring Local Education Authorities, such as Islington, Tower Hamlets, Westminster and Southwark. The City controls three independent schools, City of London School (a boys' school) and City of London School for Girls in the city, and the City of London Freemen's School (co-educational day and boarding) in Ashtead, Surrey. The City of London School for Girls and City of London Freemen's School have their own preparatory departments for entrance at age seven. It is the principal sponsor of The City Academy, Hackney, City of London Academy Islington, and City of London Academy, Southwark. Public libraries , King's College London, located on Chancery Lane]] Libraries operated by the Corporation include three lending libraries; Barbican Library, Shoe Lane Library and Artizan Street Library and Community Centre. Membership is open to all – with one official proof of address required to join. Guildhall Library, and City Business Library are also public reference libraries, specialising in the history of London and business reference resources. Money laundering The City of London's role in illicit financial activity such as money laundering has earned the financial hub sobriquets such as 'The Laundromat' and 'Londongrad'. London's role as the world's dirty money clearing house is well-documented but efforts are being made to clean up through legislation, e.g. authorising unexplained wealth orders. High-value properties are sought after by criminals and money launderers legitimising their gains by investing in the city's prestigious real estate. In May 2024, the UK's then deputy foreign secretary, Andrew Mitchell, said that 40% of the dirty money in the world goes through the City of London and other crown dependencies.See also City of London Corporation City of London School City of London Freemen's School List of churches in the City of London List of areas of London Londinium Street names of the City of London Notes References Further reading Richard Tames. City of London Past, London: Historical Publications, 1995. External links * }} Category:886 establishments Category:9th-century establishments in England Category:Counties of England established in antiquity London, City of London, City of Category:Economy of London London, City of Category:Greater London London, City of Category:Local government in London Category:Financial districts Category:Offshore finance	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_London	2025-04-05T18:27:59.672327
6884	Clitoris	In amniotes, the clitoris ( or ; : clitorises or clitorides) is a female sex organ. Sexological, medical, and psychological debate has focused on the clitoris, Etymology and terminology <!-- NOTE: Though the "Society and culture" section partially deals with terms for the clitoris, it seems that the information there and therefore these two sections are better kept separate, considering that the terms in the latter section are thoroughly intertwined with historical beliefs about the clitoris's structure. Below, this section directs readers to that material. --> The Oxford English Dictionary states that the Neo-Latin word clītoris likely has its origin in the Ancient Greek (), which means "little hill", and perhaps derived from the verb (), meaning "to shut" or "to sheathe". The term is commonly used to refer to the glans alone. Structure and labia minora indicated as lines.]] Most of the clitoris is composed of internal parts. Regarding humans, it consists of the glans, the body (which is composed of two erectile structures known as the corpora cavernosa), the prepuce, and the root. The frenulum is beneath the glans. also known as the "head" or "tip", exists at the top of the clitoral body as a fibro-vascular cap The clitoral glans is estimated to have 8,000 and possibly 10,000 or more sensory nerve endings, making it the most sensitive erogenous zone. Research conflicts on whether the glans is composed of erectile or non-erectile tissue. Some sources describe the clitoral glans and labia minora as composed of non-erectile tissue; this is especially the case for the glans. Other descriptions of the glans assert that it is composed of erectile tissue and that erectile tissue is present within the labia minora. is a medial band of tissue formed between the undersurface of the glans and the top ends of the labia minora. The frenulum's main function is to maintain the clitoris in its innate position. Body The clitoral body (also known as the shaft of the clitoris) is a portion behind the glans that contains the union of the corpora cavernosa, a pair of sponge-like regions of erectile tissue that hold most of the blood in the clitoris during erection. It is homologous to the penile shaft in the male. The two corpora forming the clitoral body are surrounded by thick fibro-elastic tunica albuginea, a sheath of connective tissue. These corpora are separated incompletely from each other in the midline by a fibrous pectiniform septuma comblike band of connective tissue extending between the corpora cavernosa. The angle divides the body into the ascending part (internal) near the pubic symphysis and the descending part (external), which can be seen and felt through the clitoral hood. The crura ("legs") are the parts of the corpora cavernosa extending from the clitoral body and form an upside-down "V" shape. Each crus (singular form of crura) is attached to the corresponding ischial ramusextensions of the corpora beneath the descending pubic rami. that expands from the ventral shaft and terminates as the glans. The RSP is also connected to the shaft via the pars intermedia (venous plexus of Kobelt). When engorged with blood, the bulbs cuff the vaginal opening and cause the vulva to expand outward. People taking hormones or other medications as part of a gender transition usually experience dramatic clitoral growth; individual desires and the difficulties of phalloplasty (construction of a penis) often result in the retention of the original genitalia with the enlarged clitoris as a penis analog (metoidioplasty). As it is part of the vulva, the clitoris is susceptible to pain (clitorodynia) from various conditions such as sexually transmitted infections and pudendal nerve entrapment. The clitoris may also be affected by vulvar cancer, although at a much lower rate. Clitoral phimosis (or clitoral adhesions) is when the prepuce cannot be retracted, limiting exposure of the glans. Smegma The secretion of smegma (smegma clitoridis) comes from the apocrine glands of the clitoris (sweat), the sebaceous glands of the clitoris (sebum) and desquamating epithelial cells. Society and culture Ancient Greek–16th century knowledge and vernacular Concerning historical and modern perceptions of the clitoris, the clitoris and the penis were considered equivalent by some scholars for more than 2,500 years in all respects except their arrangement. Jodie Medd argues regarding "The Cult of the Clitoris" that "the female non-reproductive but desiring body [...] simultaneously demands and refuses interpretative attention, inciting scandal through its very resistance to representation". From the 18th to the 20th century, especially during the 20th, details of the clitoris from various genital diagrams presented in earlier centuries were omitted from later texts. An analysis in 2022 reported that the clitoris is mentioned in only one out of 113 Greek secondary education textbooks used in biology classes from the 1870s to present. Contemporary art New York artist Sophia Wallace started work in 2012 on a multimedia project to challenge misconceptions about the clitoris. Based on O'Connell's 1998 research, Wallace's work emphasizes the sheer scope and size of the human clitoris. She says that ignorance of this still seems to be pervasive in modern society. "It is a curious dilemma to observe the paradox that on the one hand, the female body is the primary metaphor for sexuality, its use saturates advertising, art, and the mainstream erotic imaginary", she said. "Yet, the clitoris, the true female sexual organ, is virtually invisible". The project is called and it includes a "clit rodeo", which is interactive, climb-on model of a giant golden clitoris, including its inner parts, produced with the help of sculptor Kenneth Thomas. "It's been a showstopper wherever it's been shown. People are hungry to be able to talk about this", Wallace said. "I love seeing men standing up for the clit [...] Cliteracy is about not having one's body controlled or legislated [...] Not having access to the pleasure that is your birthright is a deeply political act". Alli Sebastian Wolf created a golden scale model of the clitoris in 2017, called the Glitoris and said, she hopes knowledge of the clitoris will soon become so uncontroversial that making art about them would be as irrelevant as making art about penises. Other projects listed by the BBC include Clito Clito, body-positive jewellery made in Berlin; Clitorissima, a documentary intended to normalize mother-daughter conversations about the clitoris; and a ClitArt festival in London, encompassing spoken word performances as well as visual art. exists in all mammal species, The clitoris is contained in fossa, which is a small pouch of tissue in horses and dogs. The clitoris is found in other amniotic creatures including reptiles such as turtles and crocodilians, and anatids (e.g., swans, ducks). The hemiclitoris is one-half of a paired structure in squamates (lizards and snakes). Some intersex female bears mate and give birth through the tip of the clitoris; these species are grizzly bears, brown bears, American black bears and polar bears. Although the bears have been described as having "a birth canal that runs through the clitoris rather than forming a separate vagina" (a feature that is estimated to make up 10 to 20 percent of the bears' population), Some of these species also exhibit a membrane seal across the vagina that closes the vaginal opening during the non-mating seasons, most notably mouse and dwarf lemurs. Non-pregnant adult ring-tailed females do not show higher testosterone levels than males, but they do exhibit higher A<sub>4</sub> and estrogen levels during seasonal aggression. During pregnancy, estrogen, A<sub>4</sub>, and testosterone levels are raised, but female fetuses are still "protected" from excess testosterone. These "masculinized" genitalia are often found alongside other traits, such as female-dominated social groups, reduced sexual dimorphism that makes females the same size as males, and even ratios of sexes in adult populations. This phenomenon that has been dubbed the "lemur syndrome". A 2014 study of Eulemur masculinization proposed that behavioral and morphological masculinization in female Lemuriformes is an ancestral trait that likely emerged after their split from Lorisiformes. <!-- --> <!-- --> <!-- --> <!-- No longer in use No longer in use--> <!-- --> <!-- --> <!-- --> <!-- --> <!-- needs in-source location(s) --> <!-- --> <!-- --> <!------------------------------< B U N D L E D R E F E R E N C E S >------------------------------> <!-- --> <!-- --> <!-- --> <!-- --> <!-- --> }}<!-- end of reflist --> Journals * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * ** * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * Bibliography <!-- NOTE: All of these are used as references in the article; removing any without removing the corresponding attribution (ref name source) in the article will result in broken references. Also, "Sexuality Now: Embracing Diversity" 2009 and 2012 are slightly different versions of the same source, not the exact same source. --> * <!-- \|access-dateJune 3, 2014 --> * * <!-- \|access-dateJanuary 3, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-dateJune 3, 2014 --> * <!-- \|access-dateNovember 22, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-dateApril 19, 2018 --> * <!-- \|access-date=August 25, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-date=November 22, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-dateNovember 22, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-date=November 22, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-dateJune 3, 2014 --> * <!-- \|access-dateAugust 21, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-date=June 23, 2012 --> * }} * <!-- \|access-dateNovember 23, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-dateJune 3, 2014 --> * <!-- \|access-dateDecember 19, 2010 --> * <!-- \|access-dateSeptember 12, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-date=2015-10-21 --> * <!-- \|access-dateNovember 17, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-date= August 17, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-date=2012-11-27 --> * <!-- \|access-dateJune 27, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-dateJune 4, 2014 --> * * <!-- \|access-dateAugust 30, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-dateJune 7, 2014 --> * * <!-- \|access-dateSeptember 4, 2014 --> * <!-- \|access-dateNovember 22, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-dateJune 7, 2014 --> * <!-- \|access-dateNovember 22, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-dateJune 7, 2013 --> * <!-- \|access-dateSeptember 11, 2016 --> * * <!-- \|access-date2012-09-17 --> * * <!-- \|access-dateNovember 7, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-date2012-11-07 --> * <!-- \|access-date2012-11-20 --> * * <!-- \|access-date=June 23, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-dateNovember 23, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-dateNovember 27, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-dateFebruary 8, 2018 --> * <!-- \|access-date=August 27, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-dateNovember 15, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-dateSeptember 9, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-dateNovember 22, 2012 --> * * <!-- \|access-date2012-03-02 --> * <!-- \|access-dateAugust 30, 2012 --> * * <!-- \|access-dateMarch 22, 2014 --> * <!-- \|access-dateNovember 27, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-dateNovember 14, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-dateNovember 27, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-date=June 3, 2014 --> * <!-- \|access-dateNovember 6, 2011 --> * * <!-- \|access-date2012-08-30 --> * <!-- \|access-dateJune 7, 2018 --> * <!-- \|access-dateJune 3, 2014 --> * * <!-- \|access-dateJuly 22, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-date=August 10, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-dateJanuary 5, 2012 --> * * * <!-- \|access-date=August 27, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-dateNovember 27, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-date=December 10, 2014 --> * <!-- \|access-dateAugust 21, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-dateJune 7, 2014 --> * <!-- \|access-date=November 15, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-dateMay 12, 2013 --> * <!-- \|access-date=November 28, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-dateJune 3, 2014 --> * <!-- \|access-dateAugust 10, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-dateAugust 17, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-date=September 4, 2014 --> * <!-- \|access-dateSeptember 27, 2012 --> * * <!-- \|access-date=November 9, 2013 --> * <!-- \|access-date=November 9, 2013 --> * <!-- \|access-dateNovember 19, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-date2012-11-20 --> * <!-- \|access-date=June 4, 2014 --> * <!-- \|access-date=November 27, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-dateJune 27, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-dateMarch 11, 2018 --> * <!-- \|access-dateJune 6, 2018 --> * <!-- \|access-date2012-08-25 --> * <!-- \|access-date=September 9, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-date=2012-08-25 --> * * <!-- \|access-dateNovember 9, 201 --> * * <!-- \|access-dateNovember 28, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-date2012-11-28 --> * <!-- \|access-dateNovember 27, 2012 --> * <!-- \|access-dateMarch 11, 2018 --> External links * * * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J_3OA_VZVkY "The Clitoris – Animated Documentary"] by Lori-Malépart Traversy (Video), 2016. Category:Mammal female reproductive system * Category:Sex organs Category:Women's health	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clitoris	2025-04-05T18:27:59.839055
6886	Chicago	\| image_flag = Flag of Chicago, Illinois.svg \| flag_size = 110px \| image_seal = File:Seal of Chicago, Illinois.png \| seal_size = 90px \| image_blank_emblem = Logo of Chicago, Illinois.svg \| blank_emblem_type = Logo \| blank_emblem_size = 100px \| blank_emblem_alt \| blank_emblem_link List of United States county and city insignia \| mottoes = (City in a Garden); I Will \| image_map = \| zoom = 9 \| type = shape \| marker = city \| stroke-width = 2 \| stroke-color = #0096FF \| fill = #0096FF \| id2 = Q1297 \| type2 = shape-inverse \| stroke-width2 = 2 \| stroke-color2 = #5F5F5F \| stroke-opacity2 = 0 \| fill2 = #000000 \| fill-opacity2 = 0 }} \| map_caption = Interactive map of Chicago \| pushpin_map = Illinois#USA \| pushpin_relief = yes \| coordinates \| coordinates_footnotes \| area_total_sq_mi = 234.53 \| area_total_km2 = 607.44 \| area_land_sq_mi = 227.73 \| area_land_km2 = 589.82 \| area_water_sq_mi = 6.80 \| area_water_km2 = 17.62 \| elevation_footnotes (mean) \| elevation_m \| elevation_ft 597.18 \| elevation_min_m \| elevation_min_ft 578 \| elevation_max_footnotes = <br />– near Blue Island \| elevation_min_footnotes = <br />– at Lake Michigan \| population_total = 2746388 \| population_as_of = 2020 \| population_footnotes \| population_est = 2,664,452 \| pop_est_as_of = 2023 \| pop_est_footnotes \| population_urban = 8,671,746 (US: 3rd) \| population_density_urban_km2 = 1,432.1 \| population_density_urban_sq_mi = 3,709.2 \| population_metro_footnotes \| population_metro = 9618502 (US: 3rd) \| population_demonym = Chicagoan \| population_note \| postal_code_type ZIP Code prefixes \| postal_code = 606xx, 607xx, 608xx \| area_code = 312, 773, 872 \| area_code_type = Area codes \| website = \| footnotes \| etymology ( or ) \| pushpin_label = Chicago \| leader_title2 = City Treasurer \| leader_name2 = Melissa Conyears-Ervin (D) \| demographics_type2 = GDP \| demographics2_footnotes \| demographics2_title1 = Metro \| demographics2_info1 = $894.862 billion (2023) \| elevation_max_m \| elevation_max_ft 672 \| utc_offset = −06:00 \| timezone_DST = CDT \| utc_offset_DST = −05:00 \| blank_name = FIPS code \| blank_info = \| blank1_name = GNIS feature ID \| blank1_info = \| nicknames = The Windy City and others \| timezone1 = CST \| established_title1 = Incorporated (town) \| established_date1 = }} Chicago , ; ; }} is the most populous city in the U.S. state of Illinois and in the Midwestern United States. With a population of 2,746,388, as of the 2020 census, it is the third-most populous city in the United States after New York City and Los Angeles. As the seat of Cook County, the second-most populous county in the U.S., Chicago is the center of the Chicago metropolitan area, often colloquially called "Chicagoland" and home to 9.6 million residents. Located on the shore of Lake Michigan, Chicago was incorporated as a city in 1837 near a portage between the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River watershed. It grew rapidly in the mid-19th century. In 1871, the Great Chicago Fire destroyed several square miles and left more than 100,000 homeless, but Chicago's population continued to grow. Chicago is an international hub for finance, culture, commerce, industry, education, technology, telecommunications, and transportation. It has the largest and most diverse finance derivatives market in the world, generating 20% of all volume in commodities and financial futures alone. O'Hare International Airport is routinely ranked among the world's top ten busiest airports by passenger traffic, and the region is also the nation's railroad hub. The Chicago area has one of the highest gross domestic products (GDP) of any urban region in the world, generating $689 billion in 2018. Chicago's economy is diverse, with no single industry employing more than 14% of the workforce. and electronic dance music, including house music). Chicago is home to the Chicago Symphony Orchestra and the Lyric Opera of Chicago, while the Art Institute of Chicago provides an influential visual arts museum and art school. The Chicago area also hosts the University of Chicago, Northwestern University, and the University of Illinois Chicago, among other institutions of learning. Professional sports in Chicago include all major professional leagues, including two Major League Baseball teams. The city also hosts the Chicago Marathon, one of the World Marathon Majors.Etymology and nicknames The name Chicago is derived from a French rendering of the indigenous Miami–Illinois name , the locative form of the word which can mean both "skunk" and "ramps," a wild relative of onion and garlic known to botanists as Allium tricoccum. The first known reference to the site of the current city of Chicago as "" was by Robert de LaSalle around 1679 in a memoir. Henri Joutel, in his journal of 1688, noted that the eponymous wild "garlic" grew profusely in the area. According to his diary of late September 1687: Beginnings regalia on display at the Field Museum of Natural History\|left]]In the mid-18th century, the area was inhabited by the Potawatomi, an indigenous tribe who had succeeded the Miami, Sauk and Meskwaki peoples in this region. \|left]] (1885)\|left]] in 1893]] The first known permanent settler in Chicago was a trader Jean Baptiste Point du Sable. Du Sable was of African descent, perhaps born in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (Haiti), and established the settlement in the 1780s. He is commonly known as the "Founder of Chicago." In 1795, following the victory of the new United States in the Northwest Indian War, an area that was to be part of Chicago was turned over to the U.S. for a military post by native tribes in accordance with the Treaty of Greenville. In 1803, the U.S. Army constructed Fort Dearborn, which was destroyed during the War of 1812 in the Battle of Fort Dearborn by the Potawatomi before being later rebuilt. After the War of 1812, the Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi tribes ceded additional land to the United States in the 1816 Treaty of St. Louis. The Potawatomi were forcibly removed from their land after the 1833 Treaty of Chicago and sent west of the Mississippi River as part of the federal policy of Indian removal. 19th century On August 12, 1833, the Town of Chicago was organized with a population of about 200. and for several decades was the world's fastest-growing city. As the site of the Chicago Portage, the city became an important transportation hub between the eastern and western United States. Chicago's first railway, Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, and the Illinois and Michigan Canal opened in 1848. The canal allowed steamboats and sailing ships on the Great Lakes to connect to the Mississippi River. A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and immigrants from abroad. Manufacturing and retail and finance sectors became dominant, influencing the American economy. The Chicago Board of Trade (established 1848) listed the first-ever standardized "exchange-traded" forward contracts, which were called futures contracts. In the 1850s, Chicago gained national political prominence as the home of Senator Stephen Douglas, the champion of the Kansas–Nebraska Act and the "popular sovereignty" approach to the issue of the spread of slavery. These issues also helped propel another Illinoisan, Abraham Lincoln, to the national stage. Lincoln was nominated in Chicago for U.S. president at the 1860 Republican National Convention, which was held in a purpose-built auditorium called the Wigwam. He defeated Douglas in the general election, and this set the stage for the American Civil War. To accommodate rapid population growth and demand for better sanitation, the city improved its infrastructure. In February 1856, Chicago's Common Council approved Chesbrough's plan to build the United States' first comprehensive sewerage system. The project raised much of central Chicago to a new grade with the use of jackscrews for raising buildings. While elevating Chicago, and at first improving the city's health, the untreated sewage and industrial waste now flowed into the Chicago River, and subsequently into Lake Michigan, polluting the city's primary freshwater source. The city responded by tunneling out into Lake Michigan to newly built water cribs. In 1900, the problem of sewage contamination was largely resolved when the city completed a major engineering feat. It reversed the flow of the Chicago River so that the water flowed away from Lake Michigan rather than into it. This project began with the construction and improvement of the Illinois and Michigan Canal, and was completed with the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal that connects to the Illinois River, which flows into the Mississippi River. In 1871, the Great Chicago Fire destroyed an area about long and wide, a large section of the city at the time. Much of the city, including railroads and stockyards, survived intact, and from the ruins of the previous wooden structures arose more modern constructions of steel and stone. These set a precedent for worldwide construction. During its rebuilding period, Chicago constructed the world's first skyscraper in 1885, using steel-skeleton construction. The city grew significantly in size and population by incorporating many neighboring townships between 1851 and 1920, with the largest annexation happening in 1889, with five townships joining the city, including the Hyde Park Township, which now comprises most of the South Side of Chicago and the far southeast of Chicago, and the Jefferson Township, which now makes up most of Chicago's Northwest Side. The desire to join the city was driven by municipal services that the city could provide its residents. Chicago's flourishing economy attracted huge numbers of new immigrants from Europe and migrants from the Eastern United States. Of the total population in 1900, more than 77% were either foreign-born or born in the United States of foreign parentage. Germans, Irish, Poles, Swedes, and Czechs made up nearly two-thirds of the foreign-born population (by 1900, whites were 98.1% of the city's population). Labor conflicts followed the industrial boom and the rapid expansion of the labor pool, including the Haymarket affair on May 4, 1886, and in 1894 the Pullman Strike. Anarchist and socialist groups played prominent roles in creating very large and highly organized labor actions. Concern for social problems among Chicago's immigrant poor led Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr to found Hull House in 1889. Programs that were developed there became a model for the new field of social work. During the 1870s and 1880s, Chicago attained national stature as the leader in the movement to improve public health. City laws and later, state laws that upgraded standards for the medical profession and fought urban epidemics of cholera, smallpox, and yellow fever were both passed and enforced. These laws became templates for public health reform in other cities and states. The city established many large, well-landscaped municipal parks, which also included public sanitation facilities. The chief advocate for improving public health in Chicago was John H. Rauch, M.D. Rauch established a plan for Chicago's park system in 1866. He created Lincoln Park by closing a cemetery filled with shallow graves, and in 1867, in response to an outbreak of cholera he helped establish a new Chicago Board of Health. Ten years later, he became the secretary and then the president of the first Illinois State Board of Health, which carried out most of its activities in Chicago. In the 1800s, Chicago became the nation's railroad hub, and by 1910 over 20 railroads operated passenger service out of six different downtown terminals. In 1883, Chicago's railway managers needed a general time convention, so they developed the standardized system of North American time zones. This system for telling time spread throughout the continent. In 1893, Chicago hosted the World's Columbian Exposition on former marshland at the present location of Jackson Park. The Exposition drew 27.5 million visitors, and is considered the most influential world's fair in history. The University of Chicago, formerly at another location, moved to the same South Side location in 1892. The term "midway" for a fair or carnival referred originally to the Midway Plaisance, a strip of park land that still runs through the University of Chicago campus and connects the Washington and Jackson Parks. 20th and 21st centuries 1900 to 1939 ]] During World War I and the 1920s there was a major expansion in industry. The availability of jobs attracted African Americans from the Southern United States. Between 1910 and 1930, the African American population of Chicago increased dramatically, from 44,103 to 233,903. This Great Migration had an immense cultural impact, called the Chicago Black Renaissance, part of the New Negro Movement, in art, literature, and music. Continuing racial tensions and violence, such as the Chicago race riot of 1919, also occurred. The ratification of the 18th amendment to the Constitution in 1919 made the production and sale (including exportation) of alcoholic beverages illegal in the United States. This ushered in the beginning of what is known as the gangster era, a time that roughly spans from 1919 until 1933 when Prohibition was repealed. The 1920s saw gangsters, including Al Capone, Dion O'Banion, Bugs Moran and Tony Accardo battle law enforcement and each other on the streets of Chicago during the Prohibition era. Chicago was the location of the infamous St. Valentine's Day Massacre in 1929, when Al Capone sent men to gun down members of a rival gang, North Side, led by Bugs Moran. From 1920 to 1921, the city was affected by a series of tenant rent strikes, which lead to the formation of the Chicago Tenants Protective association, passage of the Kessenger tenant laws, and of a heat ordinance that legally required flats to be kept above 68 °F during winter months by landlords. Chicago was the first American city to have a homosexual-rights organization. The organization, formed in 1924, was called the Society for Human Rights. It produced the first American publication for homosexuals, Friendship and Freedom. Police and political pressure caused the organization to disband. (1931)]] The Great Depression brought unprecedented suffering to Chicago, in no small part due to the city's heavy reliance on heavy industry. Notably, industrial areas on the south side and neighborhoods lining both branches of the Chicago River were devastated; by 1933 over 50% of industrial jobs in the city had been lost, and unemployment rates amongst blacks and Mexicans in the city were over 40%. The Republican political machine in Chicago was utterly destroyed by the economic crisis, and every mayor since 1931 has been a Democrat. Chicago was also a hotbed of labor activism, with Unemployed Councils contributing heavily in the early depression to create solidarity for the poor and demand relief; these organizations were created by socialist and communist groups. By 1935 the Workers Alliance of America began organizing the poor, workers, the unemployed. In the spring of 1937 Republic Steel Works witnessed the Memorial Day massacre of 1937 in the neighborhood of East Side. In 1933, Chicago Mayor Anton Cermak was fatally wounded in Miami, Florida, during a failed assassination attempt on President-elect Franklin D. Roosevelt. In 1933 and 1934, the city celebrated its centennial by hosting the Century of Progress International Exposition World's Fair. The theme of the fair was technological innovation over the century since Chicago's founding. 1940 to 1979 (1967) inspired a new era in urban public art.]] During World War II, the city of Chicago alone produced more steel than the United Kingdom every year from 1939 – 1945, and more than Nazi Germany from 1943 – 1945. outside the 1968 Democratic National Convention]] The Great Migration, which had been on pause due to the Depression, resumed at an even faster pace in the second wave, as hundreds of thousands of blacks from the South arrived in the city to work in the steel mills, railroads, and shipping yards. On December 2, 1942, physicist Enrico Fermi conducted the world's first controlled nuclear reaction at the University of Chicago as part of the top-secret Manhattan Project. This led to the creation of the atomic bomb by the United States, which it used in World War II in 1945. Mayor Richard J. Daley, a Democrat, was elected in 1955, in the era of machine politics. In 1956, the city conducted its last major expansion when it annexed the land under O'Hare airport, including a small portion of DuPage County. By the 1960s, white residents in several neighborhoods left the city for the suburban areas – in many American cities, a process known as white flight – as Blacks continued to move beyond the Black Belt. While home loan discriminatory redlining against blacks continued, the real estate industry practiced what became known as blockbusting, completely changing the racial composition of whole neighborhoods. Structural changes in industry, such as globalization and job outsourcing, caused heavy job losses for lower-skilled workers. At its peak during the 1960s, some 250,000 workers were employed in the steel industry in Chicago, but the steel crisis of the 1970s and 1980s reduced this number to just 28,000 in 2015. In 1966, Martin Luther King Jr. and Albert Raby led the Chicago Freedom Movement, which culminated in agreements between Mayor Richard J. Daley and the movement leaders. Two years later, the city hosted the tumultuous 1968 Democratic National Convention, which featured physical confrontations both inside and outside the convention hall, with anti-war protesters, journalists and bystanders being beaten by police. Major construction projects, including the Sears Tower (now known as the Willis Tower, which in 1974 became the world's tallest building), University of Illinois at Chicago, McCormick Place, and O'Hare International Airport, were undertaken during Richard J. Daley's tenure. In 1979, Jane Byrne, the city's first female mayor, was elected. She was notable for temporarily moving into the crime-ridden Cabrini-Green housing project and for leading Chicago's school system out of a financial crisis. 1980 to present In 1983, Harold Washington became the first black mayor of Chicago. Washington's first term in office directed attention to poor and previously neglected minority neighborhoods. He was re‑elected in 1987 but died of a heart attack soon after. Washington was succeeded by 6th ward alderperson Eugene Sawyer, who was elected by the Chicago City Council and served until a special election. Richard M. Daley, son of Richard J. Daley, was elected in 1989. His accomplishments included improvements to parks and creating incentives for sustainable development, as well as closing Meigs Field in the middle of the night and destroying the runways. After successfully running for re-election five times, and becoming Chicago's longest-serving mayor, Richard M. Daley declined to run for a seventh term. In 1992, a construction accident near the Kinzie Street Bridge produced a breach connecting the Chicago River to a tunnel below, which was part of an abandoned freight tunnel system extending throughout the downtown Loop district. The tunnels filled with of water, affecting buildings throughout the district and forcing a shutdown of electrical power. The area was shut down for three days and some buildings did not reopen for weeks; losses were estimated at $1.95 billion. Emanuel was sworn in as mayor on May 16, 2011, and won re-election in 2015. Lori Lightfoot, the city's first African American woman mayor and its first openly LGBTQ mayor, was elected to succeed Emanuel as mayor in 2019. All three city-wide elective offices were held by women (and women of color) for the first time in Chicago history: in addition to Lightfoot, the city clerk was Anna Valencia and the city treasurer was Melissa Conyears-Ervin. On May 15, 2023, Brandon Johnson assumed office as the 57th mayor of Chicago. Geography Topography in 2012]] Chicago is located in northeastern Illinois on the southwestern shores of freshwater Lake Michigan. It is the principal city in the Chicago Metropolitan Area, situated in both the Midwestern United States and the Great Lakes region. The city rests on a continental divide at the site of the Chicago Portage, connecting the Mississippi River and the Great Lakes watersheds. In addition to it lying beside Lake Michigan, two rivers—the Chicago River in downtown and the Calumet River in the industrial far South Side—flow either entirely or partially through the city. Chicago's history and economy are closely tied to its proximity to Lake Michigan. While the Chicago River historically handled much of the region's waterborne cargo, today's huge lake freighters use the city's Lake Calumet Harbor on the South Side. The lake also provides another positive effect: moderating Chicago's climate, making waterfront neighborhoods slightly warmer in winter and cooler in summer. When Chicago was founded in 1837, most of the early building was around the mouth of the Chicago River, as can be seen on a map of the city's original 58 blocks. The overall grade of the city's central, built-up areas is relatively consistent with the natural flatness of its overall natural geography, generally exhibiting only slight differentiation otherwise. The average land elevation is above sea level. While measurements vary somewhat, the lowest points are along the lake shore at , while the highest point, at , is the morainal ridge of Blue Island in the city's far south side. Lake Shore Drive runs adjacent to a large portion of Chicago's waterfront. Some of the parks along the waterfront include Lincoln Park, Grant Park, Burnham Park, and Jackson Park. There are 24 public beaches across of the waterfront. Landfill extends into portions of the lake providing space for Navy Pier, Northerly Island, the Museum Campus, and large portions of the McCormick Place Convention Center. Most of the city's high-rise commercial and residential buildings are close to the waterfront. An informal name for the entire Chicago metropolitan area is "Chicagoland", which generally means the city and all its suburbs, though different organizations have slightly different definitions. Communities of Chicago]] Major sections of the city include the central business district, called the Loop, and the North, South, and West Sides. The three sides of the city are represented on the Flag of Chicago by three horizontal white stripes. The North Side is the most-densely-populated residential section of the city, and many high-rises are located on this side of the city along the lakefront. The South Side is the largest section of the city, encompassing roughly 60% of the city's land area<!--this conflicts with the adjacent map-->. The South Side contains most of the facilities of the Port of Chicago. In the late-1920s, sociologists at the University of Chicago subdivided the city into 77 distinct community areas, which can further be subdivided into over 200 informally defined neighborhoods. Streetscape Chicago's streets were laid out in a street grid that grew from the city's original townsite plot, which was bounded by Lake Michigan on the east, North Avenue on the north, Wood Street on the west, and 22nd Street on the south. Streets following the Public Land Survey System section lines later became arterial streets in outlying sections. As new additions to the city were platted, city ordinance required them to be laid out with eight streets to the mile in one direction and sixteen in the other direction, about one street per 200 meters in one direction and one street per 100 meters in the other direction. The grid's regularity provided an efficient means of developing new real estate property. A scattering of diagonal streets, many of them originally Native American trails, also cross the city (Elston, Milwaukee, Ogden, Lincoln, etc.). Many additional diagonal streets were recommended in the Plan of Chicago, but only the extension of Ogden Avenue was ever constructed. In 2021, Chicago was ranked the fourth-most walkable large city in the United States. Many of the city's residential streets have a wide patch of grass or trees between the street and the sidewalk itself. This helps to keep pedestrians on the sidewalk further away from the street traffic. Chicago's Western Avenue is the longest continuous urban street in the world. Other notable streets include Michigan Avenue, State Street, 95th Street, Cicero Avenue, Clark Street, and Belmont Avenue. The City Beautiful movement inspired Chicago's boulevards and parkways.Architecture (1904–05) is a prime example of the Chicago School, displaying both variations of the Chicago window.]] The destruction caused by the Great Chicago Fire led to the largest building boom in the history of the nation. In 1885, the first steel-framed high-rise building, the Home Insurance Building, rose in the city as Chicago ushered in the skyscraper era, which would then be followed by many other cities around the world. Today, Chicago's skyline is among the world's tallest and densest. Some of the United States' tallest towers are located in Chicago; Willis Tower (formerly Sears Tower) is the second tallest building in the Western Hemisphere after One World Trade Center, and Trump International Hotel and Tower is the third tallest in the country. The Loop's historic buildings include the Chicago Board of Trade Building, the Fine Arts Building, 35 East Wacker, and the Chicago Building, 860-880 Lake Shore Drive Apartments by Mies van der Rohe. Many other architects have left their impression on the Chicago skyline such as Daniel Burnham, Louis Sullivan, Charles B. Atwood, John Root, and Helmut Jahn. The Merchandise Mart, once the largest building in the world, had its own zip code until 2008, and stands near the junction of the North and South branches of the Chicago River. Presently, the four tallest buildings in the city are Willis Tower (formerly the Sears Tower, also a building with its own zip code), Trump International Hotel and Tower, the Aon Center (previously the Standard Oil Building), and the John Hancock Center. Industrial districts, such as some areas on the South Side, the areas along the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal, and the Northwest Indiana area are clustered. Chicago gave its name to the Chicago School and was home to the Prairie School, two movements in architecture. Multiple kinds and scales of houses, townhouses, condominiums, and apartment buildings can be found throughout Chicago. Large swaths of the city's residential areas away from the lake are characterized by brick bungalows built from the early 20th century through the end of World War II. Chicago is also a prominent center of the Polish Cathedral style of church architecture. The Chicago suburb of Oak Park was home to famous architect Frank Lloyd Wright, who had designed The Robie House located near the University of Chicago. A popular tourist activity is to take an architecture boat tour along the Chicago River. Monuments and public art 's Statue of The Republic at the site of the World's Columbian Exposition]] Chicago is famous for its outdoor public art with donors establishing funding for such art as far back as Benjamin Ferguson's 1905 trust. A number of Chicago's public art works are by modern figurative artists. Among these are Chagall's Four Seasons; the Chicago Picasso; Miró's Chicago; Calder's Flamingo; Oldenburg's Batcolumn; Moore's Large Interior Form, 1953-54, Man Enters the Cosmos and Nuclear Energy; Dubuffet's Monument with Standing Beast, Abakanowicz's Agora; and Anish Kapoor's Cloud Gate which has become an icon of the city. Some events which shaped the city's history have also been memorialized by art works, including the Great Northern Migration (Saar) and the centennial of statehood for Illinois. Finally, two fountains near the Loop also function as monumental works of art: Plensa's Crown Fountain as well as Burnham and Bennett's Buckingham Fountain.Climate ]] The city lies within the typical hot-summer humid continental climate (Köppen: Dfa), and experiences four distinct seasons. Summers are hot and humid, with frequent heat waves. The July daily average temperature is , with afternoon temperatures peaking at . In a normal summer, temperatures reach at least on 17 days, with lakefront locations staying cooler when winds blow off the lake. Winters are relatively cold and snowy. Blizzards do occur, such as in winter 2011. There are many sunny but cold days. The normal winter high from December through March is about . January and February are the coldest months. A polar vortex in January 2019 nearly broke the city's cold record of , which was set on January 20, 1985. Measurable snowfall can continue through the first or second week of April. Spring and autumn are mild, short seasons, typically with low humidity. Dew point temperatures in the summer range from an average of in June to in July. According to the National Weather Service, Chicago's highest official temperature reading of was recorded on July 24, 1934.<!--AS MEASURED AT UCHICAGO, THE OFFICIAL REPORTING STATION AT THE TIME; THE 109F ON 1934-07-23 WAS AT MIDWAY--> Midway Airport reached one day prior and recorded a heat index of during the 1995 heatwave. Like other major cities, Chicago experiences an urban heat island, making the city and its suburbs milder than surrounding rural areas, especially at night and in winter. The proximity to Lake Michigan tends to keep the Chicago lakefront somewhat cooler in summer and less brutally cold in winter than inland parts of the city and suburbs away from the lake. Northeast winds from wintertime cyclones departing south of the region sometimes bring the city lake-effect snow. {\|style"width:100%;text-align:center;line-height:1.2em;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto" class"wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" \|- !Colspan=14\|Sunshine data for Chicago \|- !Month !Jan !Feb !Mar !Apr !May !Jun !Jul !Aug !Sep !Oct !Nov !Dec !style="border-left-width:medium"\|Year \|- !Mean daily daylight hours \|style="background:#F0F011;color:#000000;"\|10.0 \|style="background:#F7F722;color:#000000;"\|11.0 \|style="background:#FFFF33;color:#000000;"\|12.0 \|style="background:#FFFF44;color:#000000;"\|13.0 \|style="background:#FFFF66;color:#000000;"\|15.0 \|style="background:#FFFF66;color:#000000;"\|15.0 \|style="background:#FFFF66;color:#000000;"\|15.0 \|style="background:#FFFF55;color:#000000;"\|14.0 \|style="background:#FFFF33;color:#000000;"\|12.0 \|style="background:#F7F722;color:#000000;"\|11.0 \|style="background:#F0F011;color:#000000;"\|10.0 \|style="background:#E9E900;color:#000000;"\|9.0 \|style="background:#FFFF35;color:#000000;border-left-width:medium"\|12.2 \|- !Colspan14 style"background:#f8f9fa;font-weight:normal;font-size:95%;"\|Source: Weather Atlas \|} Time zone As in the rest of the state of Illinois, Chicago forms part of the Central Time Zone. The border with the Eastern Time Zone is located a short distance to the east, used in Michigan and certain parts of Indiana. Demographics , Chicago's largest racial or ethnic group is non-Hispanic White at 32.8% of the population, Blacks at 30.1% and the Hispanic population at 29.0% of the population. {\|class"wikitable sortable collapsible" style"font-size: 90%;" \|- ! Racial composition !2020!! 2010!! 1990 \|- ! Race or Ethnicity<br /> ! colspan"2" data-sort-typenumber \|Race Alone ! colspan"2" data-sort-typenumber \|Total \|- \| White \|aline=right\| \|aline=right\| \|- \| Black or African American \|aline=right\| \|aline=right\| \|- \| Hispanic or Latino \|aline=right\| \|aline=right\| \|- \| Asian \|aline=right\| \|aline=right\| \|- \| Native American \|aline=right\| \|aline=right\| \|- \| Mixed \|aline=right\| \|aline=right\| \|- \| Other \|aline=right\| \|aline=right\| \|} Chicago has the third-largest LGBT population in the United States. In 2018, the Chicago Department of Health, estimated 7.5% of the adult population, approximately 146,000 Chicagoans, were LGBTQ. In 2015, roughly 4% of the population identified as LGBT. Since the 2013 legalization of same-sex marriage in Illinois, over 10,000 same-sex couples have wed in Cook County, a majority of them in Chicago. Chicago became a "de jure" sanctuary city in 2012 when Mayor Rahm Emanuel and the City Council passed the Welcoming City Ordinance. According to the U.S. Census Bureau's American Community Survey data estimates for 2022, the median income for a household in the city was $70,386,and the per capita income was $45,449. Male full-time workers had a median income of $68,870 versus $60,987 for females. About 17.2% of the population lived below the poverty line. In 2018, Chicago ranked seventh globally for the highest number of ultra-high-net-worth residents with roughly 3,300 residents worth more than $30 million. According to the 2022 American Community Survey, the specific ancestral groups having 10,000 or more persons in Chicago were: * Mexican (586,906) * German (200,726) * Irish (184,983) * Polish (129,468) * Puerto Rican (101,625) * Italian (100,915) * English (87,282) * Chinese (67,951) * Indian (48,535) * Filipino (39,048) * French (25,629) * Russian (24,707) * Swedish (21,795) * Arab (19,432) * West Indian (18,636) * Guatemalan (18,205) * Scottish (17,121) * Korean (16,224) * Ecuadorian (15,935) * Nigerian (15,064) * Greek (14,946) * Norwegian (13,391) * Colombian (13,785) * Ukrainian (12,956) * Vietnamese (12,280) * Cuban (11,765) * Czech (11,313) * Romanian (11,237) * Lithuanian (11,235) * Dutch (11,196) Persons who did not report or classify an ancestry were 548,790. Religion According to a 2014 study by the Pew Research Center, Christianity is the most prevalently practiced religion in Chicago (71%), Since the 20th century Chicago has also been the headquarters of the Assyrian Church of the East. In 2014 the Catholic Church was the largest individual Christian denomination (34%), with the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Chicago being the largest Catholic jurisdiction. Evangelical Protestantism form the largest theological Protestant branch (16%), followed by Mainline Protestants (11%), and historically Black churches (8%). Among denominational Protestant branches, Baptists formed the largest group in Chicago (10%); followed by Nondenominational (5%); Lutherans (4%); and Pentecostals (3%). Many international religious leaders have visited Chicago, including Mother Teresa, the Dalai Lama and Pope John Paul II in 1979. Economy ]] ]] Chicago has the third-largest gross metropolitan product in the United States—about $670.5 billion according to September 2017 estimates. The city has also been rated as having the most balanced economy in the United States, due to its high level of diversification. The Chicago metropolitan area has the third-largest science and engineering work force of any metropolitan area in the nation. Chicago was the base of commercial operations for industrialists John Crerar, John Whitfield Bunn, Richard Teller Crane, Marshall Field, John Farwell, Julius Rosenwald, and many other commercial visionaries who laid the foundation for Midwestern and global industry. Chicago is a major world financial center, with the second-largest central business district in the United States, following Midtown Manhattan. The city is the seat of the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, the Bank's Seventh District. The city has major financial and futures exchanges, including the Chicago Stock Exchange, the Chicago Board Options Exchange (CBOE), and the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (the "Merc"), which is owned, along with the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT), by Chicago's CME Group. In 2017, Chicago exchanges traded 4.7 billion in derivatives. Chase Bank has its commercial and retail banking headquarters in Chicago's Chase Tower. Academically, Chicago has been influential through the Chicago school of economics, which fielded 12 Nobel Prize winners. The city and its surrounding metropolitan area contain the third-largest labor pool in the United States with about 4.63 million workers. Illinois is home to 66 Fortune 1000 companies, including those in Chicago. The city of Chicago also hosts 12 Fortune Global 500 companies and 17 Financial Times 500 companies. The city claims three Dow 30 companies: aerospace giant Boeing, which moved its headquarters from Seattle to the Chicago Loop in 2001; McDonald's; and Walgreens Boots Alliance. For six consecutive years from 2013 through 2018, Chicago was ranked the nation's top metropolitan area for corporate relocations. However, three Fortune 500 companies left Chicago in 2022, leaving the city with 35, still second to New York City. Manufacturing, printing, publishing, and food processing also play major roles in the city's economy. Several medical products and services companies are based in the Chicago area, including Baxter International, Boeing, Abbott Laboratories, and the Healthcare division of General Electric. Prominent food companies based in Chicago include the world headquarters of Conagra, Ferrara Candy Company, Kraft Heinz, McDonald's, Mondelez International, and Quaker Oats. Chicago has been a hub of the retail sector since its early development, with Montgomery Ward, Sears, and Marshall Field's. Today the Chicago metropolitan area is the headquarters of several retailers, including Walgreens, Sears, Ace Hardware, Claire's, ULTA Beauty, and Crate & Barrel. Late in the 19th century, Chicago was part of the bicycle craze, with the Western Wheel Company, which introduced stamping to the production process and significantly reduced costs, while early in the 20th century, the city was part of the automobile revolution, hosting the Brass Era car builder Bugmobile, which was founded there in 1907. Chicago was also the site of the Schwinn Bicycle Company. Chicago is a major world convention destination. The city's main convention center is McCormick Place. With its four interconnected buildings, it is the largest convention center in the nation and third-largest in the world. Chicago also ranks third in the U.S. (behind Las Vegas and Orlando) in number of conventions hosted annually. Chicago's minimum wage for non-tipped employees is one of the highest in the nation and reached $15 in 2021.Culture and contemporary life located in the Streeterville neighborhood, one of the most visited attractions in the Midwestern United States.]] The city's waterfront location and nightlife attracts residents and tourists alike. Over a third of the city population is concentrated in the lakefront neighborhoods from Rogers Park in the north to South Shore in the south. The city has many upscale dining establishments as well as many ethnic restaurant districts. These districts include the Mexican American neighborhoods, such as Pilsen along 18th street, and La Villita along 26th Street; the Puerto Rican enclave of Paseo Boricua in the Humboldt Park neighborhood; Greektown, along South Halsted Street, immediately west of downtown; Little Italy, along Taylor Street; Chinatown in Armour Square; Polish Patches in West Town; Little Seoul in Albany Park around Lawrence Avenue; Little Vietnam near Broadway in Uptown; and the Desi area, along Devon Avenue in West Ridge. Downtown is the center of Chicago's financial, cultural, governmental, and commercial institutions and the site of Grant Park and many of the city's skyscrapers. Many of the city's financial institutions, such as the CBOT and the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, are located within a section of downtown called "The Loop", which is an eight-block by five-block area of city streets that is encircled by elevated rail tracks. The term "The Loop" is largely used by locals to refer to the entire downtown area as well. The central area includes the Near North Side, the Near South Side, and the Near West Side, as well as the Loop. These areas contribute famous skyscrapers, abundant restaurants, shopping, museums, Soldier Field, convention facilities, parkland, and beaches. at the Lincoln Park Zoo, North Side]] Lincoln Park contains the Lincoln Park Zoo and the Lincoln Park Conservatory. The River North Gallery District features the nation's largest concentration of contemporary art galleries outside of New York City. Lake View is home to Boystown, the city's large LGBT nightlife and culture center. The Chicago Pride Parade, held the last Sunday in June, is one of the world's largest with over a million people in attendance. North Halsted Street is the main thoroughfare of Boystown. The South Side neighborhood of Hyde Park is the home of former U.S. President Barack Obama. It also contains the University of Chicago, ranked one of the world's top ten universities, and the Museum of Science and Industry. The long Burnham Park stretches along the waterfront of the South Side. Two of the city's largest parks are also located on this side of the city: Jackson Park, bordering the waterfront, hosted the World's Columbian Exposition in 1893, and is the site of the aforementioned museum; and slightly west sits Washington Park. The two parks themselves are connected by a wide strip of parkland called the Midway Plaisance, running adjacent to the University of Chicago. The South Side hosts one of the city's largest parades, the annual African American Bud Billiken Parade and Picnic, which travels through Bronzeville to Washington Park. Ford Motor Company has an automobile assembly plant on the South Side in Hegewisch, and most of the facilities of the Port of Chicago are also on the South Side. The West Side holds the Garfield Park Conservatory, one of the largest collections of tropical plants in any U.S. city. Prominent Latino cultural attractions found here include Humboldt Park's Institute of Puerto Rican Arts and Culture and the annual Puerto Rican People's Parade, as well as the National Museum of Mexican Art and St. Adalbert's Church in Pilsen. The Near West Side holds the University of Illinois at Chicago and was once home to Oprah Winfrey's Harpo Studios, the site of which has been rebuilt as the global headquarters of McDonald's. The city's distinctive accent, made famous by its use in classic films like The Blues Brothers and television programs like the Saturday Night Live skit "Bill Swerski's Superfans", is an advanced form of Inland Northern American English. This dialect can also be found in other cities bordering the Great Lakes such as Cleveland, Milwaukee, Detroit, and Rochester, New York, and most prominently features a rearrangement of certain vowel sounds, such as the short 'a' sound as in "cat", which can sound more like "kyet" to outsiders. The accent remains well associated with the city. Entertainment and the arts ]] Renowned Chicago theater companies include the Goodman Theatre in the Loop; the Steppenwolf Theatre Company and Victory Gardens Theater in Lincoln Park; and the Chicago Shakespeare Theater at Navy Pier. Broadway In Chicago offers Broadway-style entertainment at five theaters: the Nederlander Theatre, CIBC Theatre, Cadillac Palace Theatre, Auditorium Building of Roosevelt University, and Broadway Playhouse at Water Tower Place. Polish language productions for Chicago's large Polish speaking population can be seen at the historic Gateway Theatre in Jefferson Park. Since 1968, the Joseph Jefferson Awards are given annually to acknowledge excellence in theater in the Chicago area. Chicago's theater community spawned modern improvisational theater, and includes the prominent groups The Second City and I.O. (formerly ImprovOlympic). The Chicago Symphony Orchestra (CSO) performs at Symphony Center, and is recognized as one of the best orchestras in the world. Also performing regularly at Symphony Center is the Chicago Sinfonietta, a more diverse and multicultural counterpart to the CSO. In the summer, many outdoor concerts are given in Grant Park and Millennium Park. Ravinia Festival, located north of Chicago, is the summer home of the CSO, and is a favorite destination for many Chicagoans. The Civic Opera House is home to the Lyric Opera of Chicago. The Lithuanian Opera Company of Chicago was founded by Lithuanian Chicagoans in 1956, and presents operas in Lithuanian. The Joffrey Ballet and Chicago Festival Ballet perform in various venues, including the Harris Theater in Millennium Park. Chicago has several other contemporary and jazz dance troupes, such as the Hubbard Street Dance Chicago and Chicago Dance Crash. ]] Other live-music genre which are part of the city's cultural heritage include Chicago blues, Chicago soul, jazz, and gospel. The city is the birthplace of house music (a popular form of electronic dance music) and industrial music, and is the site of an influential hip hop scene. In the 1980s and 90s, the city was the global center for house and industrial music, two forms of music created in Chicago, as well as being popular for alternative rock, punk, and new wave. The city has been a center for rave culture, since the 1980s. A flourishing independent rock music culture brought forth Chicago indie. Annual festivals feature various acts, such as Lollapalooza and the Pitchfork Music Festival. Lollapalooza originated in Chicago in 1991 and at first travelled to many cities, but as of 2005 its home has been Chicago. A 2007 report on the Chicago music industry by the University of Chicago Cultural Policy Center ranked Chicago third among metropolitan U.S. areas in "size of music industry" and fourth among all U.S. cities in "number of concerts and performances". Chicago has a distinctive fine art tradition. For much of the twentieth century, it nurtured a strong style of figurative surrealism, as in the works of Ivan Albright and Ed Paschke. In 1968 and 1969, members of the Chicago Imagists, such as Roger Brown, Leon Golub, Robert Lostutter, Jim Nutt, and Barbara Rossi produced bizarre representational paintings. Henry Darger is one of the most celebrated figures of outsider art.Tourism and Lake Michigan.]] , Chicago attracted 50.17 million domestic leisure travelers, 11.09 million domestic business travelers and 1.308 million overseas visitors. These visitors contributed more than billion to Chicago's economy. Most conventions are held at McCormick Place, just south of Soldier Field. Navy Pier, located just east of Streeterville, is long and houses retail stores, restaurants, museums, exhibition halls and auditoriums. Chicago was the first city in the world to ever erect a Ferris wheel. The Willis Tower (formerly named Sears Tower) is a popular destination for tourists. Museums ]] Among the city's museums are the Adler Planetarium & Astronomy Museum, the Field Museum of Natural History, and the Shedd Aquarium. The Museum Campus joins the southern section of Grant Park, which includes the renowned Art Institute of Chicago. Buckingham Fountain anchors the downtown park along the lakefront. The University of Chicago's Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures, West Asia & North Africa has an extensive collection of ancient Egyptian and Near Eastern archaeological artifacts. Other museums and galleries in Chicago include the Chicago History Museum, the Driehaus Museum, the DuSable Museum of African American History, the Museum of Contemporary Art, the Peggy Notebaert Nature Museum, the Polish Museum of America, the Museum of Broadcast Communications, the Chicago Architecture Foundation, and the Museum of Science and Industry. Cuisine ]] Chicago lays claim to a large number of regional specialties that reflect the city's ethnic and working-class roots. Included among these are its nationally renowned deep-dish pizza; this style is said to have originated at Pizzeria Uno. The Chicago-style thin crust is also popular in the city. Certain Chicago pizza favorites include Lou Malnati's and Giordano's. The Chicago-style hot dog, typically an all-beef hot dog, is loaded with an array of toppings that often includes pickle relish, yellow mustard, pickled sport peppers, tomato wedges, dill pickle spear and topped off with celery salt on a poppy seed bun. Enthusiasts of the Chicago-style hot dog frown upon the use of ketchup as a garnish, but may prefer to add giardiniera. market in Chicago]] A distinctly Chicago sandwich, the Italian beef sandwich is thinly sliced beef simmered in au jus and served on an Italian roll with sweet peppers or spicy giardiniera. A popular modification is the Combo—an Italian beef sandwich with the addition of an Italian sausage. The Maxwell Street Polish is a grilled or deep-fried kielbasa—on a hot dog roll, topped with grilled onions, yellow mustard, and hot sport peppers. Chicken Vesuvio is roasted bone-in chicken cooked in oil and garlic next to garlicky oven-roasted potato wedges and a sprinkling of green peas. The Puerto Rican-influenced jibarito is a sandwich made with flattened, fried green plantains instead of bread. The mother-in-law is a tamale topped with chili and served on a hot dog bun. The tradition of serving the Greek dish saganaki while aflame has its origins in Chicago's Greek community. The appetizer, which consists of a square of fried cheese, is doused with Metaxa and flambéed table-side. Chicago-style barbecue features hardwood smoked rib tips and hot links which were traditionally cooked in an aquarium smoker, a Chicago invention. Annual festivals feature various Chicago signature dishes, such as Taste of Chicago and the Chicago Food Truck Festival. One of the world's most decorated restaurants and a recipient of three Michelin stars, Alinea is located in Chicago. Well-known chefs who have had restaurants in Chicago include: Charlie Trotter, Rick Tramonto, Grant Achatz, and Rick Bayless. In 2003, Robb Report named Chicago the country's "most exceptional dining destination". Literature Chicago literature finds its roots in the city's tradition of lucid, direct journalism, lending to a strong tradition of social realism. In the Encyclopedia of Chicago, Northwestern University Professor Bill Savage describes Chicago fiction as prose which tries to "capture the essence of the city, its spaces and its people." The challenge for early writers was that Chicago was a frontier outpost that transformed into a global metropolis in the span of two generations. Narrative fiction of that time, much of it in the style of "high-flown romance" and "genteel realism", needed a new approach to describe the urban social, political, and economic conditions of Chicago. Nonetheless, Chicagoans worked hard to create a literary tradition that would stand the test of time, and create a "city of feeling" out of concrete, steel, vast lake, and open prairie. Much notable Chicago fiction focuses on the city itself, with social criticism keeping exultation in check. At least three short periods in the history of Chicago have had a lasting influence on American literature. These include from the time of the Great Chicago Fire to about 1900, what became known as the Chicago Literary Renaissance in the 1910s and early 1920s, and the period of the Great Depression through the 1940s. What would become the influential Poetry magazine was founded in 1912 by Harriet Monroe, who was working as an art critic for the Chicago Tribune. The magazine discovered such poets as Gwendolyn Brooks, James Merrill, and John Ashbery. T. S. Eliot's first professionally published poem, "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock", was first published by Poetry. Contributors have included Ezra Pound, William Butler Yeats, William Carlos Williams, Langston Hughes, and Carl Sandburg, among others. The magazine was instrumental in launching the Imagist and Objectivist poetic movements. From the 1950s through 1970s, American poetry continued to evolve in Chicago. In the 1980s, a modern form of poetry performance began in Chicago, the poetry slam.Sports The city has two Major League Baseball (MLB) teams: the Chicago Cubs of the National League play in Wrigley Field on the North Side; and the Chicago White Sox of the American League play in Rate Field on the South Side. The two teams have faced each other in a World Series only once, in 1906. The Cubs are the oldest Major League Baseball team to have never changed their city; they have played in Chicago since 1871. They had the dubious honor of having the longest championship drought in American professional sports, failing to win a World Series between 1908 and 2016. The White Sox have played on the South Side continuously since 1901. They have won three World Series titles (1906, 1917, 2005) and six American League pennants, including the first in 1901. The Chicago Bears, one of the last two remaining charter members of the National Football League (NFL), have won nine NFL Championships, including the 1985 Super Bowl XX. The Bears play their home games at Soldier Field. The Chicago Bulls of the National Basketball Association (NBA) is one of the most recognized basketball teams in the world. During the 1990s, with Michael Jordan leading them, the Bulls won six NBA championships in eight seasons. The Chicago Blackhawks of the National Hockey League (NHL) began play in 1926, and are one of the "Original Six" teams of the NHL. The Blackhawks have won six Stanley Cups, including in 2010, 2013, and 2015. Both the Bulls and the Blackhawks play at the United Center. {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|- \|+ Major league professional teams in Chicago (ranked by attendance) \|- ! scope="col" \|Club ! scope="col" \|League ! scope="col" \|Sport ! scope="col" \|Venue ! scope="col" \|Attendance ! scope="col" \|Founded ! scope="col" \|Championships \|- ! scope"row" style"font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" \|Chicago Bears \| align="center" \|NFL \|Football \|Soldier Field \| align="center" \|61,142 \| align="center" \|1919 \|9 Championships (1 Super Bowl) \|- ! scope"row" style"font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" \|Chicago Cubs \| align="center" \|MLB \|Baseball \|Wrigley Field \| align="center" \|41,649 \| align="center" \|1870 \|3 World Series \|- ! scope"row" style"font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" \|Chicago White Sox \| align="center" \|MLB \|Baseball \|Rate Field \| align="center" \|40,615 \| align="center" \|1900 \|3 World Series \|- ! scope"row" style"font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" \|Chicago Blackhawks \| align="center" \|NHL \|Ice hockey \| rowspan="2" \|United Center \| align="center" \|21,653 \| align="center" \|1926 \|6 Stanley Cups \|- ! scope"row" style"font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" \|Chicago Bulls \| align="center" \|NBA \|Basketball \| align="center" \|20,776 \| align="center" \|1966 \|6 NBA Championships \|- ! scope"row" style"font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" \|Chicago Fire \| align="center" \|MLS \|Soccer \|Soldier Field \| align="center" \|17,383 \| align="center" \|1997 \|1 MLS Cup, 1 Supporters Shield \|- ! scope"row" style"font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" \|Chicago Sky \| align="center" \|WNBA \|Basketball \|Wintrust Arena \| align="center" \|10,387 \| align="center" \|2006 \|1 WNBA Championships \|- !scope"row" style"font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" \|Chicago Stars FC \|align="center" \|NWSL \|Soccer \|SeatGeek Stadium \|align="center" \|5,863 \|align="center" \|2013 \|1 WPSL Elite championship \|} on Lake Shore Drive on the South Side]] Chicago Fire FC is a member of Major League Soccer (MLS) and plays at Soldier Field. The Fire have won one league title and four U.S. Open Cups, since their founding in 1997. In 1994, the United States hosted a successful FIFA World Cup with games played at Soldier Field. The Chicago Stars FC are a team in the National Women's Soccer League (NWSL). They previously played in Women's Professional Soccer (WPS), of which they were a founding member, before joining the NWSL in 2013. They play at SeatGeek Stadium in Bridgeview, Illinois. The Chicago Sky is a professional basketball team playing in the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA). They play home games at the Wintrust Arena. The team was founded before the 2006 WNBA season began. The Chicago Marathon has been held each year since 1977 except for 1987, when a half marathon was run in its place. The Chicago Marathon is one of six World Marathon Majors. Five area colleges play in Division I conferences: two from major conferences—the DePaul Blue Demons (Big East Conference) and the Northwestern Wildcats (Big Ten Conference)—and three from other D1 conferences—the Chicago State Cougars (Northeast Conference); the Loyola Ramblers (Atlantic 10 Conference); and the UIC Flames (Missouri Valley Conference). Chicago has also entered into esports with the creation of the OpTic Chicago, a professional Call of Duty team that participates within the CDL. Parks and greenspace is located in Grant Park in the Loop.]] When Chicago was incorporated in 1837, it chose the motto Urbs in Horto, a Latin phrase which means "City in a Garden". Today, the Chicago Park District consists of more than 570 parks with over of municipal parkland. There are 31 sand beaches, a plethora of museums, two world-class conservatories, and 50 nature areas. Lincoln Park, the largest of the city's parks, covers and has over 20 million visitors each year, making it third in the number of visitors after Central Park in New York City, and the National Mall and Memorial Parks in Washington, D.C. There is a historic boulevard system, a network of wide, tree-lined boulevards which connect a number of Chicago parks. The boulevards and the parks were authorized by the Illinois legislature in 1869. A number of Chicago neighborhoods emerged along these roadways in the 19th century. The Chicago Park Boulevard System Historic District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2018. With berths for more than 6,000 boats, the Chicago Park District operates the nation's largest municipal harbor system. In addition to ongoing beautification and renewal projects for the existing parks, a number of new parks have been added in recent years, such as the Ping Tom Memorial Park in Chinatown, DuSable Park on the Near North Side, and most notably, Millennium Park, which is in the northwestern corner of one of Chicago's oldest parks, Grant Park in the Chicago Loop. The wealth of greenspace afforded by Chicago's parks is further augmented by the Cook County Forest Preserves, a network of open spaces containing forest, prairie, wetland, streams, and lakes that are set aside as natural areas which lie along the city's outskirts, including both the Chicago Botanic Garden in Glencoe and the Brookfield Zoo in Brookfield. Washington Park is also one of the city's biggest parks; covering nearly . The park is listed on the National Register of Historic Places listings in South Side Chicago.Law and governmentGovernment and the Chicago Picasso, with City Hall-County Building visible in background. At right, the Daley Center contains the state law courts.]] The government of the City of Chicago is divided into executive and legislative branches. The mayor of Chicago is the chief executive, elected by general election for a term of four years, with no term limits. The current mayor is Brandon Johnson. The mayor appoints commissioners and other officials who oversee the various departments. As well as the mayor, Chicago's clerk and treasurer are also elected citywide. The City Council is the legislative branch and is made up of 50 alderpersons, one elected from each ward in the city. The council takes official action through the passage of ordinances and resolutions and approves the city budget. The Chicago Police Department provides law enforcement and the Chicago Fire Department provides fire suppression and emergency medical services for the city and its residents. Civil and criminal law cases are heard in the Cook County Circuit Court of the State of Illinois court system, or in the Northern District of Illinois, in the federal system. In the state court, the public prosecutor is the Illinois state's attorney; in the Federal court it is the United States attorney. Politics {\| class"wikitable" style"float:right; font-size:95%;" \|+ Presidential election results in Chicago \|- ! style="text-align:center;" \| Year ! style="text-align:center;" \| Democratic ! style="text-align:center;" \| Republican ! style="text-align:center;" \| Others \|- \| style="text-align:center;" \|2020 \| style="text-align:center;" \|82.5% 944,735 \| style="text-align:center;" \|15.8% 181,234 \| style="text-align:center; background:honeyDew;"\|1.6% 18,772 \|- \| style="text-align:center;" \|2016 \| style="text-align:center;" \|82.9% 912,945 \| style="text-align:center;" \|12.3% 135,320 \| style="text-align:center; background:honeyDew;"\|4.8% 53,262 \|} During much of the last half of the 19th century, Chicago's politics were dominated by a growing Democratic Party organization. During the 1880s and 1890s, Chicago had a powerful radical tradition with large and highly organized socialist, anarchist and labor organizations. For much of the 20th century, Chicago has been among the largest and most reliable Democratic strongholds in the United States; with Chicago's Democratic vote the state of Illinois has been "solid blue" in presidential elections since 1992. Even before then, it was not unheard of for Republican presidential candidates to win handily in downstate Illinois, only to lose statewide due to large Democratic margins in Chicago. The citizens of Chicago have not elected a Republican mayor since 1927, when William Thompson was voted into office. The strength of the party in the city is partly a consequence of Illinois state politics, where the Republicans have come to represent rural and farm concerns while the Democrats support urban issues such as Chicago's public school funding. Chicago contains less than 25% of the state's population, but it is split between eight of Illinois' 17 districts in the United States House of Representatives. All eight of the city's representatives are Democrats; only two Republicans have represented a significant portion of the city since 1973, for one term each: Robert P. Hanrahan from 1973 to 1975, and Michael Patrick Flanagan from 1995 to 1997. Machine politics persisted in Chicago after the decline of similar machines in other large U.S. cities. During much of that time, the city administration found opposition mainly from a liberal "independent" faction of the Democratic Party. The independents finally gained control of city government in 1983 with the election of Harold Washington (in office 1983–1987). From 1989 until May 16, 2011, Chicago was under the leadership of its longest-serving mayor, Richard M. Daley, the son of Richard J. Daley. Because of the dominance of the Democratic Party in Chicago, the Democratic primary vote held in the spring is generally more significant than the general elections in November for U.S. House and Illinois State seats. The aldermanic, mayoral, and other city offices are filled through nonpartisan elections with runoffs as needed. The city is home of former United States President Barack Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama; Barack Obama was formerly a state legislator representing Chicago and later a U.S. senator. The Obamas' residence is located near the University of Chicago in Kenwood on the city's south side. Crime SUV as a Chicago Police Department vehicle, 2021]] Chicago's crime rate in 2020 was 3,926 per 100,000 people. Chicago experienced major rises in violent crime in the 1920s, in the late 1960s, and in the 2020s. Chicago's biggest criminal justice challenges have changed little over the last 50 years, and statistically reside with homicide, armed robbery, gang violence, and aggravated battery. Chicago has a higher murder rate than the larger cities of New York and Los Angeles. However, while it has a large absolute number of crimes due to its size, Chicago is not among the top-25 most violent cities in the United States. Murder rates in Chicago vary greatly depending on the neighborhood in question. The neighborhoods of Englewood on the South Side, and Austin on the West side, for example, have homicide rates that are ten times higher than other parts of the city. Chicago has an estimated population of over 100,000 active gang members from nearly 60 factions. According to reports in 2013, "most of Chicago's violent crime comes from gangs trying to maintain control of drug-selling territories," and is specifically related to the activities of the Sinaloa Cartel, which is active in several American cities. Violent crime rates vary significantly by area of the city, with more economically developed areas having low rates, but other sections have much higher rates of crime. the murder rate was 10.4 per 100,000 – while high crime districts saw 38.9 murders, low crime districts saw 2.5 murders per 100,000. Chicago has a long history of public corruption that regularly draws the attention of federal law enforcement and federal prosecutors. From 2012 to 2019, 33 Chicago alderpersons were convicted on corruption charges, roughly one third of those elected in the time period. A report from the Office of the Legislative Inspector General noted that over half of Chicago's elected alderpersons took illegal campaign contributions in 2013. Most corruption cases in Chicago are prosecuted by the U.S. Attorney's office, as legal jurisdiction makes most offenses punishable as a federal crime. Education Schools and libraries appeared in Guinness World Records as the largest municipal public library building in the world.]] Chicago Public Schools (CPS) is the governing body of the school district that contains over 600 public elementary and high schools citywide, including several selective-admission magnet schools. There are eleven selective enrollment high schools in the Chicago Public Schools, designed to meet the needs of Chicago's most academically advanced students. These schools offer a rigorous curriculum with mainly honors and Advanced Placement (AP) courses. Walter Payton College Prep High School is ranked number one in the city of Chicago and the state of Illinois. Chicago high school rankings are determined by the average test scores on state achievement tests. The district, with an enrollment exceeding 400,545 students (2013–2014 20th Day Enrollment), is the third-largest in the U.S. On September 10, 2012, teachers for the Chicago Teachers Union went on strike for the first time since 1987 over pay, resources, and other issues. According to data compiled in 2014, Chicago's "choice system", where students who test or apply and may attend one of a number of public high schools (there are about 130), sorts students of different achievement levels into different schools (high performing, middle performing, and low performing schools). Chicago has a network of Lutheran schools, and several private schools are run by other denominations and faiths, such as the Ida Crown Jewish Academy in West Ridge. The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Chicago operates Catholic schools, including Jesuit preparatory schools and others. A number of private schools are completely secular. There is also the private Chicago Academy for the Arts, a high school focused on six different artistic disciplines, and the public Chicago High School for the Arts, a high school focused on five disciplines (visual arts, theatre, musical theatre, dance, and music). The Chicago Public Library system operates three regional libraries and 77 neighborhood branches, including the central library. Colleges and universities campus as seen from the Midway Plaisance]] <!-- PLEASE TRY TO LIST THE SUBURBAN SCHOOLS AT THE ILLINOIS ARTICLE --> Since the 1850s,<!-- CTS was founded in 1855 --> Chicago has been a world center of higher education and research with several universities. These institutions consistently rank among the top "National Universities" in the United States, as determined by U.S. News & World Report. Highly regarded universities in Chicago and the surrounding area are the University of Chicago; Northwestern University; Illinois Institute of Technology; Loyola University Chicago; DePaul University; Columbia College Chicago and the University of Illinois Chicago. Other notable schools include: Chicago State University; the School of the Art Institute of Chicago; East–West University; National Louis University; North Park University; Northeastern Illinois University; Robert Morris University Illinois; Roosevelt University; Saint Xavier University; Rush University; and Shimer College. William Rainey Harper, the first president of the University of Chicago, was instrumental in the creation of the junior college concept, establishing nearby Joliet Junior College as the first in the nation in 1901. His legacy continues with the multiple community colleges in the Chicago proper, including the seven City Colleges of Chicago: Richard J. Daley College, Kennedy–King College, Malcolm X College, Olive–Harvey College, Truman College, Harold Washington College, and Wilbur Wright College, in addition to the privately held MacCormac College. Chicago also has a high concentration of post-baccalaureate institutions, graduate schools, seminaries, and theological schools, such as the Adler School of Professional Psychology, The Chicago School the Erikson Institute, Institute for Clinical Social Work, Lutheran School of Theology at Chicago, Catholic Theological Union, Moody Bible Institute, and University of Chicago Divinity School.Media began in the early days of radio and developed into a multi-platform broadcaster, including a cable television super-station.]] from 1986 until 2011, and of other Harpo Production operations until 2015.]] Television The Chicago metropolitan area is a major media hub and the third-largest media market in the United States, after New York City and Los Angeles. Each of the big five U.S. television networks, NBC, ABC, CBS, Fox and The CW, directly owns and operates a high-definition television station in Chicago (WMAQ 5, WLS 7, WBBM 2, WFLD 32 and WGN-TV 9, respectively). WGN is owned by the CW through a majority stake held in the network by the Nexstar Media Group, which acquired it from its founding owner Tribune Broadcasting in 2019. WGN was once carried, with some programming differences, as "WGN America" on cable and satellite TV nationwide and in parts of the Caribbean. WGN America eventually became NewsNation in 2021. Chicago has also been the home of several prominent talk shows, including The Oprah Winfrey Show, Steve Harvey Show, The Rosie Show, The Jerry Springer Show, The Phil Donahue Show, The Jenny Jones Show, and more. The city also has one PBS member station (its second: WYCC 20, removed its affiliation with PBS in 2017): WTTW 11, producer of shows such as Sneak Previews, The Frugal Gourmet, Lamb Chop's Play-Along and The McLaughlin Group. , Windy City Live'' is Chicago's only daytime talk show, which is hosted by Val Warner and Ryan Chiaverini at ABC7 Studios with a live weekday audience. Since 1999, Judge Mathis also films his syndicated arbitration-based reality court show at the NBC Tower. Beginning in January 2019, Newsy began producing 12 of its 14 hours of live news programming per day from its new facility in Chicago. Television stations Most of Chicago's television stations are owned and operated by the big television network companies. They are: * WBBM-TV (2), owned and operated by CBS. * WMAQ-TV (5), owned and operated by NBC. * WLS-TV (7), owned and operated by ABC. * WGN-TV (9), a CW station owned and operated by network majority owner Nexstar Media Group. * WTTW (11), a PBS member station owned by Window to the World Communications, Inc. * WCIU-TV (26), an independent station (with a secondary MeTV affiliation) owned by Weigel Broadcasting. * WFLD (32), owned and operated by Fox. * WWTO-TV (35), owned and operated by TBN, licensed in Naperville. * WCPX-TV (38), owned and operated by Ion Television. * WSNS-TV (44), owned and operated by Telemundo. * WPWR-TV (50), owned and operated by MyNetworkTV (Fox), licensed to Gary, Indiana. * WYIN (56), a PBS member station owned by Northwest Indiana Public Broadcasting, Inc., licensed in Gary, Indiana. * WTVK (59), an independent station owned by Venture Technologies Group, licensed in Oswego, Illinois. * WXFT-DT (60), owned and operated by Unimas. * WJYS (62), an independent station owned by Millennial Telecommunications, Inc., licensed to Hammond, Indiana. * WGBO-DT (66), owned and operated by Univision. Newspapers Two major daily newspapers are published in Chicago: the Chicago Tribune and the Chicago Sun-Times, with the Tribune having the larger circulation. There are also several regional and special-interest newspapers and magazines, such as Chicago, the Dziennik Związkowy (Polish Daily News), Draugas (the Lithuanian daily newspaper), the Chicago Reader, the SouthtownStar, the Chicago Defender, the Daily Herald, Newcity, StreetWise and the Windy City Times. The entertainment and cultural magazine Time Out Chicago and GRAB magazine are also published in the city, as well as local music magazine Chicago Innerview. In addition, Chicago is the home of satirical national news outlet, The Onion, as well as its sister pop-culture publication, The A.V. Club. Movies and filming Radio Chicago has five 50,000 watt AM radio stations: the Audacy-owned WBBM and WSCR; the Tribune Broadcasting-owned WGN; the Cumulus Media-owned WLS; and the ESPN Radio-owned WMVP. Chicago is also home to a number of national radio shows, including Beyond the Beltway with Bruce DuMont on Sunday evenings. Chicago Public Radio produces nationally aired programs such as PRI's This American Life and NPR's ''Wait Wait...Don't Tell Me!''.InfrastructureTransportation (2022) after reconstruction; it initially opened in the 1960s.]] Chicago is a major transportation hub in the United States. It is an important component in global distribution, as it is the third-largest inter-modal port in the world after Hong Kong and Singapore. The city of Chicago has a higher than average percentage of households without a car. In 2015, 26.5 percent of Chicago households were without a car, and increased slightly to 27.5 percent in 2016. The national average was 8.7 percent in 2016. Chicago averaged 1.12 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8. Parking Due to Chicago's wheel tax, residents of Chicago who own a vehicle are required to purchase a Chicago City Vehicle Sticker. In established Residential Parking Zones, only local residents can purchase Zone-specific parking stickers for themselves and guests. Chicago since 2009 has relinquished rights to its public street parking. In 2008, as Chicago struggled to close a growing budget deficit, the city agreed to a 75-year, $1.16 billion deal to lease its parking meter system to an operating company created by Morgan Stanley, called Chicago Parking Meters LLC. Daley said the "agreement is very good news for the taxpayers of Chicago because it will provide more than $1 billion in net proceeds that can be used during this very difficult economy." The rights of the parking ticket lease end in 2081, and since 2022 have already recouped over $1.5 billion in revenue for Chicago Parking Meters LLC investors.Expressways Seven mainline and four auxiliary interstate highways (55, 57, 65 (only in Indiana), 80 (also in Indiana), 88, 90 (also in Indiana), 94 (also in Indiana), 190, 290, 294, and 355) run through Chicago and its suburbs. Segments that link to the city center are named after influential politicians, with three of them named after former U.S. Presidents (Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Reagan) and one named after two-time Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson. The Kennedy and Dan Ryan Expressways are the busiest state maintained routes in the entire state of Illinois.Transit systems , opened in 1925, is the third-busiest passenger rail terminal in the United States.]] The Regional Transportation Authority (RTA) coordinates the operation of the three service boards: CTA, Metra, and Pace. * The Chicago Transit Authority (CTA) handles public transportation in the City of Chicago and a few adjacent suburbs outside of the Chicago city limits. The CTA operates an extensive network of buses and a rapid transit elevated and subway system known as the Chicago "L" or just the "L" (short for "elevated"), with lines designated by colors. These rapid transit lines also serve both Midway and O'Hare Airports. The CTA's rail lines consist of the Red, Blue, Green, Orange, Brown, Purple, Pink, and Yellow lines. Both the Red and Blue lines offer 24‑hour service which makes Chicago one of a handful of cities around the world (and one of two in the United States, the other being New York City) to offer rail service 24 hours a day, every day of the year, within the city's limits. * Metra, the nation's second-most used passenger regional rail network, operates an 11-line commuter rail service in Chicago and throughout the Chicago suburbs. The Metra Electric Line shares its trackage with Northern Indiana Commuter Transportation District's South Shore Line, which provides commuter service between South Bend and Chicago. * Pace provides bus and paratransit service in over 200 surrounding suburbs with some extensions into the city as well. A 2005 study found that one quarter of commuters used public transit. Greyhound Lines provides inter-city bus service to and from the city at the Chicago Bus Station, and Chicago is also the hub for the Midwest network of Megabus (North America). Passenger rail train on the Empire Builder route departs Chicago from Union Station.]] Amtrak long distance and commuter rail services originate from Union Station. Chicago is one of the largest hubs of passenger rail service in the nation. The services terminate in the San Francisco area, Washington, D.C., New York City, New Orleans, Portland, Seattle, Milwaukee, Quincy, St. Louis, Carbondale, Boston, Grand Rapids, Port Huron, Pontiac, Los Angeles, and San Antonio. Future service will terminate at Moline. An attempt was made in the early 20th century to link Chicago with New York City via the Chicago – New York Electric Air Line Railroad. Parts of this were built, but it was never completed. Bicycle and scooter sharing systems In July 2013, the bicycle-sharing system Divvy was launched with 750 bikes and 75 docking stations It is operated by Lyft for the Chicago Department of Transportation. As of July 2019, Divvy operated 5800 bicycles at 608 stations, covering almost all of the city, excluding Pullman, Rosedale, Beverly, Belmont Cragin and Edison Park. In May 2019, The City of Chicago announced its Chicago's Electric Shared Scooter Pilot Program, scheduled to run from June 15 to October 15. The program started on June 15 with 10 different scooter companies, including scooter sharing market leaders Bird, Jump, Lime and Lyft. Each company was allowed to bring 250 electric scooters, although both Bird and Lime claimed that they experienced a higher demand for their scooters. The program ended on October 15, with nearly 800,000 rides taken. Freight rail Chicago is the largest hub in the railroad industry. All five Class I railroads meet in Chicago. , severe freight train congestion caused trains to take as long to get through the Chicago region as it took to get there from the West Coast of the country (about 2 days). According to U.S. Department of Transportation, the volume of imported and exported goods transported via rail to, from, or through Chicago is forecast to increase nearly 150 percent between 2010 and 2040. CREATE, the Chicago Region Environmental and Transportation Efficiency Program, comprises about 70 programs, including crossovers, overpasses and underpasses, that intend to significantly improve the speed of freight movements in the Chicago area. Airports ]] Chicago is served by O'Hare International Airport, the world's busiest airport measured by airline operations, on the far Northwest Side, and Midway International Airport on the Southwest Side. In 2005, O'Hare was the world's busiest airport by aircraft movements and the second-busiest by total passenger traffic. Both O'Hare and Midway are owned and operated by the City of Chicago. Gary/Chicago International Airport and Chicago Rockford International Airport, located in Gary, Indiana and Rockford, Illinois, respectively, can serve as alternative Chicago area airports, however they do not offer as many commercial flights as O'Hare and Midway. In recent years the state of Illinois has been leaning towards building an entirely new airport in the Illinois suburbs of Chicago. The City of Chicago is the world headquarters for United Airlines, the world's third-largest airline. Port authority The Port of Chicago consists of several major port facilities within the city of Chicago operated by the Illinois International Port District (formerly known as the Chicago Regional Port District). The central element of the Port District, Calumet Harbor, is maintained by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. * Iroquois Landing Lakefront Terminal: at the mouth of the Calumet River, it includes of warehouses and facilities on Lake Michigan with over of storage. * Lake Calumet terminal: located at the union of the Grand Calumet River and Little Calumet River inland from Lake Michigan. Includes three transit sheds totaling over adjacent to over 900 linear meters (3,000 linear feet) of ship and barge berthing. * Grain (14 million bushels) and bulk liquid (800,000 barrels) storage facilities along Lake Calumet. * The Illinois International Port district also operates Foreign trade zone No. 22, which extends from Chicago's city limits. Utilities Electricity for most of northern Illinois is provided by Commonwealth Edison, also known as ComEd. Their service territory borders Iroquois County to the south, the Wisconsin border to the north, the Iowa border to the west and the Indiana border to the east. In northern Illinois, ComEd (a division of Exelon) operates the greatest number of nuclear generating plants in any U.S. state. Because of this, ComEd reports indicate that Chicago receives about 75% of its electricity from nuclear power. Recently, the city began installing wind turbines on government buildings to promote renewable energy. Natural gas is provided by Peoples Gas, a subsidiary of Integrys Energy Group, which is headquartered in Chicago. Domestic and industrial waste was once incinerated but it is now landfilled, mainly in the Calumet area. From 1995 to 2008, the city had a blue bag program to divert recyclable refuse from landfills. Because of low participation in the blue bag programs, the city began a pilot program for blue bin recycling like other cities. This proved successful and blue bins were rolled out across the city. Health systems Downtown Campus]] The Illinois Medical District is on the Near West Side. It includes Rush University Medical Center, ranked as the second best hospital in the Chicago metropolitan area by U.S. News & World Report for 2014–16, the University of Illinois Medical Center at Chicago, Jesse Brown VA Hospital, and John H. Stroger Jr. Hospital of Cook County, one of the busiest trauma centers in the nation. Two of the country's premier academic medical centers reside in Chicago, including Northwestern Memorial Hospital and the University of Chicago Medical Center. The Chicago campus of Northwestern University includes the Feinberg School of Medicine; Northwestern Memorial Hospital, which is ranked as the best hospital in the Chicago metropolitan area by U.S. News & World Report for 2017–18; the Shirley Ryan AbilityLab (formerly named the Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago), which is ranked the best U.S. rehabilitation hospital by U.S. News & World Report; the new Prentice Women's Hospital; and Ann & Robert H. Lurie Children's Hospital of Chicago. The University of Illinois College of Medicine at UIC is the second-largest medical school in the United States (2,600 students, including those at campuses in Peoria, Rockford and Urbana–Champaign). In addition, the Chicago Medical School and Loyola University Chicago's Stritch School of Medicine are located in the suburbs of North Chicago and Maywood, respectively. The Midwestern University Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine is in Downers Grove. The American Medical Association, Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education, Accreditation Council for Continuing Medical Education, American Osteopathic Association, American Dental Association, Academy of General Dentistry, Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, American Association of Nurse Anesthetists, American College of Surgeons, American Society for Clinical Pathology, American College of Healthcare Executives, the American Hospital Association, and Blue Cross and Blue Shield Association are all based in Chicago. Sister cities See also * Chicago area water quality * Chicago Wilderness * Gentrification of Chicago * Index of Illinois-related articles * List of cities with the most skyscrapers * National Register of Historic Places listings in Central Chicago * National Register of Historic Places listings in North Side Chicago * National Register of Historic Places listings in West Side Chicago * USS Chicago, four ships Explanatory notes References Citations Cited references <!--When creating entries to additional items please refer to the Wikipedia Cite Sources guidelines. --> * * * * * * * Holli, Melvin G., and Jones, Peter d'A., eds. Biographical Dictionary of American Mayors, 1820-1980 (Greenwood Press, 1981) short scholarly biographies each of the city's mayors 1820 to 1980. [https://archive.org/details/biographicaldict0000unse_r8s1 online]; see index at pp. 406–411 for list. * * * * * * Further reading * * * * * * * * * * * * External links * [http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/700005.html?entryA Encyclopedia of Chicago (2004)], comprehensive coverage of city and suburbs, past and present * () * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060610131550/http://choosechicago.com/ Choose Chicago]—Official tourism website * [https://earlychicago.com/chron/ Chicago History] * [http://collections.lib.uwm.edu/cdm4/results.php?CISOOP1all&CISOBOX1Illinois&CISOFIELD1statep&CISOOP2all&CISOBOX2chicago+%28ill%29+--+maps&CISOFIELD2subjec&CISOROOT/agdm&ts Maps of Chicago from the American Geographical Society Library] * * [https://localwiki.org/chicago// Chicago – LocalWiki] Local Chicago Wiki * * }} Category:1833 establishments in Illinois Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Cities in Cook County, Illinois Category:Cities in DuPage County, Illinois Category:Cities in the Chicago metropolitan area Category:Cities in Illinois Category:County seats in Illinois Category:Illinois populated places on Lake Michigan Category:Inland port cities and towns of the United States Category:Majority-minority cities and towns in Cook County, Illinois Category:Majority-minority cities and towns in DuPage County, Illinois Category:Populated places established in 1833 Category:Populated places established in the 1780s Category:Railway towns in Illinois	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago	2025-04-05T18:27:59.994815
6887	Cyrix 6x86	\|produced-end = \|model \|transistors 4.3M 500 nm \|slowest =80 \|fastest =333 \|fsb-slowest =40 \|fsb-fastest =100 \|soldby = \|sock1 = Socket 7 \|sock2 = Super Socket 7 \|brand1 \|arch x86-16, IA-32 \|microarch = 6x86 \|cpuid \|code \|numcores = 1 \|l1cache = \|application = Desktop \|predecessor = Cyrix 5x86 \|successor =Cyrix III \|fast-unitMHz\|slow-unitMHz\|fsb-slow-unitMHz\|fsb-fast-unitMHz\|variant16x86, 6x86L, 6x86MX\|manuf1IBM\|manuf2SGS-Thomson\|manuf3National Semiconductor\|core1M1\|core2M1L (Low voltage)\|core3M1R (3M to 5M)\|core4MII (MMX)}} The Cyrix 6x86 is a line of sixth-generation, 32-bit x86 microprocessors designed and released by Cyrix in 1995. Cyrix, being a fabless company, had the chips manufactured by IBM and SGS-Thomson. The 6x86 was made as a direct competitor to Intel's Pentium microprocessor line, and was pin compatible. During the 6x86's development, the majority of applications (office software as well as games) performed almost entirely integer operations. The designers foresaw that future applications would most likely maintain this instruction focus. So, to optimize the chip's performance for what they believed to be the most likely application of the CPU, the integer execution resources received most of the transistor budget. This would later prove to be a strategic mistake, as the popularity of the P5 Pentium caused many software developers to hand-optimize code in assembly language, to take advantage of the P5 Pentium's tightly pipelined and lower latency FPU. For example, the highly anticipated first-person shooter Quake used highly optimized assembly code designed almost entirely around the P5 Pentium's FPU. As a result, the P5 Pentium significantly outperformed other CPUs in the game. After Cyrix was bought by National Semiconductor then later VIA, the 6x86 continued to be produced up until the early 2000s. History The 6x86, previously under the codename "M1" was announced by Cyrix in October 1995. On release only the 100 MHz (P120+) version was available, but a 120 MHz (P150+) version was planned for mid-1995 with a 133 MHz (P166+) model later. The 100 MHz (P120+) 6x86 was available to OEMs for a price of $450 per chip in bulk quantities. In mid February 1996 Cyrix announced the P166+, P150+, and P133+ to be added to the 6x86 model line. IBM, who produced the chips, also announced they will be selling their own versions of the chips. The 6x86 P200+ was planned for the end of 1996, The M2 (6x86MX) was first announced to be in development in mid 1996. It would have MMX and 32-bit optimization. The M2 would also have some of the same features as the Intel Pentium Pro such as register renaming, out-of-order completion, and speculative execution. Additionally it would have 64 KB of cache over the original 6x86 and Pentium Pro's 16 KB. In March 1997 when asked about when the M2 line of processors would begin shipping, Cyrix UK managing director Brendan Sherry stated, "I've read it's going to be May but we've said late Q2 all along and I'm pretty sure we'll make that." The 6x86L was first released in January 1997 to address the heat issues with the original 6x86 line. The 6x86L had a lower V-core voltage and required a split power plane voltage regulator. In April 1997 the first laptop to use the 6x86 processor was put on sale. They were sold by TigerDirect and had a 12.1in DSTN display, 16 MB of memory, 10x CD-ROM, 1.3 GB hard disk drive, and cost $1,899 for the base price. Later by the end of May 1997 on the 27th, Cyrix said they would announce details of the new chip line (6x86MX) the day before Computex in June 1997. For the low end of the series, the PR166 6x86MX was available for $190 with higher end PR200 and PR233 versions available for $240 and $320. IBM being the producer of Cyrix's chips, would also sell their own version. Cyrix hoped to ship tens of thousands within June 1997 with up to 1 million by the end of the year. Cyrix also expected to release a 266 MHz chip by the end of 1997 and a 300 MHz in the first quarter of 1998. They had slightly better floating point performance, which cut adding and multiply times by a third, but it was still slower than the Intel Pentium. The M2 also had full MMX instructions, 64 KB of cache over the original 16 KB, and had a lower core voltage of 2.5V over 3.3V of the original 6x86 line. National Semiconductor acquired Cyrix in July 1997. National Semiconductor was not interested in high performance processors but rather system on a chip devices, and wanted to shift the focus of Cyrix to the MediaGX line. In January 1998 National Semiconductors produced a 6x86MX processor on a 0.25 micron process technology. This reduced the chip size from 150 square millimeters to 88. National shifted their production of the MII and MediaGX to 0.25 by August. In September 1998 IBM's licensing partnership with Cyrix was said to be ended by National Semiconductors. This was due to National wanting to increase production of Cyrix chips in their own facilities, and because having IBM produce Cyrix's chips was causing issues such as profit losses due to IBM frequently pricing their versions of Cyrix's chips lower. National would be paying $50–55 million to IBM to end the partnership, which would end the following April. National would then be moving chip production to their own facility in South Portland, Maine. The Cyrix MII was released in May 1998. These chips were not exciting like people had hoped, as they were just a rebranding of the 6x86MX. In December these chips cost $80 for a MII-333, $59 for a MII-300, $55 for a MII-266, and $48 for a MII-233. In May 1999 National Semiconductor decided to leave the PC chip market due to significant losses, and put the Cyrix CPU division up for sale. Additionally after VIA's acquisition, the 6x86/L was discontinued, but the 6x86MX/MII line continued to be sold by VIA. VIA would continue to produce the MII throughout the early 2000s. It was expected to be discontinued when the VIA Cyrix MII was released. However, the MII was still available for sale until mid/late 2003, being shown on VIA's website as a product until October, and it still saw use in devices such as network computers.Architecture ]] The 6x86 is superscalar and superpipelined and performs register renaming, speculative execution, out-of-order execution, and data dependency removal. However, it continued to use native x86 execution and ordinary microcode only, like Centaur's Winchip, unlike competitors Intel and AMD which introduced the method of dynamic translation to micro-operations with Pentium Pro and K5. The 6x86 is socket-compatible with the Intel P54C Pentium, and was offered in six performance levels: PR 90+, PR 120+, PR 133+, PR 150+, PR 166+ and PR 200+. These performance levels do not map to the clock speed of the chip itself (for example, a PR 133+ ran at 110 MHz, a PR 166+ ran at 133 MHz, etc.). With regard to internal caches, it has a 16-KB primary cache and a fully associative 256-byte instruction line cache is included alongside the primary cache, which functions as the primary instruction cache. Support for the Pentium Pro's CMOVcc instructions were also added. While the 6x86's integer performance was significantly higher than P5 Pentium's, its floating point performance was more mediocre—between 2 and 4 times the performance of the 486 FPU per clock cycle (depending on the operation and precision). The FPU in the 6x86 was largely the same circuitry that was developed for Cyrix's earlier high performance 8087/80287/80387-compatible coprocessors, which was very fast for its time—the Cyrix FPU was much faster than the 80387, and even the 80486 FPU. However, it was still considerably slower than the new and completely redesigned P5 Pentium and P6 Pentium Pro-Pentium III FPUs. One of the main features of the P5/P6 FPUs is that they supported interleaving of FPU and integer instructions in their design, which Cyrix chips did not integrate. This caused very poor performance with Cyrix CPUs on games and software that took advantage of this. Therefore, despite being very fast clock by clock, the 6x86 and MII were forced to compete at the low-end of the market as AMD K6 and Intel P6 Pentium II were always ahead on clock speed. The 6x86's and MII's old generation "486 class" floating point unit combined with an integer section that was at best on-par with the newer P6 and K6 chips meant that Cyrix could no longer compete in performance. Models and variants 6x86 The 6x86 (codename M1) was released by Cyrix in 1996. The first generation of 6x86 had heat problems. This was primarily caused by their higher heat output than other x86 CPUs of the day and, as such, computer builders sometimes did not equip them with adequate cooling. The CPUs topped out at around 25 W heat output (like the AMD K6), whereas the P5 Pentium produced around 15 W of waste heat at its peak. However, both numbers would be a fraction of the heat generated by many high performance processors, some years later. Shortly after the original M1, the M1R was released. The M1R was a switch from SGS-Thomson 3M process to IBM 5M process, making the 6x86 chips 50% smaller.<gallery mode"packed" heights"200px"> Image:Cyrix_6x86_early_die.jpg\|Early Cyrix 6x86 (M1) die shot </gallery> 6x86L The 6x86L (codename M1L) was later released by Cyrix to address heat issues; the L standing for low-power. Improved manufacturing technologies permitted usage of a lower Vcore. Just like the Pentium MMX, the 6x86L required a split power plane voltage regulator with separate voltages for I/O and CPU core. <gallery mode"packed" heights"200px"> Image:Cyrix_6x86_die.JPG\|Cyrix 6x86L (M1L) die shot </gallery> 6x86MX / MII Another release of the 6x86, the 6x86MX, added MMX compatibility along with the EMMI instruction set, improved compatibility with the Pentium and Pentium Pro by adding a Time Stamp Counter and CMOVcc instructions respectively, and quadrupled the primary cache size to 64 KB. The 256-byte instruction line cache can be turned into a scratchpad cache to provide support for multimedia operations.<ref name=6x86MXDataSheet /> Later revisions of this chip were renamed MII, to better compete with the Pentium II processor. 6x86MX / MII was late to market, and couldn't scale well in clock speed with the manufacturing processes used at the time. <gallery mode"nolines" heights"200" widths"200" perrow"1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"> File:Cyrix 6x86MX die.JPG\|Cyrix 6x86MX (M2) die shot </gallery> Model table {\| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" !Images !Model !Core name !Process size<br />(μm) !Die area<br />(mm<sup>2</sup>) !Number of transistors<br />(millions) !Socket(s) !Package !Core Voltage !TDP (W) !Clock speed !Bus Speed !L1 Cache !Price (USD) !Launch \|- \| rowspan"6" \|<gallery mode"nolines" widths"80" heights"80" perrow"1" style"margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"> File:KL Cyrix 6x86.jpg File:Cyrix 6x86-P166.jpg </gallery> \|PR90+ \|M1 \|0,65 \|394 \|3.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|3.3 \|15.5 \|80 MHz \|40 MHz \|16 KB \|$84 \|Nov 1995 \|- \|PR120+ \|M1 \|0,65 \|394 \|3.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|3.3 \|? \|100 MHz \|50 MHz \|16 KB \|$450 \|Oct 1995 \|- \|PR133+ \|M1R \|0,65 \|225 \|3.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|3.3 \|19.1 \|110 MHz \|55 MHz \|16 KB \|$326 \|2-5-1996 \|- \|PR150+ \|M1R \|0,65 \|225 \|3.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|3.3/3.52 \|20.1 \|120 MHz \|60 MHz \|16 KB \|$451 \|2-5-1996 \|- \|PR166+ \|M1R \|0,65 \|225 \|3.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|3.3/3.52 \|21.8 \|133 MHz \|66 MHz \|16 KB \|$621 \|2-5-1996 \|- \|PR200+ \|M1R \|0,44 \|? \|3.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|3.52 \|17.13 \|150 MHz \|75 MHz \|16 KB \|$499 \|6-6-1996 \|- \| rowspan"5" \|<gallery mode"nolines" widths"80" heights"80" perrow"1" style"margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"> File:Cyrix6x86L-PR166.jpg File:KL Cyrix 6x86L.jpg </gallery> \|L-PR120+ \|M1L \|0,35 \|169 \|3.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|2.8/3.3 \|? \|100 MHz \|50 MHz \|16 KB \|? \|Jan-1997 \|- \|L-PR133+ \|M1L \|0,35 \|169 \|3.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|2.8/3.3 \|? \|110 MHz \|55 MHz \|16 KB \|? \|Feb-1997 \|- \|L-PR150+ \|M1L \|0,35 \|169 \|3.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|2.8/3.3 \|? \|120 MHz \|60 MHz \|16 KB \|? \|Mar-1997 \|- \|L-PR166+ \|M1L \|0,35 \|169 \|3.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|2.8/3.3 \|15.98 \|133 MHz \|66 MHz \|16 KB \|? \|Apr-1997 \|- \|L-PR200+ \|M1L \|0,35 \|169 \|3.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|2.8/3.3 \|17.13 \|150 MHz \|75 MHz \|16 KB \|? \|Apr-1997 \|- \| rowspan"4" \|<gallery mode"nolines" widths"80" heights"80" perrow"1" style"margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"> File:KL Cyrix 6x86MX.jpg File:Ic-photo-Cyrix--6x86MX-PR233--(6x86MX-CPU).png </gallery> \|PR166-MMX \|MII \|0,35 \|197 \|6.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|2.9/3.3 \|? ? \|133 MHz 150 MHz \|66 MHz 60 MHz \|64 KB \|$190 ? \|5-30-97 Q2 1998 \|- \|PR200-MMX \|MII \|0,35 (IBM) 0,30 (NS) \|197 156 \|6.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|2.9/3.3 \|? ? \|150 MHz 166 MHz \|75 MHz 66 MHz \|64 KB \|$240 ? \|5-30-97 Q2 1998 \|- \|PR233-MMX \|MII \|0,35 (IBM) 0,30 (NS) \|197 156 \|6.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|2.9/3.3 \|? ? \|188 MHz 200 MHz \|75 MHz 66 MHz \|64 KB \|$320 ? \|5-30-97 Q2 1998 \|- \|PR266-MMX \|MII \|0,35 (IBM) 0,30 (NS) \|197 156 \|6.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|2.9/3.3 \|? \|208 MHz \|83 MHz \|64 KB \|$180 ? \|3-19-98 Q2 1998 \|- \| rowspan"6" \|<gallery mode"nolines" widths"80" heights"80" perrow"1" style"margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"> File:Cyrix-m2-233gp 75x2.5.jpg File:KL Cyrix MII-333.jpg File:Cyrix M II-433GP - 300MHz CPU 1998 front.jpg </gallery> \|MII-300-MMX (m) \|MII \|0,30 0,25 \|156 88 \|6.0 \|Super 7 \|CPGA \|2.9/3.3 2.2 (m) \|? ? \|233 MHz 225 MHz \|66 MHz 75 MHz \|64 KB \|$180 ? \|4-14-98 Q1 1999 \|- \|MII-333-MMX (m) \|MII \|0,30 0,25 \|156 88 \|6.0 \|Super 7 \|CPGA \|2.9/3.3 2.2 (m) \|? ? \|250 MHz \|100 MHz 83 MHz \|64 KB \|$180 ? \|6-15-98 Mar-1999 \|- \|MII-350-MMX \|MII \|0,25 \|88 \|6.0 \|Super 7 \|CPGA \|2.9/3.3 \|? \|270 MHz 250 MHz \|90 MHz 83 MHz \|64 KB \|? ? \|? ? \|- \|MII-366-MMX \|MII \|0,25 \|88 \|6.0 \|Super 7 \|CPGA \|2.9/3.3 \|? \|250 MHz \|100 MHz \|64 KB \|? \|Mar-1999 \|- \|MII-400-MMX (m) \|MII \|0,18 \|65 \|6.0 \|Super 7 \|CPGA \|2.2/3.3 \|? \|285 MHz \|95 MHz \|64 KB \|? \|Jun-1999 \|- \|MII-433-MMX (m) \|MII \|0,18 \|65 \|6.0 \|Super 7 \|CPGA \|2.2/3.3 \|? \|300 MHz \|100 MHz \|64 KB \|? \|Jun-1999 \|- \| rowspan"7" \|<gallery mode"nolines" widths"80" heights"80" perrow"1" style"margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"> File:Cyrix 6x86 P150+ CPU.jpg </gallery> ! colspan="14" \|SGS-Thomson 6x86 Models \|- \|ST6x86P90+HS \|M1 \|0,65 \|394 \|3.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|3.52 \|17.39 \|80 MHz \|40 MHz \|16 KB \|? \|? \|- \|ST6x86P120+HS \|M1 \|0,65 \|394 \|3.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|3.52 \|19.98 \|100 MHz \|50 MHz \|16 KB \|? \|2-5-1996 \|- \|ST6x86P133+HS \|M1 \|0,65 \|394 \|3.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|3.52 \|21.46 \|110 MHz \|55 MHz \|16 KB \|? \|2-5-1996 \|- \|ST6x86P150+HS \|M1 \|0,65 \|225 \|3.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|3.52 \|? \|120 MHz \|60 MHz \|16 KB \|? \|2-5-1996 \|- \|ST6x86P166+HS \|M1 \|0,65 \|225 \|3.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|3.52 \|? \|133 MHz \|66 MHz \|16 KB \|? \|2-5-1996 \|- \|ST6x86P200+HS \|M1 \|0,44 \|? \|3.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|3.52 \|? \|150 MHz \|75 MHz \|16 KB \|? \|? \|- \| rowspan"7" \|<gallery mode"nolines" widths"80" heights"80" perrow"1" style"margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"> File:IBM 6x86 P150+ CPU.jpg File:KL IBM 6x86 P166+ Cyrix.jpg </gallery> ! colspan="14" \|IBM 6x86 Models \|- \|<sub>2V2100 GB</sub> \|M1 \|0,65 \|394 \|3.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|3.3 \|? \|80 MHz \|40 MHz \|16 KB \|? \|? \|- \|<sub>2V2P120GC</sub> \|M1 \|0,65 \|394 \|3.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|3.3 \|? \|100 MHz \|50 MHz \|16 KB \|? \|? \|- \|<sub>2V2120 GB</sub> \|M1R \|0,65 \|394 \|3.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|3.33 \|? \|100 MHz \|50 MHz \|16 KB \|? \|? \|- \|<sub>2V2P150GE</sub> \|M1R \|0,65 \|225 \|3.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|3.3/3.52 \|? \|120 MHz \|60 MHz \|16 KB \|? \|2-5-1996 \|- \|<sub>2V2P166GE</sub> \|M1R \|0,65 \|225 \|3.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|3.3/3.52 \|21.8 \|133 MHz \|66 MHz \|16 KB \|? \|2-5-1996 \|- \|<sub>2V7P200GE</sub> \|M1R \|0,44 \|? \|3.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|3.52 \|14 \|150 MHz \|75 MHz \|16 KB \|? \|2-5-1996 \|- \| rowspan"4" \|<gallery mode"nolines" widths"80" heights"80" perrow"1" style"margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"> File:KL IBM 6x86L Cyrix.jpg </gallery> \|<sub>2VAP120 GB</sub> \|M1L \|0,35 \|169 \|3.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|2.8 \|? \|100 MHz \|50 MHz \|16 KB \|? \|? \|- \|<sub>2VAP150 GB</sub> \|M1L \|0,35 \|169 \|3.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|2.8 \|? \|120 MHz \|60 MHz \|16 KB \|? \|? \|- \|<sub>2VAP166 GB</sub> \|M1L \|0,35 \|169 \|3.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|2.8 \|? \|133 MHz \|66 MHz \|16 KB \|? \|? \|- \|<sub>2VAP200 GB</sub> \|M1L \|0,35 \|169 \|3.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|2.8 \|? \|150 MHz \|75 MHz \|16 KB \|? \|? \|- \| rowspan"12" \|<gallery mode"nolines" widths"80" heights"80" perrow"1" style"margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"> File:KL IBM 6x86MX.jpg File:Cyrix IBM CPU 6x86MX PR200 top.jpg File:IBM PR300.jpg </gallery> \|<sub>AVAPR166 GB</sub> \|MII \|0,35 \|197 \|6.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|2.9/3.3 \|? \|133 MHz \|66 MHz \|64 KB \|$202 \|5-30-97 \|- \|? \|MII \|0,35 \|197 \|6.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|2.9/3.3 \|? \|150 MHz \|60 MHz \|64 KB \|? \|5-30-97 \|- \|<sub>BVAPR200 GB</sub> \|MII \|0,35 \|? \|6.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|2.9/3.3 \|? \|150 MHz \|75 MHz \|64 KB \|$369 \|5-30-97 \|- \|<sub>AVAPR200GA</sub> \|MII \|0,30 \|? \|6.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|2.9/3.3 \|? \|166 MHz \|66 MHz \|64 KB \|? \|Q2 1998 \|- \|<sub>BVAPR233GC</sub> \|MII \|0,35 \|? \|6.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|2.9/3.3 \|? \|166 MHz \|83 MHz \|64 KB \|$477 \|5-30-97 \|- \|<sub>AVAPR233 GB</sub> \|MII \|0,30 \|? \|6.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|2.9/3.3 \|? \|188 MHz \|75 MHz \|64 KB \|? \|Q2 1998 \|- \|<sub>BVAPR233GD</sub> \|MII \|0,30 \|? \|6.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|2.9/3.3 \|? \|200 MHz \|66 MHz \|64 KB \|? \|Q2 1998 \|- \|<sub>BVAPR266GE</sub> \|MII \|0,35 0,30 \|? \|6.0 \|Socket 7 \|CPGA \|2.9/3.3 \|? \|208 MHz \|83 MHz \|64 KB \|? \|3-19-98 Q2 1998 \|- \|<sub>CVAPR300GF (m)</sub> \|MII \|0,25 \|119 \|6.0 \|Super 7 \|CPGA \|2.9/3.3 \|? \|225 MHz \|75 MHz \|64 KB \|$217 \|3-19-98 \|- \|<sub>DVAPR300GF (m)</sub> \|MII \|0,25 \|119 \|6.0 \|Super 7 \|CPGA \|2.9/3.3 \|? \|233 MHz \|66 MHz \|64 KB \|? \|? \|- \|<sub>CVAPR333GF (m)</sub> \|MII \|0,25 \|119 \|6.0 \|Super 7 \|CPGA \|2.9/3.3 2.2 (m) \|? \|250 MHz \|83 MHz \|64 KB \|$299 \|3-19-98 \|- \|? \|MII \|0,25 \|119 \|6.0 \|Super 7 \|CPGA \|2.9/3.3 \|? \|263 MHz \|75 MHz \|64 KB \|? \|? \|- \| colspan="15" \|? - Missing information <nowiki></nowiki>m -Available in mobile version for laptops Information From: https://www.pchardwarelinks.com/586.htm * https://www.cpu-world.com/CPUs/6x86/ * https://www.x86-guide.net/ * http://www.cpu-galerie.de/ \|} Timeline See also Competitors * Pentium, Original * Pentium II * AMD K5 * AMD K6 * rise mP6 * WinChip References Further reading Gwennap, Linley (October 25, 1993). "Cyrix Describes Pentium Competitor" Microprocessor Report. Gwennap, Linley (December 5, 1994). "Cyrix M1 Design Tapes Out". Microprocessor Report. Gwennap, Linley (June 2, 1997). "Cyrix 6x68MX Outperforms AMD K6". Microprocessor Report. Slater, Michael (February 12, 1996). "[https://www.ardent-tool.com/CPU/docs/MPR/19960212/100202.pdf Cyrix, IBM Push 6x86 to 133 MHz]". Microprocessor Report. Slater, Michael (October 28, 1996). "Cyrix Doubles x86 Performance with M2". Microprocessor Report. External links [http://www.pcguide.com/ref/cpu/fam/g5C6x86-c.html Cyrix 6x86 ("M1")] at PCGuide [http://www.cpu-collection.de/?l0co&l1Cyrix&l2=6x86 cpu-collection.de] Cyrix 6x86 processor images and descriptions [http://www.azillionmonkeys.com/qed/cpuwar.html#6x86MX Paul Hsieh's 6th Generation x86 CPU Comparison] in-depth analysis of 6th generation x86 CPUs, including the 6x86MX. [https://web.archive.org/web/20060615180354/http://www.sandpile.org/impl/m1.htm Cyrix M1 stats] at Sandpile.org Cyrix Datasheets * [http://datasheets.chipdb.org/Cyrix/M1/6x86/M1-1.PDF 6x86 (M1/M1R) Guide] * [http://datasheets.chipdb.org/Cyrix/M1/6x86/6xtbengl.pdf 6x86 (M1/M1R) Technical Brief] * [https://www.ardent-tool.com/CPU/docs/Cyrix/6x86MX/94329.pdf 6x86 (MX) Guide] * [https://www.ardent-tool.com/CPU/docs/Cyrix/6x86MX/94345.pdf 6x86 (MX) Technical Brief] * [https://www.ardent-tool.com/CPU/docs/Cyrix/MII/94405.pdf 6x86 (MII) Technical Brief] 686 Category:Computer-related introductions in 1995 Category:Superscalar microprocessors Category:X86 microarchitectures	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrix_6x86	2025-04-05T18:28:00.061827
6888	Colon classification	Colon classification (CC) is a library catalogue system developed by Shiyali Ramamrita Ranganathan. It was an early faceted (or analytico-synthetic) classification system. The first edition of colon classification was published in 1933, followed by six more editions. It is especially used in libraries in India. Its name originates from its use of colons to separate facets into classes. Many other classification schemes, some of which are unrelated, also use colons and other punctuation to perform various functions. Originally, CC used only the colon as a separator, but since the second edition, CC has used four other punctuation symbols to identify each facet type. In CC, facets describe "personality" (the most specific subject), matter, energy, space, and time (PMEST). These facets are generally associated with every item in a library, and thus form a reasonably universal sorting system. As an example, the subject "research in the cure of tuberculosis of lungs by x-ray conducted in India in 1950" would be categorized as: This is summarized in a specific call number: Organization The colon classification system uses 42 main classes that are combined with other letters, numbers, and marks in a manner resembling the Library of Congress Classification. Facets CC uses five primary categories, or facets, to specify the sorting of a publication. Collectively, they are called PMEST: Indicator Facet , Personality, the most specific or focal subject; Matter or property, the substance, properties or materials of the subject.: Energy, including the processes, operations and activities.. Space, which relates to the geographic location of the subject.' Time, which refers to the dates or seasons of the subject. Other symbols can be used to indicate components of facets called isolates, and to specify complex combinations or relationships between disciplines. Classes The following are the main classes of CC, with some subclasses, the main method used to sort the subclass using the PMEST scheme and examples showing application of PMEST. z Generalia 1 Universe of Knowledge 2 Library Science 3 Book science 4 Journalism A Natural science B Mathematics B2 Algebra C Physics D Engineering E Chemistry F Technology G Biology H Geology HX Mining I Botany J Agriculture J1 Horticulture J2 Feed J3 Food J4 Stimulant J5 Oil J6 Drug J7 Fabric J8 Dye K Zoology KZ Animal Husbandry L Medicine LZ3 Pharmacology LZ5 Pharmacopoeia M Useful arts M7 Textiles [material]:[work] Δ Spiritual experience and mysticism [religion],[entity]:[problem] N Fine arts ND Sculpture NN Engraving NQ Painting NR Music O Literature P Linguistics Q Religion R Philosophy S Psychology T Education U Geography V History W Political science X Economics Y Sociology YZ Social Work Z Law Example A common example of the colon classification is: "Research in the cure of the tuberculosis of lungs by x-ray conducted in India in 1950s": The main classification is Medicine; (Medicine) Within Medicine, the Lungs are the main concern; () The property of the Lungs is that they are afflicted with Tuberculosis; () The Tuberculosis is being performed (:) on, that is the intent is to cure (Treatment); () The matter that we are treating the Tuberculosis with is X-Rays; () And this discussion of treatment is regarding the Research phase; () This Research is performed within a geographical space (.), namely India; () During the time (') of 1950; () And finally, translating into the codes listed for each subject and facet the classification becomes References Further reading Colon Classification (6th Edition) by Shiyali Ramamrita Ranganathan, published by Ess Ess Publications, Delhi, India Chan, Lois Mai. Cataloging and Classification: An Introduction. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, c. 1994. . Category:Knowledge representation Category:Library cataloging and classification	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colon_classification	2025-04-05T18:28:00.071224
6889	Census	Censive\|Censor (disambiguation)Censor\|Censure\|Senser\|Sensor}} living in a caravan in the Netherlands in 1925.]] A census (from Latin censere, 'to assess') is the procedure of systematically acquiring, recording, and calculating population information about the members of a given population, usually displayed in the form of statistics. This term is used mostly in connection with national population and housing censuses; other common censuses include censuses of agriculture, traditional culture, business, supplies, and traffic censuses. The United Nations (UN) defines the essential features of population and housing censuses as "individual enumeration, universality within a defined territory, simultaneity and defined periodicity", and recommends that population censuses be taken at least every ten years. UN recommendations also cover census topics to be collected, official definitions, classifications, and other useful information to coordinate international practices. The UN's Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), in turn, defines the census of agriculture as "a statistical operation for collecting, processing and disseminating data on the structure of agriculture, covering the whole or a significant part of a country." "In a census of agriculture, data are collected at the holding level." The word is of Latin origin: during the Roman Republic, the census was a list of all adult males fit for military service. The modern census is essential to international comparisons of any type of statistics, and censuses collect data on many attributes of a population, not just the number of individuals. Censuses typically began as the only method of collecting national demographic data and are now part of a larger system of different surveys. Although population estimates remain an important function of a census, including exactly the geographic distribution of the population or the agricultural population, statistics can be produced about combinations of attributes, e.g., education by age and sex in different regions. Current administrative data systems allow for other approaches to enumeration with the same level of detail but raise concerns about privacy and the possibility of biasing estimates. A census can be contrasted with sampling in which information is obtained only from a subset of a population; typically, main population estimates are updated by such intercensal estimates. Modern census data are commonly used for research, business marketing, and planning, and as a baseline for designing sample surveys by providing a sampling frame such as an address register. Census counts are necessary to adjust samples to be representative of a population by weighting them as is common in opinion polling. Similarly, stratification requires knowledge of the relative sizes of different population strata, which can be derived from census enumerations. In some countries, the census provides the official counts used to apportion the number of elected representatives to regions (sometimes controversially – e.g., Utah v. Evans). In many cases, a carefully chosen random sample can provide more accurate information than attempts to get a population census. Sampling census in 1869]] A census is often construed as the opposite of a sample as it intends to count everyone in a population, rather than a fraction. However, population censuses do rely on a sampling frame to count the population. This is the only way to be sure that everyone has been included, as otherwise those not responding would not be followed up on and individuals could be missed. The fundamental premise of a census is that the population is not known, and a new estimate is to be made by the analysis of primary data. The use of a sampling frame is counterintuitive as it suggests that the population size is already known. However, a census is also used to collect attribute data on the individuals in the nation, not only to assess population size. This process of sampling marks the difference between a historical census, which was a house-to-house process or the product of an imperial decree, and the modern statistical project. The sampling frame used by a census is almost always an address register. Thus, it is not known if there are any residents or how many people there are in each household. Depending on the mode of enumeration, a form is sent to the householder, an enumerator calls, or administrative records for the dwelling are accessed. As a preliminary to the dispatch of forms, census workers will check for any address problems on the ground. While it may seem straightforward to use the postal service file for this purpose, this can be out of date and some dwellings may contain several independent households. A particular problem is what is termed "communal establishments", a category that includes student residences, religious orders, homes for the elderly, people in prisons, etc. As these are not easily enumerated by a single householder, they are often treated differently and visited by special teams of census workers to ensure they are classified appropriately.Residence definitionsIndividuals are normally counted within households, and information is typically collected about the household structure and the housing. For this reason, international documents refer to censuses of population and housing. Normally the census response is made by a household, indicating details of individuals resident there. An important aspect of census enumerations is determining which individuals can be counted and which cannot be counted. Broadly, three definitions can be used: de facto residence; de jure residence; and permanent residence. This is important in considering individuals who have multiple or temporary addresses. Every person should be identified uniquely as a resident in one place; but the place where they happen to be on census day, their de facto residence, may not be the best place to count them. Where an individual uses services may be more useful, and this is at their usual residence. An individual may be recorded at a "permanent" address, which might be a family home for students or long-term migrants. A precise definition of residence is needed, to decide whether visitors to a country should be included in the population count. This is becoming more important as students travel abroad for education for a period of several years. Other groups causing problems with enumeration are newborn babies, refugees, people away on holiday, people moving home around census day, and people without a fixed address. People with second homes, because they are working in another part of the country or have a holiday cottage, are difficult to fix at a particular address; this sometimes causes double counting or houses being mistakenly identified as vacant. Another problem is where people use a different address at different times e.g. students living at their place of education in term time but returning to a family home during vacations, or children whose parents have separated who effectively have two family homes. Census enumeration has always been based on finding people where they live, as there is no systematic alternative: any list used to find people is likely to be derived from census activities in the first place. Recent UN guidelines provide recommendations on enumerating such complex households. In the census of agriculture, data is collected at the agricultural holding unit. An agricultural holding is an economic unit of agricultural production under single management comprising all livestock kept and all land used wholly or partly for agricultural production purposes, without regard to title, legal form, or size. Single management may be exercised by an individual or household, jointly by two or more individuals or households, by a clan or tribe, or by a juridical person such as a corporation, cooperative, or government agency. The holding's land may consist of one or more parcels, located in one or more separate areas or one or more territorial or administrative divisions, providing the parcels share the same production means, such as labor, farm buildings, machinery or draught animals. This reflects a realist approach to measurement, acknowledging that under any definition of residence there is a true value of the population but this can never be measured with complete accuracy. An important aspect of the census process is to evaluate the quality of the data. Many countries use a post-enumeration survey to adjust the raw census counts. This works similarly to capture-recapture estimation for animal populations. Among census experts, this method is called dual system enumeration (DSE). A sample of households is visited by interviewers who record the details of the household as of census day. These data are then matched to census records, and the number of people missed can be estimated by considering the number of people who are included in one count but not the other. This allows adjustments to the count for non-response, varying between different demographic groups. An explanation using a fishing analogy can be found in "Trout, Catfish and Roach..." which won an award from the Royal Statistical Society for excellence in official statistics in 2011. Triple system enumeration has been proposed as an improvement as it would allow evaluation of the statistical dependence of pairs of sources. However, as the matching process is the most difficult aspect of census estimation this has never been implemented for a national enumeration. It would also be difficult to identify three different sources that were sufficiently different to make the triple system effort worthwhile. The DSE approach has another weakness in that it assumes there is no person counted twice (over count). In de facto residence definitions this would not be a problem but in de jure definitions individuals risk being recorded on more than one form leading to double counting. A particular problem here is students who often have a term time and family address. Several countries have used a system known as short form/long form. This is a sampling strategy that randomly chooses a proportion of people to send a more detailed questionnaire to (the long form). Everyone receives the short-form questions. This means more data are collected, but without imposing a burden on the whole population. This also reduces the burden on the statistical office. Indeed, in the UK until 2001 all residents were required to fill in the whole form but only a 10% sample was coded and analysed in detail. New technology means that all data are now scanned and processed. During the 2011 Canadian census there was controversy about the cessation of the mandatory long-form census; the head of Statistics Canada, Munir Sheikh, resigned upon the federal government's decision to do so. The use of alternative enumeration strategies is increasing but these are not as simple as many people assume and are only used in developed countries. The Netherlands has been most advanced in adopting a census using administrative data. This allows a simulated census to be conducted by linking several different administrative databases at an agreed time. Data can be matched, and an overall enumeration established allowing for discrepancies between different data sources. A validation survey is still conducted in a similar way to the post-enumeration survey employed in a traditional census. Other countries that have a population register use this as a basis for all the census statistics needed by users. This is most common among Nordic countries but requires many distinct registers to be combined, including population, housing, employment, and education. These registers are then combined and brought up to the standard of a statistical register by comparing the data from different sources and ensuring the quality is sufficient for official statistics to be produced. A recent innovation is the French instigation of a rolling census program with different regions enumerated each year so that the whole country is completely enumerated every 5 to 10 years. In Europe, in connection with the 2010 census round, many countries adopted alternative census methodologies, often based on the combination of data from registers, surveys and other sources. Technology Censuses have evolved in their use of technology: censuses in 2010 used many new types of computing. In Brazil, handheld devices were used by enumerators to locate residences on the ground. In many countries, census returns could be made via the Internet as well as in paper form. DSE is facilitated by computer matching techniques that can be automated, such as propensity score matching. In the UK, all census formats are scanned and stored electronically before being destroyed, replacing the need for physical archives. The record linking to perform an administrative census would not be possible without large databases being stored on computer systems. There are sometimes problems in introducing new technology. The US census had been intended to use handheld computers, but cost escalated, and this was abandoned, with the contract being sold to Brazil. The online response has some advantages, but one of the functions of the census is to make sure everyone is counted accurately. A system that allowed people to enter their address without verification would be open to abuse. Therefore, households have to be verified on the ground, typically by an enumerator visit or post out. Paper forms are still necessary for those without access to the internet. It is also possible that the hidden nature of an administrative census means that users are not engaged with the importance of contributing their data to official statistics. Alternatively, population estimations may be carried out remotely with geographic information system (GIS) and remote sensing technologies. Development According to the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), "The information generated by a population and housing census – numbers of people, their distribution, their living conditions and other key data – is critical for development." This is because this type of data is essential for policymakers so that they know where to invest. Many countries have outdated or inaccurate data about their populations and thus have difficulty in addressing the needs of the population. The UNFPA said: designing evidence-based poverty-reduction strategies; monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of policies; and tracking progress toward national and internationally agreed development goals."</blockquote> In addition to making policymakers aware of population issues, the census is also an important tool for identifying forms of social, demographic or economic exclusions, such as inequalities relating to race, ethics, and religion as well as disadvantaged groups such as those with disabilities and the poor. An accurate census can empower local communities by providing them with the necessary information to participate in local decision-making and ensuring they are represented. The importance of the census of agriculture for development is that it gives a snapshot of the structure of the agricultural sector in a country and, when compared with previous censuses, provides an opportunity to identify trends and structural transformations of the sector, and points towards areas for policy intervention. Census data are used as a benchmark for current statistics and their value is increased when they are employed together with other data sources. The results were used to measure changes in the population and apportion representation. Population estimates could be compared to those of other countries. By the beginning of the 20th century, censuses were recording households and some indications of their employment. In some countries, census archives are released for public examination after many decades, allowing genealogists to track the ancestry of interested people. Archives provide a substantial historical record which may challenge established views. Information such as job titles and arrangements for the destitute and sick may also shed light on the historical structure of society. Political considerations influence the census in many countries. In Canada in 2010 for example, the government under the leadership of Stephen Harper abolished the mandatory long-form census. This abolition was a response to protests from some Canadians who resented the personal questions. The long-form census was reinstated by the Justin Trudeau government in 2016. Census data and research As governments assumed responsibility for schooling and welfare, large government research departments made extensive use of census data. Population projections could be made, to help plan for provision in local government and regions. Central government could also use census data to allocate funding. Even in the mid 20th century, census data was only directly accessible to large government departments. However, computers meant that tabulations could be used directly by university researchers, large businesses and local government offices. They could use the detail of the data to answer new questions and add to local and specialist knowledge. Data can be represented visually or analysed in complex statistical models, to show the difference between certain areas, or to understand the association between different personal characteristics. Census data offer a unique insight into small areas and small demographic groups which sample data would be unable to capture with precision. In the census of agriculture, users need census data to: # support and contribute to evidence-based agricultural planning and policy-making. The census information is essential, for example, to monitor the performance of a policy or programme designed for crop diversification or to address food security issues; # provide data to facilitate research, investment and business decisions both in the public and private sector; # contribute to monitoring environmental changes and evaluating the impact of agricultural practices on the environment such as tillage practices, crop rotation or sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions; # provide relevant data on work inputs and main work activities, as well as on the labour force in the agriculture sector; # provide an important information base for monitoring some key indicators of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), in particular those goals related to food security in agricultural holdings, the role of women in agricultural activities and rural poverty; # provide baseline data both at the national and small administrative and geographical levels for formulating, monitoring and evaluating programmes and projects interventions; # provide essential information on subsistence agriculture and for the estimation of the non-observed economy, which plays an important role in the compilation of the national accounts and the economic accounts for agriculture. This is particularly important when individuals' census responses are made available in microdata form, but even aggregate-level data can result in privacy breaches when dealing with small areas and/or rare subpopulations. For instance, when reporting data from a large city, it might be appropriate to give the average income for black males aged between 50 and 60. However, doing this for a town that only has two black males in this age group would be a breach of privacy because either of those persons, knowing his own income and the reported average, could determine the other man's income. Typically, census data are processed to obscure such individual information. Some agencies do this by intentionally introducing small statistical errors to prevent the identification of individuals in marginal populations; others swap variables for similar respondents. Whatever is done to reduce the privacy risk, new improved electronic analysis of data can threaten to reveal sensitive individual information. This is known as statistical disclosure control. Another possibility is to present survey results by means of statistical models in the form of a multivariate distribution mixture. The statistical information in the form of conditional distributions (histograms) can be derived interactively from the estimated mixture model without any further access to the original database. As the final product does not contain any protected microdata, the model-based interactive software can be distributed without any confidentiality concerns. Another method is simply to release no data at all, except very large scale data directly to the central government. Differing release strategies of governments have led to an international project (IPUMS) to co-ordinate access to microdata and corresponding metadata. Such projects such as SDMX also promote standardising metadata, so that best use can be made of the minimal data available. History of censuses Egypt The earliest Egyptian census was the cattle count, which counted not people but livestock (especially but not exclusively cows) for taxation purposes. During the early Old Kingdom it was taken every two years; the frequency increased over time. Human censuses in Egypt first appeared in the late Middle Kingdom and developed in the New Kingdom. Herodotus wrote that Ahmose I, first monarch of the New Kingdom, required every Egyptian to declare annually to the nomarch, "whence he gained his living". Under the Ptolemies and the Romans several censuses were conducted in Egypt by government officials. Ancient Greece There are several accounts of ancient Greek city states carrying out censuses. Israel Censuses are mentioned several times in the Biblical narrative. God commands a per capita tax to be paid with the census for the upkeep of the Tabernacle. The Book of Numbers is named after the counting of the Israelite population according to the house of the Fathers after the exodus from Egypt. A second census was taken while the Israelites were camped in the "plains of Moab". King David performed a census that produced disastrous results. His son, King Solomon, had all of the foreigners in Israel counted. China One of the world's earliest preserved censuses was held in China in AD2 during the Han dynasty, and is still considered by scholars to be quite accurate. The population was registered as having 57,671,400 individuals in 12,366,470 households but on this occasion only taxable families had been taken into account, indicating the income and the number of soldiers who could be mobilized. Another census was held in AD144. India The oldest recorded census in India is thought to have occurred around 330BC during the reign of Emperor Chandragupta Maurya under the leadership of Chanakya and Ashoka. Rome depicting the Virgin Mary and Saint Joseph registering for the Census of Quirinius]] The English term is taken directly from the Latin census, from ("to estimate"). The census played a crucial role in the administration of the Roman government, as it was used to determine the class a citizen belonged to for both military and tax purposes. Beginning in the middle republic, it was usually carried out every five years. It provided a register of citizens and their property from which their duties and privileges could be listed. It is said to have been instituted by the Roman king Servius Tullius in the at which time the number of arms-bearing citizens was supposedly counted at around 80,000. When the Romans conquered Judea in AD6, the legate Publius Sulpicius Quirinius organized a census for tax purposes, which was partially responsible for the development of the Zealot movement and several failed rebellions against Rome ultimately ending in the Jewish Diaspora. The Gospel of Luke makes reference to Quirinius' census in relation to the birth of Jesus; based on variant readings of this passage, a minority of biblical scholars, including N. T. Wright, speculate that this passage refers to a separate registration conducted during the reign of Herod the Great, several years before Quirinius' census. The 15-year indiction cycle established by Diocletian in AD297 was based on quindecennial censuses and formed the basis for dating in late antiquity and under the Byzantine Empire. Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates In the Middle Ages, the Caliphate began conducting regular censuses soon after its formation, beginning with the one ordered by the second Rashidun caliph, Umar. Medieval Europe The Domesday Book was undertaken in AD1086 by William I of England so that he could properly tax the land he had recently conquered. In 1183, a census was taken of the crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, to ascertain the number of men and amount of money that could possibly be raised against an invasion by Saladin, sultan of Egypt and Syria. The first national census of France () was undertaken in 1328, mostly for fiscal purposes. It estimated the French population at 16 to 17 million. Inca Empire In the 15th century, the Inca Empire had a unique way to record census information. The Incas did not have any written language but recorded information collected during censuses and other numeric information as well as non-numeric data on quipus, strings from llama or alpaca hair or cotton cords with numeric and other values encoded by knots in a base-10 positional system. Spanish Empire On May 25, 1577, King Philip II of Spain ordered by royal cédula the preparation of a general description of Spain's holdings in the Indies. Instructions and a questionnaire, issued in 1577 by the Office of the Cronista Mayor, were distributed to local officials in the Viceroyalties of New Spain and Peru to direct the gathering of information. The questionnaire, composed of fifty items, was designed to elicit basic information about the nature of the land and the life of its peoples. The replies, known as "", were written between 1579 and 1585 and were returned to the Cronista Mayor in Spain by the Council of the Indies. World population estimates The earliest estimate of the world population was made by Giovanni Battista Riccioli in 1661; the next by Johann Peter Süssmilch in 1741, revised in 1762; the third by Karl Friedrich Wilhelm Dieterici in 1859. In 1931, Walter Willcox published a table in his book, International Migrations: Volume II Interpretations, that estimated the 1929 world population to be roughly 1.8 billion. and International Statistical Institute estimates of the world population in 1929]] Impact of COVID-19 on censuses , Philippines, in October 2020.]] Impact The UNFPA predicts that the COVID-19 pandemic will threaten the successful conduct of censuses of population and housing in many countries through delays, interruptions that compromise quality, or complete cancellation of census projects. Domestic and donor financing for census may be diverted to address COVID-19 leaving census without crucial funds. Several countries have already taken decisions to postpone the census, with many others yet to announce the way forward. In some countries this is already happening. The pandemic has also affected the planning and implementation of censuses of agriculture in all world regions. The extent of the impact has varied according to the stages at which the censuses are, ranging from planning (i.e. staffing, procurement, preparation of frames, questionnaires), fieldwork (field training and enumeration) or data processing/analysis stages. The census of agriculture's reference period is the agricultural year. Thus, a delay in any census activity may be critical and can result in a full year postponement of the enumeration if the agricultural season is missed. Some publications have discussed the impact of COVID-19 on national censuses of agriculture. Adaptation The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) has requested a global effort to assure that even where census is delayed, census planning and preparations are not cancelled, but continue in order to assure that implementation can proceed safely when the pandemic is under control. While new census methods, including online, register-based, and hybrid approaches are being used across the world, these demand extensive planning and preconditions that cannot be created at short notice. The continuing low supply of personal protective equipment to protect against COVID-19 has immediate implications for conducting census in communities at risk of transmission. The UNFPA Procurement Office is partnering with other agencies to explore new supply chains and resources.<ref name":0" />Modern implementation See also * List of national and international statistical services * * * * Sources Notes References * Alterman, Hyman, (1969). Counting People: The Census in History. Harcourt, Brace & Company. * Behrisch, Lars. (2016) "Statistics and Politics in the 18th Century." Historical Social Research/Historische Sozialforschung (2016): 238–57. * Bielenstein, Hans, (1978). "Wang Mang, the restoration of the Han dynasty, and Later Han." In The Cambridge History of China, vol. 1, eds. Denis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank, pp. 223–90, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. * Krüger, Stephen, (Fall 1991). "The Decennial Census", [http://wsulawreview.org/Volume19Articles.pdf 19 Western State University Law Review 1]; available at [http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?collectionjournals&handlehein.journals/wsulr19&div6&id&page= HeinOnline] . * [http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=297 Effects of UK 'Jedi' hoax on 2001 UK census from ONS]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20040214151945/http://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/releases/archives/miscellaneous/000507.html U.S. Census Press Release on 1930 Census]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20050227224505/http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/spring_2002_soundex_projects.html U.S. Census Press Release on Soundex and WPA]. * External links * * [http://www.census.nationalarchives.ie/ Census of Ireland 1911]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160507023856/http://www.histpop.org/ Online Historical Population Reports Project (OHPR)]. * [http://www.tesionline.com/intl/thesis.jsp?idt=8384 PR as a function of census management: comparative analysis of fifteen census experiences] Category:Population Category:Survey methodology Category:Sampling (statistics) Category:Latin words and phrases	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Census	2025-04-05T18:28:00.089979
6896	Outline of chemistry	The following outline acts as an overview of and topical guide to chemistry: Chemistry is the science of atomic matter (matter that is composed of chemical elements), especially its chemical reactions, but also including its properties, structure, composition, behavior, and changes as they relate to the chemical reactions. Chemistry is centrally concerned with atoms and their interactions with other atoms, and particularly with the properties of chemical bonds. Summary Chemistry can be described as all of the following: An academic discipline – one with academic departments, curricula and degrees; national and international societies; and specialized journals. A scientific field (a branch of science) – widely recognized category of specialized expertise within science, and typically embodies its own terminology and nomenclature. Such a field will usually be represented by one or more scientific journals, where peer-reviewed research is published. There are several chemistry-related scientific journals. A natural science – one that seeks to elucidate the rules that govern the natural world using empirical and scientific method. A physical science – one that studies non-living systems. A biological science – one that studies the role of chemicals and chemical processes in living organisms. See Outline of biochemistry. Branches Physical chemistry – study of the physical and fundamental basis of chemical systems and processes. In particular, the energetics and dynamics of such systems and processes are of interest to physical chemists. Important areas of study include chemical thermodynamics, chemical kinetics, electrochemistry, statistical mechanics, spectroscopy, and more recently, astrochemistry. Physical chemistry has large overlap with molecular physics. Physical chemistry involves the use of infinitesimal calculus in deriving equations. It is usually associated with quantum chemistry and theoretical chemistry. Physical chemistry is a distinct discipline from chemical physics, but again, there is very strong overlap. Chemical kinetics – study of rates of chemical processes. Chemical physics – investigates physicochemical phenomena using techniques from atomic and molecular physics and condensed matter physics; it is the branch of physics that studies chemical processes. Electrochemistry – branch of chemistry that studies chemical reactions which take place in a solution at the interface of an electron conductor (the electrode: a metal or a semiconductor) and an ionic conductor (the electrolyte), and which involve electron transfer between the electrode and the electrolyte or species in solution. Femtochemistry – area of physical chemistry that studies chemical reactions on extremely short timescales, approximately 10−15 seconds (one femtosecond). Geochemistry – chemical study of the mechanisms behind major systems studied in geology. Photochemistry – study of chemical reactions that proceed with the absorption of light by atoms or molecules. Quantum chemistry – branch of chemistry whose primary focus is the application of quantum mechanics in physical models and experiments of chemical systems. Solid-state chemistry – study of the synthesis, structure, and properties of solid phase materials, particularly, but not necessarily exclusively of, non-molecular solids. Spectroscopy – study of the interaction between matter and radiated energy. Stereochemistry – study of the relative spatial arrangement of atoms that form the structure of molecules Surface science – study of physical and chemical phenomena that occur at the interface of two phases, including solid–liquid interfaces, solid–gas interfaces, solid–vacuum interfaces, and liquid-gas interfaces. Thermochemistry – the branch of chemistry that studies the relation between chemical action and the amount of heat absorbed or generated. Calorimetry – the study of heat changes in physical and chemical processes. Organic chemistry (outline) – study of the structure, properties, composition, mechanisms, and reactions of organic compounds. An organic compound is defined as any compound based on a carbon skeleton. Biochemistry – study of the chemicals, chemical reactions and chemical interactions that take place in living organisms. Biochemistry and organic chemistry are closely related, as in medicinal chemistry or neurochemistry. Biochemistry is also associated with molecular biology and genetics. Neurochemistry – study of neurochemicals; including transmitters, peptides, proteins, lipids, sugars, and nucleic acids; their interactions, and the roles they play in forming, maintaining, and modifying the nervous system. Molecular biochemistry and genetic engineering – an area of biochemistry and molecular biology that studies the genes, their heritage and their expression. Bioorganic chemistry – combines organic chemistry and biochemistry toward biology. Biophysical chemistry – is a physical science that uses the concepts of physics and physical chemistry for the study of biological systems. Medicinal chemistry – discipline which applies chemistry for medical or drug related purposes. Organometallic chemistry – is the study of organometallic compounds, chemical compounds containing at least one chemical bond between a carbon atom of an organic molecule and a metal, including alkaline, alkaline earth, and transition metals, and sometimes broadened to include metalloids like boron, silicon, and tin. Physical organic chemistry – study of the interrelationships between structure and reactivity in organic molecules. Inorganic chemistry – study of the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds. The distinction between organic and inorganic disciplines is not absolute and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of organometallic chemistry. Bioinorganic chemistry – is a field that examines the role of metals in biology. Cluster chemistry – focuses on crystalline materials most often existing on the 0–2 nanometer scale and characterizing their crystal structures and understanding their role in the nucleation and growth mechanisms of larger materials. Nuclear chemistry – study of how subatomic particles come together and make nuclei. Modern transmutation is a large component of nuclear chemistry, and the table of nuclides is an important result and tool for this field. Analytical chemistry – analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure. Analytical chemistry incorporates standardized experimental methods in chemistry. These methods may be used in all subdisciplines of chemistry, excluding purely theoretical chemistry. Other Astrochemistry – study of the abundance and reactions of chemical elements and molecules in the universe, and their interaction with radiation. Cosmochemistry – study of the chemical composition of matter in the universe and the processes that led to those compositions. Computational chemistry – is a branch of chemistry that uses computer simulations for solving chemical problems. Environmental chemistry – study of chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur diverse aspects of the environment such the air, soil, and water. It also studies the effects of human activity on the environment. Green chemistry is a philosophy of chemical research and engineering that encourages the design of products and processes that minimize the use and generation of hazardous substances. Supramolecular chemistry – refers to the domain of chemistry beyond that of molecules and focuses on the chemical systems made up of a discrete number of assembled molecular subunits or components. Theoretical chemistry – study of chemistry via fundamental theoretical reasoning (usually within mathematics or physics). In particular the application of quantum mechanics to chemistry is called quantum chemistry. Since the end of the Second World War, the development of computers has allowed a systematic development of computational chemistry, which is the art of developing and applying computer programs for solving chemical problems. Theoretical chemistry has large overlap with (theoretical and experimental) condensed matter physics and molecular physics. Polymer chemistry – multidisciplinary science that deals with the chemical synthesis and chemical properties of polymers or macromolecules. Wet chemistry – is a form of analytical chemistry that uses classical methods such as observation to analyze materials usually in liquid phase. Agrochemistry – study and application of both chemistry and biochemistry for agricultural production, the processing of raw products into foods and beverages, and environmental monitoring and remediation. Atmospheric chemistry – branch of atmospheric science which studies the chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere and that of other planets. Chemical biology – scientific discipline spanning the fields of chemistry and biology and involves the application of chemical techniques and tools, often compounds produced through synthetic chemistry, to analyze and manipulation of biological systems. Chemo-informatics – use of computer and informational techniques applied to a range of problems in the field of chemistry. Flow chemistry – study of chemical reactions in continuous flow, not as stationary batches, in industry and macro processing equipment. Immunohistochemistry – involves the process of detecting antigens (e.g., proteins) in cells of a tissue section by exploiting the principle of antibodies binding specifically to antigens in biological tissues. Immunochemistry – is a branch of chemistry that involves the study of the reactions and components on the immune system. Chemical oceanography – study of ocean chemistry: the behavior of the chemical elements within the Earth's oceans. Mathematical chemistry – area of study engaged in novel applications of mathematics to chemistry. It concerns itself principally with the mathematical modeling of chemical phenomena. Mechanochemistry – coupling of mechanical and chemical phenomena on a molecular scale. Molecular biology – study of interactions between the various systems of a cell. It overlaps with biochemistry. Petrochemistry – study of the transformation of petroleum and natural gas into useful products or raw materials. Phytochemistry – study of phytochemicals which come from plants. Radiochemistry – chemistry of radioactive materials. Sonochemistry – study of effect of sonic waves and wave properties on chemical systems. Synthetic chemistry – study of chemical synthesis. History History of chemistry Precursors to chemistry Alchemy (outline) History of alchemy History of the branches of chemistry History of analytical chemistry – history of the study of separation, identification, and quantification of the chemical components of natural and artificial materials. History of astrochemistry – history of the study of the abundance and reactions of chemical elements and molecules in the universe, and their interaction with radiation. History of cosmochemistry – history of the study of the chemical composition of matter in the universe and the processes that led to those compositions History of atmospheric chemistry – history of the branch of atmospheric science in which the chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere and that of other planets is studied. It is a multidisciplinary field of research and draws on environmental chemistry, physics, meteorology, computer modeling, oceanography, geology and volcanology and other disciplines History of biochemistry – history of the study of chemical processes in living organisms, including, but not limited to, living matter. Biochemistry governs all living organisms and living processes. History of agrochemistry – history of the study of both chemistry and biochemistry which are important in agricultural production, the processing of raw products into foods and beverages, and in environmental monitoring and remediation. History of bioinorganic chemistry – history of the examination of the role of metals in biology. History of bioorganic chemistry – history of the rapidly growing scientific discipline that combines organic chemistry and biochemistry. History of biophysical chemistry – history of the new branch of chemistry that covers a broad spectrum of research activities involving biological systems. History of environmental chemistry – history of the scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places. History of immunochemistry – history of the branch of chemistry that involves the study of the reactions and components of the immune system. History of medicinal chemistry – history of the discipline at the intersection of chemistry, especially synthetic organic chemistry, and pharmacology and various other biological specialties, where they are involved with design, chemical synthesis and development for market of pharmaceutical agents (drugs). History of natural product chemistry – history of the scientific study of chemical compounds or substances produced by living organisms—history of chemical compounds found in nature that usually have a pharmacological or biological activity for use in pharmaceutical drug discovery and drug design. History of neurochemistry – history of the specific study of neurochemicals, which include neurotransmitters and other molecules such as neuro-active drugs that influence neuron function. History of computational chemistry – history of the branch of chemistry that uses principles of computer science to assist in solving chemical problems. History of chemo-informatics – history of the use of computer and informational techniques, applied to a range of problems in the field of chemistry. History of molecular mechanics – history of the uses of Newtonian mechanics to model molecular systems. History of flavor chemistry – history of the use of chemistry to engineer artificial and natural flavors. History of flow chemistry – history of chemical reactions run in a continuously flowing stream rather than in batch production. History of geochemistry – history of the study of the mechanisms behind major geological systems using chemistry History of aqueous geochemistry – history of the study of the role of various elements in watersheds, including copper, sulfur, mercury, and how elemental fluxes are exchanged through atmospheric-terrestrial-aquatic interactions History of isotope geochemistry – history of the study of the relative and absolute concentrations of the elements and their isotopes using chemistry and geology History of ocean chemistry – history of the study the chemistry of marine environments, including the influences of different variables. History of organic geochemistry – history of the study of the impacts and processes that organisms have had on Earth History of regional, environmental and exploration geochemistry – history of the study of the spatial variation in the chemical composition of materials at the surface of the Earth History of inorganic chemistry – history of the branch of chemistry concerned with the properties and behavior of inorganic compounds. History of nuclear chemistry – history of the subfield of chemistry dealing with radioactivity, nuclear processes and nuclear properties. History of radiochemistry – history of the chemistry of radioactive materials, where radioactive isotopes of elements are used to study the properties and chemical reactions of non-radioactive isotopes (often within radiochemistry the absence of radioactivity leads to a substance being described as being inactive as the isotopes are stable). History of organic chemistry – history of the study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation (by synthesis or by other means) of carbon-based compounds, hydrocarbons, and their derivatives. History of petrochemistry – history of the branch of chemistry that studies the transformation of crude oil (petroleum) and natural gas into useful products or raw materials. History of organometallic chemistry – history of the study of chemical compounds containing bonds between carbon and a metal. History of photochemistry – history of the study of chemical reactions that proceed with the absorption of light by atoms or molecules. History of physical chemistry – history of the study of macroscopic, atomic, subatomic, and particulate phenomena in chemical systems in terms of physical laws and concepts. History of chemical kinetics – history of the study of rates of chemical processes. History of chemical thermodynamics – history of the study of the interrelation of heat and work with chemical reactions or with physical changes of state within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics. History of electrochemistry – history of the branch of chemistry that studies chemical reactions which take place in a solution at the interface of an electron conductor (a metal or a semiconductor) and an ionic conductor (the electrolyte), and which involve electron transfer between the electrode and the electrolyte or species in solution. History of femtochemistry – history of the science that studies chemical reactions on extremely short timescales, approximately 10−15 seconds (one femtosecond, hence the name). History of mathematical chemistry – history of the area of research engaged in novel applications of mathematics to chemistry; it concerns itself principally with the mathematical modeling of chemical phenomena. History of mechanochemistry – history of the coupling of the mechanical and the chemical phenomena on a molecular scale and includes mechanical breakage, chemical behaviour of mechanically stressed solids (e.g., stress-corrosion cracking), tribology, polymer degradation under shear, cavitation-related phenomena (e.g., sonochemistry and sonoluminescence), shock wave chemistry and physics, and even the burgeoning field of molecular machines. History of physical organic chemistry – history of the study of the interrelationships between structure and reactivity in organic molecules. History of quantum chemistry – history of the branch of chemistry whose primary focus is the application of quantum mechanics in physical models and experiments of chemical systems. History of sonochemistry – history of the study of the effect of sonic waves and wave properties on chemical systems. History of stereochemistry – history of the study of the relative spatial arrangement of atoms within molecules. History of supramolecular chemistry – history of the area of chemistry beyond the molecules and focuses on the chemical systems made up of a discrete number of assembled molecular subunits or components. History of thermochemistry – history of the study of energy and heat associated with chemical reactions and/or physical transformations. History of phytochemistry – history of the study of phytochemicals. History of polymer chemistry – history of the multidisciplinary science that deals with the chemical synthesis and chemical properties of polymers or macromolecules. History of solid-state chemistry – history of the study of the synthesis, structure, and properties of solid phase materials, particularly, but not necessarily exclusively of, non-molecular solids History of multidisciplinary fields involving chemistry: History of chemical biology – history of the scientific discipline spanning the fields of chemistry and biology that involves the application of chemical techniques and tools, often compounds produced through synthetic chemistry, to the study and manipulation of biological systems. History of chemical oceanography – history of the study of the behavior of chemical elements within the Earth's oceans. History of chemical physics – history of the branch of physics that studies chemical processes from the point of view of physics and engineering. History of oenology – history of the science and study of all aspects of wine and winemaking except vine-growing and grape-harvesting, which is a subfield called viticulture. History of spectroscopy – history of the study of the interaction between matter and radiated energy History of surface science – history of the study of physical and chemical phenomena that occur at the interface of two phases, including solid–liquid interfaces, solid–gas interfaces, solid–vacuum interfaces, and liquid–gas interfaces. History of chemicals History of chemical elements History of carbon History of hydrogen Timeline of hydrogen technologies History of oxygen History of chemical products History of aspirin History of cosmetics History of gunpowder History of pharmaceutical drugs History of vitamins History of chemical processes History of manufactured gas History of the Haber process History of the chemical industry History of the petroleum industry History of the pharmaceutical industry History of the periodic table Chemicals Dictionary of chemical formulas List of biomolecules List of inorganic compounds Periodic table Atomic theory Atomic theory Atomic models Atomism – natural philosophy that theorizes that the world is composed of indivisible pieces. Plum pudding model Rutherford model Bohr model Thermochemistry Thermochemistry Terminology Thermochemistry Chemical kinetics – the study of the rates of chemical reactions and investigates how different experimental conditions can influence the speed of a chemical reaction and yield information about the reaction's mechanism and transition states, as well as the construction of mathematical models that can describe the characteristics of a chemical reaction. Exothermic – a process or reaction in which the system releases energy to its surroundings in the form of heat. They are denoted by negative heat flow. Endothermic – a process or reaction in which the system absorbs energy from its surroundings in the form of heat. They are denoted by positive heat flow. Thermochemical equation Enthalpy change – internal energy of a system plus the product of pressure and volume. Its change in a system is equal to the heat brought to the system at constant pressure. Enthalpy of reaction Temperature – an objective comparative measure of heat. Calorimeter – an object used for calorimetry, or the process of measuring the heat of chemical reactions or physical changes as well as heat capacity. Heat – A form of energy associated with the kinetic energy of atoms or molecules and capable of being transmitted through solid and fluid media by conduction, through fluid media by convection, and through empty space by radiation. Joule – a unit of energy. Calorie Specific heat Specific heat capacity Latent heat Heat of fusion Heat of vaporization Collision theory Activation energy Activated complex Reaction rate Catalyst Thermochemical equations Chemical equations that include the heat involved in a reaction, either on the reactant side or the product side. Examples: H2O(l) + 240kJ → H2O(g) N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3 + 92kJ Joule (J) Chemists For more chemists, see: Nobel Prize in Chemistry and List of chemists Amedeo Avogadro Elias James Corey Marie Curie John Dalton Humphry Davy George Eastman Michael Faraday Rosalind Franklin Eleuthère Irénée du Pont Dmitriy Mendeleyev Alfred Nobel Wilhelm Ostwald Louis Pasteur Linus Pauling Joseph Priestley Robert Burns Woodward Karl Ziegler Ahmed Zewail Chemistry literature Scientific literature Scientific journal Academic journal List of important publications in chemistry List of scientific journals in chemistry List of science magazines Scientific American Lists Chemical elements data references List of chemical elements – atomic mass, atomic number, symbol, name List of minerals – Minerals Electron configurations of the elements (data page) – electron configuration, electrons per shell Densities of the elements (data page) – density (solid, liquid, gas) Electron affinity (data page) – electron affinity Melting points of the elements (data page) – melting point Boiling points of the elements (data page) – boiling point Critical points of the elements (data page) – critical point Heats of fusion of the elements (data page) – heat of fusion Heats of vaporization of the elements (data page) – heat of vaporization Heat capacities of the elements (data page) – heat capacity Vapor pressures of the elements (data page) – vapor pressure Electronegativities of the elements (data page) – electronegativity (Pauling scale) Ionization energies of the elements (data page) – ionization energies (in eV) and molar ionization energies (in kJ/mol) Atomic radii of the elements (data page) – atomic radius (empirical), atomic radius (calculated), van der Waals radius, covalent radius Electrical resistivities of the elements (data page) – electrical resistivity Thermal conductivities of the elements (data page) – thermal conductivity Thermal expansion coefficients of the elements (data page) – thermal expansion Speeds of sound of the elements (data page) – speed of sound Elastic properties of the elements (data page) – Young's modulus, Poisson ratio, bulk modulus, shear modulus Hardnesses of the elements (data page) – Mohs hardness, Vickers hardness, Brinell hardness Abundances of the elements (data page) – Earth's crust, sea water, Sun and solar system List of oxidation states of the elements – oxidation states List of compounds List of CAS numbers by chemical compound List of Extremely Hazardous Substances List of inorganic compounds List of organic compounds List of alkanes List of alloys Other List of thermal conductivities List of purification methods in chemistry List of unsolved problems in chemistry See also Outline of biochemistry Outline of physics References External links International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry IUPAC Nomenclature Home Page, see especially the "Gold Book" containing definitions of standard chemical terms Interactive Mind Map of Chemistry / Chemical energetics Chemistry Chemistry	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry	2025-04-05T18:28:00.113952
6901	Outline of critical theory	<!--... Attention: THIS IS AN OUTLINE part of the set of 830+ outlines listed at Wikipedia:Contents/Outlines. Wikipedia outlines are a special type of list article. They make up one of Wikipedia's content navigation systems See Wikipedia: Outlines and Wikipedia:WikiProject Outlines for more details. Further improvements to this outline are on the way ...--> The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to critical theory: Critical theory – the examination and critique of society and culture, drawing from knowledge across the social sciences and humanities. The term has two different meanings with different origins and histories: one originating in sociology and the other in literary criticism. This has led to the very literal use of 'critical theory' as an umbrella term to describe any theory founded upon critique. The term "Critical Theory" was first coined by Max Horkheimer in his 1937 essay "Traditional and Critical Theory". Essence of critical theory * Cultural studies – * Critical theorists – * Works in critical theory – * Truth theory – Concepts * Aesthetics * Cathexis<ref name=crit/> * Chora<ref name=crit/> * Condensation (psychology)<ref name=crit/> * Content (Freudian dream analysis)<ref name=crit/> * Death Drive<ref name=crit/> * Desire<ref name=crit/> * Displacement (psychology)<ref name=crit/> * Ego ideal<ref name=crit/> * Fetishism<ref name=crit/> * Fixation (psychology)<ref name=crit/> * Id, ego and super-ego<ref name=crit/> * Gaze<ref name=crit/> * Hysteria<ref name=crit/> * Identification (psychology)<ref name=crit/> * Instinct<ref name=crit/> * Introjection<ref name=crit/> * Jouissance<ref name=crit/> * Lack (psychoanalysis)<ref name=crit/> * Libido<ref name=crit/> * Mirror stage<ref name=crit/> * Name of the Father<ref name=crit/> * Narcissism<ref name=crit/> * Neurosis<ref name=crit/> * Objet petit a<ref name=crit/> * Oedipus complex<ref name=crit/> * Other (philosophy)<ref name=crit/> * Perversion<ref name=crit/> * Pleasure principle (psychology)<ref name=crit/> * Psychological projection<ref name=crit/> * Psychosexual development<ref name=crit/> * Psychological projection<ref name=crit/> * Reality principle<ref name=crit/> * Regression (psychology)<ref name=crit/> * Repression (psychoanalysis)<ref name=crit/> * Signs and symptoms<ref name=crit/> * Suture/Quilting Point<ref name=crit/> * Sublime (philosophy)<ref name=crit/> * The Imaginary (psychoanalysis)<ref name=crit/> * The Real<ref name=crit/> * The Symbolic<ref name=crit/> * Transference<ref name=crit/> * Uncanny<ref name=crit/> * Unconscious mind<ref name=crit/> }} Schizoanalytic theory * Félix Guattari – * Gilles Deleuze – * Deleuze and Guattari – Commonly used terms * Assemblage (philosophy)<ref name=crit/> * Body without organs<ref name=crit/> * Rhizome (philosophy)<ref namecrit/>Queer theory * Judith Butler – * Heteronormativity – * Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick – * Gloria E. Anzaldúa – * New Queer Cinema – * Queer pedagogy – Semiotics * Roland Barthes – * Julia Kristeva – * Charles Sanders Peirce – * Ferdinand de Saussure – Commonly used terms * Semiotic square<ref namecrit/>Literary theory * Mikhail Bakhtin * Mary Louise Pratt – * René Girard – Commonly used terms * Carnivalesque<ref name=crit/> * Chronotope<ref name=crit/> * Dialogic<ref name=crit/> * Narratology<ref name=crit/> * Heteroglossia<ref namecrit/>Theories of identity * Private sphere – certain sector of societal life in which an individual enjoys a degree of authority, unhampered by interventions from governmental or other institutions. Examples of the private sphere are family and home. The complement or opposite of public sphere. * Public sphere – area in social life where individuals can come together to freely discuss and identify societal problems, and through that discussion influence political action. It is "a discursive space in which individuals and groups congregate to discuss matters of mutual interest and, where possible, to reach a common judgment." * Creolization Major works Bloch, Ernst (1938–47). The Principle of Hope Fromm, Erich (1941). The Fear of Freedom (UK)/Escape from Freedom (US) Horkheimer, Max; Adorno, Theodor W. (1944–47). Dialectic of Enlightenment Barthes, Roland (1957). Mythologies Habermas, Jürgen (1962). The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere Marcuse, Herbert (1964). One-Dimensional Man Adorno, Theodor W. (1966). Negative Dialectics Derrida, Jacques (1967). Of Grammatology Derrida, Jacques (1967). Writing and Difference Habermas, Jürgen (1981). The Theory of Communicative Action Major theorists References External links * [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/critical-theory/ Critical Theory], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy * [https://nplusonemag.com/issue-2/the-intellectual-situation/death-is-not-the-end/ "Theory: Death is Not the End"], n+1 magazine's short history of academic critical theory. Winter 2005. * [https://criticallegalthinking.com/ Critical Legal Thinking]: A critical legal studies website which uses critical theory in an analysis of law and politics. * L. Corchia, [https://books.google.com/books?idjw3klIgEVZoC&dqJ%C3%BCrgen+Habermas.+A+Bibliography:+works+and+studies+(1952-2010),&pg=PA238 Jürgen Habermas. A Bibliography: works and studies (1952-2010)], Pisa, Edizioni Il Campano – Arnus University Books, 2010, 344 pp. * * Critical theory Critical theory Outline	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_critical_theory	2025-04-05T18:28:00.131253
6902	Cotswolds	\| coords_ref = <!-- stats --> \| length \| length_mi \| length_km \| width \| width_mi \| width_km \| area_km2 = 2038 \| area_ref \| elevation \| elevation_avg \| elevation_min \| elevation_max \| dimensions \| designation = <!-- dates & info --> \| authorized \| created \| designated \| established 1966 \| named_for = cot + wold, 'sheep enclosure in rolling hillsides' \| visitation_num \| visitation_year \| visitation_ref \| administrator \| operator \| owner <!-- website, embedded --> \| website = \| embedded = }} The Cotswolds ( ) is a region of central South West England, along a range of rolling hills that rise from the meadows of the upper River Thames to an escarpment above the Severn Valley and the Vale of Evesham. The area is defined by the bedrock of Jurassic limestone that creates a type of grassland habitat that is quarried for the golden-coloured Cotswold stone. It lies across the boundaries of several English counties: mainly Gloucestershire and Oxfordshire, and parts of Wiltshire, Somerset, Worcestershire, and Warwickshire. The highest point is Cleeve Hill at , just east of Cheltenham. The predominantly rural landscape contains stone-built villages, towns, stately homes and gardens featuring the local stone. A large area within the Cotswolds has been designated as a National Landscape (formerly known as Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, or AONB) since 1966. The designation covers , with boundaries roughly across and long, stretching south-west from just south of Stratford-upon-Avon to just south of Bath, making it the largest National Landscape area and England's third-largest protected landscape. In 2021, the population of the district was 91,000. The much larger area referred to as the Cotswolds encompasses nearly . The population of the National Landscape area was 139,000 in 2016. History The largest excavation of Jurassic period echinoderm fossils, including of rare and previously unknown species, occurred at a quarry in the Cotswolds in 2021. There is evidence of Neolithic settlement from burial chambers on Cotswold Edge, and there are remains of Bronze and Iron Age forts. Later the Romans built villas, such as at Chedworth, settlements such as Gloucester, and paved the Celtic path later known as Fosse Way. During the Middle Ages, thanks to the breed of sheep known as the Cotswold Lion, the Cotswolds became prosperous from the wool trade with the continent, with much of the money made from wool directed towards the building of churches. The most successful era for the wool trade was 1250–1350; much of the wool at that time was sold to Italian merchants. The area still preserves numerous large, handsome Cotswold Stone "wool churches". The affluent area in the 21st century has attracted wealthy Londoners and others who own second homes there or have chosen to retire to the Cotswolds. incorporating the term wold, meaning hills. Compare also the Weald, from the Old English term meaning 'forest'. But for many years the English Place-Name Society has accepted that the term Cotswold is derived from Codesuualt of the 12th century or other variations on this form, the etymology of which is "Cod's-wold", meaning "Cod's high open land". Cod was interpreted as an Old English personal name, which may be recognised in further names: Cutsdean, Codeswellan, and Codesbyrig, some of which date to the 8th century. It has subsequently been noticed that Cod could derive philologically from a Brittonic female cognate Cuda, a hypothetical mother goddess in Celtic mythology postulated to have been worshipped in the Cotswold region. Geography , a characteristic Cotswold village]] The Cotswolds' spine runs southwest to northeast through six counties, particularly Gloucestershire, west Oxfordshire, and southwestern Warwickshire. The Cotswolds' northern and western edges are marked by steep escarpments down to the Severn valley and the Warwickshire Avon. This feature, known as the Cotswold escarpment or the Cotswold Edge, is a result of the uplifting (tilting) of the limestone layer, exposing its broken edge. This is a cuesta, in geological terms. The dip slope is to the southeast. On the eastern boundary lies the city of Oxford and on the west is Stroud. To the southeast, the upper reaches of the Thames Valley and towns such as Lechlade, Tetbury, and Fairford are often considered to mark the limit of the region. To the south the Cotswolds, with the characteristic uplift of the Cotswold Edge, reach beyond Bath, and towns such as Chipping Sodbury and Marshfield share elements of Cotswold character. The area is characterised by attractive small towns and villages built of the underlying Cotswold stone (a yellow oolitic limestone). Morris lived occasionally in Broadway Tower, a folly, now part of a country park. Chipping Campden is also known for the annual Cotswold Olimpick Games, a celebration of sports and games dating to the early 17th century. Of the Cotswolds' nearly , roughly 80 per cent is farmland. There are over of footpaths and bridleways, and of historic stone walls. According to 2011 census data for the Cotswolds, the wholesale and retail trade was the largest employer (15.8% of the workforce), followed by education (9.7%) and health and social work (9.3%). The report also indicates that a relatively higher proportion of residents worked in agriculture, forestry and fishing, accommodation and food services, as well as in professional, scientific, and technical activities. Unemployment in the Cotswold District was among the lowest in the country. Tourism Tourism is a significant part of the economy. The Cotswold District area gained over £373 million from visitor spending on accommodation, £157 million on local attractions and entertainments, and about £100m on travel in 2016. In the larger Cotswolds Tourism area, including Stroud, Cheltenham, Gloucester and Tewkesbury, tourism generated about £1 billion in 2016, providing 200,000 jobs. Some 38 million day visits were made to the Cotswold Tourism area that year. Many travel guides direct tourists to Chipping Campden, Stow-on-the-Wold, Bourton-on-the-Water, Broadway, Bibury, and Stanton. Some of these locations can be very crowded at times. Roughly 300,000 people visit Bourton per year, for example, with about half staying for a day or less. The area also has numerous public walking trails and footpaths that attract visitors, including the Cotswold Way (part of the National Trails system) from Bath to Chipping Campden.Housing developmentIn August 2018, the final decision was made for a Local Plan that would lead to the building of nearly 7,000 additional homes by 2031, in addition to over 3,000 already built. Areas for development include Cirencester, Bourton-on-the-Water, Down Ampney, Fairford, Kemble, Lechlade, Northleach, South Cerney, Stow-on-the-Wold, Tetbury and Moreton-in-Marsh. Some of the money received from developers will be earmarked for new infrastructure to support the increasing population.Cotswold stone <!--linked--> 's former estate, Orchard Farm, made of Cotswold stone from the 17th–20th century]] Cotswold stone is a yellow oolitic Jurassic limestone. This limestone is rich in fossils, particularly of fossilised sea urchins. When weathered, the colour of buildings made or faced with this stone is often described as honey or golden. The stone varies in colour from north to south, being honey-coloured in the north and northeast, as in villages such as Stanton and Broadway; golden-coloured in the central and southern areas, as in Dursley and Cirencester; and pearly white in Bath. The rock outcrops at places on the Cotswold Edge; small quarries are common. The exposures are rarely sufficiently compact to be good for rock-climbing, but an exception is Castle Rock, on Cleeve Hill, near Cheltenham. In his 1934 book English Journey, J. B. Priestley wrote of Cotswold buildings made of the local stone. He said: "The truth is that it has no colour that can be described. Even when the sun is obscured and the light is cold, these walls are still faintly warm and luminous, as if they knew the trick of keeping the lost sunlight of centuries glimmering about them."Cotswolds National Landscape The term "Cotswolds National Landscape" was adopted in September 2020, using a proposed name replacement for Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB). All AONBs in England and Wales were re-branded as "National Landscapes" in November 2023, although (as of 2024) the legal name and designation remains "Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty" under the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000, amending the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949. The term AONB is still used in this section. The Cotswolds National Landscape area (formerly the Cotwolds AONB) was originally designated as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB) in 1966, with an expansion on 21 December 1990 to . In 1991, all AONBs were measured again using modern methods, and the official area of the Cotswolds AONB was increased to . In 2000, the government confirmed that AONBs have the same landscape quality and status as National Parks. It is England's third-largest protected landscape, after the Lake District and Yorkshire Dales national parks. The Cotswolds National Landscape, which is the largest in England and Wales, stretches from the border regions of South Warwickshire and Worcestershire, through West Oxfordshire and Gloucestershire, and takes in parts of Wiltshire and of Bath and North East Somerset in the south. Gloucestershire County Council is responsible for sixty-three per cent of the AONB. The Cotswolds Conservation Board has the task of conserving and enhancing the AONB. Established under statute in 2004 as an independent public body, the Board carries out a range of work from securing funding for 'on the ground' conservation projects, to providing a strategic overview of the area for key decision makers, such as planning officials. The Board is funded by Natural England and the seventeen local authorities that are covered by the AONB. The Cotswolds AONB Management Plan 2018–2023 was adopted by the Board in September 2018. The landscape of the AONB is varied, including escarpment outliers, escarpments, rolling hills and valleys, enclosed limestone valleys, settled valleys, ironstone hills and valleys, high wolds and high wold valleys, high wold dip-slopes, dip-slope lowland and valleys, a Low limestone plateau, cornbrash lowlands, farmed slopes, a broad floodplain valley, a large pastoral lowland vale, a settled unwooded vale, and an unwooded vale. While the beauty of the Cotswolds AONB is intertwined with that of the villages that seem almost to grow out of the landscape, the Cotswolds were primarily designated an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty for the rare limestone grassland habitats as well as the old growth beech woodlands that typify the area. These habitat areas are also the last refuge for many other flora and fauna, with some so endangered that they are protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981. Cleeve Hill, and its associated commons, is a fine example of a limestone grassland and it is one of the few locations where the Duke of Burgundy butterfly may still be found in abundance. A June 2018 report stated that the AONB receives "23 million visitors a year, the third largest of any protected landscape". Earlier that year, Environment secretary Michael Gove announced that a panel would be formed to consider making some of the AONBs into National Parks. The review will file its report in 2019. In April 2018, the Cotswolds Conservation Board had written to Natural England "requesting that consideration be given to making the Cotswolds a National Park", according to Liz Eyre, Chairman. This has led to some concern; one member of the Cotswold District Council said, "National Park designation is a significant step further and raises the prospect of key decision making powers being taken away from democratically elected councillors". In other words, Cotswold District Council would no longer have the authority to grant and refuse housing applications. Indicative of the Cotswolds' uniqueness and value is that five European Special Areas of Conservation, three national nature reserves and more than 80 Sites of Special Scientific Interest are within the Cotswolds AONB. The Cotswold Voluntary Wardens Service was established in 1968 to help conserve and enhance the area, and now has more than 300 wardens. The Cotswold Way is a long-distance footpath, just over long, running the length of the AONB, mainly on the edge of the Cotswold escarpment with views over the Severn Valley and the Vale of Evesham. Places of interest ]] Pictured is the Garden of Sudeley Castle at Winchcombe. The present structure was built in the 15th century and may be on the site of a 12th-century castle. It is north of the spa town of Cheltenham, which has much Georgian architecture. Further south, towards Tetbury, is the fortress known as Beverston Castle, founded in 1229 by Maurice de Gaunt. In the same area is Calcot Manor, a manor house with origins in about 1300 as a tithe barn. Tetbury Market House was built in 1655. During the Middle Ages, Tetbury became an important market for Cotswold wool and yarn. Chavenage House is an Elizabethan-era manor house northwest of Tetbury. Chedworth Roman Villa, where several mosaic floors are on display, is near the Roman road known as the Fosse Way, north of the town of Corinium Dobunnorum (Cirencester). Cirencester Abbey was founded as an Augustinian monastery in 1117, and Malmesbury Abbey was one of the few English houses with a continual history from the 7th century through to the Dissolution of the Monasteries. An unusual house in this area is Quarwood, a Victorian Gothic house in Stow-on-the-Wold. The grounds, covering , include parkland, fish ponds, paddocks, garages, woodlands and seven cottages. Another is Woodchester Mansion, an unfinished, Gothic revival mansion house in Woodchester Park near Nympsfield. Newark Park is a Grade I listed country house of Tudor origins near the village of Ozleworth, Wotton-under-Edge. The house sits in an estate of at the Cotswold escarpment's southern end. Another of the many manor houses in the area, Owlpen Manor in the village of Owlpen in the Stroud district, is also Tudor and Grade I listed. Further north, Broadway Tower is a folly on Broadway Hill, near the village of Broadway, Worcestershire. To the south of the Cotswolds is Corsham Court, a country house in a park designed by Capability Brown in the town of Corsham, west of Chippenham, Wiltshire. Top attractions According to users of the worldwide TripAdvisor travel site, in 2018 the following were among the best attractions in the Cotswolds: Walks With Hawks, Cheltenham Cotswolds Distillery, Stourton Cotswold Falconry Centre, Moreton-in-Marsh Chavenage House, Tetbury Tewkesbury Abbey, Tewkesbury Gloucestershire Warwickshire Steam Railway, Cheltenham Gloucester Cathedral, Gloucester The Royal Gardens at Highgrove, Tetbury Jet Age Museum, Gloucester Cotswold Wildlife Park, Burford Hook Norton Brewery, Hook Norton Transport The Cotswolds lie between the M5, M40 and M4 motorways. The main A-roads through the area are: the A46: Bath – Stroud – Cheltenham – Evesham; * the A419: Swindon – Cirencester – Stroud; * the A417: Lechlade – Cirencester – Gloucester; * the A429: Malmesbury – Cirencester – Stow-on-the-Wold – Moreton-in-Marsh; * the A44: Chipping Norton – Moreton-in-Marsh – Evesham; * the A40: Oxford – Burford – Cheltenham – Gloucester. These all roughly follow the routes of ancient roads, some laid down by the Romans, such as Ermin Way and the Fosse Way. There are local bus services across the area, but some are infrequent. The River Thames flows from the Cotswolds and is navigable from Inglesham and Lechlade-on-Thames downstream to Oxford. West of Inglesham. the Thames and Severn Canal and the Stroudwater Navigation connected the Thames to the River Severn; this route is mostly disused nowadays but several parts are in the process of being restored. Railways The area is bounded by two major rail routes: in the south by the main Bristol–Bath–London line (including the South Wales main line) and in the west by the Bristol–Birmingham main line. In addition, the Cotswold line runs through the Cotswolds from Oxford to Worcester, and the Golden Valley line runs across the hills from Swindon via Stroud to Gloucester, carrying fast and local services. Mainline rail services to the big cities run from railway stations such as Bath, Swindon, Oxford, Cheltenham, and Worcester. Mainline trains run by Great Western Railway to London Paddington also are available from Kemble station near Cirencester, Kingham station near Stow-on-the-Wold, Charlbury station, and Moreton-in-Marsh station. Additionally, there is the Gloucestershire Warwickshire Railway, a steam heritage railway over part of the closed Stratford–Cheltenham line, running from Cheltenham Racecourse through Gotherington, Winchcombe, and Hayles Abbey Halt to Toddington and Laverton. The preserved line has been extended to Broadway. Demographics The population of the Cotswold local authority area in the 2021 census was 90,800, an increase of 9.6% from 82,900 in 2011. The percentage of usual residents in relationships, aged 16 and above, were: * Married or in a registered civil partnership: 53.2% * Never married and never registered a civil partnership: 27.9% * Divorced or civil partnership dissolved: 9.8% * Widowed or surviving civil partnership partner: 7.1% * Separated, but still legally married or still legally in a civil partnership: 2.0% In 2021, 96.3% of people in Cotswold identified their ethnic group with the "White" category, a slight decrease from 97.8% in 2011. Over 1.3% identified as "Asian" or British Asian, 1.5% chose "Mixed or Multiple" category, 0.4% were "Black, Black British, Caribbean or African" and 0.4% chose "Other".In cultureThe Cotswold region has inspired several notable English composers. In the early 1900s, Herbert Howells and Ivor Gurney took long walks together over the hills, and Gurney urged Howells to make the landscape, including the nearby Malvern Hills, the inspiration for future work. In 1916, Howells wrote his first major piece, the Piano Quartet in A minor, inspired by the magnificent view of the Malverns; he dedicated it to "the hill at Chosen (Churchdown) and Ivor Gurney who knows it". Another contemporary of theirs, Gerald Finzi, lived in nearby Painswick. Gustav Holst, who was born in Cheltenham, spent much of his early years playing the organ in Cotswold village churches, including at Cranham, after which he titled his tune for In the Bleak Midwinter. He also called his Symphony in F major, Op. 8, H47, The Cotswolds. Holst's friend Ralph Vaughan Williams was born at Down Ampney in the Cotswolds and, though he moved to Surrey as a boy, gave the name of his native village to the tune for Come Down, O Love Divine. His opera Hugh the Drover depicts life in a Cotswold village and incorporates local folk melodies. In 1988, the 6th symphony (Op. 109) of composer Derek Bourgeois was titled A Cotswold Symphony. The Cotswolds are a popular location for scenes in movies and television programmes. The 2008 film Better Things, directed by Duane Hopkins, is set in a small Cotswold village. The fictional detective Agatha Raisin lives in the fictional Cotswold village of Carsely. Other movies filmed in the Cotswolds or nearby, at least in part, include some of the Harry Potter series (Gloucester Cathedral), ''Bridget Jones's Diary (Snowshill), Pride and Prejudice (Cheltenham Town Hall), and Braveheart (Cotswold Farm Park). In 2014, some scenes of the 2016 movie Alice Through the Looking Glass were filmed at the Gloucester Docks just outside the Cotswold District; some scenes in the 2006 movie Amazing Grace were also filmed at the Docks. The television series Father Brown'' is set and primarily filmed in the Cotswolds. Scenes and buildings in Sudeley Castle was often featured in the series. The vicarage in Blockley was used for the main character's residence and the Anglican St Peter and St Paul church was the Roman Catholic St Mary's in the series. In the 2010s BBC TV series Poldark, the location for Ross Poldark's family home, Trenwith, is Chavenage House, Tetbury, which is open to the public. Many exterior shots of village life in the Downton Abbey TV series were filmed in Bampton, Oxfordshire. The city of Bath hosted crews that filmed parts of the movies Vanity Fair, Persuasion, Dracula, and The Duchess. Gloucester and other places in Gloucestershire, some within the Area of Natural Beauty, have been a popular location for filming period films and television programmes over the years. Gloucester Cathedral has been particularly popular. The sighting of peregrine falcons in the landscape of the Cotswolds is mentioned in The Peregrine by John Alec Baker. The television documentary agriculture-themed series ''Clarkson's Farm was filmed at various locations around Chipping Norton. See also * Chilterns * Cotswold architecture * Geology of Great Britain References Further reading * Bingham, Jane. The Cotswolds: A Cultural History (Signal Books, 2009). * Brace, Catherine. "Looking back: the Cotswolds and English national identity, c. 1890–1950." Journal of Historical Geography 25.4 (1999): 502–516. * Brace, Catherine. "A pleasure ground for the noisy herds? Incompatible encounters with the Cotswolds and England, 1900–1950." Rural History 11.1 (2000): 75–94. * Briggs, Katharine Mary. The folklore of the Cotswolds (BT Batsford Limited, 1974). * Hilton, R. H. "The Cotswolds and Regional History." History Today (July 1953) 3#7 pp 490–499. * Verey, David Cecil Wynter. The buildings of England: Gloucestershire. I. The Cotswolds'' (Penguin Books, 1979). External links * [http://publications.naturalengland.org.uk/file/4868690241650688 National Character Area profile] – Natural England * [https://www.cotswoldsaonb.org.uk/ Cotswolds Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty] – Cotswolds Conservation Board * [http://www.cotswolds.com/ Cotswolds Tourism Partnership] * Independent tourist guides: [http://www.cotswolds.org cotswolds.org] [http://www.thecotswolds.com/ thecotswolds.com] [http://www.icotswolds.com/ icotswolds.com] [https://www.exploregloucestershire.co.uk/Cotswolds/ Explore Gloucestershire] Category:Hills of Gloucestershire Category:Hills of Oxfordshire Category:Hills of Somerset Category:Hills of Warwickshire Category:Hills of Wiltshire Category:Hills of Worcestershire Category:Protected areas of Gloucestershire Category:Protected areas of Oxfordshire Category:Protected areas of Somerset Category:Protected areas of Warwickshire Category:Protected areas of Wiltshire Category:Protected areas of Worcestershire Category:Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty in England Category:Natural regions of England	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotswolds	2025-04-05T18:28:00.160716
6903	AC ChievoVerona	<br> (refounded)<br> (refounded) \| dissolved \| pattern_b1 _chievo2425h \| body1 \| pattern_la1 _chievo2425h \| leftarm1 \| pattern_ra1 _chievo2425h \| rightarm1 \| pattern_sh1 _chievo2425h \| shorts1 = FFFFFF \| pattern_so1 \| socks1 \| pattern_b2 = _chievo2425a \| body2 \| pattern_la2 _chievo2425a \| leftarm2 \| pattern_ra2 _chievo2425a \| rightarm2 \| pattern_sh2 _chievo2425a \| shorts2 \| pattern_so2 \| socks2 = 0000FF \| body3 = _chievo2425t \| pattern_b3 = _chievo2425t \| pattern_la3 = _chievo2425t \| leftarm3 \| pattern_ra3 _chievo2425t \| rightarm3 \| pattern_sh3 _chievo2425t \| shorts3 \| pattern_so3 \| socks3 = FFFF00 \| ground = Stadio Aldo Olivieri, Verona \| capacity = 500 \| chrtitle = President \| chairman = Sergio Pellissier \| mgrtitle = Head coach \| manager = Riccardo Allegretti \| league = \| season = \| position = \| current = 2024–25 AC ChievoVerona season \| website = }} Associazione Calcio ChievoVerona, commonly referred to as ChievoVerona or simply Chievo (, ), is an Italian football club named after and representing Chievo, a suburb of 4,500 inhabitants in Verona, Veneto. It is owned since 2024 by the team's former captain Sergio Pellissier, representing a group of almost 800 stakeholders created through a crowdfunding program, first case in the Italian football. The team plays in the Serie D, the fourth level of Italian football. The club was founded in 1929 and refounded two times during its history in 1948 and 2024. It is the only football team coming from the lowest level of Italian football succeeding in climbing the whole amateur and professional pyramid until reaching Serie A for the first time in 2001-2002 and European competitions the year after. It currently plays in Comunale stadium in Sona. During its years as a professional club, Chievo shared the 38,402-seat Stadio Marcantonio Bentegodi stadium with its cross-town rivals Hellas Verona. History Early years The team was founded in 1929 by a small number of football fans from Chievo, a Verona . Initially, the club was not officially affiliated to the Italian Football Federation (FIGC), but nonetheless played several amateur tournaments and friendly matches under the denomination Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro Chievo, a title imposed by the fascist regime. The club's formal debut in an official league was on 8 November 1931. The team colours at the time were blue and white. Chievo disbanded in 1936, however, due to economic woes but returned to play in 1948 after World War II, being registered in the regional league of (Second Division). In 1957, the team moved to the field "Carlantonio Bottagisio", where they played until 1986. In 1959, after the restructuring of the football leagues, Chievo was admitted to play the Seconda Categoria (Second Category), a regional league placed next-to-last in the Italian football pyramid. That year, Chievo changed its name to Cardi Chievo after a new sponsor and was quickly promoted to the Prima Categoria, from which it experienced its first-ever relegation in 1962.Series of promotions In 1964, Luigi Campedelli, a businessman and owner of the Paluani company, was named the new Chievo chairman. Under Campedelli's presidency, Chievo climbed through the Italian football pyramid, reaching the Serie D after the 1974–75 season. Under the name Paluani Chievo the team was promoted to Serie C2 in 1986. Due to promotion, Chievo was forced to move to the Stadio Marcantonio Bentegodi, the main venue in Verona; another promotion to Serie C1 followed in 1989. In 1990, the team changed its name to its current one, A.C. ChievoVerona. In 1992, President Luigi Campedelli, who had returned at the helm of the club two years before, died of a heart attack, and his son Luca Campedelli, aged just 23, became the new and youngest chairman of an Italian professional football club. Campedelli promoted Giovanni Sartori to director of football and named Alberto Malesani as the new head coach. Under Malesani, the team astonishingly won the Serie C1 and was promoted to Serie B, where city rival Hellas Verona was playing at the time. In 1997, after Malesani signed for Fiorentina, Silvio Baldini was appointed the new head coach. The following season, with Domenico Caso as the coach, saw the first dismissal of a coach during the presidency of Luca Campedelli, with Caso being fired and replaced with Lorenzo Balestro. It was during these years that the nickname "mussi volanti" ("flying donkeys") was born. It originated from supporters of their crosstown rivals Hellas, who would mock long-suffering Chievo supporters that Chievo will only be promoted if "donkeys could fly" (the equivalent of the English language falsism "if pigs could fly," denoting an impossible dream). In 2000–01, Luigi Delneri was signed as coach and led Chievo, by virtue of its third-place finish in Serie B, to promotion to Serie A, the first time in team history that it had reached the top tier of Italian football. Mussi Volanti (2001–2007) In 2001–02, Chievo's Serie A debut season, the team was most critics' choice for an instant return to Serie B. However, they became the surprise team in the league, often playing spectacular and entertaining football and even leading the league for six consecutive weeks. The club finally ended the season with a highly respectable fifth-place finish, qualifying the team to play in the UEFA Cup. Chievo's impressive performance inspired a 2002 book about soccer economics titled "Fenomeno Chievo. Economia, costume, società" by Marco Vitale. In 2002–03, Chievo debuted at the European level but were eliminated in the first round by Red Star Belgrade. The team finished the Serie A season in seventh place, again proving itself one of the better Serie A teams. The 2003–04 season, the last with Delneri at the helm, saw Chievo finish ninth. The 2004–05 season is remembered as one of the toughest ever in Chievo's history. Mario Beretta, a Serie A novice from Ternana, was named coach, but after a strong start that brought Chievo to third behind Juventus and Milan, the team slowly lost position in the league table. With three matches remaining in the season, Chievo was third-from-last, a position which would see it relegated to Serie B. As a last resort, Beretta was fired, and Maurizio D'Angelo, a former Chievo player, was appointed temporarily to replace him as coach. Morale improved, and two wins and a draw from the final three matches proved enough to keep Chievo in Serie A. In 2005–06, Giuseppe Pillon of Treviso FBC was appointed as new coach. The team experienced a return to the successful Delneri era, both in style of play and results, which resulted in Chievo ending the season in seventh and gaining a berth in the UEFA Cup. However, because of the football scandal involving several top-class teams, all of which finished higher than Chievo in the 2005–06 season, the Flying Donkeys were awarded a place in the next Champions League preliminary phase. has played for Chievo between 2003 and 2006]] On 14 July 2006, the verdict in the scandal was made public. Juventus, Milan and Fiorentina, who had all initially qualified for the 2006–07 Champions League, and Lazio, who had initially qualified for the 2006–07 UEFA Cup, were all banned from UEFA competition for the 2006–07 season. However, Milan were allowed to enter the Champions League after their appeal to the FIGC. Chievo took up a place in the third qualifying stage of the competition along with Milan and faced Bulgarian side Levski Sofia. Chievo lost the first leg 2–0 in Sofia and managed a 2–2 home draw on the second leg and were eliminated by a 4–2 aggregate score, with Levski advancing to the Champions League group stage. As a Champions League third round qualifying loser, Chievo was given a place in the UEFA Cup final qualifying round. On 25 August 2006, they were drawn to face Portuguese side Braga. The first leg, played on 14 September in Braga, ended in a 2–0 win for the Portuguese. The return match, played on 28 September in Verona, although won by Chievo 2–1, resulted in a 3–2 aggregate loss and the club's elimination from the competition. On 16 October 2006, following a 1–0 defeat against Torino, head coach Giuseppe Pillon was fired and replaced by Luigi Delneri, one of the original symbols of the miracle Chievo, who had led the club to the Serie A in 2002. On 27 May 2007, the last match day of the 2006–07 Serie A season, Chievo was one of five teams in danger of falling into the last undecided relegation spot. Needing only a draw against Catania, a direct competitor in the relegation battle, Chievo lost 2–0 playing on a neutral field in Bologna. Wins by Parma, Siena and Reggina condemned Chievo to Serie B for the 2007–08 season after six seasons in the topflight. A year with the Cadetti (2007–08) Chievo bounced back quickly from the disappointment of their relegation on the last matchday of 2006–07, searching for an immediate promotion return to the topflight. After the expected departure of several top-quality players, including Franco Semioli, Salvatore Lanna, Matteo Brighi, Paolo Sammarco and Erjon Bogdani, the manager Delneri also parted ways with the club. Giuseppe Iachini replaced him and the captain, Lorenzo D'Anna, gave way to Sergio Pellissier at the end of the transfer window. A new squad was constructed, most notably including the arrivals of midfielders Maurizio Ciaramitaro and Simone Bentivoglio, defender César and forward Antimo Iunco. This new incarnation of the gialloblu were crowned winter champions (along with Bologna), en route to a 41st matchday promotion after a 1–1 draw at Grosseto left them four points clear of third-place Lecce with one match remaining. In addition to winning promotion, they were conferred with the Ali della Vittoria trophy on the final matchday of the season, their first league title of any kind in 14 years. Return in Serie A (2008–2019) In their first season return to the topflight, Chievo immediately struggled in the league, resulting in the dismissal of Iachini in November and his replacement with former Parma boss Domenico Di Carlo. After Di Carlo's appointment, Chievo managed a remarkable resurgence that led the gialloblu out of the relegation zone after having collected just nine points from their first 17 matches. Highlight matches included a 3–0 defeat of Lazio (who then won the 2008–09 Coppa Italia title) at the Stadio Olimpico, and a thrilling 3–3 draw away to Juventus in which captain and longtime Chievo striker Sergio Pellissier scored a late equalizer to complete his first career hat-trick. A series of hard-fought draws against top clubs Roma, Internazionale and Genoa in the final stretch of the season solidified Ceo<nowiki/>'s position outside the drop zone and Serie A status was finally confirmed on matchday 37 with a home draw against Bologna. An essentially unchanged line-up earned safety the following season with four matchdays to spare. Lorenzo D'Anna remained as coach of the club for the 2018–19 season after replacing Rolando Maran during the 2017–18 season. On 13 September, Chievo were deducted 3 points after being found guilty of false accounting on exchanging players with Cesena. President Luca Campedelli was banned for three months as a result of the scheme. Chievo were officially relegated on 14 April 2019 after a 3–1 home loss to Napoli.Serie B years and league exclusion (2019–2021)In July 2021, Chievo was expelled from Serie B for the 2021–22 season for being unable to prove its financial viability due to outstanding tax payments. The club argued that there was an agreement in place during the COVID-19 pandemic that allowed them to spread the payments out over a longer period. However, after three unsuccessful appeals, the decision to bar Chievo Verona from registering to Serie B was upheld, with Cosenza taking their place in Serie B.Clivense and Serie D restart (2021–current) Over the next months following the club's exclusion, former captain Sergio Pellissier led the search for a new ownership group to allow a phoenix club to compete in Serie D under the Chievo name. However, on 21 August, Pellissier announced in an Instagram post that no owners were found in time for the Serie D registration deadline. The original Chievo club has in the meantime appealed to the Council of State against its exclusion and is currently registered in no division, albeit still with the right to apply for a spot in an amateur league of Veneto in the following weeks. Campedelli eventually opted to keep the club alive as a youth team for the 2021–22 season, while Pellissier decided instead to found a new club himself, which was admitted to Terza Categoria at the very bottom of the Italian football league system; the club, originally named FC Chievo 2021, was then renamed to FC Clivense following a legal warning from AC ChievoVerona. On 10 May 2024, Sergio Pellissier and the owners of Clivense, by then in the Serie D league, successfully acquired the logo and naming rights of the original ChievoVerona club in an auction. Later on 29 May, Clivense formally changed its denomination to AC ChievoVerona, thus becoming the legal heir to the original club, albeit maintaining white and blue as its colours. Identity Crest The official crest of the club depicts since 1998 Cangrande della Scala, ruler of Verona during medieval times, the shape of it taking inspiration from a historical statue located in the old town. The logo, coloured in yellow and blue, shows the full name of the club and the year of foundation. It was confirmed as Chievo's logo after a survey among the club's stakeholder in June 2024. Being founded by amateur football lovers in 1929 as an after-work sport club, at that time encouraged by the fascist regime, the first crest of Chievo included a fasces. Since 1959, after adopting yellow-blue colours, the club used the shape of a Swiss shield with different official denominations during the years, including some private company names sponsoring the club. During the 1980s, president Luigi Campedelli, a businessman owning the cake company Paluani, used the commercial logo of the company as official crest, showing often the full name on the official football shirt. Since the 1990s, after reaching professional leagues and after changing the official name into A.C. ChievoVerona, the crest included for the first time the shape of Cangrande della Scala and boasted a letter V, symbolizing the pride of representing the whole city. In 2001, the logo took its actual aspect including Fraktur font and the foundation year, until its last modernization in 2021. In the period 2001-2021 an alternative logo, representing a white ladder on a burgundy background, was in use both on shirts and club's activities, inspired by the historical logo of the Province of Verona and already used by the club in the 1930s after winning the province champion's title in the local leagues. This is a gallery of the evolution of Chievo's crest since its foundation: <gallery> 1 Cardi Chievo.png\| Cardi Chievo (1959–1975) 2 AC Chievo.png\| A.C. Chievo (1975–1981) Paulani Chievo stemma 1981-86.png\| Paluani Chievo (1981–1986) A.C. ChievoVerona logo.svg\|A.C. ChievoVerona (2001–2021) Scala.png\|Logo alternativo (2001–2021) </gallery> Colours Chievo has worn two different colours patterns during its history: in the early foundation years until 1956 a white/blue combination, with occasional use of white/light blue and red-blue; from 1956 until 2021 a yellow-blue pattern in different styles, inspired by the crest of Verona and already used by the main football team of the city Hellas Verona. After the refoundation of 2024 the club decided to keep the white-blue combination of the origins, already used by Clivense since 2021. These are the most iconic football kits worn over the years: {\| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|} {\| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|} Nicknames The club's historic nickname is Gialloblu (from the club colours of yellow and blue), sharing it with the more famous local rivals Hellas Verona. Local supporters often call the club Ceo, which is Venetian for Chievo. The club is also sometimes referred to as the I Mussi Volanti ("The Flying Donkeys" in the Verona dialect of Venetian). "The Flying Donkeys" nickname was originally used by fans from crosstown rivals Hellas to mock Chievo. The two clubs first met in Serie B in the mid-1990s, with Hellas chanting Quando i mussi volara, il Ceo in Serie A – "Donkeys will fly before Chievo are in Serie A." However, once Chievo earned promotion to Serie A at the end of the 2000–01 Serie B season, Chievo fans started to call themselves "The Flying Donkeys". Retired numbers * 30 Jason Mayélé, left/right winger, 2001–2002 (posthumous) * 31 Sergio Pellissier, left/right winger, 2000–2019 (retired in recognition of his career)Notable players Note: this list includes players that have reached international status. * Francesco Acerbi * Amauri * Daniel Andersson * Simone Barone * Massimo Marazzina * Andrea Barzagli * Erjon Bogdani * Oliver Bierhoff * Valter Birsa * Albano Bizzarri * Michael Bradley * Matteo Brighi * Boštjan Cesar * Bernardo Corradi * Rinaldo Cruzado * Dario Dainelli * Boukary Dramé * Mauro Esposito * Marcelo Estigarribia * Ivan Fatić * Gelson Fernandes * Giannis Fetfatzidis * Stefano Fiore * Alessandro Gamberini * Massimo Gobbi * Jonathan de Guzmán * Përparim Hetemaj * Bojan Jokić * Radoslav Kirilov * Kamil Kosowski * Nicola Legrottaglie * Christian Manfredini * Jason Mayélé * Stephen Makinwa * John Mensah * Victor Obinna * Sergio Pellissier * Simone Pepe * Simone Perrotta * Mauricio Pinilla * Giampiero Pinzi * Ivan Radovanović * Flavio Roma * Eugenio Corini * Fredrik Risp * Mamadou Samassa * Nikos Spyropoulos * Samir Ujkani * Sauli Väisänen * Martin Valjent * Mario Yepes Coaches Fans The Clivense fan base has a few groups within it, but the best known are the North Side 94, a group of fans born in 1994 together with the promotion of the club to the Serie B. The supporters' group has given full support and to Sergio Pellissier's Clivense after the exclusion of ChievoVerona from all federal championships in 2021. Stadium ChievoVerona shared since its promotion to the Serie C2 in 1986 the Stadio Marcantonio Bentegodi with rival team Hellas Verona. Since the refoundation in 2024 the club plays its home games at Stadio Aldo Olivieri in Verona. During the three previous years FC Clivense was based at Stadio Comunale (Phoenix Arena for sponsorship reasons) in San Martino Buon Albergo. Honours * Serie B *Winners: 2007–08 Serie C1 *Winners: 1993–94 (group A) Serie C2 *Winners: 1988–89 (group B) Serie D *Winners: 1985–86 (group C) In Europe UEFA Champions League {\| class="wikitable" ! Season ! Round ! Club ! Home ! Away ! Aggregate \|- \| 2006–07 \| Third qualifying round \| Levski Sofia \| style="text-align:center; background:#ffd;"\| 2–2 \| style="text-align:center; background:#fdd;"\| 0–2 \| style="text-align:center;"\| 2–4 \|} UEFA Cup {\| class="wikitable" ! Season ! Round ! Club ! Home ! Away ! Aggregate \|- \| 2002–03 \| First round \| Red Star Belgrade \| style="text-align:center; background:#fdd;"\| 0–2 \| style="text-align:center; background:#ffd;"\| 0–0 \| style="text-align:center;"\| 0–2 \|- \| 2006–07 \| First round \| Braga \| style="text-align:center; background:#dfd;"\| 2–1 (a.e.t) \| style="text-align:center; background:#fdd;"\| 0–2 \| style="text-align:center;"\| 2–3 \|} Footnotes References * External links * . . Category:Association football clubs established in 1929 Category:Football clubs in Veneto Category:Sport in Verona Category:1929 establishments in Italy	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AC_ChievoVerona	2025-04-05T18:28:00.202080
6904	Context switch	In computing, a context switch is the process of storing the state of a process or thread, so that it can be restored and resume execution at a later point, and then restoring a different, previously saved, state. This allows multiple processes to share a single central processing unit (CPU), and is an essential feature of a multiprogramming or multitasking operating system. In a traditional CPU, each process – a program in execution – uses the various CPU registers to store data and hold the current state of the running process. However, in a multitasking operating system, the operating system switches between processes or threads to allow the execution of multiple processes simultaneously. For every switch, the operating system must save the state of the currently running process, followed by loading the next process state, which will run on the CPU. This sequence of operations that stores the state of the running process and loads the following running process is called a context switch. The precise meaning of the phrase "context switch" varies. In a multitasking context, it refers to the process of storing the system state for one task, so that task can be paused and another task resumed. A context switch can also occur as the result of an interrupt, such as when a task needs to access disk storage, freeing up CPU time for other tasks. Some operating systems also require a context switch to move between user mode and kernel mode tasks. The process of context switching can have a negative impact on system performance. Cost Context switches are usually computationally intensive, and much of the design of operating systems is to optimize the use of context switches. Switching from one process to another requires a certain amount of time for doing the administration saving and loading registers and memory maps, updating various tables and lists, etc. What is actually involved in a context switch depends on the architectures, operating systems, and the number of resources shared (threads that belong to the same process share many resources compared to unrelated non-cooperating processes). For example, in the Linux kernel, context switching involves loading the corresponding process control block (PCB) stored in the PCB table in the kernel stack to retrieve information about the state of the new process. CPU state information including the registers, stack pointer, and program counter as well as memory management information like segmentation tables and page tables (unless the old process shares the memory with the new) are loaded from the PCB for the new process. To avoid incorrect address translation in the case of the previous and current processes using different memory, the translation lookaside buffer (TLB) must be flushed. This negatively affects performance because every memory reference to the TLB will be a miss because it is empty after most context switches. Furthermore, analogous context switching happens between user threads, notably green threads, and is often very lightweight, saving and restoring minimal context. In extreme cases, such as switching between goroutines in Go, a context switch is equivalent to a coroutine yield, which is only marginally more expensive than a subroutine call. Switching cases There are three potential triggers for a context switch: Multitasking Most commonly, within some scheduling scheme, one process must be switched out of the CPU so another process can run. This context switch can be triggered by the process making itself unrunnable, such as by waiting for an I/O or synchronization operation to complete. On a pre-emptive multitasking system, the scheduler may also switch out processes that are still runnable. To prevent other processes from being starved of CPU time, pre-emptive schedulers often configure a timer interrupt to fire when a process exceeds its time slice. This interrupt ensures that the scheduler will gain control to perform a context switch. Interrupt handling Modern architectures are interrupt driven. This means that if the CPU requests data from a disk, for example, it does not need to busy-wait until the read is over; it can issue the request (to the I/O device) and continue with some other task. When the read is over, the CPU can be interrupted (by a hardware in this case, which sends interrupt request to PIC) and presented with the read. For interrupts, a program called an interrupt handler is installed, and it is the interrupt handler that handles the interrupt from the disk. When an interrupt occurs, the hardware automatically switches a part of the context (at least enough to allow the handler to return to the interrupted code). The handler may save additional context, depending on details of the particular hardware and software designs. Often only a minimal part of the context is changed in order to minimize the amount of time spent handling the interrupt. The kernel does not spawn or schedule a special process to handle interrupts, but instead the handler executes in the (often partial) context established at the beginning of interrupt handling. Once interrupt servicing is complete, the context in effect before the interrupt occurred is restored so that the interrupted process can resume execution in its proper state. User and kernel mode switching When the system transitions between user mode and kernel mode, a context switch is not necessary; a mode transition is not by itself a context switch. However, depending on the operating system, a context switch may also take place at this time. Steps The state of the currently executing process must be saved so it can be restored when rescheduled for execution. The process state includes all the registers that the process may be using, especially the program counter, plus any other operating system specific data that may be necessary. This is usually stored in a data structure called a process control block (PCB) or switchframe. The PCB might be stored on a per-process stack in kernel memory (as opposed to the user-mode call stack), or there may be some specific operating system-defined data structure for this information. A handle to the PCB is added to a queue of processes that are ready to run, often called the ready queue. Since the operating system has effectively suspended the execution of one process, it can then switch context by choosing a process from the ready queue and restoring its PCB. In doing so, the program counter from the PCB is loaded, and thus execution can continue in the chosen process. Process and thread priority can influence which process is chosen from the ready queue (i.e., it may be a priority queue). Examples The details vary depending on the architecture and operating system, but these are common scenarios. No context switch needed Considering a general arithmetic addition operation A = B+1. The instruction is stored in the instruction register and the program counter is incremented. A and B are read from memory and are stored in registers R1, R2 respectively. In this case, B+1 is calculated and written in R1 as the final answer. This operation as there are sequential reads and writes and there's no waits for function calls used, hence no context switch/wait takes place in this case. Context switch caused by interrupt Suppose a process A is running and a timer interrupt occurs. The user registers — program counter, stack pointer, and status register — of process A are then implicitly saved by the CPU onto the kernel stack of A. Then, the hardware switches to kernel mode and jumps into interrupt handler for the operating system to take over. Then the operating system calls the switch() routine to first save the general-purpose user registers of A onto A's kernel stack, then it saves A's current kernel register values into the PCB of A, restores kernel registers from the PCB of process B, and switches context, that is, changes kernel stack pointer to point to the kernel stack of process B. The operating system then returns from interrupt. The hardware then loads user registers from B's kernel stack, switches to user mode, and starts running process B from B's program counter. Performance Context switching itself has a cost in performance, due to running the task scheduler, TLB flushes, and indirectly due to sharing the CPU cache between multiple tasks. Switching between threads of a single process can be faster than between two separate processes because threads share the same virtual memory maps, so a TLB flush is not necessary. The time to switch between two separate processes is called the process switching latency. The time to switch between two threads of the same process is called the thread switching latency. The time from when a hardware interrupt is generated to when the interrupt is serviced is called the interrupt latency. Switching between two processes in a single address space operating system can be faster than switching between two processes in an operating system with private per-process address spaces. Hardware vs. software Context switching can be performed primarily by software or hardware. Some processors, like the Intel 80386 and its successors, have hardware support for context switches, by making use of a special data segment designated the task state segment (TSS). A task switch can be explicitly triggered with a CALL or JMP instruction targeted at a TSS descriptor in the global descriptor table. It can occur implicitly when an interrupt or exception is triggered if there is a task gate in the interrupt descriptor table (IDT). When a task switch occurs, the CPU can automatically load the new state from the TSS. As with other tasks performed in hardware, one would expect this to be rather fast; however, mainstream operating systems, including Windows and Linux, do not use this feature. This is mainly due to two reasons: Hardware context switching does not save all the registers (only general-purpose registers, not floating-point registers — although the TS bit is automatically turned on in the CR0 control register, resulting in a fault when executing floating-point instructions and giving the OS the opportunity to save and restore the floating-point state as needed). Associated performance issues, e.g., software context switching can be selective and store only those registers that need storing, whereas hardware context switching stores nearly all registers whether they are required or not. See also Latency (engineering) References External links Context Switching at OSDev.org Context Switch Definition by The Linux Information Project (LINFO) Context Switches from the Microsoft Developer Network (MSDN) General Architecture and Design -Interrupt Handling at FreeBSD.org OS Context Switching - Computerphile Category:Process (computing)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Context_switch	2025-04-05T18:28:00.211475
6905	Carnatic	Carnatic may refer to: Carnatic region, Southern India Carnatic music, the classical music of Southern India , the name of several ships , a minesweeper of the Royal Indian Navy , the name of several ships of the Royal Navy See also Karnataka (disambiguation) Kannada (disambiguation) Canara (disambiguation) Carnatic Hall, in Liverpool, England Carnatic wars, in India during the 18th century ca:Carnàtic	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnatic	2025-04-05T18:28:00.212890
6907	Chakra	A chakra (; ; ) is one of the various focal points used in a variety of ancient meditation practices, collectively denominated as Tantra, part of the inner traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism.<!-- followed by Sir John Woodroffe's 1919 book The Serpent Power, and Charles W. Leadbeater's 1927 book The Chakras. Psychological and other attributes, rainbow colours, and a wide range of supposed correspondences with other systems such as alchemy, astrology, gemstones, homeopathy, Kabbalah and Tarot were added later. Etymology Lexically, chakra is the Indic reflex of an ancestral Indo-European form kʷékʷlos, whence also "wheel" and "cycle" (). It has both literal and metaphorical uses, as in the "wheel of time" or "wheel of dharma", such as in Rigveda hymn verse 1.164.11, pervasive in the earliest Vedic texts. In Buddhism, especially in Theravada, the Pali noun cakka connotes "wheel". Within the Buddhist scriptures referred to as the Tripitaka, Shakyamuni Buddha variously refers the "dhammacakka", or "wheel of dharma", connoting that this dharma, universal in its advocacy, should bear the marks characteristic of any temporal dispensation. Shakyamuni Buddha spoke of freedom from cycles in and of themselves, whether karmic, reincarnative, liberative, cognitive or emotional. In Jainism, the term chakra also means "wheel" and appears in various contexts in its ancient literature. As in other Indian religions, chakra in esoteric theories in Jainism such as those by Buddhisagarsuri means a yogic energy center. Ancient history , the Vedic fire altar. The iconography popular in representing the Chakras, states the scholar David Gordon White, traces back to the five symbols of yajna, the Vedic fire altar: "square, circle, triangle, half moon and dumpling". The hymn 10.136 of the Rigveda mentions a renunciate yogi with a female named kunannamā. Literally, it means "she who is bent, coiled", representing both a minor goddess and one of many embedded enigmas and esoteric riddles within the Rigveda. Some scholars, such as D.G. White and Georg Feuerstein, have suggested that she may be a reference to kundalini shakti and a precursor to the terminology associated with the chakras in later tantric traditions. Breath channels (nāḍi) are mentioned in the classical Upanishads of Hinduism from the 1st millennium BCE, but not psychic-energy chakra theories. Three classical Nadis are Ida, Pingala and Sushumna in which the central channel Sushumna is said to be foremost as per Kṣurikā-Upaniṣhad. The latter, states David Gordon White, were introduced about 8th-century CE in Buddhist texts as hierarchies of inner energy centers, such as in the Hevajra Tantra and Caryāgiti. These are called by various terms such as cakka, padma (lotus) or pitha (mound). Overview chakra system, folio 2 from the Nath Charit, 1823. Mehrangarh Museum Trust.]] The Chakras are part of esoteric ideas and concepts about physiology and psychic centers that emerged across Indian traditions. The belief held that human life simultaneously exists in two parallel dimensions, one "physical body" (sthula sarira) and other "psychological, emotional, mind, non-physical" it is called the "subtle body" (sukshma sarira). This subtle body is energy, while the physical body is mass. The psyche or mind plane corresponds to and interacts with the body plane, and the belief holds that the body and the mind mutually affect each other. The tantric traditions sought to master them, awaken and energize them through various breathing exercises or with assistance of a teacher. These chakras were also symbolically mapped to specific human physiological capacity, seed syllables (bija), sounds, subtle elements (tanmatra), in some cases deities, colors and other motifs. Belief in the chakra system of Hinduism and Buddhism differs from the historic Chinese system of meridians in acupuncture. The meditation is aided by extensive symbology, mantras, diagrams, models (deity and mandala). The practitioner proceeds step by step from perceptible models, to increasingly abstract models where deity and external mandala are abandoned, inner self and internal mandalas are awakened. These ideas are not unique to Hindu and Buddhist traditions. Similar and overlapping concepts emerged in other cultures in the East and the West, and these are variously called by other names such as subtle body, spirit body, esoteric anatomy, sidereal body and etheric body.}} Contrast with classical yoga Chakra and related beliefs have been important to the esoteric traditions, but they are not directly related to mainstream yoga. According to the Indologist Edwin Bryant and other scholars, the goals of classical yoga such as spiritual liberation (freedom, self-knowledge, moksha) is "attained entirely differently in classical yoga, and the cakra / nadi / kundalini physiology is completely peripheral to it." Classical traditions The classical eastern traditions, particularly those that developed in India during the 1st millennium AD, primarily describe nadi and chakra in a "subtle body" context. The concept of "life energy" varies between the texts, ranging from simple inhalation-exhalation to far more complex association with breath-mind-emotions-sexual energy. Hindu tantra Esoteric traditions in Hinduism mention numerous numbers and arrangements of chakras, of which a classical system of six-plus-one, the last being the Sahasrara, is most prevalent. This seven-part system, central to the core texts of hatha yoga, is one among many systems found in Hindu tantric literature. Hindu Tantra associates six Yoginis with six places in the subtle body, corresponding to the six chakras of the six-plus-one system. {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Association of six yoginis with chakra locations in the Rudrayamala Tantra The cakra-based system is a part of the meditative exercises that came to be known as yoga. Within Kundalini yoga, the techniques of breathing exercises, visualizations, mudras, bandhas, kriyas, and mantras are focused on manipulating the flow of subtle energy through chakras.<!--in what period?-->Buddhist tantra The esoteric traditions in Buddhism generally teach four chakras. In one development within the Nyingma lineage of the Mantrayana of Tibetan Buddhism a popular conceptualization of chakras in increasing subtlety and increasing order is as follows: Nirmanakaya (gross self), Sambhogakaya (subtle self), Dharmakaya (causal self), and Mahasukhakaya (non-dual self), each vaguely and indirectly corresponding to the categories within the Shaiva Mantramarga universe, i.e., Svadhisthana, Anahata, Visuddha, Sahasrara, etc. However, depending on the meditational tradition, these vary between three and six. Basal chakra (Element: Earth, Buddha: Amoghasiddhi, Bija mantra: LAM) * Abdominal chakra (Element: Water, Buddha: Ratnasambhava, Bija mantra: VAM) * Heart chakra (Element: Fire, Buddha: Akshobhya, Bija mantra: RAM) * Throat chakra (Element: Wind, Buddha: Amitabha, Bija mantra: YAM) * Crown chakra (Element: Space, Buddha: Vairochana, Bija mantra: KHAM) Chakras play a key role in Tibetan Buddhism, and are considered to be the pivotal providence of Tantric thinking. And, the precise use of the chakras across the gamut of tantric sadhanas gives little space to doubt the primary efficacy of Tibetan Buddhism as distinct religious agency, that being that precise revelation that, without Tantra there would be no Chakras, but more importantly, without Chakras, there is no Tibetan Buddhism. The highest practices in Tibetan Buddhism point to the ability to bring the subtle pranas of an entity into alignment with the central channel, and to thus penetrate the realisation of the ultimate unity, namely, the "organic harmony" of one's individual consciousness of Wisdom with the co-attainment of All-embracing Love, thus synthesizing a direct cognition of absolute Buddhahood. According to Samuel, the buddhist esoteric systems developed cakra and nadi as "central to their soteriological process". The theories were sometimes, but not always, coupled with a unique system of physical exercises, called yantra yoga or phrul khor. Chakras, according to the Bon tradition, enable the gestalt of experience, with each of the five major chakras, being psychologically linked with the five experiential qualities of unenlightened consciousness, the six realms of woe. The tsa lung practice embodied in the Trul khor lineage, unbaffles the primary channels, thus activating and circulating liberating prana. Yoga awakens the deep mind, thus bringing forth positive attributes, inherent gestalts, and virtuous qualities. In a computer analogy, the screen of one's consciousness is slated and an attribute-bearing file is called up that contains necessary positive or negative, supportive qualities. </gallery> Seven chakra system 2. Svadhisthana 3. Manipura 4. Anahata 5. Vishuddhi 6. Ajna 7. Sahasrara. According to Gavin Flood, this system of six chakras plus the sahasrara "center" at the crown first appears in the Kubjikāmata-tantra, an 11th-century Kaula work. It was this chakra system that was translated in the early 20th century by Sir John Woodroffe (also called Arthur Avalon) in his book The Serpent Power. Avalon translated the Hindu text Ṣaṭ-Cakra-Nirūpaṇa meaning the examination (nirūpaṇa) of the six (ṣaṭ) chakras (cakra). The Chakras are traditionally considered meditation aids. The yogi progresses from lower chakras to the highest chakra blossoming in the crown of the head, internalizing the journey of spiritual ascent. In both the Hindu kundalini and Buddhist candali traditions, the chakras are pierced by a dormant energy residing near or in the lowest chakra. In Hindu texts she is known as Kundalini, while in Buddhist texts she is called Candali or Tummo (Tibetan: gtum mo, "fierce one"). {\| class="wikitable" \|+ New age descriptions of the chakras \|- ! style="width: 60px;" \| Image ! style="width: 60px;" \| Name ! style="width: 60px;" \| Sanskrit ! style="width: 60px;" \| Location ! style="width: 60px;" \| No. of petals ! style="width: 60px;" \| Modern colour ! style="width: 60px;" \| Mantra & element ! style="width: 500px;" \| Description \|- \| \|\| Sahasrara \|\| सहस्रार (सहस्र-आर) <br /> "Thousand-petaled" \|\| Crown \|\| 1000 \|\| White or Violet \|\| -<br />(Time & Space , Divine Consciousness) \|\| Highest spiritual centre, pure consciousness, containing neither object nor subject. When the feminine Kundalini Shakti rises to this point, it unites with the masculine Shiva, giving self-realization and samadhi. \|- \| \|\| Ajna \|\| आज्ञा <br /> "Command" \|\| Between<br />eyebrows \|\| 2 \|\| Indigo \|\| Om<br />(Light Or Darkness) \|\| Guru chakra, or in New Age usage third-eye chakra, the subtle center of energy, where the tantra guru touches the seeker during the initiation ritual. He or she commands the awakened kundalini to pass through this centre. It is symbolised as a four-petaled lotus with a yellow square at its center representing the element of earth. while the Shakti is Dakini. The associated animal is the elephant. \|} Western chakra system History 's 1927 book The Chakras]] Kurt Leland, for the Theosophical Society in America, concluded that the western chakra system was produced by an "unintentional collaboration" of many groups of people: esotericists and clairvoyants, often theosophical; Indologists; the scholar of myth, Joseph Campbell; the founders of the Esalen Institute and the psychological tradition of Carl Jung; the colour system of Charles W. Leadbeater's 1927 book The Chakras, treated as traditional lore by some modern Indian yogis; and energy healers such as Barbara Brennan. Leland states that far from being traditional, the two main elements of the modern system, the rainbow colours and the list of qualities, first appeared together only in 1977. In the 1920s, each of the seven chakras was associated with an endocrine gland, More recently, the lower six chakras have been linked to both nerve plexuses and glands. The seven rainbow colours were added by Leadbeater in 1927; a variant system in the 1930s proposed six colours plus white. Psychological and other attributes such as layers of the aura, developmental stages, associated diseases, Aristotelian elements, emotions, and states of consciousness were added still later. The chakras are described as being aligned in an ascending column from the base of the spine to the top of the head. New Age practices often associate each chakra with a certain colour. In various traditions, each chakra is associated with a physiological functions, an aspect of consciousness, and a classical element; these do not correspond to those used in ancient Indian systems. The chakras are visualised as lotuses or flowers with a different number of petals in every chakra. Rudolf Steiner considered the chakra system to be dynamic and evolving. He suggested that this system has become different for modern people than it was in ancient times and that it will, in turn, be radically different in future.<!--Steiner described a sequence of development that begins with the upper chakras and moves down, rather than moving in the opposite direction. He gave suggestions on how to develop the chakras through disciplining thoughts, feelings, and will.--><!--According to Florin Lowndes, a "spiritual student" can further develop their consciousness by moving from the "ancient path" of schooling to the "new path" of Steiner's The Philosophy of Freedom.--> Skeptical response There is no scientific evidence to prove chakras exist, nor is there any meaningful way to try and measure them scientifically. The nonprofit Edinburgh Skeptics Society states that there has never been any evidence for chakras. See also * Aura * Dantian – energy centre in Chinese Taoist systems * Surya Namaskar – the Sun Salutation, in which each posture is sometimes associated with a chakra and a mantra Notes References Further reading * Judith, Anodea (1996). Eastern Body Western Mind: Psychology and the Chakra System As A Path to the Self. Berkeley, California, USA: Celestial Arts Publishing. * * Banerji, S. C. Tantra in Bengal. Second Revised and Enlarged Edition. (Manohar: Delhi, 1992) * * (Two volumes) * * * * Goswami, Shyam Sundar. Layayoga: The Definitive Guide to the Chakras and Kundalini, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980. * Khalsa, Guru Dharam Singh; O'Keeffe, Darryl. The Kundalini Yoga Experience Simon & Schuster, 2002. * Lowndes, Florin. Enlivening the Chakra of the Heart: The Fundamental Spiritual Exercises of Rudolf Steiner , first English edition 1998 from the original German edition of 1996. comparing 'traditional' chakra teaching, and that of C.W. Leadbeater, with that of Rudolf Steiner. * * * * * * * External links * * * Category:Consciousness–matter dualism Category:Hindu philosophical concepts Category:Meditation Category:New Age Category:Spiritual concepts Category:Theosophical philosophical concepts Category:Vitalism Category:Eastern esotericism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chakra	2025-04-05T18:28:00.250055
6910	Cloning	s, reproduce by cloning, often creating large groups of organisms with the same DNA. One example depicted here is quaking aspen.]] Cloning is the process of producing individual organisms with identical genomes, either by natural or artificial means. In nature, some organisms produce clones through asexual reproduction; this reproduction of an organism by itself without a mate is known as parthenogenesis. In the field of biotechnology, cloning is the process of creating cloned organisms of cells and of DNA fragments. The artificial cloning of organisms, sometimes known as reproductive cloning, is often accomplished via somatic-cell nuclear transfer (SCNT), a cloning method in which a viable embryo is created from a somatic cell and an egg cell. In 1996, Dolly the sheep achieved notoriety for being the first mammal cloned from a somatic cell. Another example of artificial cloning is molecular cloning, a technique in molecular biology in which a single living cell is used to clone a large population of cells that contain identical DNA molecules. In bioethics, there are a variety of ethical positions regarding the practice and possibilities of cloning. The use of embryonic stem cells, which can be produced through SCNT, in some stem cell research has attracted controversy. Cloning has been proposed as a means of reviving extinct species. In popular culture, the concept of cloning—particularly human cloning—is often depicted in science fiction; depictions commonly involve themes related to identity, the recreation of historical figures or extinct species, or cloning for exploitation (e.g. cloning soldiers for warfare). Etymology Coined by Herbert J. Webber, the term clone derives from the Ancient Greek word (), twig, which is the process whereby a new plant is created from a twig. In botany, the term lusus was used. In horticulture, the spelling clon was used until the early twentieth century; the final e came into use to indicate the vowel is a "long o" instead of a "short o". Since the term entered the popular lexicon in a more general context, the spelling clone has been used exclusively. Natural cloning Natural cloning is the production of clones without the involvement of genetic engineering techniques or human intervention (i.e. artificial cloning). Natural cloning occurs through a variety of natural mechanisms, from single-celled organisms to complex multicellular organisms, and has allowed life forms to spread for hundreds of millions of years. Versions of this reproduction method are used by plants, fungi, and bacteria, and is also the way that clonal colonies reproduce themselves. Some of the mechanisms are explored and used in plants and animals are binary fission, budding, fragmentation, and parthenogenesis. It can also occur during some forms of asexual reproduction, when a single parent organism produces genetically identical offspring by itself. Many plants are well known for natural cloning ability, including blueberry plants, Hazel trees, the Pando trees, the Kentucky coffeetree, Myrica, and the American sweetgum. It also occurs accidentally in the case of identical twins, which are formed when a fertilized egg splits, creating two or more embryos that carry identical DNA. Molecular cloning Molecular cloning refers to the process of making multiple molecules. Cloning is commonly used to amplify DNA fragments containing whole genes, but it can also be used to amplify any DNA sequence such as promoters, non-coding sequences and randomly fragmented DNA. It is used in a wide array of biological experiments and practical applications ranging from genetic fingerprinting to large scale protein production. Occasionally, the term cloning is misleadingly used to refer to the identification of the chromosomal location of a gene associated with a particular phenotype of interest, such as in positional cloning. In practice, localization of the gene to a chromosome or genomic region does not necessarily enable one to isolate or amplify the relevant genomic sequence. To amplify any DNA sequence in a living organism, that sequence must be linked to an origin of replication, which is a sequence of DNA capable of directing the propagation of itself and any linked sequence. However, a number of other features are needed, and a variety of specialised cloning vectors (small piece of DNA into which a foreign DNA fragment can be inserted) exist that allow protein production, affinity tagging, single-stranded RNA or DNA production and a host of other molecular biology tools. Cloning of any DNA fragment essentially involves four steps # fragmentation - breaking apart a strand of DNA # ligation – gluing together pieces of DNA in a desired sequence # transfection – inserting the newly formed pieces of DNA into cells # screening/selection – selecting out the cells that were successfully transfected with the new DNA Although these steps are invariable among cloning procedures a number of alternative routes can be selected; these are summarized as a cloning strategy. Initially, the DNA of interest needs to be isolated to provide a DNA segment of suitable size. Subsequently, a ligation procedure is used where the amplified fragment is inserted into a vector (piece of DNA). The vector (which is frequently circular) is linearised using restriction enzymes, and incubated with the fragment of interest under appropriate conditions with an enzyme called DNA ligase. Following ligation, the vector with the insert of interest is transfected into cells. A number of alternative techniques are available, such as chemical sensitisation of cells, electroporation, optical injection and biolistics. Finally, the transfected cells are cultured. As the aforementioned procedures are of particularly low efficiency, there is a need to identify the cells that have been successfully transfected with the vector construct containing the desired insertion sequence in the required orientation. Modern cloning vectors include selectable antibiotic resistance markers, which allow only cells in which the vector has been transfected, to grow. Additionally, the cloning vectors may contain colour selection markers, which provide blue/white screening (alpha-factor complementation) on X-gal medium. Nevertheless, these selection steps do not absolutely guarantee that the DNA insert is present in the cells obtained. Further investigation of the resulting colonies must be required to confirm that cloning was successful. This may be accomplished by means of PCR, restriction fragment analysis and/or DNA sequencing. Cell cloning Cloning unicellular organisms Cloning a cell means to derive a population of cells from a single cell. In the case of unicellular organisms such as bacteria and yeast, this process is remarkably simple and essentially only requires the inoculation of the appropriate medium. However, in the case of cell cultures from multi-cellular organisms, cell cloning is an arduous task as these cells will not readily grow in standard media. A useful tissue culture technique used to clone distinct lineages of cell lines involves the use of cloning rings (cylinders). In this technique a single-cell suspension of cells that have been exposed to a mutagenic agent or drug used to drive selection is plated at high dilution to create isolated colonies, each arising from a single and potentially clonal distinct cell. At an early growth stage when colonies consist of only a few cells, sterile polystyrene rings (cloning rings), which have been dipped in grease, are placed over an individual colony and a small amount of trypsin is added. Cloned cells are collected from inside the ring and transferred to a new vessel for further growth. Cloning stem cells Somatic-cell nuclear transfer, popularly known as SCNT, can also be used to create embryos for research or therapeutic purposes. The most likely purpose for this is to produce embryos for use in stem cell research. This process is also called "research cloning" or "therapeutic cloning". The goal is not to create cloned human beings (called "reproductive cloning"), but rather to harvest stem cells that can be used to study human development and to potentially treat disease. While a clonal human blastocyst has been created, stem cell lines are yet to be isolated from a clonal source. Therapeutic cloning is achieved by creating embryonic stem cells in the hopes of treating diseases such as diabetes and Alzheimer's. The process begins by removing the nucleus (containing the DNA) from an egg cell and inserting a nucleus from the adult cell to be cloned. In the case of someone with Alzheimer's disease, the nucleus from a skin cell of that patient is placed into an empty egg. The reprogrammed cell begins to develop into an embryo because the egg reacts with the transferred nucleus. The embryo will become genetically identical to the patient. The reason why SCNT is used for cloning is because somatic cells can be easily acquired and cultured in the lab. This process can either add or delete specific genomes of farm animals. A key point to remember is that cloning is achieved when the oocyte maintains its normal functions and instead of using sperm and egg genomes to replicate, the donor's somatic cell nucleus is inserted into the oocyte. The oocyte will react to the somatic cell nucleus, the same way it would to a sperm cell's nucleus. As the procedure could not be automated, and had to be performed manually under a microscope, SCNT was very resource intensive. The biochemistry involved in reprogramming the differentiated somatic cell nucleus and activating the recipient egg was also far from being well understood. However, by 2014 researchers were reporting cloning success rates of seven to eight out of ten and in 2016, a Korean Company Sooam Biotech was reported to be producing 500 cloned embryos per day. In SCNT, not all of the donor cell's genetic information is transferred, as the donor cell's mitochondria that contain their own mitochondrial DNA are left behind. The resulting hybrid cells retain those mitochondrial structures which originally belonged to the egg. As a consequence, clones such as Dolly that are born from SCNT are not perfect copies of the donor of the nucleus. Organism cloning Organism cloning (also called reproductive cloning) refers to the procedure of creating a new multicellular organism, genetically identical to another. In essence this form of cloning is an asexual method of reproduction, where fertilization or inter-gamete contact does not take place. Asexual reproduction is a naturally occurring phenomenon in many species, including most plants and some insects. Scientists have made some major achievements with cloning, including the asexual reproduction of sheep and cows. There is a lot of ethical debate over whether or not cloning should be used. However, cloning, or asexual propagation, has been common practice in the horticultural world for hundreds of years. Horticultural , such as grape vines, is an ancient form of cloning.]] The term clone is used in horticulture to refer to descendants of a single plant which were produced by vegetative reproduction or apomixis. Many horticultural plant cultivars are clones, having been derived from a single individual, multiplied by some process other than sexual reproduction. As an example, some European cultivars of grapes represent clones that have been propagated for over two millennia. Other examples are potatoes and bananas. Grafting can be regarded as cloning, since all the shoots and branches coming from the graft are genetically a clone of a single individual, but this particular kind of cloning has not come under ethical scrutiny and is generally treated as an entirely different kind of operation. Many trees, shrubs, vines, ferns and other herbaceous perennials form clonal colonies naturally. Parts of an individual plant may become detached by fragmentation and grow on to become separate clonal individuals. A common example is in the vegetative reproduction of moss and liverwort gametophyte clones by means of gemmae. Some vascular plants e.g. dandelion and certain viviparous grasses also form seeds asexually, termed apomixis, resulting in clonal populations of genetically identical individuals. Parthenogenesis Clonal derivation exists in nature in some animal species and is referred to as parthenogenesis (reproduction of an organism by itself without a mate). This is an asexual form of reproduction that is only found in females of some insects, crustaceans, nematodes, fish (for example the hammerhead shark), Cape honeybees, and lizards including the Komodo dragon Methods Reproductive cloning generally uses "somatic cell nuclear transfer" (SCNT) to create animals that are genetically identical. This process entails the transfer of a nucleus from a donor adult cell (somatic cell) to an egg from which the nucleus has been removed, or to a cell from a blastocyst from which the nucleus has been removed. If the egg begins to divide normally it is transferred into the uterus of the surrogate mother. Such clones are not strictly identical since the somatic cells may contain mutations in their nuclear DNA. Additionally, the mitochondria in the cytoplasm also contains DNA and during SCNT this mitochondrial DNA is wholly from the cytoplasmic donor's egg, thus the mitochondrial genome is not the same as that of the nucleus donor cell from which it was produced. This may have important implications for cross-species nuclear transfer in which nuclear-mitochondrial incompatibilities may lead to death. Artificial embryo splitting or embryo twinning, a technique that creates monozygotic twins from a single embryo, is not considered in the same fashion as other methods of cloning. During that procedure, a donor embryo is split in two distinct embryos, that can then be transferred via embryo transfer. It is optimally performed at the 6- to 8-cell stage, where it can be used as an expansion of IVF to increase the number of available embryos. If both embryos are successful, it gives rise to monozygotic (identical) twins. Dolly the sheep body of Dolly the sheep]] Dolly, a Finn-Dorset ewe, was the first mammal to have been successfully cloned from an adult somatic cell. Dolly was formed by taking a cell from the udder of her 6-year-old biological mother. Dolly's embryo was created by taking the cell and inserting it into a sheep ovum. It took 435 attempts before an embryo was successful. The embryo was then placed inside a female sheep that went through a normal pregnancy. She was cloned at the Roslin Institute in Scotland by British scientists Sir Ian Wilmut and Keith Campbell and lived there from her birth in 1996 until her death in 2003 when she was six. She was born on 5 July 1996 but not announced to the world until 22 February 1997. Her stuffed remains were placed at Edinburgh's Royal Museum, part of the National Museums of Scotland. Dolly was publicly significant because the effort showed that genetic material from a specific adult cell, designed to express only a distinct subset of its genes, can be redesigned to grow an entirely new organism. Before this demonstration, it had been shown by John Gurdon that nuclei from differentiated cells could give rise to an entire organism after transplantation into an enucleated egg. However, this concept was not yet demonstrated in a mammalian system. The first mammalian cloning (resulting in Dolly) had a success rate of 29 embryos per 277 fertilized eggs, which produced three lambs at birth, one of which lived. In a bovine experiment involving 70 cloned calves, one-third of the calves died quite young. The first successfully cloned horse, Prometea, took 814 attempts. Notably, although the first clones were frogs, no adult cloned frog has yet been produced from a somatic adult nucleus donor cell. There were early claims that Dolly had pathologies resembling accelerated aging. Scientists speculated that Dolly's death in 2003 was related to the shortening of telomeres, DNA-protein complexes that protect the end of linear chromosomes. However, other researchers, including Ian Wilmut who led the team that successfully cloned Dolly, argue that Dolly's early death due to respiratory infection was unrelated to problems with the cloning process. This idea that the nuclei have not irreversibly aged was shown in 2013 to be true for mice. Species cloned and applications The modern cloning techniques involving nuclear transfer have been successfully performed on several species. Notable experiments include: * Tadpole: (1952) Robert Briggs and Thomas J. King successfully cloned northern leopard frogs: thirty-five complete embryos and twenty-seven tadpoles from one-hundred and four successful nuclear transfers. * Carp: (1963) In China, embryologist Tong Dizhou produced the world's first cloned fish by inserting the DNA from a cell of a male carp into an egg from a female carp. * Zebrafish: (1981) George Streisinger produced the first cloned vertebrate. Sheep: (1984) Steen Willadsen produced the first cloned mammal from early embryonic cells. In June 1995, the Roslin Institute cloned Megan and Morag from differentiated embryonic cells. In July 1996, PPL Therapeutics and the Roslin Institute cloned Dolly the sheep from a somatic cell.<!-- ideally an English translation is needed; following cite is from an archived copy of the original, now dead, link. A translation appears to indicate that Russians worked with embryonic mouse cells to produce a non-SCNT clone in 1987 --> Rhesus monkey: (October 1999) The Oregon National Primate Research Center cloned Tetra from embryo splitting and not nuclear transfer: a process more akin to artificial formation of twins. * Pig: (March 2000) PPL Therapeutics cloned five piglets. By 2014, BGI in China was producing 500 cloned pigs a year to test new medicines. * Gaur: (2001) was the first endangered species cloned. * Cattle: Alpha and Beta (males, 2001) and (2005), Brazil<!-- one of the sources used by: Wikinews: Endangered cow cloned in Brazil --> In 2023, Chinese scientists reported the cloning of three supercows with a milk productivity "nearly 1.7 times the amount of milk an average cow in the United States produced in 2021" and a plan for 1,000 of such super cows in the near-term. According to a news report "[i]n many countries, including the United States, farmers breed clones with conventional animals to add desirable traits, such as high milk production or disease resistance, into the gene pool". * Cat: CopyCat "CC" (female, late 2001), Little Nicky, 2004, was the first cat cloned for commercial reasons * Rat: Ralph, the first cloned rat (2003) * Mule: Idaho Gem, a john mule born 4 May 2003, was the first horse-family clone. * Horse: Prometea, a Haflinger female born 28 May 2003, was the first horse clone. * Przewalksi's Horse: An ongoing cloning program by the San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance and Revive & Restore attempts to reintroduce genetic diversity to this endangered species. Kurt, the first cloned Przewalski's horse, was born in 2020. He was cloned from the skin tissue of a stallion which was preserved in 1980. "Trey" was born in 2023. He was cloned from the same stallion's tissue as Kurt. * Dog: Snuppy, a male Afghan hound was the first cloned dog (2005). In 2017, the world's first gene-editing clone dog, Apple, was created by Sinogene Biotechnology. Sooam Biotech, South Korea, was reported in 2015 to have cloned 700 dogs to date for their owners, including two Yakutian Laika hunting dogs, which are seriously endangered due to crossbreeding. Cloning of super sniffer dogs was reported in 2011, four years afterwards when the dogs started working. Cloning of a successful rescue dog was also reported in 2009 and of a similar police dog in 2019. Cancer-sniffing dogs have also been cloned. A review concluded that "qualified elite working dogs can be produced by cloning a working dog that exhibits both an appropriate temperament and good health." * Wolf: Snuwolf and Snuwolffy, the first two cloned female wolves (2005). * Water buffalo: Samrupa was the first cloned water buffalo. It was born on 6 February 2009, at India's Karnal National Dairy Research Institute but died five days later due to lung infection. * Pyrenean ibex: (2009) was the first extinct animal to be cloned back to life; the clone lived for seven minutes before dying of lung defects. The extinct Pyrenean ibex is a sub-species of the extant Spanish ibex. * Camel: (2009) Injaz, was the first cloned camel. * Pashmina goat: (2012) Noori, is the first cloned pashmina goat. Scientists at the faculty of veterinary sciences and animal husbandry of Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir successfully cloned the first Pashmina goat (Noori) using the advanced reproductive techniques under the leadership of Riaz Ahmad Shah. * Goat: (2001) Scientists of Northwest A&F University successfully cloned the first goat which use the adult female cell. * Gastric brooding frog: (2013) The gastric brooding frog, Rheobatrachus silus, thought to have been extinct since 1983 was cloned in Australia, although the embryos died after a few days. * Macaque monkey: (2017) First successful cloning of a primate species using nuclear transfer, with the birth of two live clones named Zhong Zhong and Hua Hua. Conducted in China in 2017, and reported in January 2018. In January 2019, scientists in China reported the creation of five identical cloned gene-edited monkeys, using the same cloning technique that was used with Zhong Zhong and Hua Hua and Dolly the sheep, and the gene-editing Crispr-Cas9 technique allegedly used by He Jiankui in creating the first ever gene-modified human babies Lulu and Nana. The monkey clones were made to study several medical diseases. Black-footed ferret: (2020) A team of scientists cloned a female named Willa, who died in the mid-1980s and left no living descendants. Her clone, a female named Elizabeth Ann, was born on 10 December. Scientists hope that the contribution of this individual will alleviate the effects of inbreeding and help black-footed ferrets better cope with plague. Experts estimate that this female's genome contains three times as much genetic diversity as any of the modern black-footed ferrets. First artificial parthenogenesis in mammals: (2022) Viable mice offspring was born from unfertilized eggs via targeted DNA methylation editing of seven imprinting control regions. Human cloning Human cloning is the creation of a genetically identical copy of a human. The term is generally used to refer to artificial human cloning, which is the reproduction of human cells and tissues. It does not refer to the natural conception and delivery of identical twins. The possibility of human cloning has raised controversies. These ethical concerns have prompted several nations to pass legislation regarding human cloning and its legality. As of right now, scientists have no intention of trying to clone people and they believe their results should spark a wider discussion about the laws and regulations the world needs to regulate cloning. Two commonly discussed types of theoretical human cloning are therapeutic cloning and reproductive cloning. Therapeutic cloning would involve cloning cells from a human for use in medicine and transplants, and is an active area of research, but is not in medical practice anywhere in the world, . Two common methods of therapeutic cloning that are being researched are somatic-cell nuclear transfer and, more recently, pluripotent stem cell induction. Reproductive cloning would involve making an entire cloned human, instead of just specific cells or tissues. Ethical issues of cloning There are a variety of ethical positions regarding the possibilities of cloning, especially human cloning. While many of these views are religious in origin, the questions raised by cloning are faced by secular perspectives as well. Perspectives on human cloning are theoretical, as human therapeutic and reproductive cloning are not commercially used; animals are currently cloned in laboratories and in livestock production. Advocates support development of therapeutic cloning to generate tissues and whole organs to treat patients who otherwise cannot obtain transplants, to avoid the need for immunosuppressive drugs, Advocates for reproductive cloning believe that parents who cannot otherwise procreate should have access to the technology. Opponents of cloning have concerns that technology is not yet developed enough to be safe and that it could be prone to abuse (leading to the generation of humans from whom organs and tissues would be harvested), as well as concerns about how cloned individuals could integrate with families and with society at large. Cloning humans could lead to serious violations of human rights. Religious groups are divided, with some opposing the technology as usurping "God's place" and, to the extent embryos are used, destroying a human life; others support therapeutic cloning's potential life-saving benefits. There is at least one religion, Raëlism, in which cloning plays a major role<!-- (in this case in a passive as well as in a proactive/motivational way where cloning is considered positive or negative depending on context or purpose)-->. Contemporary work on this topic is concerned with the ethics, adequate regulation and issues of any cloning carried out by humans, not potentially by extraterrestrials (including in the future), and largely also not replication – also described as mind cloning – of potential whole brain emulations. Cloning of animals is opposed by animal-groups due to the number of cloned animals that suffer from malformations before they die, and while food from cloned animals has been approved as safe by the US FDA, its use is opposed by groups concerned about food safety. In practical terms, the inclusion of "licensing requirements for embryo research projects and fertility clinics, restrictions on the commodification of eggs and sperm, and measures to prevent proprietary interests from monopolizing access to stem cell lines" in international cloning regulations has been proposed, albeit e.g. effective oversight mechanisms or cloning requirements have not been described. Cloning extinct and endangered species Cloning, or more precisely, the reconstruction of functional DNA from extinct species has, for decades, been a dream. Possible implications of this were dramatized in the 1984 novel Carnosaur and the 1990 novel Jurassic Park. The best current cloning techniques have an average success rate of 9.4 percent (and as high as 25 percent and in another news article in 2015 a Korean Company, Sooam Biotech, claimed 40 percent success rates with cloning dogs}} while cloning wild animals is usually less than 1 percent successful. Conservation cloning Several tissue banks have come into existence, including the "Frozen zoo" at the San Diego Zoo, to store frozen tissue from the world's rarest and most endangered species. This is also referred to as "Conservation cloning". Engineers have proposed a "lunar ark" in 2021 – storing millions of seed, spore, sperm and egg samples from Earth's contemporary species in a network of lava tubes on the Moon as a genetic backup. Similar proposals have been made since at least 2008. These also include sending human customer DNA, and a proposal for "a lunar backup record of humanity" that includes genetic information by Avi Loeb et al. In 2020, the San Diego Zoo began a number of projects in partnership with the conservation organization Revive & Restore and the ViaGen Pets and Equine Company to clone individuals of genetically-impoverished endangered species. A Przewalski's horse was cloned from preserved tissue of a stallion whose genes are absent in the surviving populations of the species, which descend from twenty individuals. The clone, named Kurt, had been born to a domestic surrogate mother, and was partnered with a natural-born Przewalski's mare in order to socialize him with the species' natural behavior before being introduced to the Zoo's breeding herd. In 2023, a second clone of the original stallion, named Ollie, was born; this marked the first instance of multiple living clones of a single individual of an endangered species being alive at the same time. Also in 2020, a clone named Elizabeth Ann was produced of a female black-footed ferret that had no living descendants. While Elizabeth Ann became sterile due to secondary health complications, a pair of additional clones of the same individual, named Antonia and Noreen, were born to distinct surrogate mothers, and Antonia successfully reproduced later in the year. De-extinction One of the most anticipated targets for cloning was once the woolly mammoth, but attempts to extract DNA from frozen mammoths have been unsuccessful, though a joint Russo-Japanese team is currently working toward this goal. In January 2011, it was reported by Yomiuri Shimbun that a team of scientists headed by Akira Iritani of Kyoto University had built upon research by Dr. Wakayama, saying that they will extract DNA from a mammoth carcass that had been preserved in a Russian laboratory and insert it into the egg cells of an Asian elephant in hopes of producing a mammoth embryo. The researchers said they hoped to produce a baby mammoth within six years. The challenges are formidable. Extensively degraded DNA that may be suitable for sequencing may not be suitable for cloning; it would have to be synthetically reconstituted. In any case, with currently available technology, DNA alone is not suitable for mammalian cloning; intact viable cell nuclei are required. Patching pieces of reconstituted mammoth DNA into an Asian elephant cell nucleus would result in an elephant-mammoth hybrid rather than a true mammoth. Moreover, true de-extinction of the wooly mammoth species would require a breeding population, which would require cloning of multiple genetically distinct but reproductively compatible individuals, multiplying both the amount of work and the uncertainties involved in the project. There are potentially other post-cloning problems associated with the survival of a reconstructed mammoth, such as the requirement of ruminants for specific symbiotic microbiota in their stomachs for digestion. Many such "de-extinction" projects are being championed by the non-profit Revive & Restore. In 2022, scientists showed major limitations and the scale of challenge of genetic-editing-based de-extinction, suggesting resources spent on more comprehensive de-extinction projects such as of the woolly mammoth may currently not be well allocated and substantially limited. Their analyses "show that even when the extremely high-quality Norway brown rat (R. norvegicus) is used as a reference, nearly 5% of the genome sequence is unrecoverable, with 1,661 genes recovered at lower than 90% completeness, and 26 completely absent", complicated further by that "distribution of regions affected is not random, but for example, if 90% completeness is used as the cutoff, genes related to immune response and olfaction are excessively affected" due to which "a reconstructed Christmas Island rat would lack attributes likely critical to surviving in its natural or natural-like environment". In a 2021 online session of the Russian Geographical Society, Russia's defense minister Sergei Shoigu mentioned using the DNA of 3,000-year-old Scythian warriors to potentially bring them back to life. The idea was described as absurd at least at this point in news reports and it was noted that Scythians likely weren't skilled warriors by default. The idea of cloning Neanderthals or bringing them back to life in general is controversial but some scientists have stated that it may be possible in the future and have outlined several issues or problems with such as well as broad rationales for doing so. Unsuccessful attempts In 2001, a cow named Bessie gave birth to a cloned Asian gaur, an endangered species, but the calf died after two days. In 2003, a banteng was successfully cloned, followed by three African wildcats from a thawed frozen embryo. These successes provided hope that similar techniques (using surrogate mothers of another species) might be used to clone extinct species. Anticipating this possibility, tissue samples from the last bucardo (Pyrenean ibex) were frozen in liquid nitrogen immediately after it died in 2000. Researchers are also considering cloning endangered species such as the Giant panda and Cheetah. In 2002, geneticists at the Australian Museum announced that they had replicated DNA of the thylacine (Tasmanian tiger), at the time extinct for about 65 years, using polymerase chain reaction. However, on 15 February 2005 the museum announced that it was stopping the project after tests showed the specimens' DNA had been too badly degraded by the (ethanol) preservative. On 15 May 2005 it was announced that the thylacine project would be revived, with new participation from researchers in New South Wales and Victoria. In 2003, for the first time, an extinct animal, the Pyrenean ibex mentioned above was cloned, at the Centre of Food Technology and Research of Aragon, using the preserved frozen cell nucleus of the skin samples from 2001 and domestic goat egg-cells. The ibex died shortly after birth due to physical defects in its lungs. Lifespan After an eight-year project involving the use of a pioneering cloning technique, Japanese researchers created 25 generations of healthy cloned mice with normal lifespans, demonstrating that clones are not intrinsically shorter-lived than naturally born animals. Other sources have noted that the offspring of clones tend to be healthier than the original clones and indistinguishable from animals produced naturally. Some posited that Dolly the sheep may have aged more quickly than naturally born animals, as she died relatively early for a sheep at the age of six. Ultimately, her death was attributed to a respiratory illness, and the "advanced aging" theory is disputed. A 2016 study indicated that once cloned animals survive the first month or two of life they are generally healthy. However, early pregnancy loss and neonatal losses are still greater with cloning than natural conception or assisted reproduction (IVF). Current research is attempting to overcome these problems. Newsweek 10 March 1997 issue also critiqued the ethics of human cloning, and included a graphic depicting identical babies in beakers. The concept of cloning, particularly human cloning, has featured a wide variety of science fiction works. An early fictional depiction of cloning is Bokanovsky's Process which features in Aldous Huxley's 1931 dystopian novel Brave New World. The process is applied to fertilized human eggs in vitro, causing them to split into identical genetic copies of the original. Following renewed interest in cloning in the 1950s, the subject was explored further in works such as Poul Anderson's 1953 story UN-Man, which describes a technology called "exogenesis", and Gordon Rattray Taylor's book The Biological Time Bomb, which popularised the term "cloning" in 1963. Cloning is a recurring theme in a number of contemporary science fiction films, ranging from action films such as Anna to the Infinite Power, The Boys from Brazil, Jurassic Park (1993), Alien Resurrection (1997), The 6th Day (2000), Resident Evil (2002), Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones (2002), The Island (2005), Tales of the Abyss (2006), and Moon (2009) to comedies such as Woody Allen's 1973 film Sleeper. The process of cloning is represented variously in fiction. Many works depict the artificial creation of humans by a method of growing cells from a tissue or DNA sample; the replication may be instantaneous, or take place through slow growth of human embryos in artificial wombs. In the long-running British television series Doctor Who, the Fourth Doctor and his companion Leela were cloned in a matter of seconds from DNA samples ("The Invisible Enemy", 1977) and then – in an apparent homage to the 1966 film Fantastic Voyage – shrunk to microscopic size to enter the Doctor's body to combat an alien virus. The clones in this story are short-lived, and can only survive a matter of minutes before they expire. Science fiction films such as The Matrix and Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones have featured scenes of human foetuses being cultured on an industrial scale in mechanical tanks. Cloning humans from body parts is also a common theme in science fiction. Cloning features strongly among the science fiction conventions parodied in Woody Allen's Sleeper, the plot of which centres around an attempt to clone an assassinated dictator from his disembodied nose. In the 2008 Doctor Who story "Journey's End", a duplicate version of the Tenth Doctor spontaneously grows from his severed hand, which had been cut off in a sword fight during an earlier episode. After the death of her beloved 14-year-old Coton de Tulear named Samantha in late 2017, Barbra Streisand announced that she had cloned the dog, and was now "waiting for [the two cloned pups] to get older so [she] can see if they have [Samantha's] brown eyes and her seriousness". The operation cost $50,000 through the pet cloning company ViaGen. In films such as Roger Spottiswoode's 2000 The 6th Day, which makes use of the trope of a "vast clandestine laboratory ... filled with row upon row of 'blank' human bodies kept floating in tanks of nutrient liquid or in suspended animation", clearly fear is to be incited. In Clark's view, the biotechnology is typically "given fantastic but visually arresting forms" while the science is either relegated to the background or fictionalised to suit a young audience.Cloning and identityScience fiction has used cloning, most commonly and specifically human cloning, to raise questions of identity. A Number is a 2002 play by English playwright Caryl Churchill which addresses the subject of human cloning and identity, especially nature and nurture. The story, set in the near future, is structured around the conflict between a father (Salter) and his sons (Bernard 1, Bernard 2, and Michael Black) – two of whom are clones of the first one. A Number was adapted by Caryl Churchill for television, in a co-production between the BBC and HBO Films. In 2012, a Japanese television series named "Bunshin" was created. The story's main character, Mariko, is a woman studying child welfare in Hokkaido. She grew up always doubtful about the love from her mother, who looked nothing like her and who died nine years before. One day, she finds some of her mother's belongings at a relative's house, and heads to Tokyo to seek out the truth behind her birth. She later discovered that she was a clone. In the 2013 television series Orphan Black, cloning is used as a scientific study on the behavioral adaptation of the clones. In a similar vein, the book The Double by Nobel Prize winner José Saramago explores the emotional experience of a man who discovers that he is a clone. Cloning as resurrection Cloning has been used in fiction as a way of recreating historical figures. In the 1976 Ira Levin novel The Boys from Brazil and its 1978 film adaptation, Josef Mengele uses cloning to create copies of Adolf Hitler. In Michael Crichton's 1990 novel Jurassic Park, which spawned a series of Jurassic Park feature films, the bioengineering company InGen develops a technique to resurrect extinct species of dinosaurs by creating cloned creatures using DNA extracted from fossils. The cloned dinosaurs are used to populate the Jurassic Park wildlife park for the entertainment of visitors. The scheme goes disastrously wrong when the dinosaurs escape their enclosures. Despite being selectively cloned as females to prevent them from breeding, the dinosaurs develop the ability to reproduce through parthenogenesis. Cloning for warfare The use of cloning for military purposes has also been explored in several fictional works. In Doctor Who, an alien race of armour-clad, warlike beings called Sontarans was introduced in the 1973 serial "The Time Warrior". Sontarans are depicted as squat, bald creatures who have been genetically engineered for combat. Their weak spot is a "probic vent", a small socket at the back of their neck which is associated with the cloning process. The concept of cloned soldiers being bred for combat was revisited in "The Doctor's Daughter" (2008), when the Doctor's DNA is used to create a female warrior called Jenny. The 1977 film Star Wars was set against the backdrop of a historical conflict called the Clone Wars. The events of this war were not fully explored until the prequel films Attack of the Clones (2002) and Revenge of the Sith (2005), which depict a space war waged by a massive army of heavily armoured clone troopers that leads to the foundation of the Galactic Empire. Cloned soldiers are "manufactured" on an industrial scale, genetically conditioned for obedience and combat effectiveness. It is also revealed that the popular character Boba Fett originated as a clone of Jango Fett, a mercenary who served as the genetic template for the clone troopers. Cloning for exploitation A recurring sub-theme of cloning fiction is the use of clones as a supply of organs for transplantation. The 2005 Kazuo Ishiguro novel Never Let Me Go and the 2010 film adaption are set in an alternate history in which cloned humans are created for the sole purpose of providing organ donations to naturally born humans, despite the fact that they are fully sentient and self-aware. The 2005 film The Island revolves around a similar plot, with the exception that the clones are unaware of the reason for their existence. The exploitation of human clones for dangerous and undesirable work was examined in the 2009 British science fiction film Moon. In the futuristic novel Cloud Atlas and subsequent film, one of the story lines focuses on a genetically engineered fabricant clone named Sonmi~451, one of millions raised in an artificial "wombtank", destined to serve from birth. She is one of thousands created for manual and emotional labor; Sonmi herself works as a server in a restaurant. She later discovers that the sole source of food for clones, called 'Soap', is manufactured from the clones themselves. In the film Us, at some point prior to the 1980s, the US Government creates clones of every citizen of the United States with the intention of using them to control their original counterparts, akin to voodoo dolls. This fails, as they were able to copy bodies, but unable to copy the souls of those they cloned. The project is abandoned and the clones are trapped exactly mirroring their above-ground counterparts' actions for generations. In the present day, the clones launch a surprise attack and manage to complete a mass-genocide of their unaware counterparts. See also * Frozen Ark * The President's Council on Bioethics Notes References Further reading Guo, Owen. "World's Biggest Animal Cloning Center Set for '16 in a Skeptical China". The New York Times, 26 November 2015 Lerner, K. Lee. "Animal cloning". The Gale Encyclopedia of Science, edited by K. Lee Lerner and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, 5th ed., Gale, 2014. Science in Context, [http://proxy.library:2084/apps/doc/ZYIZMD068603125/SCIC?uupenn_main&sidSCIC&xidc0a1cd22 link] Dutchen, Stephanie (11 July 2018). [https://hms.harvard.edu/news/rise-clones "Rise of the Clones"]. Harvard Medical School. External links * [http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/cloning.shtml Cloning Fact Sheet] from Human Genome Project Information website. * [http://www.vega.org.uk/video/programme/15 'Cloning'] Freeview video by the Vega Science Trust and the BBC/OU * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071010012315/http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/units/cloning/index.cfm Cloning in Focus], an accessible and comprehensive look at cloning research from the University of Utah's Genetic Science Learning Center * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060503033842/http://gslc.genetics.utah.edu/units/cloning/clickandclone/ Click and Clone]. Try it yourself in the virtual mouse cloning laboratory, from the University of Utah's Genetic Science Learning Center * [http://www.nationalreview.com/document/document071602.asp "Cloning Addendum: A statement on the cloning report issues by the President's Council on Bioethics"] . National Review, 15 July 2002 8:45 am <!-- Categorization --> Category:Molecular biology Category:Cryobiology Category:Applied genetics Category:Asexual reproduction Category:Selection	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloning	2025-04-05T18:28:00.305899
6911	Cellulose	\| ChEMBL = 2109009 \| CASNo_Ref = \| EC_number = 232-674-9 \| UNII_Ref = \| UNII = SMD1X3XO9M \| KEGG = C00760 \| PubChem = 14055602 \| RTECS \| ChemSpiderID_Ref \| ChemSpiderID = None }} \| Section2 = \| MolarMass = 162.1406 g/mol per glucose unit \| Appearance = white powder \| Density = 1.5 g/cm<sup>3</sup> \| Solubility = none \| MeltingPtF = 500-518 \| MeltingPt_notes (decomposes) \| REL TWA 10 mg/m<sup>3</sup> (total) TWA 5 mg/m<sup>3</sup> (resp) Cellulose is an important structural component of the primary cell wall of green plants, many forms of algae and the oomycetes. Some species of bacteria secrete it to form biofilms. Cellulose is the most abundant organic polymer on Earth. The cellulose content of cotton fibre is 90%, that of wood is 40–50%, and that of dried hemp is approximately 57%. Cellulose is mainly used to produce paperboard and paper. Smaller quantities are converted into a wide variety of derivative products such as cellophane and rayon. Conversion of cellulose from energy crops into biofuels such as cellulosic ethanol is under development as a renewable fuel source. Cellulose for industrial use is mainly obtained from wood pulp and cotton. Some animals, particularly ruminants and termites, can digest cellulose with the help of symbiotic micro-organisms that live in their guts, such as Trichonympha. In human nutrition, cellulose is a non-digestible constituent of insoluble dietary fiber, acting as a hydrophilic bulking agent for feces and potentially aiding in defecation. History Cellulose was discovered in 1838 by the French chemist Anselme Payen, who isolated it from plant matter and determined its chemical formula. Cellulose was used to produce the first successful thermoplastic polymer, celluloid, by Hyatt Manufacturing Company in 1870. Production of rayon ("artificial silk") from cellulose began in the 1890s and cellophane was invented in 1912. Hermann Staudinger determined the polymer structure of cellulose in 1920. The compound was first chemically synthesized (without the use of any biologically derived enzymes) in 1992, by Kobayashi and Shoda. in a plant cell wall]] Structure and properties Cellulose has no taste, is odorless, is hydrophilic with the contact angle of 20–30 degrees, is insoluble in water and most organic solvents, is chiral and is biodegradable. It was shown to melt at 467 °C in pulse tests made by Dauenhauer et al. (2016). It can be broken down chemically into its glucose units by treating it with concentrated mineral acids at high temperature. Cellulose is derived from <small>D</small>-glucose units, which condense through β(1→4)-glycosidic bonds. This linkage motif contrasts with that for α(1→4)-glycosidic bonds present in starch and glycogen. Cellulose is a straight chain polymer. Unlike starch, no coiling or branching occurs and the molecule adopts an extended and rather stiff rod-like conformation, aided by the equatorial conformation of the glucose residues. The multiple hydroxyl groups on the glucose from one chain form hydrogen bonds with oxygen atoms on the same or on a neighbour chain, holding the chains firmly together side-by-side and forming microfibrils with high tensile strength. This confers tensile strength in cell walls where cellulose microfibrils are meshed into a polysaccharide matrix''. The high tensile strength of plant stems and of the tree wood also arises from the arrangement of cellulose fibers intimately distributed into the lignin matrix. The mechanical role of cellulose fibers in the wood matrix responsible for its strong structural resistance, can somewhat be compared to that of the reinforcement bars in concrete, lignin playing here the role of the hardened cement paste acting as the "glue" in between the cellulose fibres. Mechanical properties of cellulose in primary plant cell wall are correlated with growth and expansion of plant cells. Live fluorescence microscopy techniques are promising in investigation of the role of cellulose in growing plant cells. s (cyan lines) between glucose strands]] fibres represent the purest natural form of cellulose, containing more than 90% of this polysaccharide.]] Compared to starch, cellulose is also much more crystalline. Whereas starch undergoes a crystalline to amorphous transition when heated beyond 60–70 °C in water (as in cooking), cellulose requires a temperature of 320 °C and pressure of 25 MPa to become amorphous in water. Several types of cellulose are known. These forms are distinguished according to the location of hydrogen bonds between and within strands. Natural cellulose is cellulose I, with structures I<sub>α</sub> and I<sub>β</sub>. Cellulose produced by bacteria and algae is enriched in I<sub>α</sub> while cellulose of higher plants consists mainly of I<sub>β</sub>. Cellulose in regenerated cellulose fibers is cellulose II. The conversion of cellulose I to cellulose II is irreversible, suggesting that cellulose I is metastable and cellulose II is stable. With various chemical treatments it is possible to produce the structures cellulose III and cellulose IV. Many properties of cellulose depend on its chain length or degree of polymerization, the number of glucose units that make up one polymer molecule. Cellulose from wood pulp has typical chain lengths between 300 and 1700 units; cotton and other plant fibers as well as bacterial cellulose have chain lengths ranging from 800 to 10,000 units. Plant-derived cellulose is usually found in a mixture with hemicellulose, lignin, pectin and other substances, while bacterial cellulose is quite pure, has a much higher water content and higher tensile strength due to higher chain lengths. These cellulose fibrils may be individualized by mechanical treatment of cellulose pulp, often assisted by chemical oxidation or enzymatic treatment, yielding semi-flexible cellulose nanofibrils generally 200 nm to 1 μm in length depending on the treatment intensity. Cellulose pulp may also be treated with strong acid to hydrolyze the amorphous fibril regions, thereby producing short rigid cellulose nanocrystals a few 100 nm in length. These nanocelluloses are of high technological interest due to their self-assembly into cholesteric liquid crystals, production of hydrogels or aerogels, use in nanocomposites with superior thermal and mechanical properties, and use as Pickering stabilizers for emulsions.Processing Biosynthesis In plants cellulose is synthesized at the plasma membrane by rosette terminal complexes (RTCs). The RTCs are hexameric protein structures, approximately 25 nm in diameter, that contain the cellulose synthase enzymes that synthesise the individual cellulose chains. Each RTC floats in the cell's plasma membrane and "spins" a microfibril into the cell wall. RTCs contain at least three different cellulose synthases, encoded by CesA (Ces is short for "cellulose synthase") genes, in an unknown stoichiometry. Separate sets of CesA genes are involved in primary and secondary cell wall biosynthesis. There are known to be about seven subfamilies in the plant CesA superfamily, some of which include the more cryptic, tentatively-named Csl (cellulose synthase-like) enzymes. These cellulose syntheses use UDP-glucose to form the β(1→4)-linked cellulose. Bacterial cellulose is produced using the same family of proteins, although the gene is called BcsA for "bacterial cellulose synthase" or CelA for "cellulose" in many instances. All cellulose synthases known belongs to glucosyltransferase family 2 (GT2). Cellulose synthesis requires chain initiation and elongation, and the two processes are separate. Cellulose synthase (CesA) initiates cellulose polymerization using a steroid primer, sitosterol-beta-glucoside, and UDP-glucose. It then utilises UDP-D-glucose precursors to elongate the growing cellulose chain. A cellulase may function to cleave the primer from the mature chain. Cellulose is also synthesised by tunicate animals, particularly in the tests of ascidians (where the cellulose was historically termed "tunicine" (tunicin)). Breakdown (cellulolysis) Cellulolysis is the process of breaking down cellulose into smaller polysaccharides called cellodextrins or completely into glucose units; this is a hydrolysis reaction. Because cellulose molecules bind strongly to each other, cellulolysis is relatively difficult compared to the breakdown of other polysaccharides. However, this process can be significantly intensified in a proper solvent, e.g. in an ionic liquid. Most mammals have limited ability to digest dietary fibre such as cellulose. Some ruminants like cows and sheep contain certain symbiotic anaerobic bacteria (such as Cellulomonas and Ruminococcus spp.) in the flora of the rumen, and these bacteria produce enzymes called cellulases that hydrolyze cellulose. The breakdown products are then used by the bacteria for proliferation. The bacterial mass is later digested by the ruminant in its digestive system (stomach and small intestine). Horses use cellulose in their diet by fermentation in their hindgut. Some termites contain in their hindguts certain flagellate protozoa producing such enzymes, whereas others contain bacteria or may produce cellulase. The enzymes used to cleave the glycosidic linkage in cellulose are glycoside hydrolases including endo-acting cellulases and exo-acting glucosidases. Such enzymes are usually secreted as part of multienzyme complexes that may include dockerins and carbohydrate-binding modules. Breakdown (thermolysis) At temperatures above 350 °C, cellulose undergoes thermolysis (also called 'pyrolysis'), decomposing into solid char, vapors, aerosols, and gases such as carbon dioxide. Maximum yield of vapors which condense to a liquid called bio-oil is obtained at 500 °C. Semi-crystalline cellulose polymers react at pyrolysis temperatures (350–600 °C) in a few seconds; this transformation has been shown to occur via a solid-to-liquid-to-vapor transition, with the liquid (called intermediate liquid cellulose or molten cellulose) existing for only a fraction of a second. Glycosidic bond cleavage produces short cellulose chains of two-to-seven monomers comprising the melt. Vapor bubbling of intermediate liquid cellulose produces aerosols, which consist of short chain anhydro-oligomers derived from the melt. Continuing decomposition of molten cellulose produces volatile compounds including levoglucosan, furans, pyrans, light oxygenates, and gases via primary reactions. Within thick cellulose samples, volatile compounds such as levoglucosan undergo 'secondary reactions' to volatile products including pyrans and light oxygenates such as glycolaldehyde. Hemicellulose Hemicelluloses are polysaccharides related to cellulose that comprises about 20% of the biomass of land plants. In contrast to cellulose, hemicelluloses are derived from several sugars in addition to glucose, especially xylose but also including mannose, galactose, rhamnose, and arabinose. Hemicelluloses consist of shorter chains – between 500 and 3000 sugar units. Furthermore, hemicelluloses are branched, whereas cellulose is unbranched. Regenerated cellulose Cellulose is soluble in several kinds of media, several of which are the basis of commercial technologies. These dissolution processes are reversible and are used in the production of regenerated celluloses (such as viscose and cellophane) from dissolving pulp. The most important solubilizing agent is carbon disulfide in the presence of alkali. Other agents include Schweizer's reagent, N-methylmorpholine N-oxide, and lithium chloride in dimethylacetamide. In general, these agents modify the cellulose, rendering it soluble. The agents are then removed concomitant with the formation of fibers. Cellulose is also soluble in many kinds of ionic liquids. The history of regenerated cellulose is often cited as beginning with George Audemars, who first manufactured regenerated nitrocellulose fibers in 1855. Although these fibers were soft and strong -resembling silk- they had the drawback of being highly flammable. Hilaire de Chardonnet perfected production of nitrocellulose fibers, but manufacturing of these fibers by his process was relatively uneconomical. In 1891, it was discovered that treatment of cellulose with alkali and carbon disulfide generated a soluble cellulose derivative known as viscose. By 1931, expiration of patents for the viscose process led to its adoption worldwide. Global production of regenerated cellulose fiber peaked in 1973 at 3,856,000 tons. derivatives include: {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Cellulose ethers !! Reagent !! Example !! Reagent !! Group R = H or !! Water solubility !! Application !! E number \|- \| rowspan=3 \| Alkyl \| rowspan=3 \| Halogenoalkanes \| Methylcellulose \|\| Chloromethane \|\| −CH<sub>3</sub> \|\| Cold/Hot water-soluble \|\| \|\| E461 \|- \| Ethylcellulose (EC) \|\| Chloroethane \|\| −CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>3</sub> \|\| Water-insoluble \|\| A commercial thermoplastic used in coatings, inks, binders, and controlled-release drug tablets, also employed in the production of oleogels and bioplastics\|\| E462 \|- \| Ethyl methyl cellulose \|\| Chloromethane and chloroethane \|\| −CH<sub>3</sub> or −CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>3</sub> \|\| \|\| \|\| E465 \|- \| rowspan=5 \| Hydroxyalkyl \| rowspan=5 \| Epoxides \| Hydroxyethyl cellulose \|\| Ethylene oxide \|\| −CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>OH \|\| Cold/hot water-soluble \|\| Gelling and thickening agent \|\| \|- \| Hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC) \|\| Propylene oxide \|\| −CH<sub>2</sub>CH(OH)CH<sub>3</sub> \|\| Cold water-soluble \|\| filming properties, coating properties, pharmaceuticals, cultural heritage restoration, electronic applications, cosmetic sector\|\| E463 \|- \| Hydroxyethyl methyl cellulose \|\| Chloromethane and ethylene oxide \|\| −CH<sub>3</sub> or −CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>OH \|\| Cold water-soluble \|\| Production of cellulose films \|\| \|- \| Hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose (HPMC) \|\| Chloromethane and propylene oxide \|\| −CH<sub>3</sub> or −CH<sub>2</sub>CH(OH)CH<sub>3</sub> \|\| Cold water-soluble \|\| Viscosity modifier, gelling, foaming and binding agent \|\| E464 \|- \| Ethyl hydroxyethyl cellulose \|\| Chloroethane and ethylene oxide \|\| −CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>3</sub> or −CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>OH \|\| \|\| \|\| E467 \|- \| Carboxyalkyl \|\| Halogenated carboxylic acids \|\| Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) \|\| Chloroacetic acid \|\| −CH<sub>2</sub>COOH \|\| Cold/Hot water-soluble \|\| Often used as its sodium salt, sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (NaCMC) \|\| E466 \|} The sodium carboxymethyl cellulose can be cross-linked to give the croscarmellose sodium (E468) for use as a disintegrant in pharmaceutical formulations. Furthermore, by the covalent attachment of thiol groups to cellulose ethers such as sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, ethyl cellulose or hydroxyethyl cellulose mucoadhesive and permeation enhancing properties can be introduced. Thiolated cellulose derivatives (see thiomers) exhibit also high binding properties for metal ions. Commercial applications s (dashed) within and between cellulose molecules.]] Cellulose for industrial use is mainly obtained from wood pulp and from cotton. * Fibres: Cellulose is the main ingredient of textiles. Cotton and synthetics (nylons) each have about 40% market by volume. Other plant fibres (jute, sisal, hemp) represent about 20% of the market. Rayon, cellophane and other "regenerated cellulose fibres" are a small portion (5%). * Consumables: Microcrystalline cellulose (E460i) and powdered cellulose (E460ii) are used as inactive fillers in drug tablets and a wide range of soluble cellulose derivatives, E numbers E461 to E469, are used as emulsifiers, thickeners and stabilizers in processed foods. Cellulose powder is, for example, used in processed cheese to prevent caking inside the package. Cellulose occurs naturally in some foods and is an additive in manufactured foods, contributing an indigestible component used for texture and bulk, potentially aiding in defecation. * Building material: Hydroxyl bonding of cellulose in water produces a sprayable, moldable material as an alternative to the use of plastics and resins. The recyclable material can be made water- and fire-resistant. It provides sufficient strength for use as a building material. Cellulose insulation made from recycled paper is becoming popular as an environmentally preferable material for building insulation. It can be treated with boric acid as a fire retardant. * Miscellaneous: Cellulose can be converted into cellophane, a thin transparent film. It is the base material for the celluloid that was used for photographic and movie films until the mid-1930s. Cellulose is used to make water-soluble adhesives and binders such as methyl cellulose and carboxymethyl cellulose which are used in wallpaper paste. Cellulose is further used to make hydrophilic and highly absorbent sponges. Cellulose is the raw material in the manufacture of nitrocellulose (cellulose nitrate) which is used in smokeless gunpowder. * Pharmaceuticals: Cellulose derivatives, such as microcrystalline cellulose (MCC), have the advantages of retaining water, being a stabilizer and thickening agent, and in reinforcement of drug tablets.AspirationalEnergy crops: The major combustible component of non-food energy crops is cellulose, with lignin second. Non-food energy crops produce more usable energy than edible energy crops (which have a large starch component), but still compete with food crops for agricultural land and water resources. Typical non-food energy crops include industrial hemp, switchgrass, Miscanthus, Salix (willow), and Populus (poplar) species. A strain of Clostridium bacteria found in zebra dung, can convert nearly any form of cellulose into butanol fuel. Another possible application is as Insect repellents. See also * Gluconic acid * Isosaccharinic acid, a degradation product of cellulose * Lignin * Zeoform References External links * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090426122947/http://www.cermav.cnrs.fr/glyco3d/lessons/cellulose/index.html Structure and morphology of cellulose] by Serge Pérez and William Mackie, CERMAV-CNRS * [https://web.archive.org/web/20051001072830/http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/hycel.html Cellulose], by Martin Chaplin, London South Bank University * [https://web.archive.org/web/20050426105859/http://msa.ars.usda.gov/la/srrc/fb/ca.html Clear description of a cellulose assay method] at the Cotton Fiber Biosciences unit of the USDA. * [http://www.technologyreview.com/read_article.aspx?chinfotech&sc&id17127&pg1 Cellulose films could provide flapping wings and cheap artificial muscles for robots] – TechnologyReview.com Category:Excipients Category:Papermaking Category:Polysaccharides Category:E-number additives	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulose	2025-04-05T18:28:00.366152
6913	Cortez	Cortez may refer to: Places United States Cortez, California, an unincorporated community in Merced County Cortez, Colorado, a city and county seat of Montezuma County Cortez, Florida, a census-designated place Cortez, Nevada, ghost town Cortez, Pennsylvania, an unincorporated community Elsewhere Sea of Cortez or Gulf of California, in Mexico Other uses Cortez, an 1823 play by James Planché Cortez Motor Home, a Class-A motor coach made in the U.S. from 1963 to 1979 Agnelli & Nelson or Cortez, trance music duo Cortez, a character from The Longest Journey and Dreamfall Cortez the Killer, a song by Neil Young Nike Cortez, a type of running shoe from Nike People Surname Adrian T. Cortez (1978–2016), American trans woman and performer with the stage name Brittany CoxXx Alberto Cortez (1940–2019), Argentine singer and songwriter Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez (born 1989), American politician and educator Amado Cortez (1928–2003), Filipino actor and diplomat Antawn Cortez Jamison (born 1976), American basketball player Bella Cortez (born 1944), Cuban actress and dancer Carlos Cortez (1923–2005), American poet, artist and political activist Chris Cortez (born 1988), American soccer player Dave "Baby" Cortez (born 1938), American pop music and R&B musician Edgar Cortez (born 1989), Nicaraguan runner , born name is Erwin Sutodihardjo (born 1983), Indonesian actor and model Fernando Cortez (born 1981), American basketball player Gregorio Cortez (1875–1916), Mexican folk hero Hernán Cortés (1485–1547), the Spanish Conquistador who led an expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire Heidi Cortez (born 1981), American actress, model and writer Jayne Cortez (1934–2012), American poet , born name is Nurjaenih (born 1986), Indonesian actress, model and disc jockey Jhay Cortez (born 1993), Puerto Rican singer and rapper Joana Cortez (born 1979), Brazilian tennis player Jody Cortez (born c. 1960), American drummer Joe Cortez (born 1945), Puerto Rican boxing referee Jorge Cortez (born 1972), Panamanian baseball player José Cortez (born 1975), American football player José Luis Cortez (born 1979), Ecuadorian footballer Lucía Cortez Llorca (born 2000), Spanish tennis player Luís Cortez (born 1994), Portuguese footballer Manuel Cortez (born 1979), German–Portuguese actor Mike Cortez (born 1980), American basketball player Page Cortez (born 1961), American politician Paul E. Cortez, American soldier and war criminal Philip Cortez (born 1978), American politician Rafael Cortez (born 1976), Brazilian journalist, actor and comedian Raul Cortez (1932–2006), Brazilian actor Ricardo Cortez (1899–1977), American silent film actor Stanley Cortez (1908–1997), American cinematographer Viorica Cortez (born 1935), Romanian-born French mezzo-soprano Given name Cortez Allen (born 1988), American former football cornerback Cortez Belle (born 1983), English former footballer Cortez Broughton (born 1996), American football player Cortez Castro, alternate ring name of Ricky Reyes (born 1978), Cuban-American retired professional wrestler Cortez Gray (1916–1996), American basketball player Cortez Groves (born 1978), American former professional basketball player Cortez Hankton (born 1981), American college football coach and former player Cortez Jordan (1921–1982), Barbadian Test cricket umpire between 1953 and 1974 Cortez Kennedy (1968–2017), American football player Cortez Ratima (born 2001), New Zealand professional rugby union player Cortez Shaw, American contestant on American Idol season 12 Cortez Stubbs (born 1988), American football player Cortez Te Pou (born 2001), New Zealand rugby league footballer Cortez Thaddeus Ham Jr., birth name of C. J. Ham (born 1993), American NFL player Fictional Fabian Cortez, a Marvel Comics supervillain Sergeant Cortez, protagonist of the TimeSplitters video game series Ian Cortez, a Cuban intelligence agent working for the Colombian Cartel in the novel/film Clear and Present Danger Henry Cortez, a character in the Millennium series of novels by Stieg Larsson Hotel Cortez, the setting of American Horror Story: Hotel Juni and Carmen Cortez, main protagonists in the Spy Kids franchise Olivia Cortez, a character from the American thriller television series Mr. Robot Cortez, a character in Paper Mario: The Thousand-Year Door See also Cortes (disambiguation) Cortes (surname)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cortez	2025-04-05T18:28:00.370784
6916	Colony	(primarily islands) with their sovereign states ()]] A colony is a territory subject to a form of foreign rule, which rules the territory and its indigenous peoples separated from the foreign rulers, the colonizer, and their metropole (or "mother country"). This separated rule was often organized into colonial empires, with their metropoles at their centers, making colonies neither annexed or even integrated territories, nor client states. Particularly new imperialism and its colonialism advanced this separated rule and its lasting coloniality. Colonies were most often set up and colonized for exploitation and possibly settlement by colonists. Furthermore, the term was used to refer to the older Greek apoikia (), which were overseas settlements by ancient Greek city-states. The city that founded such a settlement became known as its metropolis ("mother-city"). Since early-modern times, historians, administrators, and political scientists have generally used the term "colony" to refer mainly to the many different overseas territories of particularly European states between the 15th and 20th centuries CE, with colonialism and decolonization as corresponding phenomena. While colonies often developed from trading outposts or territorial claims, such areas do not need to be a product of colonization, nor become colonially organized territories. Territories furthermore do not need to have been militarily conquered and occupied to come under colonial rule and to be considered de facto colonies, instead neocolonial exploitation of dependency or imperialist use of power to intervene to force policy, might make a territory be considered a colony, which broadens the concept, including indirect rule or puppet states (contrasted by more independent types of client states such as vassal states). Subsequently, some historians have used the term informal colony to refer to a country under a de facto control of another state. Though the broadening of the concept is often contentious. Contemporarily colonies are identified and organized as not sufficiently self-governed dependent territories. Other past colonies have become either sufficiently incorporated and self-governed, or independent, with some to a varying degree dominated by remaining colonial settler societies or neocolonialism. Concept The word "colony" comes from the Latin word , used for ancient Roman outposts and eventually for cities. This in turn derives from the word , which referred to a Roman tenant farmer. Settlements that began as Roman include cities from Cologne (which retains this history in its name) to Belgrade to York. A telltale sign of a settlement within the Roman sphere of influence once being a Roman colony is a city centre with a grid pattern. With a long and changing history of use colonies have been distinguished from "settler colonies", which are the more particular type of a settlement or community and not so much territorial.Ancient examples * Carthage formed as a Phoenician colony * Cadiz formed as a Phoenician colony * Cyrene was a colony of the Greeks of Thera * Sicily was a part Greek, part Phoenician colony * Sardinia was a Phoenician colony * Marseille formed as a Greek colony * Malta was a Phoenician colony * Cologne formed as a Roman colony and its modern name refer to the Latin term "colonia". * Kandahar formed as a Greek colony during the Hellenistic era by Alexander the Great in 330 BC. More modern historical examples * '''L'Anse aux Meadows: a Norse colony which existed 1025 AD. * : a colony of Portugal from the 16th century to its independence in 1975. * was formed as a British Dominion in 1901 from a federation of six distinct British colonies which were founded between 1788 and 1829. * : was a colony of Great Britain that was important in the Atlantic slave trade. It gained its independence in 1966. * : a colony of Portugal since the 16th century. Independent since 1822. * : was colonized first by France as New France (1534–1763) and England (in Newfoundland, 1582) then under British rule (1763–1867), before achieving Dominion status and losing "colony" designation. * : a colony of Belgium from 1908 to 1960; previously under private ownership of King Leopold II. * was formed in October 1887 from Annam, Tonkin, Cochinchina (which together form modern Vietnam) and the Kingdom of Cambodia; Laos was added after the Franco-Siamese conflict of 1893. The federation lasted until 1954. In the four protectorates, the French formally left the local rulers in power, who were the Emperors of Vietnam, Kings of Cambodia, and Kings of Luang Prabang, but gathered all powers in their hands, the local rulers acting only as figureheads. * : Contact between Europe and Ghana (known as the Gold Coast) began in the 15th century with the arrival of the Portuguese. This soon led to the establishment of several colonies by European powers: Portuguese Gold Coast (1482–1642), Dutch Gold Coast (1598–1872), Swedish Gold Coast (1650–1663), Danish Gold Coast (1658–1850), Brandenburger and Prussian Gold Coast (1685–1721) and British Gold Coast (1821–1957). In 1957, Ghana was the first African colony south of the Sahara to become independent. * was a colony of Denmark-Norway from 1721 and was a colony of Denmark from 1814 to 1953. In 1953 Greenland was made an equal part of the Danish Kingdom. Home rule was granted in 1979 and extended to self-rule in 2009. See also Danish colonization of the Americas. * : a colony of Portugal since the 15th century. Independent since 1974. * was a British colony (from 1983 British Dependent Territory) from 1841 to 1997. Is now a Special Administrative Region of China. * was an imperial political entity comprising present-day India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan with regions under the direct control of the British Government of the United Kingdom from 1858 to 1947. From the 15th century until 1961, Portuguese India (Goa) was a colony of Portugal. Pondicherry and Chandernagore were part of French India from 1759 to 1954. Small Danish colonies of Tharangambadi, Serampore and the Nicobar Islands from 1620 to 1869 were known as Danish India. * was a colony of the Netherlands gained full independence in 1949. * was part of the Spanish West Indies in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. It became an English colony in 1655 and; independence in 1962. * a colony set up in 1821 by American private citizens for the migration of African American freedmen. Liberian Declaration of Independence from the American Colonization Society on 26 July 1847. It is the second oldest black republic in the world after Haiti. * was a Portuguese colony (from 1976 a "Chinese territory under Portuguese administration") from 1557 to 1999. In 1999, two years after Hong Kong, it became a Special Administrative Region of China. * ''' was initially colonized by the Portuguese Empire in 1511 after capturing Malacca. After 1511, Britain established colonies and trading ports on the Malay Peninsula; Penang was leased to the British East India Company. The Dutch Empire encountered Malaysia when it was looking for spices to trade with. * was a British protectorate and later a colony from the French Revolutionary Wars in 1800 to independence in 1964. * : a colony of Portugal since the 15th century. Independent since 1975. * , previously a colony of Spain from to 1898 as part of the Spanish East Indies, was a colony of the United States from 1898 to 1946. Achieved self-governing Commonwealth status in 1935; independent in 1946. * was a colony of Spain from 1493 to 1898, when it passed to be a colonial possession of the United States, classified by the United States as "an unincorporated territory". In 1914, the Puerto Rican House of Delegates voted unanimously in favor of independence from the United States, but this was rejected by the U.S. Congress as "unconstitutional" and in violation of the U.S. 1900 Foraker Act. In 1952, after the US Congress approved Puerto Rico's constitution, its formal name became "Commonwealth of Puerto Rico", but its new name "did not change Puerto Rico's political, social, and economic relationship to the United States." That year, the United States advised the United Nations (UN) that the island was a self-governing territory. The United States has been "unwilling to play in public the imperial role... it has no appetite for acknowledging in a public way the contradictions implicit in frankly colonial rule." The island has been called a colony by many, including US Federal judges, US Congresspeople, the Chief Justice of the Puerto Rico Supreme Court, and numerous scholars. * consisted of territories and colonies by various African and European powers, including the Dutch and the British, and the Nguni. The territory consisting of the modern nation was ruled directly by the British from 1806 to 1910; became a self-governing dominion of Union of South Africa in 1910. * : a British colony from 1815 to 1948. Known as Ceylon. Was a British Dominion until 1972. Also a Portuguese colony in the 16th–17th centuries, and a Dutch colony in the 17th–18th centuries. * was a colony of Japan from 1910 to 1945. North Korea and South Korea were established in 1948. * has a complex history of colonial rule under various powers, including the Dutch (1624–1662), Spanish (1626–1642), Chinese (1683–1895) and Japanese (1895–1945). The precolonial (pre-1624) inhabitants of Taiwan are the ethno-linguistically Austronesian Taiwanese indigenous peoples, rather than the vast majority of present-day Taiwanese people, who are mostly ethno-linguistically Han Chinese. Twice throughout history, Taiwan has served as a quasi rump state for Chinese governments, the first instance being the Ming-loyalist Kingdom of Tungning (1662–1683) and the second instance being the present-day Republic of China (ROC), which officially claims continuity or succession from the Republic of China (1912–1949), having retreated from mainland China to Taiwan in 1949 during the final years of the Chinese Civil War (1927–1949). The ROC, whose de facto'' territory consists almost entirely of the island of Taiwan and its minor satellite islands, continues to rule Taiwan as if it were a separate country from the People's Republic of China (consisting of mainland China, Hong Kong, and Macau). * The was formed from a union of thirteen British colonies. The Colony of Virginia was the first of the thirteen colonies. All thirteen declared independence in July 1776 and expelled the British governors. Current colonies or with numbers. Colored areas without labels are integral parts of their respective countries. Antarctica is shown as a condominium instead of individual claims.]] The Special Committee on Decolonization maintains the United Nations list of non-self-governing territories, which identifies areas the United Nations (though not without controversy) believes are colonies. Given that dependent territories have varying degrees of autonomy and political power in the affairs of the controlling state, there is disagreement over the classification of "colony". See also * Colonialism * Colonization * Decolonization * Democratic peace theory * Exploitation colonialism * Scramble for Africa * Settler colonialism * United Nations list of non-self-governing territories * Development town * Spice Trade * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Notes References Further reading * Aldrich, Robert. Greater France: A History of French Overseas Expansion (1996) * Ansprenger, Franz ed. The Dissolution of the Colonial Empires (1989) * Benjamin, Thomas, ed. Encyclopedia of Western Colonialism Since 1450 (2006). * Ermatinger, James. ed. The Roman Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia (2 vol 2018) * Higham, C. S. S. History Of The British Empire (1921) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.109837 online free] * James, Lawrence. The Illustrated Rise and Fall of the British Empire (2000) * Kia, Mehrdad, ed. The Ottoman Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia (2017) * Page, Melvin E. ed. Colonialism: An International Social, Cultural, and Political Encyclopedia (3 vol. 2003) * Priestley, Herbert Ingram. (France overseas;: A study of modern imperialism 1938) 463pp; encyclopedic coverage as of late 1930s * Tarver, H. Micheal and Emily Slape. The Spanish Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia (2 vol. 2016) * Wesseling, H.L. The European Colonial Empires: 1815–1919 (2015). External links * [https://www.un.org/en/decolonization/nonselfgov.shtml Non-Self-Governing Territories Listed by the United Nations General Assembly in 2002] * [https://www.un.org/en/decolonization/nonselfgovterritories.shtml Non-Self-Governing Territories Listed by the United Nations General Assembly in 2012] * [http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0861075.html Siberia : History] (covers Siberia as Russian colony) Category:Types of administrative division Category:Articles containing video clips	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colony	2025-04-05T18:28:00.396006
6918	Rod (optical phenomenon)	thumb\|This long-exposure photograph of moths flying around a floodlight shows an exaggerated "rod" effect. In cryptozoology and ufology, "rods" (also known as "skyfish", "air rods", or "solar entities") are elongated visual artifacts appearing in photographic images and video recordings. Most optical analyses to date have concluded that the images are insects moving across the frame as the photo is being captured, although cryptozoologists and ufologists claim that they are paranormal in nature. Optical analysis Robert Todd Carroll (2003), having consulted an entomologist (Doug Yanega), identified rods as images of flying insects recorded over several cycles of wing-beating on video recording devices. The insect captured on image a number of times, while propelling itself forward, gives the illusion of a single elongated rod-like body, with bulges. A 2000 report by staff at "The Straight Dope" also explained rods as such phenomena, namely tricks of light which result from how (primarily video) images of flying insects are recorded and played back, adding that investigators have shown the rod-like bodies to be a result of motion blur, if the camera is shooting with relatively long exposure times. The claims of these being extraordinary creatures, possibly alien, have been advanced by either people with active imaginations, or hoaxers. After attending a lecture by Jose Escamilla, UFO investigator Robert Sheaffer wrote that "some of his 'rods' were obviously insects zipping across the field at a high angular rate" and others appeared to be "appendages" which were birds' wings blurred by the camera exposure. Paranormal claims Various paranormal interpretations of this phenomenon appear in popular culture. One of the more outspoken proponents of rods as alien life forms was Jose Escamilla, who claimed to have been the first to film them on March 19, 1994, in Roswell, New Mexico, while attempting to film a UFO. Escamilla later made additional videos and embarked on lecture tours to promote his claims. Explanatory notes See also Optical phenomena Orb (optics) References External links Jose Escamilla's "Rods" Video Sequences Famous video of "rods" at the Cave of the Swallows Detailed video analysis Category:Alleged extraterrestrial beings Category:Cryptids Category:Pseudoscience Category:UFOs by type Category:Moths Category:Insects in popular culture	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rod_(optical_phenomenon)	2025-04-05T18:28:00.399797
6920	Column	at the United States National Arboretum in Washington, D.C.]] in Helsinki, Finland]] in Waterloo.]] A column or pillar in architecture and structural engineering is a structural element that transmits, through compression, the weight of the structure above to other structural elements below. In other words, a column is a compression member. The term column applies especially to a large round support (the shaft of the column) with a capital and a base or pedestal, which is made of stone, or appearing to be so. A small wooden or metal support is typically called a post. Supports with a rectangular or other non-round section are usually called piers. For the purpose of wind or earthquake engineering, columns may be designed to resist lateral forces. Other compression members are often termed "columns" because of the similar stress conditions. Columns are frequently used to support beams or arches on which the upper parts of walls or ceilings rest. In architecture, "column" refers to such a structural element that also has certain proportional and decorative features. These beautiful columns are available in a broad selection of styles and designs in round tapered, round straight, or square shaft styles. A column might also be a decorative element not needed for structural purposes; many columns are engaged, that is to say form part of a wall. A long sequence of columns joined by an entablature is known as a colonnade. History , Song dynasty]] Antiquity All significant Iron Age civilizations of the Near East and Mediterranean made some use of columns. Egyptian In ancient Egyptian architecture as early as 2600 BC, the architect Imhotep made use of stone columns whose surface was carved to reflect the organic form of bundled reeds, like papyrus, lotus and palm. In later Egyptian architecture faceted cylinders were also common. Their form is thought to derive from archaic reed-built shrines. Carved from stone, the columns were highly decorated with carved and painted hieroglyphs, texts, ritual imagery and natural motifs. Egyptian columns are famously present in the Great Hypostyle Hall of Karnak (), where 134 columns are lined up in sixteen rows, with some columns reaching heights of 24 metres. One of the most important type are the papyriform columns. The origin of these columns goes back to the 5th Dynasty. They are composed of lotus (papyrus) stems which are drawn together into a bundle decorated with bands: the capital, instead of opening out into the shape of a bellflower, swells out and then narrows again like a flower in bud. The base, which tapers to take the shape of a half-sphere like the stem of the lotus, has a continuously recurring decoration of stipules. <gallery mode"packed" heights"170px" caption="Examples of Egyptian columns"> The grammar of ornament (1868) (14587326250).jpg\|Illustration of papyriform capitals, in The Grammar of Ornament'' Lepsius-Projekt tw 1-2-108.jpg\|Illustration of various types of capitals, drawn by the egyptologist Karl Richard Lepsius Mammisi Philae2.JPG\|Columns with Hathoric capitals The double row of columns with papyrus bundle capitals - The Court of Amonhotep III - Luxor Temple (14075179947).jpg\|Papyriform columns of the Luxor Temple </gallery> Greek and Roman The Minoans used whole tree-trunks, usually turned upside down in order to prevent re-growth, stood on a base set in the stylobate (floor base) and topped by a simple round capital. These were then painted as in the most famous Minoan palace of Knossos. The Minoans employed columns to create large open-plan spaces, light-wells and as a focal point for religious rituals. These traditions were continued by the later Mycenaean civilization, particularly in the megaron or hall at the heart of their palaces. The importance of columns and their reference to palaces and therefore authority is evidenced in their use in heraldic motifs such as the famous lion-gate of Mycenae where two lions stand each side of a column. Being made of wood these early columns have not survived, but their stone bases have and through these we may see their use and arrangement in these palace buildings. The Egyptians, Persians and other civilizations mostly used columns for the practical purpose of holding up the roof inside a building, preferring outside walls to be decorated with reliefs or painting, but the Ancient Greeks, followed by the Romans, loved to use them on the outside as well, and the extensive use of columns on the interior and exterior of buildings is one of the most characteristic features of classical architecture, in buildings like the Parthenon. The Greeks developed the classical orders of architecture, which are most easily distinguished by the form of the column and its various elements. Their Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders were expanded by the Romans to include the Tuscan and Composite orders. <gallery mode"packed" heights"160"> File:Knossos 03.JPG\|Minoan columns at the West Bastion of the Palace of Knossos File:EB1911 Capital Fig. 5 Early Greek Capital from the Tomb of Agamemnon, Mycenae.jpg\|Illustration of the end of a Mycenaean column, from the Tomb of Agamemnon File:Fotothek df tg 0001022 Architektur ^ Säule ^ dorische Ordnung ^ Brücke.jpg\|Illustration of the Tuscan order File:DoricParthenon.jpg\|Illustration of the Doric order File:Ionic Order from “Les ruines plus beaux des monuments de la Grèce” p197.jpg\|Illustration of the Ionic order File:Evolution of the Corinthian Capital 138.jpg\|Evolution of the Corinthian order File:Fotothek df tg 0001039 Architektur ^ Säule ^ komposite Ordnung.jpg\|Illustration of the Composite order File:Femme en priere entre deux colonnes ioniques - Louvre.jpg\|Praying Woman between two ionic columns, 2nd century, marble, in the Louvre </gallery> Persian column, of Persia (Iran)]] Some of the most elaborate columns in the ancient world were those of the Persians, especially the massive stone columns erected in Persepolis. They included double-bull structures in their capitals. The Hall of Hundred Columns at Persepolis, measuring 70 × 70 metres, was built by the Achaemenid king Darius I (524–486 BC). Many of the ancient Persian columns are standing, some being more than 30 metres tall. Tall columns with bull's head capitals were used for porticoes and to support the roofs of the hypostylehall, partly inspired by the ancient Egyptian precedent. Since the columns carried timber beams rather than stone, they could be taller, slimmer and more widely spaced than Egyptian ones.Middle Ages Columns, or at least large structural exterior ones, became much less significant in the architecture of the Middle Ages. The classical forms were abandoned in both Byzantine and Romanesque architecture in favour of more flexible forms, with capitals often using various types of foliage decoration, and in the West scenes with figures carved in relief. During the Romanesque period, builders continued to reuse and imitate ancient Roman columns wherever possible; where new, the emphasis was on elegance and beauty, as illustrated by twisted columns. Often they were decorated with mosaics. <gallery mode"packed" heights"160px" caption="Examples of columns"> SantApollinare Nuovo Pulpito marmoreo.jpg\|Byzantine columns from Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo (Ravenna, Italy) Hagia_Sophia_(15468276434).jpg\|The capital of a Byzantine column from Hagia Sophia (Istanbul, Turkey) Igreja de São Tiago, Coimbra. Capiteis y colunelos.jpg\|Romanesque columns from the 12th century Neuwiller StPierre-Paul 117.JPG\|Gothic columns of a church from Neuwiller-lès-Saverne (France) File:Gelnhausen, Marienkirche, Südportal-20160804-007.jpg\|Slender Gothic columns at a portal of (Gelnhausen, Germany) File:20131204_Istanbul_085.jpg\|Column use is common in Ottoman architecture, an example in Topkapı Palace (Istanbul, Turkey) </gallery> Renaissance and later styles Renaissance architecture was keen to revive the classical vocabulary and styles, and the informed use and variation of the classical orders remained fundamental to the training of architects throughout Baroque, Rococo and Neo-classical architecture. Structure Early columns were constructed of stone, some out of a single piece of stone. Monolithic columns are among the heaviest stones used in architecture. Other stone columns are created out of multiple sections of stone, mortared or dry-fit together. In many classical sites, sectioned columns were carved with a centre hole or depression so that they could be pegged together, using stone or metal pins. The design of most classical columns incorporates entasis (the inclusion of a slight outward curve in the sides) plus a reduction in diameter along the height of the column, so that the top is as little as 83% of the bottom diameter. This reduction mimics the parallax effects which the eye expects to see, and tends to make columns look taller and straighter than they are while entasis adds to that effect. There are flutes and fillets that run up the shaft of columns. The flute is the part of the column that is indented in with a semi circular shape. The fillet of the column is the part between each of the flutes on the Ionic order columns. The flute width changes on all tapered columns as it goes up the shaft and stays the same on all non tapered columns. This was done to the columns to add visual interest to them. The Ionic and the Corinthian are the only orders that have fillets and flutes. The Doric style has flutes but not fillets. Doric flutes are connected at a sharp point where the fillets are located on Ionic and Corinthian order columns. Nomenclature Most classical columns arise from a basis, or base, that rests on the stylobate, or foundation, except for those of the Doric order, which usually rest directly on the stylobate. The basis may consist of several elements, beginning with a wide, square slab known as a plinth. The simplest bases consist of the plinth alone, sometimes separated from the column by a convex circular cushion known as a torus. More elaborate bases include two toruses, separated by a concave section or channel known as a scotia or trochilus. Scotiae could also occur in pairs, separated by a convex section called an astragal, or bead, narrower than a torus. Sometimes these sections were accompanied by still narrower convex sections, known as annulets or fillets. At the top of the shaft is a capital, upon which the roof or other architectural elements rest. In the case of Doric columns, the capital usually consists of a round, tapering cushion, or echinus, supporting a square slab, known as an abax or abacus. Ionic capitals feature a pair of volutes, or scrolls, while Corinthian capitals are decorated with reliefs in the form of acanthus leaves. Either type of capital could be accompanied by the same moldings as the base. The style was used in bronze by Bernini for his spectacular St. Peter's baldachin, actually a ciborium (which displaced Constantine's columns), and thereafter became very popular with Baroque and Rococo church architects, above all in Latin America, where they were very often used, especially on a small scale, as they are easy to produce in wood by turning on a lathe (hence also the style's popularity for spindles on furniture and stairs). Caryatid A Caryatid is a sculpted female figure serving as an architectural support taking the place of a column or a pillar supporting an entablature on her head. The Greek term literally means "maidens of Karyai", an ancient town of Peloponnese. Engaged columns In architecture, an engaged column is a column embedded in a wall and partly projecting from the surface of the wall, sometimes defined as semi or three-quarter detached. Engaged columns are rarely found in classical Greek architecture, and then only in exceptional cases, but in Roman architecture they exist in abundance, most commonly embedded in the cella walls of pseudoperipteral buildings. Pillar tombs Pillar tombs are monumental graves, which typically feature a single, prominent pillar or column, often made of stone. A number of world cultures incorporated pillars into tomb structures. In the ancient Greek colony of Lycia in Anatolia, one of these edifices is located at the tomb of Xanthos. In the town of Hannassa in southern Somalia, ruins of houses with archways and courtyards have also been found along with other pillar tombs, including a rare octagonal tomb. Gallery <gallery mode"packed" heights"150px" caption="Different columns"> File:Decorated pillars. Mosque. Kashgar.jpg\|Decorated pillars. Mosque. Kashgar File:Great Hypostyle Hall.jpg\|The Great Hypostyle Hall from Karnak (Egypt) File:Columns of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi, Greece.jpeg\|Columns found at the Temple of Apollo in Delphi File:Rocaille detail in a column - St. Peter - Mainz - Germany 2017.jpg\|Rococo detail of a column from St. Peter's Church (Mainz, Germany) File:Solomonic columns at St Peters Vatican (cropped).jpg\|At right, two of the Solomonic columns brought to Rome by Constantine, in their present-day location on a pier in St. Peter's Basilica (Rome). In the foreground at left is part of Bernini's Baldachin, inspired by the original columns. File:Colonne-p1040009.jpg\|Ionic capital File:Western colonnade at courtyard, UVa 2004.jpg\|Tuscan columns can be seen at the University of Virginia File:San prospero colonne reggio emilia.jpg\|Church of San Prospero (Reggio Emilia, Italy) File:Construction of Sigismund Column.JPG\|Construction of Sigismund's Column in Warsaw, detail of the 1646 engraving. File:Columns in the inner court of the Bel Temple Palmyra Syria.JPG\|These are composed of stacked segments and finished in the Corinthian style, at the Temple of Bel (Syria) File:Bankstownreservoir.jpg\|The pillars of Bankstown Reservoir (Sydney, Australia) File:MosqueeKairouan 6bis.jpg\|Reused Roman columns and capitals in the Great Mosque of Kairouan File:France-002353 - Square House (15866951852).jpg\|Engaged columns embedded in the side walls of the cella of the Maison Carrée in Nîmes (France) </gallery> See also * Columnar jointing (geology) * Core (architecture) * Huabiao * Linga * Lingodbhava * Load-bearing wall * Marian and Holy Trinity columns * Our Lady of the Pillar * Post (structural) * Pylon (architecture) * Spur (architecture) * Structural engineering References Sources Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Engaged Column". Encyclopædia Britannica. 9 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 404–405. Stierlin, Henri. The Roman Empire: From the Etruscans to the Decline of the Roman Empire, TASCHEN, 2002 Alderman, Liz (7 July 2014). "Acropolis Maidens Glow Anew". The New York Times. Retrieved 9 July 2014. Stokstad, Marilyn; Cothren, Michael (2014). Art History (Volume 1 ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc. p. 110. External links * Category:Architectural elements Category:Structural system Category:Earthquake engineering	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Column	2025-04-05T18:28:00.410139
6921	Carmilla	Carmilla is an 1872 Gothic novella by Irish author Sheridan Le Fanu. It is one of the earliest works of vampire fiction, predating Bram Stoker's Dracula (1897) by 25 years. First published as a serial in The Dark Blue (1871–72), the story is narrated by a young woman who is preyed upon by a female vampire named "Carmilla". The lead character is the original prototypical example of the lesbian vampire, expressing romantic desires toward the protagonist. The work was highly influential in the genre of vampire literature, and the story itself is popularly anthologised, having been adapted extensively for films, movies, operas, games, comics, television, and other media. Publication Carmilla, serialised in the literary magazine The Dark Blue in late 1871 and early 1872, was reprinted in Le Fanu's short-story collection In a Glass Darkly (1872). Comparing the work of two illustrators of the story, David Henry Friston and Michael Fitzgerald—whose work appears in the magazine article but not in modern printings of the book—reveals inconsistencies in the characters' depictions. Consequently, confusion has arisen relating the pictures to the plot. Isabella Mazzanti illustrated the book's 2014 edition, published by Editions Soleil and translated by Gaid Girard. Plot summary Le Fanu presents the story as part of the casebook of Dr. Hesselius, whose departures from medical orthodoxy rank him as the first occult detective in literature. Laura, the teenaged protagonist, narrates, beginning with her childhood in a "picturesque and solitary" castle amid an extensive forest in Styria, where she lives with her father, a wealthy English widower retired from service to the Austrian Empire. When she was six, Laura had a vision of a very beautiful visitor in her bedchamber. She later claims to have been punctured in her breast, although no wound was found. All the household assure Laura that it was just a dream, but they step up security as well and there is no subsequent vision or visitation. Twelve years later, Laura and her father are admiring the sunset in front of the castle when her father tells her of a letter from his friend, General Spielsdorf. The General was supposed to visit them with his niece, Bertha Rheinfeldt, but Bertha suddenly died under mysterious circumstances. The General ambiguously concludes that he will discuss the circumstances in detail when they meet later. Laura, saddened by the loss of a potential friend, longs for a companion. A carriage accident outside Laura's home unexpectedly brings a girl of Laura's age into the family's care. Her name is Carmilla. Both girls instantly recognise each other from the "dream" they both had when they were young. Carmilla appears injured after her carriage accident, but her mysterious mother informs Laura's father that her journey is urgent and cannot be delayed. She arranges to leave her daughter with Laura and her father until she can return in three months. Before she leaves, she sternly notes that her daughter will not disclose any information whatsoever about her family, her past, or herself, and that Carmilla is of sound mind. Laura comments that this information seems needless to say, and her father laughs it off. Carmilla and Laura grow to be very close friends, but occasionally Carmilla's mood abruptly changes. She sometimes makes romantic advances towards Laura. Carmilla refuses to tell anything about herself, despite questioning by Laura. Her secrecy is not the only mysterious thing about Carmilla; she never joins the household in its prayers, she sleeps much of the day, and she seems to sleepwalk outside at night. Meanwhile, young women and girls in the nearby towns have begun dying from an unknown malady. When the funeral procession of one such victim passes by the two girls, Laura joins in the funeral hymn. Carmilla bursts out in rage and scolds Laura, complaining that the hymn hurts her ears. When a shipment of restored heirloom paintings arrives, Laura finds a portrait of her ancestor, Countess Mircalla Karnstein, dated 1698. The portrait resembles Carmilla exactly, down to the mole on her neck. Carmilla suggests that she might be descended from the Karnsteins, though the family died out centuries before. During Carmilla's stay, Laura has nightmares of a large, cat-like beast entering her room. The beast springs onto the bed and Laura feels something like two needles, an inch or two apart, darting deep into her breast. The beast then takes the form of a female figure and disappears through the door without opening it. In another nightmare, Laura hears a voice say, "Your mother warns you to beware of the assassin," and a sudden light reveals Carmilla standing at the foot of her bed, her nightdress drenched in blood. Laura's health declines, and her father has a doctor examine her. He finds a small, blue spot, an inch or two below her collar, where the creature in her dream bit her, and speaks privately with her father, only asking that Laura never be unattended. Her father sets out with Laura, in a carriage, for the ruined village of Karnstein, three miles distant. They leave a message behind asking Carmilla and one of the governesses to follow once the perpetually late-sleeping Carmilla awakes. En route to Karnstein, Laura and her father encounter General Spielsdorf. He tells them his own ghastly story. At a costume ball, Spielsdorf and his niece Bertha had met a very beautiful young woman named Millarca and her enigmatic mother. Bertha was immediately taken with Millarca. The mother convinced the General that she was an old friend of his and asked that Millarca be allowed to stay with them for three weeks while she attended to a secret matter of great importance. Bertha fell mysteriously ill, suffering the same symptoms as Laura. After consulting with a specially ordered priestly doctor, the General realised that Bertha was being visited by a vampire. He hid with a sword and waited until a large, black creature of undefined shape crawled onto his niece's bed and spread itself onto her throat. He leapt from his hiding place and attacked the creature, which had then taken the form of Millarca. She fled through the locked door, unharmed. Bertha died before the morning dawned. Upon arriving at Karnstein, the General asks a woodman where he can find the tomb of Mircalla Karnstein. The woodman says the tomb was relocated long ago by a Moravian nobleman who vanquished the vampires haunting the region. While the General and Laura are alone in the ruined chapel, Carmilla appears. The General and Carmilla both fly into a rage upon seeing each other, and the General attacks her with an axe. Carmilla disarms the General and disappears. The General explains that Carmilla is also Millarca, both anagrams for the original name of the vampire Mircalla, Countess Karnstein. The party is joined by Baron Vordenburg, the descendant of the hero who rid the area of vampires long ago. Vordenburg, an authority on vampires, has discovered that his ancestor was romantically involved with the Countess Karnstein before she died. Using his forefather's notes, he locates Mircalla's hidden tomb. An imperial commission exhumes the body of Mircalla. Immersed in blood, it seems to be breathing faintly, its heart beating, its eyes open. A stake is driven through its heart, and it gives a corresponding shriek; then, the head is struck off. The body and head are burned to ashes, which are thrown into a river. Afterwards, Laura's father takes his daughter on a year-long tour through Italy to regain her health and recover from the trauma, but she never fully does. Motifs , Styria, suggested as a possible inspiration for Laura's Schloss.]] “Carmilla” exhibits the primary characteristics of Gothic fiction. It includes a supernatural figure, a dark setting of an old castle, a mysterious atmosphere, and ominous or superstitious elements. In the novella, Le Fanu abolishes the Victorian view of women as merely useful possessions of men, relying on them and needing their constant guardianship. The male characters of the story, such as Laura's father and General Spielsdorf, are exposed as being the opposite of the putative Victorian males – helpless and unproductive. The nameless father reaches an agreement with Carmilla's mother, whereas Spielsdorf cannot control the faith of his niece, Bertha. Both of these scenes portray women as equal, if not superior to men. This female empowerment is even more clear if we consider Carmilla's vampiric predecessors and their relationship with their prey. Carmilla is the opposite of those male vampires – she is actually involved with her victims both emotionally and (theoretically) sexually. Moreover, she is able to exceed even more limitations by dominating death. In the end, her immortality is suggested to be sustained by the river where her ashes had been scattered. Le Fanu also departs from the negative idea of female parasitism and lesbianism by depicting a mutual and irresistible connection between Carmilla and Laura. The latter, along with other female characters, becomes a symbol of all Victorian women – restrained and judged for their emotional reflexes. The ambiguity of Laura's speech and behaviour reveals her struggles with being fully expressive of her concerns and desires. Another important element of “Carmilla” is the concept of dualism presented through the juxtaposition of vampire and human, as well as lesbian and heterosexual. It is also vivid in Laura's irresolution, since she "feels both attraction and repulsion" towards Carmilla. The duality of Carmilla's character is suggested by her human attributes, the lack of predatory demeanour, and her shared experience with Laura. According to Gabriella Jönsson, Carmilla can be seen as a representation of the dark side of all mankind. Sources ]] As with Dracula, critics have looked for the sources used in the writing of Carmilla. One source used was from a dissertation on magic, vampires, and the apparitions of spirits written by Dom Augustin Calmet entitled Traité sur les apparitions des esprits et sur les vampires ou les revenants de Hongrie, de Moravie, &c. (1751). This is evidenced by a report analysed by Calmet, from a priest who learned information of a town being tormented by a vampiric entity three years earlier. Having travelled to the town to investigate and collecting information of the various inhabitants there, the priest learned that a vampire had tormented many of the inhabitants at night by coming from the nearby cemetery and would haunt many of the residents on their beds. An unknown Hungarian traveller came to the town during this period and helped the town by setting a trap at the cemetery and decapitating the vampire that resided there, curing the town of their torment. This story was retold by Le Fanu and adapted into the thirteenth chapter of Carmilla. According to Matthew Gibson, the Reverend Sabine Baring-Gould's The Book of Were-wolves (1863) and his account of Elizabeth Báthory, Coleridge's Christabel (Part 1, 1797 and Part 2, 1800), and Captain Basil Hall's Schloss Hainfeld; or a Winter in Lower Styria (London and Edinburgh, 1836) are other sources for Le Fanu's Carmilla. Hall's account provides much of the Styrian background and, in particular, a model for both Carmilla and Laura in the figure of Jane Anne Cranstoun, Countess Purgstall. Influence Carmilla, the title character, is the original prototype for a legion of female and lesbian vampires. Although Le Fanu portrays his vampire's sexuality with the circumspection that one would expect for his time, lesbian attraction evidently is the main dynamic between Carmilla and the narrator of the story: When compared to other literary vampires of the 19th century, Carmilla is a similar product of a culture with strict sexual mores and tangible religious fear. While Carmilla selected exclusively female victims, she only becomes emotionally involved with a few. Carmilla had nocturnal habits, but was not confined to the darkness. She had unearthly beauty, and was able to change her form and to pass through solid walls. Her animal alter ego was a monstrous black cat, not a large dog as in Dracula. She did, however, sleep in a coffin. Carmilla works as a Gothic horror story because her victims are portrayed as succumbing to a perverse and unholy temptation that has severe metaphysical consequences for them. Some critics, among them William Veeder, suggest that Carmilla, notably in its outlandish use of narrative frames, was an important influence on Henry James' The Turn of the Screw (1898).Bram Stoker's Dracula Le Fanu's work has been noted as an influence on Bram Stoker's masterwork of the genre, Dracula: * Both stories are told in the first person. Dracula expands on the idea of a first person account by creating a series of journal entries and logs of different persons and creating a plausible background story for their having been compiled. * Both authors indulge the air of mystery, though Stoker takes it further than Le Fanu by allowing the characters to solve the enigma of the vampire along with the reader. * The descriptions of the title character in Carmilla and of Lucy in Dracula are similar. Additionally, both women sleepwalk. * Stoker's Dr. Abraham Van Helsing is similar to Le Fanu's vampire expert Baron Vordenburg: both characters investigate and catalyze actions in opposition to the vampire. * The symptoms described in Carmilla and Dracula are highly comparable. * Both the titular antagonists - Carmilla and Dracula, respectively, pretend to be the descendants of much older nobles bearing the same names, but are eventually revealed to have the same identities. However, with Dracula, this is left ambiguous. Although it is stated by Van Helsing (a character with a slightly awkward grasp of the English language) that he "must, indeed, have been that Voivode Dracula who won his name against the Turk, over the great river on the very frontier of Turkey-land", the next statement begins with "If it be so", thereby leaving a thin margin of ambiguity. * "Dracula's Guest", a short story by Stoker believed to have been a deleted prologue to Dracula, is also set in Styria, where an unnamed Englishman takes shelter in a mausoleum from a storm. There, he meets a female vampire, named Countess Dolingen von Gratz. In popular culture Books * The novella Carmilla and Laura by S.D. Simper is a reimagining of the original novella. In Carmilla and Laura, the two women develop a true romantic relationship. * The novel Carmilla: The Wolves of Styria is a re-imagining of the original story. It is a derivative re-working, listed as being authored by J.S. Le Fanu and David Brian. * Theodora Goss' 2018 novel European Travel for the Monstrous Gentlewoman (the second in The Extraordinary Adventures of the Athena Club series) features a heroic Carmilla and her partner Laura Hollis aiding The Athena Club in their fight against a villainous Abraham Van Helsing. * Rachel Klein's 2002 novel The Moth Diaries features several excerpts from Carmilla, as the novel figures into the plot of Klein's story, and both deal with similar subject matter and themes. The book was adapted in a feature film in 2011 written and directed by Mary Harron. * Undead Girl Murder Farce is a Japanese light novel series by Yugo Aosaki that began publication in 2015. Many of the characters in the series are from 19th-century European literature. Carmilla is a recurring antagonist. This also has manga and anime adaptations. * An Education in Malice by S.T. Gibson retells Carmilla in Massachusetts at a 1960s college.Comics* In 1991, Aircel Comics published a six-issue black and white miniseries of Carmilla by Steven Jones and John Ross. It was based on Le Fanu's story and billed as "The Erotic Horror Classic of Female Vampirism". The first issue was printed in February 1991. The first three issues adapted the original story, while the latter three were a sequel set in the 1930s. * In 2023, Dark Horse Comics's Berger Books imprint published Carmilla: The First Vampire written by Amy Chu with art by Soo Lee and set in 1990s New York City. Snippets from the original story are used as the main character consults the original story while investigating a series of murders. The collected edition went on to win the Bram Stoker Award for Superior Achievement in a Graphic NovelFilm* Danish director Carl Dreyer loosely adapted Carmilla for his film Vampyr (1932) but deleted any references to lesbian sexuality. The credits of the original film say that the film is based on In a Glass Darkly. This collection contains five tales, one of which is Carmilla. Actually the film draws its central character, Allan Gray, from Le Fanu's Dr. Hesselius; and the scene in which Gray is buried alive is drawn from "The Room in the Dragon Volant". * ''Dracula's Daughter'' (1936), Universal Pictures' sequel to 1931 Dracula film, was loosely based on Carmilla. * French director Roger Vadim's Et mourir de plaisir (shown in the UK and US as Blood and Roses, 1960) is based on Carmilla. The Vadim film thoroughly explores the lesbian implications behind Carmilla's selection of victims, and boasts cinematography by Claude Renoir. The film's lesbian eroticism was, however, significantly cut for its US release. Annette Stroyberg, Elsa Martinelli and Mel Ferrer star in the film. * A more-or-less faithful adaptation starring Christopher Lee was produced in Italy in 1963 under the title ''La cripta e l'incubo (Crypt of the Vampire in English). The character of Laura, played by Adriana Ambesi, fears herself possessed by the spirit of a dead ancestor, played by Ursula Davis (also known as Pier Anna Quaglia). * The Vampire Lovers (1970), the first of film in The Karnstein Trilogy'' was based on the novel and featured Ingrid Pitt as Carmilla. * The Blood Spattered Bride (1972) (La novia ensangrentada) is a 1972 Spanish horror film written and directed by Vicente Aranda, is based on the text. The film has reached cult status for its mix of horror, vampirism and seduction with lesbian overtones. British actress Alexandra Bastedo plays Mircalla Karnstein, and Maribel Martín is her victim. * The 2000 Japanese anime film Vampire Hunter D: Bloodlust features Carmilla "the Bloody Countess" as its primary antagonist. Having been slain by Dracula for her vain and gluttonous tyranny, Carmilla's ghost attempts to use the blood of a virgin to bring about her own resurrection. She was voiced by Julia Fletcher in English and Beverly Maeda in Japanese. * In the direct-to-video movie The Batman vs. Dracula (2005), Carmilla Karnstein is mentioned as Count Dracula's bride, who had been incinerated by sunlight years ago. Dracula hoped to revive her by sacrificing Vicki Vale's soul, but the ritual was stopped by the Batman. * Carmilla is featured as the main antagonist in the movie Lesbian Vampire Killers (2009), a comedy starring Paul McGann and James Corden, with Silvia Colloca as Carmilla. * The book is directly referenced several times in the 2011 film, The Moth Diaries, the film version of Rachel Klein's novel. There are conspicuous similarities between the characters in "Carmilla" and those in the film, and the book figures into the film's plot. * The Curse of Styria (2014), alternately titled Angels of Darkness is an adaptation of the novel set in late 1980s with Julia Pietrucha as Carmilla and Eleanor Tomlinson as Lara. * In 2017 The Carmilla Movie, based on the 2015 web series of the same name was released. Directed by Spencer Maybee and produced by Steph Ouaknine, the movie follows up the web series five years after the finale. Carmilla (2019), written and directed by Emily Harris, was inspired by the novella. Fifteen-year-old Lara (Hannah Rae) develops feelings for Carmilla (Devrim Lingnau), but her strict governess believes their strange houseguest is a vampire. Harris says she "stripped back" the supernatural layers to consider the story as a "derailed love story" and "a story about our tendency as humans to demonize the other". Music Opera A chamber opera version of Carmilla appeared in Carmilla: A Vampire Tale (1970), music by Ben Johnston, script by Wilford Leach. Seated on a sofa, Laura and Carmilla recount the story retrospectively in song.Rock music* Jon English released a song named "Carmilla", inspired by the short story, on his 1980 album Calm Before the Storm. * The title track of the album Symphonies of the Night (2013), by the German/Norwegian band Leaves' Eyes, was inspired by Carmilla.Periodicals* A Japanese lesbian magazine is named after Carmilla, as Carmilla "draws hetero women into the world of love between women".Radio* The Columbia Workshop presented an adaptation (CBS, July 28, 1940, 30 min.). Lucille Fletcher's script, directed by Earle McGill, relocated the story to contemporary New York state and allows Carmilla (Jeanette Nolan) to claim her victim Helen (Joan Tetzel). * In 1975, the CBS Radio Mystery Theater broadcast an adaptation by Ian Martin (CBS, July 31, 1975, rebroadcast December 10, 1975). Mercedes McCambridge played Laura Stanton, Marian Seldes played Carmilla. * Vincent Price hosted an adaptation (reset to 1922 Vienna) by Brainard Duffield, produced and directed by Fletcher Markle, on the Sears Radio Theater (CBS, March 7, 1979), with Antoinette Bower and Anne Gibbon. * BBC Radio 4 broadcast Don McCamphill's Afternoon Play dramatisation June 5, 2003, with Anne-Marie Duff as Laura, Brana Bajic as Carmilla and David Warner as Laura's father.Stage* A German language adaptation of Carmilla by Friedhelm Schneidewind, from Studio-Theatre Saarbruecken, toured Germany and other European countries (including Romania) from April 1994 until 2000. * The Wildclaw Theater in Chicago performed a full-length adaptation of Carmilla by Aly Renee Amidei in January and February 2011. * Zombie Joe's Underground Theater Group in North Hollywood performed an hour-long adaptation of Carmilla, by David MacDowell Blue, in February and March 2014. Television * In 1989, Gabrielle Beaumont directed Jonathan Furst's adaptation of Carmilla as an episode of the Showtime television series Nightmare Classics, featuring Meg Tilly as the vampire and Ione Skye as her victim Marie. Furst relocated the story to an American antebellum southern plantation. * "Carmilla" directed by Janusz Kondratiuk was a television spectacle aired on Polish Television Channel 1 on 13 November 1980. * Carmilla is a major antagonist in the Castlevania animated series, where she was first introduced in Season 2 as a secondary antagonist, acting as a sly and ambitious general on Dracula's War Council. Unlike her video-game counterpart, who is immensely faithful to her leader, Carmilla takes issue with Dracula's plan to kill off their only source of food and has designs to take Dracula's place and build her own army to subjugate humanity alongside her Council of Sisters, Lenore (inspired by Laura), Striga, and Morana. Her plans are bolstered by Dracula's death at the hands of his son, Alucard, and her kidnapping of the Devil Forgemaster, Hector. She is later personally confronted by Isaac, Dracula's other loyal Devil Forgemaster, when he and his Night Creature horde invade her castle in Styria to rescue Hector and put an end to her ambitions. After singlehandedly fighting him and his host of demons, she commits suicide in Season 4.Web series* Carmilla is a web series on YouTube starring Natasha Negovanlis as Carmilla and Elise Bauman as Laura. First released on August 19, 2014, it is a comedic, modern adaptation of the novella which takes place at a modern-day university, where both girls are students. They become roommates after Laura's first roommate mysteriously disappears and Carmilla moves in, taking her place. The final episode of the web series was released on October 13, 2016. In 2017, a movie was made based on the series. The Carmilla Movie was initially released on October 26, 2017, to Canadian audiences through Cineplex theatres for one night only. A digital streaming version was also pre-released on October 26, 2017, for fans who had pre-ordered the film on VHX. The following day the movie enjoyed a wide release on streaming platform Fullscreen.Video games* Carmilla is a recurring character in Castlevania, a gothic horror action-adventure video game series and media franchise about Dracula, created and developed by Konami. Castlevania has also been expanded into comic books and an animated television series. * In the Japanese action game series Onechanbara, Carmilla is the matriarch of the Vampiric clan. She appears in the 2011 title Onechanbara Z ~ Kagura ~ as the manipulator & main antagonist of sister heroines Kagura and Saaya, first using them to attack her rivals before trying (and failing) to eliminate them as pawns. * Carmilla is a playable character in Ravenswatch, a fantasy action game which features a variety of cultural and literary characters. Censorship In April 2025, the Lukashenko regime added the book to the List of printed publications containing information messages and materials, the distribution of which could harm the national interests of Belarus.ReferencesExternal links * * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170327101732/http://www.imdb.com/character/ch0060845/ Carmilla] on IMDb * * Category:Fiction set in 1698 Category:1872 novels Category:1872 fantasy novels Category:1870s LGBTQ novels Category:19th-century Irish novels Category:Female literary villains Category:Fictional counts and countesses Category:Fictional vampires Category:Fiction about human–vampire romance Category:Irish Gothic novels Category:Irish LGBTQ novels Category:Irish novels adapted into films Category:Irish novels adapted into plays Category:Novels adapted into radio programs Category:Novels adapted into comics Category:LGBTQ speculative fiction novels Category:Irish novels adapted into television shows Category:Novels by Sheridan Le Fanu Category:Novels set in Austria Category:Novels about lesbian topics Category:Occult detective fiction Category:Vampire novels Category:LGBTQ-related horror literature Category:Lesbian vampire media	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carmilla	2025-04-05T18:28:00.462913
6922	Clitoridectomy	Clitoridectomy or clitorectomy is the surgical removal, reduction, or partial removal of the clitoris. It is rarely used as a therapeutic medical procedure, such as when cancer has developed in or spread to the clitoris. Commonly, non-medical removal of the clitoris is performed during female genital mutilation. Medical uses Malignancies A clitoridectomy is often done to remove malignancy or necrosis of the clitoris. This is sometimes done along with a radical complete vulvectomy. Surgery may also become necessary due to therapeutic radiation treatments to the pelvic area. Clitoromegaly and other conditions Female infants born with a 46,XX genotype but have a clitoris size affected by congenital adrenal hyperplasia and are treated surgically with vaginoplasty that often reduces the size of the clitoris without its total removal. The atypical size of the clitoris is due to an endocrine imbalance in utero. Other reasons for the surgery include issues involving microphallism and those who have Müllerian agenesis. Treatments on children raise human rights concerns. Technique Clitoridectomy surgical techniques are used to remove an invasive malignancy that extends to the clitoris. Standard surgical procedures are followed in these cases. This includes evaluation and biopsy. Other factors that will affect the technique selected are age, other existing medical conditions, and obesity. Other considerations are the probability of extended hospital care and the development of infection at the surgical site. Society and culture General While much feminist scholarship has described clitoridectomy as a practice aimed at controlling women's sexuality, the historic emergence of the practice in ancient European and Middle Eastern cultures may also have derived from ideas about what a normal female genitalia should look like and the policing of boundaries between the sexes. In the seventeenth century, anatomists remained divided on whether a clitoris was a normal female organ, with some arguing that it was an abnormality in female development and, if large enough to be visible, it should always be removed at birth. In the 19th century, a clitoridectomy was thought by some to curb female masturbation; until the late 19th century, masturbation was thought by many to be unhealthy or immoral. Isaac Baker Brown (1812–1873), an English gynaecologist who was president of the Medical Society of London believed that the "unnatural irritation" of the clitoris caused epilepsy, hysteria, and mania, and he worked "to remove [it] whenever he had the opportunity of doing so", according to his obituary in the Medical Times and Gazette. Peter Lewis Allen writes that Brown's views caused outrage, and he died penniless after being expelled from the Obstetrical Society. Occasionally, in American and English medicine of the nineteenth century, circumcision was done as a cure for insanity. Some believed that mental and emotional disorders were related to female reproductive organs and that removing the clitoris would cure the neurosis. This treatment was discontinued in 1867. Aesthetics may determine clitoral norms. A lack of ambiguity of the genitalia is seen as necessary in the assignment of a sex to infants and therefore whether a child's genitalia is normal, but what is considered ambiguous or normal can vary from person to person. Sexual behavior is another reason for clitoridectomies. Author Sarah Rodriguez stated that the history of medical textbooks has indirectly created accepted ideas about the female body. Medical and gynecological textbooks are also at fault in the way that the clitoris is described in comparison to a male's penis. The importance and originality of a female's clitoris is underscored because it is seen as "a less significant organ, since anatomy texts compared the penis and the clitoris in only one direction." Rodriguez said that a male's penis created the framework of the sexual organ. Not all historical examples of clitoral surgeries should be assumed to be clitoridectomy (removal of the clitoris). In the nineteen thirties, the French psychoanalyst Marie Bonaparte studied African clitoral surgical practices and showed that these often involved removal of the clitoral hood, not the clitoris. She also had a surgery done to her own clitoris by the Viennese surgeon Dr Halban, which entailed cutting the suspensory ligament of the clitoris to permit it to sit closer to her vaginal opening. These sorts of clitoral surgeries, contrary to reducing women's sexual pleasure, actually appear aimed at making coitus more pleasurable for women, though it is unclear if that is ever their actual outcome. Human rights concerns Clitoridectomies are the most common form of female genital mutilation. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that clitoridectomies have been performed on 200 million girls and women that are currently alive. The regions that most clitoridectomies take place are Asia, the Middle East and west, north and east Africa. The practice also exists in migrants originating from these regions. Most of the surgeries are for cultural or religious reasons. Clitoridectomy of people with conditions such as congenital adrenal hyperplasia that cause a clitoromegaly is controversial when it takes place during childhood or under duress. Many women who were exposed to such treatment have reported loss of physical sensation in the affected area, and loss of autonomy. In recent years, multiple human rights institutions have criticized early surgical management of such characteristics. In 2013, it was disclosed in a medical journal that four unnamed elite female athletes from developing countries were subjected to gonadectomies and partial clitoridectomies after testosterone testing revealed that they had an intersex variation or disorder of sex development. In April 2016, the United Nations Special Rapporteur on health, Dainius Pūras, condemned this treatment as a form of genital mutilation "in the absence of symptoms or health issues warranting those procedures." See also List of surgeries by type Genital mutilation Vaginoplasty Clitoromegaly Female genital mutilation Circumcision References Category:Gynecological surgery Category:Surgical oncology Category:Surgical removal procedures Category:Female genital modification Category:Plastic surgery Category:Congenital disorders Category:Pediatric gynecology Category:Chromosomes Category:Urethra disorders Category:Female genital mutilation	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clitoridectomy	2025-04-05T18:28:00.476386
6924	Cabal	thumb\|A French (translated into English) humorous image of a cabal. A cabal is a group of people who are united in some close design, usually to promote their private views or interests in an ideology, a state, or another community, often by intrigue and usually without the knowledge of those who are outside their group. The use of this term usually carries negative connotations of political purpose, conspiracy and secrecy. It can also refer to a secret plot or a clique, or it may be used as a verb (to form a cabal or secretly conspire). Etymology The term cabal is derived from Kabbalah (a word that has numerous spelling variations), the Jewish mystical interpretation of the Hebrew scripture (קַבָּלָה). In Hebrew, it means "received doctrine" or "tradition", while in European culture (Christian Cabala, Hermetic Qabalah) it became associated with occult doctrine or a secret. It came into English via the French cabale from the medieval Latin cabbala, and was known early in the 17th century through usages linked to Charles II and Oliver Cromwell. By the middle of the 17th century, it had developed further to mean some intrigue entered into by a small group and also referred to the group of people so involved, i.e. a semi-secret political clique. There is a theory that the term took on its present meaning from a group of ministers formed in 1668 – the "Cabal ministry" of King Charles II of England. Members included Sir Thomas Clifford, Lord Arlington, the Duke of Buckingham, Lord Ashley and Lord Lauderdale, whose initial letters coincidentally spelled CABAL, and who were the signatories of the public Treaty of Dover that allied England to France in a prospective war against the Netherlands, and served as a cover for the Secret Treaty of Dover. The theory that the word originated as an acronym from the names of the group of ministers is a folk etymology, although the coincidence was noted at the time and could possibly have popularized its use. Usage in the Netherlands In Dutch, the word kabaal, also kabale or cabale, was used during the 18th century in the same way. The Friesche Kabaal (Frisian Cabal) denoted the Frisian pro-Orange nobility which supported the stadholderate, but also had great influence on stadtholders Willem IV and Willem V and their regents, and therefore on the matters of state in the Dutch Republic. This influence came to an end when the major Frisian nobles at the court fell out of favor. The word nowadays has the meaning of noise, uproar, racket. It was derived as such from French and mentioned for the first time in 1845. Conspiratorial discourse Followers of the QAnon conspiracy theory use "The Cabal" to refer to what is perceived as a secret worldwide elite organization who, according to proponents, wish to undermine democracy and freedom, and implement their own globalist agendas. Some anti-government movements in Australia, particularly those that emerged during Canberra's response to the pandemic, that Scott Morrison’s secret ministerial appointments were evidence of what they said was happening all along – a "secret cabal". The term is sometimes employed as an antisemitic dog whistle due to its evocation of centuries-old antisemitic tropes. See also Camarilla Clandestine cell system Clique Club Collusion Cronyism Cult Elitism Firm Gang Group narcissism Mobbing Nepotism Obscurantism Power behind the throne Social group The Establishment There Is No Cabal References External links Category:Secret societies Category:Social groups	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabal	2025-04-05T18:28:00.485169
6925	Cytochrome	thumb\|220px\|Cytochrome c with heme c. Cytochromes are redox-active proteins containing a heme, with a central iron (Fe) atom at its core, as a cofactor. They are involved in the electron transport chain and redox catalysis. They are classified according to the type of heme and its mode of binding. Four varieties are recognized by the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (IUBMB), cytochromes a, cytochromes b, cytochromes c and cytochrome d. Cytochrome function is linked to the reversible redox change from ferrous (Fe(II)) to the ferric (Fe(III)) oxidation state of the iron found in the heme core. In addition to the classification by the IUBMB into four cytochrome classes, several additional classifications such as cytochrome o and cytochrome P450 can be found in biochemical literature. History Cytochromes were initially described in 1884 by Charles Alexander MacMunn as respiratory pigments (myohematin or histohematin). In the 1920s, Keilin rediscovered these respiratory pigments and named them the cytochromes, or “cellular pigments”. He classified these heme proteins on the basis of the position of their lowest energy absorption band in their reduced state, as cytochromes a (605 nm), b (≈565 nm), and c (550 nm). The ultra-violet (UV) to visible spectroscopic signatures of hemes are still used to identify heme type from the reduced bis-pyridine-ligated state, i.e., the pyridine hemochrome method. Within each class, cytochrome a, b, or c, early cytochromes are numbered consecutively, e.g. cyt c, cyt c1, and cyt c2, with more recent examples designated by their reduced state R-band maximum, e.g. cyt c559. Structure and function The heme group is a highly conjugated ring system (which allows its electrons to be very mobile) surrounding an iron ion. The iron in cytochromes usually exists in a ferrous (Fe2+) and a ferric (Fe3+) state with a ferroxo (Fe4+) state found in catalytic intermediates. that led to the molecular clock hypothesis. The apparently constant evolution rate of cytochromes can be a helpful tool in trying to determine when various organisms may have diverged from a common ancestor. Types Several kinds of cytochrome exist and can be distinguished by spectroscopy, exact structure of the heme group, inhibitor sensitivity, and reduction potential. Four types of cytochromes are distinguished by their prosthetic groups: Type Prosthetic group Cytochrome a heme A Cytochrome b heme BCytochrome cheme C (covalently bound heme b) Cytochrome d heme D (Heme B with γ-spirolactone) There is no "cytochrome e," but cytochrome f, found in the cytochrome b6f complex of plants is a c-type cytochrome. In mitochondria and chloroplasts, these cytochromes are often combined in electron transport and related metabolic pathways: Cytochromes Combination a and a3 Cytochrome c oxidase ("Complex IV") with electrons delivered to complex by soluble cytochrome c (hence the name) b and c1 Coenzyme Q - cytochrome c reductase ("Complex III") b6 and f Plastoquinol—plastocyanin reductase A distinct family of cytochromes is the cytochrome P450 family, so named for the characteristic Soret peak formed by absorbance of light at wavelengths near 450 nm when the heme iron is reduced (with sodium dithionite) and complexed to carbon monoxide. These enzymes are primarily involved in steroidogenesis and detoxification. References External links Scripps Database of Metalloproteins	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytochrome	2025-04-05T18:28:00.495255
6927	Crowded House	\| years_active = \| label = \| spinoff_of = Split Enz \| spinoffs = \| alias = The Mullanes (1985) \| website = \| current_members = * Neil Finn * Nick Seymour * Mitchell Froom * Liam Finn * Elroy Finn \| past_members = * Craig Hooper * Paul Hester * Tim Finn * Peter Jones * Mark Hart * Matt Sherrod }} Crowded House are<!--NOTE: "are" is correct Australasian English. Do NOT change to "is".--> an Australian and New Zealand rock band, formed in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, in 1985. Its founding members were Neil Finn (vocalist, guitarist, primary songwriter) and Paul Hester (drums), who were both former members of Split Enz, and Nick Seymour (bass). Later band members included Finn's brother Tim, who was in their former band Split Enz; sons Liam and Elroy; as well as Americans Mark Hart and Matt Sherrod. Neil Finn and Seymour are the sole constant members. Originally active from 1985 to 1996, Crowded House had consistent commercial and critical success in Australia and New Zealand. They achieved success in the United States with their self-titled debut album, which provided the Top Ten hits "Don't Dream It's Over" and "Something So Strong". Further international success came in the UK, Europe, and South Africa in the early 1990s with their third and fourth albums (Woodface and Together Alone) and the compilation album Recurring Dream, which included the hits "Fall at Your Feet", "Weather with You", "Distant Sun", "Locked Out", "Instinct", and "Not the Girl You Think You Are". Neil and Tim Finn were each awarded an OBE in June 1993 for their contributions to the music of New Zealand. Crowded House disbanded in 1996 following several farewell concerts that year, including the "Farewell to the World" concerts in Melbourne and Sydney. A year later, the group re-formed with drummer Matt Sherrod and released two further albums (Time on Earth and Intriguer), each of which reached number one in Australia. Their most recent album, Gravity Stairs, was released in 2024. As of 2021, Crowded House have sold over 15 million albums worldwide. In November 2016, the band was inducted into the ARIA Hall of Fame.HistoryNeil Finn (vocals, guitar, piano) and drummer Paul Hester (the Cheks, Deckchairs Overboard) were former members of New Zealand band Split Enz, which spent part of 1975–6 in Australia and several years in England. At Capitol's behest, the band's name was changed to Crowded House, which alluded to the lack of space at the small Hollywood Hills house they shared during the recording of the album Crowded House. Former Split Enz keyboardist Eddie Rayner produced the track "Can't Carry On" and was asked to join the band. He toured with them in 1988, but was unable to become a full member due to family commitments.Early albums (1986–1990) Thanks to their Split Enz connection, the newly formed Crowded House had an established Australasian fanbase. New Zealand radio stations initially gave the song little support until months later when it became internationally successful. Ultimately, the song reached number one on the New Zealand singles chart and number eight in Australia. The video also earned the group the MTV Video Music Award for Best New Artist that year. The song has often been covered by other artists and gave Paul Young a hit single in 1991. It was also used for a New Zealand Tourism Board advertisement in its "100% Pure New Zealand" worldwide promotion from October 2005. In May 2001, "Don't Dream it's Over" was voted seventh in a poll of the best Australian songs of all time by the Australasian Performing Right Association. Pop Festival, May 1988. L to R: Seymour, Finn, Hester]]In June 1987, nearly a year after its release, Crowded House finally reached number one on the Kent Music Report Album Charts. and made the top 20 in several European countries. The third single from Woodface, "Weather With You", peaked at No. 7 in early 1992 giving the band their highest UK chart placement. By contrast, the album had limited success in the US, only reaching number 83 on the Billboard 200 Album Chart and selling 225,000 copies. Performances on the UK tour, at the Town and Country Club in London, were recorded live and given a limited release in Australia, while individual songs from those shows were released as B-sides of singles in some countries. In June 1993 the New Zealand Government recommended that the Queen award an OBE to Neil and Tim Finn for their contribution to the music of New Zealand. Worried that their goodbye had been too low-key and had disregarded their home fans, the band performed the Farewell to the World concert on the steps of the Sydney Opera House on 24 November 1996, which raised funds for the Sydney Children's Hospital. The concert featured the line-up of Neil Finn, Nick Seymour, Mark Hart and Paul Hester. Tim Finn and Peter Jones both made guest appearances. Support bands on the day were Custard, Powderfinger and You Am I. The concert had one of the highest live audiences in Australian history with the crowd being estimated at between 120,000 and 250,000 people. Farewell to the World was released on VHS in December 1996. In 2007, a double CD and a DVD were issued to commemorate the concert's tenth anniversary. The DVD featured newly recorded audio commentary by Finn, Hart and Seymour and other new bonus material. Paul Hester worked with children's entertainers the Wiggles, playing "Paul the Cook". He also had his own ABC show ''Hessie's Shed in Australia from late 1997. The band released one album, 2003's Handheld Torch, which was produced by Seymour. In May 1999 Crowded House issued a compilation of unreleased songs, Afterglow, which included the track "Recurring Dream", recorded when the group were still called The Mullanes and included Craig Hooper on guitar. On 26 March 2005 Paul Hester was found dead. He had committed suicide by hanging himself from a tree in a park near his home in Melbourne. He was 46 years old. His obituary in The Sydney Morning Herald stated that he had fought "a long battle with depression." Writing in 2010 Neil Finn said, "When we lost Paul it was like someone pulled the rug out from underneath everything, a terrible jolt out of the dark blue. He was the best drummer I had ever played with and for many years, my closest friend."Reunion and Time on Earth (2006–2009) In 2006 Neil Finn asked Nick Seymour to play bass on his third solo album. Seymour agreed and the two joined up with producer and multi-instrumentalist Ethan Johns to begin recording. Intriguer topped the Australian album chart, It includes 19 of the band's greatest hits and is also available in a box set with a 25 track DVD of their music videos. A deluxe digital version, available for download only, has 32 tracks including a rare 1987 live recording of the band's version of the Hunters & Collectors song "Throw Your Arms Around Me". No mention of this album has been made on the band's official website or Twitter page, which suggests that they are not involved with its release. Following the success of the album She Will Have Her Way in 2005, a second album of cover versions of Finn Brothers songs (including Crowded House songs) was released on 12 November 2010. Entitled He Will Have His Way, all tracks are performed by Australasian male artists. In November 2011 an Australian tour featured artists involved with the "She Will Have Her Way" and "He Will Have His Way" projects, including Paul Dempsey, Clare Bowditch, Seeker Lover Keeper (Sarah Blasko, Sally Seltmann and Holly Throsby), Alexander Gow (Oh Mercy) and Lior. The band played what would be their last concert for over five years at the A Day on the Green festival in Auckland on 27 February 2011. Former Crowded House drummer Peter Jones died from brain cancer on 18 May 2012, aged 49. A statement issued by the band described him as, "A warm-hearted, funny and talented man, who was a valuable member of Crowded House." In September 2015, the song "Help is Coming" from the Afterglow album, was released as a download and limited edition 7" single to raise money for the charity Save the Children. The B-side, "Anthem", was a previously unreleased track, recorded at the same demo session as "Help is Coming" in 1995, with vocals added in 2015. Peter Jones plays drums on both songs. The money will be used to provide shelter, water, sanitation and hygiene for refugees in Syria, Lebanon and Iraq. Neil Finn said of "Help Is Coming"..."It was always a song about refugees, even if at the time I was thinking about the immigrants setting off on ships from Europe to America, looking for a better life for their families. There is such a huge scale and urgency to the current refugee crises that barely a day goes by without some crushing image or news account to confront us. We can't be silent any more." Neil Finn confirmed in a 2016 interview with the Dutch newspaper Volkskrant that Crowded House had been on indefinite hiatus since the end of the Intriguer tour. Later that year, however, he and Seymour announced a series of concerts at the Sydney Opera House to mark the 20th anniversary of the Farewell to the World show (24 November 1996). The band, with the same lineup as its initial reunion and Tim Finn as guest, performed four shows between 24 and 27 November 2016. Around the same time, each of the band's 7 studio albums (including the rarities collection Afterglow) was reissued in deluxe 2-CD format with bonus tracks including demos, live recordings, alternate mixes, b-sides and outtakes. In April 2018, Neil Finn joined Fleetwood Mac, along with Mike Campbell of Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers, as a full-time member in the wake of Lindsey Buckingham's departure from the band.Reformation, new line-up and Dreamers Are Waiting (2019–2023)In August 2019, Crowded House announced a reunion show at the 2020 Byron Bay Bluesfest. Shortly afterwards, Mark Hart announced that he would not be involved in the group's reunion. Finn confirmed Hart's departure on his podcast Fangradio, noting that he "love[s] Hart dearly as a friend, as a contributor and a collaborator" and that "all will be revealed... trust that good thought and good heart gets put into all of these decisions." In December 2019, Neil Finn announced that the new Crowded House line-up would consist of himself, Seymour, the band's original producer Mitchell Froom and his sons Liam and Elroy. He added that they were making a new studio album, the first since 2010's Intriguer. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the band's planned 2020 concerts have had to be rescheduled to 2021, and later again to 2022. On 15 October 2020, the band released "Whatever You Want", the first single from the band in over a decade. The band also shared an accompanying music video, starring Mac DeMarco. On 17 February 2021, the band shared another single, "To the Island." The track serves as the second single to the band's seventh studio album, Dreamers Are Waiting, which was announced on the same day for release on 4 June 2021. The band supported the single with a national tour of New Zealand in March 2021. On 19 August 2021, the band performed their single "To the Island" on CBS's The Late Show with Stephen Colbert. On 2 December 2021, the band announced that it will be touring Australia in 2022, with 6 shows around the country, including the 2022 Bluesfest lineup. On 24 June 2022, the band played at Glastonbury Festival. In May 2023, Crowded House tour North America for the promotion of the album Dreamers Are Waiting. Gravity Stairs (2024–present) In February 2024, Crowded House released "Oh Hi" from their eighth album Gravity Stairs, which in turn was released on 31 May 2024. They also announced a New Zealand and Australian tour beginning in November that year.StyleSongwriting and musical influencesAs the primary songwriter for the band, Neil Finn has always set the tone for the band's sound. AllMusic said that Finn "has consistently proven his knack for crafting high-quality songs that combine irresistible melodies with meticulous lyrical detail." Neil's brother Tim was an early and important musical influence. Neil first saw Tim play with Split Enz in 1972, and said "that performance and those first songs made a lasting impression on me." His mother was another significant musical influence, encouraging him to listen to a variety of genres, including Irish folk music and Māori music. She would play piano at family parties and encourage Neil and Tim to accompany her. Album covers, costumes and set design Bassist Nick Seymour, who is also an artist, designed or co-designed all of the band's album covers and interior artwork. He also designed some of the costumes worn by the group, notably those from the cover of the group's debut album Crowded House. Seymour collaborated with Finn and Hester on the set design of some of their early music videos, including "Don't Dream It's Over" and "Better Be Home Soon". Since the band reunited, Seymour has again designed their album covers. Members Current members {\| class"wikitable" border"1" width="100%" ! width="75" \|Image ! width="140" \|Name ! width="90" \|Years active ! width="160" \|Instruments !Release contributions \|- \| \|Neil Finn \| rowspan="2" \| \| \| rowspan="2" \|all releases \|- \| \|Nick Seymour \| \|- \| \|Mitchell Froom \|2020–present \|keyboards \| \|- \| \|Liam Finn \|2020–present \| \| \|- \| \|Elroy Finn \|2020–present \| \| \|} Current touring members {\| class"wikitable" border"1" width="100%" ! width="75" \|Image ! width="140" \|Name ! width="90" \|Years active ! width="160" \|Instruments !Release contributions \|- \| \|Paul Taylor \|2021–present \| \| \|} Former members {\| class"wikitable" border"1" width="100%" ! width="75" \|Image ! width="140" \|Name ! width="90" \|Years active ! width="160" \|Instruments !Release contributions \|- \| \|Paul Hester \|}} \| \|all releases from Crowded House (1986) to Farewell to the World (2006) \|- \| \|Craig Hooper \|1985 \| \|none \|- \| \|Tim Finn \|1990–1991 \| \| \|- \| \|Mark Hart \|}} \| \|all releases from Woodface (1991) to Intriguer (2010) \|- \| \|Peter Jones \|1994–1996 \|drums \|Farewell to the World (2006) \|- \| \|Matt Sherrod \| \| \| \|} Former touring musicians {\| class"wikitable" border"1" width="100%" ! width="75" \|Image ! width="140" \|Name ! width="90" \|Years active ! width="160" \|Instruments !Release contributions \|- \| \|Gill Civil \| rowspan="2" \|1986 \| rowspan="4" \|keyboards \| rowspan="2" \|none \|- \| \|Miffy Smith \|- \| \|Eddie Rayner \| \| \|- \| \|Mike Gubb \|1988 \| rowspan="4" \|none \|- \| \|Wally Ingram \|1994 \|drums \|- \| \|Jules Bowen \|1994–1996 \|keyboards \|- \| \|Davey Lane \|2007 \| \|- \| \|Don McGlashan \|2008 \| \| \|} Timeline TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal format:yyyy Legend = orientation:vertical position:bottom columns:4 Colors = id:vocals value:red legend:Lead_vocals id:bvocals value:pink legend:Backing_vocals id:guitar value:green legend:Guitar id:keys value:purple legend:Keyboards id:bass value:blue legend:Bass id:drums value:orange legend:Drums id:tour value:yelloworange legend:Touring_musician id:studio value:black legend:Studio_album Legend = position:bottom columns:4 ScaleMajor = increment:4 start:1985 ScaleMinor = increment:1 start:1985 BarData = bar:Neil text:"Neil Finn" bar:Tim text:"Tim Finn" bar:Craig text:"Craig Hooper" bar:Liam text:"Liam Finn" bar:Elroy text:"Elroy Finn" bar:Mark text:"Mark Hart" bar:Mitch text:"Mitchell Froom" bar:Nick text:"Nick Seymour" bar:Paul text:"Paul Hester" bar:Peter text:"Peter Jones" bar:Matt text:"Matt Sherrod" PlotData= width:11 bar:Neil from:01/01/1985 till:24/11/1996 color:vocals bar:Neil from:01/07/2006 till:27/02/2011 color:vocals bar:Neil from:01/10/2016 till:27/11/2016 color:vocals bar:Neil from:01/04/2020 till:end color:vocals bar:Craig from:01/01/1985 till:01/09/1985 color:guitar bar:Paul from:01/01/1985 till:05/04/1994 color:drums bar:Paul from:15/06/1996 till:24/11/1996 color:drums bar:Nick from:01/01/1985 till:24/11/1996 color:bass bar:Nick from:01/07/2006 till:27/02/2011 color:bass bar:Nick from:01/10/2016 till:27/11/2016 color:bass bar:Nick from:01/04/2020 till:end color:bass bar:Tim from:01/08/1990 till:01/11/1991 color:vocals bar:Mark from:01/01/1989 till:24/11/1996 color:tour bar:Mark from:01/06/1992 till:24/11/1996 color:keys bar:Mark from:01/01/2007 till:27/02/2011 color:keys bar:Mark from:01/10/2016 till:27/11/2016 color:keys bar:Peter from:01/06/1994 till:15/06/1996 color:drums bar:Matt from:23/02/2007 till:27/02/2011 color:drums bar:Matt from:01/10/2016 till:27/11/2016 color:drums bar:Mitch from:01/04/2020 till:end color:keys bar:Liam from:23/02/2007 till:01/01/2008 color:tour bar:Liam from:01/04/2020 till:end color:guitar bar:Elroy from:01/01/2008 till:01/01/2009 color:tour bar:Elroy from:01/10/2016 till:27/11/2016 color:tour bar:Elroy from:01/04/2020 till:end color:drums width:3 bar:Neil from:01/01/1985 till:24/11/1996 color:keys bar:Neil from:01/07/2006 till:27/02/2011 color:keys bar:Neil from:01/10/2016 till:27/11/2016 color:keys bar:Neil from:01/04/2020 till:end color:keys bar:Craig from:01/01/1985 till:01/09/1985 color:bvocals bar:Nick from:01/01/1985 till:24/11/1996 color:bvocals bar:Nick from:01/07/2006 till:27/02/2011 color:bvocals bar:Nick from:01/10/2016 till:27/11/2016 color:bvocals bar:Nick from:01/04/2020 till:end color:bvocals bar:Tim from:01/08/1990 till:01/11/1991 color:guitar bar:Mark from:01/01/1989 till:24/11/1996 color:bvocals bar:Mark from:01/01/2007 till:27/02/2011 color:bvocals bar:Mark from:01/10/2016 till:27/11/2016 color:bvocals bar:Paul from:01/01/1985 till:01/08/1990 color:bvocals bar:Paul from:01/08/1990 till:01/11/1991 color:vocals bar:Paul from:01/11/1991 till:05/04/1994 color:bvocals bar:Paul from:15/06/1996 till:24/11/1996 color:bvocals bar:Matt from:23/02/2007 till:27/02/2011 color:bvocals bar:Matt from:01/10/2016 till:27/11/2016 color:bvocals bar:Liam from:23/02/2007 till:01/01/2008 color:bvocals bar:Liam from:01/04/2020 till:end color:bvocals bar:Elroy from:01/01/2008 till:01/01/2009 color:bvocals bar:Elroy from:01/10/2016 till:27/11/2016 color:bvocals bar:Elroy from:01/04/2020 till:end color:bvocals width:7 bar:Neil from:01/01/1985 till:24/11/1996 color:guitar bar:Neil from:01/07/2006 till:27/02/2011 color:guitar bar:Neil from:01/10/2016 till:27/11/2016 color:guitar bar:Neil from:01/04/2020 till:end color:guitar bar:Nick from:01/04/2020 till:end color:keys bar:Tim from:01/08/1990 till:01/11/1991 color:keys bar:Paul from:01/08/1990 till:01/11/1991 color:keys bar:Mark from:01/01/1989 till:24/11/1996 color:guitar bar:Mark from:01/01/2007 till:27/02/2011 color:guitar bar:Mark from:01/10/2016 till:27/11/2016 color:guitar bar:Liam from:23/02/2007 till:01/01/2008 color:guitar bar:Liam from:01/04/2020 till:end color:drums bar:Elroy from:01/01/2008 till:01/01/2009 color:guitar bar:Elroy from:01/10/2016 till:27/11/2016 color:guitar bar:Elroy from:01/04/2020 till:end color:guitar width:5 bar:Mark from:01/01/1989 till:01/06/1992 color:keys bar:Elroy from:01/01/2008 till:01/01/2009 color:keys bar:Elroy from:01/10/2016 till:27/11/2016 color:keys bar:Elroy from:01/04/2020 till:end color:keys LineData = layer:back at:01/06/1986 color:studio at:05/07/1988 color:studio at:02/07/1991 color:studio at:18/10/1993 color:studio at:29/06/2007 color:studio at:11/06/2010 color:studio at:04/06/2021 color:studio at:31/05/2024 color:studio }} Discography Studio albums Crowded House (1986) Temple of Low Men (1988) Woodface (1991) Together Alone (1993) Time on Earth (2007) Intriguer (2010) Dreamers Are Waiting (2021) Gravity Stairs (2024) Awards Crowded House has won several national and international awards. In Australia, the group has won 13 ARIA Awards from 36 nominations, including the inaugural Best New Talent in 1987. "Don't Dream It's Over" was named the seventh best Australian song of all time in 2001. In 2009, "Don't Dream It's Over" was ranked number fifty on the Triple J Hottest 100 of All Time, voted by the Australian public. In November 2016, Crowded House was inducted into the ARIA Hall of Fame, 30 years after their formation. See also Men at Work Music of Australia Music of New Zealand Split Enz Further reading * * * Chunn, Mike, Stranger Than Fiction: The Life and Times of Split Enz, GP Publications, 1992. Chunn, Mike, Stranger Than Fiction: The Life and Times of Split Enz, (revised, ebook edition), Hurricane Press, 2013. References ;General * * ;Specific External links * Category:1985 establishments in Australia Category:1996 disestablishments in Australia Category:2006 establishments in Australia Category:2011 disestablishments in Australia Category:2016 establishments in Australia Category:2016 disestablishments in Australia Category:APRA Award winners Category:ARIA Award winners Category:ATO Records artists Category:Australian alternative rock groups Category:Australian musical quintets Category:Brit Award winners Category:Capitol Records artists Category:Musical groups disestablished in 1996 Category:Musical groups established in 1985 Category:Musical groups from Melbourne Category:Musical groups reestablished in 2006 Category:Musical groups disestablished in 2011 Category:Musical groups reestablished in 2016 Category:Musical groups disestablished in 2016 Category:Sibling musical groups Category:New Zealand pop rock groups Category:Jangle pop groups Category:Articles which contain graphical timelines Category:Musical groups reestablished in 2019 Category:Australian new wave musical groups Category:New Zealand indie rock groups	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowded_House	2025-04-05T18:28:00.530301
6928	Colette	\| birth_place = Saint-Sauveur-en-Puisaye, Burgundy, France \| death_date \| death_place = Paris, France \| resting_place = Père Lachaise Cemetery \| spouse <br><br> \| children = Colette de Jouvenel \| occupation = Novelist \| signature = Colette Willy (signature).svg \| pseudonym = \| notableworks = }} Sidonie-Gabrielle Colette (; 28 January 1873 – 3 August 1954), known mononymously as Colette, was a French author and woman of letters. She was also a mime, actress, and journalist. Colette is best known in the English-speaking world for her 1944 novella Gigi, which was the basis for the 1958 film and the 1973 stage production of the same name. Her short story collection The Tendrils of the Vine is also famous in France. Early life Sidonie-Gabrielle Colette was born on 28 January 1873 in the village of Saint-Sauveur-en-Puisaye in the department of Yonne, Burgundy. Her father, Captain Jules-Joseph Colette (1829–1905) was a war hero. He was a Zouave of the Saint-Cyr military school, who had lost a leg at Melegnano in the Second Italian War of Independence. He was awarded a post as tax collector in the village of Saint-Sauveur-en-Puisaye where his children were born. His wife, Adèle Eugénie Sidonie, née Landoy (1835–1912) was nicknamed Sido. Colette's great-grandfather, Robert Landois, was a wealthy Martinican mulatto, who settled in Charleville in 1787. In an arranged first marriage to Jules Robineau Duclos, Colette's mother had two children: Juliette (1860–1908) and Achille (1863–1913). After she remarried Captain Colette, she had two other children: Leopold (1866–1940) and Sidonie-Gabrielle. Colette attended a public school from the ages of 6 to 17. The family was initially well off, but poor financial management substantially reduced their income.CareerIn 1893, Colette married Henry Gauthier-Villars (1859–1931), an author and publisher 14 years her senior, who used the pen name "Willy". Her first four novels – the four Claudine stories: ''Claudine à l'école (1900), Claudine à Paris (1901), Claudine en ménage (1902), and Claudine s'en va (1903) – appeared under his name. (The four are published in English as Claudine at School, Claudine in Paris, Claudine Married, and Claudine and Annie''.) The novels chart the coming of age and young adulthood of their titular heroine, Claudine, from an unconventional 15-year old in a Burgundian village to a doyenne of the literary salons of turn-of-the-century Paris. The story they tell is semi-autobiographical, although Claudine, unlike Colette, is motherless. The marriage to Gauthier-Villars allowed Colette to devote her time to writing. She later said she would never have become a writer if it had not been for Willy. Fourteen years older than his wife and one of the most notorious libertines in Paris, he introduced his wife into avant-garde intellectual and artistic circles and encouraged her lesbian dalliances. And it was he who chose the titillating subject matter of the Claudine novels: "the secondary myth of Sappho... the girls' school or convent ruled by a seductive female teacher." Willy "locked her [Colette] in her room until she produced enough pages to suit him." , 1905, Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya]] Post divorce Colette and Willy separated in 1906, although their divorce was not final until 1910. Colette had no access to the sizable earnings of the Claudine books – the copyright belonged to Willy – and until 1912 she conducted a stage career in music halls across France, sometimes playing Claudine in sketches from her own novels, earning barely enough to survive and often hungry and ill. To make ends meet, she turned more seriously to journalism in the 1910s. Around this time she also became an avid amateur photographer. This period of her life is recalled in La Vagabonde (1910), which deals with women's independence in a male society, a theme to which she would regularly return in future works. During these years she embarked on a series of relationships with other women, notably with Natalie Clifford Barney and with Mathilde de Morny, the Marquise de Belbeuf ("Missy"), with whom she sometimes shared the stage. On 3 January 1907, an onstage kiss between Max and Colette in a pantomime entitled "Rêve d'Égypte" caused a near-riot, and as a result, they were no longer able to live together openly, although their relationship continued for another five years. In 1912, Colette married Henry de Jouvenel, the editor of Le Matin. A daughter, Colette de Jouvenel, nicknamed Bel-Gazou, was born to them in 1913. 1920s and 1930s In 1920, Colette published Chéri, portraying love between an older woman and a much younger man. Chéri is the lover of Léa, a wealthy courtesan; Léa is devastated when Chéri marries a girl his own age and delighted when he returns to her, but after one final night together, she sends him away again. Colette's marriage to Jouvenel ended in divorce in 1924, due partly to his infidelities and partly to her affair with her 16-year-old stepson, Bertrand de Jouvenel. In 1925, she met Maurice Goudeket, who became her final husband; the couple stayed together until her death. Colette was by then an established writer (The Vagabond had received three votes for the prestigious Prix Goncourt). The decades of the 1920s and 1930s were her most productive and innovative period. Set mostly in Burgundy or Paris during the Belle Époque, her work focused on married life and sexuality. It was frequently quasi-autobiographical: Chéri (1920) and Le Blé en Herbe (1923) both deal with love between an aging woman and a very young man, a situation reflecting her relationship with Bertrand de Jouvenel and with her third husband, Goudeket, who was 16 years her junior. La Naissance du Jour (1928) is her explicit criticism of the conventional lives of women, expressed through a meditation on age and the renunciation of love by the character of her mother, Sido. By this time Colette was frequently acclaimed as France's greatest woman writer. "It... has no plot, and yet tells of three lives all that should be known", wrote Janet Flanner of (1929). "Once again, and at greater length than usual, she has been hailed for her genius, humanities and perfect prose by those literary journals which years ago... lifted nothing at all in her direction except the finger of scorn." During the 1920s she was associated with the Jewish-Algerian writer Elissa Rhaïs, who adopted a Muslim persona to market her novels. Last years, 1940–1954 Colette was 67 years old when France was occupied by the Germans. She remained in Paris, in her apartment in the Palais-Royal. Her husband Maurice Goudeket, who was Jewish, was arrested by the Gestapo in December 1941, and although he was released after seven weeks through the intervention of the French wife of the German ambassador, Colette lived through the rest of the war years with the anxiety of a possible second arrest. During the Occupation she produced two volumes of memoirs, Journal à Rebours (1941) and De ma Fenêtre (1942); the two were issued in English in 1975 as Looking Backwards. She wrote lifestyle articles for several pro-Nazi newspapers. These, and her novel Julie de Carneilhan (1941), contain many anti-Semitic slurs. In 1944, Colette published what became her most famous work, Gigi, which tells the story of the 16-year-old Gilberte ("Gigi") Alvar. Born into a family of demimondaines, Gigi is trained as a courtesan to captivate a wealthy lover but defies the tradition by marrying him instead. In 1949 it was made into a French film starring Danièle Delorme and Gaby Morlay, then in 1951 adapted for the stage with the then-unknown Audrey Hepburn (picked by Colette personally) in the title role. The 1958 Hollywood musical movie, starring Leslie Caron and Louis Jourdan, with a screenplay by Alan Jay Lerner and a score by Lerner and Frederick Loewe, won the Academy Award for Best Picture. In the postwar years, Colette became a famous public figure. She had become crippled by arthritis and was cared for by Goudeket, who supervised the preparation of her Œuvres Complètes (1948–1950). She continued to write during those years and published ''L'Etoile Vesper (1946) and Le Fanal Bleu'' (1949), in which she reflected on the problems of a writer whose inspiration is primarily autobiographical. She was nominated by Claude Farrère for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1948. Journalism Colette's first pieces of journalism (1895–1900) were written in collaboration with her husband, Gauthier-Villars—music reviews for La Cocarde, a daily founded by Maurice Barres and a series of pieces for La Fronde. Following her divorce from Gauthier-Villars in 1910, she wrote independently for a wide variety of publications, gaining considerable renown for her articles covering social trends, theater, fashion, and film, as well as crime reporting. In December 1910, Colette agreed to write a regular column in the Paris daily, Le Matin—at first under a pseudonym, then as "Colette Willy." One of her editors was Henry de Jouvenel, whom she married in 1912. By 1912, Colette had taught herself to be a reporter: "You have to see and not invent, you have to touch, not imagine .. because, when you see the sheets [at a crime scene] drenched in fresh blood, they are a color you could never invent." In 1914, Colette was named Le Matin's literary editor. Colette's separation from Jouvenel in 1923 forced her to sever ties with Le Matin. Over the next three decades her articles appeared in over two dozen publications, including Vogue, Le Figaro, and Paris-Soir. During the German Occupation of France, Colette continued contributing to daily and weekly publications, a number of them collaborationist and pro-Nazi, including Le Petit Parisien, which became pro-Vichy after January 1941, and La Gerbe, a pro-Nazi weekly. Though her articles were not political in nature, Colette was sharply criticized at the time for lending her prestige to these publications and implicitly accommodating herself to the Vichy regime. Her 26 November 1942 article, "Ma Bourgogne Pauvre" ("My Poor Burgundy"), has been singled out by some historians as tacitly accepting some ultra-nationalist goals that hardline Vichyist writers espoused. After 1945, her journalism was sporadic, and her final pieces were more personal essays than reported stories. Over the course of her writing career, Colette published over 1200 articles for newspapers, magazines, and journals. Death and legacy Upon her death, on 3 August 1954, she was refused a religious funeral by the Catholic Church on account of her divorces, but given a state funeral, the first French woman of letters to be granted the honour, and interred in Père-Lachaise cemetery. .]] Colette was elected to the Belgian Royal Academy (1935), the Académie Goncourt (1945, and President in 1949), and a Chevalier (1920) and Grand Officer (1953) of the Légion d'honneur. Colette's numerous biographers have proposed widely differing interpretations of her life and work over the decades. Initially considered a limited if talented novelist (despite the outspoken admiration in her lifetime of figures such as André Gide and Henry de Montherlant), she has been increasingly recognised as an important voice in women's writing. Before Colette's death, Katherine Anne Porter wrote in The New York Times that Colette "is the greatest living French writer of fiction; and that she was while Gide and Proust still lived." Singer-songwriter Rosanne Cash paid tribute to the writer in the song, "The Summer I Read Colette", on her 1996 album 10 Song Demo. Truman Capote wrote an essay in 1970 about meeting her, called "The White Rose". It tells how, when she saw him admiring a paperweight on a table (the "white rose" of the title), she insisted he take it; Capote initially refused the gift, but “…when I protested that I couldn’t accept as a present something she so clearly adored, [she replied] 'My dear, really there is no point in giving a gift unless one also treasures it oneself.'” Womanhouse (30 January – 28 February 1972) was a feminist art installation and performance space organized by Judy Chicago and Miriam Schapiro, co-founders of the California Institute of the Arts (CalArts) Feminist Art Program, and was the first public exhibition of art centered upon female empowerment. One of the rooms in it, Leah's Room by Karen LeCocq and Nancy Youdelman, was based on Colette’s Chéri. Karen and Nancy borrowed an antique dressing table and rug, made lace curtains and covered the bed with satin and lace to create the effect of a boudoir. They filled the closet with old-looking clothes and veiled hats, and wallpapered the walls to add a feeling of nostalgia. LeCocq sat at the dressing table dressed in a nineteenth-century-style costume as Léa, studiously applying make-up over and over and then removing it, replicating the character’s attempts to save her fading beauty. "Lucette Stranded on the Island" by Julia Holter, from her 2015 album Have You in My Wilderness, is based on a minor character from Colette's short story Chance Acquaintances. In the 1991 film Becoming Colette, Colette is played by the French actress Mathilda May. In the 2018 film Colette, the title character is played by Keira Knightley. Both films focus on Colette's life in her twenties, her marriage to her first husband, and the publication of her first novels under his name. Notable works ''Claudine à l'école (1900, translated as Claudine at School) Claudine à Paris (1901, translated as Claudine in Paris) Claudine en ménage (1902, translated as Claudine Married) Claudine s'en va (1903, translated as Claudine and Annie) Dialogues de bêtes (1904) La Retraite sentimentale (1907) Les Vrilles de la vigne (1908) La Vagabonde (1910) L'Envers du music hall (1913) L'Entrave (1913, translated as The Shackle) La Paix chez les bêtes (1916) L'Enfant et les sortilèges (1917, Ravel opera libretto) Mitsou (1919) Chéri (1920) La Maison de Claudine (1922, translated as The House of Claudine) L'Autre Femme (1922, translated as The Other Woman) Le Blé en herbe (1923, translated as Ripening Seed) La Fin de Chéri (1926, translated as The Last of Chéri or The End of Chéri) La Naissance du jour (1928, translated as Break of Day) Sido (1929) La Seconde (1929, translated as The Other One) Le Pur et l'Impur (1932, translated as The Pure and the Impure) La Chatte (1933) Duo (1934) Julie de Carneilhan (1941) Le Képi (1943) Gigi (1944) Paris de ma fenêtre (1944) L'Étoile Vesper (1946) Le Fanal Bleu (1949, translated as The Blue Lantern) Paradis terrestre, with photographs by Izis Bidermanas (1953) Source: Filmography , directed by Solange Térac (France, 1932, based on the novel The Vagabond) * , directed by Serge de Poligny (France, 1937, based on the novel Claudine at School) * Gigi, directed by Jacqueline Audry (France, 1949, based on the novella Gigi) * Julie de Carneilhan, directed by Jacques Manuel (France, 1950, based on the novel Julie de Carneilhan)<!--21 April 1950--> * Minne (film), directed by Jacqueline Audry (France, 1950, based on the novel )<!--24 May 1950--> * Chéri, directed by Pierre Billon (France, 1950, based on the novel Chéri)<!--28 June 1950--> * Le Blé en herbe, directed by Claude Autant-Lara (France, 1954, based on the novel Green Wheat) * Mitsou, directed by Jacqueline Audry (France, 1956, based on the novella Mitsou) * NBC Matinee Theater: The Vagabond (1958, TV series episode, based on the novel The Vagabond) * Gigi, directed by Vincente Minnelli (1958, based on the novella Gigi) * Chéri, directed by François Chatel (France, 1962, TV film, based on the novel Chéri) * The Gentle Libertine or How Young Girls Grow Wise, directed by Robert Kitts (UK, 1967, TV film, based on the novel ) * Away from It All: The Ripening Seed, directed by Mischa Scorer (UK, 1973, TV series episode, based on the novel Green Wheat) * Chéri, directed by Claude Whatham (UK, 1973, TV miniseries, based on the novel Chéri) * La Seconde, directed by Hervé Bromberger (France, 1973, TV film, based on the novel La Seconde) * , directed by Édouard Molinaro (France, 1978, TV miniseries, based on the Claudine novels) * , directed by Jacques Demy (France, 1980, TV film, based on the novel Break of Day) * Emmenez-moi au théâtre: Chéri, directed by Yves-André Hubert (France, 1984, TV series episode, based on the novel Chéri) * Gigi, directed by Jeannette Hubert (France, 1987, TV film, based on the novella Gigi) * Julie de Carneilhan, directed by Christopher Frank (France, 1990, TV film, based on the novel Julie de Carneilhan)<!--20 February 1990--> * Le Blé en herbe, directed by Serge Meynard (France, 1990, TV film, based on the novel Green Wheat) * La Seconde, directed by Christopher Frank (France, 1990, TV film, based on the novel La Seconde)<!--25 April 1990--> * Duo, directed by Claude Santelli (France, 1990, TV film, based on the novel Duo)<!--16 May 1990--> * Bella Vista, directed by Alfredo Arias (France, 1992, TV film, based on the short story Bella-Vista) * , directed by Caroline Huppert (France, 2006, TV film, based on the novella Gigi) * Chéri, directed by Stephen Frears (UK, 2009, based on the novel Chéri) Screenwriter * 1934: Lake of Ladies (dir. Marc Allégret) * 1935: Divine (dir. Max Ophüls) Films about Colette , directed by Yannick Bellon (France, 1952, short documentary) Becoming Colette, directed by Danny Huston (1991), with Mathilda May as Colette Colette, une femme libre, directed by Nadine Trintignant (France, 2004, TV film), with Marie Trintignant as Colette Colette, directed by Wash Westmoreland (2018), with Keira Knightley as Colette Colette, l'insoumise, directed by Cécile Denjean (France, 2018, documentary) See also Le Monde''s 100 Books of the Century, a list which includes Les Vrilles de la vigne Mononymous persons References Citations Bibliography * * * * Hennigfeld, Ursula/ Hörner, Fernand/ Link-Heer, Ursula (2006). Literarische Gendertheorie. Eros und Gesellschaft bei Proust und Colette. Bielefeld, Transcript. * * * * * * * * * * * * Further reading Colette: Autograph letters, signed (6): Paris; Manoir de Rozven par S. Coulomb, Ille-et-Vilaine; and [n.p.], to D. E. Inghelbrecht and Colette Inghelbrecht, 1909–1948 and n.d. are housed at the [http://www.themorgan.org/research/default.asp Pierpont Morgan Library]. Sylvain Bonmariage, Willy, Colette et moi, with an introduction by Jean-Pierre Thiollet, Anagramme ed., Paris, 2004 (reprint) Annie Goetzinger, The Provocative Colette, NBM, New York, 2018 Joanna Richardson, Colette, Methuen, London, 1983 Judith Thurman, Secrets of the flesh : a life of Colette, Bloomsbury, London, 1999 * External links * [http://www.centre-colette.com Centre d'études Colette] * * [https://www.nga.gov/content/dam/ngaweb/features/slideshows/irving-penn/penn_colette.jpg Portrait of Colette], by Irving Penn ([http://www.slate.com/id/2185054/ commentary on portrait]) [https://web.archive.org/web/20060903043524/http://www.histoiresdeparfums.com/magazine/inspiration/1873.html Short Profile of Colette] *[http://www.thegreatcat.org/cats-20th-century-cats-literature-colette/ Colette and her Cats] Category:1873 births Category:1954 deaths Category:People from Yonne Category:19th-century French novelists Category:20th-century French novelists Category:19th-century French women writers Category:20th-century French women writers Category:19th-century French LGBTQ people Category:20th-century French LGBTQ people Category:Bisexual women writers Category:Bisexual memoirists Category:Bisexual novelists Category:Bisexual journalists Category:French bisexual women Category:French bisexual writers Category:French opera librettists Category:French vedettes Category:French women novelists Category:French LGBTQ journalists Category:French LGBTQ novelists Category:Modernist women writers Category:Women opera librettists Category:Writers from Bourgogne-Franche-Comté Category:Grand Officers of the Legion of Honour Category:Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colette	2025-04-05T18:28:00.575212
6932	Charles Alston	\| birth_place = Charlotte, North Carolina, U.S. \| death_date = \| death_place = New York City, U.S. \| known_for = Muralism, painting, illustration, sculpture \| training = Columbia University, Teachers College \| movement = Abstract expressionism \| notable_works \| patrons Lemoine Deleaver Pierce \| awards \| spouse Myra Adele Logan }} Charles Henry "Spinky" Alston (November 28, 1907 – April 27, 1977) was an American painter, sculptor, illustrator, muralist and teacher who lived and worked in the New York City neighborhood of Harlem. Alston was active in the Harlem Renaissance; Alston was the first African-American supervisor for the Works Progress Administration's Federal Art Project. Alston designed and painted murals at the Harlem Hospital and the Golden State Mutual Life Insurance Building. In 1990, Alston's bust of Martin Luther King Jr. became the first image of an African American displayed at the White House. Personal life Early life Charles Henry Alston was born on November 28, 1907, in Charlotte, North Carolina, to Reverend Primus Priss Alston and Anna Elizabeth (Miller) Alston, as the youngest of five children. Three survived past infancy: Charles, his older sister Rousmaniere and his older brother Wendell. His father had been born into slavery in 1851 in Pittsboro, North Carolina. After the Civil War, he gained an education and graduated from St. Augustine's College in Raleigh. He became a prominent minister and founder of St. Michael's Episcopal Church, with an African-American congregation. The senior Alston was described as a "race man": an African American who dedicated his skills to the furtherance of the Black race. Alston also played with clay, creating a sculpture of North Carolina. As an adult he reflected on his memories of sculpting with clay as a child: "I'd get buckets of it and put it through strainers and make things out of it. I think that's the first art experience I remember, making things." Alston's step-father, Henry Bearden, left before his wife and children in order to get work. He secured a job overseeing elevator operations and the newsstand staff at the Bretton Hotel in the Upper West Side. The family lived in Harlem and was considered middle-class. During the Great Depression, the people of Harlem suffered economically. The "stoic strength" seen within the community was later expressed in Charles' fine art. Later life For the years 1942 and 1943 Alston was stationed in the army at Fort Huachuca in Arizona. While working on a mural project at Harlem Hospital, he met Myra Adele Logan, then an surgical intern at the hospital. They were married on April 8, 1944. Their home, which included his studio, was on Edgecombe Avenue near Highbridge Park. The couple lived close to family; at their frequent gatherings Alston enjoyed cooking and Myra played piano. During the 1940s Alston also took occasional art classes, studying under Alexander Kostellow. On April 27, 1977, Alston died after a long bout with cancer, just months after his wife died from lung cancer. His memorial service was held at St. Martins Episcopal Church in New York City, on May 21, 1977. Professional career for the Office of War Information]] While obtaining his master's degree, Alston was the boys' work director at the Utopia Children's House, started by James Lesesne Wells. Alston was introduced to African art by the poet Alain Locke. He also designed album covers for artists such as Duke Ellington and Coleman Hawkins, as well as book covers for Eudora Welty and Langston Hughes. Alston became staff artist at the Office of War Information and Public Relations in 1940, creating drawings of notable African Americans. These images were used in over 200 black newspapers across the country by the government to "foster goodwill with the black citizenry." Alston left commercial work to focus on his own artwork, and 1950 he became the first African-American instructor at the Art Students League, where he remained on faculty until 1971. This group served as the 1960s version of the 306 Group. Alston was described as an "intellectual activist", and in 1968 he spoke at Columbia about his activism. In the mid-1960s, Spiral organized an exhibition of black and white artworks, but the exhibition was never officially sponsored by the group, due to internal disagreements. Alston is quoted as saying, "The idea of a march was growing....It was in the air...and this painting just came. I called it Walking on purpose. It wasn't the militancy that you saw later. It was a very definite walk-not going back, no hesitation." Black and white The civil rights movement of the 1960s was a major influence on Alston. In the late 1950s, he began working in black and white, which he continued up until the mid-1960s, and the period is considered one of his most powerful. Some of the works are simple abstracts of black ink on white paper, similar to a Rorschach test. Untitled (c. 1960s) shows a boxing match, with an attempt to express the drama of the fight through few brushstrokes. Alston worked with oil-on-Masonite during this period as well, using impasto, cream, and ochre to create a moody cave-like artwork. Black and White #1 (1959) is one of Alston's more "monumental" works. Gray, white and black come together to fight for space on an abstract canvas, in a softer form than the more harsh Franz Kline. Alston continued to explore the relationship between monochromatic hues throughout the series which Wardlaw describes as "some of the most profoundly beautiful works of twentieth-century American art." The artists fought their response, writing letters to gain support. Four years later they succeeded in gaining the right to complete the murals. This was resolved later in 2011 when the Golden State Mutual Life Insurance building was added to the National Register of Historic Places. The building was purchased by Community Impact Development, a partnership formed to provide a new home for the South Central Los Angeles Regional Center, an agency that provides services to people with developmental disabilities. The building was renovated in 2015. The murals remain in the lobby.Sculpture Alston also created sculptures. Head of a Woman (1957) shows his shift toward a "reductive and modern approach to sculpture....where facial features were suggested rather than fully formulated in three dimensions,". In 1990, Alston's bronze bust of Martin Luther King Jr. (1970), became the first image of an African American to be displayed in the White House. When Barack Obama became the first black president in 2009, he brought the bust of Martin Luther King Jr. into the Oval Office, replacing a bust of Winston Churchill. This marked the first time an image of an African American was displayed in the president's work quarters. Furthermore, the bust became a predominant work seen in official portraits of visiting dignitaries. Now, a second copy of the famous Martin Luther King Jr. bust is displayed in Washington for the public to view up close. World War II propaganda During World War II, scholars have theorized that the black press strived to appeal to the black readers, while also appeasing the U.S. government by supporting the war. Alston produced over one hundred government propagandistic illustrations that supported the national position on the war for the U.S. Office of War Information. Simultaneously, the cartoons were targeted to a black audience, designed exclusively for publication in the weekly black newspapers to address specific, controversial issues in the black community. Reception Art critic Emily Genauer stated that Alston "refused to be pigeonholed", regarding his varied exploration in his artwork.Major exhibitions A Force for Change, group show, 2009, Spertus Museum, Chicago Canvasing the Movement, group show, 2009, Reginald F. Lewis Museum of Maryland African American History & Culture On Higher Ground: Selections From the Walter O. Evans Collection, group show, 2001, Henry Ford Museum, Michigan Rhapsodies in Black: Art of the Harlem Renaissance, group show, 1998, Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. In the Spirit of Resistance: African-American Modernists and the Mexican Muralist School, group show, 1996, The Studio Museum in Harlem, New York Charles Alston: Artist and Teacher, 1990, Kenkeleba Gallery, New York Hundred Anniversary Exhibition of Paintings and Sculpture, 1975, Art Students League of New York, New York Solo exhibition, 1969, Huntington Hartford Gallery of Modern Art, New York. Solo exhibition, 1968, Fairleigh Dickinson University, New Jersey National Gallery of Art National Museum of African American History and Culture Whitney Museum of American Art<ref name"Hollis"/>Notes 32. ^"Charles Alston, Artist and Teacher." African American Registry. 30 July 2020. Web. 10 March 2021. [https://aaregistry.org/story/charles-alston-harlem-renaissance-artist-and-teacher Charles Alston, Artist, and Teacher born] References Finkelman, Paul (2004). Encyclopedia of the Harlem Renaissance. London: Routledge. . Henderson, Henry (1993). A History of African-American Artists: From 1792 to the Present. New York: Pantheon Books. . Patton, Sharon (1998). African-American Art. Oxford: Oxford University Press. . Pierce, Lemoine (2004). "Charles Alston – An Appreciation". The International Review of African American Art (4): pages 33–38. Schwartzman, Myron (1990). Romare Bearden: His Life and Art. New York: Abrams Books. . Wardlaw, Alvia J. (2007). Charles Alston. Petaluma, California: Pomegranate Communications. . Further reading Anonymous, [https://www.proquest.com/docview/390246660 "First portrait of an Africa-American on display at White House"] New York Amsterdam News, March 2, 2000. Article about Alston's Martin Luther King Jr. at the White House. Catlin, Roger, [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/rare-and-important-sculpture-martin-luther-king-comes-smithsonian-180957848/ "A Rare and Important Sculpture of Martin Luther King"], January 15, 2016. Article about the importance of Alston's Martin Luther King bust by Smithsonian Magazine. Ascoli, Peter M, et al. A force for change: African American art and the Julius Rosenwald Fund. Chicago: Spertus Institute of Jewish Studies. 2009. Book that documents the concept of and recipients of Rosenwald Funds. Barnwell, Andrea D.; Evans, Walter O.; Buick, Kristen; Mooney, Amy; Benjamin, Tritobia Hayes. The Walter O. Evans collection of African American art. Seattle:University of Washington Press. 2000. Features work by Alston. Berman, G. (1977). "The Walls of Harlem". Arts magazine, 52 (2), pages 122–126. Discusses the impact of 306 and related artists. Brigham, D.R. (2008) [http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?url_verZ39.88-2004&res_datxri:bsc:&rft_dat=xri:bsc:rec:iibp:00352420 Breaking the 'chain of segregation': The Pyramid Club annual exhibitions.] International Review of African American Art, pages 2–17. These exhibitions featured work by Charles Alston. Cameron, A. (1999). "Buenos Vecinos: African-American printmaking and the Taller de Gráfica Popular". Print Quarterly, 16 (4), pages 356–367. The importance of 306 and the relationship these artists had to Latin American artists. Coker, G. G., & Jennings, C. L. (1994). The Harmon and Harriet Kelley Collection of African American art. San Antonio: San Antonio Museum of Art. Exhibition catalog. Donaldson, J. R. (1974). ''Generation '306' – Harlem, New York. Northwestern University. Chicago: Northwestern University. Dissertation about 306 with input from Alston himself. Dunitz, R and Prigoff, J. Walls of heritage: walls of pride – African American murals.'' Fullbridge: Pomegranate Europe Ltd. 2001. Features Alston's murals. Glueck, Grace. [https://www.proquest.com/docview/118428782 "The best painter I can possibly be".] The New York Times, 1968. Interview with Alston. Henderson, H., & Coker, G. G. (1990). Charles Alston: artist and teacher. New York: Kenkeleba Gallery. Exhibition catalog. Hodges, Bill. Gallery. "Charles "Spinky" Alston: Works of Art from 1936 to 1969", 2004. New York exhibition catalogue. Langa, Helen. "Two antilynching art exhibitions: politicized viewpoints, racial perspectives, gendered constraints". American Art, 1999. 13 (1), pages 10–39. Politically charged article about lynching related artworks, includes Alston. Michael Rosenfeld Gallery. (1996). African-American art: 20th century masterworks, III. New York: Michael Rosenfeld Gallery. Exhibition catalog. External links [http://www.aaa.si.edu/collections/charles-henry-alston-papers-5643 A finding aid to the Charles Henry Alston Papers, 1924–1980 in the Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution] [http://www.ctpostchronicle.com/articles/2011/04/10/life/doc4da1df368c9af882618267.txt Alston's work is used to teach children about family life and race] [https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/search/index?filters%5BnamePart_mtxt_s%5D%5B%5DAlston%2C+Charles+Henry%2C+1907-1977&keywords&layout=false# Digitized Works Progress Administration prints at Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture] *[https://catalog.archives.gov/id/535594 Artworks and Mockups for Cartoons Promoting the War Effort and Original Sketches by Charles Alston, at the National Archives and Records Administration] Category:1907 births Category:1977 deaths Category:20th-century American painters Category:20th-century American sculptors Category:20th-century American male artists Category:20th-century African-American painters Category:American male painters Category:American male sculptors Category:Abstract expressionist artists Category:American caricaturists Category:American magazine illustrators Category:American muralists Category:American portrait painters Category:Art Students League of New York alumni Category:Painters from New York City Category:Sculptors from North Carolina Category:Deaths from cancer in New York (state) Category:City College of New York faculty Category:American contemporary painters Category:DeWitt Clinton High School alumni Category:Harlem Renaissance Category:American modern sculptors Category:Artists from Charlotte, North Carolina Category:Teachers College, Columbia University alumni Category:The New Yorker cartoonists Category:American editorial cartoonists Category:African-American editorial cartoonists Category:United States Army artists Category:Federal Art Project artists Category:Sculptors from New York (state) Category:Columbia College (New York) alumni Category:People of the United States Office of War Information Category:African-American sculptors Category:United States Army soldiers Category:Alpha Phi Alpha members	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Alston	2025-04-05T18:28:00.597007
6933	Chromatin	, the nucleosome, the 11 nm beads on a string chromatin fibre and the metaphase chromosome.]] Chromatin is a complex of DNA and protein found in eukaryotic cells. The primary function is to package long DNA molecules into more compact, denser structures. This prevents the strands from becoming tangled and also plays important roles in reinforcing the DNA during cell division, preventing DNA damage, and regulating gene expression and DNA replication. During mitosis and meiosis, chromatin facilitates proper segregation of the chromosomes in anaphase; the characteristic shapes of chromosomes visible during this stage are the result of DNA being coiled into highly condensed chromatin. The primary protein components of chromatin are histones. An octamer of two sets of four histone cores (Histone H2A, Histone H2B, Histone H3, and Histone H4) bind to DNA and function as "anchors" around which the strands are wound. In general, there are three levels of chromatin organization: # DNA wraps around histone proteins, forming nucleosomes and the so-called beads on a string structure (euchromatin). # Multiple histones wrap into a 30-nanometer fiber consisting of nucleosome arrays in their most compact form (heterochromatin). # Higher-level DNA supercoiling of the 30 nm fiber produces the metaphase chromosome (during mitosis and meiosis). Many organisms, however, do not follow this organization scheme. For example, spermatozoa and avian red blood cells have more tightly packed chromatin than most eukaryotic cells, and trypanosomatid protozoa do not condense their chromatin into visible chromosomes at all. Prokaryotic cells have entirely different structures for organizing their DNA (the prokaryotic chromosome equivalent is called a genophore and is localized within the nucleoid region). The overall structure of the chromatin network further depends on the stage of the cell cycle. During interphase, the chromatin is structurally loose to allow access to RNA and DNA polymerases that transcribe and replicate the DNA. The local structure of chromatin during interphase depends on the specific genes present in the DNA. Regions of DNA containing genes which are actively transcribed ("turned on") are less tightly compacted and closely associated with RNA polymerases in a structure known as euchromatin, while regions containing inactive genes ("turned off") are generally more condensed and associated with structural proteins in heterochromatin. Epigenetic modification of the structural proteins in chromatin via methylation and acetylation also alters local chromatin structure and therefore gene expression. There is limited understanding of chromatin structure and it is active area of research in molecular biology.Dynamic chromatin structure and hierarchyChromatin undergoes various structural changes during a cell cycle. Histone proteins are the basic packers and arrangers of chromatin and can be modified by various post-translational modifications to alter chromatin packing (histone modification). Most modifications occur on histone tails. The positively charged histone cores only partially counteract the negative charge of the DNA phosphate backbone resulting in a negative net charge of the overall structure. An imbalance of charge within the polymer causes electrostatic repulsion between neighboring chromatin regions that promote interactions with positively charged proteins, molecules, and cations. As these modifications occur, the electrostatic environment surrounding the chromatin will flux and the level of chromatin compaction will alter. Polycomb-group proteins play a role in regulating genes through modulation of chromatin structure. For additional information, see Chromatin variant, Histone modifications in chromatin regulation and RNA polymerase control by chromatin structure. Structure of DNA In nature, DNA can form three structures, A-, B-, and Z-DNA. A- and B-DNA are very similar, forming right-handed helices, whereas Z-DNA is a left-handed helix with a zig-zag phosphate backbone. Z-DNA is thought to play a specific role in chromatin structure and transcription because of the properties of the junction between B- and Z-DNA. At the junction of B- and Z-DNA, one pair of bases is flipped out from normal bonding. These play a dual role of a site of recognition by many proteins and as a sink for torsional stress from RNA polymerase or nucleosome binding. DNA bases are stored as a code structure with four chemical bases such as “Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), and Thymine (T)”. The order and sequences of these chemical structures of DNA are reflected as information available for the creation and control of human organisms. “A with T and C with G” pairing up to build the DNA base pair. Sugar and phosphate molecules are also paired with these bases, making DNA nucleotides arrange 2 long spiral strands unitedly called “double helix”. In eukaryotes, DNA consists of a cell nucleus and the DNA is providing strength and direction to the mechanism of heredity. Moreover, between the nitrogenous bonds of the 2 DNA, homogenous bonds are forming. <!--- Move to mechanical properties of DNA or Z-DNA? "DNA structure Chromatin and Watson/Crick base pairing Crick and Watson's famous structure of DNA (called B-DNA) is only one of three possible structural forms (Fig. 2). For the C-N bond between a base and its sugar, there are two different conformations. The anti-conformation occurs in all A- and B-DNAs as well as in Z-DNA where a Cytosine is present. In case of a Guanine, Z-DNA takes the syn-conformation. The periodic change between a purine and pyrimidine along the strand of a Z-DNA accomplishes the alternating syn-anti-conformation characteristic of the zigzag structure of the Z-DNA helix. The yellow circles designated A, B, Z indicate the axes of the three possible types of DNA (Fig. 2). Junction between B- and Z-DNA Chromatin regions near the transcription start site frequently contain DNA sequence motifs favourable for forming Z-DNA. Likewise, formation of Z-DNA near the promoter region stimulates transcription. Z-DNA is stabilized by binding specific proteins. Formation of Z-DNA from B-DNA is a dynamic process wherein B-DNA is the relaxed state. When a Z-DNA segment is formed two B-Z junctions form (Fig.3). The crystal structure of such junctions is known. At each junction, the hydrogen bonds between a Watson/Crick base pair is broken and the bases are extruded. Extrusion of a base from the helix is a well-known reaction performed by enzymes (i.e., DNA glycosylase) that edit or repair DNA during Base Excision Repair (BER). Crystal structures of extruded bases co-crystallized with Hha1 methyltransferase, human DNA repair protein AGT(O(6)-alkylguanine-DNAalkyltransferase), or bacteriophage T4 endonuclease V are similar to the extruded bases at B-Z junctions. Z-DNA may also provide a sink to absorb torsional strain following an RNA polymerase or a transient nucleosome. Also, Z-DNA may represent a signal for the recruitment of RNA-editing enzymes. It is possible that chromatin encompassing Z-DNA segments also affect replication." ---> Nucleosomes and beads-on-a-string The basic repeat element of chromatin is the nucleosome, interconnected by sections of linker DNA, a far shorter arrangement than pure DNA in solution. In addition to core histones, a linker histone H1 exists that contacts the exit/entry of the DNA strand on the nucleosome. The nucleosome core particle, together with histone H1, is known as a chromatosome. Nucleosomes, with about 20 to 60 base pairs of linker DNA, can form, under non-physiological conditions, an approximately 11 nm beads on a string fibre. The nucleosomes bind DNA non-specifically, as required by their function in general DNA packaging. There are, however, large DNA sequence preferences that govern nucleosome positioning. This is due primarily to the varying physical properties of different DNA sequences: For instance, adenine (A), and thymine (T) is more favorably compressed into the inner minor grooves. This means nucleosomes can bind preferentially at one position approximately every 10 base pairs (the helical repeat of DNA)- where the DNA is rotated to maximise the number of A and T bases that will lie in the inner minor groove. (See nucleic acid structure.) 30-nm chromatin fiber in mitosis With addition of H1, during mitosis the beads-on-a-string structure can coil into a 30 nm-diameter helical structure known as the 30 nm fibre or filament. The precise structure of the chromatin fiber in the cell is not known in detail. This level of chromatin structure is thought to be the form of heterochromatin, which contains mostly transcriptionally silent genes. Electron microscopy studies have demonstrated that the 30 nm fiber is highly dynamic such that it unfolds into a 10 nm fiber beads-on-a-string structure when transversed by an RNA polymerase engaged in transcription. thumb\|left\|240x240px\|Four proposed structures of the 30 nm chromatin filament for DNA repeat length per nucleosomes ranging from 177 to 207 bp. <br /> Linker DNA in yellow and nucleosomal DNA in pink. The existing models commonly accept that the nucleosomes lie perpendicular to the axis of the fibre, with linker histones arranged internally. A stable 30 nm fibre relies on the regular positioning of nucleosomes along DNA. Linker DNA is relatively resistant to bending and rotation. This makes the length of linker DNA critical to the stability of the fibre, requiring nucleosomes to be separated by lengths that permit rotation and folding into the required orientation without excessive stress to the DNA. In this view, different lengths of the linker DNA should produce different folding topologies of the chromatin fiber. Recent theoretical work, based on electron-microscopy images of reconstituted fibers supports this view. DNA loops (red) and condensin rings (yellow) * Cohesins, protein complexes that generate loops by extrusion of the DNA fiber through the ring-like structure of the complex itself. * CTCF, a transcription factor that limits the frontier of the DNA loop. To stop the growth of a loop, two CTCF molecules must be positioned in opposite directions to block the movement of the cohesin ring (see video). There are many other elements involved. For example, Jpx regulates the binding sites of CTCF molecules along the DNA fiber.Spatial organization of chromatin in the cell nucleus <!--- Too speculative for an article: "" ---> The spatial arrangement of the chromatin within the nucleus is not random - specific regions of the chromatin can be found in certain territories. Territories are, for example, the lamina-associated domains (LADs), and the topologically associating domains (TADs), which are bound together by protein complexes. Currently, polymer models such as the Strings & Binders Switch (SBS) model and the Dynamic Loop (DL) model are used to describe the folding of chromatin within the nucleus. The arrangement of chromatin within the nucleus may also play a role in nuclear stress and restoring nuclear membrane deformation by mechanical stress. When chromatin is condensed, the nucleus becomes more rigid. When chromatin is decondensed, the nucleus becomes more elastic with less force exerted on the inner nuclear membrane. This observation sheds light on other possible cellular functions of chromatin organization outside of genomic regulation. Chromosome scaffolds are made of proteins including condensin, type IIA topoisomerase and kinesin family member 4 (KIF4). The physical strength of chromatin is vital for this stage of division to prevent shear damage to the DNA as the daughter chromosomes are separated. To maximise strength the composition of the chromatin changes as it approaches the centromere, primarily through alternative histone H1 analogues. During mitosis, although most of the chromatin is tightly compacted, there are small regions that are not as tightly compacted. These regions often correspond to promoter regions of genes that were active in that cell type prior to chromatin formation. The lack of compaction of these regions is called bookmarking, which is an epigenetic mechanism believed to be important for transmitting to daughter cells the "memory" of which genes were active prior to entry into mitosis. This bookmarking mechanism is needed to help transmit this memory because transcription ceases during mitosis.Chromatin and bursts of transcriptionChromatin and its interaction with enzymes has been researched, and a conclusion being made is that it is relevant and an important factor in gene expression. Vincent G. Allfrey, a professor at Rockefeller University, stated that RNA synthesis is related to histone acetylation. The lysine amino acid attached to the end of the histones is positively charged. The acetylation of these tails would make the chromatin ends neutral, allowing for DNA access. When the chromatin decondenses, the DNA is open to entry of molecular machinery. Fluctuations between open and closed chromatin may contribute to the discontinuity of transcription, or transcriptional bursting. Other factors are probably involved, such as the association and dissociation of transcription factor complexes with chromatin. Specifically, RNA polymerase and transcriptional proteins have been shown to congregate into droplets via phase separation, and recent studies have suggested that 10 nm chromatin demonstrates liquid-like behavior increasing the targetability of genomic DNA. The interactions between linker histones and disordered tail regions act as an electrostatic glue organizing large-scale chromatin into a dynamic, liquid-like domain. Decreased chromatin compaction comes with increased chromatin mobility and easier transcriptional access to DNA. Alternative chromatin organizations During metazoan spermiogenesis, the spermatid's chromatin is remodeled into a more spaced-packaged, widened, almost crystal-like structure. This process is associated with the cessation of transcription and involves nuclear protein exchange. The histones are mostly displaced, and replaced by protamines (small, arginine-rich proteins). It is proposed that in yeast, regions devoid of histones become very fragile after transcription; HMO1, an HMG-box protein, helps in stabilizing nucleosomes-free chromatin.Chromatin and DNA repairA variety of internal and external agents can cause DNA damage in cells. Many factors influence how the repair route is selected, including the cell cycle phase and chromatin segment where the break occurred. In terms of initiating 5’ end DNA repair, the p53 binding protein 1 (53BP1) and BRCA1 are important protein components that influence double-strand break repair pathway selection. The 53BP1 complex attaches to chromatin near DNA breaks and activates downstream factors such as Rap1-Interacting Factor 1 (RIF1) and shieldin, which protects DNA ends against nucleolytic destruction. DNA damage process occurs within the condition of chromatin, and the constantly changing chromatin environment has a large effect on it. Accessing and repairing the damaged cell of DNA, the genome condenses into chromatin and repairing it through modifying the histone residues. Through altering the chromatin structure, histones residues are adding chemical groups namely phosphate, acetyl and one or more methyl groups and these control the expressions of gene building by proteins to acquire DNA. Moreover, resynthesis of the delighted zone, DNA will be repaired by processing and restructuring the damaged bases. In order to maintain genomic integrity, “homologous recombination and classical non-homologous end joining process” has been followed by DNA to be repaired. The packaging of eukaryotic DNA into chromatin presents a barrier to all DNA-based processes that require recruitment of enzymes to their sites of action. To allow the critical cellular process of DNA repair, the chromatin must be remodeled. In eukaryotes, ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling complexes and histone-modifying enzymes are two predominant factors employed to accomplish this remodeling process. Chromatin relaxation occurs rapidly at the site of DNA damage. This process is initiated by PARP1 protein that starts to appear at DNA damage in less than a second, with half maximum accumulation within 1.6 seconds after the damage occurs. Next the chromatin remodeler Alc1 quickly attaches to the product of PARP1, and completes arrival at the DNA damage within 10 seconds of the damage. γH2AX (H2AX phosphorylated on serine 139) can be detected as soon as 20 seconds after irradiation of cells (with DNA double-strand break formation), and half maximum accumulation of γH2AX occurs in one minute. RNF8 mediates extensive chromatin decondensation, through its subsequent interaction with CHD4, a component of the nucleosome remodeling and deacetylase complex NuRD. After undergoing relaxation subsequent to DNA damage, followed by DNA repair, chromatin recovers to a compaction state close to its pre-damage level after about 20 min. or pheochromocytoma.]] of a human, showing an overview of the human genome using G banding, which is a method that includes Giemsa staining, wherein the lighter staining regions are generally more euchromatic (and more transcriptionally active), whereas darker regions generally are more heterochromatic.]] # ChIP-seq (Chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing) is recognized as the vastly utilized chromatin identification method it has been using the antibodies that actively selected, identify and combine with proteins including "histones, histone restructuring, transaction factors and cofactors". This has been providing data about the state of chromatin and the transaction of a gene by trimming "oligonucleotides" that are unbound. Chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing aimed against different histone modifications, can be used to identify chromatin states throughout the genome. Different modifications have been linked to various states of chromatin. # DNase-seq (DNase I hypersensitive sites Sequencing) uses the sensitivity of accessible regions in the genome to the DNase I enzyme to map open or accessible regions in the genome. # FAIRE-seq (Formaldehyde-Assisted Isolation of Regulatory Elements sequencing) uses the chemical properties of protein-bound DNA in a two-phase separation method to extract nucleosome depleted regions from the genome. # ATAC-seq (Assay for Transposable Accessible Chromatin sequencing) uses the Tn5 transposase to integrate (synthetic) transposons into accessible regions of the genome consequentially highlighting the localisation of nucleosomes and transcription factors across the genome. # DNA footprinting is a method aimed at identifying protein-bound DNA. It uses labeling and fragmentation coupled to gel electrophoresis to identify areas of the genome that have been bound by proteins. # MNase-seq (Micrococcal Nuclease sequencing) uses the micrococcal nuclease enzyme to identify nucleosome positioning throughout the genome. # Chromosome conformation capture determines the spatial organization of chromatin in the nucleus, by inferring genomic locations that physically interact. # MACC profiling (Micrococcal nuclease ACCessibility profiling) uses titration series of chromatin digests with micrococcal nuclease to identify chromatin accessibility as well as to map nucleosomes and non-histone DNA-binding proteins in both open and closed regions of the genome. Chromatin and knots It has been a puzzle how decondensed interphase chromosomes remain essentially unknotted. The natural expectation is that in the presence of type II DNA topoisomerases that permit passages of double-stranded DNA regions through each other, all chromosomes should reach the state of topological equilibrium. The topological equilibrium in highly crowded interphase chromosomes forming chromosome territories would result in formation of highly knotted chromatin fibres. However, Chromosome Conformation Capture (3C) methods revealed that the decay of contacts with the genomic distance in interphase chromosomes is practically the same as in the crumpled globule state that is formed when long polymers condense without formation of any knots. To remove knots from highly crowded chromatin, one would need an active process that should not only provide the energy to move the system from the state of topological equilibrium but also guide topoisomerase-mediated passages in such a way that knots would be efficiently unknotted instead of making the knots even more complex. It has been shown that the process of chromatin-loop extrusion is ideally suited to actively unknot chromatin fibres in interphase chromosomes. Chromatin: alternative definitions The term, introduced by Walther Flemming, has multiple meanings: # Simple and concise definition: Chromatin is a macromolecular complex of a DNA macromolecule and protein macromolecules (and RNA). The proteins package and arrange the DNA and control its functions within the cell nucleus. # '''A biochemists' operational definition: Chromatin is the DNA/protein/RNA complex extracted from eukaryotic lysed interphase nuclei. Just which of the multitudinous substances present in a nucleus will constitute a part of the extracted material partly depends on the technique each researcher uses. Furthermore, the composition and properties of chromatin vary from one cell type to another, during the development of a specific cell type, and at different stages in the cell cycle. # The DNA + histone = chromatin definition:' The DNA double helix in the cell nucleus is packaged by special proteins termed histones. The formed protein/DNA complex is called chromatin. The basic structural unit of chromatin is the nucleosome. The first definition allows for "chromatins" to be defined in other domains of life like bacteria and archaea, using any DNA-binding proteins that condenses the molecule. These proteins are usually referred to nucleoid-associated proteins (NAPs); examples include AsnC/LrpC with HU. In addition, some archaea do produce nucleosomes from proteins homologous to eukaryotic histones. Chromatin Remodeling: Chromatin remodeling can result from covalent modification of histones that physically remodel, move or remove nucleosomes. Studies of Sanosaka et al. 2022, says that Chromatin remodeler CHD7 regulate cell type-specific gene expression in human neural crest cells. See also * Active chromatin sequence * Chromatid * DAnCER database (2010) * Epigenetics * Histone-modifying enzymes * Position-effect variegation * Transcriptional bursting Notes References Additional sources * Cooper, Geoffrey M. 2000. The Cell, 2nd edition, A Molecular Approach. Chapter 4.2 [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bookshelf/br.fcgi?bookcooper&partA618#A620 Chromosomes and Chromatin.] * * Cremer, T. 1985. Von der Zellenlehre zur Chromosomentheorie: Naturwissenschaftliche Erkenntnis und Theorienwechsel in der frühen Zell- und Vererbungsforschung, Veröffentlichungen aus der Forschungsstelle für Theoretische Pathologie der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften. Springer-Vlg., Berlin, Heidelberg. * Elgin, S. C. R. (ed.). 1995. Chromatin Structure and Gene Expression, vol. 9. IRL Press, Oxford, New York, Tokyo. * * * * * * Pollard, T., and W. Earnshaw. 2002. Cell Biology. Saunders. * Saumweber, H. 1987. Arrangement of Chromosomes in Interphase Cell Nuclei, p. 223-234. In W. Hennig (ed.), Structure and Function of Eucaryotic Chromosomes, vol. 14. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg. * * Van Holde KE. 1989. Chromatin. New York: Springer-Verlag. . * Van Holde, K., J. Zlatanova, G. Arents, and E. Moudrianakis. 1995. Elements of chromatin structure: histones, nucleosomes, and fibres, p. 1-26. In S. C. R. Elgin (ed.), Chromatin structure and gene expression. IRL Press at Oxford University Press, Oxford. External links * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eYrQ0EhVCYA Chromatin, Histones & Cathepsin]; PMAP The Proteolysis Map-animation * [https://www.nature.com/subjects/chromatin Nature journal: recent chromatin publications and news] * [http://www.activemotif.com/documents/134.pdf Protocol for in vitro'' Chromatin Assembly] * [http://www.nature.com/encode/#/threads/chromatin-patterns-at-transcription-factor-binding-sites ENCODE threads Explorer] Chromatin patterns at transcription factor binding sites. Nature (journal) Category:Molecular genetics Category:Nuclear substructures	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatin	2025-04-05T18:28:00.621317
6934	Condition number	In numerical analysis, the condition number of a function measures how much the output value of the function can change for a small change in the input argument. This is used to measure how sensitive a function is to changes or errors in the input, and how much error in the output results from an error in the input. Very frequently, one is solving the inverse problem: given f(x) = y, one is solving for x, and thus the condition number of the (local) inverse must be used. The condition number is derived from the theory of propagation of uncertainty, and is formally defined as the value of the asymptotic worst-case relative change in output for a relative change in input. The "function" is the solution of a problem and the "arguments" are the data in the problem. The condition number is frequently applied to questions in linear algebra, in which case the derivative is straightforward but the error could be in many different directions, and is thus computed from the geometry of the matrix. More generally, condition numbers can be defined for non-linear functions in several variables. A problem with a low condition number is said to be well-conditioned, while a problem with a high condition number is said to be ill-conditioned. In non-mathematical terms, an ill-conditioned problem is one where, for a small change in the inputs (the independent variables) there is a large change in the answer or dependent variable. This means that the correct solution/answer to the equation becomes hard to find. The condition number is a property of the problem. Paired with the problem are any number of algorithms that can be used to solve the problem, that is, to calculate the solution. Some algorithms have a property called backward stability; in general, a backward stable algorithm can be expected to accurately solve well-conditioned problems. Numerical analysis textbooks give formulas for the condition numbers of problems and identify known backward stable algorithms. As a rule of thumb, if the condition number \kappa(A) = 10^k, then you may lose up to k digits of accuracy on top of what would be lost to the numerical method due to loss of precision from arithmetic methods. However, the condition number does not give the exact value of the maximum inaccuracy that may occur in the algorithm. It generally just bounds it with an estimate (whose computed value depends on the choice of the norm to measure the inaccuracy). General definition in the context of error analysis Given a problem f and an algorithm \tilde{f} with an input x and output \tilde{f}(x), the error is \delta f(x) :f(x) - \tilde{f}(x), the absolute error is \\|\delta f(x)\\| \left\\|f(x) - \tilde{f}(x)\right\\| and the relative error is \\|\delta f(x)\\| / \\|f(x)\\| = \left\\|f(x) - \tilde{f}(x)\right\\| / \\|f(x)\\|. In this context, the absolute condition number of a problem f is \lim_{\varepsilon \rightarrow 0^+}\, \sup_{\\|\delta x\\| \,\leq\, \varepsilon} \frac{\\|\delta f(x)\\|}{\\|\delta x\\|} and the relative condition number is \lim_{\varepsilon \rightarrow 0^+}\, \sup_{\\|\delta x \\| \,\leq\, \varepsilon} \frac{\\|\delta f(x)\\| / \\|f(x)\\|}{\\|\delta x\\| / \\|x\\|}. Matrices For example, the condition number associated with the linear equation Ax = b gives a bound on how inaccurate the solution x will be after approximation. Note that this is before the effects of round-off error are taken into account; conditioning is a property of the matrix, not the algorithm or floating-point accuracy of the computer used to solve the corresponding system. In particular, one should think of the condition number as being (very roughly) the rate at which the solution x will change with respect to a change in b. Thus, if the condition number is large, even a small error in b may cause a large error in x. On the other hand, if the condition number is small, then the error in x will not be much bigger than the error in b. The condition number is defined more precisely to be the maximum ratio of the relative error in x to the relative error in b. Let e be the error in b. Assuming that A is a nonsingular matrix, the error in the solution A−1b is A−1e. The ratio of the relative error in the solution to the relative error in b is {\frac{\left\\|A^{-1} e\right\\|}{\left\\|A^{-1} b\right\\|}}/{\frac{\\|e\\|}{\\|b\\|}} = \frac{\left\\|A^{-1} e\right\\|}{\\|e\\|} \frac{\\|b\\|}{\left\\|A^{-1} b\right\\|}. The maximum value (for nonzero b and e) is then seen to be the product of the two operator norms as follows: \begin{align} \max_{e,b \neq 0} \left\{ \frac{\left\\| A^{-1}e \right\\|}{\\| e \\|} \frac{\\| b \\|}{\left\\| A^{-1}b \right\\|} \right\} &= \max_{e \neq 0} \left\{\frac{\left\\| A^{-1}e\right\\| }{\\| e\\|} \right\} \, \max_{b \neq 0} \left\{ \frac {\\| b \\|}{\left\\| A^{-1}b \right\\|} \right\} \\ &= \max_{e \neq 0} \left\{\frac{\left\\| A^{-1}e\right\\|}{\\| e \\|}\right\} \, \max_{x \neq 0} \left \{\frac {\\| Ax \\| }{\\| x \\|} \right\} \\ &= \left\\| A^{-1} \right \\| \, \\|A\\|. \end{align} The same definition is used for any consistent norm, i.e. one that satisfies \kappa(A) \left\\| A^{-1} \right\\| \, \left\\| A \right\\| \ge \left\\| A^{-1} A \right\\| 1. When the condition number is exactly one (which can only happen if A is a scalar multiple of a linear isometry), then a solution algorithm can find (in principle, meaning if the algorithm introduces no errors of its own) an approximation of the solution whose precision is no worse than that of the data. However, it does not mean that the algorithm will converge rapidly to this solution, just that it will not diverge arbitrarily because of inaccuracy on the source data (backward error), provided that the forward error introduced by the algorithm does not diverge as well because of accumulating intermediate rounding errors. The condition number may also be infinite, but this implies that the problem is ill-posed (does not possess a unique, well-defined solution for each choice of data; that is, the matrix is not invertible), and no algorithm can be expected to reliably find a solution. The definition of the condition number depends on the choice of norm, as can be illustrated by two examples. If \\|\cdot\\| is the matrix norm induced by the (vector) Euclidean norm (sometimes known as the L2 norm and typically denoted as \\|\cdot\\|_2), then \kappa(A) = \frac{\sigma_\text{max}(A)}{\sigma_\text{min}(A)}, where \sigma_\text{max}(A) and \sigma_\text{min}(A) are maximal and minimal singular values of A respectively. Hence: If A is normal, then \kappa(A) = \frac{\left\|\lambda_\text{max}(A)\right\|}{\left\|\lambda_\text{min}(A)\right\|}, where \lambda_\text{max}(A) and \lambda_\text{min}(A) are maximal and minimal (by moduli) eigenvalues of A respectively. If A is unitary, then \kappa(A) = 1. The condition number with respect to L2 arises so often in numerical linear algebra that it is given a name, the condition number of a matrix. If \\|\cdot\\| is the matrix norm induced by the L^\infty (vector) norm and A is lower triangular non-singular (i.e. a_{ii} \ne 0 for all i), then \kappa(A) \geq \frac{\max_i\big(\|a_{ii}\|\big)}{\min_i\big(\|a_{ii}\|\big)} recalling that the eigenvalues of any triangular matrix are simply the diagonal entries. The condition number computed with this norm is generally larger than the condition number computed relative to the Euclidean norm, but it can be evaluated more easily (and this is often the only practicably computable condition number, when the problem to solve involves a non-linear algebra, for example when approximating irrational and transcendental functions or numbers with numerical methods). If the condition number is not significantly larger than one, the matrix is well-conditioned, which means that its inverse can be computed with good accuracy. If the condition number is very large, then the matrix is said to be ill-conditioned. Practically, such a matrix is almost singular, and the computation of its inverse, or solution of a linear system of equations is prone to large numerical errors. A matrix that is not invertible is often said to have a condition number equal to infinity. Alternatively, it can be defined as \kappa(A) = \\|A\\| \\|A^\dagger\\|, where A^\dagger is the Moore-Penrose pseudoinverse. For square matrices, this unfortunately makes the condition number discontinuous, but it is a useful definition for rectangular matrices, which are never invertible but are still used to define systems of equations. Nonlinear Condition numbers can also be defined for nonlinear functions, and can be computed using calculus. The condition number varies with the point; in some cases one can use the maximum (or supremum) condition number over the domain of the function or domain of the question as an overall condition number, while in other cases the condition number at a particular point is of more interest. One variable The absolute condition number of a differentiable function f in one variable is the absolute value of the derivative of the function: \left\|f'(x)\right\| The relative condition number of f as a function is \left\|xf'/f\right\|. Evaluated at a point x, this is \left\|\frac{xf'(x)}{f(x)}\right\|=\left\|\frac{(\log f)'}{(\log x)'}\right\|. Note that this is the absolute value of the elasticity of a function in economics. Most elegantly, this can be understood as (the absolute value of) the ratio of the logarithmic derivative of f, which is (\log f)' f'/f, and the logarithmic derivative of x, which is (\log x)' x'/x = 1/x, yielding a ratio of xf'/f. This is because the logarithmic derivative is the infinitesimal rate of relative change in a function: it is the derivative f' scaled by the value of f. Note that if a function has a zero at a point, its condition number at the point is infinite, as infinitesimal changes in the input can change the output from zero to positive or negative, yielding a ratio with zero in the denominator, hence infinite relative change. More directly, given a small change \Delta x in x, the relative change in x is [(x + \Delta x) - x] / x = (\Delta x) / x, while the relative change in f(x) is [f(x + \Delta x) - f(x)] / f(x). Taking the ratio yields \frac{[f(x + \Delta x) - f(x)] / f(x)}{(\Delta x) / x} \frac{x}{f(x)} \frac{f(x + \Delta x) - f(x)}{(x + \Delta x) - x} \frac{x}{f(x)} \frac{f(x + \Delta x) - f(x)}{\Delta x}. The last term is the difference quotient (the slope of the secant line), and taking the limit yields the derivative. Condition numbers of common elementary functions are particularly important in computing significant figures and can be computed immediately from the derivative. A few important ones are given below: Name Symbol Relative condition number Addition / subtraction x + a \frac{x}{x+a}\right\| Scalar multiplication a x 1 Division 1 / x 1 Polynomial x^n n\| Exponential function e^x x\| Natural logarithm function \ln(x) \frac{1}{\ln(x)}\right\| Sine function \sin(x) x\cot(x)\| Cosine function \cos(x) x\tan(x)\| Tangent function \tan(x) x(\tan(x)+\cot(x))\| Inverse sine function \arcsin(x) \frac{x}{\sqrt{1-x^2}\arcsin(x)} Inverse cosine function \arccos(x) x\|}{\sqrt{1-x^2}\arccos(x)} Inverse tangent function \arctan(x) \frac{x}{(1+x^2)\arctan(x)} Several variables Condition numbers can be defined for any function f mapping its data from some domain (e.g. an m-tuple of real numbers x) into some codomain (e.g. an n-tuple of real numbers f(x)), where both the domain and codomain are Banach spaces. They express how sensitive that function is to small changes (or small errors) in its arguments. This is crucial in assessing the sensitivity and potential accuracy difficulties of numerous computational problems, for example, polynomial root finding or computing eigenvalues. The condition number of f at a point x (specifically, its relative condition number \lim_{\varepsilon \to 0^+} \sup_{\\|\delta x\\| \leq \varepsilon} \left[ \left. \frac{\left\\|f(x + \delta x) - f(x)\right\\|}{\\|f(x)\\|} \right/ \frac{\\|\delta x\\|}{\\|x\\|} \right], where \\|\cdot\\| is a norm on the domain/codomain of f. If f is differentiable, this is equivalent to: \frac{\\|J(x)\\|}{\\|f(x) \\| / \\|x\\|}, where denotes the Jacobian matrix of partial derivatives of f at x, and \\|J(x)\\| is the induced norm on the matrix. See also Numerical methods for linear least squares Numerical stability Hilbert matrix Ill-posed problem Singular value Wilson matrix References Further reading External links Condition Number of a Matrix at Holistic Numerical Methods Institute MATLAB library function to determine condition number Condition number – Encyclopedia of Mathematics Who Invented the Matrix Condition Number? by Nick Higham Category:Numerical analysis Category:Matrices	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condition_number	2025-04-05T18:28:00.636800
6936	Cheddar cheese	\| namedafter = Cheddar}} Cheddar cheese (or simply cheddar) is a natural cheese that is relatively hard, off-white (or orange if colourings such as annatto are added), and sometimes sharp-tasting. It originates from the English village of Cheddar in Somerset, South West England. Cheddar is produced all over the world, and cheddar cheese has no Protected Designation of Origin (PDO). In 2007, the name West Country Farmhouse Cheddar was registered in the European Union and (after Brexit) the United Kingdom, defined as cheddar produced from local milk within Somerset, Dorset, Devon and Cornwall and manufactured using traditional methods. Protected Geographical Indication (PGI) was registered for Orkney Scottish Island Cheddar in 2013 in the EU, which also applies under UK law. Globally, the style and quality of cheeses labelled as cheddar varies greatly, with some processed cheeses packaged as "cheddar". Cheeses similar to Red Leicester are sometimes marketed as "red cheddar". Cheddar cheese is the most popular cheese in the UK, accounting for 51% of the country's £1.9 billion annual cheese market. It is the second-most popular cheese in the United States behind mozzarella, with an average annual consumption of per capita. The United States produced approximately of cheddar in 2014, and the UK produced in 2008. History Cheddar cheese originates from the village of Cheddar in Somerset, southwest England. Cheddar Gorge on the edge of the village contains a number of caves, which provided the ideal humidity and steady temperature for maturing the cheese. Harding introduced new equipment to the process of cheese-making, including his "revolving breaker" for curd cutting; the revolving breaker saved much manual effort in the cheese-making process. The "Joseph Harding method" was the first modern system for cheddar production based upon scientific principles. Harding stated that cheddar cheese is "not made in the field, nor in the byre, nor even in the cow, it is made in the dairy". Together, Joseph Harding and his wife introduced cheddar in Scotland and North America, while his sons Henry and William Harding were responsible for introducing cheddar cheese production to Australia and facilitating the establishment of the cheese industry in New Zealand, respectively. During the Second World War and for nearly a decade thereafter, most of the milk in Britain was used to make a single kind of cheese nicknamed "government cheddar" as part of the war economy and rationing. As a result, almost all other cheese production in the country was wiped out. Before the First World War, more than 3,500 cheese producers were in Britain; fewer than 100 remained after the Second World War. According to a United States Department of Agriculture researcher, cheddar is the world's most popular cheese and is the most studied type of cheese in scientific publications.Process ]] During the manufacture of cheddar, the curds and whey are separated using rennet, an enzyme complex normally produced from the stomachs of newborn calves, while in vegetarian or kosher cheeses, bacterial, yeast or mould-derived chymosin is used. "Cheddaring" refers to an additional step in the production of cheddar cheese where, after heating, the curd is kneaded with salt, cut into cubes to drain the whey, and then stacked and turned. Strong, extra-mature cheddar, sometimes called vintage, needs to be matured for 15 months or more. The cheese is kept at a constant temperature, often requiring special facilities. As with other hard cheese varieties produced worldwide, caves provide an ideal environment for maturing cheese; still, today, some cheddar is matured in the caves at Wookey Hole and Cheddar Gorge. Additionally, some versions of cheddar are smoked. ]] Character The ideal quality of the original Somerset cheddar was described by Joseph Harding in 1864 as "close and firm in texture, yet mellow in character or quality; it is rich with a tendency to melt in the mouth, the flavour full and fine, approaching to that of a hazelnut". Cheddar made in the classical way tends to have a sharp, pungent flavour, often slightly earthy. The "sharpness" of cheddar is associated with the levels of bitter peptides in the cheese. This bitterness has been found to be significant to the overall perception of the aged cheddar flavour. The texture is firm, with farmhouse traditional cheddar being slightly crumbly; it should also, if mature, contain large cheese crystals consisting of calcium lactate – often precipitated when matured for times longer than six months. Cheddar can be a deep to pale yellow (off-white) colour, or a yellow-orange colour when certain plant extracts are added, such as beet juice. One commonly used spice is annatto, extracted from seeds of the tropical achiote tree. Originally added to simulate the colour of high-quality milk from grass-fed Jersey and Guernsey cows, annatto may also impart a sweet, nutty flavour. The largest producer of cheddar cheese in the United States, Kraft, uses a combination of annatto and oleoresin paprika, an extract of the lipophilic (oily) portion of paprika. Cheddar was sometimes (and still can be found) packaged in black wax, but was more commonly packaged in larded cloth, which was impermeable to contaminants, but still allowed the cheese to "breathe". Original-cheddar designation The Slow Food Movement has created a cheddar presidium, arguing that only three cheeses should be called "original cheddar". Their specifications, which go further than the "West Country Farmhouse Cheddar" PDO, require that cheddar be made in Somerset and with traditional methods, such as using raw milk, traditional animal rennet, and a cloth wrapping. International production The "cheddar cheese" name is used internationally; its name does not have a protected designation of origin, but the use of the name "West Country Farmhouse Cheddar" does. In addition to the United Kingdom, cheddar is also made in Australia, Argentina, Belgium, Canada, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands, New Zealand, South Africa, Sweden, Finland, Uruguay and the United States. Cheddars can be either industrial or artisan cheeses. The flavour, colour, and quality of industrial cheese varies significantly, and food packaging will usually indicate a strength, such as mild, medium, strong, tasty, sharp, extra sharp, mature, old, or vintage; this may indicate the maturation period, or food additives used to enhance the flavour. Artisan varieties develop strong and diverse flavours over time.AustraliaAs of 2013, cheddar accounts for over 55% of the Australian cheese market, with average annual consumption around per person. Cheddar is so commonly found that the name is rarely used: instead, cheddar is sold by strength alone as e.g. "mild", "tasty" or "sharp". Canada Following a wheat midge outbreak in Canada in the mid-19th century, farmers in Ontario began to convert to dairy farming in large numbers, and cheddar cheese became their main exportable product, even being exported to England. By the turn of the 20th century, 1,242 cheddar factories were in Ontario, and cheddar had become Canada's second-largest export after timber. Cheddar exports totalled in 1904, but by 2012, Canada was a net importer of cheese. James L. Kraft grew up on a dairy farm in Ontario, before moving to Chicago. According to the writer Sarah Champman, "Although we cannot wholly lay the decline of cheese craft in Canada at the feet of James Lewis Kraft, it did correspond with the rise of Kraft’s processed cheese empire." though other provinces produce some and some smaller artisanal producers exist. The annual production is 120,000 tons. It is aged a minimum of three months, but much of it is held for much longer, up to 10 years. Canadian cheddar cheese soup is a featured dish at the Canada Pavilion at Epcot in Walt Disney World. Percentage of butterfat or milk fat must be labelled by the words milk fat or abbreviations B.F. or M.F.New ZealandMost of the cheddar produced in New Zealand is factory-made, although some are handmade by artisan cheesemakers. Factory-made cheddar is generally sold relatively young within New Zealand, but the Anchor dairy company ships New Zealand cheddars to the UK, where the blocks mature for another year or so. The name "cheddar" is not protected under European Union or UK law, though the name "West Country Farmhouse Cheddar" has an EU and (following Brexit) a UK protected designation of origin (PDO) registration, and may only be produced in Somerset, Devon, Dorset and Cornwall, using milk sourced from those counties. Cheddar is usually sold as mild, medium, mature, extra mature or vintage. Cheddar produced in Orkney is registered as an EU protected geographical indication under the name "Orkney Scottish Island Cheddar". This protection highlights the use of traditional methods, passed down through generations since 1946 and its uniqueness in comparison to other cheddar cheeses. "West Country Farmhouse Cheddar" is protected outside the UK and the EU as a Geographical Indication also in China, Georgia, Iceland, Japan, Moldova, Montenegro, Norway, Serbia, Switzerland and Ukraine. Furthermore, a Protected Geographical Indication (PGI) was registered for Orkney Scottish Island Cheddar in 2013 in the EU, Some processed cheeses or "cheese foods" are called "cheddar flavored". Examples include Easy Cheese, a cheese-food packaged in a pressurised spray can; also, as packs of square, sliced, individually-wrapped "process cheese", which is sometimes also pasteurised. Cheddar is one of several products used by the United States Department of Agriculture to track the status of America's overall dairy industry; reports are issued weekly detailing prices and production quantities. Records U.S. President Andrew Jackson once held an open house party at the White House at which he served a block of cheddar. The White House is said to have smelled of cheese for weeks. A cheese of was produced in Ingersoll, Ontario, in 1866 and exhibited in New York and Britain; it was described in the poem "Ode on the Mammoth Cheese Weighing over 7,000 Pounds" by Canadian poet James McIntyre. In 1893, farmers from the town of Perth, Ontario, produced the "mammoth cheese", which weighed for the Chicago World's Fair. It was to be exhibited at the Canadian display, but the mammoth cheese fell through the floor and was placed on a reinforced concrete floor in the Agricultural Building. It received the most journalistic attention at the fair and was awarded the bronze medal. A larger, Wisconsin cheese of was made for the 1964 New York World's Fair. A cheese this size would use the equivalent of the daily milk production of 16,000 cows. Oregon members of the Federation of American Cheese-makers created the largest cheddar in 1989. The cheese weighed . In 2012, Wisconsin cheese shop owner Edward Zahn discovered and sold a batch of unintentionally aged cheddar up to 40 years old, possibly "the oldest collection of cheese ever assembled and sold to the public". The old cheese has extensive crystallization on the outside and is "creamier and overwhelmingly sharp" on the inside. See also * List of cheeses * Colby, Red Leicester – cheeses similar to cheddar that also contain annatto for a sweet and nutty flavor and an orange colour * Wedginald – a round of cheddar made famous when its maturation was broadcast on the Internet References External links * (non-commercial site commissioned by UK Government Department for Culture, Media and Sport) Category:British products with protected designation of origin Category:Cheeses with designation of origin protected in the European Union Category:Cow's-milk cheeses Category:English cheeses Category:English inventions Category:Somerset cuisine	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheddar_cheese	2025-04-05T18:28:00.650690
6938	Classical order	thumb\|upright=1.3\|Greek, "Etruscan" and Roman orders, with stylobate and pediment An order in architecture is a certain assemblage of parts subject to uniform established proportions, regulated by the office that each part has to perform. Coming down to the present from Ancient Greek and Ancient Roman civilization, the architectural orders are the styles of classical architecture, each distinguished by its proportions and characteristic profiles and details, and most readily recognizable by the type of column employed. The three orders of architecture—the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian—originated in Greece. To these the Romans added, in practice if not in name, the Tuscan, which they made simpler than Doric, and the Composite, which was more ornamental than the Corinthian. The architectural order of a classical building is akin to the mode or key of classical music; the grammar or rhetoric of a written composition. It is established by certain modules like the intervals of music, and it raises certain expectations in an audience attuned to its language. Whereas the orders were essentially structural in Ancient Greek architecture, which made little use of the arch until its late period, in Roman architecture where the arch was often dominant, the orders became increasingly decorative elements except in porticos and similar uses. Columns shrank into half-columns emerging from walls or turned into pilasters. This treatment continued after the conscious and "correct" use of the orders, initially following exclusively Roman models, returned in the Italian Renaissance. Greek Revival architecture, inspired by increasing knowledge of Greek originals, returned to more authentic models, including ones from relatively early periods.thumb\|right\|An illustration of the Five Architectural Orders engraved for the Encyclopédie, vol. 18, showing the Tuscan and Doric orders (top row); two versions of the Ionic order (center row); Corinthian and Composite orders (bottom row) Elements Each style has distinctive capitals at the top of columns and horizontal entablatures which it supports, while the rest of the building does not in itself vary between the orders. The column shaft and base also varies with the order, and is sometimes articulated with vertical concave grooves known as fluting. The shaft is wider at the bottom than at the top, because its entasis, beginning a third of the way up, imperceptibly makes the column slightly more slender at the top, although some Doric columns, especially early Greek ones, are visibly "flared", with straight profiles that narrow going up the shaft. The capital rests on the shaft. It has a load-bearing function, which concentrates the weight of the entablature on the supportive column, but it primarily serves an aesthetic purpose. The necking is the continuation of the shaft, but is visually separated by one or many grooves. The echinus lies atop the necking. It is a circular block that bulges outwards towards the top to support the abacus, which is a square or shaped block that in turn supports the entablature. The entablature consists of three horizontal layers, all of which are visually separated from each other using moldings or bands. In Roman and post-Renaissance work, the entablature may be carried from column to column in the form of an arch that springs from the column that bears its weight, retaining its divisions and sculptural enrichment, if any. There are names for all the many parts of the orders. Measurement thumb\|upright=1.4\|Greek orders with full height The heights of columns are calculated in terms of a ratio between the diameter of the shaft at its base and the height of the column. A Doric column can be described as seven diameters high, an Ionic column as eight diameters high, and a Corinthian column nine diameters high, although the actual ratios used vary considerably in both ancient and revived examples, but still keeping to the trend of increasing slimness between the orders. Sometimes this is phrased as "lower diameters high", to establish which part of the shaft has been measured. Greek orders There are three distinct orders in Ancient Greek architecture: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. These three were adopted by the Romans, who modified their capitals. The Roman adoption of the Greek orders took place in the 1st century BC. The three ancient Greek orders have since been consistently used in European Neoclassical architecture. Sometimes the Doric order is considered the earliest order, but there is no evidence to support this. Rather, the Doric and Ionic orders seem to have appeared at around the same time, the Ionic in eastern Greece and the Doric in the west and mainland. Both the Doric and the Ionic order appear to have originated in wood. The Temple of Hera in Olympia is the oldest well-preserved temple of Doric architecture. It was built just after 600 BC. The Doric order later spread across Greece and into Sicily, where it was the chief order for monumental architecture for 800 years. Early Greeks were no doubt aware of the use of stone columns with bases and capitals in ancient Egyptian architecture, and that of other Near Eastern cultures, although there they were mostly used in interiors, rather than as a dominant feature of all or part of exteriors, in the Greek style. thumb\|right\|upright=0.8\|Doric capital of the Parthenon from Athens Doric order The Doric order originated on the mainland and western Greece. It is the simplest of the orders, characterized by short, organized, heavy columns with plain, round capitals (tops) and no base. With a height that is only four to eight times its diameter, the columns are the most squat of all orders. The shaft of the Doric order is channeled with 20 flutes. The capital consists of a necking or annulet, which is a simple ring. The echinus is convex, or circular cushion like stone, and the abacus is a square slab of stone. Above the capital is a square abacus connecting the capital to the entablature. The entablature is divided into three horizontal registers, the lower part of which is either smooth or divided by horizontal lines. The upper half is distinctive for the Doric order. The frieze of the Doric entablature is divided into triglyphs and metopes. A triglyph is a unit consisting of three vertical bands which are separated by grooves. Metopes are the plain or carved reliefs between two triglyphs. The Greek forms of the Doric order come without an individual base. They instead are placed directly on the stylobate. Later forms, however, came with the conventional base consisting of a plinth and a torus. The Roman versions of the Doric order have smaller proportions. As a result, they appear lighter than the Greek orders.right\|thumb\|upright=0.8\|Ionic capital from the Queen Elizabeth II Great Court of the British Museum (London) Ionic order The Ionic order came from eastern Greece, where its origins are entwined with the similar but little known Aeolic order. It is distinguished by slender, fluted pillars with a large base and two opposed volutes (also called "scrolls") in the echinus of the capital. The echinus itself is decorated with an egg-and-dart motif. The Ionic shaft comes with four more flutes than the Doric counterpart (totalling 24). The Ionic base has two convex moldings called tori, which are separated by a scotia. The Ionic order is also marked by an entasis, a curved tapering in the column shaft. A column of the Ionic order is nine times more tall than its lower diameter. The shaft itself is eight diameters high. The architrave of the entablature commonly consists of three stepped bands (fasciae). The frieze comes without the Doric triglyph and metope. The frieze sometimes comes with a continuous ornament such as carved figures instead.right\|thumb\|upright=0.8\|Corinthian capital of a column from the interior of the Pantheon in Rome Corinthian order The Corinthian order is the most elaborated of the Greek orders, characterized by a slender fluted column having an ornate capital decorated with two rows of acanthus leaves and four scrolls. The shaft of the Corinthian order has 24 flutes. The column is commonly ten diameters high. The Roman writer Vitruvius credited the invention of the Corinthian order to Callimachus, a Greek sculptor of the 5th century BC. The oldest known building built according to this order is the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates in Athens, constructed from 335 to 334 BC. The Corinthian order was raised to rank by the writings of Vitruvius in the 1st century BC. Roman orders thumb\|upright=0.8\|Tuscan capital and entablature, illustration from the 18th century\|leftThe Romans adapted all the Greek orders and also developed two orders of their own, basically modifications of Greek orders. However, it was not until the Renaissance that these were named and formalized as the Tuscan and Composite, respectively the plainest and most ornate of the orders. The Romans also invented the Superposed order. A superposed order is when successive stories of a building have different orders. The heaviest orders were at the bottom, whilst the lightest came at the top. This means that the Doric order was the order of the ground floor, the Ionic order was used for the middle story, while the Corinthian or the Composite order was used for the top story. The Giant order was invented by architects in the Renaissance. The Giant order is characterized by columns that extend the height of two or more stories. Tuscan order thumb\|upright=1.3\|The Tower of The Five Orders at the Bodleian Library at the University of Oxford, completed in 1619, includes Tuscan through Composite orders. The Tuscan order has a very plain design, with a plain shaft, and a simple capital, base, and frieze. It is a simplified adaptation of the Greeks' Doric order. The Tuscan order is characterized by an unfluted shaft and a capital that consists of only an echinus and an abacus. In proportions it is similar to the Doric order, but overall it is significantly plainer. The column is normally seven diameters high. Compared to the other orders, the Tuscan order looks the most solid.thumb\|upright=0.8\|Composite capital in the former Palace of Justice (Budapest, Hungary)\|left Composite order The Composite order is a mixed order, combining the volutes of the Ionic with the leaves of the Corinthian order. Until the Renaissance it was not ranked as a separate order. Instead it was considered as a late Roman form of the Corinthian order. The column of the Composite order is typically ten diameters high. Historical development The Renaissance period saw renewed interest in the literary sources of the ancient cultures of Greece and Rome, and the fertile development of a new architecture based on classical principles. The treatise by Roman theoretician, architect and engineer Vitruvius, is the only architectural writing that survived from Antiquity. Effectively rediscovered in the 15th century, Vitruvius came to be regarded as the ultimate authority on architecture. However, in his text the word order is not to be found. To describe the four species of columns (he only mentions: Tuscan, Doric, Ionic and Corinthian) he uses, in fact, various words such as: genus (gender), mos (habit, fashion, manner), opera (work). thumb\|upright=1.3\|The St-Gervais-et-St-Protais Church in Paris presents columns of the three orders: Doric at the ground floor, Ionic at the second floor, Corinthian at the third floor. The term order, as well as the idea of redefining the canon started circulating in Rome, at the beginning of the 16th century, probably during the studies of Vitruvius' text conducted and shared by Peruzzi, Raphael, and Sangallo. Ever since, the definition of the canon has been a collective endeavor that involved several generations of European architects, from Renaissance and Baroque periods, basing their theories both on the study of Vitruvius' writings and the observation of Roman ruins (the Greek ruins became available only after Greek Independence, 1821–1823). What was added were rules for the use of the Architectural Orders, and the exact proportions of them in minute detail. Commentary on the appropriateness of the orders for temples devoted to particular deities (Vitruvius I.2.5) were elaborated by Renaissance theorists, with Doric characterized as bold and manly, Ionic as matronly, and Corinthian as maidenly. Vignola defining the concept of "order" thumb\|Illustrations of the Classical orders (from left to right): Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian and Composite, made in 1728, from Cyclopædia Following the examples of Vitruvius and the five books of the Regole generali di architettura sopra le cinque maniere de gli edifici by Sebastiano Serlio published from 1537 onwards, Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola produced an architecture rule book that was not only more practical than the previous two treatises, but also was systematically and consistently adopting, for the first time, the term 'order' to define each of the five different species of columns inherited from antiquity. A first publication of the various plates, as separate sheets, appeared in Rome in 1562, with the title: Regola delli cinque ordini d'architettura ("Canon of the Five Orders of Architecture"). As David Watkin has pointed out, Vignola's book "was to have an astonishing publishing history of over 500 editions in 400 years in ten languages, Italian, Dutch, English, Flemish, French, German, Portuguese, Russian, Spanish, Swedish, during which it became perhaps the most influential book of all times". The book consisted simply of an introduction followed by 32 annotated plates, highlighting the proportional system with all the minute details of the Five Architectural Orders. According to Christof Thoenes, the main expert of Renaissance architectural treatises, "in accordance with Vitruvius's example, Vignola chose a "module" equal to a half-diameter which is the base of the system. All the other measurements are expressed in fractions or in multiples of this module. The result is an arithmetical model, and with its help each order, harmoniously proportioned, can easily be adapted to any given height, of a façade or an interior. From this point of view, Vignola's Regola is a remarkable intellectual achievement". In America, The American Builder's Companion, written in the early 19th century by the architect Asher Benjamin, influenced many builders in the eastern states, particularly those who developed what became known as the Federal style. The last American re-interpretation of Vignola's Regola, was edited in 1904 by William Robert Ware. The break from the classical mode came first with the Gothic Revival architecture, then the development of modernism during the 19th century. The Bauhaus promoted pure functionalism, stripped of superfluous ornament, and that has become one of the defining characteristics of modern architecture. There are some exceptions. Postmodernism introduced an ironic use of the orders as a cultural reference, divorced from the strict rules of composition. On the other hand, a number of practitioners such as Quinlan Terry in England, and Michael Dwyer, Richard Sammons, and Duncan Stroik in the United States, continue the classical tradition, and use the classical orders in their work. Nonce orders Several orders, usually based upon the composite order and only varying in the design of the capitals, have been invented under the inspiration of specific occasions, but have not been used again. They are termed "nonce orders" by analogy to nonce words; several examples follow below. These nonce orders all express the "speaking architecture" (architecture parlante) that was taught in the Paris courses, most explicitly by Étienne-Louis Boullée, in which sculptural details of classical architecture could be enlisted to speak symbolically, the better to express the purpose of the structure and enrich its visual meaning with specific appropriateness. This idea was taken up strongly in the training of Beaux-Arts architecture, . French order The Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles contains pilasters with bronze capitals in the "French order". Designed by Charles Le Brun, the capitals display the national emblems of the Kingdom of France: the royal sun between two Gallic roosters above a fleur-de-lis. British orders Robert Adam's brother James was in Rome in 1762, drawing antiquities under the direction of Clérisseau; he invented a "British order" and published an engraving of it. Its capital the heraldic lion and unicorn take the place of the Composite's volutes, a Byzantine or Romanesque conception, but expressed in terms of neoclassical realism. Adam's ink-and-wash rendering with red highlighting is at the Avery Library, Columbia University. In 1789 George Dance invented an Ammonite order, a variant of Ionic, substituting volutes in the form of fossil ammonites for John Boydell's Shakespeare Gallery in Pall Mall, London. An adaptation of the Corinthian order by William Donthorne that used turnip leaves and mangelwurzel is termed the Agricultural order. Sir Edwin Lutyens, who from 1912 laid out New Delhi as the new seat of government for the British Empire in India, designed a Delhi order having a capital displaying a band of vertical ridges, and with bells hanging at each corner as a replacement for volutes. His design for the new city's central palace, Viceroy's House, now the Presidential residence Rashtrapati Bhavan, was a thorough integration of elements of Indian architecture into a building of classical forms and proportions, and made use of the order throughout. American orders thumb\|Corn capital at the Litchfield Villa Prospect Park (Brooklyn) (A.J. Davis, architect) In the United States Benjamin Latrobe, the architect of the Capitol building in Washington, DC, designed a series of botanical American orders. Most famous is the Corinthian order substituting ears of corn and their husks for the acanthus leaves, which was executed by Giuseppe Franzoni and used in the small domed vestibule of the Senate. Only this vestibule survived the Burning of Washington in 1814, nearly intact. With peace restored, Latrobe designed an American order that substituted tobacco leaves for the acanthus, of which he sent a sketch to Thomas Jefferson in a letter, 5 November 1816. He was encouraged to send a model of it, which remains at Monticello. In the 1830s Alexander Jackson Davis admired it enough to make a drawing of it. In 1809 Latrobe invented a second American order, employing magnolia flowers constrained within the profile of classical mouldings, as his drawing demonstrates. It was intended for "the Upper Columns in the Gallery of the Entrance of the Chamber of the Senate". See also Greek temple Roman temple Notes References Summerson, John, The Classical Language of Architecture, 1980 edition, Thames and Hudson World of Art series, Frédérique Lemerle et Yves Pauwels (dir.), Histoires d’ordres: le langage européen de l’architecture, Turhout, Brepols, 2021 Further reading Barletta, Barbara A., The Origins of the Greek Architectural Orders (Cambridge University Press) 2001 Barozzi da Vignola, Giacomo, Canon of the Five Orders, Translated into English, with an introduction and commentary by Branko Mitrovic, Acanthus Press, New York, 1999 Barozzi da Vignola, Giacomo, Canon of the Five Orders, Translated by John Leeke (1669), with an introduction by David Watkin, Dover Publications, New York, 2011 Classical orders and elements Category:Ancient Roman architectural elements Category:Ancient Greek architecture Category:Classical architecture Category:Neoclassical architecture Category:Design history	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_order	2025-04-05T18:28:00.671195
6941	Colin Kapp	Derek Ivor Colin Kapp (3 April 1928 – 3 August 2007), Known as Colin Kapp, was a British science fiction author best known for his stories about the Unorthodox Engineers. As an electronic engineer, he began his career with Mullard Electronics then specialised in electroplating techniques, eventually becoming a freelance consultant engineer. He was born in Southwark, south London, 3 April 1928 Works Cageworld series Search for the sun! (1982) (also published as Cageworld) The Lost worlds of Cronus (1982) The Tyrant of Hades (1984) Star Search (1984) Chaos series The Patterns of Chaos (1972) The Chaos Weapon (1977) Standalone novels The Dark Mind (1964) (also published as Transfinite Man) The Wizard of Anharitte (1973) The Survival Game (1976) Manalone (1977) The Ion War (1978) The Timewinders (1980) Short stories Unorthodox Engineers "The Railways Up on Cannis" (1959) "The Subways of Tazoo" (1964) "The Pen and the Dark" (1966) "Getaway from Getawehi" (1969) "The Black Hole of Negrav" (1975) Collected in The Unorthodox Engineers (1979) Other stories "Breaking Point" (1959) "Survival Problem" (1959) "Lambda I" (1962) "The Night-Flame" (1964) "Hunger Over Sweet Waters" (1965) "Ambassador to Verdammt" (1967) "The Imagination Trap" (1967) "The Cloudbuilders" (1968) "I Bring You Hands" (1968) "Gottlos" (1969), notable for having (along with Keith Laumer's Bolo series) inspired Steve Jackson's classic game of 21st century tank warfare Ogre. "The Teacher" (1969) "Letter from an Unknown Genius" (1971) "What the Thunder Said" (1972) "Which Way Do I Go For Jericho?" (1972) "The Old King's Answers" (1973) "Crimescan" (1973) "What The Thunder Said" (1973) "Mephisto and the Ion Explorer" (1974) "War of the Wastelife" (1974) "Cassius and the Mind-Jaunt" (1975) "Something in the City" (1984) "An Alternative to Salt" (1986) References External links Bibliography kept by Jarl Totland Bibliography at SciFan Category:1929 births Category:2007 deaths Category:British science fiction writers Category:British short story writers Category:British male novelists Category:British male short story writers Category:20th-century British novelists Category:20th-century British short story writers Category:20th-century British male writers	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin_Kapp	2025-04-05T18:28:00.675801
6942	Catherine of Aragon	\| alt = Queen Catherine posing for a portrait \| succession = Queen consort of England \| reign = 11 June 1509 – 23 May 1533 \| coronation = 24 June 1509 \| cor-type = Coronation \| birth_date = \| birth_place = Archiepiscopal Palace, Alcalá de Henares, Castile, Spain \| death_date \| death_place = Kimbolton Castle, Huntingdonshire, England \| burial_date = 29 January 1536 \| burial_place = Peterborough Cathedral, England \| consort = yes \| spouses = * }} }} \| issue = \| issue-link = #Pregnancies and children \| issue-pipe = more... \| house = Trastámara \| father = Ferdinand II of Aragon \| mother = Isabella I of Castile \| religion = Catholic Church \| signature = Catherine of Aragon Signature.svg }} Catherine of Aragon (also spelt as Katherine, historical Spanish: , now: ; 16 December 1485 – 7 January 1536) was Queen of England as the first wife of King Henry VIII from their marriage on 11 June 1509 until its annulment on 23 May 1533. She was Princess of Wales while married to Henry's elder brother, Arthur, Prince of Wales, for a short period before his death. Catherine was born at the Archbishop's Palace of Alcalá de Henares, and was the youngest child of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon. She was three years old when she was betrothed to Arthur, the eldest son of Henry VII of England. They married in 1501, but Arthur died five months later. Catherine spent years in limbo, and during this time, she held the position of ambassador of the Aragonese crown to England in 1507, the first known female ambassador in European history. She married Henry VIII shortly after his accession in 1509. For six months in 1513, she served as regent of England while Henry was in France. During that time the English defeated a Scottish invasion at the Battle of Flodden, an event in which Catherine played an important part with an emotional speech about courage and patriotism. By 1526, Henry was infatuated with Anne Boleyn and dissatisfied that his marriage to Catherine had produced no surviving sons, leaving their daughter Mary as heir presumptive at a time when there was no established precedent for a woman on the throne. He sought to have their marriage annulled, setting in motion a chain of events that led to England's schism with the Catholic Church. When Pope Clement VII refused to annul the marriage, Henry defied him by assuming supremacy over religious matters in England. In 1533, their marriage was consequently declared invalid and Henry married Anne on the judgement of clergy in England, without reference to the pope. Catherine refused to accept Henry as supreme head of the Church in England and considered herself the King's rightful wife and queen, attracting much popular sympathy. Despite this, Henry acknowledged her only as dowager princess of Wales. After being banished from court by Henry, Catherine lived out the remainder of her life at Kimbolton Castle, dying there in January 1536 of cancer. The English people held Catherine in high esteem, and her death set off tremendous mourning. Her daughter Mary became the first undisputed English queen regnant in 1553. Catherine commissioned The Education of a Christian Woman by Juan Luis Vives, who dedicated the book, controversial at the time, to the Queen in 1523. Such was Catherine's impression on people that even her adversary Thomas Cromwell said of her, "If not for her sex, she could have defied all the heroes of History." She successfully appealed for the lives of the rebels involved in the Evil May Day, for the sake of their families, and also won widespread admiration by starting an extensive programme for the relief of the poor. Catherine was a patron of Renaissance humanism and a friend of the great scholars Erasmus of Rotterdam and Thomas More.Early life thought to be of 11-year-old Catherine. She resembles her sister Joanna.]] Catherine was born at the Archbishop's Palace of Alcalá de Henares near Madrid, in the early hours of 16 December 1485. She was the youngest surviving child of King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile. Her siblings were Joanna, Queen of Castile and of Aragon, Isabella, Queen of Portugal, John, Prince of Asturias, and Maria, Queen of Portugal. Catherine was quite short in stature with long red hair, wide blue eyes, a round face, and a fair complexion. She was descended, on her maternal side, from the House of Lancaster, an English royal house; her great-grandmother Catherine of Lancaster, after whom she was named, and her great-great-grandmother Philippa of Lancaster were both daughters of John of Gaunt and granddaughters of Edward III of England. Consequently, she was third cousin of her father-in-law, Henry VII of England, and fourth cousin of her mother-in-law Elizabeth of York. Catherine was educated by a tutor, Alessandro Geraldini, who was a clerk in Holy Orders. She studied arithmetic, canon and civil law, classical literature, genealogy and heraldry, history, philosophy, religion, and theology. She had a strong religious upbringing and developed her Roman Catholic faith that would play a major role in later life. She learned to speak, read and write in Castilian Spanish and Latin, and spoke French and Greek. Erasmus later said that Catherine "loved good literature which she had studied with success since childhood". She had been given lessons in domestic skills, such as cooking, embroidery, lace-making, needlepoint, sewing, spinning, and weaving and was also taught music, dancing, drawing, as well as being carefully educated in good manners and court etiquette. At an early age, Catherine was considered a suitable wife for Arthur, Prince of Wales, heir apparent to the English throne, due to the English ancestry she inherited from her mother. Theoretically, by means of her mother, Catherine had a stronger legitimate claim to the English throne than King Henry VII himself through the first two wives of John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster: Blanche of Lancaster and Constance of Castile. In contrast, Henry VII was the descendant of Gaunt's third marriage to Katherine Swynford, whose children were born out of wedlock and only legitimised after the death of Constance and the marriage of John to Katherine. The children of John and Katherine, while legitimised, were barred from inheriting the English throne, a stricture that was ignored in later generations. Because of Henry's descent through illegitimate children barred from succession to the English throne, the Tudor monarchy was not accepted by all European kingdoms. At the time, the House of Trastámara was the most prestigious in Europe, due to the rule of the Catholic Monarchs, so the alliance of Catherine and Arthur validated the House of Tudor in the eyes of European royalty and strengthened the Tudor claim to the English throne via Catherine of Aragon's ancestry. It would have given a male heir an indisputable claim to the throne. The two were married by proxy on 19 May 1499 and corresponded in Latin until Arthur turned fifteen, when it was decided that they were old enough to begin their conjugal life. Catherine was accompanied to England by the following ambassadors: Diego Fernández de Córdoba y Mendoza, 3rd Count of Cabra; Alonso de Fonseca y Acevedo, Archbishop of Santiago de Compostela; and Antonio de Rojas Manrique, Bishop of Mallorca. Her Spanish retinue, including Francisco Felipe, was supervised by her duenna, Elvira Manuel. At first it was thought Catherine's ship would arrive at Gravesend. A number of English gentlewomen were appointed to be ready to welcome her on arrival in October 1501. They were to escort Catherine in a flotilla of barges on the Thames to the Tower of London. As wife and widow of Arthur Michael Sittow]] Then-15-year-old Catherine departed from A Coruña on 17 August 1501 and met Arthur on 4 November at Dogmersfield in Hampshire. Little is known about their first impressions of each other, but Arthur did write to his parents-in-law that he would be "a true and loving husband" and told his parents that he was immensely happy to "behold the face of his lovely bride". The couple had corresponded in Latin, but found that they could not understand each other's spoken conversation, because they had learned different Latin pronunciations. Ten days later, on 14 November 1501, they were married at Old St. Paul's Cathedral, both 15 years old. A dowry of 200,000 ducats had been agreed, and half was paid shortly after the marriage. It was noted that Catherine and her Spanish ladies in waiting were dressed in Spanish style at her arrival and at the wedding. Once married, Arthur was sent to Ludlow Castle on the borders of Wales to preside over the Council of Wales and the Marches, as was his duty as Prince of Wales, and his bride accompanied him. A few months later, they both became ill, possibly with the sweating sickness, which was sweeping the area. Arthur died on 2 April 1502; 16-year-old Catherine recovered to find herself a widow. At this point, Henry VII faced the challenge of avoiding the obligation to return her 200,000-ducat dowry, half of which he had not yet received, to her father, as required by her marriage contract should she return home. Following the death of Queen Elizabeth in February 1503, there were rumours of a potential marriage between Catherine and King Henry; such rumours were, however, unsubstantiated. It was agreed that Catherine would marry Henry VII's second son, Henry, Duke of York, who was five years younger than she was. The death of Catherine's mother, however, meant that her "value" in the marriage market decreased. Castile was a much larger kingdom than Aragon, and it was inherited by Catherine's elder sister, Joanna. Ostensibly, the marriage was delayed until Henry was old enough, but Ferdinand II procrastinated so much over payment of the remainder of Catherine's dowry that it became doubtful that the marriage would take place. She lived as a virtual prisoner at Durham House in London. Some of the letters she wrote to her father complaining of her treatment have survived. In one of these letters she tells him that "I choose what I believe, and say nothing. For I am not as simple as I may seem." She had little money and struggled to cope, as she had to support her ladies-in-waiting as well as herself. In 1507 she served as the Spanish ambassador to England, the first female ambassador in European history. While Henry VII and his counsellors expected her to be easily manipulated, Catherine went on to prove them wrong. Marriage to Arthur's brother depended on the Pope granting a dispensation because canon law forbade a man to marry his brother's widow. Catherine testified that her marriage to Arthur was never consummated as, also according to canon law, a marriage could be dissolved if it was not consummated. Queen of England of Henry VIII of England and Catherine of Aragon showing their heraldic badges, the Tudor rose and the Pomegranate of Granada\|left]] Wedding Catherine's second wedding took place on 11 June 1509, seven years after Prince Arthur's death. She married Henry VIII, who had only just acceded to the throne, in a private ceremony in the church of the Observant Friars outside Greenwich Palace. She was 23 years of age. Coronation On Saturday 23 June 1509, the traditional eve-of-coronation procession to Westminster Abbey was greeted by a large and enthusiastic crowd. As was the custom, the couple spent the night before their coronation at the Tower of London. On Midsummer's Day, Sunday, 1509, Henry VIII and Catherine were anointed and crowned together by the Archbishop of Canterbury at a lavish ceremony at Westminster Abbey. The coronation was followed by a banquet in Westminster Hall. Many new Knights of the Bath were created in honour of the coronation. In that month that followed, many social occasions presented the new Queen to the English public. She made a fine impression and was well received by the people of England. Influence , ]] On 11 June 1513, Henry appointed Catherine Regent in England with the titles "Governor of the Realm and Captain General", while he went to France on a military campaign. When Louis d'Orléans, Duke of Longueville, was captured at Thérouanne, Henry sent him to stay in Catherine's household. She wrote to Wolsey that she and her council would prefer the Duke to stay in the Tower of London as the Scots were "so busy as they now be" and she added her prayers for "God to sende us as good lukke against the Scotts, as the King hath ther." The war with Scotland occupied her subjects, and she was "horrible busy with making standards, banners, and badges" at Richmond Palace. Catherine wrote to towns, including Gloucester, asking them to send muster lists of men able to serve as soldiers. The Scots invaded and on 3 September 1513, she ordered Thomas Lovell to raise an army in the midland counties. Catherine was issued with banners at Richmond on 8 September, and rode north in full armour to address the troops, despite being heavily pregnant at the time. Her fine speech was reported to the historian Peter Martyr d'Anghiera in Valladolid within a fortnight. Although an Italian newsletter said she was north of London when news of the victory at Battle of Flodden Field reached her, she was near Buckingham. From Woburn Abbey, she sent a letter to Henry along with a piece of the bloodied coat of King James IV of Scotland, who died in the battle, for Henry to use as a banner at the siege of Tournai. Catherine's religious dedication increased as she became older, as did her interest in academics. She continued to broaden her knowledge and provide training for her daughter, Mary. Education among women became fashionable, partly because of Catherine's influence, and she donated large sums of money to several colleges. Henry, however, still considered a male heir essential. The Tudor dynasty was new, and its legitimacy might still be tested. In 1520, Catherine's nephew, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, paid a state visit to England, and she urged Henry to enter an alliance with Charles rather than with France. Immediately after his departure, she accompanied Henry to France on the celebrated visit to Francis I, the Field of the Cloth of Gold. Within two years, war was declared against France and the Emperor was once again welcome in England, where plans were afoot to betroth him to Catherine's daughter Mary. Pregnancies and children in her honour after giving birth to a son, by Thomas Wriothesley, 1511. Henry's horse mantle is emblazoned with Catherine's initial letter, 'K'.]] {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center;" !Name !Birth !Death !Details \|- !Daughter \| colspan="2" \| 31 January 1510 \|Miscarried at approximately six months gestation. Catherine was told she was carrying twins and that the other still lived, so the loss was kept secret as she prepared for the birth. No child came. \|- !Henry \|1 January 1511 \|22 February 1511 \|Died suddenly, with no recorded cause of death. \|- !Son \| colspan="2" \| c.17 September 1513 \|Either miscarried, stillborn or lived for a few hours. \|- !Son \| colspan="2" \| November/December 1514 \|Stillborn. Wolsey wrote in a letter on 15 November that Catherine was "to lie in shortly." Two letters in December mention Catherine lost a child. \|- !Mary \|18 February 1516 \|17 November 1558 \|Became Queen Mary I of England. \|- !Daughter \| colspan="2" \| 10 November 1518 \|Stillborn. \|- \|} The King's great matter (1846–1848)]] In 1525, Henry VIII became enamoured of Anne Boleyn, a lady-in-waiting to Queen Catherine; Anne was between ten and seventeen years younger than Henry, being born between 1501 and 1507. Henry began pursuing her; Catherine was no longer able to bear children by this time. Henry began to believe that his marriage was cursed and sought confirmation from the Bible, which he interpreted to say that if a man marries his brother's wife, the couple will be childless. Even if her marriage to Arthur had not been consummated (and Catherine would insist to her dying day that she had come to Henry's bed a virgin), Henry's interpretation of that biblical passage meant that their marriage had been wrong in the eyes of God. Whether the pope at the time of Henry and Catherine's marriage had the right to overrule Henry's claimed scriptural impediment would become a hot topic in Henry's campaign to wrest an annulment from the present Pope. It is possible that the idea of annulment had been suggested to Henry much earlier than this, and is highly probable that it was motivated by his desire for a son. Before Henry's father ascended the throne, England was beset by civil warfare over rival claims to the English crown, and Henry may have wanted to avoid a similar uncertainty over the succession. It soon became the one absorbing object of Henry's desires to secure an annulment. Catherine was defiant when it was suggested that she quietly retire to a nunnery, saying: "God never called me to a nunnery. I am the King's true and legitimate wife." He set his hopes upon an appeal to the Holy See, acting independently of Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, whom he told nothing of his plans. William Knight, the King's secretary, was sent to Pope Clement VII to sue for an annulment, on the grounds that the dispensing bull of Pope Julius II was obtained by false pretenses. As the pope was, at that time, the prisoner of Catherine's nephew Emperor Charles V following the Sack of Rome in May 1527, Knight had difficulty in obtaining access to him. In the end, Henry's envoy had to return without accomplishing much. Henry now had no choice but to put this great matter into the hands of Wolsey, who did all he could to secure a decision in Henry's favour. Both the Pope and Martin Luther raised the possibility that Henry have two wives, not to re-introduce polygamy generally, but "to preserve the royal dignity of Catherine and Mary". at the time of her engagement to Emperor Charles V, by Lucas Horenbout, . She is wearing a rectangular brooch inscribed with "The Emperour".]] Wolsey went so far as to convene an ecclesiastical court in England with a representative of the Pope presiding, and Henry and Catherine herself in attendance. The Pope had no intention of allowing a decision to be reached in England, and his legate was recalled. (How far the Pope was influenced by Charles V is difficult to say, but it is clear Henry saw that the Pope was unlikely to annul his marriage to the Emperor's aunt.) The Pope forbade Henry to marry again before a decision was given in Rome. Wolsey had failed and was dismissed from public office in 1529. Wolsey then began a secret plot to have Anne Boleyn forced into exile and began communicating with the Pope to that end. When this was discovered, Henry ordered Wolsey's arrest and, had he not been terminally ill and died in 1530, he might have been executed for treason. A year later, Catherine was banished from court, and her old rooms were given to Anne Boleyn. Catherine wrote in a letter to Charles V in 1531: <blockquote>My tribulations are so great, my life so disturbed by the plans daily invented to further the King's wicked intention, the surprises which the King gives me, with certain persons of his council, are so mortal, and my treatment is what God knows, that it is enough to shorten ten lives, much more mine.</blockquote> When Archbishop of Canterbury William Warham died, the Boleyn family's chaplain, Thomas Cranmer, was appointed to the vacant position. When Henry decided to annul his marriage to Catherine, John Fisher became her most trusted counsellor and one of her chief supporters. He appeared in the legates' court on her behalf, where he shocked people with the directness of his language, and by declaring that, like John the Baptist, he was ready to die on behalf of the indissolubility of marriage. Henry was so enraged by this that he wrote a long Latin address to the legates in answer to Fisher's speech. Fisher's copy of this still exists, with his manuscript annotations in the margin which show how little he feared Henry's anger. The removal of the cause to Rome ended Fisher's role in the matter, but Henry never forgave him. Other people who supported Catherine's case included Thomas More; Henry's own sister Mary Tudor, Queen of France; María de Salinas; Holy Roman Emperor Charles V; Pope Paul III; and Protestant Reformers Martin Luther and William Tyndale. Banishment and death ]] Upon returning to Dover from a meeting with King Francis I of France in Calais, Henry married Anne Boleyn in a secret ceremony. Some sources speculate that Anne was already pregnant at the time (and Henry did not want to risk a son being born illegitimate) but others testify that Anne (who had seen her sister Mary Boleyn taken up as the King's mistress and summarily cast aside) refused to sleep with Henry until they were married. Henry defended the lawfulness of their union by pointing out that Catherine had previously been married. If she and Arthur had consummated their marriage, Henry by canon law had the right to remarry. On 23 May 1533, Cranmer, sitting in judgement at a special court convened at Dunstable Priory to rule on the validity of Henry's marriage to Catherine, declared the marriage unlawful, even though Catherine had testified that she and Arthur had never had physical relations. Five days later, on 28 May 1533, Cranmer ruled that Henry and Anne's marriage was valid. Until the end of her life, Catherine would refer to herself as Henry's only lawful wedded wife and England's only rightful queen, and her servants continued to address her as such. Henry refused her the right to any title but "Dowager Princess of Wales" in recognition of her position as his brother's widow. Catherine went to live at The More Castle, Hertfordshire, late in 1531. After that, she was successively moved to the Royal Palace of Hatfield, Hertfordshire (May to September 1532), Elsyng Palace, Enfield (September 1532 to February 1533), Ampthill Castle, Bedfordshire (February to July 1533) and Buckden Towers, Cambridgeshire (July 1533 to May 1534). She was then finally transferred to Kimbolton Castle, Cambridgeshire where she confined herself to one room, which she left only to attend Mass, dressed only in the hair shirt of the Franciscans, and fasted continuously. While she was permitted to receive occasional visitors, she was forbidden to see her daughter Mary. They were also forbidden to communicate in writing, but sympathisers discreetly conveyed letters between the two. Henry offered both mother and daughter better quarters and permission to see each other if they would acknowledge Anne Boleyn as the new queen; both refused. In late December 1535, sensing her death was near, Catherine made her will, and wrote to her nephew, the Emperor Charles V, asking him to protect her daughter. It has been claimed that she then penned one final letter to Henry: The authenticity of the letter itself has been questioned, but not Catherine's attitude in its wording, which has been reported with variations in different sources. Catherine died at Kimbolton Castle on 1536. The following day, news of her death reached the King. At the time there were rumours that she was poisoned, possibly by Gregory di Casale. According to the chronicler Edward Hall, Anne Boleyn wore yellow for the mourning, which has been interpreted in various ways; Polydore Vergil interpreted this to mean that Anne did not mourn. Chapuys reported that it was King Henry who decked himself in yellow, celebrating the news and making a great show of his and Anne's daughter, Elizabeth, to his courtiers. This was seen as distasteful and vulgar by many. Another theory is that the dressing in yellow was out of respect for Catherine as yellow was said to be the Spanish colour of mourning. Certainly, later in the day it is reported that Henry and Anne both individually and privately wept for her death. On the day of Catherine's funeral, Anne Boleyn miscarried a male child. Rumours then circulated that Catherine had been poisoned by Anne or Henry, or both. The rumours were born after the apparent discovery during her embalming that there was a black growth on her heart that might have been caused by poisoning. Modern medical experts are in agreement that her heart's discolouration was due not to poisoning, but to cancer, something which was not understood at the time. Catherine was buried in Peterborough Cathedral with the ceremony due to her position as a Dowager Princess of Wales, and not a queen. Henry did not attend the funeral and forbade Mary to attend.FaithCatherine was a member of the Third Order of Saint Francis and she was punctilious in her religious obligations in the Order, integrating without demur her necessary duties as queen with her personal piety. After the annulment, she was quoted "I would rather be a poor beggar's wife and be sure of heaven, than queen of all the world and stand in doubt thereof by reason of my own consent." The outward celebration of saints and holy relics formed no major part of her personal devotions, Her doubts about church improprieties certainly did not extend so far as to support the allegations of corruption made public by Martin Luther in Wittenberg in 1517, which were soon to have such far-reaching consequences in initiating the Protestant Reformation. In 1523 Alfonso de Villa Sancta, a learned friar of the Observant (reform) branch of the Friars Minor and friend of the King's old advisor Erasmus, dedicated to the queen his book De Liberio Arbitrio adversus Melanchthonem. The book denounced Philip Melanchthon, a supporter of Luther. Acting as her confessor, he was able to nominate her for the title of "Defender of the Faith" for denying Luther's arguments.AppearanceIn her youth, Catherine was described as "the most beautiful creature in the world" and that there was "nothing lacking in her that the most beautiful girl should have". Thomas More and Lord Herbert would reflect later in her lifetime that in regard to her appearance "there were few women who could compete with the Queen [Catherine] in her prime."Legacy, memory and historiography ]] The controversial book The Education of a Christian Woman by Juan Luis Vives, which claimed women have the right to an education, was dedicated to and commissioned by her. Such was Catherine's impression on people, that even her enemy, Thomas Cromwell, said of her "If not for her sex, she could have defied all the heroes of History." She successfully appealed for the lives of the rebels involved in the Evil May Day for the sake of their families. Furthermore, Catherine won widespread admiration by starting an extensive programme for the relief of the poor. She was also a patron of Renaissance humanism, and a friend of the great scholars Erasmus of Rotterdam and Saint Thomas More. Some saw her as a martyr. In the reign of her daughter Mary I of England, her marriage to Henry VIII was declared "good and valid". Her daughter Queen Mary also had several portraits commissioned of Catherine, and it would not by any means be the last time she was painted. After her death, numerous portraits were painted of her, particularly of her speech at the Legatine Trial, a moment accurately rendered in Shakespeare's play about Henry VIII. Her tomb in Peterborough Cathedral can be seen and there is hardly ever a time when it is not decorated with flowers or pomegranates, her heraldic symbol. It bears the title Katharine Queen of England. In the 20th century, George V's wife, Mary of Teck, had her grave upgraded and added banners there denoting Catherine as a queen of England. Every year at Peterborough Cathedral a service is held in her memory. There are processions, prayers and various events in the Cathedral including processions to Catherine's grave in which candles, pomegranates, flowers and other offerings are placed on her grave. The Spanish Ambassador to the United Kingdom attended the commemoration of the 470th anniversary of her death.During the 2010 service a rendition of Catherine of Aragon's speech before the Legatine court was read by Jane Lapotaire. There is a statue of her in her birthplace of Alcalá de Henares, as a young woman holding a book and a rose. Catherine has remained a popular biographical subject to the present day. The American historian Garrett Mattingly was the author of a popular biography Katherine of Aragon in 1942. In 1966, Catherine and her many supporters at court were the subjects of Catherine of Aragon and her Friends, a biography by John E. Paul. In 1967, Mary M. Luke wrote the first book of her Tudor trilogy, Catherine the Queen which portrayed her and the tumultuous era of English history through which she lived. ]] In recent years, the historian Alison Weir covered her life extensively in her biography The Six Wives of Henry VIII, first published in 1991. Antonia Fraser did the same in her own 1992 biography of the same title; as did the British historian David Starkey in his 2003 book Six Wives: The Queens of Henry VIII. Giles Tremlett's biography, Catherine of Aragon: The Spanish Queen of Henry VIII, came out in 2010, and Julia Fox's dual biography, Sister Queens: The Noble, Tragic Lives of Katherine of Aragon and Juana, Queen of Castile, came out in 2011.Places and statues * In Alcalá de Henares, the place of Catherine's birth, a statue of Catherine as a young woman holding a rose and a book can be seen in the Archbishop's Palace. * Peterborough is twinned with the Spanish city of Alcalá de Henares, located in the wider Community of Madrid. Children from schools in the two places have learned about each other as part of the twinning venture, and artists have even come over from Alcalá de Henares to paint Catherine's tombstone. * Many places in Ampthill are named after Catherine. Also in Ampthill there is a cross in Ampthill Great Park named "Queen Catherine's Cross" in her honour. It is on the site of the castle where she was sent during her divorce from the King. * Kimbolton School's science and mathematics block is called the QKB, or Queen Katherine Building. Spelling of her name Her baptismal name was "Catalina", but "Katherine" was soon the accepted form in England after her marriage to Arthur. \|55. Juana Enríquez \|7= 7. Isabella of Portugal \|88. Ferdinand I of Aragon \|9= 9. Eleanor of Alburquerque \|1010. Fadrique Enríquez \|1111. Mariana Fernández de Córdoba \|1212. Henry III of Castile \|1515. Isabel of Barcelos }} See also * Cultural depictions of Catherine of Aragon * Descendants of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile * List of English royal consorts * Empress Matilda * Wars of the Roses Notes References Citations Sources * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} * * * * * }} * * * * * * * \|titleThe Divorce of Catherine of Aragon: The Story as Told by the Imperial Ambassadors Resident at the Court of Henry VIII \|publisherCharles Scribner's Sons \|year1891 \|location=New York}} * * * * * * * * * * * * }} * * * * * * * * Further reading * John E. Paul (1966) Catherine of Aragon and Her Friends. Fordham University Press * Mattingly, Garrett (2005 [1942]) Catherine of Aragon. Ams Pr Inc. * J.O. Hand & M. Wolff, (1986) Early Netherlandish Painting, National Gallery of Art, Washington (catalogue) * Tremlett, Giles. (2010). Catherine of Aragon: The Spanish Queen of Henry VIII. Faber & Faber. * * Williams, Patrick. (2012). Catherine of Aragon. Amberley. * Luke, Mary M. (1967). Catherine, The Queen, a biography of Catherine of Aragon, first wife to Henry VIII. Coward-McCann, Inc. * \|titleDe rebus Britannicis collectanea, cum Thomae Hearnii praesatione notis et indice ad editionem primam. Ed. altera\|date1774\|publisherWhite\|language=en}} * \|titleMiscellaneous State Papers: From 1501 to 1726. In Two Volumes\|editor-lastHardwicke\|editor-firstPhilip Yorke of\|editor-linkPhilip Yorke, 2nd Earl of Hardwicke\|date1778\|publisherStrahan and Cadell\|languageen}}, Miscellaneous State Papers, vol. 1 (1778) pp. 1–20, instructions for her wedding to Arthur. * Lindsey, Karen. (1995). Divorced Beheaded Survived: A Feminist Reinterpretation of the Wives of Henry VIII. * Coates, Tim. (2001). Letters of Henry VIII 1526–29. Tim Coates Books. * Ashley, Mike. (2002). British Kings & Queens. * Bernard, G.W. (2007). ''The King's Reformation: Henry VIII and the Remaking of the English Church. * \|year1860\|publisherBrown & Taggard}} External links * * [https://www.britannica.com/biography/Catherine-of-Aragon Catherine of Aragon] from the online Encyclopædia Britannica''. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090411185016/http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/henry/ Catherine of Aragon's divorce papers and other Tudor treasures online to mark the 500th anniversary of Henry VIII's accession] * [http://tudorhistory.org/aragon/ tudorhistory.org] – An overview of her life, accompanied by a portrait gallery * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120206205817/http://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/aragon.html englishhistory.net] – An in-depth look at her life and times * [http://bbs.keyhole.com/ubb/showflat.php?Cat0&Number365164 A geo-biography] of the Six Wives of Henry the VIII on Google Earth * [https://www.theguardian.com/monarchy/story/0,,1930761,00.html How Henry's first wife tried to save marriage], letter from her to Pope Clement VII * [http://www.projectcontinua.org/catherine-of-aragon/ Project Continua: Biography of Catherine of Aragon] * \|- Category:Repudiated queens Category:16th-century women regents Category:1485 births Category:1536 deaths Category:15th-century Spanish women Category:16th-century Spanish women Category:16th-century English women Category:16th-century regents Category:16th-century Spanish diplomats Category:Daughters of kings Category:Daughters of queens regnant Category:English Roman Catholics Category:Spanish Roman Catholics Category:Wives of Henry VIII Category:House of Trastámara Category:House of Tudor Category:Princesses of Wales Category:Regents of England Category:Folk saints Category:Annulment Category:Aragonese infantas Category:Ambassadors of Spain to the Kingdom of England Category:Castilian infantas Category:Spanish emigrants to the United Kingdom Category:Spanish expatriates in England Category:Spanish people of Italian descent Category:Spanish people of Portuguese descent Category:Spanish people of English descent Category:Spanish people of French descent Category:Members of the Third Order of Saint Francis Category:Spanish emigrants to England Category:Deaths from cancer in England Category:Deaths from heart cancer Category:Burials at Peterborough Cathedral Category:Spanish women ambassadors Category:Spanish women diplomats Category:Duchesses of Cornwall Category:Children of Ferdinand II of Aragon Category:Mothers of English monarchs	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_of_Aragon	2025-04-05T18:28:00.726641
6943	Cathode ray	thumb\|upright=1.2\|A beam of cathode rays in a vacuum tube bent into a circle by a magnetic field generated by a Helmholtz coil. Cathode rays are normally invisible; in this demonstration Teltron tube, enough gas has been left in the tube for the gas atoms to luminesce when struck by the fast-moving electrons. Cathode rays or electron beams (e-beam) are streams of electrons observed in discharge tubes. If an evacuated glass tube is equipped with two electrodes and a voltage is applied, glass behind the positive electrode is observed to glow, due to electrons emitted from the cathode (the electrode connected to the negative terminal of the voltage supply). They were first observed in 1859 by German physicist Julius Plücker and Johann Wilhelm Hittorf, and were named in 1876 by Eugen Goldstein Kathodenstrahlen, or cathode rays. In 1897, British physicist J. J. Thomson showed that cathode rays were composed of a previously unknown negatively charged particle, which was later named the electron. Cathode-ray tubes (CRTs) use a focused beam of electrons deflected by electric or magnetic fields to render an image on a screen. Description thumb\|A diagram showing a Crookes tube connected to a high voltage supply. The metal Maltese cross in the tube, with no external connection to the circuit, casts a shadow on the glowing wall. Cathode rays are so named because they are emitted by the negative electrode, or cathode, in a vacuum tube. To release electrons into the tube, they first must be detached from the atoms of the cathode. In the early experimental cold cathode vacuum tubes in which cathode rays were discovered, called Crookes tubes, this was done by using a high electrical potential of thousands of volts between the anode and the cathode to ionize the residual gas atoms in the tube. The positive ions were accelerated by the electric field toward the cathode, and when they collided with it they knocked electrons out of its surface; these were the cathode rays. Modern vacuum tubes use thermionic emission, in which the cathode is made of a thin wire filament which is heated by a separate electric current passing through it. The increased random heat motion of the filament knocks electrons out of the surface of the filament, into the evacuated space of the tube. Since the electrons have a negative charge, they are repelled by the negative cathode and attracted to the positive anode. They travel in parallel lines through the empty tube. The voltage applied between the electrodes accelerates these low mass particles to high velocities. Cathode rays are invisible, but their presence was first detected in these Crookes tubes when they struck the glass wall of the tube, exciting the atoms of the glass and causing them to emit light, a glow called fluorescence. Researchers noticed that objects placed in the tube in front of the cathode could cast a shadow on the glowing wall, and realized that something must be traveling in straight lines from the cathode. After the electrons strike the back of the tube they make their way to the anode, then travel through the anode wire through the power supply and back through the cathode wire to the cathode, so cathode rays carry electric current through the tube. The current in a beam of cathode rays through a vacuum tube can be controlled by passing it through a metal screen of wires (a grid) between cathode and anode, to which a small negative voltage is applied. The electric field of the wires deflects some of the electrons, preventing them from reaching the anode. The amount of current that gets through to the anode depends on the voltage on the grid. Thus, a small voltage on the grid can be made to control a much larger voltage on the anode. This is the principle used in vacuum tubes to amplify electrical signals. The triode vacuum tube developed between 1907 and 1914 was the first electronic device that could amplify, and is still used in some applications such as radio transmitters. High speed beams of cathode rays can also be steered and manipulated by electric fields created by additional metal plates in the tube to which voltage is applied, or magnetic fields created by coils of wire (electromagnets). These are used in cathode-ray tubes, found in televisions and computer monitors, and in electron microscopes. File:Katódsugarak mágneses mezőben(1).jpg\|Crookes tube. The cathode (negative terminal) is on the right. The anode (positive terminal) is in the base of the tube at bottom. File:Katódsugarak mágneses mezőben(2).jpg\|Cathode rays travel from the cathode at the rear of the tube, striking the glass front, making it glow green by fluorescence. A metal cross in the tube casts a shadow, demonstrating that the rays travel in straight lines. File:Katódsugarak mágneses mezőben(3).jpg\|A magnet creates a horizontal magnetic field through the neck of the tube, bending the rays up, so the shadow of the cross is higher. File:Katódsugarak mágneses mezőben(4).jpg\|When the magnet is reversed, it bends the rays down, so the shadow is lower. The pink glow is caused by cathode rays striking residual gas atoms in the tube. History After the invention of the vacuum pump in 1654 by Otto von Guericke, physicists began to experiment with passing high voltage electricity through rarefied air. In 1705, it was noted that electrostatic generator sparks travel a longer distance through low pressure air than through atmospheric pressure air. Gas discharge tubes thumb\|upright=1.1\|Geissler tube, in daylight and lit by its own light thumb\|upright=1.4\|Glow discharge in a low-pressure tube caused by electric current. In 1838, Michael Faraday applied a high voltage between two metal electrodes at either end of a glass tube that had been partially evacuated of air, and noticed a strange light arc with its beginning at the cathode (negative electrode) and its end at the anode (positive electrode). In 1857, German physicist and glassblower Heinrich Geissler sucked even more air out with an improved pump, to a pressure of around 10−3 atm and found that, instead of an arc, a glow filled the tube. The voltage applied between the two electrodes of the tubes, generated by an induction coil, was anywhere between a few kilovolts and 100 kV. These were called Geissler tubes, similar to today's neon signs. The explanation of these effects was that the high voltage accelerated free electrons and electrically charged atoms (ions) naturally present in the air of the tube. At low pressure, there was enough space between the gas atoms that the electrons could accelerate to high enough speeds that when they struck an atom they knocked electrons off of it, creating more positive ions and free electrons, which went on to create more ions and electrons in a chain reaction, known as a glow discharge. The positive ions were attracted to the cathode and when they struck it knocked more electrons out of it, which were attracted toward the anode. Thus the ionized air was electrically conductive and an electric current flowed through the tube. Geissler tubes had enough air in them that the electrons could only travel a tiny distance before colliding with an atom. The electrons in these tubes moved in a slow diffusion process, never gaining much speed, so these tubes didn't produce cathode rays. Instead, they produced a colorful glow discharge (as in a modern neon light), caused when the electrons struck gas atoms, exciting their orbital electrons to higher energy levels. The electrons released this energy as light. This process is called fluorescence. Cathode rays thumb\|A beam of cathode rays being bent by a magnetic field. Cathode rays are normally invisible; the path of this beam is revealed by having it strike a card with a fluorescent coating By the 1870s, British physicist William Crookes and others were able to evacuate tubes to a lower pressure, below 10−6 atm. These were called Crookes tubes. Faraday had been the first to notice a dark space just in front of the cathode, where there was no luminescence. This came to be called the "cathode dark space", "Faraday dark space" or "Crookes dark space". Crookes found that as he pumped more air out of the tubes, the Faraday dark space spread down the tube from the cathode toward the anode, until the tube was totally dark. But at the anode (positive) end of the tube, the glass of the tube itself began to glow. What was happening was that as more air was pumped from the tube, the electrons knocked out of the cathode when positive ions struck it could travel farther, on average, before they struck a gas atom. By the time the tube was dark, most of the electrons could travel in straight lines from the cathode to the anode end of the tube without a collision. With no obstructions, these low mass particles were accelerated to high velocities by the voltage between the electrodes. These were the cathode rays. When they reached the anode end of the tube, they were traveling so fast that, although they were attracted to it, they often flew past the anode and struck the back wall of the tube. When they struck atoms in the glass wall, they excited their orbital electrons to higher energy levels. When the electrons returned to their original energy level, they released the energy as light, causing the glass to fluoresce, usually a greenish or bluish color. Later researchers painted the inside back wall with fluorescent chemicals such as zinc sulfide, to make the glow more visible. Cathode rays themselves are invisible, but this accidental fluorescence allowed researchers to notice that objects in the tube in front of the cathode, such as the anode, cast sharp-edged shadows on the glowing back wall. In 1869, German physicist Johann Hittorf was first to realize that something must be traveling in straight lines from the cathode to cast the shadows. Eugen Goldstein named them cathode rays (German Kathodenstrahlen). Discovery of the electron thumb\|upright=1.3\|J. J, Thomson's electric deflection tube, in which he showed that a beam of cathode rays was bent by an electric field like matter particles. The cathode is on R. The electron beam is accelerated passing through the cylindrical high voltage anode (center), bent by a voltage on the deflection plates (center L), and strikes the back wall of the tube causing a luminous glow. At this time, atoms were the smallest particles known, and were believed to be indivisible. What carried electric currents was a mystery. During the last quarter of the 19th century, many historic experiments were done with Crookes tubes to determine what cathode rays were. There were two theories. Crookes and Arthur Schuster believed they were particles of "radiant matter," that is, electrically charged atoms. German scientists Eilhard Wiedemann, Heinrich Hertz and Goldstein believed they were "aether waves", some new form of electromagnetic radiation, and were separate from what carried the electric current through the tube. The debate was resolved in 1897 when J. J. Thomson measured the mass of cathode rays, showing they were made of particles, but were around 1800 times lighter than the lightest atom, hydrogen. Therefore, they were not atoms, but a new particle, the first subatomic particle to be discovered, which he originally called "corpuscle" but was later named electron, after particles postulated by George Johnstone Stoney in 1874. He also showed they were identical with particles given off by photoelectric and radioactive materials. It was quickly recognized that they are the particles that carry electric currents in metal wires, and carry the negative electric charge of the atom. Thomson was given the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physics for this work. Philipp Lenard also contributed a great deal to cathode-ray theory, winning the Nobel Prize in 1905 for his research on cathode rays and their properties. Vacuum tubes The gas ionization (or cold cathode) method of producing cathode rays used in Crookes tubes was unreliable, because it depended on the pressure of the residual air in the tube. Over time, the air was absorbed by the walls of the tube, and it stopped working. A more reliable and controllable method of producing cathode rays was investigated by Hittorf and Goldstein, and rediscovered by Thomas Edison in 1880. A cathode made of a wire filament heated red hot by a separate current passing through it would release electrons into the tube by a process called thermionic emission. The first true electronic vacuum tubes, invented in 1904 by John Ambrose Fleming, used this hot cathode technique, and they superseded Crookes tubes. These tubes didn't need gas in them to work, so they were evacuated to a lower pressure, around 10−9 atm (10−4 Pa). The ionization method of creating cathode rays used in Crookes tubes is today only used in a few specialized gas discharge tubes such as krytrons. In 1906, Lee De Forest found that a small voltage on a grid of metal wires between the cathode and anode could control a current in a beam of cathode rays passing through a vacuum tube. His invention, called the triode, was the first device that could amplify electric signals, and revolutionized electrical technology, creating the new field of electronics. Vacuum tubes made radio and television broadcasting possible, as well as radar, talking movies, audio recording, and long-distance telephone service, and were the foundation of consumer electronic devices until the 1960s, when the transistor brought the era of vacuum tubes to a close. Cathode rays are now usually called electron beams. The technology of manipulating electron beams pioneered in these early tubes was applied practically in the design of vacuum tubes, particularly in the invention of the cathode-ray tube (CRT) by Ferdinand Braun in 1897, which was used in television sets and oscilloscopes. Today, electron beams are employed in sophisticated devices such as electron microscopes, electron beam lithography and particle accelerators. Properties Like a wave, cathode rays travel in straight lines, and produce a shadow when obstructed by objects. Ernest Rutherford demonstrated that rays could pass through thin metal foils, behavior expected of a particle. These conflicting properties caused disruptions when trying to classify it as a wave or particle. Crookes insisted it was a particle, while Hertz maintained it was a wave. The debate was resolved when an electric field was used to deflect the rays by J. J. Thomson. This was evidence that the beams were composed of particles because scientists knew it was impossible to deflect electromagnetic waves with an electric field. These can also create mechanical effects, fluorescence, etc. Louis de Broglie later (1924) suggested in his doctoral dissertation that electrons are like photons and can act as waves. The wave-like behaviour of cathode rays was later directly demonstrated using reflection from a nickel surface by Davisson and Germer, and transmission through celluloid thin films and later metal films by George Paget Thomson and Alexander Reid in 1927. (Alexander Reid, who was Thomson's graduate student, performed the first experiments but he died soon after in a motorcycle accident and is rarely mentioned.) See also β (beta) particles Electron beam processing Electron diffraction Electron microscope Electron beam melting Electron beam welding Electron beam technology Electron gun Electron irradiation Ionizing radiation Particle accelerator Sterilisation (microbiology) References General Chemistry (structure and properties of matter) by Aruna Bandara (2010) External links The Cathode Ray Tube site Crookes tube with maltese cross operating Category:Electromagnetism Category:Electron beam Category:Articles containing video clips	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode_ray	2025-04-05T18:28:00.735802
6944	Cathode	thumb\|Diagram of a copper cathode in a galvanic cell (e.g., a battery). Positively charged cations move towards the cathode allowing a positive current i to flow out of the cathode. A cathode is the electrode from which a conventional current leaves a polarized electrical device such as a lead-acid battery. This definition can be recalled by using the mnemonic CCD for Cathode Current Departs. A conventional current describes the direction in which positive charges move. Electrons have a negative electrical charge, so the movement of electrons is opposite to that of the conventional current flow. Consequently, the mnemonic cathode current departs also means that electrons flow into the device's cathode from the external circuit. For example, the end of a household battery marked with a + (plus) is the cathode. The electrode through which conventional current flows the other way, into the device, is termed an anode. Charge flow Conventional current flows from cathode to anode outside the cell or device (with electrons moving in the opposite direction), regardless of the cell or device type and operating mode. Cathode polarity with respect to the anode can be positive or negative depending on how the device is being operated. Inside a device or a cell, positively charged cations always move towards the cathode and negatively charged anions move towards the anode, although cathode polarity depends on the device type, and can even vary according to the operating mode. Whether the cathode is negatively polarized (such as recharging a battery) or positively polarized (such as a battery in use), the cathode will draw electrons into it from outside, as well as attract positively charged cations from inside. A battery or galvanic cell in use has a cathode that is the positive terminal since that is where conventional current flows out of the device. This outward current is carried internally by positive ions moving from the electrolyte to the positive cathode (chemical energy is responsible for this "uphill" motion). It is continued externally by electrons moving into the battery which constitutes positive current flowing outwards. For example, the Daniell galvanic cell's copper electrode is the positive terminal and the cathode. A battery that is recharging or an electrolytic cell performing electrolysis has its cathode as the negative terminal, from which current exits the device and returns to the external generator as charge enters the battery/ cell. For example, reversing the current direction in a Daniell galvanic cell converts it into an electrolytic cell where the copper electrode is the positive terminal and also the anode. In a diode, the cathode is the negative terminal at the pointed end of the arrow symbol, where current flows out of the device. Note: electrode naming for diodes is always based on the direction of the forward current (that of the arrow, in which the current flows "most easily"), even for types such as Zener diodes or solar cells where the current of interest is the reverse current. In vacuum tubes (including cathode-ray tubes) it is the negative terminal where electrons enter the device from the external circuit and proceed into the tube's near-vacuum, constituting a positive current flowing out of the device. Etymology The word was coined in 1834 from the Greek κάθοδος (kathodos), 'descent' or 'way down', by William Whewell, who had been consulted by Michael Faraday over some new names needed to complete a paper on the recently discovered process of electrolysis. In that paper Faraday explained that when an electrolytic cell is oriented so that electric current traverses the "decomposing body" (electrolyte) in a direction "from East to West, or, which will strengthen this help to the memory, that in which the sun appears to move", the cathode is where the current leaves the electrolyte, on the West side: "kata downwards, 'odos a way; the way which the sun sets". The use of 'West' to mean the 'out' direction (actually 'out' → 'West' → 'sunset' → 'down', i.e. 'out of view') may appear unnecessarily contrived. Previously, as related in the first reference cited above, Faraday had used the more straightforward term "exode" (the doorway where the current exits). His motivation for changing it to something meaning 'the West electrode' (other candidates had been "westode", "occiode" and "dysiode") was to make it immune to a possible later change in the direction convention for current, whose exact nature was not known at the time. The reference he used to this effect was the Earth's magnetic field direction, which at that time was believed to be invariant. He fundamentally defined his arbitrary orientation for the cell as being that in which the internal current would run parallel to and in the same direction as a hypothetical magnetizing current loop around the local line of latitude which would induce a magnetic dipole field oriented like the Earth's. This made the internal current East to West as previously mentioned, but in the event of a later convention change it would have become West to East, so that the West electrode would not have been the 'way out' any more. Therefore, "exode" would have become inappropriate, whereas "cathode" meaning 'West electrode' would have remained correct with respect to the unchanged direction of the actual phenomenon underlying the current, then unknown but, he thought, unambiguously defined by the magnetic reference. In retrospect the name change was unfortunate, not only because the Greek roots alone do not reveal the cathode's function any more, but more importantly because, as we now know, the Earth's magnetic field direction on which the "cathode" term is based is subject to reversals whereas the current direction convention on which the "exode" term was based has no reason to change in the future. Since the later discovery of the electron, an easier to remember, and more durably technically correct (although historically false), etymology has been suggested: cathode, from the Greek kathodos, 'way down', 'the way (down) into the cell (or other device) for electrons'. In chemistry In chemistry, a cathode is the electrode of an electrochemical cell at which reduction occurs. The cathode can be negative like when the cell is electrolytic (where electrical energy provided to the cell is being used for decomposing chemical compounds); or positive as when the cell is galvanic (where chemical reactions are used for generating electrical energy). The cathode supplies electrons to the positively charged cations which flow to it from the electrolyte (even if the cell is galvanic, i.e., when the cathode is positive and therefore would be expected to repel the positively charged cations; this is due to electrode potential relative to the electrolyte solution being different for the anode and cathode metal/electrolyte systems in a galvanic cell). The cathodic current, in electrochemistry, is the flow of electrons from the cathode interface to a species in solution. The anodic current is the flow of electrons into the anode from a species in solution. Electrolytic cell In an electrolytic cell, the cathode is where the negative polarity is applied to drive the cell. Common results of reduction at the cathode are hydrogen gas or pure metal from metal ions. When discussing the relative reducing power of two redox agents, the couple for generating the more reducing species is said to be more "cathodic" with respect to the more easily reduced reagent. Galvanic cell In a galvanic cell, the cathode is where the positive pole is connected to allow the circuit to be completed: as the anode of the galvanic cell gives off electrons, they return from the circuit into the cell through the cathode. Electroplating metal cathode (electrolysis) When metal ions are reduced from ionic solution, they form a pure metal surface on the cathode. Items to be plated with pure metal are attached to and become part of the cathode in the electrolytic solution. In electronics Vacuum tubes thumb\|Glow from the directly heated cathode of a 1 kW power tetrode tube in a radio transmitter. The cathode filament is not directly visible. In a vacuum tube or electronic vacuum system, the cathode is usually a metal surface with an oxide coating that much improves electron emission, heated by a filament, which emits free electrons into the evacuated space. In some cases the bare filament acts as the cathode. Since the electrons are attracted to the positive nuclei of the metal atoms, they normally stay inside the metal and require energy to leave it; this is called the work function of the metal. Cathodes are induced to emit electrons by several mechanisms: and in microelectronics fabrication, The filament is a thin wire of a refractory metal like tungsten heated red-hot by an electric current passing through it. Before the advent of transistors in the 1960s, virtually all electronic equipment used hot-cathode vacuum tubes. Today hot cathodes are used in vacuum tubes in radio transmitters and microwave ovens, to produce the electron beams in older cathode-ray tube (CRT) type televisions and computer monitors, in x-ray generators, electron microscopes, and fluorescent tubes. There are two types of hot cathodes: There are two main types of treated cathodes: Cold cathode This is a cathode that is not heated by a filament. They may emit electrons by field electron emission, and in gas-filled tubes by secondary emission. Some examples are electrodes in neon lights, cold-cathode fluorescent lamps (CCFLs) used as backlights in laptops, thyratron tubes, and Crookes tubes. They do not necessarily operate at room temperature; in some devices the cathode is heated by the electron current flowing through it to a temperature at which thermionic emission occurs. For example, in some fluorescent tubes a momentary high voltage is applied to the electrodes to start the current through the tube; after starting the electrodes are heated enough by the current to keep emitting electrons to sustain the discharge. Cold cathodes may also emit electrons by photoelectric emission. These are often called photocathodes and are used in phototubes used in scientific instruments and image intensifier tubes used in night vision goggles. Diodes thumb\|right In a semiconductor diode, the cathode is the N–doped layer of the p–n junction with a high density of free electrons due to doping, and an equal density of fixed positive charges, which are the dopants that have been thermally ionized. In the anode, the converse applies: It features a high density of free "holes" and consequently fixed negative dopants which have captured an electron (hence the origin of the holes). When P and N-doped layers are created adjacent to each other, diffusion ensures that electrons flow from high to low density areas: That is, from the N to the P side. They leave behind the fixed positively charged dopants near the junction. Similarly, holes diffuse from P to N leaving behind fixed negative ionised dopants near the junction. These layers of fixed positive and negative charges are collectively known as the depletion layer because they are depleted of free electrons and holes. The depletion layer at the junction is at the origin of the diode's rectifying properties. This is due to the resulting internal field and corresponding potential barrier which inhibit current flow in reverse applied bias which increases the internal depletion layer field. Conversely, they allow it in forwards applied bias where the applied bias reduces the built in potential barrier. Electrons which diffuse from the cathode into the P-doped layer, or anode, become what are termed "minority carriers" and tend to recombine there with the majority carriers, which are holes, on a timescale characteristic of the material which is the p-type minority carrier lifetime. Similarly, holes diffusing into the N-doped layer become minority carriers and tend to recombine with electrons. In equilibrium, with no applied bias, thermally assisted diffusion of electrons and holes in opposite directions across the depletion layer ensure a zero net current with electrons flowing from cathode to anode and recombining, and holes flowing from anode to cathode across the junction or depletion layer and recombining. Like a typical diode, there is a fixed anode and cathode in a Zener diode, but it will conduct current in the reverse direction (electrons flow from anode to cathode) if its breakdown voltage or "Zener voltage" is exceeded. See also Battery Cathode bias Cathodic protection Electrolysis Electrolytic cell Gas-filled tube Oxidation-reduction PEDOT Vacuum tube References External links The Cathode Ray Tube site How to define anode and cathode Category:Electrodes	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode	2025-04-05T18:28:00.751124
6945	Chrominance	thumb\|Luminance only, Chrominance only, and full color image. Chrominance (chroma or C for short) is the signal used in video systems to convey the color information of the picture (see YUV color model), separately from the accompanying luma signal (or Y' for short). Chrominance is usually represented as two color-difference components: U B′ − Y′ (blue − luma) and V R′ − Y′ (red − luma). Each of these different components may have scale factors and offsets applied to it, as specified by the applicable video standard. In composite video signals, the U and V signals modulate a color subcarrier signal, and the result is referred to as the chrominance signal; the phase and amplitude of this modulated chrominance signal correspond approximately to the hue and saturation of the color. In digital-video and still-image color spaces such as Y′CbCr, the luma and chrominance components are digital sample values. Separating RGB color signals into luma and chrominance allows the bandwidth of each to be determined separately. Typically, the chrominance bandwidth is reduced in analog composite video by reducing the bandwidth of a modulated color subcarrier, and in digital systems by chroma subsampling. History The idea of transmitting a color television signal with distinct luma and chrominance components originated with Georges Valensi, who patented the idea in 1938. Valensi's patent application described: The use of two channels, one transmitting the predominating color (signal T), and the other the mean brilliance (signal t) output from a single television transmitter to be received not only by color television receivers provided with the necessary more expensive equipment, but also by the ordinary type of television receiver which is more numerous and less expensive and which reproduces the pictures in black and white only. Previous schemes for color television systems, which were incompatible with existing monochrome receivers, transmitted RGB signals in various ways. Television standards In analog television, chrominance is encoded into a video signal using a subcarrier frequency. Depending on the video standard, the chrominance subcarrier may be either quadrature-amplitude-modulated (NTSC and PAL) or frequency-modulated (SECAM). In the PAL system, the color subcarrier is 4.43 MHz above the video carrier, while in the NTSC system it is 3.58 MHz above the video carrier. The NTSC and PAL standards are the most commonly used, although there are other video standards that employ different subcarrier frequencies. For example, PAL-M (Brazil) uses a 3.58 MHz subcarrier, and SECAM uses two different frequencies, 4.250 MHz and 4.40625 MHz above the video carrier. The presence of chrominance in a video signal is indicated by a color burst signal transmitted on the back porch, just after horizontal synchronization and before each line of video starts. If the color burst signal were visible on a television screen, it would appear as a vertical strip of a very dark olive color. In NTSC and PAL, hue is represented by a phase shift of the chrominance signal relative to the color burst, while saturation is determined by the amplitude of the subcarrier. In SECAM (R′ − Y′) and (B′ − Y′) signals are transmitted alternately and phase does not matter. Chrominance is represented by the U-V color plane in PAL and SECAM video signals, and by the I-Q color plane in NTSC. Digital systems Digital video and digital still photography systems sometimes use a luma/chroma decomposition for improved compression. For example, when an ordinary RGB digital image is compressed via the JPEG standard, the RGB color space is first converted (by a rotation matrix) to a YCbCr color space, because the three components in that space have less correlation redundancy and because the chrominance components can then be subsampled by a factor of 2 or 4 to further compress the image. On decompression, the Y′CbCr space is rotated back to RGB. See also Chroma subsampling Luma (video) References Category:Film and video technology Category:Color	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrominance	2025-04-05T18:28:00.753593
6946	Chirality (disambiguation)	Chirality (handedness) is a property of asymmetry. Chirality may also refer to: Chirality (chemistry), a property of molecules having a non-superimposable mirror image Chirality (electromagnetism), an electromagnetic propagation in chiral media Chirality (mathematics), the property of a figure not being identical to its mirror image Chirality (physics), when a phenomenon is not identical to its mirror image Homochirality, the property of humans having non-superimposable mirror forms, from hands to molecules. Chirality (journal), an academic journal dealing with chiral chemistry Chirality (manga), a 4-volume yuri manga series written and illustrated by author Satoshi Urushihara Chirality (album), a 2014 solo piano album by American pianist John Burke See also Chirality in gastropods Chiral knot Handedness	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chirality_(disambiguation)	2025-04-05T18:28:00.754707
6947	Campus	thumb\|upright\|Joseph-Jacques Ramée's original plan for Union College in Schenectady, New York, the first comprehensively planned campus in the United States thumb\|Map of the main campus of in Quebec City, Canada A campus traditionally refers to the land and buildings of a college or university. This will often include libraries, lecture halls, student centers and, for residential universities, residence halls and dining halls. By extension, a corporate campus is a collection of buildings and grounds that belong to a company, particularly in the technology sector. Examples include Bell Labs, the Googleplex and Apple Park. Etymology Campus comes from the , meaning "field", and was first used in the academic sense at Princeton University in 1774. At Princeton, the word referred to a large open space on the college grounds; similarly at the University of South Carolina it was used by 1826 to describe the open square (of around 10 acres) between the college buildings. By the end of the 19th century, the term was used widely at US colleges to refer to the grounds of the college, but it was not until the 20th century that it expanded to include the buildings as well. History The tradition of a campus began with the medieval European universities where the students and teachers lived and worked together in a cloistered environment. The notion of the importance of the setting to academic life later migrated to America, and early colonial educational institutions were based on the Scottish and English collegiate system. Both the campus designs and the architecture of colleges throughout the country have evolved in response to trends in the broader world, with most representing several different contemporary and historical styles and arrangements. In 1922, a lecture by Patrick Abercrombie at the British Town Planning Institute contrasted the American campus to the style of Oxbridge colleges, saying: "generally with us the park-like garden and trees are to one side of the college buildings, in contrast with the formally enclosed quad with its clipt grass. In the Campus method the departments of the university are scattered about a park and are actually among the trees." However, he did also note that Trinity College Dublin had "what is called elsewhere a Campus" on its site in central Dublin, and that William Wilkins had "attempt[ed] an English Campus" on the site of Downing College, Cambridge. The first true campus universities in Britain were not established until the late 1940s, with the University of Reading moving to its Whiteknights campus in 1947, University College Swansea (now Swansea University) moving to its Singleton Park campus in 1948 and the University College of North Staffordshire (now the University of Keele) being established on the Keele Hall estate in 1949. Uses Office buildings thumb\|The Googleplex, a corporate campus in California In the early 1990s the term began to be used to describe a company's office building complex, most notably when Apple's Infinite Loop campus was first built, which at the time was exclusively for research and development. The Microsoft Campus in Redmond, Washington, is another example of this usage, although it was built in the 1980s, before the term was applied to company property. In the 21st century, hospitals and even airports sometimes use the term to describe the territory of their respective facilities. Universities thumb\|A 2016 aerial panorama of Oxford. The University of Oxford does not have a central campus; the university's many buildings are instead scattered around the city. The word campus has also been applied to European universities, although some such institutions (in particular, "ancient" universities such as Bologna, Padua, Oxford and Cambridge) are characterized by ownership of individual buildings in university town-like urban settings rather than sprawling park-like lawns in which buildings are placed. World Heritage campuses A number of university campuses or parts of campuses have been recognised as World Heritage Sites by UNESCO for their outstanding universal value. These include: Botanical Garden, University of Padua, Italy – the world's oldest botanical garden (inscribed 1997) Central University City Campus of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico (inscribed 2007) Durham Castle and Cathedral, UK – including University College, Durham (Durham Castle) and the historic centre of Durham University around Palace Green (inscribed 1986; modified 2008) Medina of Fez, Morocco – including the University of al-Qarawiyyin (inscribed 1981) Monticello and the University of Virginia in Charlottesville, USA – including the Rotunda and the historic centre of the university around the Lawn (inscribed 1987; modified 2015) University City of Caracas, Venezuela – the main campus of the Central University of Venezuela (inscribed 2000) University of Alcalá de Henares, Spain – the world's first planned university city (inscribed 1998) University of Coimbra, Portugal (inscribed 2013; modified 2019) See also Campus novel Campus university History of college campuses and architecture in the United States Satellite campus References External links Category:Universities and colleges	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campus	2025-04-05T18:28:00.764097
6948	Crossbow	A crossbow is a ranged weapon using an elastic launching device consisting of a bow-like assembly called a prod, mounted horizontally on a main frame called a tiller, which is hand-held in a similar fashion to the stock of a long gun. Crossbows shoot arrow-like projectiles called bolts or quarrels. A person who shoots crossbow is called a crossbowman, an arbalister or an arbalist (after the arbalest, a European crossbow variant used during the 12th century). Crossbows and bows use the same elastic launch principles, but differ in that an archer using a bow must draw-and-shoot in a quick and smooth motion with limited or no time for aiming, while a crossbow's design allows it to be spanned and cocked ready for use at a later time and thus affording them unlimited time to aim. When shooting bows, the archer must fully perform the draw, holding the string and arrow using various techniques while pulling it back with arm and back muscles, and then either immediately shooting instinctively without a period of aiming, or holding that form while aiming. Both demand some physical strength to do so using bows suitable for warfare, though this is easier using lighter draw-weight hunting bows. As such, their accurate and sustained use in warfare takes much practice. Crossbows avoid these potential problems by having trigger-released cocking mechanisms to maintain the tension on the string once it has been spanned – drawn – into its ready-to-shoot position, allowing these weapons to be carried cocked and ready and affording their users time to aim them. This also allows them to be readied by someone assisting their users, so multiple crossbows can be used one after the other while others reload and ready them. Crossbows are spanned into their cocked positions using a number of techniques and devices, some of which are mechanical and employ gear and pulley arrangements – levers, belt hooks, pulleys, windlasses and cranequins – to overcome very high draw weight. These potentially achieve better precision and enable their effective use by less familiarised and trained personnel, whereas the simple and composite warbows of, for example, the English and the steppe nomads require years of training, practice and familiarisation. These advantages for the crossbow are somewhat offset by the longer time needed to reload a crossbow for further shots, with the crossbows with high draw weights requiring sophisticated systems of gears and pulleys to overcome their huge draw weights that are very slow and rather awkward to employ on the battlefield. Medieval crossbows were also very inefficient, with short shot stroke lengths from the string lock to the release point of their bolts, along with the slower speeds of their steel prods and heavy strings, despite their massive draw weights compared to bows, though modern materials and crossbow designs overcome these shortcomings. The earliest known crossbows were made in the first millennium BC, as early as the 7th century BC in ancient China and as early as the 1st century AD in Greece (known as gastraphetes). Crossbows brought about a major shift in the role of projectile weaponry in wars, such as during Qin's unification wars and later Han campaigns against northern nomads and western states. The medieval European crossbow was called by many names, including "crossbow" itself; most of these names derived from the word ballista, an ancient Greek torsion siege engine similar in appearance but different in design principle. In modern times, firearms have largely supplanted bows and crossbows as weapons of war, but crossbows remain widely used for competitive shooting sports and hunting, and for relatively silent shooting. Terminology A crossbowman is sometimes called an arbalist, or historically an arbalister. Arrow, bolt and quarrel are all suitable terms for crossbow projectiles, as was vire historically. The lath, also called the prod, is the bow of the crossbow. According to W. F. Peterson, prod came into usage in the 19th century as a result of mistranslating rodd in a 16th-century list of crossbow effects. The stock (a modern term derived from the equivalent concept in firearms) is the wooden body on which the bow is mounted, although the medieval tiller is also used. The lock refers to the release mechanism, including the string, sears, trigger lever, and housing. Construction and Western Han dynasty crossbow trigger pieces.]] an crossbow nut mechanism: ]] , Hamburg-Harburg, Germany]] A crossbow is essentially a bow mounted on an elongated frame (called a tiller or stock) with a built-in mechanism that holds the drawn bow string, as well as a trigger mechanism, which is used to release the string. Chinese vertical trigger lock The Chinese trigger was a mechanism typically composed of three cast bronze pieces housed inside a hollow bronze enclosure. The entire mechanism is then dropped into a carved slot within the tiller and secured together by two bronze rods. The string catch (nut) is shaped like a "J" because it usually has a tall erect rear spine that protrudes above the housing, which serves the function of both a cocking lever (by pushing the drawn string onto it) and a primitive rear sight. It is held stationary against tension by the second piece, which is shaped like a flattened "C" and acts as the sear. The sear cannot move as it is trapped by the third piece, i.e. the actual trigger blade, which hangs vertically below the enclosure and catches the sear via a notch. The two bearing surfaces between the three trigger pieces each offers a mechanical advantage, which allow for handling significant draw weights with a much smaller pull weight. During shooting, the user will hold the crossbow at eye level by a vertical handle and aim along the arrow using the sighting spine for elevation, similar to how a modern rifleman shoots with iron sights. When the trigger blade is pulled, its notch disengages from the sear and allows the latter to drop downwards, which in turn frees up the nuts to pivot forward and release the bowstring. () [crossbow] is so called because it spreads abroad an aura of rage [] (). Its stock is like the arm of a man, therefore it is called (). That which hooks the bowstring is called (), for indeed it is like teeth. The part round about the teeth [i.e. the housing box] is called the () ["city wall"], since it surrounds the () [lug] of the teeth [i.e. the locking nut]. Within [and below] there is the () ["hanging knife", i.e. the trigger blade] so called because it looks like one. The whole assembly is called ()["machine" or "mechanism"], for it is just as ingenious as the loom.\|}} European rolling nut lock The earliest European designs featured a transverse slot in the top surface of the frame, down into which the string was placed. To shoot this design, a vertical rod is thrust up through a hole in the bottom of the notch, forcing the string out. This rod is usually attached perpendicular to a rear-facing lever called a tickler. A later design implemented a rolling cylindrical pawl called a nut to retain the string. This nut has a perpendicular centre slot for the bolt, and an intersecting axial slot for the string, along with a lower face or slot against which the internal trigger sits. They often also have some form of strengthening internal sear or trigger face, usually of metal. These roller nuts were either free-floating in their close-fitting hole across the stock, tied in with a binding of sinew or other strong cording; or mounted on a metal axle or pins. Removable or integral plates of wood, ivory, or metal on the sides of the stock kept the nut in place laterally. Nuts were made of antler, bone, or metal. Bows could be kept taut and ready to shoot for some time with little physical straining, allowing crossbowmen to aim better without fatiguing. Bow Chinese crossbow bows were made of composite material from the start. European crossbows from the 10th to 12th centuries used wood for the bow, also called the prod or lath, which tended to be ash or yew. Composite bows started appearing in Europe during the 13th century and could be made from layers of different material, often wood, horn, and sinew glued together and bound with animal tendon. These composite bows made of several layers are much stronger and more efficient in releasing energy than simple wooden bows. As steel became more widely available in Europe around the 14th century, steel prods came into use. Traditionally, the prod was often lashed to the stock with rope, whipcord, or other strong cording. This is called the bridle. Spanning mechanism The Chinese used winches for large crossbows mounted on fortifications or wagons, known as "bedded crossbows" (床弩). Winches may have been used for handheld crossbows during the Han dynasty (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), but there is only one known depiction of it. The 11th century Chinese military text Wujing Zongyao'' mentions types of crossbows using winch mechanisms, but it is not known if these were actually handheld crossbows or mounted crossbows. Another drawing method involved the shooters sitting on the ground, and using the combined strength of leg, waist, back and arm muscles to help span much heavier crossbows, which were aptly called "waist-spun crossbows" (腰張弩). During the medieval era, both Chinese and European crossbows used stirrups as well as belt hooks. In the 13th century, European crossbows started using winches, and from the 14th century an assortment of spanning mechanisms such as winch pulleys, cord pulleys, gaffles (such as gaffe levers, goat's foot levers, and rarer internal lever-action mechanisms), cranequins, and even screws. <gallery> File:Eastern Han Battle Scene on Brick (9873154043).jpg\|Battle scene depicting a man spanning a crossbow using a winch mechanism, possibly mounted on a frame, Han dynasty File:Northern song Cavalry.jpg\|Song dynasty cavalry wielding crossbows with stirrups File:The Martyrdom of St Sebastian (detail).jpg\|Fifteenth century crossbowman using a stirrup along with a belt hook and pulley File:Dictionnaire raisonné du mobilier français de l’époque carlovingienne à la Renaissance, tome 5 - 043.png\|Detailed illustration of a goat's foot lever mounted on a crossbow that is half-spanned File:Armborst 2, Nordisk familjebok.png\|Illustration of a gaffe lever mounted on a crossbow that is nearly at full-span. File:CAH 0153r.png\|Illustrations of Leonardo da Vinci's rapid fire crossbow in the 15th-century Codex Atlanticus. Note the internal lever mechanism is fully extended to catch the draw string. File:Balester 2.jpg\|Internal mechanical illustration of a German bullet-shooting crossbow's self-spanning mechanism File:Armborst 4, Nordisk familjebok.png\|Twentieth century depiction of a windlass pulley File:Altarpiece of St Sebastian (detail).jpg\|Fifteenth century crossbowman using a cranequin (rack and pinion) File:HJRK A 2269 - Crossbow windlass, late 15th century.jpg\|Iron cranequin, South German, late 15th century </gallery> Variants The smallest crossbows are pistol crossbows. Others are simple long stocks with the crossbow mounted on them. These could be shot from under the arm. The next step in development was stocks of the shape that would later be used for firearms, which allowed better aiming. The arbalest was a heavy crossbow that required special systems for pulling the sinew via windlasses. For siege warfare, the size of crossbows was further increased to hurl large projectiles, such as rocks, at fortifications. The required crossbows needed a massive base frame and powerful windlass devices. <gallery class="center"> File:Zhugenu-springautumn.jpg\|Double shot repeating crossbow, also known as the Chu state repeating crossbow () File:Two-bow crossbow wjzy.jpg\|Mounted double bow crossbow File:Chuangzi Nu1.jpg\|Mounted triple bow crossbow File:Liannu.jpg\|Multi-bolt crossbow without a visible nut or cocking aid File:Gastraphetes - catapult ancestor - antica catapulta.jpg\|Cocking of a Greek File:Roman crossbow. Pic 02.jpg\|Gallo-Roman crossbow File:B Osma 85v.jpg\|Earliest European depiction of cavalry using crossbows, from the Catalan manuscript Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, 1086 File:Martyrium of Saint Sebastian. Pic 03.jpg\|Late medieval crossbowman from c. 1480 File:FrenchCrossbowMan.JPG\|15th-century French soldier carrying an arbalest and a pavise File:Balestra Veloce.jpg\|A reconstruction of Leonardo da Vinci's rapid fire crossbow as shown at the World of Leonardo Exhibition in Milan File:Ballista-quadrirotis.jpeg\|Early modern four-wheeled ballista drawn by armored horses (1552) File:FrenchMountedCrossbowman.JPG\|16th-century French mounted crossbowman (). His crossbow is drawn with a rack-and-pinion cranequin, so it can be used while riding. File:Crossbow pistol IMG 3841.jpg\|Pistol crossbow for home recreational shooting. Made by Frédéric Siber in Morges, early 19th century, on display at Morges military museum. File:French cross-bow grenade thrower Arbalète sauterelle type A d'Imphy circa 1915.jpg\|French cross-bow grenade thrower () type A d'Imphy, circa 1915 </gallery> Projectiles ]] The arrow-like projectiles of a crossbow are called bolts or quarrels. These are usually much shorter than arrows but can be several times heavier. There is an optimum weight for bolts to achieve maximum kinetic energy, which varies depending on the strength and characteristics of the crossbow, but most could pass through common mail. Crossbow bolts can be fitted with a variety of heads, some with sickle-shaped heads to cut rope or rigging; but the most common today is a four-sided point called a quarrel. A highly specialized type of bolt is employed to collect blubber biopsy samples used in biology research. Even relatively small differences in arrow weight can have a considerable impact on its flight trajectory and drop. Bullet-shooting crossbows are modified crossbows that use bullets or stones as projectiles. Accessories of a modern crossbow telescopic sight allows the shooter to adjust for different ranges.]] The ancient Chinese crossbow often included a metal (i.e. bronze or steel) grid serving as iron sights. Modern crossbow sights often use similar technology to modern firearm sights, such as red dot sights and telescopic sights. Many crossbow scopes feature multiple crosshairs to compensate for the significant effects of gravity over different ranges. In most cases, a newly bought crossbow will need to be sighted for accurate shooting. A major cause of the sound of shooting a crossbow is vibration of various components. Crossbow silencers are multiple components placed on high vibration parts, such as the string and limbs, to dampen vibration and suppress the sound of loosing the bolt. History China (475–221 BC)]] crossbow. China, Warring States period (475–221 BC)]] In terms of archaeological evidence, crossbow locks dated made of cast bronze have been found in China . They have also been found in Tombs 3 and 12 at Qufu, Shandong, previously the capital of Lu, and date to the 6th century BC. Bronze crossbow bolts dating from the mid-5th century BC have been found at a Chu burial site in Yutaishan, Jiangling County, Hubei Province. Other early finds of crossbows were discovered in Tomb 138 at Saobatang, Hunan Province, and date to the mid-4th century BC. It is possible that these early crossbows used spherical pellets for ammunition. A Western Han mathematician and music theorist, Jing Fang (78–37 BC), compared the moon to the shape of a round crossbow bullet. The Zhuangzi also mentions crossbow bullets. The earliest Chinese documents mentioning a crossbow were texts from the 4th to 3rd centuries BC attributed to the followers of Mozi. This source refers to the use of a giant crossbow between the 6th and 5th centuries BC, corresponding to the late Spring and Autumn period. Sun Tzu's The Art of War (first appearance dated between 500 BC to 300 BC) refers to the characteristics and use of crossbows in chapters 5 and 12 respectively, and compares a drawn crossbow to "might". The Huainanzi advises its readers not to use crossbows in marshland where the surface is soft and it is hard to arm the crossbow with the foot. The Records of the Grand Historian, completed in 94 BC, mentions that Sun Bin defeated Pang Juan by ambushing him with a battalion of crossbowmen at the Battle of Maling in 342 BC. The Book of Han, finished 111 AD, lists two military treatises on crossbows. (25–220 AD), from the Metropolitan Museum of Art.]] Handheld crossbows with complex bronze trigger mechanisms have also been found with the Terracotta Army in the tomb of Qin Shi Huang (r. 221–210 BC) that are similar to specimens from the subsequent Han dynasty (202 BC–220 AD), while crossbowmen described in the Qin and Han dynasty learned drill formations, some were even mounted as charioteers and cavalry units, and Han dynasty writers attributed the success of numerous battles against the Xiongnu and Western Regions city-states to massed crossbow volleys. The bronze triggers were designed in such a way that they were able to store a large amount of energy within the bow when drawn but was easily shot with little resistance and recoil when the trigger was pulled. The trigger nut also had a long vertical spine that could be used like a primitive rear sight for elevation adjustment, which allowed precision shooting over longer distances. The Qin and Han dynasty-era crossbow was also an early example of a modular design, as the bronze trigger components were also mass-produced with relative precise tolerances so that the parts were interchangeable between different crossbows. The trigger mechanism from one crossbow can be installed into another simply by dropping into a tiller slot of the same specifications and secured with dowel pins. Some crossbow designs were also found to be fitted with bronze buttplates and trigger guard. It is clear from surviving inventory lists in Gansu and Xinjiang that the crossbow was greatly favored by the Han dynasty. For example, in one batch of slips there are only two mentions of bows, but thirty mentions of crossbows. Crossbows were mass-produced in state armories with designs improving as time went on, such as the use of a mulberry wood stock and brass. Such crossbows during the Song Dynasty in 1068 AD could pierce a tree at 140 paces. Crossbows were used in numbers as large as 50,000 starting from the Qin dynasty and upwards of several hundred thousand during the Han. According to one authority, the crossbow had become "nothing less than the standard weapon of the Han armies", by the second century BC. Han soldiers were required to arm a crossbow with a draw weight equivalent of to qualify as an entry-level crossbowman, while it was claimed that a few elite troops were capable of arming crossbows with a draw-weight in excess of by the hands-and-feet method. After the Han dynasty, the crossbow lost favor during the Six Dynasties, until it experienced a mild resurgence during the Tang dynasty, under which the ideal expeditionary army of 20,000 included 2,200 archers and 2,000 crossbowmen. Li Jing and Li Quan prescribed 20 percent of the infantry to be armed with crossbows. During the Song dynasty, the crossbow received a huge upsurge in military usage, and often overshadowed the bow 2 to 1 in numbers. During this time period, a stirrup was added for ease of loading. The Song government attempted to restrict the public use of crossbows and sought ways to keep both body armor and crossbows out of civilian ownership. Despite the ban on certain types of crossbows, the weapon experienced an upsurge in civilian usage as both a hunting weapon and pastime. The "romantic young people from rich families, and others who had nothing particular to do" formed crossbow-shooting clubs as a way to pass time. Military crossbows were armed by treading, or basically placing the feet on the bow stave and drawing it using one's arms and back muscles. During the Song dynasty, stirrups were added for ease of drawing and to mitigate damage to the bow. Alternatively, the bow could also be drawn by a belt claw attached to the waist, but this was done lying down, as was the case for all large crossbows. Winch-drawing was used for the large mounted crossbows as seen below, but evidence for its use in Chinese hand-crossbows is scant. Southeast Asia mercenaries]] Around the third century BC, King An Dương of Âu Lạc (modern-day northern Vietnam) and (modern-day southern China) commissioned a man named Cao Lỗ (or Cao Thông) to construct a crossbow and christened it "Saintly Crossbow of the Supernaturally Luminous Golden Claw" (nỏ thần), which could kill 300 men in one shot. According to historian Keith Taylor, the crossbow, along with the word for it, seems to have been introduced into China from Austroasiatic peoples in the south around the fourth century BC. However, this is contradicted by crossbow locks found in ancient Chinese Zhou dynasty tombs dating to the 600s BC. In 315 AD, Nu Wen taught the Chams how to build fortifications and use crossbows. The Chams would later give the Chinese crossbows as presents on at least one occasion. Crossbow technology for crossbows with more than one prod was transferred from the Chinese to Champa, which Champa used in its invasion of the Khmer Empire's Angkor in 1177. When the Chams sacked Angkor they used the Chinese siege crossbow. The Chinese taught the Chams how to use crossbows and mounted archery Crossbows and archery in 1171. The Khmer also had double-bow crossbows mounted on elephants, which Michel Jacq-Hergoualc'h suggests were elements of Cham mercenaries in Jayavarman VII's army.}} The native Montagnards of Vietnam's Central Highlands were also known to have used crossbows, as both a tool for hunting, and later an effective weapon against the Viet Cong during the Vietnam War. Montagnard fighters armed with crossbows proved a highly valuable asset to the US Special Forces operating in Vietnam, and it was not uncommon for the Green Berets to integrate Montagnard crossbowmen into their strike teams. Ancient Greece ]] The earliest crossbow-like weapons in Europe probably emerged around the late 5th century BC when the gastraphetes, an ancient Greek crossbow, appeared. The name means "belly-bow"; the concave withdrawal rest at one end of the stock was placed against the belly of the operator, and he could press it to withdraw the slider before attaching a string to the trigger and loading the bolt; this could store more energy than Greek bows. The device was described by the Greek author Heron of Alexandria in his Belopoeica ("On Catapult-making"), which draws on an earlier account of his compatriot engineer Ctesibius (fl. 285–222 BC). According to Heron, the gastraphetes was the forerunner of the later catapult, which places its invention some unknown time prior to 399 BC. The gastraphetes was a crossbow mounted on a stock divided into a lower and upper section. The lower was a case fixed to the bow, and the upper was a slider which had the same dimensions as the case. It was used in the Siege of Motya in 397 BC. This was a key Carthaginian stronghold in Sicily, as described in the 1st century AD by Heron of Alexandria in his book Belopoeica. A crossbow machine, the oxybeles was in use from 375 BC to around 340 BC, when the torsion principle replaced the tension crossbow mechanism. Other arrow-shooting machines such as the larger ballista and smaller scorpio from around 338 BC are torsion catapults and are not considered crossbows. Arrow-shooting machines (katapeltai'') are briefly mentioned by Aeneas Tacticus in his treatise on siegecraft written around 350 BC. An Athenian inventory from 330 to 329 BC includes catapults bolts with heads and flights. At the same time, Greek fortifications began to feature high towers with shuttered windows in the top, presumably to house anti-personnel arrow shooters, as in Aigosthena. Ancient Rome The late 4th century author Vegetius, in his De Re Militari, describes arcubalistarii (crossbowmen) working together with archers and artillerymen. However it is disputed whether arcuballistas were crossbows or torsion-powered weapons. The idea that the arcuballista was a crossbow is due to Vegetius referring separately to it and the manuballista, which was torsion powered. Therefore, if the arcuballista was not like the manuballista, it may have been a crossbow. According to Vegetius these were well-known devices and hence he did not describe them in depth. Joseph Needham argues against the existence of Roman crossbowmen: \|Joseph Needham}} On the other hand Arrian's earlier Ars Tactica, from about 136 AD, also mentions 'missiles shot not from a bow but from a machine' and that this machine was used on horseback while in full gallop. It is presumed that this was a crossbow. The only pictorial evidence of Roman arcuballistas comes from sculptural reliefs in Roman Gaul depicting them in hunting scenes. These are aesthetically similar to both the Greek and Chinese crossbow but it is not clear what kind of release mechanism they used. Archaeological evidence suggests they were similar to the rolling nut mechanism of medieval Europe. Medieval Europe depicting two primitive crossbows without stirrups, early 12th century]] There are essentially no references to the crossbow in Europe from the 5th until the 10th century. There is however a depiction of a crossbow as a hunting weapon on four Pictish stones from early medieval Scotland (6th to 9th centuries): St. Vigeans no. 1, Glenferness, Shandwick, and Meigle. The crossbow reappeared again in 947 as a French weapon during the siege of Senlis and again in 984 at the siege of Verdun. Crossbows were used at the battle of Hastings in 1066, and by the 12th century they had become common battlefield weapons. The earliest extant European crossbow remains were found at Lake Paladru, dated to the 11th century. drawing his bow behind his pavise. A hook on the end of a strap on his belt engages the bowstring. Holding the crossbow down by putting his foot through the stirrup, he draws the bow by straightening his legs]] The crossbow superseded hand bows in many European armies during the 12th century, except in England, where the longbow was more popular. Later crossbows (sometimes referred to as arbalests), utilizing all-steel prods, were able to achieve power close (and sometime superior) to longbows but were more expensive to produce and slower to reload because they required the aid of mechanical devices such as the cranequin or windlass to draw back their extremely heavy bows. Usually these could shoot only two bolts per minute versus twelve or more with a skilled archer, often necessitating the use of a pavise (shield) to protect the operator from enemy fire. Along with polearm weapons made from farming equipment, the crossbow was also a weapon of choice for insurgent peasants such as the Taborites. Genoese crossbowmen were famous mercenaries hired throughout medieval Europe, whilst the crossbow also played an important role in anti-personnel defense of ships. , c. 1500]] Crossbows were eventually replaced in warfare by gunpowder weapons. Early hand cannons had slower rates of fire and much worse accuracy than contemporary crossbows, but the arquebus (which proliferated in the mid to late 15th century) matched crossbows' rate of fire while being far more powerful. The Battle of Cerignola in 1503 was won by Spain largely through the use of matchlock arquebuses, marking the first time a major battle had been won through the use of hand-held firearms. Later, similar competing tactics would feature harquebusiers or musketeers in formation with pikemen, pitted against cavalry firing pistols or carbines. While the military crossbow had largely been supplanted by firearms on the battlefield by 1525, the sporting crossbow in various forms remained a popular hunting weapon in Europe until the eighteenth century. The accuracy of late 15th century crossbows compares well with modern handguns, based on records of shooting competitions in German cities. Crossbows saw irregular use throughout the rest of the 16th century; for example, Maria Pita's husband was killed by a crossbowman of the English Armada in 1589. Islamic world There are no references to crossbows in Islamic texts earlier than the 14th century. Arabs in general were averse to the crossbow and considered it a foreign weapon. They called it qaus al-rijl (foot-drawn bow), qaus al-zanbūrak (bolt bow) and qaus al-faranjīyah (Frankish bow). Although Muslims did have crossbows, there seems to be a split between eastern and western types. Muslims in Spain used the typical European trigger, while eastern Muslim crossbows had a more complex trigger mechanism. Mamluk cavalry used crossbows. Elsewhere and later Oyumi were ancient Japanese artillery pieces that first appeared in the seventh century (during the Asuka period). According to Japanese records, the Oyumi was different from the handheld crossbow also in use during the same time period. A quote from a seventh-century source seems to suggest that the Oyumi may have able to fire multiple arrows at once: "the Oyumi were lined up and fired at random, the arrows fell like rain". The last recorded use of the Oyumi was in 1189. crossbows served as a scouting weapon and for hunting, with African slaves bringing this technology to natives in America. In the Southern United States, the crossbow was used for hunting and warfare when firearms or gunpowder were unavailable because of economic hardships or isolation. These are technologically similar to the African-derived crossbows, but have a different route of influence. Spanish conquistadors continued to use crossbows in the Americas long after they were replaced in European battlefields by firearms. Only in the 1570s, did firearms become completely dominant among the Spanish in the Americas. The French and the British used a crossbow-like Sauterelle (French for grasshopper) in World War I. It was lighter and more portable than the Leach Trench Catapult, but less powerful. It weighed and could throw an F1 grenade or Mills bomb . The Sauterelle replaced the Leach Catapult in British service and was in turn replaced in 1916 by the 2-inch Medium Trench Mortar and Stokes mortar. Early in the war, actual crossbows were pressed into service in small numbers by both French and German troops to launch grenades. A range of crossbows were developed by the Allied powers during the Second World War for assassinations and covert operations, but none appear to have ever been used in the field. Modern use Hunting, leisure, and science Crossbows are used for shooting sports and bowhunting in modern archery and for blubber biopsy samples in scientific research. In some countries such as Canada, they may be less heavily regulated than firearms, and thus more popular for hunting; some jurisdictions have bow and/or crossbow only seasons. <gallery> File:Crossbow Hunting.jpg\|Modern hunting crossbow File:Fish0293 - Flickr - NOAA Photo Library.jpg\|Fisheries scientist obtaining tissue samples from dolphins swimming in the bow wave of a NOAA ship File:Blubber biopsy sample.jpg\|A whale shot by a modified crossbow bolt for a blubber biopsy sample </gallery> Military and paramilitary Crossbows are no longer used in battles, but they are still used in some military applications. For example, there is an undated photograph of Peruvian soldiers equipped with crossbows and rope to establish a zip-line in difficult terrain. In Brazil, the CIGS (Jungle Warfare Training Center) also trains soldiers in the use of crossbows. In the United States, SAA International Ltd manufacture a crossbow-launched version of the U.S. Army type classified Launched Grapnel Hook (LGH), among other mine countermeasure solutions designed for the Middle Eastern theatre. It was evaluated as successful in Cambodia and Bosnia. It is used to probe for and detonate tripwire-initiated mines and booby traps at up to . The concept is similar to the LGH device originally fired from a rifle, as a plastic retrieval line is attached. Reusable up to 20 times, the line can be reeled back in without exposing the user. The device is of particular use in tactical situations where noise discipline is important. In Europe, Barnett International sold crossbows to Serbian forces which, according to The Guardian, were later used "in ambushes and as a counter-sniper weapon" against the Kosovo Liberation Army during the Kosovo War in the areas of Pec and Djakovica, south west of Kosovo. Whitehall launched an investigation, though the Department of Trade and Industry established that not being "on the military list", crossbows were not covered by export restrictions. Paul Beaver of Jane's Defence Publications commented that, "They are not only a silent killer, they also have a psychological effect". On 15 February 2008, Serbian Minister of Defence Dragan Sutanovac was pictured testing a Barnett crossbow during a public exercise of the Serbian Army's Special Forces in Nis, south of Belgrade. Special forces in both Greece and Turkey also continue to employ the crossbow. Spain's Green Berets still use the crossbow as well. In Asia, some Chinese armed forces use crossbows, including the special force Snow Leopard Commando Unit of the People's Armed Police and the People's Liberation Army. One reason for this is the crossbow's ability to stop persons carrying explosives without risk of causing detonation. During the Xinjiang riots of July 2009, Crossbows were used by security forces to suppress rioters. The Indian Navy's Marine Commando Force were equipped until the late 1980s with crossbows with cyanide-tipped bolts, as an alternative to suppressed handguns. Comparison to conventional bows With a crossbow, archers could release a draw force far in excess of what they could have handled with a bow. Furthermore, the crossbow could hold the tension indefinitely, whereas even the strongest longbowman could only hold a drawn bow for a short time. The ease of use of a crossbow allows it to be used effectively with little training, while other types of bows take far more skill to shoot accurately. The disadvantage is the greater weight and clumsiness to reload compared to a bow, as well as the slower rate of shooting and the lower efficiency of the acceleration system, but there would be reduced elastic hysteresis, making the crossbow a more accurate weapon. Medieval European crossbows had a much smaller draw length than bows, so that for the same energy to be imparted to the projectile the crossbow had to have a much higher draw weight. A direct comparison between a fast hand-drawn replica crossbow and a longbow shows a 6:10 rate of shooting or a 4:9 rate within 30 seconds and comparable weapons. Legislation thumb\|Modern competition crossbow Today, the crossbow often has a complicated legal status due to the possibility of lethal use and its similarities to both firearms and bows. While some jurisdictions treat crossbows in the same way as firearms, many others do not require any sort of license to own a crossbow. The legality of using a crossbow for hunting varies widely in different jurisdictions. See also * Master of Crossbowmen * Match crossbow * Modern competitive archery * Target archery * Bow and arrow References Citations Sources * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Payne-Gallwey, Ralph, Sir, The Crossbow: Mediaeval and Modern, Military and Sporting; its Construction, History & Management with a Treatise on the Balista and Catapult of the Ancients and An Appendix on the Catapult, Balista & the Turkish Bow, New York : Bramhall House, 1958. * * * * * * * * * External links * [http://www.iau-crossbow.org/ International Crossbow Shooting Union (IAU)] * [http://www.worldcrossbow.com/ World Crossbow Shooting Association (WCSA)] * [https://books.google.com/books?id=wXVPAAAAYAAJ The Crossbow by Sir Ralph Payne-Gallwey, BT] Category:Ancient weapons Category:Medieval weapons Category:Chinese inventions Category:Greek inventions Category:Heraldic charges Category:Bows (archery) Category:Renaissance-era weapons Category:Weapons of China Category:Weapons of Scotland	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossbow	2025-04-05T18:28:00.794117
6949	Carbamazepine	\| MedlinePlus = a682237 \| DailyMedID = Carbamazepine \| pregnancy_AU = D \| routes_of_administration = By mouth \| class Anticonvulsant \| legal_CA = Rx-only \| legal_UK = POM \| legal_US = Rx-only \| legal_US_comment \| legal_status = <!-- Rx-only where? --> <!--Pharmacokinetic data--> \|bioavailability ~100% It is used as an adjunctive treatment in schizophrenia along with other medications and as a second-line agent in bipolar disorder. It is not effective for absence or myoclonic seizures. It was first marketed in 1962. It is available as a generic medication. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. In 2020, it was the 185th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 2million prescriptions. Photoswitchable analogues of carbamazepine have been developed to control its pharmacological activity locally and on demand using light (photopharmacology), with the purpose of reducing the adverse systemic effects of the drug. One of these light-regulated compounds (carbadiazocine, based on a bridged azobenzene or diazocine) has been shown to produce analgesia with noninvasive illumination in vivo in a rat model of neuropathic pain. Medical uses )]] Carbamazepine is typically used for the treatment of seizure disorders and neuropathic pain. However, evidence does not support its usage for schizophrenia. It is not effective for absence seizures or myoclonic seizures. As of 2014, a controlled release formulation was available for which there is tentative evidence showing fewer side effects and unclear evidence with regard to whether there is a difference in efficacy. It has also been shown to improve symptoms of "typewriter tinnitus", a type of tinnitus caused by the neurovascular compression of the cochleovestibular nerve. Adverse effects In the US, the label for carbamazepine contains warnings concerning: * increased risks of suicide * increased risks of hyponatremia and SIADH * risk of seizures, if the person stops taking the drug abruptly * Pancreatitis * Hepatitis * Dizziness * Bone marrow suppression * Stevens–Johnson syndrome Common adverse effects may include drowsiness, dizziness, headaches and migraines, ataxia, nausea, vomiting, and/or constipation. Alcohol use while taking carbamazepine may lead to enhanced depression of the central nervous system. abnormal heart rhythms, blurry or double vision. Pharmacogenetics Serious skin reactions such as Stevens–Johnson syndrome (SJS) or toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN) due to carbamazepine therapy are more common in people with a particular human leukocyte antigen gene-variant (allele), HLA-B1502. HLA-B1502 occurs almost exclusively in people with ancestry across broad areas of Asia, but has a very low or absent frequency in European, Japanese, Korean and African populations. However, the HLA-A31:01 allele has been shown to be a strong predictor of both mild and severe adverse reactions, such as the DRESS form of severe cutaneous reactions, to carbamazepine among Japanese, Chinese, Korean, and Europeans. It is suggested that carbamazepine acts as a potent antigen that binds to the antigen-presenting area of HLA-B1502 alike, triggering an everlasting activation signal on immature CD8-T cells, thus resulting in widespread cytotoxic reactions like SJS/TEN. Interactions Carbamazepine has a potential for drug interactions. Drugs that decrease breaking down of carbamazepine or otherwise increase its levels include erythromycin, cimetidine, propoxyphene, and calcium channel blockers. By inhibiting mEH, valproic acid and valnoctamide cause a build-up of the active metabolite, prolonging the effects of carbamazepine and delaying its excretion. Carbamazepine, as an inducer of cytochrome P450 enzymes, may increase clearance of many drugs, decreasing their concentration in the blood to subtherapeutic levels and reducing their desired effects. Drugs that are more rapidly metabolized with carbamazepine include warfarin, lamotrigine, phenytoin, theophylline, valproic acid, and methadone. Carbamazepine also increases the metabolism of the hormones in birth control pills and can reduce their effectiveness, potentially leading to unexpected pregnancies. It binds preferentially to voltage-gated sodium channels in their inactive conformation, which prevents repetitive and sustained firing of an action potential. Carbamazepine has effects on serotonin systems but the relevance to its antiseizure effects is uncertain. There is evidence that it is a serotonin releasing agent and possibly even a serotonin reuptake inhibitor. It has been suggested that carbamazepine can also block voltage-gated calcium channels, which will reduce neurotransmitter release. Pharmacokinetics , the active metabolite • bottom: carbamazepine-10,11-diol, an inactive metabolite, which is then glucuronidized]] Carbamazepine is relatively slowly but practically completely absorbed after administration by mouth. Highest concentrations in the blood plasma are reached after 4 to 24 hours depending on the dosage form. Slow release tablets result in about 15% lower absorption and 25% lower peak plasma concentrations than ordinary tablets, as well as in less fluctuation of the concentration, but not in significantly lower minimum concentrations. In the circulation, carbamazepine itself comprises 20 to 30% of total residues. The remainder is in the form of metabolites; 70 to 80% of residues is bound to plasma proteins. Concentrations in breast milk are 25 to 60% of those in the blood plasma. It was first marketed as a drug to treat epilepsy in Switzerland in 1963 under the brand name Tegretol; its use for trigeminal neuralgia (formerly known as tic douloureux) was introduced at the same time. Society and culture Environmental impact Carbamazepine and its bio-transformation products have been detected in wastewater treatment plant effluent and in streams receiving treated wastewater. Field and laboratory studies have been conducted to understand the accumulation of carbamazepine in food plants grown in soil treated with sludge, which vary with respect to the concentrations of carbamazepine present in sludge and in the concentrations of sludge in the soil. Taking into account only studies that used concentrations commonly found in the environment, a 2014 review concluded that "the accumulation of carbamazepine into plants grown in soil amended with biosolids poses a de minimis risk to human health according to the approach." Research References Further reading * * External links * * [https://www.nhs.uk/medicines/carbamazepine/ Carbamazepine]. UK National Health Service Category:Anticonvulsants Category:Antidiuretics Category:CYP3A4 inducers Category:Dermatoxins Category:Dibenzazepines Category:Drugs developed by Novartis Category:GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulators Category:Hepatotoxins Category:Mood stabilizers Category:Prodrugs Category:Ureas Category:World Health Organization essential medicines Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbamazepine	2025-04-05T18:28:00.811963
6951	CCIR	CCIR is a four-letter abbreviation that may stand for: California Coalition for Immigration Reform, a California political advocacy group for immigration reduction Campaign for Comprehensive Immigration Reform, a Washington, DC organization for immigrant rights Canadian Centre for Investigative Reporting, produces thoroughly researched reporting in the public interest Centre for Counseling Innovation and Research (CCIR), at Kish Island, Tehran, Mashhad Comité Consultatif International pour la Radio, a forerunner of the ITU-R CCIR 601, the former name of a broadcasting standard promulgated by the CCIR CCIR-tones, a selective calling system used in some radio communications systems in some European countries CCIR-1k and CCIR-2k, noise weighting standards for audio signals Commander's critical information requirement, a term in the US military	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CCIR	2025-04-05T18:28:00.813448
6955	Chalcedonian Definition	The Chalcedonian Definition (also called the Chalcedonian Creed or the Definition of Chalcedon) is the declaration of the dyophysitism of Christ's nature, adopted at the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451. Chalcedon was an early centre of Christianity located in Asia Minor. The council was the fourth of the ecumenical councils that are accepted by Chalcedonian churches which include the Catholic and Orthodox churches. It was the first council not to be recognised by any Oriental Orthodox church; for this reason these churches may be classified as Non-Chalcedonian. Context The Council of Chalcedon was summoned to consider the Christological question in light of the "one-nature" view of Christ proposed by Eutyches, archimandrite at Constantinople, which prevailed at the Second Council of Ephesus in 449, sometimes referred to as the "Robber Synod". References Sources * * * * * * * * * * * * * External links [http://www.earlychurchtexts.com/main/chalcedon/chalcedonian_definition.shtml The Chalcedonian Creed in Greek at www.earlychurchtexts.com.] (with dictionary lookup links) [https://www.theopedia.com/chalcedonian-creed Definition of Chalcedon] Category:5th-century Christian texts Category:Christian statements of faith Category:Christology Category:Christian terminology Category:Nature of Jesus Christ	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcedonian_Definition	2025-04-05T18:28:00.819895
6956	Conservation law	In physics, a conservation law states that a particular measurable property of an isolated physical system does not change as the system evolves over time. Exact conservation laws include conservation of mass-energy, conservation of linear momentum, conservation of angular momentum, and conservation of electric charge. There are also many approximate conservation laws, which apply to such quantities as mass, parity, lepton number, baryon number, strangeness, hypercharge, etc. These quantities are conserved in certain classes of physics processes, but not in all. A local conservation law is usually expressed mathematically as a continuity equation, a partial differential equation which gives a relation between the amount of the quantity and the "transport" of that quantity. It states that the amount of the conserved quantity at a point or within a volume can only change by the amount of the quantity which flows in or out of the volume. From Noether's theorem, every differentiable symmetry leads to a conservation law. Other conserved quantities can exist as well. Conservation laws as fundamental laws of nature Conservation laws are fundamental to our understanding of the physical world, in that they describe which processes can or cannot occur in nature. For example, the conservation law of energy states that the total quantity of energy in an isolated system does not change, though it may change form. In general, the total quantity of the property governed by that law remains unchanged during physical processes. With respect to classical physics, conservation laws include conservation of energy, mass (or matter), linear momentum, angular momentum, and electric charge. With respect to particle physics, particles cannot be created or destroyed except in pairs, where one is ordinary and the other is an antiparticle. With respect to symmetries and invariance principles, three special conservation laws have been described, associated with inversion or reversal of space, time, and charge. Conservation laws are considered to be fundamental laws of nature, with broad application in physics, as well as in other fields such as chemistry, biology, geology, and engineering. Most conservation laws are exact, or absolute, in the sense that they apply to all possible processes. Some conservation laws are partial, in that they hold for some processes but not for others. One particularly important result concerning conservation laws is Noether's theorem, which states that there is a one-to-one correspondence between each one of them and a differentiable symmetry of the Universe. For example, the conservation of energy follows from the uniformity of time and the conservation of angular momentum arises from the isotropy of space, i.e. because there is no preferred direction of space. Notably, there is no conservation law associated with time-reversal, although more complex conservation laws combining time-reversal with other symmetries are known. Exact laws A partial listing of physical conservation equations due to symmetry that are said to be exact laws, or more precisely have never been proven to be violated: Conservation law Respective Noether symmetry invariance Number of independent parameters (i.e. dimension of phase space) Conservation of mass-energy E Time-translation invariance Poincaré invariance 1 translation of time along t-axis Conservation of linear momentum p Space-translation invariance 3 translation of space along x,y,z axes Conservation of angular momentum L r × p Rotation invariance 3 rotation of space about x,y,z axes Conservation of boost 3-vector N tp - Er Lorentz-boost invariance 3 Lorentz-boost of space-time along x,y,z axes Conservation of electric charge U(1)Q Gauge invariance 1 translation of electrodynamic scalar potential field along V-axis (in phase space) Conservation of color charge SU(3)C Gauge invariance 3 translation of chromodynamic potential field along r,g,b-axes (in phase space) Conservation of weak isospin SU(2)L Gauge invariance 1 translation of weak potential field along axis in phase spaceConservation of the difference between baryon and lepton numbers B - LU(1)B-L Gauge invariance1 Another exact symmetry is CPT symmetry, the simultaneous inversion of space and time coordinates, together with swapping all particles with their antiparticles; however being a discrete symmetry Noether's theorem does not apply to it. Accordingly, the conserved quantity, CPT parity, can usually not be meaningfully calculated or determined. Approximate laws There are also approximate conservation laws. These are approximately true in particular situations, such as low speeds, short time scales, or certain interactions. Conservation of mechanical energy Conservation of mass (approximately true for nonrelativistic speeds) Conservation of baryon number (See chiral anomaly and sphaleron) Conservation of lepton number (In the Standard Model) Conservation of flavor (violated by the weak interaction) Conservation of strangeness (violated by the weak interaction) Conservation of space-parity (violated by the weak interaction) Conservation of charge-parity (violated by the weak interaction) Conservation of time-parity (violated by the weak interaction) Conservation of CP parity (violated by the weak interaction); in the Standard Model, this is equivalent to conservation of time-parity. Global and local conservation laws The total amount of some conserved quantity in the universe could remain unchanged if an equal amount were to appear at one point A and simultaneously disappear from another separate point B. For example, an amount of energy could appear on Earth without changing the total amount in the Universe if the same amount of energy were to disappear from some other region of the Universe. This weak form of "global" conservation is really not a conservation law because it is not Lorentz invariant, so phenomena like the above do not occur in nature. Due to special relativity, if the appearance of the energy at A and disappearance of the energy at B are simultaneous in one inertial reference frame, they will not be simultaneous in other inertial reference frames moving with respect to the first. In a moving frame one will occur before the other; either the energy at A will appear before or after the energy at B disappears. In both cases, during the interval energy will not be conserved. A stronger form of conservation law requires that, for the amount of a conserved quantity at a point to change, there must be a flow, or flux of the quantity into or out of the point. For example, the amount of electric charge at a point is never found to change without an electric current into or out of the point that carries the difference in charge. Since it only involves continuous local changes, this stronger type of conservation law is Lorentz invariant; a quantity conserved in one reference frame is conserved in all moving reference frames. y_t + A(y) y_x = 0 where the dependent variable is called the density of a conserved quantity, and is called the current Jacobian, and the subscript notation for partial derivatives has been employed. The more general inhomogeneous case: y_t + A(y) y_x = s is not a conservation equation but the general kind of balance equation describing a dissipative system. The dependent variable is called a nonconserved quantity, and the inhomogeneous term is the-source, or dissipation. For example, balance equations of this kind are the momentum and energy Navier-Stokes equations, or the entropy balance for a general isolated system. In the one-dimensional space a conservation equation is a first-order quasilinear hyperbolic equation that can be put into the advection form: y_t + a(y) y_x = 0 where the dependent variable is called the density of the conserved (scalar) quantity, and is called the current coefficient, usually corresponding to the partial derivative in the conserved quantity of a current density of the conserved quantity : a(y) = j_y (y) In this case since the chain rule applies: j_x j_y (y) y_x a(y) y_x the conservation equation can be put into the current density form: y_t + j_x (y) = 0 In a space with more than one dimension the former definition can be extended to an equation that can be put into the form: y_t + \mathbf a(y) \cdot \nabla y = 0 where the conserved quantity is , denotes the scalar product, is the nabla operator, here indicating a gradient, and is a vector of current coefficients, analogously corresponding to the divergence of a vector current density associated to the conserved quantity : y_t + \nabla \cdot \mathbf j(y) = 0 This is the case for the continuity equation: \rho_t + \nabla \cdot (\rho \mathbf u) = 0 Here the conserved quantity is the mass, with density and current density , identical to the momentum density, while is the flow velocity. In the general case a conservation equation can be also a system of this kind of equations (a vector equation) in the form: \mathbf y_t + \mathbf A(\mathbf y) \cdot \nabla \mathbf y = \mathbf 0 where is called the conserved (vector) quantity, is its gradient, is the zero vector, and is called the Jacobian of the current density. In fact as in the former scalar case, also in the vector case A(y) usually corresponding to the Jacobian of a current density matrix : \mathbf A( \mathbf y) = \mathbf J_{\mathbf y} (\mathbf y) and the conservation equation can be put into the form: \mathbf y_t + \nabla \cdot \mathbf J (\mathbf y)= \mathbf 0 For example, this the case for Euler equations (fluid dynamics). In the simple incompressible case they are: \nabla\cdot \mathbf u = 0 \, , \qquad \frac{\partial \mathbf u}{\partial t} + \mathbf u \cdot \nabla \mathbf u + \nabla s = \mathbf{0}, where: is the flow velocity vector, with components in a N-dimensional space , is the specific pressure (pressure per unit density) giving the source term, It can be shown that the conserved (vector) quantity and the current density matrix for these equations are respectively: {\mathbf y} = \begin{pmatrix} 1 \\ \mathbf u \end{pmatrix}; \qquad {\mathbf J} = \begin{pmatrix}\mathbf u\\ \mathbf u \otimes \mathbf u + s \mathbf I\end{pmatrix};\qquad where \otimes denotes the outer product. Integral and weak forms Conservation equations can usually also be expressed in integral form: the advantage of the latter is substantially that it requires less smoothness of the solution, which paves the way to weak form, extending the class of admissible solutions to include discontinuous solutions. By integrating in any space-time domain the current density form in 1-D space: y_t + j_x (y)= 0 and by using Green's theorem, the integral form is: \int_{- \infty}^\infty y \, dx + \int_0^\infty j (y) \, dt = 0 In a similar fashion, for the scalar multidimensional space, the integral form is: \oint \left[y \, d^N r + j (y) \, dt\right] = 0 where the line integration is performed along the boundary of the domain, in an anticlockwise manner. Moreover, by defining a test function φ(r,t) continuously differentiable both in time and space with compact support, the weak form can be obtained pivoting on the initial condition. In 1-D space it is: \int_0^\infty \int_{-\infty}^\infty \phi_t y + \phi_x j(y) \,dx \,dt = - \int_{-\infty}^\infty \phi(x,0) y(x,0) \, dx In the weak form all the partial derivatives of the density and current density have been passed on to the test function, which with the former hypothesis is sufficiently smooth to admit these derivatives. See also Invariant (physics) Momentum Cauchy momentum equation Energy Conservation of energy and the First law of thermodynamics Conservative system Conserved quantity Some kinds of helicity are conserved in dissipationless limit: hydrodynamical helicity, magnetic helicity, cross-helicity. Principle of mutability Conservation law of the Stress–energy tensor Riemann invariant Philosophy of physics Totalitarian principle Convection–diffusion equation Uniformity of nature Examples and applications Advection Mass conservation, or Continuity equation Charge conservation Euler equations (fluid dynamics) inviscid Burgers equation Kinematic wave Conservation of energy Traffic flow Notes References Philipson, Schuster, Modeling by Nonlinear Differential Equations: Dissipative and Conservative Processes, World Scientific Publishing Company 2009. Victor J. Stenger, 2000. Timeless Reality: Symmetry, Simplicity, and Multiple Universes. Buffalo NY: Prometheus Books. Chpt. 12 is a gentle introduction to symmetry, invariance, and conservation laws. E. Godlewski and P.A. Raviart, Hyperbolic systems of conservation laws, Ellipses, 1991. External links Conservation Laws – Ch. 11–15 in an online textbook Category:Scientific laws Category:Symmetry Category:Thermodynamic systems	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_law	2025-04-05T18:28:00.852598
6959	Chord	Chord or chords may refer to: Art and music Chord (music), an aggregate of musical pitches sounded simultaneously Guitar chord, a chord played on a guitar, which has a particular tuning The Chords (British band), 1970s British mod revival band The Chords (American band), 1950s American doo-wop group The Chord (painting), a c.1715 painting by Antoine Watteau Andrew Chord, a comic book character who is the former mentor of the New Warriors Mathematics Chord (geometry), a line segment joining two points on a curve Chord (graph theory), an edge joining two nonadjacent nodes in a cycle People Chord Overstreet, American actor and musician Chords (musician), a Swedish hiphop/reggae artist Programming Chord (concurrency), a concurrency construct in some object-oriented programming languages Chord (peer-to-peer), a peer-to-peer protocol and algorithm for distributed hash tables (DHT) Science and technology Chord (astronomy), a line crossing a foreground astronomical object during an occultation which gives an indication of the object's size and/or shape Canadian Hydrogen Observatory and Radio-transient Detector (CHORD), a proposed successor to the CHIME radio telescope Chord (aeronautics), the distance between the front and back of a wing, measured in the direction of the normal airflow. The term chord was selected due to the curved nature of the wing's surface Chord in truss construction – an outside member of a truss, as opposed to the inner "webbed members" In British railway terminology, a chord can refer to a short curve of track connecting two otherwise unconnected railway lines. Mouse chording, the capability to perform an action when holding multiple buttons on a computer mouse. Chord keyboard, a computer device allowing for input based on pressing multiple keys simultaneously See also Animal taxonomy chordate (chordata) and eponymous notochord Cord (disambiguation)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chord	2025-04-05T18:28:00.856284
6960	Car Talk	\| country = United States \| language = English \| home_station = WBUR-FM \| syndicates = National Public Radio (NPR) \| first_aired = 1977 (WBUR-FM); 1987 (nationally) \| last_aired = 2012 (original episodes) \| website = \| podcast = [https://www.cartalk.com/radio/our-show www.cartalk.com/radio/our-show] }} Car Talk is a metonym for the humorous work of "Click and Clack, the Tappet Brothers", Tom and Ray Magliozzi, on automobile repair. Originally, Car Talk was a radio show that ran on National Public Radio (NPR) from 1977 until October 2012, when the Magliozzi brothers retired. Since their retirement, the oeuvre now includes a website, and a podcast of reruns that is currently hosted by Apple Podcasts, NPR Podcasts, and Sticher. The Car Talk radio show was honored with a Peabody Award in 1992, and the Magliozzis were both inducted into the National Radio Hall of Fame in 2014 and the Automotive Hall of Fame in 2018. Premise Car Talk was presented in the form of a call-in radio show: listeners called in with questions related to motor vehicle maintenance and repair. Most of the advice sought was diagnostic, with callers describing symptoms and demonstrating sounds of an ailing vehicle while the Magliozzis made an attempt to identify the malfunction over the telephone and give advice on how to fix it. While the hosts peppered their call-in sessions with jokes directed at both the caller and at themselves, the Magliozzis were usually able to arrive at a diagnosis. However, when they were stumped, they attempted anyway with an answer they claimed was "unencumbered by the thought process", the official motto of the show. Edited reruns are carried on XM Satellite Radio (now Sirius XM) via both the Public Radio and NPR Now channels. The Car Talk theme music is "Dawggy Mountain Breakdown" by bluegrass artist David Grisman.Call-in procedureThroughout the program, listeners were encouraged to dial the toll-free telephone number, 1-888-CAR-TALK (1-888-227-8255), which connected to a 24-hour answering service. Although the approximately 2,000 queries received each week were screened by the Car Talk staff, the questions were unknown to the Magliozzis in advance as "that would entail researching the right answer, which is what? ... Work."<span class"anchor" id"ThirdHalf"></span> Features The show originally consisted of two segments with a break in between but was changed to three segments. After the shift to the three-segment format, it became a running joke to refer to the last segment as "the third half" of the program. The show opened with a short comedy segment, typically jokes sent in by listeners, followed by eight call-in sessions. The hosts ran a contest called the "Puzzler", in which a riddle, sometimes car-related, was presented. The answer to the previous week's "Puzzler" was given at the beginning of the "second half" of the show, and a new "Puzzler" was given at the start of the "third half". The hosts gave instructions to listeners to write answers addressed to "Puzzler Tower" on some non-existent or expensive object, such as a "$26 bill" or an advanced digital SLR camera. This gag initially started as suggestions that the answers be written "on the back of a $20 bill". A running gag concerned Tom's inability to remember the previous week's "Puzzler" without heavy prompting from Ray. During a tribute show following Tom's death in 2014 due to complications of Alzheimer's disease, Ray joked, "I guess he wasn't joking about not being able to remember the puzzler all those years." For each puzzler, one correct answer was chosen at random, with the winner receiving a $26 gift certificate to the Car Talk store, referred to as the "Shameless Commerce Division". It was originally $25, but was increased for inflation after a few years. Originally, the winner received a specific item from the store, but it soon changed to a gift certificate to allow the winner to choose the item they wanted (though Tom often made an item suggestion). A recurring feature was "Stump the Chumps," in which the hosts revisited a caller from a previous show to determine the accuracy and the effect, if any, of their advice. A similar feature began in May 2001, "Where Are They Now, Tommy?" It began with a comical musical theme with a sputtering, backfiring car engine and a horn as a backdrop. Tom then announced who the previous caller was, followed by a short replay of the essence of the previous call, preceded and followed by harp music often used in other audiovisual media to indicate recalling and returning from a dream. The hosts then greeted the previous caller, confirmed that they had not spoken since their previous appearance and asked them if there had been any influences on the answer they were about to relate, such as arcane bribes by the NPR staff. The repair story was then discussed, followed by a fanfare and applause if the Tappet Brothers' diagnosis was correct, or a wah-wah-wah music piece mixed with a car starter operated by a weak battery (an engine which wouldn't start) if the diagnosis was wrong. The hosts then thanked the caller for their return appearance. The brothers also had an official Animal-Vehicle Biologist and Wildlife Guru named Kieran Lindsey. She answered questions like "How do I remove a snake from my car?" and offered advice on how those living in cities and suburbs could reconnect with wildlife. They also would sometimes rely on Harvard University professors Wolfgang Rueckner and Jim E. Davis for questions concerning physics and chemistry, respectively. There were numerous appearances from NPR personalities, including Bob Edwards, Susan Stamberg, Scott Simon, Ray Suarez, Will Shortz, Sylvia Poggioli, and commentator and author Daniel Pinkwater. On one occasion, the show featured Martha Stewart as an in-studio guest, whom the Magliozzis twice during the segment referred to as "Margaret". Celebrities and public figures were featured as "callers" as well, including Geena Davis, Ashley Judd, Morley Safer, Gordon Elliott, former Major League Baseball pitcher Bill Lee, journalist Farhad Manjoo, and astronaut John M. Grunsfeld. Space program calls Astronaut and engineer John Grunsfeld called into the show during Space Shuttle mission STS-81 in January 1997, in which Atlantis docked to the Mir space station. In this call he complained about the performance of his serial-numbered, Rockwell-manufactured "government van". To wit, it would run very loud and rough for about two minutes, quieter and smoother for another six and a half, and then the engine would stop with a jolt. He went on to state that the brakes of the vehicle, when applied, would glow red-hot, and that the vehicle's odometer displayed "about 60 million miles". This created some consternation for the hosts, until they noticed the audio of Grunsfeld's voice, being relayed from Mir via TDRS satellite, sounded similar to that of Tom Hanks in the then-recent film Apollo 13, after which they realized the call was from space and the government van in question was, in fact, the Space Shuttle. In addition to the on-orbit call, the Brothers once received a call asking advice on winterizing an electric car. When they asked what kind of car, the caller stated it was a "kit car", a $400 million "kit car". It was a joke call from NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory concerning the preparation of the Mars Opportunity rover for the oncoming Martian winter, during which temperatures drop to several hundred degrees below freezing. Click and Clack have also been featured in editorial cartoons, including one where a befuddled NASA engineer called them to ask how to fix the Space Shuttle.Humor Humor and wisecracking pervaded the program. Tom and Ray are known for their self-deprecating humor, often joking about the supposedly poor quality of their advice and the show in general. They also commented at the end of each show: "Well, it's happened again—you've wasted another perfectly good hour listening to Car Talk." The phrase "our fair city" was introduced during a puzzler segment on the radio show. Ray presented a puzzler involving a well-dressed man who referred to a city as "your fair city." Tom found the phrase amusing and began using it humorously to refer to Cambridge, Massachusetts, where the show was based. This playful reference quickly became a running joke on the show, with the hosts frequently referring to Cambridge as "our fair city" in subsequent episodes. In another episode Ray mentioned Cambridge, Massachusetts, at which point Tom reverently interjected with a tone of civic pride, "Our fair city". Ray invariably mocked Cambridge, MA', the United States Postal Service's two-letter abbreviation for 'Massachusetts, by pronouncing the "MA" as a word.. This also became a running gag. Preceding each break in the show, one of the hosts led up to the network identification with a humorous take on a disgusted reaction of some usually famous person to hearing that identification. The full line went along the pattern of, for example, "And even though Roger Clemens stabs his radio with a syringe whenever he hears us say it, this is NPR: National Public Radio" (later just "... this is NPR"). At one point in the show, often after the break, Ray usually stated that: "Support for this show is provided by," followed by an absurd fundraiser. The ending credits of the show started with thanks to the colorfully nicknamed actual staffers: producer Doug "the subway fugitive, not a slave to fashion, bongo boy frogman" Berman; "John 'Bugsy' Lawlor, just back from the ..." every week a different eating event with rhyming foodstuff names; David "Calves of Belleville" Greene; Catherine "Frau Blücher" Fenollosa, whose name caused a horse to neigh and gallop (an allusion to a running gag in the movie Young Frankenstein); and Carly "High Voltage" Nix, among others. Following the real staff was a lengthy list of pun-filled fictional staffers and sponsors such as statistician Marge Innovera ("margin of error"), customer care representative Haywood Jabuzoff ("Hey, would ya buzz off"), meteorologist Claudio Vernight ("cloudy overnight"), optometric firm C. F. Eye Care ("see if I care"), Russian chauffeur Picov Andropov ("pick up and drop off"), Leo Tolstoy biographer Warren Peace ("War and Peace"), hygiene officer and chief of the Tokyo office Oteka Shawa ("oh, take a shower"), Swedish snowboard instructor Soren Derkeister ("sore in the keister"), law firm Dewey, Cheetham & Howe ("Do we cheat 'em? And how!"), Greek tailor Euripides Eumenades ("You rip-a these, you mend-a these"), cloakroom attendant Mahatma Coate ("My hat, my coat"), seat cushion tester Mike Easter (my keister) and many, many others, usually concluding with Erasmus B. Dragon ("Her ass must be draggin), whose job title varied, but who was often said to be head of the show's working mothers' support group. They sometimes advised that "our chief counsel from the law firm of Dewey, Cheetham, & Howe is Hugh Louis Dewey, known to a group of people in Harvard Square as Huey Louie Dewey." (Huey, Louie, and Dewey were the juvenile nephews being raised by Donald Duck in ''Walt Disney's Comics and Stories''.) Guest accommodations were provided by The Horseshoe Road Inn ("the horse you rode in"). At the end of the show, Ray warns the audience, "Don't drive like my brother!" to which Tom replies, "And don't drive like my brother!" The original tag line was "Don't drive like a knucklehead!" There were variations such as, "Don't drive like my brother ..." "And don't drive like his brother!" and "Don't drive like my sister ..." "And don't drive like my sister!" The tagline was heard in the Pixar film Cars, in which Tom and Ray voiced anthropomorphized vehicles (Rusty and Dusty Rust-eze, respectively a 1963 Dodge Dart and 1963 Dodge A100 van, as Lightning McQueen's racing sponsors) with personalities similar to their own on-air personae. Tom notoriously once owned a "convertible, green with large areas of rust!" Dodge Dart, known jokingly on the program by the faux-elegant name "Dartre".HistoryIn 1977, radio station WBUR-FM in Boston scheduled a panel of local car mechanics to discuss car repairs on one of its programs, but only Tom Magliozzi showed up. He did so well that he was asked to return as a guest, and he invited his younger brother Ray (who was actually more of a car repair expert) to join him. The brothers were soon asked to host their own radio show on WBUR, which they continued to do every week. In 1986, NPR decided to distribute their show nationally. In 1989, the brothers started a newspaper column Click and Clack Talk Cars which, like the radio show, mixed serious advice with humor. King Features distributes the column. Ray Magliozzi continues to write the column, retitled Car Talk, after his brother's death in 2014, knowing he would have wanted the advice and humor to continue. In 1992, Car Talk won a Peabody Award, saying "Each week, master mechanics Tom and Ray Magliozzi provide useful information about preserving and protecting our cars. But the real core of this program is what it tells us about human mechanics ... The insight and laughter provided by Messrs. Magliozzi, in conjunction with their producer Doug Berman, provide a weekly mental tune-up for a vast and ever-growing public radio audience." Since the Car Talk Vehicle Donation Program was founded, over 40,000 vehicles have been donated to support local NPR stations and programs, with over $40 million donated. Approximately 70% of the proceeds generated go directly toward funding local NPR affiliates and programs. As of 2012, it had 3.3 million listeners each week, on about 660 stations. On June 8, 2012, the brothers announced that they would no longer broadcast new episodes as of October. Executive producer Doug Berman said the best material from 25 years of past shows would be used to put together "repurposed" shows for NPR to broadcast. Berman estimated the archives contain enough for eight years' worth of material before anything would have to be repeated. Ray Magliozzi, however, would occasionally record new taglines and sponsor announcements that were aired at the end of the show. The show was inducted into the National Radio Hall of Fame in 2014. Ray Magliozzi hosted a special Car Talk memorial episode for his brother Tom after he died in November 2014. The Best of Car Talk episodes ended their weekly broadcast on NPR on September 30, 2017, although past episodes would continue availability online and via podcasts. 120 of the 400 stations intended to continue airing the show. NPR announced one option for the time slot would be their new news-talk program ''It's Been a Minute. that radio distribution of Car Talk'' would officially end on October 1, 2021, and that NPR would begin distribution of a twice-weekly podcast that will be 35–40 minutes in length and include early versions of every show, in sequential order. Hosts , Cambridge, Massachusetts.]] The Magliozzis were long-time auto mechanics. Ray Magliozzi has a Bachelor of Science degree in humanities and science from MIT, while Tom had a Bachelor of Science degree in economics from MIT, an MBA from Northeastern University, and a DBA from the Boston University School of Management. The Magliozzis operated a do-it-yourself garage together in the 1970s which became more of a conventional repair shop in the 1980s. Ray continued to have a hand in the day-to-day operations of the shop for years, while his brother Tom semi-retired, often joking on Car Talk about his distaste for doing "actual work". The show's offices were located near their shop at the corner of JFK Street and Brattle Street in Harvard Square, marked as "Dewey, Cheetham & Howe", the imaginary law firm to which they referred on-air. DC&H doubled as the business name of Tappet Brothers Associates, the corporation established to manage the business end of Car Talk. Initially a joke, the company was incorporated after the show expanded from a single station to national syndication. The two were commencement speakers at MIT in 1999. Executive producer Doug Berman said in 2012, "The guys are culturally right up there with Mark Twain and the Marx Brothers. They will stand the test of time. People will still be enjoying them years from now. They're that good."AdaptationsThe show was the inspiration for the short-lived The George Wendt Show, which briefly aired on CBS in the 1994–1995 season as a mid-season replacement. In July 2007, PBS announced that it had green-lit an animated adaptation of Car Talk, to air on prime-time in 2008. The show, titled ''Click and Clack's As the Wrench Turns'', is based on the adventures of the fictional "Click and Clack" brothers' garage at "Car Talk Plaza". The ten episodes aired in July and August 2008. Car Talk: The Musical!!! was written and directed by Wesley Savick, and composed by Michael Wartofsky. The adaptation was presented by Suffolk University, and opened on March 31, 2011, at the Modern Theatre in Boston, Massachusetts. The play was not officially endorsed by the Magliozzis, but they participated in the production, lending their voices to a central puppet character named "The Wizard of Cahs".ReferencesFurther reading* External links * * [https://www.cartalk.com/radio/our-show#listening Car Talk Podcast] Category:1970s American radio programs Category:1977 radio programme debuts Category:1980s American radio programs Category:1990s American radio programs Category:2000s American radio programs Category:2010s American radio programs Category:2012 radio programme endings Category:American talk radio programs Category:Cambridge, Massachusetts Category:Mass media in Boston Category:Motor vehicle maintenance Category:NPR programs Category:Peabody Award–winning radio programs	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Car_Talk	2025-04-05T18:28:00.874912
6962	Council of Chalcedon	\| image = Fourth ecumenical council of chalcedon - 1876.jpg \| caption = Fourth Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon, 1876 painting by Vasily Surikov \| accepted_by = * Eastern Orthodox Church * Church of the East}} \| previous = Council of Ephesus \| next = Second Council of Constantinople \| convoked_by = Emperor Marcian \| presided_by = \| attendance = About 520 bishops or representatives \| topics = The judgements issued at the Second Council of Ephesus, alleged offences of Bishop Dioscorus of Alexandria, the definition of the Godhead and manhood of Christ, many disputes involving particular bishops and sees \| documents = Chalcedonian Creed, 28 canons }} The Council of Chalcedon (; ), }} was the fourth ecumenical council of the Christian Church. It was convoked by the Roman emperor Marcian. The council convened in the city of Chalcedon, Bithynia (modern-day Kadıköy, Istanbul, Turkey) from 8 October to 1 November 451. The council was attended by over 520 bishops or their representatives, making it the largest and best-documented of the first seven ecumenical councils. Such doctrines viewed Christ's divine and human natures as separate (Nestorianism) or viewed Christ as solely divine (monophysitism). Agenda The ruling of the council stated: Whilst this judgment marked a significant turning point in the Christological debates, it also generated heated disagreements between the council and the Oriental Orthodox Church, who did not agree with such conduct or proceedings. This disagreement would later inform the separation of the Oriental Orthodox Churches from the rest of Christianity, and led to the council being regarded as Chalcedon, the Ominous. and approving statements of belief such as the Creed of Nicaea (325), the Creed of Constantinople (381, subsequently known as the Nicene Creed), two letters of St. Cyril of Alexandria against Nestorius, and the Tome of Pope Leo I. Background In 325, the first ecumenical council (First Council of Nicaea) determined that Jesus Christ was God, "consubstantial" with the Father, and rejected the Arian contention that Jesus was a created being. This was reaffirmed at the First Council of Constantinople (381) and the First Council of Ephesus (431). Eutychian controversy About two years after Cyril of Alexandria's death in 444, an aged monk from Constantinople named Eutyches began teaching a subtle variation on the traditional Christology in an attempt to stop what he saw as a new outbreak of Nestorianism. He claimed to be a faithful follower of Cyril's teaching, which was declared orthodox in the Union of 433. Cyril had taught that "There is only one physis, since it is the Incarnation, of God the Word." Cyril apparently thought that the Greek word physis meant approximately what the Latin word persona (person) means, while most Greek theologians would have interpreted that word to mean natura (nature). The energy and imprudence with which Eutyches asserted his opinions led to his being misunderstood. Thus, many believed that Eutyches was advocating Docetism, a sort of reversal of Arianism – where Arius had denied the consubstantial divinity of Jesus, Eutyches seemed to be denying that Jesus was fully human. Eusebius demanded that Eutyches be removed from office. Flavian preferred that the bishop and the archimandrite sort out their differences, but as his suggestion went unheeded, Eutyches was summoned to clarify his position regarding the nature of Christ. Eventually Eutyches reluctantly appeared, but his position was considered to be theologically unsophisticated, and the synod finding his answers unresponsive condemned and exiled him. Eutyches appealed against the decision, labeling Flavian a Nestorian, and received the support of Pope Dioscorus I of Alexandria. John Anthony McGuckin sees an "innate rivalry" between the Sees of Alexandria and Constantinople. Dioscurus, imitating his predecessors in assuming a primacy over Constantinople, held his own synod which annulled the sentence of Flavian, and absolved Eutyches. Latrocinium of Ephesus Through the influence of the court official Chrysaphius, godson of Eutyches, in 449, the competing claims between the Patriarchs of Constantinople and Alexandria led Emperor Theodosius II to call a council which was held in Ephesus in 449, with Dioscorus presiding. Pope Leo sent four legates to represent him and expressed his regret that the shortness of the notice must prevent the presence of any other bishop of the West. On August 8, 449 the Second Council of Ephesus began its first session. The Acts of the first session of this synod were read at the Council of Chalcedon, 451, and are thus preserved. The remainder of the Acts (the first session being wanting) are known through a Syriac translation by a Miaphysite monk, written in the year 535 and published from a manuscript in the British Museum. Nonetheless, there are somewhat different interpretations as to what actually transpired. The question before the council by order of the emperor was whether Flavian, in a synod held by him at Constantinople in November, 448, had justly deposed and excommunicated the Archimandrite Eutyches for refusing to admit two natures in Christ. Dioscorus began the council by banning all members of the November 448 synod which had deposed Eutyches from sitting as judges. He then introduced Eutyches who publicly professed that while Christ had two natures before the incarnation, the two natures had merged to form a single nature after the incarnation. Of the 130 assembled bishops, 111 voted to rehabilitate Eutyches. Throughout these proceedings, Hilary (one of the papal legates) repeatedly called for the reading of Leo's Tome, but was ignored. The Eastern Orthodox Church has very different accounts of The Second Council of Ephesus. Pope Dioscorus requested deferring reading of Leo's Tome, as it was not seen as necessary to start with, and could be read later. This was seen as a rebuke to the representatives from the Church of Rome not reading the Tome from the start. Dioscorus then moved to depose Flavian of Constantinople and Eusebius of Dorylaeum on the grounds that they taught the Word had been made flesh and not just assumed flesh from the Virgin and that Christ had two natures. When Flavian and Hilary objected, Dioscorus called for a pro-monophysite mob to enter the church which assaulted Flavian as he clung to the altar. Flavian died three days later. Dioscorus then placed Eusebius of Dorylaeum under arrest and demanded the assembled bishops approve his actions. Fearing the mob, they all did. The papal legates refused to attend the second session at which several more orthodox bishops were deposed, including Ibas of Edessa, Irenaeus of Tyre, Domnus of Antioch, and Theodoret. Dioscorus then had Cyril of Alexandria's Twelve Anathemas declared orthodox with the intent of condemning any confession other than one nature in Christ. According to a letter to the Empress Pulcheria collected among the letters of Leo I, Hilary apologized for not delivering to her the pope's letter after the synod, but owing to Dioscurus, who tried to hinder his going either to Rome or to Constantinople, he had great difficulty in making his escape in order to bring to the pontiff the news of the result of the council. Hilary, who later became pope and dedicated an oratory in the Lateran Basilica in thanks for his life, managed to escape from Constantinople and brought news of the council to Leo who immediately dubbed it a "synod of robbers"Latrociniumand refused to accept its pronouncements. The decisions of this council now threatened schism between the East and the West. The claims that bishops being forced to approve actions, were challenged by Pope Dioscorus and the Egyptian Bishops at Chalcedon. Convocation and session , c. 1502]] The situation continued to deteriorate, with Leo demanding the convocation of a new council and Emperor Theodosius II refusing to budge, all the while appointing bishops in agreement with Dioscorus. All this changed dramatically with the Emperor's death and the elevation of Marcian to the imperial throne. To resolve the simmering tensions, Marcian announced his intention to hold a new council to set aside the 449 Second Council of Ephesus which was named the "Latrocinium" or "Robber Council" by Pope Leo. Pulcheria, the sister of Theodosius, may have influenced this decision, or even made the convention of a council a requirement during her negotiations with Aspar, the magister militum, to marry Marcian. Leo had pressed for it to take place in Italy, but Emperor Marcian instead called for it to convene at Chalcedon, because it was closer to Constantinople, and would thus allow him to respond quickly to any events along the Danube, which was being raided by the Huns under Attila. The council opened on 8 October 451. Marcian had the bishops deposed by Dioscorus returned to their dioceses and had the body of Flavian brought to the capital to be buried honorably. The Emperor asked Leo to preside over the council, but Leo again chose to send legates in his place. This time, Bishops Paschasinus of Lilybaeum and Julian of Cos and two priests Boniface and Basil represented the western church at the council. The council was attended by about 520 bishops or their representatives and was the largest and best-documented of the first seven ecumenical councils. All the sessions were held in the church of St. Euphemia, Martyr, outside the city and directly opposite Constantinople. As to the number of sessions held by the Council of Chalcedon there is a great discrepancy in the various texts of the Acts, also in the ancient historians of the council. Either the respective manuscripts must have been incomplete; or the historians passed over in silence several sessions held for secondary purposes. According to the deacon Rusticus, there were in all sixteen sessions; this division is commonly accepted by scholars, including Karl Josef von Hefele, historian of the councils. If all the separate meetings were counted, there would be twenty-one sessions; several of these meetings, however, are considered as supplementary to preceding sessions. Paschasinus refused to give Dioscorus (who had excommunicated Leo leading up to the council) a seat at the council. As a result, he was moved to the nave of the church. Paschasinus further ordered the reinstatement of Theodoret and that he be given a seat, but this move caused such an uproar among the council fathers, that Theodoret also sat in the nave, though he was given a vote in the proceedings, which began with a trial of Dioscorus. Marcian wished to bring proceedings to a speedy end, and asked the council to make a pronouncement on the doctrine of the Incarnation before continuing the trial. The council fathers, however, felt that no new creed was necessary, and that the doctrine had been laid out clearly in Leo's Tome. Beronician, clerk of the consistory, then read from a book handed him by Aetius, the synodical letter of Leo to Flavian (Leo's Tome). After the reading of the letter, the bishops cried out: "This is the faith of the fathers, this is the faith of the Apostles. So we all believe, thus the orthodox believe. ... Peter has spoken thus through Leo. So taught the Apostles. Piously and truly did Leo teach, so taught Cyril. Everlasting be the memory of Cyril. Leo and Cyril taught the same thing, ... This is the true faith ... This is the faith of the fathers. Why were not these things read at Ephesus?" Due to such concerns, the council decided to adjourn and appoint a special committee to investigate the orthodoxy of Leo's Tome, judging it by the standard of Cyril's Twelve Chapters, as some of the bishops present raised concerns about their compatibility. This committee was headed by Anatolius, Patriarch of Constantinople, and was given five days to carefully study the matter. The committee unanimously decided in favor of the orthodoxy of Leo, determining that what he said was compatible with the teaching of Cyril. A number of other bishops also entered statements to the effect that they believed that Leo's Tome was not in contradiction with the teaching of Cyril as well. Marcian responded by exiling Dioscorus. All of the bishops were then asked to sign their assent to the Tome, but a group of thirteen Egyptians refused, saying that they would assent to "the traditional faith". As a result, the Emperor's commissioners decided that a credo would indeed be necessary and presented a text to the fathers. No consensus was reached. Paschasinus threatened to return to Rome to reassemble the council in Italy. Marcian agreed, saying that if a clause were not added to the credo, the bishops would have to relocate. The Committee then sat in the oratory of the most holy martyr Euphemis and afterwards reported a definition of faith which while teaching the same doctrine was not the Tome of Leo. It approved the creed of Nicaea (325), the creed of Constantinople (381; subsequently known as the Nicene Creed), two letters of Cyril against Nestorius, which insisted on the unity of divine and human persons in Christ, and the Tome of Pope Leo I confirming two distinct natures in Christ. The Oriental Orthodox contend that this latter teaching has been misunderstood as monophysitism, an appellation with which they strongly disagree but, nevertheless, refuse to accept the decrees of the council. Many Anglicans and most Protestants consider it to be the last authoritative ecumenical council. These churches, along with Martin Luther, hold that both conscience and scripture preempt doctrinal councils and generally agree that the conclusions of later councils were unsupported by or contradictory to scripture. Results The Council of Chalcedon issued the Chalcedonian Definition, which repudiated the notion of a single nature in Christ, and declared that he has two natures in one person and hypostasis. It also insisted on the completeness of his two natures: Godhead and manhood. The council also issued 27 disciplinary canons governing church administration and authority. In a further decree, later known as canon 28, the bishops declared that the See of Constantinople (New Rome) had the patriarchal status with "equal privileges" ( in Greek, in Latin) to the See of Rome. No reference was made in Canon 28 to the bishops of Rome or Constantinople having their authority from being successors to Peter or Andrew respectively. Instead, the stated reasons in the actual text of the Canon that the episcopacy of these cities had been granted their status was the importance of these cities as major cities of the empire of the time. ) the distinction of natures being by no means taken away by the union, but rather the property of each nature being preserved, and concurring in one Person () and one Subsistence (), not parted or divided into two persons, but one and the same Son, and only begotten God (), the Word, the Lord Jesus Christ; as the prophets from the beginning [have declared] concerning Him, and the Lord Jesus Christ Himself has taught us, and the Creed of the holy Fathers has handed down to us.}} The full text of the definition reaffirms the decisions of the Council of Ephesus and the pre-eminence of the Creed of Nicea (325). It also canonises as authoritative two of Cyril of Alexandria's letters and the Tome of Leo written against Eutyches and sent to Archbishop Flavian of Constantinople in 449. Canons The work of the council was completed by a series of 30 disciplinary canons, the Ancient Epitomes of which are: Initially, the council indicated their understanding that Pope Leo's ratification was necessary for the canon to be binding, writing, "we have made still another enactment which we have deemed necessary for the maintenance of good order and discipline, and we are persuaded that your Holiness will approve and confirm our decree. ... We are confident you will shed upon the Church of Constantinople a ray of that Apostolic splendor which you possess, for you have ever cherished this church, and you are not at all niggardly in imparting your riches to your children. ... Vouchsafe then, most Holy and most Blessed Father, to accept what we have done in your name, and in a friendly spirit (). For your legates have made a violent stand against it, desiring, no doubt, that this good deed should proceed, in the first instance, from your provident hand. But we, wishing to gratify the pious Christian emperors, and the illustrious Senate, and the capital of the empire, have judged that an Ecumenical Council was the fittest occasion for effecting this measure. Hence we have made bold to confirm the privileges of the aforementioned city (tharresantes ekurosamen) as if your holiness had taken the initiative, for we know how tenderly you love your children, and we feel that in honoring the child we have honored its parent. ... We have informed you of everything with a view of proving our sincerity, and of obtaining for our labors your confirmation and consent." Following Leo's rejection of the canon, Bishop Anatolius of Constantinople conceded, "Even so, the whole force of confirmation of the acts was reserved for the authority of Your Blessedness. Therefore, let Your Holiness know for certain that I did nothing to further the matter, knowing always that I held myself bound to avoid the lusts of pride and covetousness." However, the Canon has since been viewed as valid by the Eastern Orthodox Church. According to some ancient Greek collections, canons 29 and 30 are attributed to the council: canon 29, which states that an unworthy bishop cannot be demoted but can be removed, is an extract from the minutes of the 19th session; canon 30, which grants the Egyptians time to consider their rejection of Leo's Tome, is an extract from the minutes of the fourth session. In all likelihood an official record of the proceedings was made either during the council itself or shortly afterwards. The assembled bishops informed the pope that a copy of all the "Acta" would be transmitted to him; in March 453, Pope Leo commissioned Julian of Cos, then at Constantinople, to make a collection of all the Acts and translate them into Latin. Most of the documents, chiefly the minutes of the sessions, were written in Greek; others, e.g. the imperial letters, were issued in both languages; others, again, e.g. the papal letters, were written in Latin. Eventually nearly all of them were translated into both languages. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, s.v. patriarch (ecclesiastical), also calls it "a title dating from the 6th century, for the bishops of the five great sees of Christendom". Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions, says: "Five patriarchates, collectively called the pentarchy, were the first to be recognized by the legislation of the emperor Justinian (reigned 527–565)".The status of ConstantinopleIn a canon of disputed validity, the Council of Chalcedon also elevated the See of Constantinople to a position "second in eminence and power to the Bishop of Rome". The framework for allocating ecclesiastical authority advocated by the council fathers mirrored the allocation of imperial authority in the later period of the Roman Empire. The Eastern position could be characterized as being political in nature, as opposed to a doctrinal view. In practice, all Christians East and West addressed the papacy as the See of Peter and Paul or the Apostolic See rather than the See of the Imperial Capital. Rome understands this to indicate that its precedence has always come from its direct lineage from the apostles Peter and Paul rather than its association with Imperial authority. After the passage of the Canon 28, Rome filed a protest against the reduction of honor given to Antioch and Alexandria. However, fearing that withholding Rome's approval would be interpreted as a rejection of the entire council, in 453 the pope confirmed the council's canons while declaring the 28th null and void. This position would change and later be accepted in 1215 at the Fourth Council of the Lateran.Consequences: Chalcedonian Schism<!-- This section is linked from Nestorianism --> The near-immediate result of the council was a major schism. The bishops who were uneasy with the language of Pope Leo's Tome repudiated the council, saying that the acceptance of two physes was tantamount to Nestorianism. Dioscorus of Alexandria advocated miaphysitism and had dominated the Council of Ephesus. Churches that rejected Chalcedon in favor of Ephesus broke off from the rest of the Eastern Church in a schism, the most significant among these being the Church of Alexandria, today known as the Coptic Orthodox Church. The rise of the "so-called" monophysitism in the East (as branded by the West) was incorrectly believed to lead by the Copts of Egypt. This must be regarded as the outward expression of the growing nationalist trends in that province against the gradual intensification of Byzantine imperialism, soon to reach its consummation during the reign of Emperor Justinian. However, the Coptic Orthodox Church is miaphysite, which means they believe that Jesus Christ is both 100% human and 100% divine but in one person without mingling, confusion or alteration. In every liturgy till this day, the Copts recite “Christ's divinity parted not from His humanity, not for a single moment nor a twinkling of an eye". In Egypt, opponents starkly outnumbered adherents, as 30,000 Greeks of Chalcedonian persuasion were ranged against some five million Coptic non-Chalcedonians. A significant effect on the Orthodox Christians in Egypt, was a series of persecutions by the Roman (later, Byzantine) empire forcing followers of the Oriental Orthodox Church to claim allegiance to Leo's Tome, or Chalcedon. This led to the martyrdom, persecution and death of thousands of Egyptian saints and bishops till the Arab Conquest of Egypt. As a result, The Council of Chalcedon is referred to as "Chalcedon, the Ominous" among Coptic Egyptians given how it led to Christians persecuting other Christians for the first time in history. Coptic Orthodox Christians continue to distinguish themselves from followers of Chalcedon to this day. Although the theological differences are seen as limited (if non-existent), it is politics, the subsequent persecutions and the power struggles in the Roman Empire, that may have led to the Great Schism, or at least contributed significantly to amplifying it through the centuries. The divisions in the Church weakened the Byzantine Empire's eastern provinces and helped ease the subsequent Sassanian and Arab invasions. Justinian I attempted to bring those monks who still rejected the decision of the Council of Chalcedon into communion with the greater church. The exact time of this event is unknown, but it is believed to have been between 535 and 548. Abraham of Farshut was summoned to Constantinople and chose to bring with him four monks. Upon arrival, Justinian summoned them and informed them that they could either accept the decision of the council or lose their positions. Abraham refused to entertain the idea. Theodora tried to persuade Justinian to change his mind, seemingly to no avail. Abraham himself stated in a letter to his monks that he preferred to remain in exile rather than subscribe to a faith contrary to that of Athanasius. They were not alone, and the non-Chalcedon churches compose Oriental Orthodoxy, with the Church of Alexandria as their primus inter pares. Only in recent years has a degree of rapprochement between Chalcedonian Christians and the Oriental Orthodox been seen. Oriental Orthodox view Several Oriental Orthodox Church historians have viewed the council as a dispute with the Church of Rome over precedence among the various patriarchal sees. Coptic sources, both in Coptic and in Arabic, suggest that questions of political and ecclesiastical authority exaggerated differences between the two professions of faith. Modern Coptic Orthodox Christians profess to be Miaphysites. This is reflected in the daily liturgical prayer “Christ's divinity parted not from His humanity, not for a single moment nor a twinkling of an eye". however, in some places (e.g., Russia) on that date is rather a feast of the Fathers of the First Six Ecumenical Councils. For both of the above complete propers have been composed and are found in the Menaion. For the former "The Office of the 630 Holy and God-bearing Fathers of the 4th ... Summoned against the Monophysites Eftyches and Dioskoros" was composed in the middle of the 14th century by Patriarch Philotheus I of Constantinople. This contains numerous hymns exposing the council's teaching, commemorating its leaders whom it praises and whose prayers it implores, and naming its opponents pejoratively, e.g., "Come let us clearly reject the errors of ... but praise in divine songs the fourth council of pious fathers."<ref name=Menaion_Greek/> For the latter the propers are titled "We Commemorate Six Holy Ecumenical Councils".<ref nameMenaion_Slavonic/> This repeatedly damns those anathematized by the councils with such rhetoric as "Christ-smashing deception enslaved Nestorius" and "mindless Arius and ... is tormented in the fires of Gehenna" while the fathers of the councils are praised and the dogmas of the councils are expounded in the hymns therein.See also* Pamphilus the TheologianNotesReferences Bibliography * Edward Walford, translator, The Ecclesiastical History of Evagrius: A History of the Church from AD 431 to AD 594, 1846. Reprinted 2008. Evolution Publishing, . [http://www.evolpub.com/CRE/CREseries.html#CRE5 The Christian Roman Empire series] * Bindley, T. Herbert and F. W. Green, The Oecumenical Documents of the Faith. 2nd ed. London: Methuen, 1950. * * * * * Hefele, Charles Joseph. A History of the Councils of the Church from the Original Documents. 5 vols. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1883. (Our topic is located in vol. 3) * * * * Meyendorff, John, Christ in Eastern Christian Thought (Washington D.C.: Corpus Books, 1969). * * * * * * * * Sellers, R.V., Two Ancient Christologies (London: SPCK, 1940) * Sellers, R.V., The Council of Chalcedon: A Historical and Doctrinal Survey, (London, SPCK, 1953). * External links * [http://dge.cchs.csic.es/dge-i/lst-trad/Bookzz/Price%20-%20Gaddis%202007.pdf Acts of the Council of Chalcedon] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20140211072052/http://ixoyc.net/data/Fathers/624.pdf archive]) * [http://www.legionofmarytidewater.com/faith/ECUM04.HTM Council of Chalcedon] * [https://www.papalencyclicals.net//councils/ecum04.htm Text of the Council of Chalcedon] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080509182950/http://www.orthodoxunity.org/ Orthodox Unity] * [https://www.usccb.org/committees/ecumenical-interreligious-affairs/oriental-orthodox The U.S. Oriental Orthodox–Roman Catholic Consultation] Category:450s in the Byzantine Empire Category:5th-century church councils Category:First seven ecumenical councils Category:Oriental Orthodoxy Category:Schisms in Christianity Category:Theodosian dynasty Category:Bithynia Category:Kadıköy Category:451 Category:Nature of Jesus Christ	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon	2025-04-05T18:28:00.913755
6963	Canadian football	\| first = at University College, Toronto \| firstlabel \| registered \| clubs \| contact Full \| team = 12 \| mgender \| type \| equipment = \| venue = Football field ( long and wide) \| glossary = Glossary of Canadian football \| countries involved \| country/region Canada \| olympic = No \| world \| paralympic \| obsolete \| IWGA }} Canadian football, or simply football, is a sport in Canada in which two teams of 12 players each compete on a field long and wide, attempting to advance a pointed oval-shaped ball into the opposing team's end zone. Canadian and American football have shared origins and are closely related, but have some major differences. Rugby football, from which Canadian football developed, was first recorded in Canada in the early 1860s, Both the Canadian Football League (CFL), the sport's top professional league, and Football Canada, the governing body for amateur play, trace their roots to 1880 and the founding of the Canadian Rugby Football Union. The CFL is the most popular and only major professional Canadian football league. Its championship game, the Grey Cup, is one of Canada's biggest sporting events, attracting a large television audience. Canadian football is also played at high school, junior, collegiate, and semi-professional levels: the Canadian Junior Football League and Quebec Junior Football League are for players aged 18–22, post-secondary institutions compete in U Sports football for the Vanier Cup, and seniors in the Alberta Football League. The Canadian Football Hall of Fame is in Hamilton, Ontario. History<!-- This section is linked from Canadian Football League --> The first documented football match was a practice game played on November 9, 1861, at University College, University of Toronto (approximately west of Queen's Park). One of the participants in the game involving University of Toronto students was Sir William Mulock, later chancellor of the school. A football club was formed at the university soon afterward, although its rules of play at this stage are unclear. The first written account of a game played was on October 15, 1862, In 1864, at Trinity College, Toronto, F. Barlow Cumberland, Frederick A. Bethune, and Christopher Gwynn, one of the founders of Milton, Massachusetts, devised rules based on rugby football. The first attempt to establish a proper governing body and to adopt the current set of Rugby rules was the Foot Ball Association of Canada, organized on March 24, 1873, followed by the Canadian Rugby Football Union (CRFU) founded June 12, 1880, which included teams from Ontario and Quebec. Later both the Ontario Rugby Football Union and Quebec Rugby Football Union (ORFU and QRFU respectively) were formed (January 1883), and then the Interprovincial (1907) and Western Interprovincial Football Union (1936) (IRFU and WIFU). The CRFU reorganized into an umbrella organization forming the Canadian Rugby Union (CRU) in 1891. The immediate forerunner to the current Canadian Football League was established in 1956 when the IRFU and WIFU formed an umbrella organization, the Canadian Football Council (CFC). In 1958, the CFC left the CRU to become the "Canadian Football League" (CFL). The Burnside rules closely resembling American football (which are similar rules developed by Walter Camp for that sport) that were incorporated in 1903 by the ORFU, were an effort to distinguish it from a more rugby-oriented game. The Burnside Rules had teams reduced to 12 men per side, introduced the snap-back system, required the offensive team to gain 10 yards on three downs, eliminated the throw-in from the sidelines, allowed only six men on the line, stated that all goals by kicking were to be worth two points and the opposition was to line up 10 yards from the defenders on all kicks. The rules were an attempt to standardize the rules throughout the country. The CIRFU, QRFU, and CRU refused to adopt the new rules at first. Forward passes were not allowed in the Canadian game until 1929, and touchdowns, which had been five points, were increased to six points in 1956, in both cases several decades after the Americans had adopted the same changes. The primary differences between the Canadian and American games stem from rule changes that the American side of the border adopted but the Canadian side did not (originally, both sides had three downs, goal posts on the goal lines, and unlimited forward motion, but the American side modified these rules and the Canadians did not). The Canadian field width was one rule that was not based on American rules, as the Canadian game was played in wider fields and stadiums that were not as narrow as the American stadiums. The Grey Cup was established in 1909, after being donated by Albert Grey, 4th Earl Grey, Governor General of Canada, as the championship of teams under the CRU for the Rugby Football Championship of Canada. The move ushered in the modern era of Canadian professional football, culminating in the formation of the present-day Canadian Football League in 1958. Canadian football has mostly been confined to Canada, with the United States being the only other country to have hosted high-level Canadian football games. The CFL's controversial "South Division" as it would come to be officially known attempted to put CFL teams in the United States playing under Canadian rules in 1995. The Expansion was aborted after three years; the Baltimore Stallions were the most successful of the numerous Americans teams to play in the CFL, winning the 83rd Grey Cup. Continuing financial losses, a lack of proper Canadian football venues, a pervasive belief that the American teams were simply pawns to provide the struggling Canadian teams with expansion fee revenue, and the return of the NFL to Baltimore prompted the end of Canadian football on the American side of the border. The CFL hosted the Touchdown Atlantic regular season game in Nova Scotia in 2005 and New Brunswick in 2010, 2011, and 2013. In 2013, Newfoundland and Labrador became the last province to establish football at the minor league level, with teams playing on the Avalon Peninsula and in Labrador City. The province however has yet to host a college or CFL game. Prince Edward Island, the smallest of the provinces, has also never hosted a CFL game. On 13 February 2023, the International Federation of American Football (IFAF) and Football Canada announced in a joint statement that the Canadian Amateur Football Rulebook would be an accepted rules code for international play, but would not be a substitute for world championships or world championship qualification. "As Football Canada continues to work with IFAF, I believe this opens the door for international friendlies and tournaments to be staged in Canada employing the infrastructure communities have invested in for our sport from coast to coast," Football Canada president and IFAF General Secretary Jim Mullin said in the joint statement. <gallery widths"200" heights"150"> File:Ottawa and Hamilton Tigers football game 5.jpg\|A game between the Hamilton Tigers and the Ottawa Rough Riders, 1910 File:Football game between the 4th Canadian Armoured Division Atoms and the 1st Canadian Army Red and Blue Bombers.jpg\|A game between the 4th Canadian Armoured Division Atoms and First Canadian Army Red and Blue Bombers, in Utrecht, Netherlands, October 1945 File:Statue touchdown cfhof.jpg\|Touchdown monument outside the Canadian Football Hall of Fame in Hamilton, Ontario </gallery> League play (CFL) team practice]] Canadian football is played at several levels in Canada; the top league is the professional nine-team Canadian Football League (CFL). The CFL regular season begins in June, and playoffs for the Grey Cup are completed by late November. In cities with outdoor stadiums such as Edmonton, Winnipeg, Calgary, and Regina, low temperatures and icy field conditions can seriously affect the outcome of a game. Amateur football is governed by Football Canada. At the university level, 27 teams play in four conferences under the auspices of U Sports; the U Sports champion is awarded the Vanier Cup. Junior football is played by many after high school before joining the university ranks. There are 19 junior teams in three conferences in the Canadian Junior Football League competing for the Canadian Bowl. The Quebec Junior Football League includes teams from Ontario and Quebec who battle for the Manson Cup. Semi-professional leagues have grown in popularity in recent years, with the Alberta Football League becoming especially popular. The Northern Football Conference formed in Ontario in 1954 has also surged in popularity for former college players who do not continue to professional football. The Ontario champion plays against the Alberta champion for the "National Championship". The Canadian Major Football League is the governing body for the semi-professional game. Women's football has gained attention in recent years in Canada. The first Canadian women's league to begin operations was the Maritime Women's Football League in 2004. The largest women's league is the Western Women's Canadian Football League. Field The Canadian football field is long and wide, within which the goal areas are deep, and the goal lines are apart. Weighted pylons are placed on the inside corner of the intersections of the goal lines and end lines. Including the end zones, the total area of the field is . At each goal line is a set of goalposts, which consist of two uprights joined by an crossbar which is above the goal line. The goalposts may be H-shaped (both posts fixed in the ground) although in the higher-calibre competitions the tuning-fork design (supported by a single curved post behind the goal line, so that each post starts above the ground) is preferred. , originally built for the 1978 Commonwealth Games, pictured in 2005.]] The sides of the field are marked by white sidelines, the goal line is marked in white or yellow, and white lines are drawn laterally across the field every from the goal line. These lateral lines are called "yard lines" and often marked with the distance in yards from and an arrow pointed toward the nearest goal line. Prior to the early 1980s, arrows were not used and all yard lines (in both multiples of 5 and 10) were usually marked with the distance to the goal line, including the goal line itself which was marked with either a "0" or "00"; in most stadiums today, only the yard markers in multiples of 10 are marked with numbers, with the goal line sometimes being marked with a "G". The centre (55-yard) line usually is marked with a "C" (or, more rarely, with a "55"). "Hash marks" are painted in white, parallel to the yardage lines, at intervals, from the sidelines under amateur rules, but in the CFL. On fields that have a surrounding running track, such as Molson Stadium and many universities, the end zones are often cut off in the corners to accommodate the track. Until 1986, the end zones were deep, giving the field an overall length of , and a correspondingly larger cutoff could be required at the corners. The first field to feature the shorter 20-yard end zone was Vancouver's BC Place (home of the BC Lions), which opened in 1983. This was particularly common among U.S.-based teams during the CFL's American expansion, where few American stadiums were able to accommodate the much longer and noticeably wider CFL field. The end zones in Toronto's BMO Field are only 18 yards instead of 20 yards. Gameplay Teams advance across the field through the execution of quick, distinct plays, which involve the possession of a brown, prolate spheroid ball with ends tapered to a point. The ball has two one-inch-wide white stripes. Start of play At the beginning of a match, an official tosses a coin and allows the captain of the visiting team to call heads or tails. The captain of the team winning the coin toss is given the option of having first choice, or of deferring first choice to the other captain. The captain making first choice may either choose a) to kick off or receive the kick at the beginning of the half, or b) which direction of the field to play in. The remaining choice is given to the opposing captain. Before the resumption of play in the second half, the captain that did not have first choice in the first half is given first choice. Teams usually choose to defer, so it is typical for the team that wins the coin toss to kick to begin the first half and receive to begin the second. Play begins at the start of each half with one team place-kicking the ball from its own end of the field: the 35-yard line in the CFL, the 45-yard line in amateur play. Both teams then attempt to catch the ball. The player who recovers the ball may run while holding the ball, or lateral throw the ball to a teammate. Stoppage of play Play stops when the ball carrier's knee, elbow, or any other body part aside from the feet and hands, is forced to the ground (a tackle); when a forward pass is not caught on the fly (during a scrimmage); when a touchdown (see below) or a field goal is scored; when the ball leaves the playing area by any means (being carried, thrown, or fumbled out of bounds); or when the ball carrier is in a standing position but can no longer move forwards (called forward progress). If no score has been made, the next play starts from scrimmage. Scrimmage Before scrimmage, an official places the ball at the spot it was at the stop of clock, but no nearer than 24 yards from the sideline or 1 yard from the goal line. The line parallel to the goal line passing through the ball (line from sideline to sideline for the length of the ball) is referred to as the line of scrimmage. This line is similar to "no-man's land"; players must stay on their respective sides of this line until the play has begun again. For a scrimmage to be valid the team in possession of the football must have seven players, excluding the quarterback, within one yard of the line of scrimmage. The defending team must stay a yard or more back from the line of scrimmage. quarterback Anthony Calvillo looks down field with the ball during the 93rd Grey Cup game at BC Place.]] On the field at the beginning of a play are two teams of 12 (and not 11 as in American football). The team in possession of the ball is the offence and the team defending is referred to as the defence.<!-- Canadian spelling uses the "c" --> Play begins with a backwards pass through the legs (the snap) by a member of the offensive team, to another member of the offensive team. This is usually the quarterback or punter, but a "direct snap" to a running back is also not uncommon. If the quarterback or punter receives the ball, he may then do any of the following: * Run with the ball, attempting to run farther down field (gaining yardage). The ball-carrier may run in any direction he sees fit (including backwards). * Drop-kick the ball, dropping it onto the ground and kicking it on the bounce. (This play is now quite rare in both Canadian and American football.) * Pass the ball laterally or backwards to a teammate. This play is known as a lateral, and may come at any time on the play. A pass which has any amount of forward momentum is a forward pass (see below); forward passes are subject to many restrictions which do not apply to laterals. * Hand-off—hand the ball off to a teammate, typically a halfback or the fullback. * Punt the ball; dropping it in the air and kicking it before it touches the ground. When the ball is punted, only opposing players (the receiving team), the kicker, and anyone behind the kicker when he punted the ball are able to touch the ball, or even go within five yards of the ball until it is touched by an eligible player (the no-yards rule, which is applied to all kicking plays). * Place the ball on the ground for a place kick * Throw a forward pass, where the ball is thrown to a receiver located farther down field (closer to the opponent's goal) than the thrower is. Forward passes are subject to the following restrictions: They must be made from behind the line of scrimmage Only one forward pass may be made on a play ** The pass must be made in the direction of an eligible receiver or pass 10 yards after the line of scrimmage Each play constitutes a down. The offence<!-- Canadian spelling uses the "c" --> must advance the ball at least ten yards towards the opponents' goal line within three downs or forfeit the ball to their opponents. Once ten yards have been gained the offence gains a new set of three downs (rather than the four downs given in American football). Downs do not accumulate. If the offensive team completes 10 yards on their first play, they lose the other two downs and are granted another set of three. If a team fails to gain ten yards in two downs they usually punt the ball on third down or try to kick a field goal (see below), depending on their position on the field. The team may, however use its third down in an attempt to advance the ball and gain a cumulative 10 yards. Change in possession The ball changes possession in the following instances: * If the offence scores a field goal, the scored-against team can either scrimmage from its 35-yard line or have the scoring team kickoff from its 35-yard line. * If a team scores a touchdown, the scoring team must kickoff from their own 35-yard line. * If the defence scores on a safety (bringing the ball down in the offence's own end zone), they have the right to claim possession. * If one team kicks the ball; the other team has the right to recover the ball and attempt a return. If a kicked ball goes out of bounds, or the kicking team scores a single or field goal as a result of the kick, the other team likewise gets possession. * If the offence fails to make ten yards in three plays, the defence takes over on downs. * If the offence attempts a forward pass and it is intercepted by the defence, the defence takes possession immediately (and may try to advance the ball on the play). Incomplete forward passes (those which go out of bounds, or which touch the ground without being first cleanly caught by a player) result in the end of the play, and are not returnable by either team. * If the offence fumbles (a ball carrier drops the football, or has it dislodged by an opponent, or if the intended player fails to catch a lateral pass or a snap from centre, or a kick attempt is blocked by an opponent), the ball may be recovered (and advanced) by either team. If a fumbled ball goes out of bounds, the team whose player last touched it is awarded possession at the spot where it went out of bounds. A fumble by the offence in their own end zone, which goes out of bounds, results in a safety. * When the first half ends, the team which kicked to start the first half will receive a kickoff to start the second half. * After the three-minute warning near the end of each half, the offence can lose possession for a time count violation (failure to legally put the ball into play within the 20-second duration of the play clock). However, this can only occur if three specific criteria are met: The offence committed a time count violation on its last attempted scrimmage play. This prior violation took place on third down. ** The referee deemed said violation to be deliberate, and warned the offence that it had to legally place the ball into play within the 20-second clock or lose possession. Such a loss of possession is statistically treated as the defence taking over on downs. Rules of contact There are many rules to contact in this type of football. The only player on the field who may be legally tackled is the player currently in possession of the football (the ball carrier). On a passing play a receiver, that is to say, an offensive player sent down the field to receive a pass, may not be interfered with (have his motion impeded, be blocked, etc.) unless he is within five yards of the line of scrimmage. Prior to a pass that goes beyond the line of scrimmage, a defender may not be impeded more than one yard past that line. Otherwise, any player may block another player's passage, so long as he does not hold or trip the player he intends to block. The kicker may not be contacted after the kick but before his kicking leg returns to the ground (this rule is not enforced upon a player who has blocked a kick). The quarterback may not be hit or tackled after throwing the ball, nor may he be hit while in the pocket (i.e. behind the offensive line) prior to that point below the knees or above the shoulders. Infractions and penalties Infractions of the rules are punished with penalties, typically a loss of yardage of 5, 10 or 15 yards against the penalized team. Minor violations such as offside (a player from either side encroaching into scrimmage zone before the play starts) are penalized five yards, more serious penalties (such as holding) are penalized 10 yards, and severe violations of the rules (such as face-masking [grabbing the face mask attached to a player's helmet]) are typically penalized 15 yards. Depending on the penalty, the penalty yardage may be assessed from the original line of scrimmage, from where the violation occurred (for example, for a pass interference infraction), or from where the ball ended after the play. Penalties on the offence may, or may not, result in a loss of down; penalties on the defence may result in a first down being automatically awarded to the offence. For particularly severe conduct, the game official(s) may eject players (ejected players may be substituted for), or in exceptional cases, declare the game over and award victory to one side or the other. Penalties do not affect the yard line which the offence must reach to gain a first down (unless the penalty results in a first down being awarded); if a penalty against the defence results in the first down yardage being attained, then the offence is awarded a first down. If the defence is penalized on a two-point convert attempt and the offence chooses to attempt the play again, the offence must attempt another two-point convert; it cannot change to a one-point attempt. Conversely, the offence can attempt a two-point convert following a defensive penalty on a one-point attempt. Penalties may occur before a play starts (such as offside), during the play (such as holding), or in a dead-ball situation (such as unsportsmanlike conduct). Penalties never result in a score for the offence. For example, a point-of-foul infraction committed by the defence in their end zone is not ruled a touchdown, but instead advances the ball to the one-yard line with an automatic first down. For a distance penalty, if the yardage is greater than half the distance to the goal line, then the ball is advanced half the distance to the goal line, though only up to the one-yard line (unlike American football, in Canadian football no scrimmage may start inside either one-yard line). If the original penalty yardage would have resulted in a first down or moving the ball past the goal line, a first down is awarded. In most cases, the non-penalized team will have the option of declining the penalty; in which case the results of the previous play stand as if the penalty had not been called. One notable exception to this rule is if the kicking team on a 3rd down punt play is penalized before the kick occurs: the receiving team may not decline the penalty and take over on downs. After the kick is made, change of possession occurs and subsequent penalties are assessed against either the spot where the ball is caught, or the runback. Kicking Canadian football distinguishes four ways of kicking the ball: ; Place kick: Kicking a ball held on the ground by a teammate, or, on a kickoff, optionally placed on a tee (two different tees are used for kickoffs and convert/field goal attempts). ; Drop kick: Kicking a ball after bouncing it on the ground. Although rarely used today, it has the same status in scoring as a place kick. This play is part of the game's rugby heritage, and was largely made obsolete when the ball with pointed ends was adopted. Unlike the American game, Canadian rules allow a drop kick to be attempted at any time by any player, but the move is very rare. ; Punt: Kicking the ball after it has been released from the kicker's hand and before it hits the ground. Punts may not score a field goal, even if one should travel through the uprights. As with drop kicks, players may punt at any time. ; Dribbled ball: A dribbled ball is one that has been kicked while not in possession of a player, for example, a loose ball following a fumble, a blocked kick, a kickoff, or a kick from scrimmage. The kicker of the dribbled ball and any player onside when the ball was kicked may legally recover the ball. On any kicking play, all onside players (the kicker, and teammates behind the kicker at the time of the kick) may recover and advance the ball. Players on the kicking team who are not onside may not approach within five yards of the ball until it has been touched by the receiving team, or by an onside teammate. Scoring The methods of scoring are: ; Touchdown : Achieved when the ball is in possession of a player in the opponent's end zone, or when the ball in the possession of a player crosses or touches the plane of the opponent's goal-line, worth 6 points (5 points until 1956). A touchdown in Canadian football is often referred to as a "major score" or simply a "major". ; Conversion (or convert) : After a touchdown, the team that scored gets one scrimmage play to attempt to add one or two more points. If they make what would normally be a field goal, they score one point (a "point-after"); what would normally be a touchdown scores two points (a "two-point conversion"). In amateur games, this scrimmage is taken at the opponents' 5-yard line. The CFL formerly ran all conversion attempts from the 5-yard line as well (for a 12-yard kick), but starting in 2015 the line of scrimmage for one-point kick attempts became the 25-yard line (for a 32-yard kick), while two-point attempts are scrimmaged at the 3-yard line. No matter what happens on the convert attempt, play then continues with a kickoff (see below). ; Field goal : Scored by a drop kick or place kick (except on a kickoff) when the ball, after being kicked and without again touching the ground, goes over the cross bar and between the goal posts (or between lines extended from the top of the goal posts) of the opponent's goal, worth three points. If the ball hits the upright above the cross-bar before going through, it is not considered a dead ball, and the points are scored. (Rule 5, Sect 4, Art 4(d)) If the field goal is missed, but the ball is not returnable after crossing the dead-ball-line, then it constitutes a rouge (see below). ; Safety : Scored when the ball becomes dead in the possession of a team in its own goal area, or when the ball touches or crosses the dead-line, or side-line-in-goal and touches the ground, a player, or some object beyond these lines as a result of the team scored against making a play. It is worth two points. This is different from a single (see below) in that the team scored against begins with possession of the ball. The most common safety is on a third down punt from the end zone, in which the kicker decides not to punt and keeps the ball in his team's own goal area. The ball is then turned over to the receiving team (who gained the two points), by way of a kickoff from the 25-yard line or scrimmaging from the line on their side of the field. ; Single (rouge) : Scored when the ball becomes dead in the possession of a team in its own goal area, or when the ball touches or crosses the dead-line, or side-line-in-goal, and touches the ground, a player, or some object beyond these lines as a result of the ball having been kicked from the field of play into the goal area by the scoring team. It is worth one point. This is different from a Safety (see above) in that team scored against receives possession of the ball after the score. :Officially, the single is called a rouge (French for "red") but is often referred to as a single. The exact derivation of the term is unknown, but it has been thought that in early Canadian football, the scoring of a single was signalled with a red flag. A rouge is also a method of scoring in the Eton field game, which dates from at least 1815. Resumption of play Resumption of play following a score is conducted under procedures which vary with the type of score. * Following a touchdown and convert attempt (successful or not), play resumes with the scoring team kicking off from its own 35-yard line (45-yard line in amateur leagues). * Following a field goal, the non-scoring team may choose for play to resume either with a kickoff as above, or by scrimmaging the ball from its own 35-yard line. * Following a safety, the scoring team may choose for play to resume in either of the above ways, or it may choose to kick off from its own 35-yard line. * Following a single/rouge, play resumes with the non-scoring team scrimmaging from its own 35-yard line (Football Canada rules) or 40-yard line (CFL rules). If the single is awarded on a missed field goal, the non-scoring team has the option to scrimmage from the yard line from which the field goal was attempted. Game timing The game consists of two 30-minute halves, each of which is divided into two 15-minute quarters. The clock counts down from 15:00 in each quarter. Timing rules change when there are three minutes remaining in a half. A short break interval of 2 minutes occurs after the end of each quarter (a longer break of 15 minutes at halftime), and the two teams then change goals. In the first 27 minutes of a half, the clock stops when: * Points are scored, * The ball goes out of bounds, * A forward pass is incomplete, * The ball is dead and a penalty flag has been thrown, * The ball is dead and teams are making substitutions (e.g., possession has changed, punting situation, short yardage situation), * The ball is dead and a player is injured, or * The ball is dead and a captain or a coach calls a time-out. The clock starts again when the referee determines the ball is ready for scrimmage, except for team time-outs (where the clock starts at the snap), after a time count foul (at the snap) and kickoffs (where the clock starts not at the kick but when the ball is first touched after the kick). In the last three minutes of a half, the clock stops whenever the ball becomes dead. On kickoffs, the clock starts when the ball is first touched after the kick. On scrimmages, when it starts depends on what ended the previous play. The clock starts when the ball is ready for scrimmage except that it starts on the snap when on the previous play: * The ball was kicked off, * The ball was punted, * The ball changed possession, * The ball went out of bounds, * There were points scored, * There was an incomplete forward pass, * There was a penalty applied (not declined), or * There was a team time-out. During the last three minutes of a half, the penalty for failure to place the ball in play within the 20-second play clock, known as a "time count violation" (this foul is known as "delay of game" in American football), is dramatically different from during the first 27 minutes. Instead of the penalty being 5 yards with the down repeated, the base penalty (except during convert attempts) becomes loss of down on first or second down, and 10 yards on third down with the down repeated. In addition, as noted previously, the referee can give possession to the defence for repeated deliberate time count violations on third down. The clock does not run during convert attempts in the last three minutes of a half. If the 15 minutes of a quarter expire while the ball is live, the quarter is extended until the ball becomes dead. If a quarter's time expires while the ball is dead, the quarter is extended for one more scrimmage. A quarter cannot end while a penalty is pending: after the penalty yardage is applied, the quarter is extended one scrimmage. The non-penalized team has the option to decline any penalty it considers disadvantageous, so a losing team cannot indefinitely prolong a game by repeatedly committing infractions. Overtime In the CFL, if the game is tied at the end of regulation play, then each team is given an equal number of offensive possessions to break the tie. A coin toss is held to determine which team will take possession first; the first team scrimmages the ball at the opponent's 35-yard line and conducts a series of downs until it scores or loses possession. If the team scores a touchdown, starting with the 2010 season, it is required to attempt a two-point conversion. The other team then scrimmages the ball at the opponent's 35-yard line and has the same opportunity to score. After the teams have completed their possessions, if one team is ahead, then it is declared the winner; otherwise, the two teams each get another chance to score, scrimmaging from the other 35-yard line. After this second round, if there is still no winner, during the regular season the game ends as a tie. In a playoff game, the teams continue to attempt to score from alternating 35-yard lines, until one team is leading after both have had an equal number of possessions. In U Sports football, for the Uteck Bowl, Mitchell Bowl, and Vanier Cup, the same overtime procedure is followed until there is a winner. Officials and fouls Officials are responsible for enforcing game rules and monitoring the clock. All officials carry a whistle and wear black-and-white striped shirts and black caps except for the referee, whose cap is white. Each carries a weighted orange flag that is thrown to the ground to signal that a foul has been called. An official who spots multiple fouls will throw their cap as a secondary signal. The seven officials (of a standard seven-man crew; lower levels of play up to the university level use fewer officials) on the field are each tasked with a different set of responsibilities: Severe weather In the CFL, a game must be delayed if lightning strikes within of the stadium or for other severe weather conditions, or if dangerous weather is anticipated. In the regular season, if play has not resumed after 1 hour and at least half of the third quarter has been completed, the score stands as final; this happened for the first time on August 9, 2019, when a Saskatchewan–Montreal game was stopped late in the third quarter. If the stoppage is earlier in the game, or if it is a playoff or Grey Cup game, play may be stopped for up to 3 hours and then resume. After 3 hours of stoppage, play is terminated at least for the day. A playoff or Grey Cup game must then be resumed the following day at the point where it left off.<ref name="weather"/> In the regular season, if a game is stopped for 3 hours and one team is leading by at least a certain amount, then that team is awarded a win. The size of lead required is 21, 17, or 13 depending on whether the stoppage is in the first, second, or third quarter respectively. If neither team is leading by that much and they are not scheduled to play again in the season, the game is declared a tie.<ref name="weather"/> If a regular-season game is stopped for 3 hours and neither team is leading by the required amount to be awarded a win, but the two teams are scheduled to play again later in the season, then the stopped game is decided by a "two-possession shootout" procedure held before the later game is started. The procedure is generally similar to overtime in the CFL, with two major exceptions: each team must play exactly two possessions regardless of what happens; and while the score from the stopped game is not added to the shootout score, it is used instead to determine the yard line where each team starts its possessions, so the team that was leading still has an advantage.<ref name"weather"/> Positions {\| border"0" style="margin:auto; width:783px;" \|- \| line</span>}} line</span>}}<!--Dinos' yellow: #ffd51d; with saturation set to 38 (lighter): #ffed9e;--> \|- style="font-size:85%" \| ----The offence (yellow and white) are first-and-ten at their 54-yard line against the defence (red and black) in a U Sports football game. The twelve players of each side and the umpire (one of seven officials) are shown. The offence is in a one-back offence with five receivers.<br /><small>Note: The labels are clickable.</small> \|} The positions in Canadian football have evolved throughout the years, and are not officially defined in the rules. However, there are still several standard positions, as outlined below. Offence The offence must have at least seven players lined up along the line of scrimmage on every play. The players on either end (usually the wide receivers) are eligible to receive forward passes, and may be in motion along the line of scrimmage prior to the snap. The other players on the line of scrimmage (usually the offensive linemen) are ineligible to receive forward passes, and once they are in position, they may not move until the play begins. Offensive positions fit into three general categories: Offensive linemen The primary roles of the offensive linemen (or down linemen) are to protect the quarterback so that he can pass, and to help block on running plays. Offensive linemen generally do not run with the ball (unless they recover it on a fumble) or receive a handoff or lateral pass, but there is no rule against it. Offensive linemen include the following positions: : Centre: Snaps the ball to the quarterback to initiate play. The most important pass blocker on pass plays. Calls offensive line plays. : Left/right guards: Stand to the left and right of the centre. Helps protect the quarterback. Usually very good run blockers, opening holes up the middle for runners. : Left/right tackles: Stand on the ends of the offensive line. These are the biggest players on the line, usually well over . Usually very good pass blockers. Backs Backs are behind the linemen at the start of play. They may run with the ball, and receive handoffs, laterals, and forward passes. They may also be in motion before the play starts. Backs include the following positions: : Quarterback: Generally, the leader of the offence. Calls all plays to teammates, receives the ball from the snap, and initiates the offensive play, usually by passing the ball to a receiver, handing the ball off to another back, or running the ball himself. : Fullback: Has multiple roles including pass protection, receiving, and blocking for the running back. Sometimes carries the ball, usually on short yardage situations. : 'Running back (or tailback): As the name implies, the main runner on the team. Also receives passes sometimes, and blocks on pass plays. Receivers Receivers may start the play either on or behind the line of scrimmage. They may run with the ball, and receive handoffs, laterals, and forward passes. Receivers include the following positions: : Wide receiver: Lines up on the line of scrimmage, usually at a distance from the centre. Runs a given route to catch a pass and gain yardage. : Slotback: Lines up behind the line of scrimmage, between the wide receiver and the tackle. May begin running towards the line of scrimmage before the snap. Runs a given route to catch a pass and gain yardage. Defence The rules do not constrain how the defence may arrange itself, other than the requirement that they must remain one yard behind the line of scrimmage until the play starts. Defensive positions fit into three general categories: Defensive linemen : Left/right defensive tackles: Try to get past the offensive line, or to open holes in the offensive line for linebackers to rush the quarterback. : Nose tackle: A defensive tackle that lines up directly across from the centre. : Left/right defensive ends: The main rushing linemen. Rush the quarterback and try to stop runners behind the line of scrimmage. Linebackers : Middle linebacker: Starts the play across from the centre, about 3–4 yards away. Generally, the leader of the defence. Calls plays for linemen and linebackers. : Weak-side linebacker: Lines up on the short side of the field, and can drop back into pass coverage, or contain a run. : Strong-side linebacker: Lines up on the long side of the field, and usually focuses on stopping the runner. Defensive backs : Cornerback: Covers one of the wide receivers on most plays. : Defensive halfback: Covers one of the slotbacks and helps contain the run from going to the side of the field. : Safety: Covers the back of the field, usually in the centre, and as the last line of defence. Occasionally rushes the quarterback or stops the runner. Special teams Special teams are generally used on kicking plays, which include kickoffs, punts, field goal attempts, and extra point attempts. Special teams include the following positions: : Long snapper: Snaps the ball for a punt, field goal attempt, or extra point attempt. : Holder: Receives the snap on field goal attempts and extra point attempts. Places the ball in position and holds it for the kicker. This position is generally filled by a reserve quarterback, but occasionally the starting quarterback or punter will fill in as holder. : Kicker: Performs kickoffs. Kicks field goal attempts and extra point attempts. : Punter: Punts the ball, usually on third down. : Returner:' On kickoffs, punts, and missed field goals, returns the ball as far down the field as possible. Typically, a fast, agile runner. See also * Comparison of American and Canadian football * Glossary of Canadian football * List of gridiron football teams in Canada * American football * Rugby football References External links * [https://www.cfl.ca/2016-cfl-rule-book-and-facts-figures-records/ CFL Rule Book] (2016) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070714004259/http://share.geocities.com/Colosseum/5743/index.htm Canadian Football Resources] (archived 14 July 2007) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070809030147/http://www.qjfl.ca/english/ Quebec Junior Football League] Category:Gridiron football variants Category:Sports originating in Canada Category:Team sports Category:National symbols of Canada	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_football	2025-04-05T18:28:00.935015
6966	Chinese calendar	}} \| ci = \| tp = nóng-lì \| w = \| bpmf = ㄋㄨㄥˊ ㄌㄧˋ }} The traditional Chinese calendar, dating back to the Han dynasty, is a lunisolar calendar that blends solar, lunar, and other cycles for social and agricultural purposes. While modern China primarily uses the Gregorian calendar for official purposes, the traditional calendar remains culturally significant. It determines the timing of Chinese New Year with traditions like the twelve animals of the Chinese Zodiac still widely observed. The traditional Chinese calendar uses the sexagenary cycle, a repeating system of Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches, to mark years, months, and days. This system, along with astronomical observations and mathematical calculations, was developed to align solar and lunar cycles, though some approximations are necessary due to the natural differences between these cycles. Over centuries, the calendar was refined through advancements in astronomy and horology, with dynasties introducing variations to improve accuracy and meet cultural or political needs. While the Gregorian calendar has become now standard for civic daily use in China, the traditional lunisolar calendar continues to influence festivals, cultural practices, and zodiac-based customs. Beyond China, it has shaped other East Asian calendars, including the Korean, Vietnamese, and Japanese lunar systems, each adapting the same lunisolar principles while integrating local customs and terminology. Epochs, or fixed starting points for year counting, have played an essential role in the Chinese calendar's structure. Some epochs are based on historical figures, such as the inauguration of the Yellow Emperor (Huangdi), while others marked the rise of dynasties or significant political shifts. This system allowed for the numbering of years based on regnal eras, with the start of a ruler's reign often resetting the count. The Chinese calendar also tracks time in smaller units, including months, days, and double-hour periods called shichen. These timekeeping methods have influenced broader fields of horology, with some principles, such as precise time subdivisions, still evident in modern scientific timekeeping. The continued use of the calendar today highlights its enduring cultural, historical, and scientific significance. Etymology The name of calendar is in , and was represented in earlier character forms variants (), and ultimately derived from an ancient form (). The ancient form of the character consists of two stalks of rice plant (), arranged in parallel. This character represents the order in space and also the order in time. As its meaning became complex, the modern dedicated character () was created to represent the meaning of calendar. Maintaining the correctness of calendars was an important task to maintain the authority of rulers, being perceived as a way to measure the ability of a ruler. For example, someone seen as a competent ruler would foresee the coming of seasons and prepare accordingly. This understanding was also relevant in predicting abnormalities of the Earth and celestial bodies, such as lunar and solar eclipses. The significant relationship between authority and timekeeping helps to explain why there are 102 calendars in Chinese history, trying to predict the correct courses of sun, moon and stars, and marking good time and bad time. Each calendar is named as and recorded in a dedicated calendar section in history books of different eras. The last one in imperial era was . A ruler would issue an almanac before the commencement of each year. There were private almanac issuers, usually illegal, when a ruler lost his control of some territories. There are various Chinese terms for the calendar including: * Nongli Calendar () * Jiuli Calendar () * Laoli Calendar () * Zhongli Calendar () * Huali Calendar () 14–16, corresponding to 1834–1836]] Various modern Chinese calendar names resulted from the struggle between the introduction of Gregorian calendar by government and the preservation of customs by the public in the era of Republic of China. The government wanted to abolish the Chinese calendar to force everyone to use the Gregorian calendar, and even abolished the Chinese New Year, but faced great opposition. The public needed the astronomical Chinese calendar to do things at a proper time, for example farming and fishing; also, a wide spectrum of festivals and customs observations have been based on the calendar. The government finally compromised and rebranded it as the agricultural calendar in 1947, depreciating the calendar to merely agricultural use. {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Some modern names of Chinese calendar and Gregorian calendar ! Chinese calendar !! Gregorian calendar \|- \| Chinese calendar\|\| , Western calendar \|- \| , old calendar \|\| , new calendar \|- \| , lunar calendar \|\| , solar calendar \|- \| , traditional calendar \|\| \|- \| , agricultural calendar \|\| \|- \| , The first dynasty calendar \|\| \|- \| , Yellow Emperor calendar \|\| \|- \| \|\| , public calendar, namely universal calendar or common calendar \|- \| \|\| , national calendar \|- \| , Imperial calendar (obsoleted) \|- \|} After the end of the imperial era, there are some almanacs based upon the algorithm of the last Imperial calendar with longitude of Peking. Such almanacs were under the name of "universal book" , or under Cantonese name , transcribed as Tung Shing. Later these almanacs moved to new calculation based on the location of Purple Mountain Observatory, with longitude of 120°E. Year-numbering systems Eras Ancient China numbered years from an emperor's ascension to the throne or his declaration of a new era name. The first recorded reign title was , from 140 BCE; the last reign title was , from 1908 CE. The era system was abolished in 1912, after which the current or Republican era was used. Epochs An epoch is a point in time chosen as the origin of a particular calendar era, thus serving as a reference point from which subsequent time or dates are measured. The use of epochs in Chinese calendar system allow for a chronological starting point from whence to begin point continuously numbering subsequent dates. Various epochs have been used. Similarly, nomenclature similar to that of the Christian era has occasionally been used: {\| class="wikitable" !Era !Chinese name !Start !Year 1 ! CE is year... \|- \|Yellow Emperor (Huángdì) year \| \|Yellow Emperor (YE) began reigning \|2697 BCE or 2698 BCE \|+2697}} or +2698}} \|- \|Yáo year \| \|Emperor Yao began reigning \|2156 BCE \|+2156}} \|- \|Gònghé year \| \|Gonghe Regency began \|841 BCE \|+841}} \|- \|Confucius year \| \|Confucius's birth year \|551 BCE \|+551}} \|- \|Unity year \| \|Qin Shi Huang began reigning \|221 BCE \|+221}} \|} No reference date is universally accepted. The most popular is the Gregorian calendar (\|s\|l=common calendar}}). During the 17th century, the Jesuit missionaries tried to determine the epochal year of the Chinese calendar. In his (published in Munich in 1658), Martino Martini (1614–1661) dated the Yellow Emperor's ascension at 2697 BCE and began the Chinese calendar with the reign of Fuxi (which, according to Martini, began in 2952 BCE). Philippe Couplet's 1686 Chronological table of Chinese monarchs () gave the same date for the Yellow Emperor. The Jesuits' dates provoked interest in Europe, where they were used for comparison with Biblical chronology. Modern Chinese chronology has generally accepted Martini's dates, except that it usually places the reign of the Yellow Emperor at 2698 BCE and omits his predecessors Fuxi and Shennong as "too legendary to include". Publications began using the estimated birth date of the Yellow Emperor as the first year of the Han calendar in 1903, with newspapers and magazines proposing different dates. Jiangsu province counted 1905 as the year 4396 (using a year 1 of 2491 BCE, and implying that CE is +2491}}), and the newspaper Ming Pao () reckoned 1905 as 4603 (using a year 1 of 2698 BCE, and implying that CE is +2698}}). Liu Shipei (, 1884–1919) created the Yellow Emperor Calendar (), with year 1 as the birth of the emperor (which he determined as 2711 BCE, implying that CE is +2711}}). There is no evidence that this calendar was used before the 20th century. Liu calculated that the 1900 international expedition sent by the Eight-Nation Alliance to suppress the Boxer Rebellion entered Beijing in the 4611th year of the Yellow Emperor. Taoists later adopted Yellow Emperor Calendar and named it Tao Calendar (). On 2 January 1912, Sun Yat-sen announced changes to the official calendar and era. 1 January was 14 4609 year, assuming a year 1 of 2698 BCE, making CE year +2698}}. Many overseas Chinese communities like San Francisco's Chinatown adopted the change. The modern Chinese standard calendar uses the epoch of the Gregorian calendar, which is on 1 January of the year 1 CE. History The Chinese calendar system has a long history, which has traditionally been associated with specific dynastic periods. Various individual calendar types have been developed with different names. In terms of historical development, some of the calendar variations are associated with dynastic changes along a spectrum beginning with a prehistorical/mythological time to and through well attested historical dynastic periods. Many individuals have been associated with the development of the Chinese calendar, including researchers into underlying astronomy; and, furthermore, the development of instruments of observation are historically important. Influences from India, Islam, and Jesuits also became significant. Solar calendars The traditional Chinese lunisolar calendar was developed between 771 BCE and 476 BCE, during the Spring and Autumn period of the Eastern Zhou dynasty. Solar calendars were used before the Zhou dynasty period, along with the basic sexagenary system. One version of the solar calendar is the five-elements (or phases) calendar (), which derives from the Wu Xing. A 365-day year was divided into five phases of 72 days, with each phase preceded by an intercalary day associated with the claimed beginning of the following 72 day period of domination by the next Wu Xing element; thus, the five phases each begin with a governing-element day (), followed by a 72 day period characterized by the ruling element. Years began on a day and a 72-day wood phase, followed by a day and a 72-day fire phase; a day and a 72-day earth phase; a day and a 72-day metal phase, and a day followed by a water phase. Each phase consisted of two three-week months, making each year ten months long. Other days were tracked using the Yellow River Map (He Tu). Another version is a four-quarters calendar (, or ). The weeks were ten days long, with one month consisting of three weeks. A year had 12 months, with a ten-day week intercalated in summer as needed to keep up with the tropical year. The 10 Heavenly Stems and 12 Earthly Branches were used to mark days. A third version is the balanced calendar (). A year was 365.25 days, and a month was 29.5 days. After every 16th month, a half-month was intercalated. According to oracle bone records, the Shang dynasty calendar ( BCE) was a balanced calendar with 12 to 14 months in a year; the month after the winter solstice was . A solar calendar called the Tung Shing, the Yellow Calendar or Imperial Calendar (both alluding to Yellow Emperor) continued to see use as an almanac and agricultural guide throughout Chinese history. Lunisolar calendars by dynasty Lunisolar calendars involve correlations of the cycles of the sun (solar) and the moon (lunar). Zhou dynasty The first lunisolar calendar was the Zhou calendar (), introduced under the Zhou dynasty (1046 BCE – 256 BCE). This calendar sets the beginning of the year at the day of the new moon before the winter solstice.Competing Warring states calendars Several competing lunisolar calendars were introduced as Zhou devolved into the Warring States, especially by states fighting Zhou control during the Warring States period (perhaps 475 BCE - 221 BCE). From the Warring States period (ending in 221 BCE), six especially significant calendar systems are known to have begun to be developed. Later on, during their future course in history, the modern names for the ancient six calendars were also developed: Huangdi, Yin, Zhou, Xia, Zhuanxu, and Lu. Modern historical knowledge and records are limited for the earlier calendars. These calendars are known as the six ancient calendars (), or quarter-remainder calendars, (), since all calculate a year as days long. Months begin on the day of the new moon, and a year has 12 or 13 months. Intercalary months (a 13th month) are added to the end of the year. The state of Lu issued its own Lu calendar (). The state of Jin issued the Xia calendar () with a year beginning on the day of the new moon nearest the March equinox. The state of Qin issued the Zhuanxu calendar (), with a year beginning on the day of the new moon nearest the winter solstice. The Qiang and Dai calendars are modern versions of the Zhuanxu calendar, used by highland peoples. The Song state's Yin calendar () began its year on the day of the new moon after the winter solstice.Qin and early Han dynasties After Qin Shi Huang unified China under the Qin dynasty in 221 BCE, the Qin calendar () was introduced. It followed most of the rules governing the Zhuanxu calendar, but the month order was that of the Xia calendar; the year began with month 10 and ended with month 9, analogous to a Gregorian calendar beginning in October and ending in September. The intercalary month, known as the second , was placed at the end of the year. The Qin calendar was used going into the Han dynasty.Han dynasty Tàichū calendar Emperor Wu of Han introduced reforms in the seventh of the eleven named eras of his reign, , 104 BCE – 101 BCE. His calendar () defined a solar year as days (365;06:00:14.035), and the lunar month had days (29;12:44:44.444). Since <math>\left(365+\frac{385}{1539}\right)\times19=\left(29+\frac{43}{81}\right)\times \left(19\times 12 + 7 \right) </math> the 19 years cycle used for the 7 additional months was taken as an exact one, and not as an approximation. This calendar introduced the 24 solar terms, dividing the year into 24 equal parts of 15° each. Solar terms were paired, with the 12 combined periods known as climate terms. The first solar term of the period was known as a pre-climate (), and the second was a mid-climate (). Months were named for the mid-climate to which they were closest, and a month without a mid-climate was an intercalary month. The Taichu calendar established a framework for traditional calendars, with later calendars adding to the basic formula. Northern and Southern Dynasties Dàmíng calendar The Dàmíng calendar (), created in the Northern and Southern Dynasties by Zu Chongzhi (429 CE – 500 CE), introduced the equinoxes. Tang dynasty Wùyín Yuán calendar The use of syzygy to determine the lunar month was first described in the Tang dynasty calendar (). Yuan dynasty Shòushí calendar The Yuan dynasty Shòushí calendar () used spherical trigonometry to find the length of the tropical year. The calendar had a 365.2425-day year, identical to the Gregorian calendar. Ming and Qing Shíxiàn calendar From 1645 to 1913 the or Chongzhen calendar was developed. During the late Ming dynasty, the Chinese Emperor appointed Xu Guangqi in 1629 to be the leader of the Shixian calendar reform. Assisted by Jesuits, he translated Western astronomical works and introduced new concepts, such as those of Nicolaus Copernicus, Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei, and Tycho Brahe; however, the new calendar was not released before the end of the dynasty. In the early Qing dynasty, Johann Adam Schall von Bell submitted the calendar which was edited by the lead of Xu Guangqi to the Shunzhi Emperor. The Qing government issued it as the (seasonal) calendar. In this calendar, the solar terms are 15° each along the ecliptic and it can be used as a solar calendar. However, the length of the climate term near the perihelion is less than 30 days and there may be two mid-climate terms. The calendar changed the mid-climate-term rule to "decide the month in sequence, except the intercalary month." The present "traditional calendar" follows the Shíxiàn calendar, except: # The baseline is Chinese Standard Time, rather than Beijing local time. # Modern astronomical data, rather than mathematical calculations, is used. Modern Chinese calendar The Chinese calendar lost its place as the country's official calendar at the beginning of the 20th century, its use has continued. The Republic of China Calendar published by the Beiyang government of the Republic of China still listed the dates of the Chinese calendar in addition to the Gregorian calendar. In 1929, the Nationalist government tried to ban the traditional Chinese calendar. The Calendar published by the government no longer listed the dates of the Chinese calendar. However, Chinese people were used to the traditional calendar and many traditional customs were based on the Chinese calendar. The ban failed and was lifted in 1934. The latest Chinese calendar was "New Edition of , revised edition", edited by Beijing Purple Mountain Observatory, People's Republic of China. In China, the modern calendar is defined by the Chinese national standard GB/T 33661–2017, "Calculation and Promulgation of the Chinese Calendar", issued by the Standardization Administration of China on 12 May 2017. Although modern-day China uses the Gregorian calendar, the traditional Chinese calendar governs holidays, such as the Chinese New Year and Lantern Festival, in both China and overseas Chinese communities. It also provides the traditional Chinese nomenclature of dates within a year which people use to select auspicious days for weddings, funerals, moving or starting a business. The evening state-run news program Xinwen Lianbo in the People's Republic of China continues to announce the months and dates in both the Gregorian and the traditional lunisolar calendar. To optimize the Chinese calendar, astronomers have proposed a number of changes. Kao Ping-tse (; 1888–1970), a Chinese astronomer who co-founded the Purple Mountain Observatory, proposed that month numbers be calculated before the new moon and solar terms to be rounded to the day. Since the intercalary month is determined by the first month without a mid-climate and the mid-climate time varies by time zone, countries that adopted the calendar but calculate with their own time could vary from the time in China. Contributions from Chinese astronomy The Chinese calendar has been a development involving much observation and calculation of the apparent movements of the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars, as observed from Earth. Many Chinese astronomers have contributed to the development of the Chinese calendar. Many were of the scholarly or shi class (), including writers of history, such as Sima Qian. Notable Chinese astronomers who have contributed to the development of the calendar include Gan De, Shi Shen, and Zu Chongzhi Early technological developments aiding in calendar development include the development of the gnomon. Later technological developments useful to the calendar system include naming, numbering and mapping of the sky, the development of analog computational devices such as the armillary sphere and the water clock, and the establishment of observatories. Phenology Early calendar systems, including the Chinese calendar, often were closely tied to natural phenomena. Phenology is the study of periodic events in biological life cycles and how these are influenced by seasonal and interannual variations in climate, as well as habitat factors (such as elevation). The plum-rains season (), the rainy season in late spring and early summer, begins on the first day after Mangzhong () and ends on the first day after Xiaoshu (). The Three Fu (\|psānfú}}) are three periods of hot weather, counted from the first day after the summer solstice. The first () is 10 days long. The mid- () is 10 or 20 days long. The last () is 10 days from the first day after the beginning of autumn. In traditional Chinese culture, "nine" represents the infinity, which is also the number of "Yang". According to one belief nine times accumulation of "Yang" gradually reduces the "Yin", and finally the weather becomes warm. Names of months Lunar months were originally named according to natural phenomena. Current naming conventions use numbers as the month names. Every month is also associated with one of the twelve Earthly Branches. {\| class="wikitable" !Month number ! Starts on Gregorian date !Phenological name !Earthly Branch name !Modern name \|- \|1 \|between 21 January – 20 February * \| \|labelsno \|pzōuyuè \|lcorner month}}. square of Pegasus month \| \|labelsno \|pyínyuè \|ltiger month}} \| \|labelsno \|pzhēngyuè \|lfirst month}} \|- \|2 \|between 20 February – 21 March * \| \|labelsno\|lapricot month \|pxìngyuè}} \| \|labelsno\|lrabbit month \|pmǎoyuè}} \| \|labelsno\|lsecond month \|pèryuè}} \|- \|3 \|between 21 March – 20 April * \| \|labelsno \|ptáoyuè \|lpeach month}} \| \|labelsno \|pchényuè \|ldragon month}} \| \|labelsno\|psānyuè \|lthird month}} \|- \|4 \|between 20 April – 21 May * \| \|labelsno \|pméiyuè \|lplum month}} \| \|labelsno \|psìyuè \|lsnake month}} \| \|labelsno\|psìyuè \|lfourth month}} \|- \|5 \|between 21 May – 21 June * \| \|labelsno \|pliúyuè \|lpomegranate month}} \| \|labelsno \|pwǔyuè \|lhorse month}} \| \|labelsno \|pwǔyuè \|lfifth month}} \|- \|6 \|between 21 June – 23 July * \| \|labelsno \|llotus month \|phéyuè}} \| \|labelsno \|lgoat month \|pwèiyuè}} \| \|labelsno \|lsixth month \|pliùyuè}} \|- \|7 \|between 23 July – 23 August * \| \|s \|labelsno \|lorchid month \|p=lányuè}} \| \|labelsno \|lmonkey month \|pshēnyuè}} \| \|labelsno \|lseventh month \|pqīyuè}} \|- \|8 \|between 23 August – 23 September * \| \|labelsno \|losmanthus month \|pguìyuè}} \| \|labelsno \|lrooster month \|pyǒuyuè}} \| \|labelsno \|leighth month \|pbāyuè}} \|- \|9 \|between 23 September – 23 October * \| \|labelsno \|pjúyuè \|lchrysanthemum month}} \| \|labelsno \|ldog month \|pxūyuè}} \| \|labelsno \|lninth month \|pjiǔyuè}} \|- \|10 \|between 23 October – 22 November * \| \|labelsno \|plùyuè \|ldew month}} \| \|labelsno \|lpig month \|phàiyuè}} \| \|labelsno \|ltenth month \|p shíyuè}} \|- \|11 \|between 22 November – 22 December * \| \|labelsno \|pdōngyuè \|lwinter month}}; \|labelsno \|pjiāyuè \|lreed month}} \| \|labelsno \|lrat month \|pzǐyuè}} \| \|labelsno \|leleventh month}} or \|labelsno \|leleventh month \|p=dōngyuè}} \|- \|12 \|between 22 December – 21 January * \| \|labelsno \|pbīngyuè \|lice month}} \| \|labelsno \|lox month \|pchǒuyuè}} \| \|labelsno \|ltwelfth month}} or \|t \|labelsno \|plàyuè \|lend-of-year month}} \|} Gregorian dates are approximate and should be used with caution. Many years have intercalary months. Though the numbered month names are often used for the corresponding month number in the Gregorian calendar, it is important to realize that the numbered month names are not interchangeable with the Gregorian months when talking about lunar dates. Incorrect: The Dragon Boat Festival falls on 5 May in the Lunar Calendar, whereas the Double Ninth Festival, Lantern Festival, and Qixi Festival fall on 9 September, 15 January, and 7 July in the Lunar Calendar, respectively. Correct: The Dragon Boat Festival falls on 5th in the Lunar Calendar, whereas the Double Ninth Festival, Lantern Festival and Qixi Festival fall on 9th, 15th and 7th in the Lunar Calendar, respectively. Alternate Chinese Zodiac correction: The Dragon Boat Festival falls on Horse Month 5th in the Lunar Calendar, whereas the Double Ninth Festival, Lantern Festival and Qixi Festival fall on Dog Month 9th, Tiger Month 15th and Monkey Month 7th in the Lunar Calendar, respectively (see Sexagenary system below). Horology Horology, or chronometry, refers to the measurement of time. In the context of the Chinese calendar, horology involves the definition and mathematical measurement of terms or elements such observable astronomic movements or events such as are associated with days, months, years, hours, and so on. These measurements are based upon objective, observable phenomena. Calendar accuracy is based upon accuracy and precision of measurements. The Chinese calendar is lunisolar, similar to the Hindu, Hebrew and ancient Babylonian calendars. In this case the calendar is in part based in objective, observable phenomena and in part by mathematical analysis to correlate the observed phenomena. Lunisolar calendars especially attempt to correlate the solar and lunar cycles, but other considerations can be agricultural and seasonal or phenological, or religious, or even political. Basic horologic definitions include that days begin and end at midnight, and months begin on the day of the new moon. Years start on the second (or third) new moon after the winter solstice. Solar terms govern the beginning, middle, and end of each month. A sexagenary cycle, comprising the heavenly stems () and the earthly branches (), is used as identification alongside each year and month, including intercalary months or leap months. Months are also annotated as either long ( for months with 30 days) or short ( for months with 29 days). There are also other elements of the traditional Chinese calendar. Day Days are Sun oriented, based upon divisions of the solar year. A day () is considered both traditionally and currently to be the time from one midnight to the next. Traditionally days (including the night-time portion) were divided into 12 double-hours, and in modern times the 24 hour system has become more standard.Week As early as the Bronze Age Xia dynasty, days were grouped into nine- or ten-day weeks known as . Months consisted of three . The first 10 days were the early (}}), the middle 10 the mid (}}), and the last nine (or 10) days were the late (}}). Japan adopted this pattern, with 10-day-weeks known as . In Korea, they were known as sun (,). The structure of led to public holidays every five or ten days. Officials of the Han dynasty were legally required to rest every five days (twice a , or 5–6 times a month). The name of these breaks became \|s \|lwash \|phuàn \|outp}}. Grouping days into sets of ten is still used today in referring to specific natural events. "Three Fu" (), a 29–30-day period which is the hottest of the year, reflects its three- length. After the winter solstice, nine sets of nine days were counted to calculate the end of winter. The seven-day week was adopted from the Hellenistic system by the 4th century CE, although its method of transmission into China is unclear. It was again transmitted to China in the 8th century by Manichaeans via Kangju (a Central Asian kingdom near Samarkand), is due to a reference to Fan Ning (\|s}}), an astrologer of the Jin dynasty.}}}} and is the most-used system in modern China. Month Months are Moon oriented. Month (), the time from one new moon to the next. These synodic months are about days long. This includes the Date (), when a day occurs in the month. Days are numbered in sequence from 1 to 29 (or 30). And, a Calendar month (), is when a month occurs within a year. Some months may be repeated. Months are defined by the time between new moons, which averages approximately days. There is no specified length of any particular Chinese month, so the first month could have 29 days (short month, ) in some years and 30 days (long month, ) in other years. Since the beginning of the month is determined by when the new moon occurs, other countries using this calendar use their own time standards to calculate it; this results in deviations. The first new moon in 1968 was at 16:29 UTC on 29 January. Since North Vietnam used UTC+07:00 to calculate their Vietnamese calendar and South Vietnam used UTC+08:00 (Beijing time) to calculate theirs, North Vietnam began the Tết holiday at 29 January at 23:29 while South Vietnam began it on 30 January at 00:15. The time difference allowed asynchronous attacks in the Tet Offensive. Because astronomical observation determines month length, dates on the calendar correspond to moon phases. The first day of each month is the new moon. On the seventh or eighth day of each month, the first-quarter moon is visible in the afternoon and early evening. On the 15th or 16th day of each month, the full moon is visible all night. On the 22nd or 23rd day of each month, the last-quarter moon is visible late at night and in the morning. Different eras used different systems to determine the length of each month. The synodic month of the Taichu calendar was days long. The 7th-century, Tang-dynasty Wùyín Yuán Calendar was the first to determine month length by synodic month instead of the cycling method. Since then, month lengths have primarily been determined by observation and prediction. The days of the month are always written with two characters and numbered beginning with 1. Days one to 10 are written with the day's numeral, preceded by the character Chū (); Chūyī () is the first day of the month, and Chūshí () the 10th. Days 11 to 20 are written as regular Chinese numerals; Shíwǔ () is the 15th day of the month, and Èrshí () the 20th. Days 21 to 29 are written with the character Niàn () before the characters one through nine; Niànsān (), for example, is the 23rd day of the month. Day 30 (when applicable) is written as the numeral Sānshí (). Year A year () is based upon the time of one revolution of Earth around the Sun, rounded to whole days. Traditionally, the year is measured from the first day of spring (lunisolar year) or the winter solstice (solar year). A 12-month-year using this system has 354 days, which would drift significantly from the tropical year. To fix this, traditional Chinese years have a 13-month year approximately once every three years. The 13-month version has the same long and short months alternating, but adds a 30-day leap month (\|p=rùnyuè}}). Years with 12 months are called common years, and 13-month years are known as long years. A solar year is astronomically about days. A lunisolar calendar year is either 353–355 or 383–385 days long. The lunisolar calendar () year usually begins on the new moon closest to Lichun, the first day of spring. This is typically the second and sometimes third new moon after the winter solstice. The lunisolar year begins with the first spring month, (\|lcapital month}}), and ends with the last winter month, (\|t\|lsacrificial month}}). All other months are named for their number in the month order. See below on the timing of the Chinese New Year. Solar year and solar terms The solar year (), the time between winter solstices, is divided into 24 solar terms known as . Each term is a 15° portion of the ecliptic. These solar terms mark both Western and Chinese seasons, as well as equinoxes, solstices, and other Chinese events. Pairs of solar terms are referred to as climate terms. The first solar term in a pair is the "pre-climate" (), and the second is the "mid-climate" (). The are considered "major terms", while the are deemed "minor terms". The solar terms on 5 April and on 22 December are both celebrated events in China. The solar year (suì, ) begins on the December solstice and proceeds through the 24 solar terms. Since the speed of the Sun's apparent motion in the elliptical is variable, the time between major terms/mid-climates is not fixed. This variation in time between major terms results in different solar year lengths. There are generally 11 or 12 complete lunar months, plus two incomplete lunar months around the winter solstice, in a solar year. The complete lunar months are numbered from 0 to 10, and the incomplete lunar month is considered the 11th month. If there are 12 complete (and one incomplete) lunar months within a solar year, it is known as a leap year (a year possessing an intercalary month). Different versions of the traditional calendar might have different average solar year lengths. For example, one solar year of the 1st century BCE Tàichū calendar is (365.25016) days. A solar year of the 13th-century Shòushí calendar is (365.2425) days, identical to the Gregorian calendar. The additional .00766 day from the Tàichū calendar leads to a one-day shift every 130.5 years. {\| class="wikitable" \|+24 solar terms !Number !Pinyin name !Chinese name !Translation !Approximate date !Corresponding astrological sign \|- \|J1 \| \| \|Beginning of spring \|5 February \|♒️ Aquarius \|- \|Z1 \| \| \|Rain water \|19 February \| rowspan="2" \|♓️ Pisces \|- \|J2 \| \|； \|Waking of insects \|6 March \|- \|Z2 \| \| \|Spring divide \|21 March \| rowspan="2" \|♈️ Aries \|- \|J3 \| \| \|Pure brightness \|5 April \|- \|Z3 \| \|； \|Grain rain \|20 April \| rowspan="2" \|♉️ Taurus \|- \|J4 \| \| \|Beginning of summer \|6 May \|- \|Z4 \| \|； \|Grain full \|21 May \| rowspan="2" \|♊️ Gemini \|- \|J5 \| \|； \|Grain in ear \|6 June \|- \|Z5 \| \| \|Summer extremity \|22 June \| rowspan="2" \|♋️ Cancer \|- \|J6 \| \| \|Slight heat \|7 July \|- \|Z6 \| \| \|Great heat \|23 July \| rowspan="2" \|♌️ Leo \|- \|J7 \| \| \|Beginning of autumn \|8 August \|- \|Z7 \| \|； \|Limit of heat \|23 August \| rowspan="2" \|♍️ Virgo \|- \|J8 \| \| \|White dew \|8 September \|- \|Z8 \| \| \|Autumn divide \|23 September \| rowspan="2" \|♎️ Libra \|- \|J9 \| \| \|Cold dew \|8 October \|- \|Z9 \| \| \|Descent of frost \|24 October \| rowspan="2" \|♏️ Scorpio \|- \|J10 \| \| \|Beginning of winter \|8 November \|- \|Z10 \| \| \|Slight snow \|22 November \| rowspan="2" \|♐️ Sagittarius \|- \|J11 \| \| \|Great snow \|7 December \|- \|Z11 \| \| \|Winter extremity \|22 December \| rowspan="2" \|♑️ Capricorn \|- \|J12 \| \| \|Slight cold \|6 January \|- \|Z12 \| \| \|Great cold \|20 January \|♒️ Aquarius \|} If there are 12 complete lunar months within a solar year,}} the first lunar month that does not contain any mid-climate is designated the leap, or intercalary, month. Leap months are numbered with , the character for "intercalary", plus the name of the month they follow. In 2017, the intercalary month after month six was called , or "intercalary sixth month" () and written as 6i or 6+. The next intercalary month (in 2020, after month four) will be called () and written 4i or 4+. Planets The movements of the Sun, Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn (sometimes known as the seven luminaries) are the references for calendar calculations. * The distance between Mercury and the sun is less than 30° (the sun's height at chénshí:, 8:00 to 10:00 am), so Mercury was sometimes called the "chen star" (); it is more commonly known as the "water star" (). * Venus appears at dawn and dusk and is known as the "bright star" (\|t}}) or "long star" (\|t=}}). * Mars looks like fire and occurs irregularly, and is known as the "fire star" (\|t}} or ). Mars is the punisher in Chinese mythology. When Mars is near Antares (), it is a bad omen and can forecast an emperor's death or a chancellor's removal (). * Jupiter's revolution period is 11.86 years, so Jupiter is called the "age star" (\|t}}); 30° of Jupiter's revolution is about a year on earth. * Saturn's revolution period is about 28 years. Known as the "guard star" (), Saturn guards one of the 28 Mansions every year.StarsBig Dipper The Big Dipper is the celestial compass, and its handle's direction indicates the season and month. 3 Enclosures and 28 Mansions The stars are divided into Three Enclosures and 28 Mansions according to their location in the sky relative to Ursa Minor, at the center. Each mansion is named with a character describing the shape of its principal asterism. The Three Enclosures are Purple Forbidden, (), Supreme Palace (), and Heavenly Market (). The eastern mansions are , , , , , , }}. Southern mansions are , , , , , , }}. Western mansions are , , , , , , }}. Northern mansions are , , , , , , }}. The moon moves through about one lunar mansion per day, so the 28 mansions were also used to count days. In the Tang dynasty, Yuan Tiangang () matched the 28 mansions, seven luminaries and yearly animal signs to yield combinations such as "horn-wood-flood dragon" (). List of lunar mansions The names and determinative stars of the mansions are: {\| class="wikitable" \|- !rowspan"2" align"center"\|Four Symbols<br>() !! colspan"4" align"center" \| Mansion (宿) \|- !Number !Name (Pinyin) !Translation !Determinative star \|- \|rowspan"7" \|Azure Dragon<br>of the East<br>()<br>Spring \| 1 \|\| \|\|Horn \|\| α Vir \|- \| 2 \|\| \|\|Neck \|\| κ Vir \|- \| 3 \|\| \|\|Root \|\| α Lib \|- \| 4 \|\| \|\|Room \|\| π Sco \|- \| 5 \|\| \|\|Heart \|\| α Sco \|- \| 6 \|\| \|\|Tail \|\| μ¹ Sco \|- \| 7 \|\| \|\|Winnowing Basket \|\| γ Sgr \|- \|rowspan"7" \|Black Tortoise<br>of the North<br>()<br>Winter<br /> \| 8 \|\| \|\| (Southern) Dipper \|\| φ Sgr \|- \| 9 \|\| \|\|Ox \|\| β Cap \|- \| 10 \|\| \|\|Girl \|\| ε Aqr \|- \| 11 \|\| \|\|Emptiness \|\| β Aqr \|- \| 12 \|\| \|\|Rooftop \|\| α Aqr \|- \| 13 \|\| \|\|Encampment \|\| α Peg \|- \| 14 \|\| \|\|Wall \|\| γ Peg \|- \|rowspan"7" \|White Tiger<br>of the West<br>()<br>Fall<br /> \| 15 \|\| \|\|Legs \|\| η And \|- \| 16 \|\| \|\|Bond \|\| β Ari \|- \| 17 \|\| \|\|Stomach \|\| 35 Ari \|- \| 18 \|\| \|\|Hairy Head \|\| 17 Tau \|- \| 19 \|\| \|\|Net \|\| ε Tau \|- \| 20 \|\| \|\|Turtle Beak \|\| λ Ori \|- \| 21 \|\| \|\|Three Stars \|\| ζ Ori \|- \|rowspan"7" \|Vermilion Bird<br>of the South<br>()<br>Summer<br /> \| 22 \|\| \|\|Well \|\| μ Gem \|- \| 23 \|\| \|\|Ghost \|\| θ Cnc \|- \| 24 \|\| \|\|Willow \|\| δ Hya \|- \| 25 \|\| \|\|Star \|\| α Hya \|- \| 26 \|\| \|\|Extended Net \|\| υ¹ Hya \|- \| 27 \|\| \|\|Wings \|\| α Crt \|- \| 28 \|\| \|\|Chariot \|\| γ Crv \|} Sexagenary system Several coding systems are used to avoid ambiguity. The Heavenly Stems is a decimal system. The Earthly Branches, a duodecimal system, mark dual hours (\|s}} or \|s}}) and climatic terms. The 12 characters progress from the first day with the same branch as the month (first day () of ; first day () of ), and count the days of the month. Years, months, days of the month and hours could traditionally numbered by the terminology of the Chinese sexagenary cycle. The stem-branches is a sexagesimal system. The Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches make up 60 stem-branches. The stem branches mark days and years. The five Wu Xing elements are assigned to each stem, branch, or stem branch. {\| class"wikitable" border"1" ! rowspan"2" \| Heavenly<br />Stem !! colspan"2" \| Meaning \|- ! Original meaning !! Modern \|- \|\|\| turtle shell \|\| first (book I, person A etc.), methyl group, helmet, armor, words related to beetles, crustaceans, fingernails, toenails \|- \|\|\| fishguts \|\| second (book II, person B etc.), ethyl group, twist \|- \|\|\| fishtail}}\|\| third, bright, fire, fishtail (rare) \|- \|\|\| nail \|\| fourth, male adult, robust, T-shaped, to strike, a surname \|- \|\|\| halberd \|\| (not used) \|- \|\|\| threads on a loom may have depicted thread on a loom; an ancient meaning was 'unravel threads', which was later written jì. was borrowed both for the word jǐ 'self', and for the name of the sixth Heavenly Stem ().}} \|\| self \|- \|\|\| evening star \|\| age (of person) \|- \|\|\| to offend superiors \|\| bitter, piquant, toilsome \|- \|\|\| burden rén depicts "a 丨 carrying pole supported 一 in the middle part and having one object attached at each end, as always done in China" —Karlgren (1923). (See biǎndan). Now the character rèn has the meaning of carrying a burden, and the original character is used only for the ninth of the ten heavenly stems ().}} \|\| to shoulder, to trust with office \|- \|\|\| grass for libation "stretch out the legs" + ; The nicely disposed grass, on which the Ancients poured the libations offered to the Manes}}\|\| (not used) \|} {\|class="wikitable" !rowspan=2\| !rowspan=2\|Earthly<br />Branch !colspan=3\|Chinese !rowspan=2\|Direction !rowspan=2\|Season !rowspan=2\|Lunar Month !rowspan=2\|Double Hour \|- !Mandarin<br />Zhuyin !Mandarin<br />Pinyin \|-tr align="center" \|\|1\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|<br />Rat\|\|0° (north)\|\|rowspan"2"\|winter\|\|Month 11\|\|11 pm to 1 am (midnight) \|-tr align="center" \|\|2\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\| <br /> Cow\|\|30°\|\|Month 12\|\|1am to 3 am \|-tr align="center" \|\|3\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|<br />Tiger\|\|60°\|\|td rowspan"3"\|spring\|\|Month 1\|\|3 am to 5 am \|-tr align="center" \|\|4\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|<br />Rabbit\|\|90° (east)\|\|Month 2\|\|5 am to 7 am \|-tr align="center" \|\|5\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|<br />Dragon\|\|120°\|\|Month 3\|\|7 am to 9 am \|-tr align="center" \|\|6\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|<br />Snake\|\|150°\|\|td rowspan"3"\|summer\|\|Month 4\|\|9 am to 11 am \|-tr align="center" \|\|7\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|<br />Horse\|\|180° (south)\|\|Month 5\|\|11 am to 1 pm (noon) \|-tr align="center" \|\|8\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|<br />Sheep\|\|210°\|\|Month 6\|\|1 pm to 3 pm \|-tr align="center" \|\|9\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|<br />Monkey\|\|240°\|\|td rowspan"3"\|autumn\|\|Month 7\|\|3 pm to 5 pm \|-tr align="center" \|\|10\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\| <br /> Chicken\|\|270° (west)\|\|Month 8\|\|5 pm to 7 pm \|-tr align="center" \|\|11\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|<br />Dog\|\|300°\|\|Month 9\|\|7 pm to 9 pm \|-tr align="center" \|\|12\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|<br />Wild boar\|\|330°\|\|winter\|\|Month 10\|\|9 pm to 11 pm \|} For example, the year from 12 February 2021 to 31 January 2022 was a year () of 12 months or 354 days. The 60 stem-branches have been used to mark the year since the Shang dynasty (1600 BCE – 1046 BCE). Astrologers knew that the orbital period of Jupiter is about 12×361 4332 days, which they divided into 12 years () of 361 days each. The stem-branches system solved the era system's problem of unequal reign lengths. (), dated YE 4609-10-15 (, yyyy-mm-dd)]] Current naming conventions use numbers as the month names, although each month is also associated with one of the twelve Earthly Branches. Correspondences with Gregorian dates are approximate and should be used with caution. Many years have intercalary months. Historically, Chinese had days of the month numbered with the 60 stem-branches: …，奉安太祖、太宗御容于南京鴻慶宮}}. <br /> 1st year……, the emperor's funeral was at his temple, and the imperial portrait was installed in Nanjing's Hongqing Palace. \|titleHistory of Song Dynasty\|sign\|source}} Fortune-tellers identify the heavenly stem and earthly branch corresponding to a particular day in the month, and those corresponding to its month, and those to its year, to determine the Four Pillars of Destiny associated with it, for which the Tung Shing, also referred to as the Chinese Almanac of the year, or the Huangli, and containing the essential information concerning Chinese astrology, is the most convenient publication to consult. Days rotate through a sexagenary cycle marked by coordination between heavenly stems and earthly branches, hence the referral to the Four Pillars of Destiny as, "Bazi", or "Birth Time Eight Characters", with each pillar consisting of a character for its corresponding heavenly stem, and another for its earthly branch. Since Huangli days are sexagenaric, their order is quite independent of their numeric order in each month, and of their numeric order within a week (referred to as True Animals in relation to the Chinese zodiac). Therefore, it does require painstaking calculation for one to arrive at the Four Pillars of Destiny of a particular given date, which rarely outpaces the convenience of simply consulting the Huangli by looking up its Gregorian date. The Tang dynasty used the Earthly Branches to mark the months from December 761 to May 762. Over this period, the year began with the winter solstice. China has used the Western hour-minute-second system to divide the day since the Qing dynasty. Several systems were in use historically; systems using multiples of twelve and ten were popular, since they could be easily counted and aligned with the Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches. Age reckoning In modern China, a person's official age is based on the Gregorian calendar. For traditional use, age is based on the Chinese Sui calendar. A child is considered one year old at birth. After each Chinese New Year, one year is added to their traditional age. Their age therefore is the number of Chinese calendar years in which they have lived. Due to the potential for confusion, the age of infants is often given in months instead of years. After the Gregorian calendar was introduced in China, the Chinese traditional-age was referred to as the "nominal age" () and the Gregorian age was known as the "real age" (). Holidays Various traditional and religious holidays shared by communities throughout the world use the Chinese (Lunisolar) calendar: Chinese New Year The date of the Chinese New Year accords with the patterns of the lunisolar calendar and hence is variable from year to year. The invariant between years is that the winter solstice, Dongzhi is required to be in the eleventh month of the year This means that Chinese New Year will be on the second new moon after the previous winter solstice, unless there is a leap month 11 or 12 in the previous year. This rule is accurate, however there are two other mostly (but not completely) accurate rules that are commonly stated: * The new year is on the new moon closest to Lichun (typically 4 February). * The new year is on the first new moon after Dahan (typically 20 January) It has been found that Chinese New Year moves back by either 10, 11, or 12 days in most years. If it falls on or before 31 January, then it moves forward in the next year by either 18, 19, or 20 days. Holidays with the same day and same month The Chinese New Year (known as the Spring Festival/ in China) is on the first day of the first month and was traditionally called the Yuan Dan () or Zheng Ri (). In Vietnam it is known as Tết Nguyên Đán (). Traditionally it was the most important holiday of the year. It is an official holiday in China including Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan regions,and, Vietnam, Korea, the Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, and Mauritius. It is also a public holiday in Thailand's Narathiwat, Pattani, Yala and Satun provinces, and is an official public school holiday in New York City. The Double Third Festival is on the third day of the third month. The Dragon Boat Festival, or the Duanwu Festival (), is on the fifth day of the fifth month and is an official holiday in China including Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan regions. The Qixi Festival () is celebrated in the evening of the seventh day of the seventh month. The Double Ninth Festival () is celebrated on the ninth day of the ninth month. Full moon holidays (holidays on the fifteenth day) The Lantern Festival is celebrated on the fifteenth day of the first month and was traditionally called the Yuan Xiao () or Shang Yuan Festival (). The Zhong Yuan Festival is celebrated on the fifteenth day of the seventh month. The Mid-Autumn Festival is celebrated on the fifteenth day of the eighth month. The Xia Yuan Festival is celebrated on the fifteenth day of the tenth month. Celebrations of the twelfth month The Laba Festival is on the eighth day of the twelfth month. It is the enlightenment day of Sakyamuni Buddha and in Vietnam is known as . The Kitchen God Festival is celebrated on the twenty-third day of the twelfth month in northern regions of China and on the twenty-fourth day of the twelfth month in southern regions of China. Chinese New Year's Eve is also known as the Chuxi Festival and is celebrated on the evening of the last day of the lunar calendar. It is celebrated wherever the lunar calendar is observed. Celebrations of solar-term holidays The Qingming Festival () is celebrated on the fifteenth day after the Spring Equinox. The Dongzhi Festival () or the Winter Solstice is celebrated. Religious holidays based on the lunar calendar East Asian Mahayana, Daoist, and some Cao Dai holidays and/or vegetarian observances are based on the Lunar Calendar. Celebrations in Japan Many of the above holidays of the lunar calendar are also celebrated in Japan, but since the Meiji era on the similarly numbered dates of the Gregorian calendar. Double celebrations due to intercalary months In the case when there is a corresponding intercalary month, the holidays may be celebrated twice. For example, in the hypothetical situation in which there is an additional intercalary seventh month, the Zhong Yuan Festival will be celebrated in the seventh month followed by another celebration in the intercalary seventh month. The next such occasion will be 2033, the first such since the calendar reform of 1645. Similar calendars Like Chinese characters, variants of the Chinese calendar have been used in different parts of the Sinosphere throughout history: this includes Vietnam, Korea, Singapore, Japan and Ryukyu, Mongolia, and elsewhere. Outlying areas of China Calendars of ethnic groups in mountains and plateaus of southwestern China and grasslands of northern China are based on their phenology and algorithms of traditional calendars of different periods, particularly the Tang and pre-Qin dynasties.Non-Chinese areasKorea, Vietnam, and the Ryukyu Islands adopted the Chinese calendar. In the respective regions, the Chinese calendar has been adapted into the Korean, Vietnamese, and Ryukyuan calendars, with the main difference from the Chinese calendar being the use of different meridians due to geography, leading to some astronomical events — and calendar events based on them — falling on different dates. The traditional Japanese calendar was also derived from the Chinese calendar (based on a Japanese meridian), but Japan abolished its official use in 1873 after Meiji Restoration reforms. Calendars in Mongolia and Tibet have absorbed elements of the traditional Chinese calendar but are not direct descendants of it. See also * Chinese calendar correspondence table * Chinese numerals * East Asian age reckoning * Guo Shoujing, an astronomer tasked with calendar reform during the 13th century * List of festivals in Asia * Metonic cycle of 19 years is used to reckon leap years with intercalary months in the Hebrew and Babylonian calendars Notes References Sources * * * Further reading * External links ; Calendars * [http://www.chinesetools.eu/tools/chinesecalendar Chinese months] * [http://www.hko.gov.hk/en/gts/time/conversion.htm Gregorian-Lunar calendar years] (1901–2100) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20131004223339/http://china-calendar.com/en_calendar/ Chinese calendar and holidays] * [http://www.yourchineseastrology.com/calendar/ Chinese calendar with Auspicious Events] * [http://www.chinesecalendaronline.com Chinese Calendar Online] ; Calendar conversion * [http://sinocal.sinica.edu.tw 2000-year Chinese-Western calendar converter] From 1 CE to 2100 CE. Useful for historical studies. To use, put the western year 年 month 月day 日in the bottom row and click on 執行. * [http://lunarcalendar.bitsoftidbits.com/ Western-Chinese calendar converter] ; Rules * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090712043248/http://www.math.nus.edu.sg/aslaksen/calendar/chinese.html Mathematics of the Chinese Calendar] * [http://www.hermetic.ch/cal_stud/chinese_cal.htm The Structure of the Chinese Calendar] Calendar Category:Horology Category:Lunisolar calendars Category:Specific calendars	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_calendar	2025-04-05T18:28:01.010990
6968	Customer relationship management	Customer relationship management (CRM) is a strategic process that organizations use to manage, analyze, and improve their interactions with customers. By leveraging data-driven insights, CRM helps businesses optimize communication, enhance customer satisfaction, and drive sustainable growth. CRM systems compile data from a range of different communication channels, including a company's website, telephone (which many software come with a softphone), email, live chat, marketing materials and more recently, social media. They allow businesses to learn more about their target audiences and how to better cater to their needs, thus retaining customers and driving sales growth. CRM may be used with past, present or potential customers. The concepts, procedures, and rules that a corporation follows when communicating with its consumers are referred to as CRM. This complete connection covers direct contact with customers, such as sales and service-related operations, forecasting, and the analysis of consumer patterns and behaviours, from the perspective of the company. The global customer relationship management market size is projected to grow from $101.41 billion in 2024 to $262.74 billion by 2032, at a CAGR of 12.6% HistoryThe concept of customer relationship management started in the early 1970s, when customer satisfaction was evaluated using annual surveys or by front-line asking. At that time, businesses had to rely on standalone mainframe systems to automate sales, but the extent of technology allowed them to categorize customers in spreadsheets and lists. One of the best-known precursors of modern-day CRM is the Farley File. Developed by Franklin Roosevelt's campaign manager, James Farley, the Farley File was a comprehensive set of records detailing political and personal facts about people FDR and Farley met or were supposed to meet. Using it, people that FDR met were impressed by his "recall" of facts about their family and what they were doing professionally and politically. In 1982, Kate and Robert D. Kestenbaum introduced the concept of database marketing, namely applying statistical methods to analyze and gather customer data. By 1986, Pat Sullivan and Mike Muhney had released a customer evaluation system called ACT! based on the principle of a digital Rolodex, which offered a contact management service for the first time. The trend was followed by numerous companies and independent developers trying to maximize lead potential, including Tom Siebel of Siebel Systems, who designed the first CRM product, Siebel Customer Relationship Management, in 1993. In order to compete with these new and quickly growing stand-alone CRM solutions, established enterprise resource planning (ERP) software companies like Oracle, Zoho Corporation, SAP, Peoplesoft (an Oracle subsidiary as of 2005) and Navision started extending their sales, distribution and customer service capabilities with embedded CRM modules. This included embedding sales force automation or extended customer service (e.g. inquiry, activity management) as CRM features in their ERP. Customer relationship management was popularized in 1997 due to the work of Siebel, Gartner, and IBM. Between 1997 and 2000, leading CRM products were enriched with shipping and marketing capabilities. Siebel introduced the first mobile CRM app called Siebel Sales Handheld in 1999. The idea of a stand-alone, cloud-hosted customer base was soon adopted by other leading providers at the time, including PeopleSoft (acquired by Oracle), The first open-source CRM system was developed by SugarCRM in 2004. During this period, CRM was rapidly migrating to the cloud, as a result of which it became accessible to sole entrepreneurs and small teams. This increase in accessibility generated a huge wave of price reduction. In 2013 and 2014, most of the popular CRM products were linked to business intelligence systems and communication software to improve corporate communication and end-users' experience. The leading trend is to replace standardized CRM solutions with industry-specific ones, or to make them customizable enough to meet the needs of every business. In November 2016, Forrester released a report where it "identified the nine most significant CRM suites from eight prominent vendors". Types Strategic Strategic CRM concentrates upon the development of a customer-centric business culture. The focus of a business on being customer-centric (in design and implementation of their CRM strategy) will translate into an improved CLV. Operational The primary goal of CRM systems is integration and automation of sales, marketing, and customer support. Therefore, these systems typically have a dashboard that gives an overall view of the three functions on a single customer view, a single page for each customer that a company may have. The dashboard may provide client information, past sales, previous marketing efforts, and more, summarizing all of the relationships between the customer and the firm. Operational CRM is made up of three main components: sales force automation, marketing automation, and service automation. * Sales force automation works with all stages in the sales cycle, from initially entering contact information to converting a prospective client into an actual client. It implements sales promotion analysis, automates the tracking of a client's account history for repeated sales or future sales and coordinates sales, marketing, call centers, and retail outlets. It prevents duplicate efforts between a salesperson and a customer and also automatically tracks all contacts and follow-ups between both parties. * Marketing automation focuses on easing the overall marketing process to make it more effective and efficient. CRM tools with marketing automation capabilities can automate repeated tasks, for example, sending out automated marketing emails at certain times to customers or posting marketing information on social media. The goal with marketing automation is to turn a sales lead into a full customer. CRM systems today also work on customer engagement through social media. * Service automation is the part of the CRM system that focuses on direct customer service technology. Through service automation, customers are supported through multiple channels such as phone, email, knowledge bases, ticketing portals, FAQs, and more. Analytical CRM systems use techniques such as data mining, correlation, and pattern recognition to analyze customer data. These analytics help improve customer service by finding small problems which can be solved, perhaps by marketing to different parts of a consumer audience differently.Customer data platform A customer data platform (CDP) is a computer system used by marketing departments that assembles data about individual people from various sources into one database, with which other software systems can interact. Components The main components of CRM are building and managing customer relationships through marketing, observing relationships as they mature through distinct phases, managing these relationships at each stage and recognizing that the distribution of the value of a relationship to the firm is not homogeneous. When building and managing customer relationships through marketing, firms might benefit from using a variety of tools to help organizational design, incentive schemes, customer structures, and more to optimize the reach of their marketing campaigns. Through the acknowledgment of the distinct phases of CRM, businesses will be able to benefit from seeing the interaction of multiple relationships as connected transactions. The final factor of CRM highlights the importance of CRM through accounting for the profitability of customer relationships. By studying the particular spending habits of customers, a firm may be able to dedicate different resources and amounts of attention to different types of consumers. Relational Intelligence, which is the awareness of the variety of relationships a customer can have with a firm and the ability of the firm to reinforce or change those connections, is an important component of the main phases of CRM. Companies may be good at capturing demographic data, such as gender, age, income, and education, and connecting them with purchasing information to categorize customers into profitability tiers, but this is only a firm's industrial view of customer relationships. A lack of relational intelligence is a sign that firms still see customers as resources that can be used for up-sell or cross-sell opportunities, rather than people looking for interesting and personalized interactions. CRM systems include: * Data warehouse technology, which is used to aggregate transaction information, to merge the information with CRM products, and to provide key performance indicators. * Opportunity management, which helps the company to manage unpredictable growth and demand and implement a good forecasting model to integrate sales history with sales projections. * CRM systems that track and measure marketing campaigns over multiple networks, tracking customer analysis by customer clicks and sales. * Some CRM software is available as a software as a service (SaaS), delivered via the internet and accessed via a web browser instead of being installed on a local computer. Businesses using the software do not purchase it but typically pay a recurring subscription fee to the software vendor. The implementation of a CRM approach is likely to affect customer satisfaction and customer knowledge for a variety of different reasons. Firstly, firms can customize their offerings for each customer. By accumulating information across customer interactions and processing this information to discover hidden patterns, CRM applications help firms customize their offerings to suit the individual tastes of their customers. CRM applications also help firms manage customer relationships more effectively across the stages of relationship initiation, maintenance, and termination. These central benefits of CRM will be connected hypothetically to the three kinds of equity, which are relationship, value, and brand, and in the end to customer equity. Eight benefits were recognized to provide value drivers. # Enhanced ability to target profitable customers. # Integrated assistance across channels. # Enhanced sales force efficiency and effectiveness. # Improved pricing. # Customized products and services. # Improved customer service efficiency and effectiveness. # Individualized marketing messages are also called campaigns. # Connect customers and all channels on a single platform. Examples Research has found a 5% increase in customer retention boosts lifetime customer profits by 50% on average across multiple industries, as well as a boost of up to 90% within specific industries such as insurance. Companies that have mastered customer relationship strategies have the most successful CRM programs. For example, MBNA Europe has had a 75% annual profit growth since 1995. The firm heavily invests in screening potential cardholders. Once proper clients are identified, the firm retains 97% of its profitable customers. They implement CRM by marketing the right products to the right customers. The firm's customers' card usage is 52% above the industry norm, and the average expenditure is 30% more per transaction. Also 10% of their account holders ask for more information on cross-sale products. Customer or consumer profiles are the essences of the data that is collected alongside core data (name, address, company) and processed through customer analytics methods, essentially a type of profiling. The three basic methods of customer profiling are the psychographic approach, the consumer typology approach, and the consumer characteristics approach. These customer profiling methods help you design your business around who your customers are and help you make better customer-centered decisions. Improving CRM Consultants hold that it is important for companies to establish strong CRM systems to improve their relational intelligence. According to this argument, a company must recognize that people have many different types of relationships with different brands. One research study analyzed relationships between consumers in China, Germany, Spain, and the United States, with over 200 brands in 11 industries including airlines, cars, and media. This information is valuable as it provides demographic, behavioral, and value-based customer segmentation. These types of relationships can be both positive and negative. Some customers view themselves as friends of the brands, while others as enemies, and some are mixed with a love-hate relationship with the brand. Some relationships are distant, intimate, or anything in between. Many companies do not properly make use of this great amount of data, however. All of these are signs of what types of relationships the customer wants with the firm, and therefore companies may consider investing more time and effort in building out their relational intelligence. Employee training Many firms have also implemented training programs to teach employees how to recognize and create strong customer-brand relationships. Other employees have also been trained in social psychology and the social sciences to help bolster customer relationships. Customer service representatives must be trained to value customer relationships and trained to understand existing customer profiles. Even the finance and legal departments should understand how to manage and build relationships with customers.In practiceCall centersContact centre CRM providers are popular for small and mid-market businesses. These systems codify the interactions between the company and customers by using analytics and key performance indicators to give the users information on where to focus their marketing and customer service. This allows agents to have access to a caller's history to provide personalized customer communication. The intention is to maximize average revenue per user, decrease churn rate and decrease idle and unproductive contact with the customers. Growing in popularity is the idea of gamifying, or using game design elements and game principles in a non-game environment such as customer service environments. The gamification of customer service environments includes providing elements found in games like rewards and bonus points to customer service representatives as a method of feedback for a job well done. Gamification tools can motivate agents by tapping into their desire for rewards, recognition, achievements, and competition.Contact-center automationContact-center automation, CCA, the practice of having an integrated system that coordinates contacts between an organization and the public, is designed to reduce the repetitive and tedious parts of a contact center agent's job. Automation prevents this by having pre-recorded audio messages that help customers solve their problems. For example, an automated contact center may be able to re-route a customer through a series of commands asking him or her to select a certain number to speak with a particular contact center agent who specializes in the field in which the customer has a question. Software tools can also integrate with the agent's desktop tools to handle customer questions and requests. This also saves time on behalf of the employees. Because the public, especially young people, are increasingly using social networking sites, companies use Some CRM systems integrate social media sites like Twitter, LinkedIn, and Facebook to track and communicate with customers. These customers also share their own opinions and experiences with a company's products and services, giving these firms more insight. Therefore, these firms can both share their own opinions and also track the opinions of their customers. Location-based services CRM systems can also include technologies that create geographic marketing campaigns. The systems take in information based on a customer's physical location and sometimes integrates it with popular location-based GPS applications. It can be used for networking or contact management as well to help increase sales based on location. The main differences between business-to-consumer (B2C) and business-to-business CRM systems concern aspects like sizing of contact databases and length of relationships.Market trends Social networking In the Gartner CRM Summit 2010 challenges like "system tries to capture data from social networking traffic like Twitter, handles Facebook page addresses or other online social networking sites" were discussed and solutions were provided that would help in bringing more clientele. The era of the "social customer" refers to the use of social media by customers. Mobile Some CRM systems are equipped with mobile capabilities, making information accessible to remote sales staff. Cloud computing and SaaS Many CRM vendors offer subscription-based web tools (cloud computing) and SaaS. Salesforce.com was the first company to provide enterprise applications through a web browser, and has maintained its leadership position. Traditional providers moved into the cloud-based market via acquisitions of smaller providers: Oracle purchased RightNow in October 2011, and Taleo and Eloqua in 2012; SAP acquired SuccessFactors in December 2011 and NetSuite acquired Verenia in 2022. Sales and sales force automation Sales forces also play an important role in CRM, as maximizing sales effectiveness and increasing sales productivity is a driving force behind the adoption of CRM software. Some of the top CRM trends identified in 2021 include focusing on customer service automation such as chatbots, hyper-personalization based on customer data and insights, and the use of unified CRM systems. CRM vendors support sales productivity with different products, such as tools that measure the effectiveness of ads that appear in 3D video games. Pharmaceutical companies were some of the first investors in sales force automation (SFA) and some are on their third- or fourth-generation implementations. However, until recently, the deployments did not extend beyond SFA—limiting their scope and interest to Gartner analysts. Vendor relationship management Another related development is vendor relationship management (VRM), which provide tools and services that allow customers to manage their individual relationship with vendors. VRM development has grown out of efforts by ProjectVRM at Harvard's Berkman Center for Internet & Society and Identity Commons' Internet Identity Workshops, as well as by a growing number of startups and established companies. VRM was the subject of a cover story in the May 2010 issue of CRM Magazine. Customer success Another trend worth noting is the rise of Customer Success as a discipline within companies. More and more companies establish Customer Success teams as separate from the traditional Sales team and task them with managing existing customer relations. This trend fuels demand for additional capabilities for a more holistic understanding of customer health, which is a limitation for many existing vendors in the space. As a result, a growing number of new entrants enter the market while existing vendors add capabilities in this area to their suites. AI and predictive analytics In 2017, artificial intelligence and predictive analytics were identified as the newest trends in CRM. Criticism Companies face large challenges when trying to implement CRM systems. Consumer companies frequently manage their customer relationships haphazardly and unprofitably. They may not effectively or adequately use their connections with their customers, due to misunderstandings or misinterpretations of a CRM system's analysis. Clients may be treated like an exchange party, rather than a unique individual, due to, occasionally, a lack of a bridge between the CRM data and the CRM analysis output. Many studies show that customers are frequently frustrated by a company's inability to meet their relationship expectations, and on the other side, companies do not always know how to translate the data they have gained from CRM software into a feasible action plan. Many corporations only use CRM systems on a partial or fragmented basis. In a 2007 survey from the UK, four-fifths of senior executives reported that their biggest challenge is getting their staff to use the systems they had installed. Forty-three percent of respondents said they use less than half the functionality of their existing systems. However, market research regarding consumers' preferences may increase the adoption of CRM among developing countries' consumers. Collection of customer data such as personally identifiable information must strictly obey customer privacy laws, which often requires extra expenditures on legal support. Part of the paradox with CRM stems from the challenge of determining exactly what CRM is and what it can do for a company. The CRM paradox, also referred to as the "dark side of CRM", may entail favoritism and differential treatment of some customers. This can happen because a business prioritizes customers who are more profitable, more relationship-orientated or tend to have increased loyalty to the company. Although focusing on such customers by itself is not a bad thing, it can leave other customers feeling left out and alienated potentially decreasing profits because of it. CRM technologies can easily become ineffective if there is no proper management, and they are not implemented correctly. The data sets must also be connected, distributed, and organized properly so that the users can access the information that they need quickly and easily. Research studies also show that customers are increasingly becoming dissatisfied with contact center experiences due to lags and wait times. They also request and demand multiple channels of communication with a company, and these channels must transfer information seamlessly. Therefore, it is increasingly important for companies to deliver a cross-channel customer experience that can be both consistent as well as reliable.<ref name"SearchCRM-2015"/>See also * * * * * * * * * * * * <small></small> References Category:Business computing Category:Office and administrative support occupations Category:Marketing techniques Category:Services marketing	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customer_relationship_management	2025-04-05T18:28:01.062104
6970	Chuck-a-luck	thumb\|right\|Workers play Chuck-a-luck during World War One in France on an improvised board. Chuck-a-luck, also known as birdcage, or sweat rag, is a game of chance played with three dice. It is derived from grand hazard and both can be considered a variant of sic bo, which is a popular casino game, although chuck-a-luck is more of a carnival game than a true casino game. The game is sometimes used as a fundraiser for charity. Rules Chuck-a-luck is played with three standard six-sided, numbered dice that are kept in a device shaped somewhat like an hourglass which resembles a wire-frame bird cage and pivots about its centre. The dealer rotates the cage end over end, with the dice landing on the bottom. Wagers are placed based on possible combinations that can appear on the three dice. The possible wagers are usually fewer than the wagers that are possible in sic bo and, in that sense, chuck-a-luck can be considered to be a simpler game. In the simplest variant, bettors place stakes on a board with six numbered spaces, labelled 1 through 6, inclusive. They receive a 1:1 payout if the number bet on appears once, a 2:1 payout if the number appears twice, and a 3:1 payout if the number is rolled all 3 times. In this respect, the basic game is identical to Crown and Anchor, but with numbered dice instead of symbols. Additional wagers that are commonly seen, and their associated odds, are set out in the table below. TypeWagerTypical payout Actual odds House edge Single Die Bet A specific number will appear1 die matches:1 to 1 (%) %(10:1)%(3:1)2 dice match:2 to 1(%) 3 dice match:10 to 1 (%)Any Triple Any of the triples (all three dice show the same number) will appear30 to 1 (%) %Big The total score will be 11 (sometimes 12) or higher with the exception of a triple1 to 1 (%) %(≥11)Small The total score will be 10 (sometimes 9) or lower with the exception of a triple1 to 1 (%) %(≤10)Field The total score will be outside the range of 8 to 12 (inclusive)1 to 1 (%) %(12) Notes House advantage or edge Chuck-a-luck is a game of chance. On average, the players are expected to lose more than they win. The casino's advantage (house advantage or house edge) is greater than most other casino games and can be much greater for certain wagers. According to John Scarne, "habitual gamblers stay away from Chuck-a-Luck because they know how little chance they have against such a high [house edge]. They call Chuck-a-Luck 'the champ chump's game. For the single die bet, there are 216 (6 × 6 × 6) possible outcomes for a throw of three dice. For a specific number: there are 75 possible outcomes where only one die will match the number; there are 15 possible outcomes where two dice will match; and there is one possible outcome where all three dice will match; and so there are 125 possible outcomes where no die will match the number. At payouts of 1 to 1, 2 to 1 and 10 to 1 respectively for each of these types of outcome, the expected loss as a percentage of the stake wagered is: 1 - ((75/216) × 2 + (15/216) × 3 + (1/216) × 11) = 4.6% At more disadvantageous payouts of 1 to 1, 2 to 1 and 3 to 1, the expected loss as a percentage of the stake wagered is: 1 - ((75/216) × 2 + (15/216) × 3 + (1/216) × 4) = 7.9% If the payouts are adjusted to 1 to 1, 3 to 1 and 5 to 1 respectively, the expected loss as a percentage is: 1 - ((75/216) × 2 + (15/216) × 4 + (1/216) × 6) = 0% Commercially organised gambling games almost always have a house advantage which acts as a fee for the privilege of being allowed to play the game, so the last scenario would represent a payout system used for a home game, where players take turns being the role of banker/casino. Variants thumb\|Bau cua ca cop dice As noted previously, the single-die wager of chuck-a-luck is essentially identical to Crown and Anchor, the traditional Vietnamese game Bau cua ca cop, and the Chinese dice game Hoo Hey How, each of which use six-sided dice with symbols instead of pips. A version of the Big Six wheel is loosely based on chuck-a-luck, with selected combinations of three dice appearing in 54 slots on a spinning wheel. Because of the distribution of the combinations, the house advantage or edge for this wheel is greater than for chuck-a-luck. In popular culture There is a reference to chuck-a-luck in the Abbott and Costello film Hold That Ghost. In Fritz Lang's 1952 film, Rancho Notorious, chuck-a-luck is the name of the ranch run by Altar Keane (played by Marlene Dietrich) where outlaws hide from the law. Chuck-a-luck is featured in the lyrics to the theme song and in some plot points. The game is played by Lazar in the James Bond movie The Man with the Golden Gun. The game is played by Freddie Rumsen in Mad Men season 2 episode 9, "Six-Month Leave". In Dragonfly in Amber the character Claire Randall describes the activity inside of an inn as having several soldiers playing chuck-a-luck on the floor along with a dog sleeping by the fire and smelling strongly of hops. See also Crown and anchor References Category:Dice games	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuck-a-luck	2025-04-05T18:28:01.072370
6972	Chipmunk	Chipmunks are small, striped rodents of subtribe Tamiina. Chipmunks are found in North America, with the exception of the Siberian chipmunk which is found primarily in Asia. Taxonomy and systematics Chipmunks are classified as four genera: Tamias, of which the eastern chipmunk (T. striatus) is the only living member; Eutamias, of which the Siberian chipmunk (E. sibiricus) is the only living member; Nototamias, which consists of three extinct species, and Neotamias, which includes the 23 remaining, mostly western North American, species. These classifications were treated as subgenera due to the chipmunks' morphological similarities. As a result, most taxonomies over the twentieth century have placed the chipmunks into a single genus. Joseph C. Moore reclassified chipmunks to form a subtribe Tamiina in a 1959 study, and this classification has been supported by studies of mitochondrial DNA. The common name originally may have been spelled "chitmunk", from the native Odawa (Ottawa) word jidmoonh, meaning "red squirrel" (cf. Ojibwe ajidamoo). The earliest form cited in the Oxford English Dictionary is "chipmonk", from 1842. Other early forms include "chipmuck" and "chipminck", and in the 1830s they were also referred to as "chip squirrels", probably in reference to the sound they make. In the mid-19th century, John James Audubon and his sons included a lithograph of the chipmunk in their Viviparous Quadrupeds of North America, calling it the "chipping squirrel [or] hackee". Chipmunks have also been referred to as "ground squirrels" (although the name "ground squirrel" may refer to other squirrels, such as those of the genus Spermophilus).DietChipmunks have an omnivorous diet primarily consisting of seeds, nuts and other fruits, and buds. Around humans, chipmunks can eat cultivated grains and vegetables, and other plants from farms and gardens, so they are sometimes considered pests. Chipmunks mostly forage on the ground, but they climb trees to obtain nuts such as hazelnuts and acorns. At the beginning of autumn, many species of chipmunk begin to stockpile nonperishable foods for winter. They mostly cache their foods in a larder in their burrows and remain in their nests until spring, unlike some other species which make multiple small caches of food.Ecology and life history ]] Eastern chipmunks, the largest of the chipmunks, mate in early spring and again in early summer, producing litters of four or five young twice each year. Western chipmunks breed only once a year. The young emerge from the burrow after about six weeks and strike out on their own within the next two weeks. These small mammals fulfill several important functions in forest ecosystems. Their activities harvesting and hoarding tree seeds play a crucial role in seedling establishment. They consume many different kinds of fungi, including those involved in symbiotic mycorrhizal associations with trees, and are a vector for dispersal of the spores of subterranean sporocarps (truffles) in some regions. <!--which have co-evolved with these and other mycophagous mammals and thus lost the ability to disperse their spores through the air.--> Chipmunks construct extensive burrows which can be more than in length with several well-concealed entrances. The sleeping quarters are kept clear of shells, and feces are stored in refuse tunnels. The eastern chipmunk hibernates in the winter, while western chipmunks do not, relying on the stores in their burrows. Chipmunks play an important role as prey for various predatory mammals and birds but are also opportunistic predators themselves, particularly with regard to bird eggs and nestlings, as in the case of eastern chipmunks and mountain bluebirds (Siala currucoides). Chipmunks typically live about three years, although some have been observed living to nine years in captivity. Chipmunks are diurnal. In captivity, they are said to sleep for an average of about 15 hours a day. It is thought that mammals which can sleep in hiding, such as rodents and bats, tend to sleep longer than those that must remain on alert. Genera Genus Eutamias * Siberian chipmunk, Eutamias sibiricus Genus Tamias * Eastern chipmunk, Tamias striatus * Tamias aristus † Genus Neotamias * Allen's chipmunk, Neotamias senex * Alpine chipmunk, Neotamias alpinus * Buller's chipmunk, Neotamias bulleri * California chipmunk, Neotamias obscurus * Cliff chipmunk, Neotamias dorsalis * Colorado chipmunk, Neotamias quadrivittatus * Durango chipmunk, Neotamias durangae * Gray-collared chipmunk, Neotamias cinereicollis * Gray-footed chipmunk, Neotamias canipes * Hopi chipmunk, Neotamias rufus * Least chipmunk, Neotamias minimus * Lodgepole chipmunk, Neotamias speciosus * Long-eared chipmunk, Neotamias quadrimaculatus * Merriam's chipmunk, Neotamias merriami * Palmer's chipmunk, Neotamias palmeri * Panamint chipmunk, Neotamias panamintinus * Red-tailed chipmunk, Neotamias ruficaudus * Siskiyou chipmunk, Neotamias siskiyou * Sonoma chipmunk, Neotamias sonomae * Townsend's chipmunk, Neotamias townsendii * Uinta chipmunk, Neotamias umbrinus * Yellow-cheeked chipmunk, Neotamias ochrogenys * Yellow-pine chipmunk, Neotamias amoenus Genus Nototamias † * Nototamias ateles † * Nototamias hulberti † * Nototamias quadratus † In popular culture * Alvin and the Chipmunks, an animated virtual band * Chip 'n' Dale, cartoon Disney chipmunks References Further reading * Derived from [https://thekeep.eiu.edu/theses/1641/ Baack's master's thesis]. * External links* Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Extant Miocene first appearances Category:Mammal common names	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chipmunk	2025-04-05T18:28:01.083705
6974	Computer music	Computer music is the application of computing technology in music composition, to help human composers create new music or to have computers independently create music, such as with algorithmic composition programs. It includes the theory and application of new and existing computer software technologies and basic aspects of music, such as sound synthesis, digital signal processing, sound design, sonic diffusion, acoustics, electrical engineering, and psychoacoustics. The field of computer music can trace its roots back to the origins of electronic music, and the first experiments and innovations with electronic instruments at the turn of the 20th century. History thumb\|300x300px\|CSIRAC, Australia's first digital computer, as displayed at the Melbourne Museum Much of the work on computer music has drawn on the relationship between music and mathematics, a relationship that has been noted since the Ancient Greeks described the "harmony of the spheres". Musical melodies were first generated by the computer originally named the CSIR Mark 1 (later renamed CSIRAC) in Australia in 1950. There were newspaper reports from America and England (early and recently) that computers may have played music earlier, but thorough research has debunked these stories as there is no evidence to support the newspaper reports (some of which were speculative). Research has shown that people speculated about computers playing music, possibly because computers would make noises, but there is no evidence that they did it. The world's first computer to play music was the CSIR Mark 1 (later named CSIRAC), which was designed and built by Trevor Pearcey and Maston Beard in the late 1940s. Mathematician Geoff Hill programmed the CSIR Mark 1 to play popular musical melodies from the very early 1950s. In 1950 the CSIR Mark 1 was used to play music, the first known use of a digital computer for that purpose. The music was never recorded, but it has been accurately reconstructed. In 1951 it publicly played the "Colonel Bogey March" of which only the reconstruction exists. However, the CSIR Mark 1 played standard repertoire and was not used to extend musical thinking or composition practice, as Max Mathews did, which is current computer-music practice. The first music to be performed in England was a performance of the British National Anthem that was programmed by Christopher Strachey on the Ferranti Mark 1, late in 1951. Later that year, short extracts of three pieces were recorded there by a BBC outside broadcasting unit: the National Anthem, "Baa, Baa, Black Sheep", and "In the Mood"; this is recognized as the earliest recording of a computer to play music as the CSIRAC music was never recorded. This recording can be heard at the Manchester University site. Researchers at the University of Canterbury, Christchurch declicked and restored this recording in 2016 and the results may be heard on SoundCloud. Max Mathews at Bell Laboratories developed the influential MUSIC I program and its descendants, further popularising computer music through a 1963 article in Science. The first professional composer to work with digital synthesis was James Tenney, who created a series of digitally synthesized and/or algorithmically composed pieces at Bell Labs using Mathews' MUSIC III system, beginning with Analog #1 (Noise Study) (1961). After Tenney left Bell Labs in 1964, he was replaced by composer Jean-Claude Risset, who conducted research on the synthesis of instrumental timbres and composed Computer Suite from Little Boy (1968). Early computer-music programs typically did not run in real time, although the first experiments on CSIRAC and the Ferranti Mark 1 did operate in real time. From the late 1950s, with increasingly sophisticated programming, programs would run for hours or days, on multi million-dollar computers, to generate a few minutes of music. One way around this was to use a 'hybrid system' of digital control of an analog synthesiser and early examples of this were Max Mathews' GROOVE system (1969) and also MUSYS by Peter Zinovieff (1969). Until now partial use has been exploited for musical research into the substance and form of sound (convincing examples are those of Hiller and Isaacson in Urbana, Illinois, US; Iannis Xenakis in Paris and Pietro Grossi in Florence, Italy). In May 1967 the first experiments in computer music in Italy were carried out by the S 2F M studio in Florence in collaboration with General Electric Information Systems Italy. Olivetti-General Electric GE 115 (Olivetti S.p.A.) is used by Grossi as a performer: three programmes were prepared for these experiments. The programmes were written by Ferruccio Zulian and used by Pietro Grossi for playing Bach, Paganini, and Webern works and for studying new sound structures. thumb\|The programming computer for Yamaha's first FM synthesizer GS1. CCRMA, Stanford University. John Chowning's work on FM synthesis from the 1960s to the 1970s allowed much more efficient digital synthesis, eventually leading to the development of the affordable FM synthesis-based Yamaha DX7 digital synthesizer, released in 1983. Interesting sounds must have a fluidity and changeability that allows them to remain fresh to the ear. In computer music this subtle ingredient is bought at a high computational cost, both in terms of the number of items requiring detail in a score and in the amount of interpretive work the instruments must produce to realize this detail in sound. In Japan In Japan, experiments in computer music date back to 1962, when Keio University professor Sekine and Toshiba engineer Hayashi experimented with the computer. This resulted in a piece entitled TOSBAC Suite, influenced by the Illiac Suite. Later Japanese computer music compositions include a piece by Kenjiro Ezaki presented during Osaka Expo '70 and "Panoramic Sonore" (1974) by music critic Akimichi Takeda. Ezaki also published an article called "Contemporary Music and Computers" in 1970. Since then, Japanese research in computer music has largely been carried out for commercial purposes in popular music, though some of the more serious Japanese musicians used large computer systems such as the Fairlight in the 1970s. In the late 1970s these systems became commercialized, including systems like the Roland MC-8 Microcomposer, where a microprocessor-based system controls an analog synthesizer, released in 1978. Advances Advances in computing power and software for manipulation of digital media have dramatically affected the way computer music is generated and performed. Current-generation micro-computers are powerful enough to perform very sophisticated audio synthesis using a wide variety of algorithms and approaches. Computer music systems and approaches are now ubiquitous, and so firmly embedded in the process of creating music that we hardly give them a second thought: computer-based synthesizers, digital mixers, and effects units have become so commonplace that use of digital rather than analog technology to create and record music is the norm, rather than the exception. Research There is considerable activity in the field of computer music as researchers continue to pursue new and interesting computer-based synthesis, composition, and performance approaches. Throughout the world there are many organizations and institutions dedicated to the area of computer and electronic music study and research, including the CCRMA (Center of Computer Research in Music and Acoustic, Stanford, USA), ICMA (International Computer Music Association), C4DM (Centre for Digital Music), IRCAM, GRAME, SEAMUS (Society for Electro Acoustic Music in the United States), CEC (Canadian Electroacoustic Community), and a great number of institutions of higher learning around the world. Music composed and performed by computers Later, composers such as Gottfried Michael Koenig and Iannis Xenakis had computers generate the sounds of the composition as well as the score. Koenig produced algorithmic composition programs which were a generalization of his own serial composition practice. This is not exactly similar to Xenakis' work as he used mathematical abstractions and examined how far he could explore these musically. Koenig's software translated the calculation of mathematical equations into codes which represented musical notation. This could be converted into musical notation by hand and then performed by human players. His programs Project 1 and Project 2 are examples of this kind of software. Later, he extended the same kind of principles into the realm of synthesis, enabling the computer to produce the sound directly. SSP is an example of a program which performs this kind of function. All of these programs were produced by Koenig at the Institute of Sonology in Utrecht in the 1970s. In the 2000s, Andranik Tangian developed a computer algorithm to determine the time event structures for rhythmic canons and rhythmic fugues, which were then "manually" worked out into harmonic compositions Eine kleine Mathmusik I and Eine kleine Mathmusik II performed by computer; for scores and recordings see. Computer-generated scores for performance by human players Computers have also been used in an attempt to imitate the music of great composers of the past, such as Mozart. A present exponent of this technique is David Cope, whose computer programs analyses works of other composers to produce new works in a similar style. Cope's best-known program is Emily Howell. Melomics, a research project from the University of Málaga (Spain), developed a computer composition cluster named Iamus, which composes complex, multi-instrument pieces for editing and performance. Since its inception, Iamus has composed a full album in 2012, also named Iamus, which New Scientist described as "the first major work composed by a computer and performed by a full orchestra". The group has also developed an API for developers to utilize the technology, and makes its music available on its website. Computer-aided algorithmic composition thumb\|right\|Diagram illustrating the position of CAAC in relation to other generative music systems Computer-aided algorithmic composition (CAAC, pronounced "sea-ack") is the implementation and use of algorithmic composition techniques in software. This label is derived from the combination of two labels, each too vague for continued use. The label computer-aided composition lacks the specificity of using generative algorithms. Music produced with notation or sequencing software could easily be considered computer-aided composition. The label algorithmic composition is likewise too broad, particularly in that it does not specify the use of a computer. The term computer-aided, rather than computer-assisted, is used in the same manner as computer-aided design. Machine improvisation Machine improvisation uses computer algorithms to create improvisation on existing music materials. This is usually done by sophisticated recombination of musical phrases extracted from existing music, either live or pre-recorded. In order to achieve credible improvisation in particular style, machine improvisation uses machine learning and pattern matching algorithms to analyze existing musical examples. The resulting patterns are then used to create new variations "in the style" of the original music, developing a notion of stylistic re-injection. This is different from other improvisation methods with computers that use algorithmic composition to generate new music without performing analysis of existing music examples. Statistical style modeling Style modeling implies building a computational representation of the musical surface that captures important stylistic features from data. Statistical approaches are used to capture the redundancies in terms of pattern dictionaries or repetitions, which are later recombined to generate new musical data. Style mixing can be realized by analysis of a database containing multiple musical examples in different styles. Machine Improvisation builds upon a long musical tradition of statistical modeling that began with Hiller and Isaacson's Illiac Suite for String Quartet (1957) and Xenakis' uses of Markov chains and stochastic processes. Modern methods include the use of lossless data compression for incremental parsing, prediction suffix tree, string searching and more. Style mixing is possible by blending models derived from several musical sources, with the first style mixing done by S. Dubnov in a piece NTrope Suite using Jensen-Shannon joint source model. Later the use of factor oracle algorithm (basically a factor oracle is a finite state automaton constructed in linear time and space in an incremental fashion) was adopted for music by Assayag and Dubnov and became the basis for several systems that use stylistic re-injection. Implementations The first implementation of statistical style modeling was the LZify method in Open Music, followed by the Continuator system that implemented interactive machine improvisation that interpreted the LZ incremental parsing in terms of Markov models and used it for real time style modeling developed by François Pachet at Sony CSL Paris in 2002. Matlab implementation of the Factor Oracle machine improvisation can be found as part of Computer Audition toolbox. There is also an NTCC implementation of the Factor Oracle machine improvisation. OMax is a software environment developed in IRCAM. OMax uses OpenMusic and Max. It is based on researches on stylistic modeling carried out by Gerard Assayag and Shlomo Dubnov and on researches on improvisation with the computer by G. Assayag, M. Chemillier and G. Bloch (a.k.a. the OMax Brothers) in the Ircam Music Representations group. One of the problems in modeling audio signals with factor oracle is the symbolization of features from continuous values to a discrete alphabet. This problem was solved in the Variable Markov Oracle (VMO) available as python implementation, using an information rate criteria for finding the optimal or most informative representation. Use of artificial intelligence The use of artificial intelligence to generate new melodies, cover pre-existing music, and clone artists' voices, is a recent phenomenon that has been reported to disrupt the music industry. Live coding Live coding (sometimes known as 'interactive programming', 'on-the-fly programming', 'just in time programming') is the name given to the process of writing software in real time as part of a performance. Recently it has been explored as a more rigorous alternative to laptop musicians who, live coders often feel, lack the charisma and pizzazz of musicians performing live. See also Acousmatic music Adaptive music Csound Digital audio workstation Digital synthesizer Fast Fourier transform Human–computer interaction Laptronica List of music software Module file Music information retrieval Music notation software Music sequencer New Interfaces for Musical Expression Physical modeling synthesis Programming (music) Sampling (music) Sound and music computing Tracker Vaporwave Vocaloid References Further reading Ariza, C. 2005. "Navigating the Landscape of Computer-Aided Algorithmic Composition Systems: A Definition, Seven Descriptors, and a Lexicon of Systems and Research." In Proceedings of the International Computer Music Conference. San Francisco: International Computer Music Association. 765–772. Ariza, C. 2005. An Open Design for Computer-Aided Algorithmic Music Composition: athenaCL. PhD Dissertation, New York University. Chadabe, Joel. 1997. Electric Sound: The Past and Promise of Electronic Music. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Chowning, John. 1973. "The Synthesis of Complex Audio Spectra by Means of Frequency Modulation". Journal of the Audio Engineering Society 21, no. 7:526–534. Doornbusch, P. 2015. "A Chronology / History of Electronic and Computer Music and Related Events 1906–2015 " Perry, Mark, and Thomas Margoni. 2010. "From Music Tracks to Google Maps: Who Owns Computer-Generated Works?". Computer Law & Security Review 26: 621–629. Category:Computer music software Category:Improvised musical instruments	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_music	2025-04-05T18:28:01.123067
6978	Concept	thumb\|right\|alt=Diagram\|A representation of the concept of a tree. The four upper images of trees can be roughly quantified into an overall generalization of the idea of a tree, pictured in the lower image. A concept is an abstract idea that serves as a foundation for more concrete principles, thoughts, and beliefs. Concepts play an important role in all aspects of cognition. As such, concepts are studied within such disciplines as linguistics, psychology, and philosophy, and these disciplines are interested in the logical and psychological structure of concepts, and how they are put together to form thoughts and sentences. The study of concepts has served as an important flagship of an emerging interdisciplinary approach, cognitive science. In contemporary philosophy, three understandings of a concept prevail: mental representations, such that a concept is an entity that exists in the mind (a mental object) abilities peculiar to cognitive agents (mental states) Fregean senses, abstract objects rather than a mental object or a mental state Concepts are classified into a hierarchy, higher levels of which are termed "superordinate" and lower levels termed "subordinate". Additionally, there is the "basic" or "middle" level at which people will most readily categorize a concept. For example, a basic-level concept would be "chair", with its superordinate, "furniture", and its subordinate, "easy chair". Concepts may be exact or inexact. When the mind makes a generalization such as the concept of tree, it extracts similarities from numerous examples; the simplification enables higher-level thinking. A concept is instantiated (reified) by all of its actual or potential instances, whether these are things in the real world or other ideas. Concepts are studied as components of human cognition in the cognitive science disciplines of linguistics, psychology, and philosophy, where an ongoing debate asks whether all cognition must occur through concepts. Concepts are regularly formalized in mathematics, computer science, databases and artificial intelligence. Examples of specific high-level conceptual classes in these fields include classes, schema or categories. In informal use, the word concept can refer to any idea. Ontology of concepts A central question in the study of concepts is the question of what they are. Philosophers construe this question as one about the ontology of concepts—what kind of things they are. The ontology of concepts determines the answer to other questions, such as how to integrate concepts into a wider theory of the mind, what functions are allowed or disallowed by a concept's ontology, etc. There are two main views of the ontology of concepts: (1) Concepts are abstract objects, and (2) concepts are mental representations. Concepts as mental representations The psychological view of concepts Within the framework of the representational theory of mind, the structural position of concepts can be understood as follows: Concepts serve as the building blocks of what are called mental representations (colloquially understood as ideas in the mind). Mental representations, in turn, are the building blocks of what are called propositional attitudes (colloquially understood as the stances or perspectives we take towards ideas, be it "believing", "doubting", "wondering", "accepting", etc.). And these propositional attitudes, in turn, are the building blocks of our understanding of thoughts that populate everyday life, as well as folk psychology. In this way, we have an analysis that ties our common everyday understanding of thoughts down to the scientific and philosophical understanding of concepts. The physicalist view of concepts In a physicalist theory of mind, a concept is a mental representation, which the brain uses to denote a class of things in the world. This is to say that it is literally a symbol or group of symbols together made from the physical material of the brain. Concepts are mental representations that allow us to draw appropriate inferences about the type of entities we encounter in our everyday lives. Concepts are thought to be stored in long term cortical memory, in contrast to episodic memory of the particular objects and events which they abstract, which are stored in hippocampus. Evidence for this separation comes from hippocampal damaged patients such as patient HM. The abstraction from the day's hippocampal events and objects into cortical concepts is often considered to be the computation underlying (some stages of) sleep and dreaming. Many people (beginning with Aristotle) report memories of dreams which appear to mix the day's events with analogous or related historical concepts and memories, and suggest that they were being sorted or organized into more abstract concepts. ("Sort" is itself another word for concept, and "sorting" thus means to organize into concepts.) Concepts as abstract objects The semantic view of concepts suggests that concepts are abstract objects. In this view, concepts are abstract objects of a category out of a human's mind rather than some mental representations. Plato was the starkest proponent of the realist thesis of universal concepts. By his view, concepts (and ideas in general) are innate ideas that were instantiations of a transcendental world of pure forms that lay behind the veil of the physical world. In this way, universals were explained as transcendent objects. Needless to say, this form of realism was tied deeply with Plato's ontological projects. This remark on Plato is not of merely historical interest. For example, the view that numbers are Platonic objects was revived by Kurt Gödel as a result of certain puzzles that he took to arise from the phenomenological accounts. Sense and reference Gottlob Frege, founder of the analytic tradition in philosophy, famously argued for the analysis of language in terms of sense and reference. For him, the sense of an expression in language describes a certain state of affairs in the world, namely, the way that some object is presented. Since many commentators view the notion of sense as identical to the notion of concept, and Frege regards senses as the linguistic representations of states of affairs in the world, it seems to follow that we may understand concepts as the manner in which we grasp the world. Accordingly, concepts (as senses) have an ontological status. asked participants to differentiate whether items were in different categories. Hampton did not conclude that items were either clear and absolute members or non-members. Instead, Hampton found that some items were barely considered category members and others that were barely non-members. For example, participants considered sinks as barely members of kitchen utensil category, while sponges were considered barely non-members, with much disagreement among participants of the study. If concepts and categories were very well defined, such cases should be rare. Since then, many researches have discovered borderline members that are not clearly in or out of a category of concept. Rosch found typicality effects which cannot be explained by the classical theory of concepts, these sparked the prototype theory. Wittgenstein describes the relationship between members of a class as family resemblances. There are not necessarily any necessary conditions for membership; a dog can still be a dog with only three legs. Lakoff stresses that experience and cognition are critical to the function of language, and Labov's experiment found that the function that an artifact contributed to what people categorized it as. Ideasthesia According to the theory of ideasthesia (or "sensing concepts"), activation of a concept may be the main mechanism responsible for the creation of phenomenal experiences. Therefore, understanding how the brain processes concepts may be central to solving the mystery of how conscious experiences (or qualia) emerge within a physical system e.g., the sourness of the sour taste of lemon. This question is also known as the hard problem of consciousness. Research on ideasthesia emerged from research on synesthesia where it was noted that a synesthetic experience requires first an activation of a concept of the inducer. Later research expanded these results into everyday perception. There is a lot of discussion on the most effective theory in concepts. Another theory is semantic pointers, which use perceptual and motor representations and these representations are like symbols. Etymology The term "concept" is traced back to 1554–60 (Latin conceptum – "something conceived"). See also Abstraction Categorization Class (philosophy) Conceptualism Concept and object Concept map Conceptual blending Conceptual framework Conceptual history Conceptual model Conversation theory Definitionism Formal concept analysis Fuzzy concept General Concept Lattice Hypostatic abstraction Idea Ideasthesia Noesis Notion (philosophy) Object (philosophy) Process of concept formation Schema (Kant) Intuitive statistics References Further reading Armstrong, S. L., Gleitman, L. R., & Gleitman, H. (1999). what some concepts might not be. In E. Margolis, & S. Lawrence, Concepts (pp. 225–261). Massachusetts: MIT press. Carey, S. (1999). knowledge acquisition: enrichment or conceptual change? In E. Margolis, & S. Lawrence, concepts: core readings (pp. 459–489). Massachusetts: MIT press. Fodor, J. A., Garrett, M. F., Walker, E. C., & Parkes, C. H. (1999). against definitions. In E. Margolis, & S. Lawrence, concepts: core readings (pp. 491–513). Massachusetts: MIT press. Hume, D. (1739). book one part one: of the understanding of ideas, their origin, composition, connexion, abstraction etc. In D. Hume, a treatise of human nature. England. Murphy, G. (2004). Chapter 2. In G. Murphy, a big book of concepts (pp. 11 – 41). Massachusetts: MIT press. Murphy, G., & Medin, D. (1999). the role of theories in conceptual coherence. In E. Margolis, & S. Lawrence, concepts: core readings (pp. 425–459). Massachusetts: MIT press. Putnam, H. (1999). is semantics possible? In E. Margolis, & S. Lawrence, concepts: core readings (pp. 177–189). Massachusetts: MIT press. Quine, W. (1999). two dogmas of empiricism. In E. Margolis, & S. Lawrence, concepts: core readings (pp. 153–171). Massachusetts: MIT press. Rey, G. (1999). Concepts and Stereotypes. In E. Margolis, & S. Laurence (Eds.), Concepts: Core Readings (pp. 279–301). Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. Rosch, E. (1977). Classification of real-world objects: Origins and representations in cognition. In P. Johnson-Laird, & P. Wason, Thinking: Readings in Cognitive Science (pp. 212–223). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rosch, E. (1999). Principles of Categorization. In E. Margolis, & S. Laurence (Eds.), Concepts: Core Readings (pp. 189–206). Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. Wittgenstein, L. (1999). philosophical investigations: sections 65–78. In E. Margolis, & S. Lawrence, concepts: core readings (pp. 171–175). Massachusetts: MIT press. The History of Calculus and its Conceptual Development, Carl Benjamin Boyer, Dover Publications, The Writings of William James, University of Chicago Press, Logic, Immanuel Kant, Dover Publications, A System of Logic, John Stuart Mill, University Press of the Pacific, Parerga and Paralipomena, Arthur Schopenhauer, Volume I, Oxford University Press, Kant's Metaphysic of Experience, H. J. Paton, London: Allen & Unwin, 1936 Conceptual Integration Networks. Gilles Fauconnier and Mark Turner, 1998. Cognitive Science. Volume 22, number 2 (April–June 1998), pp. 133–187. The Portable Nietzsche, Penguin Books, 1982, Stephen Laurence and Eric Margolis "Concepts and Cognitive Science". In Concepts: Core Readings, MIT Press pp. 3–81, 1999. Georgij Yu. Somov (2010). Concepts and Senses in Visual Art: Through the example of analysis of some works by Bruegel the Elder. Semiotica 182 (1/4), 475–506. Daltrozzo J, Vion-Dury J, Schön D. (2010). Music and Concepts. Horizons in Neuroscience Research 4: 157–167. External links Blending and Conceptual Integration Concepts. A Critical Approach, by Andy Blunden Conceptual Science and Mathematical Permutations Concept Mobiles Latest concepts v:Conceptualize: A Wikiversity Learning Project Concept simultaneously translated in several languages and meanings TED-Ed Lesson on ideasthesia (sensing concepts) Category:Abstraction Category:Cognitive science Category:Concepts in metaphysics Category:Main topic articles Category:Mental content Category:Ontology Category:Philosophy of language Category:Concepts in the philosophy of mind Category:Semantics Category:Thought Category:Objects	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept	2025-04-05T18:28:01.160049
6979	Cell Cycle	Cell Cycle is a biweekly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering all aspects of cell biology. It was established in 2002. Originally published bimonthly, it is now published biweekly. Abstracting and indexing The journal is abstracted and indexed in: According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 5-year impact factor of 7.7. See also * Autophagy * Cell Biology International * Cell and Tissue Research References External links * Category:Molecular and cellular biology journals Category:Biweekly journals Category:Academic journals established in 2002 Category:English-language journals Category:Taylor & Francis academic journals	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_Cycle	2025-04-05T18:28:01.162680
6982	List of classical music competitions	European Classical music has long relied on music competitions to provide a public forum that identifies the strongest players and contributes to the establishment of their professional careers. This is a list of current competitions in classical music, with each competition and reference link given only once. Many offer competitions across a range of categories and in these cases they are listed under "General/mixed". Competitions with age restrictions are listed under "Young musicians". Chamber music Asia-Pacific Chamber Music Competition, for piano trios and string quartets, in Melbourne, Australia, every four years Franz Schubert and Modern Music Competition, voice and piano duo, piano trio, Graz, Austria, every three years * Fischoff National Chamber Music Competition (Indiana, US) * International Chamber Music Competition Hamburg for piano trios and string quartets (Hamburg, Germany) * International Shostakovich Chamber Music Competition (Moscow, Russia) * Melbourne International Chamber Music Competition, held in Melbourne, Australia, every four years Choral/voice * Australian Singing Competition (Sydney, Australia) * Bampton Classical Opera Young Singers' Competition (UK) * BBC Singer of the World competition (Cardiff, Wales) * Boris Christoff International Competition for Young Singers (Sofia, Bulgaria) * Concurs Internacional de Cant Francesc Viñas (Barcelona, Spain) * International Johann Sebastian Bach Competition (Leipzig, Germany) * Neue Stimmen International Singing Competition (Gütersloh, Germany) * International Stanisław Moniuszko Vocal Competition (Warsaw, Poland) * International Stasys Šimkus choir competition (Klaipėda, Lithuania) * International Tchaikovsky Competition (Moscow, Russia) * International Vocal Competition 's-Hertogenbosch ('s-Hertogenbosch, Netherlands) * Joan Sutherland & Richard Bonynge Bel Canto Award * The Klaudia Taev Competition for Young Opera Singers (Pärnu, Estonia). * Marilyn Horne Song Competition, competition for classical singers and piano accompanists since 1997. * Queen Elisabeth Music Competition (Brussels, Belgium) * Queen Sonja International Music Competition (Oslo, Norway) Composition * Gaudeamus International Composers Award (Netherlands) * George Enescu International Competition (Composition section) (Bucharest, Romania) * International Composers Festival, Hastings and Bexhill, East Sussex, United Kingdom * International Uuno Klami Composition Competition (Kotka/Kouvola, Finland) * Masterprize International Composing Competition * Queen Elisabeth Music Competition (Brussels, Belgium) * 60x60 – International (New York, US) * Tōru Takemitsu Composition Award (Tokyo, Japan) Conducting * Cadaqués Orchestra International Conducting Competition (Spain) * Donatella Flick Conducting Competition (UK) * Gustav Mahler Conducting Competition (Germany) * International Besançon Competition for Young Conductors (France) * Jorma Panula Conducting Competition (Finland) * Leeds Conductors Competition (UK) * Nicolai Malko Competition For Young Conductors (Denmark) * Sir Georg Solti International Conductors' Competition (Germany) * The Grzegorz Fitelberg International Competition for Conductors (Poland) * Tokyo International Music Competition for Conducting (Japan) General/ mixed * EUROPAfest (Bucharest, Romania) * Long-Thibaud-Crespin Competition (previously International Marguerite Long-Jacques Thibaud Competition; Paris, France) * Nishinihon International Music Competition (Fukuoka, Japan) * Mykola Lysenko International Music Competition (Kyiv, Ukraine) * Windsor Festival International String Competition (Windsor, UK) Instrumental Still Life with Musical Instruments and Books]] * ARD International Music Competition (Munich, Germany) * Gaudeamus Competition (Netherlands) * International Joseph Joachim Violin Competition Hanover * International Performers Competition Brno (Brno, Czech Republic) * Leos Janacek International Competition (Brno, Czech Republic) * Montreal International Music Competition (Montreal, Canada) * Mykola Lysenko International Music Competition (Kyiv, Ukraine) * Queen Elisabeth Music Competition (Brussels, Belgium) * TROMP international music competition & Festival (Eindhoven, Netherlands) * Frauchi International Competition and Festival (Moscow, Russia) Large Ensembles ]] Musicology Piano/keyboard castle]] * Anton Rubinstein Competition (Dresden, Germany) * Arthur Rubinstein International Piano Master Competition (Tel Aviv, Israel) * Ciutat de Carlet International Piano Competition (Valencia, Spain) * Clara Haskil International Piano Competition (Vevey, Switzerland) * Cleveland International Piano Competition (Cleveland, US) * Concours Géza Anda (Zurich, Switzerland) * Dallas International Piano Competition (Dallas, US) * The Dranoff International Two Piano Foundation (Dallas, US) * Epinal International Piano Competition (Epinal, France) * EPTA - International Piano Competition Svetislav Stančić (Zagreb, Croatia) * Ferruccio Busoni International Piano Competition (Bolzano, Italy) * George Enescu International Competition (Piano section) (Bucharest, Romania) * Hamamatsu International Piano Competition (Hamamatsu, JP) * Hilton Head International Piano Competition (Hilton Head Island, South Carolina, US) * Honens International Piano Competition (Calgary, Canada) * International Chopin Piano Competition (Poland) * International Ettore Pozzoli Piano Competition (Seregno, Italy) * International Franz Liszt Piano Competition (Utrecht, Netherlands) * International Johann Sebastian Bach Competition (organ; Leipzig, Germany) * International Piano Competition for Outstanding Amateurs (Paris, France) * International Tchaikovsky Competition (Russia) * ISANGYUN Competition (Tongyeong, South Korea) * José Iturbi International Piano Competition (Los Angeles, US) * Kissingen Piano Olympics (Kissinger Klavierolymp, Bad Kissingen, Germany) * Lagny-sur-Marne International Piano Competition (Lagny, France) * Leeds International Pianoforte Competition (Leeds, UK) * Maria Canals International Music Competition (Barcelona, Spain) * Mykola Lysenko International Music Competition (Kyiv, Ukraine) * Paloma O'Shea International Piano Competition (Santander, Spain) * Panama International Piano Competition (Panama City, Panama) * Peabody Mason International Piano Competition (Boston, US) * Petr Eben International Organ Competition (Opava, Czech Republic) * Pilar Bayona Piano Competition (Spain) * Queen Elisabeth Music Competition (Belgium) * Ricard Viñes International Piano Competition (Lleida, Spain) * Sendai International Music Competition (Sendai, Japan) * St Albans International Organ Competition (St Albans, UK) * Sussex International Piano Competition (Worthing, UK) * Sydney International Piano Competition (Sydney, Australia) * Valencia International Piano Competition Prize Iturbi (Valencia, Spain) * Van Cliburn International Piano Competition (Fort Worth, US) * World International Piano Competition (Santa Fe, US) * [https://www.siliconvalleyopendoorsmusic.com/ Silicon Valley Open Doors International Piano Competition] (San Francisco, California) String instruments * Carl Flesch International Violin Competition (London, UK; 1945–1992) * Carl Nielsen International Music Competition (Odense, Denmark) * Città di Brescia International Violin Competition (Brescia, Italy) * Dallas International Violin Competition (Dallas, US) * George Enescu International Competition (Violin, Cello section) (Bucharest, Romania) * International Brahms Competition (Pörtschach am Wörthersee, Austria) * International Fritz Kreisler Competition (Vienna, Austria) * The International Harp Contest in Israel (Jerusalem, Israel) * International Jean Sibelius Violin Competition (Helsinki, Finland) * International Tchaikovsky Competition (Moscow, Russia) * International Violin Competition Henri Marteau (Lichtenberg and Hof, Germany) * International Violin Competition of Indianapolis (Indianapolis, US) * International Violin Competition Leopold Mozart in Augsburg (Augsburg, Germany) * ISANGYUN Competition (Tongyeong, South Korea) * Lionel Tertis International Viola Competition (Isle of Man, UK) * Maurice Vieux International Viola Competition (France) * Michael Hill International Violin Competition (New Zealand) * Moscow International David Oistrakh Violin Competition (Moscow, Russia) * Mstislav Rostropovich International Cello Competition (Paris, France) * Mykola Lysenko International Music Competition (Kyiv, Ukraine) * Paganini International Competition (Genoa, Italy) * Primrose International Viola Competition (Albuquerque, New Mexico) * Queen Elisabeth Music Competition (Belgium) * Sendai International Music Competition (Sendai, Japan) Shanghai Isaac Stern International Violin Competition (Shanghai, China) Singapore International Violin Competition (Singapore) * USA International Harp Competition (Bloomington, Indiana, US) * Windsor Festival International String Competition (Windsor, UK) * Yehudi Menuhin International Competition for Young Violinists (Richmond, VA, US in 2021) Woodwind instruments * BBC Young Musician of the Year (UK) * Fischoff National Chamber Music Competition (Indiana, US) * Gregynog Young Musicians Competition (Wales, UK) * International Johann Sebastian Bach Competition (Leipzig, Germany) * International Russian Rotary Children Music Competition (Russia) * International Tchaikovsky Competition for Young Musicians (Moscow, Russia) * Jeunesses Musicales International (Various) * New York International Piano Competition (New York, US) * Prague Spring International Music Competition (Prague, Czech Republic) * Sydney Eisteddfod (Sydney, Australia) Young musicians * ABC Young Performers Awards (Sydney, Australia) * International Tchaikovsky Competition for Young Musicians (Russia) * Eurovision Young Musicians (Europe) * Thomas & Evon Cooper International Competition (Oberlin College, US) See also * European Union of Music Competitions for Youth * List of Recipients of the Terence Judd Award * World Federation of International Music Competitions * References External links * [http://www.musicaneo.com/competitions/ List of Classical Music Competitions] at MusicaNeo * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090207192430/http://masamizuno.com/ Directory of International Piano Competitions ] * [https://www.musicalchairs.info/competitions Musicalchairs.info List of Competitions] * [http://www.classical.net/music/links/musicfest.html ClassicalNet: Festivals, Competitions, Concerts & Concert Venues] * [http://www.fmcim.org/ World Federation of International Music Competitions] * [https://masteringtheflute.com/en/motivation/flute-competitions/prague-spring-competition-6/ List of all flute laureates ] Competitions Classical music Category:Composition competitions	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_classical_music_competitions	2025-04-05T18:28:01.182938
6984	Colin Powell	}} \| deputy1 = \| term_start1 = October 1, 1989 \| term_end1 = September 30, 1993 \| predecessor1 = William J. Crowe \| successor1 = John Shalikashvili \| order2 = 15th \| office2 = United States National Security Advisor \| president2 = Ronald Reagan \| deputy2 = John Negroponte \| term_start2 = November 23, 1987 \| term_end2 = January 20, 1989 \| predecessor2 = Frank Carlucci \| successor2 = Brent Scowcroft \| office3 = United States Deputy National Security Advisor \| president3 = Ronald Reagan \| term_start3 = December 2, 1986 \| term_end3 = November 23, 1987 \| predecessor3 = Peter Rodman \| successor3 = John Negroponte \| birth_name = Colin Luther Powell \| birth_date = \| birth_place = New York City, U.S.<!--Per WP:OVERLINK "The names of subjects with which most readers will be at least somewhat familiar," including locations with NYC as an example, do not typically need to be linked)--> \| death_date = \| death_place = Bethesda, Maryland, U.S. \| resting_place = Arlington National Cemetery \| party = \| spouse = \| children = 3, including \| education = * George Washington University (MBA) }} \| signature = Colin Luther Powell Signature.svg \| allegiance = <!-- United States --> \| branch = United States Army \| serviceyears = 1958–1993 \| rank = General \| unit = \| commands = \| battles = \| mawards = }} }} Colin Luther Powell<!-- Do not add KCB, see above.--> ( ; , Powell pronounced his name from childhood on after the World War II flyer Colin Kelly. The preferred pronunciation of "Powell" rhymes with "bowel", not with "Joel".}} – ) was an American diplomat and army officer who was the 65th United States secretary of state from 2001 to 2005. He was the first African-American to hold the office. He was the 15th national security advisor from 1987 to 1989, and the 12th chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff from 1989 to 1993. Powell was born in New York City in 1937 to parents who immigrated from Jamaica. He was raised in the South Bronx and educated in the New York City public schools, earning a bachelor's degree in geology from the City College of New York. He joined the Reserve Officers' Training Corps while at City College and was commissioned as a second lieutenant on graduating in 1958. He was a professional soldier for 35 years, holding many command and staff positions and rising to the rank of four-star general. He was commander of the U.S. Army Forces Command in 1989. Powell's last military assignment, from October 1989 to September 1993, was as Joint Chiefs of Staff chairman, the highest military position in the United States Department of Defense. During this time, he oversaw twenty-eight crises, including the invasion of Panama in 1989 and Operation Desert Storm in the Persian Gulf War against Iraq in 1990–1991. He formulated the Powell Doctrine, which limits American military action unless it satisfies criteria regarding American national security interests, overwhelming force, and widespread public support. He served as secretary of state under Republican president George W. Bush. As secretary of state, Powell gave a presentation to the United Nations Security Council regarding the rationale for the Iraq War, but he later admitted that the speech contained substantial inaccuracies. He resigned after Bush was reelected in 2004. In 1995, Powell wrote his autobiography, My American Journey and then in retirement another book titled, It Worked for Me: Lessons in Life and Leadership (2012). He pursued a career as a public speaker, addressing audiences across the country and abroad. Before his appointment as Secretary of State he chaired America's Promise. In the 2016 United States presidential election, Powell, who was not a candidate, received three electoral votes from Washington state for the office of President of the United States. He won numerous U.S. and foreign military awards and decorations. His civilian awards included the Presidential Medal of Freedom (twice), the Congressional Gold Medal, the Presidential Citizens Medal, and the Secretary's Distinguished Service Award. Powell died from complications of COVID-19 in 2021, while being treated for a form of blood cancer that damaged his immune system. Early life Colin Luther Powell was born on , in Harlem, a neighborhood in the New York City borough of Manhattan. He was born to Jamaican immigrants Maud Ariel (née McKoy) and Luther Theophilus Powell. His parents were both of mixed African, [https://www.irishcentral.com/opinion/remarkable-colin-powell Irish], and Scottish ancestry. Luther worked as a shipping clerk and Maud as a seamstress. Powell was raised in the South Bronx and attended the now closed Morris High School, from which he graduated in 1954. While at school, Powell worked at a local baby furniture store, where he picked up Yiddish from the Eastern European Jewish shopkeepers and some of the customers. He also served as a Shabbos goy, helping Orthodox families with needed tasks on the Sabbath. He received a bachelor of science degree in geology from the City College of New York in 1958 and said that he was a "C average" student. "I wasn't doing well in civil engineering". While at CCNY, Powell shifted his study focus to the Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) and became a "straight A student" in it; he held the distinction of being the first chairman to have attained his commission through the ROTC.Military careerPowell was a professional soldier for thirty-five years, holding a variety of command and staff positions and rising to the rank of general. Training While attending the City College of New York, Powell joined the Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC). He described the experience as one of the happiest experiences of his life. According to Powell: As a cadet, Powell joined the Pershing Rifles, the ROTC fraternal organization and drill team begun by General John Pershing.Early careerUpon graduation, he received a commission as an Army second lieutenant; at this time, the Army was newly desegregated After attending basic training at Fort Benning, Powell was assigned to the 48th Infantry, in West Germany, as a platoon leader. From 1960 to 1962, he served as group liaison officer, company executive officer, and commander of Company A, 1st Battle Group, 4th Infantry, 2nd Infantry Brigade, 5th Infantry Division (Mechanized) at Fort Devens, Massachusetts.Vietnam WarCaptain Powell served a tour in Vietnam as a South Vietnamese Army (ARVN) advisor from 1962 to 1963. While on patrol in a Viet Cong-held area, he was wounded by stepping on a punji stake. The large infection made it difficult for him to walk, and caused his foot to swell for a short time, shortening his first tour. Powell returned to Vietnam as a major in 1968, serving as assistant chief of staff of operations for the 23rd (Americal) Infantry Division. During the second tour in Vietnam he was decorated with the Soldier's Medal for bravery after he survived a helicopter crash and single-handedly rescued three others, including division commander Major General Charles M. Gettys, from the burning wreckage. My Lai massacre inquiry Powell was charged with investigating a detailed letter by 11th Light Infantry Brigade soldier Tom Glen, which backed up rumored allegations of the 1968 My Lai massacre. Later, Powell's assessment would be described as whitewashing the news of the massacre, and questions would continue to remain undisclosed to the public. In May 2004, Powell said to television and radio host Larry King, "I was in a unit that was responsible for My Lai. I got there after My Lai happened. So, in war, these sorts of horrible things happen every now and again, but they are still to be deplored".After the Vietnam WarWhen he returned to the U.S. from Vietnam in 1971, Powell earned a Master of Business Administration degree from George Washington University in Washington, D.C. In his autobiography, My American Journey, Powell named several officers he served under who inspired and mentored him. As a lieutenant colonel commanding 1st Battalion, 32nd Infantry, 2nd Infantry Division in South Korea, Powell was very close to his division commander, Major General Henry "Gunfighter" Emerson, whom he regarded as one of the most caring officers he ever met. Emerson insisted his troops train at night to fight a possible North Korean attack, and made them repeatedly watch the television film ''Brian's Song'' to promote racial harmony. Powell always professed that what set Emerson apart was his great love of his soldiers and concern for their welfare. After a race riot occurred, in which African-American soldiers almost killed a white officer, Powell was charged by Emerson to crack down on black militants; Powell's efforts led to the discharge of one soldier, and other efforts to reduce racial tensions. Powell also declined an offer from Secretary of the Army John O. Marsh Jr. to be his under secretary due to his reluctance to assume a political appointment; James R. Ambrose was selected instead. and the 1986 airstrike on Libya. Under Weinberger, Powell was also involved in the unlawful transfer of U.S.-made TOW anti-tank missiles and Hawk anti-aircraft missiles from Israel to Iran as part of the criminal conspiracy that would later become known as the Iran–Contra affair. In November 1985, Powell solicited and delivered to Weinberger a legal assessment that the transfer of Hawk missiles to Israel or Iran, without Congressional notification, would be "a clear violation" of the law. According to Iran-Contra Independent Counsel Lawrence E. Walsh, when questioned by Congress, Powell "had given incomplete answers" concerning notes withheld by Weinberger and that the activities of Powell and others in concealing the notes "seemed corrupt enough to meet the new, poorly defined test of obstruction". Powell was never indicted by the Independent Counsel in connection with the Iran-Contra affair. Following the Iran–Contra scandal, Powell became, at the age of 49, Ronald Reagan's National Security Advisor, serving from 1987 to 1989 while retaining his Army commission as a lieutenant general. He helped negotiate a number of arms treaties with Mikhail Gorbachev, the leader of the Soviet Union.Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of StaffPowell's last military assignment, from 1 October 1989 to 30 September 1993, was as the 12th chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the highest military position in the Department of Defense. At age 52, he became the youngest officer, and first Afro-Caribbean American, to serve in this position. Powell was also the first JCS chair who received his commission through ROTC. During this time, Powell oversaw responses to 28 crises, including the invasion of Panama in 1989 to remove General Manuel Noriega from power and Operation Desert Storm in the 1991 Persian Gulf War. During these events, Powell earned the nickname "the reluctant warrior" – although Powell himself disputed this label, and spoke in favor of the first Bush administration's Gulf War policies. As a military strategist, Powell advocated an approach to military conflicts that maximizes the potential for success and minimizes casualties. A component of this approach is the use of overwhelming force, which he applied to Operation Desert Storm in 1991. His approach has been dubbed the Powell Doctrine. Powell continued as chairman of the JCS into the Clinton presidency. However, as a realist, he considered himself a bad fit for an administration largely made up of liberal internationalists. He clashed with then-U.S. ambassador to the United Nations Madeleine Albright over the Bosnian crisis, as he opposed any military intervention that did not involve U.S. interests. Powell also regularly clashed with Secretary of Defense Leslie Aspin, whom he was initially hesitant to support after Aspin was nominated by President Clinton. During a lunch meeting between Powell and Aspin in preparation of Operation Gothic Serpent, Aspin was more focused on eating salad than listening and paying attention to Powell's presentation on military operations. Powell took an early resignation from his tenure as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff on 30 September 1993. The following year President Clinton sent newly-retired Powell, together with former President Jimmy Carter and Senator Sam Nunn, to visit Haiti in an effort to persuade General Raoul Cédras and the ruling junta to abdicate in favor of former Haitian President Aristide, under the threat of an imminent US invasion to remove them by force. Powell's status as a retired general was well known and respected in Haiti and was held to be instrumental in persuading Gen. Cédras. But even in the wake of public and Congressional pressure to do so, Clinton-Gore presidential transition team staffers decided against it. Dates of rank {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Promotions ! Rank !! Date \|- \|\| General\|\|4 April 1989 \|- \|\| Lieutenant general\|\|1 July 1986 \|- \|\| Major general\|\|1 August 1983 \|- \|\| Brigadier general\|\|1 June 1979 \|- \|\| Colonel\|\|1 February 1976 \|- \|\| Lieutenant colonel\|\|9 July 1970 \|- \|\| Major\|\|24 May 1966 \|- \|\| Captain\|\|2 June 1962 \|- \|\| First lieutenant\|\|30 December 1959 \|- \|\| Second lieutenant\|\|9 June 1958 \|} Awards and decorations Badges <gallery> File:Combat Infantry Badge.svg\|Combat Infantryman Badge \|- \|border\|width60}} \|Army Distinguished Service Medal with oak leaf cluster \|- \|border\|width60}} \|Joint Service Commendation Medal \|- \|border\|width60}} \|Presidential Citizens Medal \|- \|border\|width60}} \|Secretary's Distinguished Service Award \|} Foreign decorations {\| class=wikitable \|- \|border\|width60}} \|Honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB) (United Kingdom) \|- \|border\|width60}} \|, Grand Cross (France) \|- \|border\|width60}} \|Meritorious Service Cross (M.S.C.) (Canada) \|- \|border\|width60}} \|Skanderbeg's Order (Albania) \|- \|border\|width60}} \|Order of Stara Planina in the First Order (Bulgaria) \|- \|border\|width60}} \|Republic of Vietnam Gallantry Cross Unit Citation \|- \|border\|width60}} \|Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal \|- \|border\|width60}} \|National Order of the Lion, Grand Officer (Senegal) \|} Potential presidential candidate Powell's experience in military matters made him a very popular figure with both American political parties. Many Democrats admired his moderate stance on military matters, while many Republicans saw him as a great asset associated with the successes of past Republican administrations. Put forth as a potential Democratic vice presidential nominee in the 1992 U.S. presidential election or even potentially replacing Vice President Dan Quayle as the Republican vice presidential nominee, Powell eventually declared himself a Republican and began to campaign for Republican candidates in 1995. He was touted as a possible opponent of Bill Clinton in the 1996 U.S. presidential election, possibly capitalizing on a split conservative vote in Iowa and even leading New Hampshire polls for the GOP nomination, but Powell declined, citing a lack of passion for politics. Powell defeated Clinton 50–38 in a hypothetical match-up proposed to voters in the exit polls conducted on Election Day. Despite not standing in the race, Powell won the Republican New Hampshire Vice-Presidential primary on write-in votes. In 1997, Powell founded America's Promise with the objective of helping children from all socioeconomic sectors. That same year saw the establishment of The Colin L. Powell Center for Leadership and Service. The mission of the center is to "prepare new generations of publicly engaged leaders from populations previously underrepresented in public service and policy circles, to build a strong culture of civic engagement at City College, and to mobilize campus resources to meet pressing community needs and serve the public good". Powell was mentioned as a potential candidate in the 2000 U.S. presidential election, but again decided against running. Once Texas Governor George W. Bush secured the Republican nomination, Powell endorsed him for president and spoke at the 2000 Republican National Convention. Bush won the general election and appointed Powell as secretary of state in 2001. In the electoral college vote count of 2016, Powell received three votes for president from faithless electors from the state of Washington.Secretary of State (2001–2005) and Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld listen to President George W. Bush speak]] President-elect George W. Bush named Powell as his nominee to be secretary of state in a ceremony at his ranch in Crawford, Texas on 16 December 2000. as well the first black United States secretary of state. and ceremonially sworn in on 26 January. Over the course of his tenure he traveled less than any other U.S. Secretary of State in thirty years. This is partly attributed to a letter from former diplomat George F. Kennan, who advised Powell to focus on his duties as the president's principal foreign policy advisor and avoid trips that risked undercutting the duties of the ambassadors. On 11 September 2001, Powell was in Lima, Peru, meeting with president Alejandro Toledo and attending a meeting of foreign ministers of the Organization of American States. After the terror attacks that day, Powell's job became of critical importance in managing the United States of America's relationships with foreign countries to secure a stable coalition in the War on Terrorism.2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq Powell came under fire for his role in building the case for the 2003 invasion of Iraq. A 2004 report by the Iraq Survey Group concluded that the evidence that Powell offered to support the allegation that the Iraqi government possessed weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) was inaccurate. As early as 2000 on the day Powell was nominated to be Secretary of State he told the press "Saddam is sitting on a failed regime that is not going to be around in a few years time". In a press statement on 24 February 2001, Powell had said that sanctions against Iraq had prevented the development of any weapons of mass destruction by Saddam Hussein. Powell favored involving the international community in the invasion, as opposed to a unilateral approach. , presented by Powell at the UN Security Council. On 27 May 2003, U.S. and British experts examined the trailers and declared they had nothing to do with biological weapons.]] while giving a presentation to the United Nations Security Council in February 2003]] Powell's chief role was to garner international support for a multi-national coalition to mount the invasion. To this end, Powell addressed a plenary session of the United Nations Security Council on 5 February 2003, to argue in favor of military action. Citing numerous anonymous Iraqi defectors, Powell asserted that "there can be no doubt that Saddam Hussein has biological weapons and the capability to rapidly produce more, many more". Powell also stated that there was "no doubt in my mind" that Saddam was working to obtain key components to produce nuclear weapons. Britain's Channel 4 News reported soon afterwards that a British intelligence dossier that Powell had referred to as a "fine paper" during his presentation had been based on old material and plagiarized an essay by American graduate student Ibrahim al-Marashi. A Senate report on intelligence failures would later detail the intense debate that went on behind the scenes on what to include in Powell's speech. State Department analysts had found dozens of factual problems in drafts of the speech. Some of the claims were taken out, but others were left in, such as claims based on the yellowcake forgery. The administration came under fire for having acted on faulty intelligence, particularly that which was single-sourced to the informant known as Curveball. Powell later recounted how Vice President Dick Cheney had joked with him before he gave the speech, telling him, "You've got high poll ratings; you can afford to lose a few points". Powell's longtime aide-de-camp and Chief of Staff from 1989 to 2003, Colonel Lawrence Wilkerson, later characterized Cheney's view of Powell's mission as to "go up there and sell it, and we'll have moved forward a peg or two. Fall on your damn sword and kill yourself, and I'll be happy, too". In September 2005, Powell was asked about the speech during an interview with Barbara Walters and responded that it was a "blot" on his record. He went on to say, "It will always be a part of my record. It was painful. It's painful now". Wilkerson later said that he inadvertently participated in a hoax on the American people in preparing Powell's erroneous testimony before the United Nations Security Council. As recounted in Soldier: The Life of Colin Powell, in 2001 before 9/11, Richard A. Clarke, a National Security Council holdover from the Clinton administration, pushed the new Bush administration for action against al-Qaeda in Afghanistan, a move opposed by Paul Wolfowitz who advocated for the creation of a "U.S.-protected, opposition-run 'liberated' enclave around the southern Iraqi city of Basra". Powell referred to Wolfowitz and other top members of Donald Rumsfeld's staff "as the 'JINSA crowd,' " in reference to the pro-Israel Jewish Institute for National Security Affairs. Again invoking "the JINSA crowd" Powell also attributed the decision to go to war in Iraq in 2003 to the neoconservative belief that regime change in Baghdad "was a first and necessary stop on the road to peace in Jerusalem". A review of Soldier by Tim Rutten criticized Powell's remarks as a "blot on his record", accusing Powell of slandering "neoconservatives in the Defense Department – nearly all of them Jews" with "old and wholly unmeritorious allegations of dual loyalty". A 2007 article about fears that Jewish groups "will be accused of driving America into a war with the regime in Tehran" cited the DeYoung biography and quoted JINSA's then-executive director, Thomas Neumann, as "surprised" Powell "would single out a Jewish group when naming those who supported the war". Neumann said, "I am not accusing Powell of anything, but these are words that the antisemites will use in the future". ]] Once Saddam Hussein had been deposed, Powell's renewed role was to once again establish a working international coalition, this time to assist in the rebuilding of post-war Iraq. On 13 September 2004, Powell testified before the Senate Governmental Affairs Committee, acknowledging that the sources who provided much of the information in his February 2003 UN presentation were "wrong" and that it was "unlikely" that any stockpiles of WMDs would be found. Claiming that he was unaware that some intelligence officials questioned the information prior to his presentation, Powell pushed for reform in the intelligence community, including the creation of a national intelligence director who would assure that "what one person knew, everyone else knew".Other foreign policy issuesAdditionally, Powell was critical of other aspects of U.S. foreign policy in the past, such as its support for the 1973 Chilean coup d'état that deposed the democratically elected president Salvador Allende in favor of Augusto Pinochet. From two separate interviews in 2003, Powell stated in one about the 1973 event: "I can't justify or explain the actions and decisions that were made at that time. It was a different time. There was a great deal of concern about communism in this part of the world. Communism was a threat to the democracies in this part of the world. It was a threat to the United States". In another interview, he also simply stated: "With respect to your earlier comment about Chile in the 1970s and what happened with Mr. Allende, it is not a part of American history that we're proud of." speaking on United States's involvement in recovery efforts following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami with Alwi Shihab wearing green.]] In the Hainan Island incident of 1 April 2001, a United States US EP-3 surveillance aircraft collided mid-air with a Chinese Shenyang J-8 jet fighter over the South China Sea. While somewhat ambiguous, Powell's expression of "very sorry" was accepted as sufficient for the formal apology that China had sought. In November the president "forced Powell to resign", according to Walter LaFeber. Powell announced his resignation as Secretary of State on 15 November 2004, shortly after Bush was reelected. Bush's desire for Powell to resign was communicated to Powell via a phone call by Bush's chief of staff, Andrew Card. In mid-November, Powell stated that he had seen new evidence suggesting that Iran was adapting missiles for a nuclear delivery system. The accusation came at the same time as the settlement of an agreement between Iran, the IAEA, and the European Union. Although biographer Jeffrey J. Matthews is highly critical of how Powell misled the United Nations Security Council regarding weapons of mass destruction in Iraq, he credits Powell with a series of achievements at the State Department. These include restoration of morale to psychologically demoralized professional diplomats, leadership of the international HIV/AIDS initiative, resolving a crisis with China, and blocking efforts to tie Saddam Hussein to the 9/11 attacks on the United States.Life after diplomatic serviceAfter retiring from the role of Secretary of State, Powell returned to private life. In April 2005, he was privately telephoned by Republican senators Lincoln Chafee and Chuck Hagel, at which time Powell expressed reservations and mixed reviews about the nomination of John Bolton as ambassador to the United Nations, but refrained from advising the senators to oppose Bolton (Powell had clashed with Bolton during Bush's first term). The decision was viewed as potentially dealing significant damage to Bolton's chances of confirmation. Bolton was put into the position via a recess appointment because of the strong opposition in the Senate. , 2004]] On 28 April 2005, an opinion piece in The Guardian by Sidney Blumenthal (a former top aide to President Bill Clinton) claimed that Powell was in fact "conducting a campaign" against Bolton because of the acrimonious battles they had had while working together, which among other things had resulted in Powell cutting Bolton out of talks with Iran and Libya after complaints about Bolton's involvement from the British. Blumenthal added that "The foreign relations committee has discovered that Bolton made a highly unusual request and gained access to 10 intercepts by the National Security Agency. Staff members on the committee believe that Bolton was probably spying on Powell, his senior advisors and other officials reporting to him on diplomatic initiatives that Bolton opposed". In September 2005, Powell criticized the response to Hurricane Katrina, and said thousands of people were not properly protected because they were poor, rather than because they were black. , Vice President Dick Cheney, and former President George H. W. Bush, Saudi Arabia, August 2005]] On 5 January 2006, he participated in a meeting at the White House of former Secretaries of Defense and State to discuss United States foreign policy with Bush administration officials. In September 2006, Powell sided with more moderate Senate Republicans in supporting more rights for detainees and opposing President Bush's terrorism bill. He backed Senators John Warner, John McCain, and Lindsey Graham in their statement that U.S. military and intelligence personnel in future wars will suffer for abuses committed in 2006 by the U.S. in the name of fighting terrorism. Powell stated that "The world is beginning to doubt the moral basis of our fight against terrorism". In 2007, he joined the board of directors of Steve Case's new company Revolution Health. Powell also served on the Council on Foreign Relations Board of directors. In 2008, Powell served as a spokesperson for National Mentoring Month, a campaign held each January to recruit volunteer mentors for at-risk youth. Soon after Barack Obama's 2008 election, Powell began being mentioned as a possible cabinet member. He was not nominated. In September 2009, Powell advised President Obama against surging U.S. forces in Afghanistan. The president announced the surge the following December. In 2010, Powell joined the Smithsonian advisory council. Together with his wife, Alma Powell, they are the founding donors who offer their support to the museum's capital campaign and Living History campaign. He was an advocate for the National Museum of African American History and Culture.Political positions During his early political career through his tenure within the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Powell was an independent. Powell was a moderate Republican from 1995 until 2021. In 2021, Powell recanted his status as a Republican following the storming of the United States Capitol on 6 January. The attack moved Powell to call for President Trump's resignation, noting: "I wish he would do what Nixon did and just step down. Somebody ought to go up to him and it's over". Powell also accused Trump of attempting to "overthrow the government", and that Trump's false claims of a stolen election were "dangerous for our democracy". Powell was pro-choice regarding abortion, and expressed some support for an assault weapons ban. He stated in his autobiography that he supported affirmative action that levels the playing field, without giving a leg up to undeserving persons because of racial issues. Powell originally suggested the don't ask, don't tell policy to President Clinton, though he later supported its repeal as proposed by Robert Gates and Admiral Mike Mullen in January 2010, saying "circumstances had changed". Powell gained attention in 2004 when, in a conversation with British Foreign Secretary Jack Straw, he reportedly referred to neoconservatives within the Bush administration as "fucking crazies". In a September 2006 letter to John McCain, Powell expressed opposition to President Bush's push for military tribunals of those formerly and currently classified as enemy combatants. Specifically, he objected to the effort in Congress to "redefine Common Article 3 of the Geneva Convention". He also asserted: "The world is beginning to doubt the moral basis of our fight against terrorism". Defending the Iraq War At the 2007 Aspen Ideas Festival in Colorado, Powell stated that he had spent two and a half hours explaining to President Bush "the consequences of going into an Arab country and becoming the occupiers". During this discussion, he insisted that the U.S. appeal to the United Nations first, but if diplomacy failed, he would support the invasion: "I also had to say to him that you are the President, you will have to make the ultimate judgment, and if the judgment is this isn't working and we don't think it is going to solve the problem, then if military action is undertaken I'm with you, I support you". In a 2008 interview on CNN, Powell reiterated his support for the 2003 decision to invade Iraq in the context of his endorsement of Barack Obama, stating: "My role has been very, very straightforward. I wanted to avoid a war. The president [Bush] agreed with me. We tried to do that. We couldn't get it through the U.N. and when the president made the decision, I supported that decision. And I've never blinked from that. I've never said I didn't support a decision to go to war". Powell's position on the Iraq War troop surge of 2007 was less consistent. In December 2006, he expressed skepticism that the strategy would work and whether the U.S. military had enough troops to carry it out successfully. He stated: "I am not persuaded that another surge of troops into Baghdad for the purposes of suppressing this communitarian violence, this civil war, will work". Following his endorsement of Barack Obama in October 2008, however, Powell praised General David Petraeus and U.S. troops, as well as the Iraqi government, concluding that "it's starting to turn around".Endorsement of Barack ObamaPowell donated the maximum allowable amount to John McCain's campaign in the summer of 2007 and in early 2008, his name was listed as a possible running mate for Republican nominee McCain's bid during the 2008 U.S. presidential election. McCain won the Republican presidential nomination, but the Democrats nominated the first black candidate, Senator Barack Obama of Illinois. On 19 October 2008, Powell announced his endorsement of Obama during a Meet the Press interview, citing "his ability to inspire, because of the inclusive nature of his campaign, because he is reaching out all across America, because of who he is and his rhetorical abilities", in addition to his "style and substance". He additionally referred to Obama as a "transformational figure". Powell concluded his Sunday morning talk show comments with "It isn't easy for me to disappoint Sen. McCain in the way that I have this morning, and I regret that [...] I think we need a transformational figure. I think we need a president who is a generational change and that's why I'm supporting Barack Obama, not out of any lack of respect or admiration for Sen. John McCain". Later in a 12 December 2008, CNN interview with Fareed Zakaria, Powell reiterated his belief that during the last few months of the campaign, Palin pushed the Republican party further to the right and had a polarizing impact on it. When asked why he was still a Republican on Meet the Press he said, "I'm still a Republican. And I think the Republican Party needs me more than the Democratic Party needs me. And you can be a Republican and still feel strongly about issues such as immigration, and improving our education system, and doing something about some of the social problems that exist in our society and our country. I don't think there's anything inconsistent with this". Views on the Obama administration In a July 2009 CNN interview with John King, Powell expressed concern over President Obama increasing the size of the federal government and the size of the federal budget deficit. In September 2010, he criticized the Obama administration for not focusing "like a razor blade" on the economy and job creation. Powell reiterated that Obama was a "transformational figure". In a video that aired on CNN.com in November 2011, Colin Powell said in reference to Barack Obama, "many of his decisions have been quite sound. The financial system was put back on a stable basis". On 25 October 2012, 12 days before the presidential election, he gave his endorsement to President Obama for re-election during a broadcast of CBS This Morning. He considered the administration to have had success and achieved progress in foreign and domestic policy arenas. As additional reasons for his endorsement, Powell cited the changing positions and perceived lack of thoughtfulness of Mitt Romney on foreign affairs, and a concern for the validity of Romney's economic plans. In an interview with ABC's Diane Sawyer and George Stephanopoulos during ABC's coverage of President Obama's second inauguration, Powell criticized members of the Republican Party who spread "things that demonize the president". He called on GOP leaders to publicly denounce such talk. 2016 e-mail leaks and criticism of Donald Trump Powell was very vocal on the state of the Republican Party. Speaking at a Washington Ideas forum in early October 2015, he warned the audience that the Republican Party had begun a move to the fringe right, lessening the chances of a Republican White House in the future. He also remarked on Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump's statements regarding immigrants, noting that there were many immigrants working in Trump hotels. In March 2016, Powell denounced the "nastiness" of the 2016 Republican primaries during an interview on CBS This Morning. He compared the race to reality television, and stated that the campaign had gone "into the mud". In August 2016, Powell accused the Hillary Clinton campaign of trying to pin her email controversy on him. Speaking to People magazine, Powell said, "The truth is, she was using [the private email server] for a year before I sent her a memo telling her what I did". On 13 September 2016, emails were obtained that revealed Powell's private communications regarding both Donald Trump and Hillary Clinton. Powell privately reiterated his comments regarding Clinton's email scandal, writing, "I have told Hillary's minions repeatedly that they are making a mistake trying to drag me in, yet they still try", and complaining that "Hillary's mafia keeps trying to suck me into it" in another email. In another email discussing Clinton's controversy, Powell said she should have told everyone what she did "two years ago", and said that she has not "been covering herself with glory". Writing on the 2012 Benghazi attack controversy surrounding Clinton, Powell said to then U.S. Ambassador Susan Rice, "Benghazi is a stupid witch hunt". Commenting on Clinton in a general sense, he mused that "Everything HRC touches she kind of screws up with hubris", and in another email stated "I would rather not have to vote for her, although she is a friend I respect". Powell called Donald Trump a "national disgrace", with "no sense of shame". He wrote of Trump's role in the birther movement, which he called "racist". He suggested the media ignore Trump: "To go on and call him an idiot just emboldens him". The emails were obtained by the media as the result of a hack. Powell endorsed Clinton on 25 October 2016, stating it was "because I think she's qualified, and the other gentleman is not qualified". Despite not running in the election, Powell received three electoral votes for president from faithless electors in Washington who had pledged to vote for Clinton, coming in third overall. After Barack Obama, he was the second black person to receive electoral votes in a presidential election.Views on the Trump administrationIn an interview in October 2019, Powell warned that the GOP needed to "get a grip" and put the country before their party, standing up to then-president Trump rather than worrying about political fallout. He said: "When they see things that are not right, they need to say something about it because our foreign policy is in shambles right now, in my humble judgment, and I see things happening that are hard to understand". On 7 June 2020, Powell announced he would be voting for former Vice President Joe Biden in the 2020 United States presidential election. In August, Powell delivered a speech in support of Biden's candidacy at the 2020 Democratic National Convention. In January 2021, after the Capitol building was attacked by Trump supporters, Powell told CNN: "I can no longer call myself a fellow Republican".Personal life and deathPowell married Alma Johnson on 25 August 1962. Their son, Michael Powell, was the chairman of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) from 2001 to 2005. Their daughters are Linda Powell, an actress, and Annemarie Powell. Alma died in 2024. As a hobby, Powell restored old Volvo and Saab automobiles. In 2013, he faced questions about his relationship with the Romanian diplomat Corina Crețu, after a hacked AOL email account had been made public. He acknowledged a "very personal" email relationship but denied further involvement. He was an Episcopalian. On 18 October 2021, Powell, who was being treated for multiple myeloma, died at Walter Reed National Military Medical Center of complications from COVID-19 at the age of 84. He had been vaccinated, but his myeloma compromised his immune system; he also had early-stage Parkinson's disease. President Joe Biden and four of the five living former presidents issued statements calling Powell an American hero. Then-former president Donald Trump released a statement saying "He made plenty of mistakes, but anyway, may he rest in peace!" and referred to him as a "classic RINO". Present at the funeral service at the Washington National Cathedral were President Biden and former presidents Barack Obama and George W. Bush, along with First Lady Jill Biden and former first ladies Michelle Obama, Laura Bush, and Hillary Clinton (also representing her husband, former President Bill Clinton, who was unable to attend following treatment for sepsis) as well as many other dignitaries. Powell is buried at Arlington National Cemetery in Section 60, Grave 11917. Civilian awards and honors<!-- This section is linked from List of coats of arms --> Powell's civilian awards include two Presidential Medals of Freedom (the second with distinction), the Congressional Gold Medal, and the Ronald Reagan Freedom Award. * In 1988, Powell received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. * In 1990, Powell received the U.S. Senator John Heinz Award for Greatest Public Service by an Elected or Appointed Official, an award given out annually by Jefferson Awards. * In 1991, Powell was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President George H. W. Bush. * In 1991, Powell was inducted into the Horatio Alger Association of Distinguished Americans. * On 23 April 1991, Powell was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal "in recognition of his exemplary performance as a military leader and advisor to the President in planning and coordinating the military response of the United States to the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and the ultimate retreat and defeat of Iraqi forces and Iraqi acceptance of all United Nations Resolutions relating to Kuwait". * On 30 September 1993, Powell was awarded his second Presidential Medal of Freedom, this time with the additional "with distinction" by President Bill Clinton. * On 9 November 1993, Powell was awarded the second Ronald Reagan Freedom Award, by Ronald Reagan. Powell served as Reagan's National Security Advisor from 1987 to 1989. * In 1993, Colin Powell was created an honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath by Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom. * In 1998, he was awarded the Sylvanus Thayer Award by the United States Military Academy for his commitment to the ideals of "Duty, Honor, Country". In 1998, he was elected to the American Philosophical Society The 2002 Liberty Medal was awarded to Colin Powell on 4 July in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. In his acceptance speech, Powell reminded Americans that "It is for America, the Land of the Free and the Home of the Brave, to help freedom ring across the globe, unto all the peoples thereof. That is our solemn obligation, and we will not fail". * In 2003, an elementary school named after Powell was opened in Centreville, Virginia. Powell visited the school in 2013. * In 2005, Powell received the Bishop John T. Walker Distinguished Humanitarian Service Award for his contributions to Africa. * Powell received the 2006 AARP Andrus Award, the Association's highest honor. * In 2005, Colin and Alma Powell were awarded the Woodrow Wilson Award for Public Service by the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars of the Smithsonian Institution. , on 18 October 2021, the day Powell died]] * Powell was a recipient of the Silver Buffalo Award, the highest adult award given by the Boy Scouts of America. * A street in Gelnhausen, Germany, was named after him: "General-Colin-Powell-Straße". * In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed Colin Powell on his list of 100 Greatest Blacks in America. * In 2009, an elementary school named for Colin Powell opened in El Paso. It is in the El Paso Independent School District, located on Fort Bliss property, and serves a portion of Fort Bliss. In 2009, Powell was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Powell was an honorary board member of the humanitarian organization Wings of Hope * From 2006, he was the chairman of the Board of Trustees for Eisenhower Fellowships. * In 2006, The Harry S. Truman Research Institute for the Advancement of Peace at The Hebrew University of Jerusalem awarded Colin Powell with the Truman Peace Prize for his efforts to conduct the "war against terrorism", through diplomatic as well as military means, and to avert regional and civil conflicts in many parts of the world. * In September 2012, Union City, New Jersey, opened Colin Powell Elementary School, which was named after Powell, and which was dedicated on 7 February 2013, with governor Chris Christie in attendance. Powell himself visited the school on 4 June 2013. * In 2014, Colin Powell was named to the National Board of Advisors for High Point University. * In 2024, Prince George's County Public Schools opened Colin L. Powell Academy, named after Powell, in Fort Washington, Maryland.See also * Conservatism in the United States * List of American conservatives * List of African-American United States Cabinet members * List of secretaries of state of the United States * Plame affair * Pottery Barn rule * Republican and conservative support for Barack Obama in 2008 Notes References Sources * * * * * * Further reading* * External links * * * * * \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- }} <!-- there is another VIAF cluster at 66570122 --> Category:1937 births Category:2021 deaths Category:20th-century African-American people Category:21st-century African-American people Category:21st-century United States government officials Category:21st-century American non-fiction writers Category:21st-century American diplomats Category:21st-century American Episcopalians Category:21st-century American male writers Category:United States Army personnel of the Gulf War Category:United States Army personnel of the Vietnam War Category:American anti-communists Category:American male non-fiction writers Category:20th-century American memoirists Category:American politicians of Jamaican descent Category:American people of Scottish descent Category:American political writers Category:African-American government officials Category:African-American men in politics Category:African-American writers Category:Atlantic Council Category:Burials at Arlington National Cemetery Category:Chairmen of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Category:City College of New York alumni Category:Congressional Gold Medal recipients Category:Deaths from cancer in Maryland Category:Deaths from multiple myeloma in the United States Category:Fellows of the United States National Academy of Public Administration Category:George W. Bush administration cabinet members Category:George Washington University School of Business alumni Category:Honorary Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath Category:Iraq and weapons of mass destruction Category:Kleiner Perkins people Category:American recipients of the Legion of Honour Category:Military leaders of the Gulf War Category:Military personnel from New York City Category:Mỹ Lai massacre Category:National War College alumni Category:New York (state) Republicans Category:Politicians from the Bronx Category:People from Morrisania, Bronx Category:People from McLean, Virginia Category:Pershing Riflemen Category:Political realists Category:People from Harlem Category:Politicians from Manhattan Category:Presidential Citizens Medal recipients Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients Category:Reagan administration personnel Category:Recipients of the Air Medal Category:Recipients of the Defense Distinguished Service Medal Category:Recipients of the Defense Superior Service Medal Category:Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army) Category:Recipients of the Legion of Merit Category:Recipients of the Order of Saint Maurice Category:Recipients of the Soldier's Medal Category:United States Army Command and General Staff College alumni Category:United States Army Command and General Staff College faculty Category:United States Army generals Category:United States government officials of the Iraq War Category:United States national security advisors Category:United States secretaries of state Category:White House Fellows Category:Writers from Manhattan Category:Writers from New York (state) Category:Yiddish-speaking people Category:United States Deputy National Security Advisors Category:African-American members of the Cabinet of the United States Category:Deaths from the COVID-19 pandemic in Maryland Category:African-American Episcopalians Category:American Episcopalians Category:Members of the American Philosophical Society Category:Recipients of the Ronald Reagan Freedom Award Category:People with Parkinson's disease Category:Black conservatism in the United States Colin Category:Centrism in the United States	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin_Powell	2025-04-05T18:28:01.279874
6985	Chlorophyll	Pokémon LeafGreen}} Chlorophyll is any of several related green pigments found in cyanobacteria and in the chloroplasts of algae and plants. Its name is derived from the Greek words (, "pale green") and (, "leaf"). Chlorophyll allows plants to absorb energy from light. Those pigments are involved in oxygenic photosynthesis, as opposed to bacteriochlorophylls, related molecules found only in bacteria and involved in anoxygenic photosynthesis. Chlorophylls absorb light most strongly in the blue portion of the electromagnetic spectrum as well as the red portion. Conversely, it is a poor absorber of green and near-green portions of the spectrum. Hence chlorophyll-containing tissues appear green because green light, diffusively reflected by structures like cell walls, is less absorbed.History Chlorophyll was first isolated and named by Joseph Bienaimé Caventou and Pierre Joseph Pelletier in 1817. The presence of magnesium in chlorophyll was discovered in 1906, and was the first detection of that element in living tissue. After initial work done by German chemist Richard Willstätter spanning from 1905 to 1915, the general structure of chlorophyll a was elucidated by Hans Fischer in 1940. By 1960, when most of the stereochemistry of chlorophyll a was known, Robert Burns Woodward published a total synthesis of the molecule. In 1967, the last remaining stereochemical elucidation was completed by Ian Fleming, and in 1990 Woodward and co-authors published an updated synthesis. Chlorophyll f was announced to be present in cyanobacteria and other oxygenic microorganisms that form stromatolites in 2010; a molecular formula of C<sub>55</sub>H<sub>70</sub>O<sub>6</sub>N<sub>4</sub>Mg and a structure of (2-formyl)-chlorophyll a were deduced based on NMR, optical and mass spectra.Photosynthesisspectra of free chlorophyll a (<span style"color:#0169c9;">blue</span>) and b (<span style="color:red;">red</span>) in a solvent. The spectra of chlorophyll molecules are slightly modified in vivo depending on specific pigment-protein interactions. ]] Chlorophyll is vital for photosynthesis, which allows plants to absorb energy from light. Chlorophyll molecules are arranged in and around photosystems that are embedded in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts. In these complexes, chlorophyll serves three functions: # The function of the vast majority of chlorophyll (up to several hundred molecules per photosystem) is to absorb light. # Having done so, these same centers execute their second function: The transfer of that energy by resonance energy transfer to a specific chlorophyll pair in the reaction center of the photosystems. # This specific pair performs the final function of chlorophylls: Charge separation, which produces the unbound protons (H) and electrons (e) that separately propel biosynthesis. The two currently accepted photosystem units are and which have their own distinct reaction centres, named P700 and P680, respectively. These centres are named after the wavelength (in nanometers) of their red-peak absorption maximum. The identity, function and spectral properties of the types of chlorophyll in each photosystem are distinct and determined by each other and the protein structure surrounding them. The function of the reaction center of chlorophyll is to absorb light energy and transfer it to other parts of the photosystem. The absorbed energy of the photon is transferred to an electron in a process called charge separation. The removal of the electron from the chlorophyll is an oxidation reaction. The chlorophyll donates the high energy electron to a series of molecular intermediates called an electron transport chain. The charged reaction center of chlorophyll (P680<sup>+</sup>) is then reduced back to its ground state by accepting an electron stripped from water. The electron that reduces P680<sup>+</sup> ultimately comes from the oxidation of water into O<sub>2</sub> and H<sup>+</sup> through several intermediates. This reaction is how photosynthetic organisms such as plants produce O<sub>2</sub> gas, and is the source for practically all the O<sub>2</sub> in Earth's atmosphere. Photosystem I typically works in series with Photosystem II; thus the P700<sup>+</sup> of Photosystem I is usually reduced as it accepts the electron, via many intermediates in the thylakoid membrane, by electrons coming, ultimately, from Photosystem II. Electron transfer reactions in the thylakoid membranes are complex, however, and the source of electrons used to reduce P700<sup>+</sup> can vary. The electron flow produced by the reaction center chlorophyll pigments is used to pump H<sup>+</sup> ions across the thylakoid membrane, setting up a proton-motive force a chemiosmotic potential used mainly in the production of ATP (stored chemical energy) or to reduce NADP<sup>+</sup> to NADPH. NADPH is a universal agent used to reduce CO<sub>2</sub> into sugars as well as other biosynthetic reactions. Reaction center chlorophyll–protein complexes are capable of directly absorbing light and performing charge separation events without the assistance of other chlorophyll pigments, but the probability of that happening under a given light intensity is small. Thus, the other chlorophylls in the photosystem and antenna pigment proteins all cooperatively absorb and funnel light energy to the reaction center. Besides chlorophyll a, there are other pigments, called accessory pigments, which occur in these pigment–protein antenna complexes. Chemical structure Several chlorophylls are known. All are defined as derivatives of the parent chlorin by the presence of a fifth, ketone-containing ring beyond the four pyrrole-like rings. Most chlorophylls are classified as chlorins, which are reduced relatives of porphyrins (found in hemoglobin). They share a common biosynthetic pathway with porphyrins, including the precursor uroporphyrinogen III. Unlike hemes, which contain iron bound to the N4 center, most chlorophylls bind magnesium. The axial ligands attached to the Mg<sup>2+</sup> center are often omitted for clarity. Appended to the chlorin ring are various side chains, usually including a long phytyl chain (). The most widely distributed form in terrestrial plants is chlorophyll a. Chlorophyll a has methyl group in place of a formyl group in chlorophyll b. This difference affects the absorption spectrum, allowing plants to absorb a greater portion of visible light. The structures of chlorophylls are summarized below: {\| class="wikitable" \| ! Chlorophyll a ! Chlorophyll b ! Chlorophyll c<sub>1</sub> ! Chlorophyll c<sub>2</sub> ! Chlorophyll d ! Chlorophyll f Measurement of chlorophyll content Chlorophylls can be extracted from the protein into organic solvents. In this way, the concentration of chlorophyll within a leaf can be estimated. Methods also exist to separate chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b. In diethyl ether, chlorophyll a has approximate absorbance maxima of 430 nm and 662 nm, while chlorophyll b has approximate maxima of 453 nm and 642 nm. The absorption peaks of chlorophyll a are at 465 nm and 665 nm. Chlorophyll a fluoresces at 673 nm (maximum) and 726 nm. The peak molar absorption coefficient of chlorophyll a exceeds 10<sup>5</sup> M<sup>−1</sup> cm<sup>−1</sup>, which is among the highest for small-molecule organic compounds. In 90% acetone-water, the peak absorption wavelengths of chlorophyll a are 430 nm and 664 nm; peaks for chlorophyll b are 460 nm and 647 nm; peaks for chlorophyll c<sub>1</sub> are 442 nm and 630 nm; peaks for chlorophyll c<sub>2</sub> are 444 nm and 630 nm; peaks for chlorophyll d are 401 nm, 455 nm and 696 nm. Ratio fluorescence emission can be used to measure chlorophyll content. By exciting chlorophyll a fluorescence at a lower wavelength, the ratio of chlorophyll fluorescence emission at and can provide a linear relationship of chlorophyll content when compared with chemical testing. The ratio F<sub>735</sub>/F<sub>700</sub> provided a correlation value of r<sup>2</sup> 0.96 compared with chemical testing in the range from 41 mg m<sup>−2</sup> up to 675 mg m<sup>−2</sup>. Gitelson also developed a formula for direct readout of chlorophyll content in mg m<sup>−2</sup>. The formula provided a reliable method of measuring chlorophyll content from 41 mg m<sup>−2</sup> up to 675 mg m<sup>−2</sup> with a correlation r<sup>2</sup> value of 0.95. Also, the chlorophyll concentration can be estimated by measuring the light transmittance through the plant leaves. The assessment of leaf chlorophyll content using optical sensors such as Dualex and SPAD allows researchers to perform real-time and non-destructive measurements. Research shows that these methods have a positive correlation with laboratory measurements of chlorophyll.Biosynthesis In some plants, chlorophyll is derived from glutamate and is synthesised along a branched biosynthetic pathway that is shared with heme and siroheme. Chlorophyll synthase is the enzyme that completes the biosynthesis of chlorophyll a: :chlorophyllide a + phytyl diphosphate <math>\rightleftharpoons</math> chlorophyll a + diphosphate This conversion forms an ester of the carboxylic acid group in chlorophyllide a with the 20-carbon diterpene alcohol phytol. Chlorophyll b is made by the same enzyme acting on chlorophyllide b. The same is known for chlorophyll d and f, both made from corresponding chlorophyllides ultimately made from chlorophyllide a. In Angiosperm plants, the later steps in the biosynthetic pathway are light-dependent. Such plants are pale (etiolated) if grown in darkness. Non-vascular plants and green algae have an additional light-independent enzyme and grow green even in darkness. Chlorophyll is bound to proteins. Protochlorophyllide, one of the biosynthetic intermediates, occurs mostly in the free form and, under light conditions, acts as a photosensitizer, forming free radicals, which can be toxic to the plant. Hence, plants regulate the amount of this chlorophyll precursor. In angiosperms, this regulation is achieved at the step of aminolevulinic acid (ALA), one of the intermediate compounds in the biosynthesis pathway. Plants that are fed by ALA accumulate high and toxic levels of protochlorophyllide; so do the mutants with a damaged regulatory system.Senescence and the chlorophyll cycleThe process of plant senescence involves the degradation of chlorophyll: for example the enzyme chlorophyllase () hydrolyses the phytyl sidechain to reverse the reaction in which chlorophylls are biosynthesised from chlorophyllide a or b. Since chlorophyllide a can be converted to chlorophyllide b and the latter can be re-esterified to chlorophyll b, these processes allow cycling between chlorophylls a and b. Moreover, chlorophyll b can be directly reduced (via ) back to chlorophyll a, completing the cycle. In later stages of senescence, chlorophyllides are converted to a group of colourless tetrapyrroles known as nonfluorescent chlorophyll catabolites (NCC's) with the general structure: : These compounds have also been identified in ripening fruits and they give characteristic autumn colours to deciduous plants.DistributionChlorophyll maps from 2002 to 2024, provided by NASA, show milligrams of chlorophyll per cubic meter of seawater each month. Places where chlorophyll amounts are very low, indicating very low numbers of phytoplankton, are blue. Places where chlorophyll concentrations are high, meaning many phytoplankton were growing, are yellow. The observations come from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA's Aqua satellite. Land is dark gray, and places where MODIS could not collect data because of sea ice, polar darkness, or clouds are light gray. The highest chlorophyll concentrations, where tiny surface-dwelling ocean plants are, are in cold polar waters or in places where ocean currents bring cold water to the surface, such as around the equator and along the shores of continents. It is not the cold water itself that stimulates the phytoplankton. Instead, the cool temperatures are often a sign that the water has welled up to the surface from deeper in the ocean, carrying nutrients that have built up over time. In polar waters, nutrients accumulate in surface waters during the dark winter months when plants cannot grow. When sunlight returns in the spring and summer, the plants flourish in high concentrations. Chlorophyll is not soluble in water, and it is first mixed with a small quantity of vegetable oil to obtain the desired solution.In marketingIn years 1950–1953 in particular, chlorophyll was used as a marketing tool to promote toothpaste, sanitary towels, soap and other products. This was based on claims that it was an odor blocker — a finding from research by F. Howard Westcott in the 1940s — and the commercial value of this attribute in advertising led to many companies creating brands containing the compound. However, it was soon determined that the hype surrounding chlorophyll was not warranted and the underlying research may even have been a hoax. As a result, brands rapidly discontinued its use. In the 2020s, chlorophyll again became the subject of unsubstantiated medical claims, as social media influencers promoted its use in the form of "chlorophyll water", for example. See also * Bacteriochlorophyll, related compounds in phototrophic bacteria * Chlorophyllin, a semi-synthetic derivative of chlorophyll * Deep chlorophyll maximum * Chlorophyll fluorescence, to measure plant stress * Purple Earth hypothesis, a scientific hypothesis that explains the evolution of red-blue spectral affinity of chlorophyll. References Category:Tetrapyrroles Category:Photosynthetic pigments Category:Articles containing video clips Category:E-number additives	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorophyll	2025-04-05T18:28:01.303476
6986	Carotene	thumb\|upright=1.4\|A 3-dimensional stick diagram of β-carotene thumb\|Carotene is responsible for the orange colour of carrots and the colours of many other fruits and vegetables and even some animals. thumb\|Lesser Flamingos in the Ngorongoro Crater, Tanzania. The pink colour of wild flamingos is due to astaxanthin (a carotenoid) they absorb from their diet of brine shrimp. If fed a carotene-free diet they become white. The term carotene (also carotin, from the Latin carota, "carrot") is used for many related unsaturated hydrocarbon substances having the formula C40Hx, which are synthesized by plants but in general cannot be made by animals (with the exception of some aphids and spider mites which acquired the synthesizing genes from fungi). Carotenes are photosynthetic pigments important for photosynthesis. Carotenes contain no oxygen atoms. They absorb ultraviolet, violet, and blue light and scatter orange or red light, and yellow light(in low concentrations). Carotenes are responsible for the orange colour of the carrot, after which this class of chemicals is named, and for the colours of many other fruits, vegetables and fungi (for example, sweet potatoes, chanterelle and orange cantaloupe melon). Carotenes are also responsible for the orange (but not all of the yellow) colours in dry foliage. They also (in lower concentrations) impart the yellow coloration to milk-fat and butter. Omnivorous animal species which are relatively poor converters of coloured dietary carotenoids to colourless retinoids, such as humans and chickens, have yellow-coloured body fat, as a result of the carotenoid retention from the vegetable portion of their diet. Carotenes contribute to photosynthesis by transmitting the light energy they absorb to chlorophyll. They also protect plant tissues by helping to absorb the energy from singlet oxygen, an excited form of the oxygen molecule O2 which is formed during photosynthesis. β-Carotene is composed of two retinyl groups, and is broken down in the mucosa of the human small intestine by β-carotene 15,15'-monooxygenase to retinal, a form of vitamin A. β-Carotene can be stored in the liver and body fat and converted to retinal as needed, thus making it a form of vitamin A for humans and some other mammals. The carotenes α-carotene and γ-carotene, due to their single retinyl group (β-ionone ring), also have some vitamin A activity (though less than β-carotene), as does the xanthophyll carotenoid β-cryptoxanthin. All other carotenoids, including lycopene, have no beta-ring and thus no vitamin A activity (although they may have antioxidant activity and thus biological activity in other ways). Animal species differ greatly in their ability to convert retinyl (beta-ionone) containing carotenoids to retinals. Carnivores in general are poor converters of dietary ionone-containing carotenoids. Pure carnivores such as ferrets lack β-carotene 15,15'-monooxygenase and cannot convert any carotenoids to retinals at all (resulting in carotenes not being a form of vitamin A for this species); while cats can convert a trace of β-carotene to retinol, although the amount is totally insufficient for meeting their daily retinol needs. Molecular structure Carotenes are polyunsaturated hydrocarbons containing 40 carbon atoms per molecule, variable numbers of hydrogen atoms, and no other elements. Some carotenes are terminated by rings, on one or both ends of the molecule. All are coloured, due to the presence of conjugated double bonds. Carotenes are tetraterpenes, meaning that they are derived from eight 5-carbon isoprene units (or four 10-carbon terpene units). Carotenes are found in plants in two primary forms designated by characters from the Greek alphabet: alpha-carotene (α-carotene) and beta-carotene (β-carotene). Gamma-, delta-, epsilon-, and zeta-carotene (γ, δ, ε, and ζ-carotene) also exist. Since they are hydrocarbons, and therefore contain no oxygen, carotenes are fat-soluble and insoluble in water (in contrast with other carotenoids, the xanthophylls, which contain oxygen and thus are less chemically hydrophobic). History The discovery of carotene from carrot juice is credited to Heinrich Wilhelm Ferdinand Wackenroder, a finding made during a search for antihelminthics, which he published in 1831. He obtained it in small ruby-red flakes soluble in ether, which when dissolved in fats gave "a beautiful yellow colour". William Christopher Zeise recognised its hydrocarbon nature in 1847, but his analyses gave him a composition of C5H8. It was Léon-Albert Arnaud in 1886 who confirmed its hydrocarbon nature and gave the formula C26H38, which is close to the theoretical composition of C40H56. Adolf Lieben in studies, also published in 1886, of the colouring matter in corpora lutea, first came across carotenoids in animal tissue, but did not recognise the nature of the pigment. Johann Ludwig Wilhelm Thudichum, in 1868–1869, after stereoscopic spectral examination, applied the term 'luteine' (lutein) to this class of yellow crystallizable substances found in animals and plants. Richard Martin Willstätter, who gained the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1915, mainly for his work on chlorophyll, assigned the composition of C40H56, distinguishing it from the similar but oxygenated xanthophyll, C40H56O2. With Heinrich Escher, in 1910, lycopene was isolated from tomatoes and shown to be an isomer of carotene. Later work by Escher also differentiated the 'luteal' pigments in egg yolk from that of the carotenes in cow corpus luteum. Dietary sources The following foods contain carotenes in notable amounts: carrots cantaloupe mangoes spinach Absorption from these foods is enhanced if eaten with fats, as carotenes are fat soluble, and if the food is cooked for a few minutes until the plant cell wall splits and the color is released into any liquid. The New England Journal of Medicine published an article in 1994 about a trial which examined the relationship between daily supplementation of β-carotene and vitamin E (α-tocopherol) and the incidence of lung cancer. The study was done using supplements and researchers were aware of the epidemiological correlation between carotenoid-rich fruits and vegetables and lower lung cancer rates. The research concluded that no reduction in lung cancer was found in the participants using these supplements, and furthermore, these supplements may, in fact, have harmful effects. The Journal of the National Cancer Institute and The New England Journal of Medicine published articles in 1996 about a trial with a goal to determine if vitamin A (in the form of retinyl palmitate) and β-carotene (at about 30 mg/day, which is 10 times the Reference Daily Intake) supplements had any beneficial effects to prevent cancer. The results indicated an increased risk of lung and prostate cancers for the participants who consumed the β-carotene supplement and who had lung irritation from smoking or asbestos exposure, causing the trial to be stopped early. However, this meta-analysis included two large studies of smokers, so it is not clear that the results apply to the general population. The review only studied the influence of synthetic antioxidants and the results should not be translated to potential effects of fruits and vegetables. β-Carotene and photosensitivity Oral β-carotene is prescribed to people suffering from erythropoietic protoporphyria. It provides them some relief from photosensitivity. Carotenemia Carotenemia or hypercarotenemia is excess carotene, but unlike excess vitamin A, carotene is non-toxic. Although hypercarotenemia is not particularly dangerous, it can lead to an oranging of the skin (carotenodermia), but not the conjunctiva of eyes (thus easily distinguishing it visually from jaundice). It is most commonly associated with consumption of an abundance of carrots, but it also can be a medical sign of more dangerous conditions. Production thumb\|Algae farm ponds in Whyalla, South Australia, used to produce β-carotene Carotenes are produced in a general manner for other terpenoids and terpenes, i.e. by coupling, cyclization, and oxygenation reactions of isoprene derivatives. Lycopene is the key precursor to carotenoids. It is formed by coupling of geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate and geranyllinally pyrophosphate. Most of the world's synthetic supply of carotene comes from a manufacturing complex located in Freeport, Texas and owned by DSM. The other major supplier BASF also uses a chemical process to produce β-carotene. Together these suppliers account for about 85% of the β-carotene on the market. In Spain Vitatene produces natural β-carotene from fungus Blakeslea trispora, as does DSM but at much lower amount when compared to its synthetic β-carotene operation. In Australia, organic β-carotene is produced by Aquacarotene Limited from dried marine algae Dunaliella salina grown in harvesting ponds situated in Karratha, Western Australia. BASF Australia is also producing β-carotene from microalgae grown in two sites in Australia that are the world's largest algae farms. In Portugal, the industrial biotechnology company Biotrend is producing natural all-trans-β-carotene from a non-genetically modified bacteria of the genus Sphingomonas isolated from soil. Carotenes are also found in palm oil, corn, and in the milk of dairy cows, causing cow's milk to be light yellow, depending on the feed of the cattle, and the amount of fat in the milk (high-fat milks, such as those produced by Guernsey cows, tend to be yellower because their fat content causes them to contain more carotene). Carotenes are also found in some species of termites, where they apparently have been picked up from the diet of the insects. Synthesis There are currently two commonly used methods of total synthesis of β-carotene. The first was developed by BASF and is based on the Wittig reaction with Wittig himself as patent holder: center\|class=skin-invert-image\|Carotene synthesis by Wittig\|500px The second is a Grignard reaction, elaborated by Hoffman-La Roche from the original synthesis of Inhoffen et al. They are both symmetrical; the BASF synthesis is C20 + C20, and the Hoffman-La Roche synthesis is C19 + C2 + C19. Nomenclature Carotenes are carotenoids containing no oxygen. Carotenoids containing some oxygen are known as xanthophylls. The two ends of the β-carotene molecule are structurally identical, and are called β-rings. Specifically, the group of nine carbon atoms at each end form a β-ring. The α-carotene molecule has a β-ring at one end; the other end is called an ε-ring. There is no such thing as an "α-ring". These and similar names for the ends of the carotenoid molecules form the basis of a systematic naming scheme, according to which: α-carotene is β,ε-carotene; β-carotene is β,β-carotene; γ-carotene (with one β ring and one uncyclized end that is labelled psi'') is β,ψ-carotene; δ-carotene (with one ε ring and one uncyclized end) is ε,ψ-carotene; ε-carotene is ε,ε-carotene lycopene is ψ,ψ-carotene ζ-Carotene is the biosynthetic precursor of neurosporene, which is the precursor of lycopene, which, in turn, is the precursor of the carotenes α through ε. Food additive Carotene is used to colour products such as juice, cakes, desserts, butter and margarine. Australia and New Zealand (listed as 160a) and the US. See also Antioxidant References External links Category:Vitamin A Category:Food colorings Category:Carotenoids Category:Hydrocarbons Category:E-number additives	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carotene	2025-04-05T18:28:01.323130
6988	Cyclic adenosine monophosphate	\| ChemSpiderID = 5851 \| ChEMBL_Ref = \| ChEMBL = 316966 \| UNII_Ref = \| UNII = E0399OZS9N \| InChI = 1/C10H12N5O6P/c11-8-5-9(13-2-12-8)15(3-14-5)10-6(16)7-4(20-10)1-19-22(17,18)21-7/h2-4,6-7,10,16H,1H2,(H,17,18)(H2,11,12,13)/t4-,6-,7-,10-/m1/s1 \| InChIKey = IVOMOUWHDPKRLL-KQYNXXCUBU \| StdInChI_Ref = \| StdInChI = 1S/C10H12N5O6P/c11-8-5-9(13-2-12-8)15(3-14-5)10-6(16)7-4(20-10)1-19-22(17,18)21-7/h2-4,6-7,10,16H,1H2,(H,17,18)(H2,11,12,13)/t4-,6-,7-,10-/m1/s1 \| StdInChIKey_Ref = \| StdInChIKey = IVOMOUWHDPKRLL-KQYNXXCUSA-N \| CASNo = 60-92-4 \| CASNo_Ref = \| PubChem = 6076 \| IUPHAR_ligand = 2352 \| DrugBank_Ref = \| DrugBank = DB02527 \| ChEBI_Ref = \| ChEBI = 17489 \| KEGG_Ref = \| KEGG = C00575 \| SMILES c1nc(c2c(n1)n(cn2)[C@H]3[C@@H]([C@H]4[C@H](O3)COP(O)(O4)O)O)N \| MeSHName = Cyclic+AMP }} \| Section2 = \| Section3 = }} ]] Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP, cyclic AMP, or '''3',5'-cyclic adenosine monophosphate') is a second messenger, or cellular signal occurring within cells, that is important in many biological processes. cAMP is a derivative of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and used for intracellular signal transduction in many different organisms, conveying the cAMP-dependent pathway. History Earl Sutherland of Vanderbilt University won a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1971 "for his discoveries concerning the mechanisms of the action of hormones", especially epinephrine, via second messengers (such as cyclic adenosine monophosphate, cyclic AMP). Synthesis The synthesis of cAMP is stimulated by trophic hormones that bind to receptors on the cell surface. cAMP levels reach maximal levels within minutes and decrease gradually over an hour in cultured cells. Cyclic AMP is synthesized from ATP by adenylate cyclase located on the inner side of the plasma membrane and anchored at various locations in the interior of the cell. Adenylate cyclase is activated by a range of signaling molecules through the activation of adenylate cyclase stimulatory G (G<sub>s</sub>)-protein-coupled receptors. Adenylate cyclase is inhibited'' by agonists of adenylate cyclase inhibitory G (G<sub>i</sub>)-protein-coupled receptors. Liver adenylate cyclase responds more strongly to glucagon, and muscle adenylate cyclase responds more strongly to adrenaline. cAMP decomposition into AMP is catalyzed by the enzyme phosphodiesterase. Functions cAMP is a second messenger, used for intracellular signal transduction, such as transferring into cells the effects of hormones like glucagon and adrenaline, which cannot pass through the plasma membrane. It is also involved in the activation of protein kinases. In addition, cAMP binds to and regulates the function of ion channels such as the HCN channels and a few other cyclic nucleotide-binding proteins such as Epac1 and RAPGEF2. Role in eukaryotic cells cAMP is associated with kinases function in several biochemical processes, including the regulation of glycogen, sugar, and lipid metabolism. In eukaryotes, cyclic AMP works by activating protein kinase A (PKA, or cAMP-dependent protein kinase). PKA is normally inactive as a tetrameric holoenzyme, consisting of two catalytic and two regulatory units (C<sub>2</sub>R<sub>2</sub>), with the regulatory units blocking the catalytic centers of the catalytic units. Cyclic AMP binds to specific locations on the regulatory units of the protein kinase, and causes dissociation between the regulatory and catalytic subunits, thus enabling those catalytic units to phosphorylate substrate proteins. The active subunits catalyze the transfer of phosphate from ATP to specific serine or threonine residues of protein substrates. The phosphorylated proteins may act directly on the cell's ion channels, or may become activated or inhibited enzymes. Protein kinase A can also phosphorylate specific proteins that bind to promoter regions of DNA, causing increases in transcription. Not all protein kinases respond to cAMP. Several classes of protein kinases, including protein kinase C, are not cAMP-dependent. Further effects mainly depend on cAMP-dependent protein kinase, which vary based on the type of cell. Still, there are some minor PKA-independent functions of cAMP, e.g., activation of calcium channels, providing a minor pathway by which growth hormone-releasing hormone causes a release of growth hormone. However, the view that the majority of the effects of cAMP are controlled by PKA is an outdated one. In 1998 a family of cAMP-sensitive proteins with guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) activity was discovered. These are termed Exchange proteins activated by cAMP (Epac) and the family comprises Epac1 and Epac2. The mechanism of activation is similar to that of PKA: the GEF domain is usually masked by the N-terminal region containing the cAMP binding domain. When cAMP binds, the domain dissociates and exposes the now-active GEF domain, allowing Epac to activate small Ras-like GTPase proteins, such as Rap1. Additional role of secreted cAMP in social amoebae In the species Dictyostelium discoideum, cAMP acts outside the cell as a secreted signal. The chemotactic aggregation of cells is organized by periodic waves of cAMP that propagate between cells over distances as large as several centimetres. The waves are the result of a regulated production and secretion of extracellular cAMP and a spontaneous biological oscillator that initiates the waves at centers of territories. Role in bacteria In bacteria, the level of cAMP varies depending on the medium used for growth. In particular, cAMP is low when glucose is the carbon source. This occurs through inhibition of the cAMP-producing enzyme, adenylate cyclase, as a side-effect of glucose transport into the cell. The transcription factor cAMP receptor protein (CRP) also called CAP (catabolite gene activator protein) forms a complex with cAMP and thereby is activated to bind to DNA. CRP-cAMP increases expression of a large number of genes, including some encoding enzymes that can supply energy independent of glucose. cAMP, for example, is involved in the positive regulation of the lac operon. In an environment with a low glucose concentration, cAMP accumulates and binds to the allosteric site on CRP (cAMP receptor protein), a transcription activator protein. The protein assumes its active shape and binds to a specific site upstream of the lac promoter, making it easier for RNA polymerase to bind to the adjacent promoter to start transcription of the lac operon, increasing the rate of lac operon transcription. With a high glucose concentration, the cAMP concentration decreases, and the CRP disengages from the lac operon. Pathology Since cyclic AMP is a second messenger and plays vital role in cell signalling, it has been implicated in various disorders but not restricted to the roles given below: Role in human carcinoma Some research has suggested that a deregulation of cAMP pathways and an aberrant activation of cAMP-controlled genes is linked to the growth of some cancers. Role in prefrontal cortex disorders Research suggests that cAMP affects the function of higher-order thinking in the prefrontal cortex through its regulation of ion channels called hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated channels (HCN). HCN channels will open when exposed to cAMP. Once the HCN channel is open, the electrical activity within the neuron is disrupted and the cell becomes less responsive. This interferes with the function of the prefrontal cortex in working memory tasks. Inhibition of cAMP has been observed to improve spatial working memory. cAMP is involved in activation of trigeminocervical system leading to neurogenic inflammation and causing migraine. Role in infectious disease agents' pathogenesis Disrupted functioning of cAMP has been noted as one of the mechanisms of several bacterial exotoxins. They can be subgrouped into two distinct categories: * Toxins that interfere with enzymes ADP-ribosyl-transferases, and * invasive adenylate cyclases. ADP-ribosyl-transferases related toxins * Cholera toxin is an AB toxin that has five B subunints and one A subunit. The toxin acts by the following mechanism: First, the B subunit ring of the cholera toxin binds to GM1 gangliosides on the surface of target cells. If a cell lacks GM1 the toxin most likely binds to other types of glycans, such as Lewis Y and Lewis X, attached to proteins instead of lipids. See also * Cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) * 8-Bromoadenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (8-Br-cAMP) * Acrasin specific to chemotactic use in Dictyostelium discoideum. * phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE 4) which degrades cAMP References <references /> Category:Nucleotides Category:Signal transduction Category:Cell signaling Category:Cyclic nucleotides Category:Second messenger system	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclic_adenosine_monophosphate	2025-04-05T18:28:01.332579
6991	Cimabue	thumb\|Santa Trinita Maestà, 1280–1285, Uffizi Gallery, Florence Giovanni Cimabue ( , ; – 1302), also known as Cenni di Pepo or Cenni di Pepi, was an Italian painter and designer of mosaics from Florence. Although heavily influenced by Byzantine models, Cimabue is generally regarded as one of the first great Italian painters to break from the Italo-Byzantine style. Compared with the norms of medieval art, his works have more lifelike figural proportions and a more sophisticated use of shading to suggest volume. According to Italian painter and historian Giorgio Vasari, Cimabue was the teacher of Giotto, Life thumb\|upright\|left\|St. Francis of Assisi Little is known about Cimabue's early life. One source that recounts his career is Vasari's Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects, but its accuracy is uncertain. thumb\|300px\|Fresco in the Lower Basilica of Assisi He was born in Florence and died in Pisa. Hayden Maginnis speculates that he could have trained in Florence under masters who were culturally connected to Byzantine art. The art historian Pietro Toesca attributed the Crucifixion in the church of San Domenico in Arezzo to Cimabue, dating around 1270, making it the earliest known attributed work that departs from the Byzantine style. Cimabue's Christ is bent, and the clothes have the golden striations that were introduced by Coppo di Marcovaldo. Around 1272, Cimabue is documented as being present in Rome, and a little later he made another Crucifix for the Florentine church of Santa Croce. Now restored, having been damaged by the 1966 Arno River flood, the work was larger and more advanced than the one in Arezzo, with traces of naturalism perhaps inspired by the works of Nicola Pisano. According to Vasari, Cimabue, while travelling from Florence to Vespignano, came upon the 10-year-old Giotto (c. 1277) drawing his sheep with a rough rock upon a smooth stone. He asked if Giotto would like to come and stay with him, which the child accepted with his father's permission. Many scholars now discount Vasari's claim that he took Giotto as his pupil, citing earlier sources that suggest otherwise. This work established a style that was followed subsequently by numerous artists, including Duccio di Buoninsegna in his Rucellai Madonna (in the past, wrongly attributed to Cimabue) as well as Giotto. Other works from the period, which were said to have heavily influenced Giotto, include a Flagellation (Frick Collection), mosaics for the Baptistery of Florence (now largely restored), the Maestà at the Santa Maria dei Servi in Bologna and the Madonna in the Pinacoteca of Castelfiorentino. A workshop painting, perhaps assignable to a slightly later period, is the Maestà with Saints Francis and Dominic now in the Uffizi. During the pontificate of Pope Nicholas IV, the first Franciscan pope, Cimabue worked in Assisi. At Assisi, in the transept of the Lower Basilica of San Francesco, he created a fresco named Madonna with Child Enthroned, Four Angels and St Francis. The left portion of this fresco is lost, but it may have shown St Anthony of Padua (the authorship of the painting has been recently disputed for technical and stylistic reasons). Cimabue spent the last period of his life, 1301 to 1302, in Pisa. There, he was commissioned to finish a mosaic of Christ Enthroned, originally begun by Maestro Francesco, in the apse of the city's cathedral. Cimabue was to create the part of the mosaic depicting St John the Evangelist, which remains the sole surviving work documented as being by the artist. Cimabue died around 1302. Character According to Vasari, quoting a contemporary of Cimabue, "Cimabue of Florence was a painter who lived during the author's own time, a nobler man than anyone knew but he was as a result so haughty and proud that if someone pointed out to him any mistake or defect in his work, or if he had noted any himself ... he would immediately destroy the work, no matter how precious it might be." The nickname Cimabue translates as "bull-head" but also possibly as "one who crushes the views of others", from the Italian verb cimare, meaning "to top", "to shear", and "to blunt". The conclusion for the second meaning is drawn from similar commentaries on Dante, who was also known "for being contemptuous of criticism". Legacy History has long regarded Cimabue as the last of an era that was overshadowed by the Italian Renaissance. As early as 1543, Vasari wrote of Cimabue, "Cimabue was, in one sense, the principal cause of the renewal of painting," with the qualification that, "Giotto truly eclipsed Cimabue's fame just as a great light eclipses a much smaller one." Cimabue himself does not appear in Purgatorio, but is mentioned by Oderisi, who is also repenting for his pride. The artist serves to represent the fleeting nature of fame in contrast with the Enduring God. Market On 27 October 2019, The Mocking of Christ, was sold for €24m (£20m; $26.6m), a price the auctioneers described as a new world record for a medieval painting. The picture had been located in the kitchen of a home in northern France, and its owner had been unaware of its value. List of works Around a dozen works are securely attributed to Cimabue, with several less secure attributions. None are signed or dated. Crucifixes Crucifix (Cimabue, Santa Croce), c. 1265, Basilica di Santa Croce, Florence Crucifix (Cimabue, Arezzo), c. 1267–1271, Basilica of San Domenico, Arezzo Frescos c. 1277–1280 in the Basilica of Saint Francis of Assisi, Assisi Nativity and Betrothal of the Virgin Choir, central vault, right transept Three surviving panels (of eight) from the Diptych of devotion, c.1280 The Mocking of Christ, Musée du Louvre, Paris Virgin and Child with Two Angels, National Gallery, London The Flagellation of Christ, Frick Collection, New York Maestà or Virgin and Child Enthroned Maestà, c. 1280, Pisa, now Louvre Maestà of Santa Maria dei Servi, 1280–1285, Basilica di Santa Maria dei Servi, Bologna Gualino Madonna, 1280–1283, Galleria Sabauda, Turin ?: Madonna di Castelfiorentino, c. 1283–1284, , Castelfiorentino Santa Trinita Maestà, c. 1290–1300, Santa Trinita, Florence, now Uffizi, Florence Mosaic ceiling at Florence Baptistery, c. 1300 Mosaic of Christ enthroned with the Virgin and St John, Pisa Cathedral, 1301–1302 Gallery File:CrocifissoCimabue-Arezzo-Photo taken by Senet. April 20, 2010-Perspective correction, crop and blackframe with GIMP by Paolo Villa 2019.jpg\|Crucifix (c. 1267–1271), San Domenico, Arezzo File:Cimabue - Maestà du Louvre.jpg\|Maestà (c. 1280), Louvre, Paris File:Cimabue Diptych Overview FR.svg\|Hypothetical reconstruction of the Diptych File:Cimabue, The Virgin and Child Enthroned with Two Angels.jpg\|Virgin and Child with Two Angels (c. 1280), National Gallery, London File:Cimabue Christ Mocked.jpg\|The Mocking of Christ (Cimabue) (c. 1280), sold at auction for €24m in 2019 File:Cimabue - Flagellation.jpg\|The Flagellation of Christ (c. 1280), Frick Collection, New York File:Santa Maria dei Servi, bo, interno, maestà di cimabue 01.JPG\|Attributed to Cimabue, Maestà (c. 1280–1285), Santa Maria dei Servi, Bologna File:Cimabue madonna castefliorentino.jpg\|Castelfiorentino Madonna (c. 1283–1284), Museo di Santa Verdiana, Castelfiorentino File:Cerchia di cimabue o artista senese, ultima cena di new orleans 01.jpg\|The Last Supper File:Cimabue - Madonna Enthroned with the Child, St Francis and four Angels (detail) - WGA04921.jpg\|Madonna Enthroned with the Child, St Francis and four Angels (detail) File:Cimabue 037.jpg\|Maestà of Santa Trinita, (detail) Prophet File:Cimabue - Crucifix (detail) - WGA04929.jpg\|Detail of the Santa Croce Crucifix showing Apostle John File:Cimabue 001.jpg\|Detail of mosaic Christ enthroned with the Virgin and St John showing St. John the Evangelist References Citations Sources External links Cimabue. Pictures and Biography Cimabue Santa Trinita Madonna (1280–1290) . A video discussion about the painting from smarthistory.khanacademy.org Category:1240s births Category:1302 deaths Category:13th-century Italian painters Category:14th-century Italian painters Category:Italian Roman Catholics Category:Painters from Florence Category:Gothic painters Category:Italian male painters Category:Italian mosaic artists	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cimabue	2025-04-05T18:28:01.350381
6997	Corporatocracy	}} ' Corporate American Flag at the Second inauguration of George W. Bush in Washington, D.C.]] Corporatocracy; from corporate and }} or corpocracy is an economic, political and judicial system controlled or influenced by business corporations or corporate interests. The concept has been used in explanations of bank bailouts, excessive pay for CEOs, and the exploitation of national treasuries, people, and natural resources. sometimes in conjunction with criticism of the World Bank or unfair lending practices, as well as criticism of free trade agreements. Connivance capitalism, in which corporations collude with each other to form oligopolies or cartels, limiting competition and influencing market rules; Authoritarian capitalism, in which corporations ally themselves with repressive or anti-democratic political regimes, benefiting from protection and impunity; Inverted totalitarianism, theorized by professor Sheldon Wolin, a system where economic powers like corporations exert subtle but substantial power over a system that superficially seems democratic. Use of corporatocracy and similar ideas Historian Howard Zinn argues that during the Gilded Age in the United States, the U.S. government was acting exactly as Karl Marx described capitalist states: "pretending neutrality to maintain order, but serving the interests of the rich". According to economist Joseph Stiglitz, there has been a severe increase in the market power of corporations, largely due to U.S. antitrust laws being weakened by neoliberal reforms, leading to growing income inequality and a generally underperforming economy. He states that to improve the economy, it is necessary to decrease the influence of money on U.S. politics. In his 1956 book The Power Elite, sociologist C. Wright Mills stated that together with the military and political establishment, leaders of the biggest corporations form a "power elite", which is in control of the U.S. Economist Jeffrey Sachs described the United States as a corporatocracy in The Price of Civilization (2011). He suggested that it arose from four trends: weak national parties and strong political representation of individual districts, the large U.S. military establishment after World War II, large corporations using money to finance election campaigns, and globalization tilting the balance of power away from workers.Corporate influence on politics in the United States, corporate interests as giant money bags looming over senators]]CorruptionDuring the Gilded Age in the United States, corruption was rampant, as business leaders spent significant amounts of money ensuring that government did not regulate their activities.Corporate influence on legislation Corporations have a significant influence on the regulations and regulators that monitor them. For example, Senator Elizabeth Warren stated in December 2014 that an omnibus spending bill required to fund the government was modified late in the process to weaken banking regulations. The modification made it easier to allow taxpayer-funded bailouts of banking "swaps entities", which the Dodd-Frank banking regulations prohibited. She singled out Citigroup, one of the largest banks, which had a role in modifying the legislation. She also stated that both Wall Street bankers and members of the government that formerly had worked on Wall Street stopped bi-partisan legislation that would have broken up the largest banks. She repeated President Theodore Roosevelt's warnings regarding powerful corporate entities that threatened the "very foundations of Democracy". In a 2015 interview, former President Jimmy Carter stated that the United States is now "an oligarchy with unlimited political bribery" due to the Citizens United v. FEC ruling, which effectively removed limits on donations to political candidates. Wall Street spent a record $2 billion trying to influence the 2016 United States elections. Joel Bakan, a University of British Columbia law professor and the author of the award-winning book The Corporation: The Pathological Pursuit of Profit and Power, writes: Perceived symptoms of corporatocracy in the United States Share of income if it had kept pace with productivity. Also, the real minimum wage.]] With regard to income inequality, the 2014 income analysis of the University of California, Berkeley economist Emmanuel Saez confirms that relative growth of income and wealth is not occurring among small and mid-sized entrepreneurs and business owners (who generally populate the lower half of top one per-centers in income), but instead only among the top .1 percent of the income distribution, who earn $2,000,000 or more every year. Corporate power can also increase income inequality. Nobel Prize winner of economics Joseph Stiglitz wrote in May 2011: "Much of today’s inequality is due to manipulation of the financial system, enabled by changes in the rules that have been bought and paid for by the financial industry itself—one of its best investments ever. The government lent money to financial institutions at close to zero percent interest and provided generous bailouts on favorable terms when all else failed. Regulators turned a blind eye to a lack of transparency and to conflicts of interest." Stiglitz stated that the top 1% got nearly "one-quarter" of the income and own approximately 40% of the wealth. Measured relative to GDP, total compensation and its component wages and salaries have been declining since 1970. This indicates a shift in income from labor (persons who derive income from hourly wages and salaries) to capital (persons who derive income via ownership of businesses, land, and assets). Larry Summers estimated in 2007 that the lower 80% of families were receiving $664 billion less income than they would be with a 1979 income distribution, or approximately $7,000 per family. Not receiving this income may have led many families to increase their debt burden, a significant factor in the 2007–2009 subprime mortgage crisis, as highly leveraged homeowners suffered a much larger reduction in their net worth during the crisis. Further, since lower income families tend to spend relatively more of their income than higher income families, shifting more of the income to wealthier families may slow economic growth.Effective corporate tax ratesSome large U.S. corporations have used a strategy called tax inversion to change their headquarters to a non-U.S. country to reduce their tax liability. About 46 companies have reincorporated in low-tax countries since 1982, including 15 since 2012. Six more also planned to do so in 2015. Stock buybacks versus wage increases One indication of increasing corporate power was the removal of restrictions on their ability to buy back stock, contributing to increased income inequality. Writing in the Harvard Business Review in September 2014, William Lazonick blamed record corporate stock buybacks for reduced investment in the economy and a corresponding impact on prosperity and income inequality. Between 2003 and 2012, the 449 companies in the S&P 500 used 54% of their earnings ($2.4 trillion) to buy back their own stock. An additional 37% was paid to stockholders as dividends. Together, these were 91% of profits. This left little for investment in productive capabilities or higher income for employees, shifting more income to capital rather than labor. He blamed executive compensation arrangements, which are heavily based on stock options, stock awards, and bonuses, for meeting earnings per share (EPS) targets. EPS increases as the number of outstanding shares decreases. Legal restrictions on buybacks were greatly eased in the early 1980s. He advocates changing these incentives to limit buybacks. In the 12 months to March 31, 2014, S&P 500 companies increased their stock buyback payouts by 29% year on year, to $534.9 billion. U.S. companies are projected to increase buybacks to $701 billion in 2015, according to Goldman Sachs, an 18% increase over 2014. For scale, annual non-residential fixed investment (a proxy for business investment and a major GDP component) was estimated to be about $2.1 trillion for 2014.Industry concentration Brid Brennan of the Transnational Institute stated that the concentration of corporations increases their influence over government: "It's not just their size, their enormous wealth and assets that make the TNCs [transnational corporations] dangerous to democracy. It's also their concentration, their capacity to influence, and often infiltrate, governments and their ability to act as a genuine international social class in order to defend their commercial interests against the common good. It is such decision-making power as well as the power to impose deregulation over the past 30 years, resulting in changes to national constitutions, and to national and international legislation which has created the environment for corporate crime and impunity." Brennan concludes that this concentration in power leads to again more concentration of income and wealth. An example of such industry concentration is in banking. The top 5 U.S. banks had approximately 30% of the U.S. banking assets in 1998; this rose to 45% by 2008 and to 48% by 2010, before falling to 47% in 2011. The Economist also stated that an increasingly profitable corporate financial and banking sector caused Gini coefficients to rise in the U.S. since 1980: "Financial services' share of GDP in America, doubled to 8% between 1980 and 2000; over the same period their profits rose from about 10% to 35% of total corporate profits, before collapsing in 2007–09. Bankers are being paid more, too. In America the compensation of workers in financial services was similar to average compensation until 1980. Now it is twice that average." Mass incarceration Several scholars have linked mass incarceration of the poor in the United States with the rise of neoliberalism. Sociologist Loïc Wacquant and Marxist economic geographer David Harvey have argued that the criminalization of poverty and mass incarceration is a neoliberal policy for dealing with social instability among economically marginalized populations. According to Wacquant, this situation follows the implementation of other neoliberal policies, which have allowed for the retrenchment of the social welfare state and the rise of punitive workfare, whilst increasing gentrification of urban areas, privatization of public functions, the shrinking of collective protections for the working class via economic deregulation and the rise of underpaid, precarious wage labor. By contrast, it is extremely lenient in dealing with those in the upper echelons of society, in particular when it comes to economic crimes of the upper class and corporations such as fraud, embezzlement, insider trading, credit and insurance fraud, money laundering and violation of commerce and labor codes. According to Wacquant, neoliberalism does not shrink government, but instead sets up a "centaur state" with little governmental oversight for those at the top and strict control of those at the bottom. Austerity In his 2014 book, Mark Blyth claims that austerity not only fails to stimulate growth, but effectively passes that debt down to the working classes. As such, many academics such as Andrew Gamble view Austerity in Britain less as an economic necessity, and more as a tool of statecraft, driven by ideology and not economic requirements. A study published in The BMJ in November 2017 found the Conservative government austerity programme had been linked to approximately 120,000 deaths since 2010; however, this was disputed, for example on the grounds that it was an observational study which did not show cause and effect. More studies claim adverse effects of austerity on population health, which include an increase in the mortality rate among pensioners which has been linked to unprecedented reductions in income support, an increase in suicides and the prescription of antidepressants for patients with mental health issues, and an increase in violence, self-harm, and suicide in prisons. Clara E. Mattei, assistant professor of economics at the New School for Social Research, posits that austerity is less of a means to "fix the economy" and is more of an ideological weapon of class oppression wielded by economic and political elites in order to suppress revolts and unrest by the working class public and close off any alternatives to the capitalist system. She traces the origins of modern austerity to post-World War I Britain and Italy, when it served as a "powerful counteroffensive" to rising working class agitation and anti-capitalist sentiment. In this, she quotes British economist G. D. H. Cole writing on the British response to the economic downturn of 1921:<blockquote>"The big working-class offensive had been successfully stalled off; and British capitalism, though threatened with economic adversity, felt itself once more safely in the saddle and well able to cope, both industrially and politically, with any attempt that might still be made from the labour side to unseat it."</blockquote> See also * * * * * * (science fiction) * * * * * * * * * * }} ;Works * Captain Laserhawk: A Blood Dragon Remix * Jennifer Government * The Corporation (film) * The Power Elite (book) Notes References Works cited * * * * * Further reading * * Shatalova, Yaroslavna Oleksandrivna. "Corporatocracy Concept In The Scope Of A Socio-Philosophical Analysis." European Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences 6 (2017): 133–137. * External links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100621191146/http://www.johnperkins.org/?page_id=9 lecture on Corporatocracy John Perkins lecture on Corporatocracy] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20141017161054/http://citation.allacademic.com/meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/4/3/6/5/1/p436510_index.html Crimes of Globalization: The Impact of U.S. Corporatocracy in Third World Countries] by John Flores-Hidones Category:Corruption Category:Cyberpunk themes Category:Economic ideologies * Category:Oligarchy Category:Pejorative terms for forms of government Category:Political systems Category:Political theories	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporatocracy	2025-04-05T18:28:01.368087
6999	Culture of Canada	}} The culture of Canada embodies the artistic, culinary, literary, humour, musical, political and social elements that are representative of Canadians. Throughout Canada's history, its culture has been influenced firstly by its indigenous cultures, and later by European culture and traditions, mostly by the British and French. Over time, elements of the cultures of Canada's immigrant populations have become incorporated to form a Canadian cultural mosaic. Certain segments of Canada's population have, to varying extents, also been influenced by American culture due to shared language (in English-speaking Canada), significant media penetration, and geographic proximity. Canada is often characterized as being "very progressive, diverse, and multicultural". Canada's federal government has often been described as the instigator of multicultural ideology because of its public emphasis on the social importance of immigration. Canada's culture draws from its broad range of constituent nationalities, and policies that promote a just society are constitutionally protected. Canadian policies—such as abortion, euthanasia, same-sex marriage, and cannabis; an emphasis on cultural diversity; significant immigration; abolishing capital punishment; publicly funded health care; higher and more progressive taxation; efforts to eliminate poverty; and strict gun control are social indicators of the country's political and cultural values. Canadians view the country's institutions of health care, military peacekeeping, the national park system, and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms as integral to their national identity. The Canadian government has influenced culture with programs, laws and institutions. It has created crown corporations to promote Canadian culture through media, such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) and the National Film Board of Canada (NFB), and promotes many events which it considers to promote Canadian traditions. It has also tried to protect Canadian culture by setting legal minimums on Canadian content in many media using bodies like the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC). Cultural components History Influences rs at work as depicted in 1777 by Claude J. Sauthier]] For thousands of years, Canada has been inhabited by indigenous peoples from a variety of different cultures and of several major linguistic groupings. Although not without conflict and bloodshed, early European interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations in what is now Canada were arguably peaceful. First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada, particularly for their role in assisting European coureur des bois and voyageurs in the exploration of the continent during the North American fur trade. Over the course of three centuries, countless North American Indigenous words, inventions, concepts, and games have become an everyday part of Canadian language and use. Many places in Canada, both natural features and human habitations, use indigenous names. The name "Canada" itself derives from the St. Lawrence Huron-Iroquoian word "Kanata" meaning "village" or "settlement". poster that depicts an industrious beaver, a national symbol of Canada]] In the 17th-century, French colonials settled New France in Acadia, in the present-day Maritimes, and in Canada, along the St. Lawrence River in present-day Quebec and Ontario. These regions were under French control from 1534 to 1763. However, the British conquered Acadia in 1710 and conquered Canada in 1760. The British were able to deport most of the Acadians, but they were unable to deport the Canadiens of Canada because they severely outnumbered the British forces. The British therefore had to make deals with Canadiens and hope they would one day become assimilated. The American Revolution, from 1775 to 1783, provoked the migration of 40,000 to 50,000 United Empire Loyalists from the Thirteen Colonies to the newly conquered British lands, which brought American influences to Canada for the first time. however, in 1917 and 1944, conscription crises highlighted the considerable rift along ethnic lines between Anglophones and Francophones. As a result of the First and Second World Wars, the Government of Canada became more assertive and less deferential to British authority. Canada, until the 1940s, was often described as "binational", with the 2 components being the cultural, linguistic and political identities of English Canadians and of French Canadians. Legislative restrictions on immigration (such as the Continuous journey regulation and Chinese Immigration Act) that had favoured British, American and other European immigrants (such as Dutch, German, Italian, Polish, Swedish and Ukrainian) were amended during the 1960s, resulting in an influx of people of many different ethnicities. By the end of the 20th century, immigrants were increasingly Chinese, Indian, Vietnamese, Jamaican, Filipino, Lebanese, Pakistani and Haitian. By the 21st century Canada had thirty four ethnic groups with at least one hundred thousand members each, of which eleven have over 1,000,000 people and numerous others are represented in smaller numbers. , 16.2% of the population self-identify as a visible minority. Modern Canadian culture as it is understood today can be traced to its time period of westward expansion and nation building. Contributing factors include Canada's unique geography, climate, and cultural makeup. Being a cold country with long winter nights for most of the year, certain unique leisure activities developed in Canada during this period including ice hockey and embracement of the summer indigenous game of lacrosse. By the 19th century, Canadians came to believe themselves possessed of a unique "northern character," due to the long, harsh winters that only those of hardy body and mind could survive. This hardiness was claimed as a Canadian trait, and sports that reflected this, such as snowshoeing and cross-country skiing, were asserted as characteristically Canadian. During this period, the churches tried to influence leisure activities by preaching against drinking, and scheduling annual revivals and weekly club activities. In a society in which most middle-class families now owned a harmonium or piano, and standard education included at least the rudiments of music, the result was often an original song. Such stirrings frequently occurred in response to noteworthy events, and few local or national excitements were allowed to pass without some musical comment. By the 1930s, radio played a major role in uniting Canadians behind their local or regional teams. Rural areas were especially influenced by sports coverage and the propagation of national myths. Outside the sports and music arena, Canadians expressed a national character of being hard working, peaceful, orderly and polite.Political cultureCultural legislation by Francesco Pirelli, in Toronto]] French Canada's early development was relatively cohesive during the 17th and 18th centuries, and this was preserved by the Quebec Act 1774, which allowed Roman Catholics to hold offices and practice their faith. The Constitution Act, 1867 was thought to meet the growing calls for Canadian autonomy while avoiding the overly strong decentralization that contributed to the Civil War in the United States. The compromises reached during this time between the English- and French-speaking Fathers of Confederation set Canada on a path to bilingualism which in turn contributed to an acceptance of diversity. The English and French languages have had limited constitutional protection since 1867 and full official status since 1969. Canada adopted its first Official Languages Act in 1969, giving English and French equal status in the government of Canada. Prior to the advent of the Canadian Bill of Rights in 1960 and its successor the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms in 1982, the laws of Canada did not provide much in the way of civil rights and this issue was typically of limited concern to the courts. Canada since the 1960s has placed emphasis on equality and inclusiveness for all people. Multiculturalism in Canada was adopted as the official policy of the Canadian government and is enshrined in Section 27 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. In 1995, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled in Egan v. Canada that sexual orientation should be "read in" to Section Fifteen of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, a part of the Constitution of Canada guaranteeing equal rights to all Canadians. Following a series of decisions by provincial courts and the Supreme Court of Canada, on July 20, 2005, the Civil Marriage Act (Bill C-38) became law, legalizing same-sex marriage in Canada. Furthermore, sexual orientation was included as a protected status in the human-rights laws of the federal government and of all provinces and territories. Contemporary politics of the Canadian parliament buildings on Parliament Hill]] Canadian governments at the federal level have a tradition of liberalism, and govern with a moderate, centrist political ideology. Canada's egalitarian approach to governance emphasizing social justice and multiculturalism, is based on selective immigration, social integration, and suppression of far-right politics that has wide public and political support. Peace, order, and good government are constitutional goals of the Canadian government. Canada has a multi-party system in which many of its legislative customs derive from the unwritten conventions of and precedents set by the Westminster parliament of the United Kingdom. The country has been dominated by two parties, the centre-left Liberal Party of Canada and the centre-right Conservative Party of Canada. The historically predominant Liberals position themselves at the centre of the political scale, with the Conservatives sitting on the right and the New Democratic Party occupying the left. A unified, bi-cultural, tolerant and sovereign Canada remains an ideological inspiration to many Canadian nationalists. Alternatively Quebecois nationalism and support for maintaining French Canadian culture many of whom were supporters of the Quebec sovereignty movement during the late-20th century. Cultural protectionism in Canada has, since the mid-20th century, taken the form of conscious, interventionist attempts on the part of various Canadian governments to promote Canadian cultural production. Sharing a large border, a common language (for the majority), and being exposed to massive diffusions of American media makes it difficult for Canada to preserve its own culture versus being assimilated to American culture. While Canada tries to maintain its cultural differences, it also must balance this with responsibility in trade arrangements such as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement (USMCA).Foreign relations in 1976 wearing the distinctive flag of Canada and UN blue helmet]] The notion of peacekeeping is deeply embedded in Canadian culture and a distinguishing feature that Canadians feel sets their foreign policy apart from its closest ally, the United States. Canada's foreign policy of peacekeeping, peace enforcement, peacemaking, and peacebuilding has been intertwined with its tendency to pursue multilateral and international solutions since the end of World War II. Canada's central role in the development of peacekeeping in the mid-1950s gave it credibility and established it as a country fighting for the "common good" of all nations. Canada has since been engaged with the United Nations, NATO and the European Union (EU) in promoting its middle power status into an active role in world affairs. Canada has long been reluctant to participate in military operations that are not sanctioned by the United Nations, such as the Vietnam War or the 2003 Invasion of Iraq. A majority of Canadians shared the values of human rights, respect for the law and gender equality. Universal access to publicly funded health services "is often considered by Canadians as a fundamental value that ensures national health care insurance for everyone wherever they live in the country." The major political parties have claimed explicitly that they uphold Canadian values, but use generalities to specify them. Historian Ian MacKay argues that, thanks to the long-term political impact of "Rebels, Reds, and Radicals", and allied leftist political elements, "egalitarianism, social equality, and peace... are now often simply referred to...as 'Canadian values.'" ]] The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, was intended to be a source for Canadian values and national unity. The 15th Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau wrote in his Memoirs that: Numerous scholars, beginning in the 1940s with American sociologist Seymour Martin Lipset; have tried to identify, measure and compare them with other countries, especially the United States. However, there are critics who say that such a task is practically impossible. Denis Stairs a professor of political Science at Dalhousie University; links the concept of Canadian values with nationalism. [Canadians typically]...believe, in particular, that they subscribe to a distinctive set of values – Canadian values – and that those values are special in the sense of being unusually virtuous. Identity is the symbol most associated with Canadian identity.]] Canada's large geographic size, the presence of a significant number of indigenous peoples, the conquest of one European linguistic population by another and relatively open immigration policy have led to an extremely diverse society. As a result, the issue of Canadian identity remains under scrutiny. Canada has constitutional protection for policies that promote multiculturalism rather than cultural assimilation or a single national myth. In Quebec, cultural identity is strong, and many commentators speak of a French Canadian culture as distinguished from English Canadian culture. However, as a whole, Canada is in theory, a cultural mosaic—a collection of several regional, and ethnic subcultures. As Professor Alan Cairns noted about the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms , "the initial federal government premise was on developing a pan-Canadian identity"'. Pierre Trudeau himself later wrote in his Memoirs (1993) that "Canada itself" could now be defined as a "society where all people are equal and where they share some fundamental values based upon freedom", and that all Canadians could identify with the values of liberty and equality. Political philosopher Charles Blattberg suggests that Canada is a "multinational country"; as all Canadians are members of Canada as a civic or political community, a community of citizens, and this is a community that contains many other kinds within it. These include not only communities of ethnic, regional, religious, and civic (the provincial and municipal governments) sorts, but also national communities, which often include or overlap with many of the other kinds. Journalist and author Richard Gwyn has suggested that "tolerance" has replaced "loyalty" as the touchstone of Canadian identity. Journalist and professor Andrew Cohen wrote in 2007: Canada's 15th prime minister Pierre Trudeau in regards to uniformity stated: In 2015, Prime Minister Justin Trudeau defined the country as the world's first postnational state: "There is no core identity, no mainstream in Canada". The question of Canadian identity was traditionally dominated by three fundamental themes: first, the often conflicted relations between English Canadians and French Canadians stemming from the French Canadian imperative for cultural and linguistic survival; secondly, the generally close ties between English Canadians and the British Empire, resulting in a gradual political process towards complete independence from the imperial power; and finally, the close proximity of English-speaking Canadians to the United States. Much of the debate over contemporary Canadian identity is argued in political terms, and defines Canada as a country defined by its government policies, which are thought to reflect deeper cultural values. In 2013, nearly nine in ten (87%) Canadians were proud to identify as Canadian, with over half (61%) expressing they were very proud. The highest pride levels were for Canadian history (70%), the armed forces (64%), the health care system (64%), and the Constitution (63%). However, pride in Canada’s political influence was lower at 46%. Outside Quebec, pride ranged from 91% in British Columbia to 94% in Prince Edward Island, while 70% of Quebec residents felt proud. Seniors and women showed the most pride, especially among first- and second-generation immigrants, who valued both Canadian identity and achievements. Inter-provincial interactions , Alberta, protesting the coalition of opposition parties attempting to take control of Parliament during the 2008 Canadian parliamentary dispute]] Western alienation is the notion that the western provinces have historically been alienated, and in extreme cases excluded, from mainstream Canadian political affairs in favour of Eastern Canada or more specifically the central provinces. Western alienation claims that these latter two are politically represented, and economically favoured, more significantly than the former, which has given rise to the sentiment of alienation among many western Canadians. Likewise; the Quebec sovereignty movement that lead to the Québécois nation and the province of Quebec being recognized as a "distinct society" within Canada, highlights the sharp divisions between the Anglo and Francophone population. Though more than half of Canadians live in just two provinces (Ontario and Quebec), each province is largely self-contained due to provincial economic self-sufficiency. Only 15 percent of Canadians live in a different province from where they were born, and only 10 percent go to another province for university. Canada has always been like this, and stands in sharp contrast to the United States' internal mobility which is much higher. For example 30 percent live in a different state from where they were born, and 30 percent go away for university. Scott Gilmore in ''Maclean's'' argues that "Canada is a nation of strangers", in the sense that for most individuals, the rest of Canada outside their province is little-known. Another factor is the cost of internal travel. Intra-Canadian airfares are high—it is cheaper and more common to visit the United States than to visit another province. Gilmore argues that the mutual isolation makes it difficult to muster national responses to major national issues. Humour Canadian humour is an integral part of the Canadian Identity. There are several traditions in Canadian humour in both English and French. While these traditions are distinct and at times very different, there are common themes that relate to Canadians' shared history and geopolitical situation in the Western Hemisphere and the world. Various trends can be noted in Canadian comedy. One trend is the portrayal of a "typical" Canadian family in an ongoing radio or television series. Other trends include outright absurdity, and political and cultural satire. Irony, parody, satire, and self-deprecation are arguably the primary characteristics of Canadian humour. in Montreal, Québec, at the Saint-Denis Theatre]] The beginnings of Canadian national radio comedy date to the late 1930s with the debut of The Happy Gang, a long-running weekly variety show that was regularly sprinkled with corny jokes in between tunes. Canadian television comedy begins with Wayne and Shuster, a sketch comedy duo who performed as a comedy team during the Second World War, and moved their act to radio in 1946 before moving on to television. Second City Television, otherwise known as SCTV, Royal Canadian Air Farce, This Hour Has 22 Minutes, The Kids in the Hall, Trailer Park Boys, Corner Gas and more recently ''Schitt's Creek'' are regarded as television shows which were very influential on the development of Canadian humour. Canadian comedians have had great success in the film industry and are amongst the most recognized in the world. Montreal is also home to the bilingual (English and French) Just for Laughs festival and to the Just for Laughs Museum, a bilingual, international museum of comedy. Canada has a national television channel, The Comedy Network, devoted to comedy. Many Canadian cities feature comedy clubs and showcases, most notable, The Second City branch in Toronto (originally housed at The Old Fire Hall) and the Yuk Yuk's national chain. The Canadian Comedy Awards were founded in 1999 by the Canadian Comedy Foundation for Excellence, a not-for-profit organization.Symbols and was on the first Canadian postage stamp, .]] Predominant symbols of Canada include the maple leaf, beaver, and the Canadian horse. Many official symbols of the country such as the Flag of Canada have been changed or modified over the past few decades to Canadianize them and de-emphasise or remove references to the United Kingdom. Other prominent symbols include the sports of hockey and lacrosse, the Canada goose, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, the Canadian Rockies, and more recently the totem pole and Inuksuk; material items such as Canadian beer, maple syrup, tuques, canoes, nanaimo bars, butter tarts and the Quebec dish of poutine have also been defined as uniquely Canadian. Symbols of the Canadian monarchy continue to be featured in, for example, the Arms of Canada, the armed forces, and the prefix His Majesty's Canadian Ship. The designation Royal remains for institutions as varied as the Royal Canadian Armed Forces, Royal Canadian Mounted Police and the Royal Winnipeg Ballet.ArtsVisual arts , The Jack Pine, Winter 1916–17. National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa.]] Indigenous artists were producing art in the territory that is now called Canada for thousands of years prior to the arrival of European settler colonists and the eventual establishment of Canada as a nation state. Like the peoples that produced them, indigenous art traditions spanned territories that extended across the current national boundaries between Canada and the United States. The majority of indigenous artworks preserved in museum collections date from the period after European contact and show evidence of the creative adoption and adaptation of European trade goods such as metal and glass beads. Canadian sculpture has been enriched by the walrus ivory, muskox horn and caribou antler and soapstone carvings by the Inuit artists. These carvings show objects and activities from the daily life, myths and legends of the Inuit. Inuit art since the 1950s has been the traditional gift given to foreign dignitaries by the Canadian government. The works of most early Canadian painters followed European trends. During the mid-19th century, Cornelius Krieghoff, a Dutch-born artist in Quebec, painted scenes of the life of the habitants (French-Canadian farmers). At about the same time, the Canadian artist Paul Kane painted pictures of indigenous life in western Canada. A group of landscape painters called the Group of Seven developed the first distinctly Canadian style of painting, inspired by the works of the legendary landscape painter Tom Thomson. All these artists painted large, brilliantly coloured scenes of the Canadian wilderness. Since the 1930s, Canadian painters have developed a wide range of highly individual styles. Emily Carr became famous for her paintings of totem poles in British Columbia. Other noted painters have included the landscape artist David Milne, the painters Jean-Paul Riopelle, Harold Town and Charles Carson and multi-media artist Michael Snow. The abstract art group Painters Eleven, particularly the artists William Ronald and Jack Bush, also had an important impact on modern art in Canada. Government support has played a vital role in their development enabling visual exposure through publications and periodicals featuring Canadian art, as has the establishment of numerous art schools and colleges across the country.Literature is a Canadian poet, novelist, literary critic, essayist, inventor, teacher, and environmental activist.]] Canadian literature is often divided into French- and English-language literatures, which are rooted in the literary traditions of France and Britain, respectively. Canada's early literature, whether written in English or French, often reflects the Canadian perspective on nature, frontier life, and Canada's position in the world, for example the poetry of Bliss Carman or the memoirs of Susanna Moodie and Catherine Parr Traill. These themes, and Canada's literary history, inform the writing of successive generations of Canadian authors, from Leonard Cohen to Margaret Atwood. By the mid-20th century, Canadian writers were exploring national themes for Canadian readers. Authors were trying to find a distinctly Canadian voice, rather than merely emulating British or American writers. Canadian identity is closely tied to its literature. The question of national identity recurs as a theme in much of Canada's literature, from Hugh MacLennan's Two Solitudes (1945) to Alistair MacLeod's No Great Mischief (1999). Canadian literature is often categorized by region or province; by the socio-cultural origins of the author (for example, Acadians, indigenous peoples, LGBT, and Irish Canadians); and by literary period, such as "Canadian postmoderns" or "Canadian Poets Between the Wars". Canadian authors have accumulated numerous international awards. In 1992, Michael Ondaatje became the first Canadian to win the Booker Prize for The English Patient. Margaret Atwood won the Booker in 2000 for The Blind Assassin and Yann Martel won it in 2002 for the Life of Pi. Carol Shields's The Stone Diaries won the Governor General's Awards in Canada in 1993, the 1995 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction, and the 1994 National Book Critics Circle Award. In 2013, Alice Munro was the first Canadian to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature for her work as "master of the modern short story". Munro is also a recipient of the Man Booker International Prize for her lifetime body of work, and three-time winner of Canada's Governor General's Award for fiction. Theatre Canada has had a thriving stage theatre scene since the late 1800s. Theatre festivals draw many tourists in the summer months, especially the Stratford Shakespeare Festival in Stratford, Ontario, and the Shaw Festival in Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario. The Famous People Players are only one of many touring companies that have also developed an international reputation. Canada also hosts one of the largest fringe festivals, the Edmonton International Fringe Festival. and Majestic Theatre, Adelaide Street, in the current Toronto Theatre District]] Canada's largest cities host a variety of modern and historical venues. The Toronto Theatre District is Canada's largest, as well as being the third largest English-speaking theatre district in the world. In addition to original Canadian works, shows from the West End and Broadway frequently tour in Toronto. Toronto's Theatre District includes the venerable Roy Thomson Hall; the Princess of Wales Theatre; the Tim Sims Playhouse; The Second City; the Canon Theatre; the Panasonic Theatre; the Royal Alexandra Theatre; historic Massey Hall; and the city's new opera house, the Sony Centre for the Performing Arts. Toronto's Theatre District also includes the Theatre Museum Canada. Montreal's theatre district ("Quartier des Spectacles") is the scene of performances that are mainly French-language, although the city also boasts a lively anglophone theatre scene, such as the Centaur Theatre. Large French theatres in the city include Théâtre Saint-Denis and Théâtre du Nouveau Monde. Vancouver is host to, among others, the Vancouver Fringe Festival, the Arts Club Theatre Company, Carousel Theatre, Bard on the Beach, Theatre Under the Stars and Studio 58. Calgary is home to Theatre Calgary, a mainstream regional theatre; Alberta Theatre Projects, a major centre for new play development in Canada; the Calgary Animated Objects Society; and One Yellow Rabbit, a touring company. There are three major theatre venues in Ottawa; the Ottawa Little Theatre, originally called the Ottawa Drama League at its inception in 1913, is the longest-running community theatre company in Ottawa. Since 1969, Ottawa has been the home of the National Arts Centre, a major performing-arts venue that houses four stages and is home to the National Arts Centre Orchestra, the Ottawa Symphony Orchestra and Opera Lyra Ottawa. Established in 1975, the Great Canadian Theatre Company specializes in the production of Canadian plays at a local level. Television , in Toronto]] Canadian television, especially supported by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, is the home of a variety of locally produced shows. French-language television, like French Canadian film, is buffered from excessive American influence by the fact of language, and likewise supports a host of home-grown productions. The success of French-language domestic television in Canada often exceeds that of its English-language counterpart. In recent years nationalism has been used to prompt products on television. The I Am Canadian campaign by Molson beer, most notably the commercial featuring Joe Canadian, infused domestically brewed beer and nationalism. Canada's television industry is in full expansion as a site for Hollywood productions. Since the 1980s, Canada, and Vancouver in particular, has become known as Hollywood North. The American TV series Queer as Folk was filmed in Toronto. Canadian producers have been very successful in the field of science fiction since the mid-1990s, with such shows as The X-Files, Stargate SG-1, Highlander: The Series, the new Battlestar Galactica, ''My Babysitter's a Vampire, Smallville, and The Outer Limits'' all filmed in Vancouver. The CRTC's Canadian content regulations dictate that a certain percentage of a domestic broadcaster's transmission time must include content that is produced by Canadians, or covers Canadian subjects. These regulations also apply to US cable television channels such as MTV and the Discovery Channel, which have local versions of their channels available on Canadian cable networks. Similarly, BBC Canada, while showing primarily BBC shows from the United Kingdom, also carries Canadian output. Film A number of Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood significantly contributed to the creation of the motion picture industry in the early days of the 20th century. Over the years, many Canadians have made enormous contributions to the American entertainment industry, although they are frequently not recognized as Canadians. , 482 Queen Street West, Toronto, 1906]] Canada has developed a vigorous film industry that has produced a variety of well-known films and actors. In fact, this eclipsing may sometimes be creditable for the bizarre and innovative directions of some works, The National Film Board of Canada is a public agency that produces and distributes films and other audiovisual works which reflect Canada to Canadians and the rest of the world'. Canada has produced many popular documentaries such as The Corporation, Nanook of the North, Final Offer, and ''Canada: A People's History''. The Toronto International Film Festival (TIFF) is considered by many to be one of the most prevalent film festivals for Western cinema. It is the première film festival in North America from which the Oscars race begins. Music <!--Please do not add examples here. Anything like a representative list is too long to include here. You can list your favourite musicians at List of Canadian musicians--> inside Rideau Centre, 2008]] The music of Canada has reflected the multi-cultural influences that have shaped the country. Indigenous, the French, and the British have all made historical contributions to the musical heritage of Canada. The country has produced its own composers, musicians and ensembles since the mid-1600s. From the 17th century onward, Canada has developed a music infrastructure that includes church halls; chamber halls; conservatories; academies; performing arts centres; record companies; radio stations, and television music-video channels. The music has subsequently been heavily influenced by American culture because of its proximity and migration between the two countries. Canadian rock has had a considerable impact on the development of modern popular music and the development of the most popular subgenres. Patriotic music in Canada dates back over 200 years as a distinct category from British patriotism, preceding the first legal steps to independence by over 50 years. The earliest known song, "The Bold Canadian", was written in 1812. The national anthem of Canada, "O Canada" adopted in 1980, was originally commissioned by the Lieutenant Governor of Quebec, the Honourable Théodore Robitaille, for the 1880 Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day ceremony. Calixa Lavallée wrote the music, which was a setting of a patriotic poem composed by the poet and judge Sir Adolphe-Basile Routhier. The text was originally only in French, before English lyrics were written in 1906. Music broadcasting in the country is regulated by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC). The Canadian Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences presents Canada's music industry awards, the Juno Awards, which were first awarded in a ceremony during the summer of 1970. Media (CBC) satellite truck, used for live television broadcasts]] Canada's media is highly autonomous, uncensored, diverse, and very regionalized. The Broadcasting Act declares "the system should serve to safeguard, enrich, and strengthen the cultural, political, social, and economic fabric of Canada". Canada has a well-developed media sector, but its cultural output—particularly in English films, television shows, and magazines—is often overshadowed by imports from the United States. As a result, the preservation of a distinctly Canadian culture is supported by federal government programs, laws, and institutions such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), the National Film Board of Canada (NFB), and the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC). Canadian mass media, both print and digital, and in both official languages, is largely dominated by a "handful of corporations". The largest of these corporations is the country's national public broadcaster, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, which also plays a significant role in producing domestic cultural content, operating its own radio and TV networks in both English and French. In addition to the CBC, some provincial governments offer their own public educational TV broadcast services as well, such as TVOntario and Télé-Québec. Non-news media content in Canada, including film and television, is influenced both by local creators as well as by imports from the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, and France. In an effort to reduce the amount of foreign-made media, government interventions in television broadcasting can include both regulation of content and public financing. Canadian tax laws limit foreign competition in magazine advertising.Sports Sports in Canada consists of a variety of games. Although there are many contests that Canadians value, the most common are ice hockey, box lacrosse, Canadian football, basketball, soccer, curling, baseball and ringette. All but curling and soccer are considered domestic sports as they were either invented by Canadians or trace their roots to Canada. being played at McGill University, in Montreal, 1884]] Ice hockey, referred to as simply "hockey", is Canada's most prevalent winter sport, its most popular spectator sport, and its most successful sport in international competition. It is Canada's official national winter sport. Lacrosse, a sport with indigenous origins, is Canada's oldest and official summer sport. and the Canadian Football League's annual championship, the Grey Cup, is the country's largest annual sports event. While other sports have a larger spectator base, association football, known in Canada as soccer in both English and French, has the most registered players of any team sport in Canada, and is the most played sport with all demographics, including ethnic origin, ages and genders. Professional teams exist in many cities in Canada – with a trio of teams in North America's top pro league, Major League Soccer – and international soccer competitions such as the FIFA World Cup, UEFA Euro and the UEFA Champions League attract some of the biggest audiences in Canada. Other popular team sports include curling, street hockey, rugby league, rugby union, softball and Ultimate frisbee. Popular individual sports include auto racing, boxing, karate, kickboxing, hunting, sport shooting, fishing, cycling, golf, hiking, horse racing, ice skating, skiing, snowboarding, swimming, triathlon, disc golf, water sports, and several forms of wrestling. As a country with a generally cool climate, Canada has enjoyed greater success at the Winter Olympics than at the Summer Olympics, although significant regional variations in climate allow for a wide variety of both team and individual sports. Great achievements in Canadian sports are recognized by Canada's Sports Hall of Fame, while the Lou Marsh Trophy is awarded annually to Canada's top athlete by a panel of journalists. There are numerous other Sports Halls of Fame in Canada. While there are considerable overlaps between Canadian food and the rest of the cuisine in North America, many unique dishes (or versions of certain dishes) are found and available only in the country. Common contenders for the Canadian national food include poutine and butter tarts. Other popular Canadian made foods include indigenous fried bread bannock, French tourtière, Kraft Dinner, ketchup chips, date squares, nanaimo bars, back bacon, the caesar cocktail and many many more. The Canadian province of Quebec is the birthplace and world's largest producer of maple syrup, The Montreal-style bagel and Montreal-style smoked meat are both food items originally developed by Jewish communities living in Quebec The three earliest cuisines of Canada have First Nations, English, and French roots. The indigenous population of Canada often have their own traditional cuisine. The cuisines of English Canada are closely related to British and American cuisine. Finally, the traditional cuisines of French Canada have evolved from 16th-century French cuisine because of the tough conditions of colonial life and the winter provisions of Coureur des bois. With subsequent waves of immigration in the 18th and 19th century from Central, Southern, and Eastern Europe, and then from Asia, Africa and Caribbean, the regional cuisines were subsequently affected. Outside views In a 2002 interview with the Globe and Mail, Aga Khan, the 49th Imam of the Ismaili Muslims, described Canada as "the most successful pluralist society on the face of our globe", citing it as "a model for the world". A 2007 poll ranked Canada as the country with the most positive influence in the world. 28,000 people in 27 countries were asked to rate 12 countries as either having a positive or negative worldwide influence. Canada's overall influence rating topped the list with 54 per cent of respondents rating it mostly positive and only 14 per cent mostly negative. A global opinion poll for the BBC saw Canada ranked the second most positively viewed nation in the world (behind Germany) in 2013 and 2014. The United States is home to a number of perceptions about Canadian culture, due to the countries' partially shared heritage and the relatively large number of cultural features common to both the US and Canada. For example, the average Canadian may be perceived as more reserved than his or her American counterpart. Canada and the United States are often inevitably compared as sibling countries, and the perceptions that arise from this oft-held contrast have gone to shape the advertised worldwide identities of both nations: the United States is seen as the rebellious child of the British Crown, forged in the fires of violent revolution; Canada is the calmer offspring of the United Kingdom, known for a more relaxed national demeanour.See also * Canadiana * Architecture of Canada * Canadian folklore * Culture of Quebec * History of free speech in Canada * Public holidays in Canada * Canadian French * List of Canadians * Acadian culture References Further reading * * * * * * * * * * * External links * [http://www.pch.gc.ca/index-eng.cfm Canadian Heritage] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080302170327/http://www.culture.ca/ Culture.CA] – Canadian cultural portal online * [https://www.international.gc.ca/cil-cai/country_insights-apercus_pays/ci-ic_ca.aspx?lang=eng Cultural Information – Canada] – Global Affairs Canada	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Canada	2025-04-05T18:28:01.453400
7000	List of companies of Canada	]] Canada is a country in the northern part of North America. Canada is the world's eighth-largest economy , with a nominal GDP of approximately US$2.2 trillion. It is a member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the Group of Seven (G7), and is one of the world's top ten trading nations, with a highly globalized economy. Canada is a mixed economy, ranking above the US and most western European nations on The Heritage Foundation's index of economic freedom, and experiencing a relatively low level of income disparity. The country's average household disposable income per capita is over US$23,900, higher than the OECD average. Furthermore, the Toronto Stock Exchange is the seventh-largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalization, listing over 1,500 companies with a combined market capitalization of over US$2 trillion . For further information on the types of business entities in this country and their abbreviations, see "Business entities in Canada". Largest firms This list shows firms in the Fortune Global 500, which ranks firms by total revenues reported before March 31, 2022. Only the top five firms (if available) are included as a sample. {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|- !Rank !Image !Name !Revenues (USD $M) !Employees !Notes \|- \| 158 \| \| Brookfield Corporation \|align="right"\| $75,739 \|align="right"\| 181,000 \| Multinational investment management company based in Toronto. \|- \| 232 \| \| Power Corporation of Canada \|align="right"\| $55,488 \|align="right"\| 33,700 \| Diversified international management company primarily focused on the financials sector and including holdings in telecommunications and media. Subsidiaries include Power Financial, Gesca and Great-West Lifeco. \|- \| 277 \| \| Manulife Financial \|align="right"\| $49,314 \|align="right"\| 38,000 \| Multinational banking, financial services and insurance carrier in Toronto. Manulife is the largest insurance concern in Canada. \|- \| 307 \| \| Royal Bank of Canada \|align="right"\| $45,981 \|align="right"\| 85,301 \| Multinational financial services firm based in Toronto and the largest bank in Canada. Subsidiaries include City National Bank and RBC Bank \|- \| 308 \| \| Alimentation Couche-Tard \|align="right"\| $45,760 \|align="right"\| 124,000 \| Multinational operator of convenience stores based in Laval. \|} Notable firms This list includes notable companies with primary headquarters located in the country. The industry and sector follow the Industry Classification Benchmark taxonomy. Organizations which have ceased operations are included and noted as defunct. <gallery mode="packed"> File:Toronto_central_business_district.jpg\| Central business district in Toronto. File:TourDeLaBourse night.jpg\|Tour de la Bourse home to the Montreal Exchange. File:Van-intl-film-ctr.jpg\|VIFF Centre File:Air Canada Boeing 777-200LR Toronto takeoff.jpg\|Air Canada Boeing 777 in Toronto. </gallery> See also List of largest companies in Canada List of largest public companies in Canada by profit * List of Canadian mobile phone companies * List of Canadian telephone companies * List of defunct Canadian companies * List of government-owned companies References Canada *	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Canada	2025-04-05T18:28:01.557107
7003	Cauchy distribution	{{Probability distribution \| name =Cauchy \| type =density \| box_width =300px \| pdf_image =<br><small>The purple curve is the standard Cauchy distribution</small> \| cdf_image \| parameters<math>x_0\!</math> location (real)<br><math>\gamma > 0</math> scale (real) \| support =<math>\displaystyle x \in (-\infty, +\infty)\!</math> \| pdf =<math>\frac{1}{\pi\gamma\,\left[1 + \left(\frac{x-x_0}{\gamma}\right)^2\right]}\!</math> \| cdf =<math>\frac{1}{\pi} \arctan\left(\frac{x-x_0}{\gamma}\right)+\frac{1}{2}\!</math> \| quantile = <math>x_0+\gamma\,\tan[\pi(p-\tfrac{1}{2})]</math> <!-- invalid parameter \| qdf =<math>\gamma\,\pi\,\sec^2(\pi\,(p-\tfrac{1}{2}))\!</math> --> \| mean =undefined \| median =<math>x_0\!</math> \| mode =<math>x_0\!</math> \| variance =undefined \| mad =<math>\gamma</math> \| skewness =undefined \| kurtosis =undefined \| entropy =<math>\log(4\pi\gamma)\!</math> \| mgf =does not exist \| char =<math>\displaystyle \exp(x_0\,i\,t-\gamma\,\|t\|)\!</math> \| fisher = <math>\frac{1}{2\gamma^2}</math> }} The Cauchy distribution, named after Augustin-Louis Cauchy, is a continuous probability distribution. It is also known, especially among physicists, as the Lorentz distribution (after Hendrik Lorentz), Cauchy–Lorentz distribution, Lorentz(ian) function, or Breit–Wigner distribution. The Cauchy distribution <math>f(x; x_0,\gamma)</math> is the distribution of the -intercept of a ray issuing from <math>(x_0,\gamma)</math> with a uniformly distributed angle. It is also the distribution of the ratio of two independent normally distributed random variables with mean zero. The Cauchy distribution is often used in statistics as the canonical example of a "pathological" distribution since both its expected value and its variance are undefined (but see below). The Cauchy distribution does not have finite moments of order greater than or equal to one; only fractional absolute moments exist. The Cauchy distribution has no moment generating function. In mathematics, it is closely related to the Poisson kernel, which is the fundamental solution for the Laplace equation in the upper half-plane. It is one of the few stable distributions with a probability density function that can be expressed analytically, the others being the normal distribution and the Lévy distribution. Definitions Here are the most important constructions. Rotational symmetry If one stands in front of a line and kicks a ball with at a uniformly distributed random angle towards the line, then the distribution of the point where the ball hits the line is a Cauchy distribution. For example, consider a point at <math>(x_0, \gamma)</math> in the x-y plane, and select a line passing through the point, with its direction (angle with the <math>x</math>-axis) chosen uniformly (between −180° and 0°) at random. The intersection of the line with the x-axis follows a Cauchy distribution with location <math>x_0</math> and scale <math>\gamma</math>. This definition gives a simple way to sample from the standard Cauchy distribution. Let <math> u </math> be a sample from a uniform distribution from <math>[0,1]</math>, then we can generate a sample, <math>x</math> from the standard Cauchy distribution using <math display"block"> x \tan\left(\pi(u-\tfrac{1}{2})\right) </math> When <math>U</math> and <math>V</math> are two independent normally distributed random variables with expected value 0 and variance 1, then the ratio <math>U/V</math> has the standard Cauchy distribution. More generally, if <math>(U, V)</math> is a rotationally symmetric distribution on the plane, then the ratio <math>U/V</math> has the standard Cauchy distribution. Probability density function (PDF) The Cauchy distribution is the probability distribution with the following probability density function (PDF) <math display"block">f(x; x_0,\gamma) \frac{1}{\pi\gamma \left[1 + \left(\frac{x - x_0}{\gamma}\right)^2\right]} = { 1 \over \pi } \left[ { \gamma \over (x - x_0)^2 + \gamma^2 } \right], </math> where <math>x_0</math> is the location parameter, specifying the location of the peak of the distribution, and <math>\gamma</math> is the scale parameter which specifies the half-width at half-maximum (HWHM), alternatively <math>2\gamma</math> is full width at half maximum (FWHM). <math>\gamma</math> is also equal to half the interquartile range and is sometimes called the probable error. This function is also known as a Lorentzian function, and an example of a nascent delta function, and therefore approaches a Dirac delta function in the limit as <math>\gamma \to 0</math>. Augustin-Louis Cauchy exploited such a density function in 1827 with an infinitesimal scale parameter, defining this Dirac delta function. Properties of PDF The maximum value or amplitude of the Cauchy PDF is <math>\frac{1}{\pi \gamma}</math>, located at <math>xx_0</math>. It is sometimes convenient to express the PDF in terms of the complex parameter <math>\psi= x_0 + i\gamma</math> <math display="block"> f(x;\psi)\frac{1}{\pi}\,\textrm{Im}\left(\frac{1}{x-\psi}\right)\frac{1}{\pi}\,\textrm{Re}\left(\frac{-i}{x-\psi}\right) </math> The special case when <math>x_0 0</math> and <math>\gamma 1</math> is called the standard Cauchy distribution with the probability density function <math display"block"> f(x; 0,1) \frac{1}{\pi \left(1 + x^2\right)}.</math> In physics, a three-parameter Lorentzian function is often used: <math display"block">f(x; x_0,\gamma,I) \frac{I}{\left[1 + {\left(\frac{x-x_0}{\gamma}\right)}^2\right]} = I \left[ \frac{\gamma^2}{{\left(x - x_0\right)}^2 + \gamma^2 } \right], </math> where <math>I</math> is the height of the peak. The three-parameter Lorentzian function indicated is not, in general, a probability density function, since it does not integrate to 1, except in the special case where <math>I \frac{1}{\pi\gamma}.\!</math>Cumulative distribution function (CDF) The Cauchy distribution is the probability distribution with the following cumulative distribution function (CDF): <math display"block">F(x; x_0,\gamma)\frac{1}{\pi} \arctan\left(\frac{x-x_0}{\gamma}\right)+\frac{1}{2}</math> and the quantile function (inverse cdf) of the Cauchy distribution is <math display"block">Q(p; x_0,\gamma) x_0 + \gamma\,\tan\left[\pi\left(p-\tfrac{1}{2}\right)\right].</math> It follows that the first and third quartiles are <math>(x_0 - \gamma, x_0 + \gamma)</math>, and hence the interquartile range is <math>2\gamma</math>. For the standard distribution, the cumulative distribution function simplifies to arctangent function <math>\arctan(x)</math>: <math display"block">F(x; 0,1)\frac{1}{\pi} \arctan\left(x\right)+\frac{1}{2}</math> Other constructions The standard Cauchy distribution is the Student's t-distribution with one degree of freedom, and so it may be constructed by any method that constructs the Student's t-distribution. If <math>\Sigma</math> is a <math>p\times p</math> positive-semidefinite covariance matrix with strictly positive diagonal entries, then for independent and identically distributed <math>X,Y\sim N(0,\Sigma)</math> and any random <math>p</math>-vector <math>w</math> independent of <math>X</math> and <math>Y</math> such that <math>w_1+\cdots+w_p1</math> and <math>w_i\geq 0, i1,\ldots,p,</math> (defining a categorical distribution) it holds that <math display"block">\sum_{j1}^p w_j\frac{X_j}{Y_j}\sim\mathrm{Cauchy}(0,1).</math> Properties The Cauchy distribution is an example of a distribution which has no mean, variance or higher moments defined. Its mode and median are well defined and are both equal to <math>x_0</math>. The Cauchy distribution is an infinitely divisible probability distribution. It is also a strictly stable distribution. Like all stable distributions, the location-scale family to which the Cauchy distribution belongs is closed under linear transformations with real coefficients. In addition, the family of Cauchy-distributed random variables is closed under linear fractional transformations with real coefficients. In this connection, see also McCullagh's parametrization of the Cauchy distributions. Sum of Cauchy-distributed random variables If <math>X_1, X_2, \ldots, X_n</math> are an IID sample from the standard Cauchy distribution, then their sample mean <math display"inline">\bar X = \frac 1 n \sum_i X_i</math> is also standard Cauchy distributed. In particular, the average does not converge to the mean, and so the standard Cauchy distribution does not follow the law of large numbers. This can be proved by repeated integration with the PDF, or more conveniently, by using the characteristic function of the standard Cauchy distribution (see below):<math display"block">\varphi_X(t) \operatorname{E}\left[e^{iXt} \right ] e^{-\|t\|}.</math>With this, we have <math>\varphi_{\sum_i X_i}(t) e^{-n \|t\|} </math>, and so <math>\bar X</math> has a standard Cauchy distribution. More generally, if <math>X_1, X_2, \ldots, X_n</math> are independent and Cauchy distributed with location parameters <math>x_1, \ldots, x_n</math> and scales <math>\gamma_1, \ldots, \gamma_n</math>, and <math>a_1, \ldots, a_n</math> are real numbers, then <math display"inline">\sum_i a_i X_i</math> is Cauchy distributed with location <math display"inline">\sum_i a_i x_i</math> and scale<math display="inline">\sum_i \|a_i\| \gamma_i</math>. We see that there is no law of large numbers for any weighted sum of independent Cauchy distributions. This shows that the condition of finite variance in the central limit theorem cannot be dropped. It is also an example of a more generalized version of the central limit theorem that is characteristic of all stable distributions, of which the Cauchy distribution is a special case. Central limit theorem If <math>X_1, X_2, \ldots </math> are an IID sample with PDF <math>\rho</math> such that <math display"inline">\lim_{c \to \infty} \frac{1}{c} \int_{-c}^c x^2 \rho(x) \, dx \frac{2\gamma}{\pi} </math> is finite, but nonzero, then <math display"inline">\frac 1n \sum_{i1}^n X_i</math> converges in distribution to a Cauchy distribution with scale <math>\gamma</math>.Characteristic function Let <math>X</math> denote a Cauchy distributed random variable. The characteristic function of the Cauchy distribution is given by <math display"block">\varphi_X(t) \operatorname{E}\left[e^{iXt} \right ] \int_{-\infty}^\infty f(x;x_0,\gamma)e^{ixt}\,dx e^{ix_0t - \gamma \|t\|}.</math> which is just the Fourier transform of the probability density. The original probability density may be expressed in terms of the characteristic function, essentially by using the inverse Fourier transform: <math display"block">f(x; x_0,\gamma) \frac{1}{2\pi}\int_{-\infty}^\infty \varphi_X(t;x_0,\gamma)e^{-ixt} \, dt \!</math> The nth moment of a distribution is the nth derivative of the characteristic function evaluated at <math>t0</math>. Observe that the characteristic function is not differentiable at the origin: this corresponds to the fact that the Cauchy distribution does not have well-defined moments higher than the zeroth moment. Kullback–Leibler divergence The Kullback–Leibler divergence between two Cauchy distributions has the following symmetric closed-form formula: <math display="block"> \mathrm{KL}\left(p_{x_{0,1}, \gamma_{1}}: p_{x_{0,2}, \gamma_{2}}\right) = \log \frac{{\left(\gamma_1 + \gamma_2\right)}^2 + {\left(x_{0,1} - x_{0,2}\right)}^2}{4 \gamma_1 \gamma_2}. </math> Any f-divergence between two Cauchy distributions is symmetric and can be expressed as a function of the chi-squared divergence. Closed-form expression for the total variation, Jensen–Shannon divergence, Hellinger distance, etc. are available. Entropy The entropy of the Cauchy distribution is given by: <math display="block"> \begin{align} H(\gamma) & =-\int_{-\infty}^\infty f(x;x_0,\gamma) \log(f(x;x_0,\gamma)) \, dx \\[6pt] & =\log(4\pi\gamma) \end{align} </math> The derivative of the quantile function, the quantile density function, for the Cauchy distribution is: <math display"block">Q'(p; \gamma) \gamma \pi \, \sec^2\left[\pi\left(p - \tfrac{1}{2}\right)\right].</math> The differential entropy of a distribution can be defined in terms of its quantile density, specifically: <math display"block">H(\gamma) \int_0^1 \log\,(Q'(p; \gamma))\,\mathrm dp = \log(4\pi\gamma)</math> The Cauchy distribution is the maximum entropy probability distribution for a random variate <math>X</math> for which <math display"block">\operatorname{E}\left[\log\left(1 + {\left(\frac{X-x_0}{\gamma}\right)}^2\right)\right] \log 4</math> Moments The Cauchy distribution is usually used as an illustrative counterexample in elementary probability courses, as a distribution with no well-defined (or "indefinite") moments. Sample moments If we take an IID sample <math>X_1, X_2, \ldots </math> from the standard Cauchy distribution, then the sequence of their sample mean is <math display"inline">S_n \frac{1}{n} \sum_{i=1}^n X_i</math>, which also has the standard Cauchy distribution. Consequently, no matter how many terms we take, the sample average does not converge. Similarly, the sample variance <math display"inline">V_n \frac{1}{n} \sum_{i=1}^n {\left(X_i - S_n\right)}^2</math> also does not converge. A typical trajectory of <math>S_1, S_2, ...</math> looks like long periods of slow convergence to zero, punctuated by large jumps away from zero, but never getting too far away. A typical trajectory of <math>V_1, V_2, ...</math> looks similar, but the jumps accumulate faster than the decay, diverging to infinity. These two kinds of trajectories are plotted in the figure. Moments of sample lower than order 1 would converge to zero. Moments of sample higher than order 2 would diverge to infinity even faster than sample variance. Mean If a probability distribution has a density function <math>f(x)</math>, then the mean, if it exists, is given by {{NumBlk\|\|<math display="block">\int_{-\infty}^\infty x f(x)\,dx. </math>\|}} We may evaluate this two-sided improper integral by computing the sum of two one-sided improper integrals. That is, {{NumBlk\|\|<math display="block">\int_{-\infty}^a x f(x)\,dx +\int_a^\infty x f(x) \, dx </math>\|}} for an arbitrary real number <math>a</math>. For the integral to exist (even as an infinite value), at least one of the terms in this sum should be finite, or both should be infinite and have the same sign. But in the case of the Cauchy distribution, both the terms in this sum () are infinite and have opposite sign. Hence () is undefined, and thus so is the mean. When the mean of a probability distribution function (PDF) is undefined, no one can compute a reliable average over the experimental data points, regardless of the sample's size. Note that the Cauchy principal value of the mean of the Cauchy distribution is <math display="block">\lim_{a\to\infty}\int_{-a}^a x f(x)\,dx </math> which is zero. On the other hand, the related integral <math display="block">\lim_{a\to\infty}\int_{-2a}^a x f(x)\,dx </math> is not zero, as can be seen by computing the integral. This again shows that the mean () cannot exist. Various results in probability theory about expected values, such as the strong law of large numbers, fail to hold for the Cauchy distribution. Transformation properties If <math>X \sim \operatorname{Cauchy}(x_0,\gamma)</math> then <math> kX + \ell \sim \textrm{Cauchy}(x_0 k+\ell, \gamma \|k\|)</math> If <math>X \sim \operatorname{Cauchy}(x_0, \gamma_0)</math> and <math>Y \sim \operatorname{Cauchy}(x_1,\gamma_1)</math> are independent, then <math> X+Y \sim \operatorname{Cauchy}(x_0+x_1,\gamma_0 +\gamma_1)</math> and <math> X-Y \sim \operatorname{Cauchy}(x_0-x_1, \gamma_0+\gamma_1)</math> If <math>X \sim \operatorname{Cauchy}(0,\gamma)</math> then <math> \tfrac{1}{X} \sim \operatorname{Cauchy}(0, \tfrac{1}{\gamma})</math> McCullagh's parametrization of the Cauchy distributions: Expressing a Cauchy distribution in terms of one complex parameter <math>\psi x_0+i\gamma</math>, define <math>X \sim \operatorname{Cauchy}(\psi)</math> to mean <math>X \sim \operatorname{Cauchy}(x_0,\|\gamma\|)</math>. If <math>X \sim \operatorname{Cauchy}(\psi)</math> then: <math display="block">\frac{aX+b}{cX+d} \sim \operatorname{Cauchy}\left(\frac{a\psi+b}{c\psi+d}\right)</math> where <math>a</math>, <math>b</math>, <math>c</math> and <math>d</math> are real numbers. * Using the same convention as above, if <math>X \sim \operatorname{Cauchy}(\psi)</math> then: For example, if an i.i.d. sample of size n is taken from a Cauchy distribution, one may calculate the sample mean as: <math display"block">\bar{x}\frac 1 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i</math> Although the sample values <math>x_i</math> will be concentrated about the central value <math>x_0</math>, the sample mean will become increasingly variable as more observations are taken, because of the increased probability of encountering sample points with a large absolute value. In fact, the distribution of the sample mean will be equal to the distribution of the observations themselves; i.e., the sample mean of a large sample is no better (or worse) an estimator of <math>x_0</math> than any single observation from the sample. Similarly, calculating the sample variance will result in values that grow larger as more observations are taken. Therefore, more robust means of estimating the central value <math>x_0</math> and the scaling parameter <math>\gamma</math> are needed. One simple method is to take the median value of the sample as an estimator of <math>x_0</math> and half the sample interquartile range as an estimator of <math>\gamma</math>. Other, more precise and robust methods have been developed For example, the truncated mean of the middle 24% of the sample order statistics produces an estimate for <math>x_0</math> that is more efficient than using either the sample median or the full sample mean. However, because of the fat tails of the Cauchy distribution, the efficiency of the estimator decreases if more than 24% of the sample is used. Also, while the maximum likelihood estimator is asymptotically efficient, it is relatively inefficient for small samples. The log-likelihood function for the Cauchy distribution for sample size <math>n</math> is: <math display"block">\hat\ell(x_1,\dotsc,x_n \mid \!x_0,\gamma ) - n \log (\gamma \pi) - \sum_{i=1}^n \log \left(1 + \left(\frac{x_i - x_0}{\gamma}\right)^2\right)</math> Maximizing the log likelihood function with respect to <math>x_0</math> and <math>\gamma</math> by taking the first derivative produces the following system of equations: <math display"block"> \frac{d \ell}{d x_{0}} \sum_{i1}^n \frac{2(x_i - x_0)}{\gamma^2 + \left(x_i - \!x_0\right)^2}0</math> <math display"block"> \frac{d \ell}{d \gamma} \sum_{i1}^n \frac{2\left(x_i - x_0\right)^2}{\gamma (\gamma^2 + \left(x_i - x_0\right)^2)} - \frac{n}{\gamma} 0</math> Note that <math display"block"> \sum_{i1}^n \frac{\left(x_i - x_0\right)^2}{\gamma^2 + \left(x_i - x_0\right)^2} </math> is a monotone function in <math>\gamma</math> and that the solution <math>\gamma</math> must satisfy <math display="block"> \min \|x_i-x_0\|\le \gamma\le \max \|x_i-x_0\|. </math> Solving just for <math>x_0</math> requires solving a polynomial of degree <math>2n-1</math>, The truncated sample mean using the middle 24% order statistics is about 88% as asymptotically efficient an estimator of <math>x_0</math> as the maximum likelihood estimate. In the case <math> \gamma 1 </math> of the Cauchy distribution, one has <math> c_{1, \gamma} = c_{2, \gamma} </math>. This last representation is a consequence of the formula <math display"block">\pi \|x\| \operatorname{PV }\int_{\mathbb{R} \smallsetminus\lbrace 0 \rbrace} (1 - e^{ixy}) \, \frac{dy}{y^2} </math> Multivariate Cauchy distribution A random vector <math>X(X_1, \ldots, X_k)^T</math> is said to have the multivariate Cauchy distribution if every linear combination of its components <math>Ya_1X_1+ \cdots + a_kX_k</math> has a Cauchy distribution. That is, for any constant vector <math>a\in \mathbb R^k</math>, the random variable <math>Ya^TX</math> should have a univariate Cauchy distribution. The characteristic function of a multivariate Cauchy distribution is given by: <math display"block">\varphi_X(t) e^{ix_0(t)-\gamma(t)}, \!</math> where <math>x_0(t)</math> and <math>\gamma(t)</math> are real functions with <math>x_0(t)</math> a homogeneous function of degree one and <math>\gamma(t)</math> a positive homogeneous function of degree one. <math display"block">f(x, y; x_0,y_0,\gamma) \frac{1}{2 \pi} \, \frac{\gamma}{{\left({\left(x - x_0\right)}^2 + {\left(y - y_0\right)}^2 + \gamma^2\right)}^{3/2}} .</math> Note that in this example, even though the covariance between <math>x</math> and <math>y</math> is 0, <math>x</math> and <math>y</math> are not statistically independent.]] In spectroscopy, the Cauchy distribution describes the shape of spectral lines which are subject to homogeneous broadening in which all atoms interact in the same way with the frequency range contained in the line shape. Many mechanisms cause homogeneous broadening, most notably collision broadening. Lifetime or natural broadening also gives rise to a line shape described by the Cauchy distribution. Applications of the Cauchy distribution or its transformation can be found in fields working with exponential growth. A 1958 paper by White derived the test statistic for estimators of <math>\hat{\beta}</math> for the equation <math>x_{t+1}\beta{x}_t+\varepsilon_{t+1},\beta>1</math> and where the maximum likelihood estimator is found using ordinary least squares showed the sampling distribution of the statistic is the Cauchy distribution. The Cauchy distribution is often the distribution of observations for objects that are spinning. The classic reference for this is called the Gull's lighthouse problem and as in the above section as the Breit–Wigner distribution in particle physics. In hydrology the Cauchy distribution is applied to extreme events such as annual maximum one-day rainfalls and river discharges. The blue picture illustrates an example of fitting the Cauchy distribution to ranked monthly maximum one-day rainfalls showing also the 90% confidence belt based on the binomial distribution. The rainfall data are represented by plotting positions as part of the cumulative frequency analysis. The expression for the imaginary part of complex electrical permittivity, according to the Lorentz model, is a Cauchy distribution. As an additional distribution to model fat tails in computational finance, Cauchy distributions can be used to model VAR (value at risk) producing a much larger probability of extreme risk than Gaussian Distribution. Relativistic Breit–Wigner distribution In nuclear and particle physics, the energy profile of a resonance is described by the relativistic Breit–Wigner distribution, while the Cauchy distribution is the (non-relativistic) Breit–Wigner distribution.History (top). There can be arbitrarily large jumps in the estimates, as seen in the graphs on the bottom. (Click to expand)]] A function with the form of the density function of the Cauchy distribution was studied geometrically by Fermat in 1659, and later was known as the witch of Agnesi, after Maria Gaetana Agnesi included it as an example in her 1748 calculus textbook. Despite its name, the first explicit analysis of the properties of the Cauchy distribution was published by the French mathematician Poisson in 1824, with Cauchy only becoming associated with it during an academic controversy in 1853. Poisson noted that if the mean of observations following such a distribution were taken, the standard deviation did not converge to any finite number. As such, Laplace's use of the central limit theorem with such a distribution was inappropriate, as it assumed a finite mean and variance. Despite this, Poisson did not regard the issue as important, in contrast to Bienaymé, who was to engage Cauchy in a long dispute over the matter. See also * Lévy flight and Lévy process * Laplace distribution, the Fourier transform of the Cauchy distribution * Cauchy process * Stable process * Slash distribution References External links * * [http://jeff560.tripod.com/c.html Earliest Uses: The entry on Cauchy distribution has some historical information.] * * [https://www.gnu.org/software/gsl/manual/gsl-ref.html#SEC294 GNU Scientific Library – Reference Manual] * [http://www.jstatsoft.org/v16/i04/paper Ratios of Normal Variables by George Marsaglia] Category:Augustin-Louis Cauchy Category:Continuous distributions Category:Probability distributions with non-finite variance Category:Power laws Category:Stable distributions Category:Location-scale family probability distributions	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cauchy_distribution	2025-04-05T18:28:01.581476
7011	Control engineering	.]] Control engineering, also known as control systems engineering and, in some European countries, automation engineering, is an engineering discipline that deals with control systems, applying control theory to design equipment and systems with desired behaviors in control environments. The discipline of controls overlaps and is usually taught along with electrical engineering, chemical engineering and mechanical engineering at many institutions around the world. Overview Modern day control engineering is a relatively new field of study that gained significant attention during the 20th century with the advancement of technology. It can be broadly defined or classified as practical application of control theory. Control engineering plays an essential role in a wide range of control systems, from simple household washing machines to high-performance fighter aircraft. It seeks to understand physical systems, using mathematical modelling, in terms of inputs, outputs and various components with different behaviors; to use control system design tools to develop controllers for those systems; and to implement controllers in physical systems employing available technology. A system can be mechanical, electrical, fluid, chemical, financial or biological, and its mathematical modelling, analysis and controller design uses control theory in one or many of the time, frequency and complex-s domains, depending on the nature of the design problem. Control engineering is the engineering discipline that focuses on the modeling of a diverse range of dynamic systems (e.g. mechanical systems) and the design of controllers that will cause these systems to behave in the desired manner. Although such controllers need not be electrical, many are and hence control engineering is often viewed as a subfield of electrical engineering. Electrical circuits, digital signal processors and microcontrollers can all be used to implement control systems. Control engineering has a wide range of applications from the flight and propulsion systems of commercial airliners to the cruise control present in many modern automobiles. In most cases, control engineers utilize feedback when designing control systems. This is often accomplished using a proportional–integral–derivative controller (PID controller) system. For example, in an automobile with cruise control the vehicle's speed is continuously monitored and fed back to the system, which adjusts the motor's torque accordingly. Where there is regular feedback, control theory can be used to determine how the system responds to such feedback. In practically all such systems stability is important and control theory can help ensure stability is achieved. Although feedback is an important aspect of control engineering, control engineers may also work on the control of systems without feedback. This is known as open loop control. A classic example of open loop control is a washing machine that runs through a pre-determined cycle without the use of sensors. History s is one of the more challenging applications.]] Automatic control systems were first developed over two thousand years ago. The first feedback control device on record is thought to be the ancient Ktesibios's water clock in Alexandria, Egypt, around the third century BCE. It kept time by regulating the water level in a vessel and, therefore, the water flow from that vessel. This certainly was a successful device as water clocks of similar design were still being made in Baghdad when the Mongols captured the city in 1258 CE. A variety of automatic devices have been used over the centuries to accomplish useful tasks or simply just to entertain. The latter includes the automata, popular in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, featuring dancing figures that would repeat the same task over and over again; these automata are examples of open-loop control. Milestones among feedback, or "closed-loop" automatic control devices, include the temperature regulator of a furnace attributed to Drebbel, circa 1620, and the centrifugal flyball governor used for regulating the speed of steam engines by James Watt in 1788. In his 1868 paper "On Governors", James Clerk Maxwell was able to explain instabilities exhibited by the flyball governor using differential equations to describe the control system. This demonstrated the importance and usefulness of mathematical models and methods in understanding complex phenomena, and it signaled the beginning of mathematical control and systems theory. Elements of control theory had appeared earlier but not as dramatically and convincingly as in Maxwell's analysis. Control theory made significant strides over the next century. New mathematical techniques, as well as advances in electronic and computer technologies, made it possible to control significantly more complex dynamical systems than the original flyball governor could stabilize. New mathematical techniques included developments in optimal control in the 1950s and 1960s followed by progress in stochastic, robust, adaptive, nonlinear control methods in the 1970s and 1980s. Applications of control methodology have helped to make possible space travel and communication satellites, safer and more efficient aircraft, cleaner automobile engines, and cleaner and more efficient chemical processes. Before it emerged as a unique discipline, control engineering was practiced as a part of mechanical engineering and control theory was studied as a part of electrical engineering since electrical circuits can often be easily described using control theory techniques. In the first control relationships, a current output was represented by a voltage control input. However, not having adequate technology to implement electrical control systems, designers were left with the option of less efficient and slow responding mechanical systems. A very effective mechanical controller that is still widely used in some hydro plants is the governor. Later on, previous to modern power electronics, process control systems for industrial applications were devised by mechanical engineers using pneumatic and hydraulic control devices, many of which are still in use today. Mathematical modelling David Quinn Mayne, (1930–2024) was among the early developers of a rigorous mathematical method for analysing Model predictive control algorithms (MPC). It is currently used in tens of thousands of applications and is a core part of the advanced control technology by hundreds of process control producers. MPC's major strength is its capacity to deal with nonlinearities and hard constraints in a simple and intuitive fashion. His work underpins a class of algorithms that are probably correct, heuristically explainable, and yield control system designs which meet practically important objectives. Control systems Control theory Education At many universities around the world, control engineering courses are taught primarily in electrical engineering and mechanical engineering, but some courses can be instructed in mechatronics engineering, and aerospace engineering. In others, control engineering is connected to computer science, as most control techniques today are implemented through computers, often as embedded systems (as in the automotive field). The field of control within chemical engineering is often known as process control. It deals primarily with the control of variables in a chemical process in a plant. It is taught as part of the undergraduate curriculum of any chemical engineering program and employs many of the same principles in control engineering. Other engineering disciplines also overlap with control engineering as it can be applied to any system for which a suitable model can be derived. However, specialised control engineering departments do exist, for example, in Italy there are several master in Automation & Robotics that are fully specialised in Control engineering or the Department of Automatic Control and Systems Engineering at the University of Sheffield or the Department of Robotics and Control Engineering at the United States Naval Academy and the Department of Control and Automation Engineering at the Istanbul Technical University. Control engineering has diversified applications that include science, finance management, and even human behavior. Students of control engineering may start with a linear control system course dealing with the time and complex-s domain, which requires a thorough background in elementary mathematics and Laplace transform, called classical control theory. In linear control, the student does frequency and time domain analysis. Digital control and nonlinear control courses require Z transformation and algebra respectively, and could be said to complete a basic control education. Careers A control engineer's career starts with a bachelor's degree and can continue through the college process. Control engineer degrees are typically paired with an electrical or mechanical engineering degree, but can also be paired with a degree in chemical engineering. According to a Control Engineering survey, most of the people who answered were control engineers in various forms of their own career. There are not very many careers that are classified as "control engineer", most of them are specific careers that have a small semblance to the overarching career of control engineering. A majority of the control engineers that took the survey in 2019 are system or product designers, or even control or instrument engineers. Most of the jobs involve process engineering or production or even maintenance, they are some variation of control engineering. Control Engineers can possibly earn $66k annually from Lockheed Martin Corp. They can also earn up to $96k annually from General Motors Corporation. Process Control Engineers, typically found in Refineries and Specialty Chemical plants, can earn upwards of $90k annually. In India, control System Engineering is provided at different levels with a diploma, graduation and postgraduation. These programs require the candidate to have chosen physics, chemistry and mathematics for their secondary schooling or relevant bachelor's degree for postgraduate studies. Recent advancement Originally, control engineering was all about continuous systems. Development of computer control tools posed a requirement of discrete control system engineering because the communications between the computer-based digital controller and the physical system are governed by a computer clock. The equivalent to Laplace transform in the discrete domain is the Z-transform. Today, many of the control systems are computer controlled and they consist of both digital and analog components. Therefore, at the design stage either: * Digital components are mapped into the continuous domain and the design is carried out in the continuous domain, or * Analog components are mapped into discrete domain and design is carried out there. The first of these two methods is more commonly encountered in practice because many industrial systems have many continuous systems components, including mechanical, fluid, biological and analog electrical components, with a few digital controllers. Similarly, the design technique has progressed from paper-and-ruler based manual design to computer-aided design and now to computer-automated design or CAD which has been made possible by evolutionary computation. CAD can be applied not just to tuning a predefined control scheme, but also to controller structure optimisation, system identification and invention of novel control systems, based purely upon a performance requirement, independent of any specific control scheme. Resilient control systems extend the traditional focus of addressing only planned disturbances to frameworks and attempt to address multiple types of unexpected disturbance; in particular, adapting and transforming behaviors of the control system in response to malicious actors, abnormal failure modes, undesirable human action, etc. See also * Artificial intelligence * Automation * Automation engineering * Electrical engineering * Communications engineering * Satellite navigation * Outline of control engineering * Advanced process control * Building automation * Computer-automated design (CAutoD, CAutoCSD) * Control reconfiguration * Feedback * H-infinity * Lead–lag compensator * List of control engineering topics * Quantitative feedback theory * Robotic unicycle * State space * Sliding mode control * Systems engineering * Testing controller * VisSim * Control Engineering (magazine) * Time series * Process control system * Robotic control * Mechatronics * SCADA References Further reading * * * * * External links [https://web.archive.org/web/20121211031854/http://www-control.eng.cam.ac.uk/extras/Virtual_Library/Control_VL.html Control Labs Worldwide] [https://web.archive.org/web/20080827235300/http://controls.engin.umich.edu/wiki The Michigan Chemical Engineering Process Dynamics and Controls Open Textbook] [http://www.controlsys.org Control System Integrators Association] [https://www.csiaexchange.com List of control systems integrators] [http://www.imeche.org/get-involved/special-interest-groups/mechatronics-informatics-and-control-group Institution of Mechanical Engineers - Mechatronics, Informatics and Control Group (MICG)] *[https://www.tandfonline.com/tssc Systems Science & Control Engineering: An Open Access Journal] Category:Electrical engineering Category:Mechanical engineering Category:Systems engineering Category:Engineering disciplines Category:Automation	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_engineering	2025-04-05T18:28:01.590249
7012	Chagas disease	, \| field = Infectious disease \| symptoms Fever, large lymph nodes, headache After four to eight weeks, untreated individuals enter the chronic phase of disease, which in most cases does not result in further symptoms. The disease may also be spread through blood transfusion, organ transplantation, consuming food or drink contaminated with the parasites, and vertical transmission (from a mother to her baby). <!-- Prevention and treatment --> Prevention focuses on eliminating kissing bugs and avoiding their bites. Other preventive efforts include screening blood used for transfusions. Early infections are treatable with the medications benznidazole or nifurtimox, which usually cure the disease if given shortly after the person is infected, but become less effective the longer a person has had Chagas disease. When used in chronic disease, medication may delay or prevent the development of end-stage symptoms. Benznidazole and nifurtimox often cause side effects, including skin disorders, digestive system irritation, and neurological symptoms, which can result in treatment being discontinued. New drugs for Chagas disease are under development, and while experimental vaccines have been studied in animal models, and most do not realize they are infected. Large-scale population migrations have carried Chagas disease to new regions, which include the United States and many European countries. The disease was first described in 1909 by Brazilian physician Carlos Chagas, after whom it is named. Signs and symptoms Chagas disease occurs in two stages: an acute stage, which develops one to two weeks after the insect bite, and a chronic stage, which develops over many years. Signs and symptoms include fever, malaise, headache, and enlargement of the liver, spleen, and lymph nodes. In rare cases (less than 1–5%), infected individuals develop severe acute disease, which can involve inflammation of the heart muscle, fluid accumulation around the heart, and inflammation of the brain and surrounding tissues, and may be life-threatening. The acute phase typically lasts four to eight weeks and resolves without treatment. Signs and symptoms differ for people infected with through less common routes. People infected through ingestion of parasites tend to develop severe disease within three weeks of consumption, with symptoms including fever, vomiting, shortness of breath, cough, and pain in the chest, abdomen, and muscles. Occasionally, these individuals also experience acute heart inflammation, skin lesions, and disease of the stomach, intestine, or peritoneum. The bugs tend to feed at night, preferring moist surfaces near the eyes or mouth. A triatomine bug can become infected with when it feeds on an infected host. The bite is typically painless, but causes itching. Since heating or drying kills the parasites, drinks and especially fruit juices are the most frequent source of infection. T. cruzi can be transmitted independent of the triatomine bug during blood transfusion, following organ transplantation, or across the placenta during pregnancy. As of 2019, 22.5% of new infections occurred through congenital transmission. Pathophysiology In the acute phase of the disease, signs and symptoms are caused directly by the replication of and the immune system's response to it. As disease progresses, the heart becomes generally enlarged, with substantial regions of cardiac muscle fiber replaced by scar tissue and fat. In 2010, integrated kDNA was found to be vertically transmitted in five human families.Diagnosis ]] The presence of T. cruzi in the blood is diagnostic of Chagas disease. During the acute phase of infection, it can be detected by microscopic examination of fresh anticoagulated blood, or its buffy coat, for motile parasites; or by preparation of thin and thick blood smears stained with Giemsa, for direct visualization of parasites. Alternatively, T. cruzi DNA can be detected by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). In acute and congenital Chagas disease, PCR is more sensitive than microscopy, PCR is also used to monitor levels in organ transplant recipients and immunosuppressed people, which allows infection or reactivation to be detected at an early stage. They are useful for screening large numbers of people and testing people who cannot access healthcare facilities, but their sensitivity is relatively low, T. cruzi parasites can be grown from blood samples by blood culture, xenodiagnosis, or by inoculating animals with the person's blood. In the blood culture method, the person's red blood cells are separated from the plasma and added to a specialized growth medium to encourage multiplication of the parasite. It can take up to six months to obtain the result. Xenodiagnosis involves feeding the blood to triatomine insects, and then examining their feces for the parasite 30 to 60 days later. This was originally done with organochlorine, organophosphate, and carbamate insecticides, which were supplanted in the 1980s with pyrethroids. Nearly all blood donations in Latin American countries undergo Chagas screening. Serological tests, typically ELISAs, are used to detect antibodies against proteins in donor blood. Similarly to blood transfusions, many countries with endemic Chagas disease screen organs for transplantation with serological tests. but no vaccine candidates had undergone clinical trials in humans as of 2016. Management tablets]] Chagas disease is managed using antiparasitic drugs to eliminate T. cruzi from the body, and symptomatic treatment to address the effects of the infection.), but only 20–60% of those in the chronic phase. Complications In the chronic stage, treatment involves managing the clinical manifestations of the disease. The treatment of Chagas cardiomyopathy is similar to that of other forms of heart disease. and surgical removal of the affected part of the organ may be required for advanced megacolon and megaesophagus.]] <!--Impact--> In 2019, an estimated 6.5 million people worldwide had Chagas disease, with approximately 173,000 new infections and 9,490 deaths each year. The disease resulted in a global annual economic burden estimated at US$7.2 billion in 2013, 86% of which is borne by endemic countries. Within continental Latin America, Chagas disease is endemic to 21 countries: Argentina, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay, and Venezuela. Transmission by insect vector and blood transfusion has been completely interrupted in Uruguay (1997), Chile (1999), and Brazil (2006), During Venezuela's humanitarian crisis, vectorial transmission has begun occurring in areas where it had previously been interrupted, and Chagas disease seroprevalence rates have increased. Transmission rates have also risen in the Gran Chaco region due to insecticide resistance and in the Amazon basin due to oral transmission. Orally transmitted Chagas disease is of particular concern in Venezuela, where 16 outbreaks have been recorded between 2007 and 2018. Chagas exists in two different ecological zones. In the Southern Cone region, the main vector lives in and around human homes. In Central America and Mexico, the main vector species lives both inside dwellings and in uninhabited areas. In both zones, Chagas occurs almost exclusively in rural areas, where also circulates in wild and domestic animals. commonly infects more than 100 species of mammals across Latin America including opossums (Didelphis spp.), armadillos, marmosets, bats, various rodents and dogs and in 2018 it was estimated that 30,000 to 40,000 people in the United States had Chagas cardiomyopathy. However, locally acquired infection is very rare: only 28 cases were documented from 1955 to 2015. Chagas disease affected approximately 68,000 to 123,000 people in Europe as of 2019. Spain, which has a high rate of immigration from Latin America, has the highest prevalence of the disease. It is estimated that 50,000 to 70,000 people in Spain are living with Chagas disease, accounting for the majority of European cases.History , in his laboratory at Instituto Oswaldo Cruz]] T. cruzi likely circulated in South American mammals long before the arrival of humans on the continent. Many early written accounts describe symptoms consistent with Chagas disease, with early descriptions of the disease sometimes attributed to Miguel Diaz Pimenta (1707), (1735), and Theodoro J. H. Langgaard (1842). Almost immediately thereafter, at the suggestion of Miguel Couto, then professor of the , the disease was widely referred to as "Chagas disease". In the 1930s, Salvador Mazza rekindled Chagas disease research, describing over a thousand cases in Argentina's Chaco Province. Serological tests for Chagas disease were introduced in the 1940s, demonstrating that infection with was widespread across Latin America. These programs received a major boost in the 1980s with the introduction of pyrethroid insecticides, which did not leave stains or odors after application and were longer-lasting and more cost-effective. Other drug candidates include GNF6702, a proteasome inhibitor that is effective against Chagas disease in mice and is undergoing preliminary toxicity studies, and AN4169, which has had promising results in animal models. Several experimental vaccines have been tested in animals. In addition to subunit vaccines, some approaches have involved vaccination with attenuated parasites or organisms that express some of the same antigens as but do not cause human disease, such as Trypanosoma rangeli or Phytomonas serpens. DNA vaccination has also been explored. As of 2019, vaccine research has mainly been limited to small animal models. Diagnostic tests As of 2018, standard diagnostic tests for Chagas disease were limited in their ability to measure the effectiveness of antiparasitic treatment, as serological tests may remain positive for years after is eliminated from the body, and PCR may give false-negative results when the parasite concentration in the blood is low. Several potential biomarkers of treatment response are under investigation, such as immunoassays against specific antigens, flow cytometry testing to detect antibodies against different life stages of , and markers of physiological changes caused by the parasite, such as alterations in coagulation and lipid metabolism. An assay for antigens in urine has been developed to diagnose congenital disease.<ref name"Messenger2018"/>See also * Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative * Chagas: Time to Treat campaign * Association for the Promotion of Independent Disease Control in Developing Countries References External links * [https://www.cdc.gov/chagas/ Chagas information] at the U.S. Centers for Disease Control * [https://www.dndi.org/?s=chagas Chagas information] from the Drugs for Neglected Diseases initiative * [https://www.iamat.org/risks/chagas-disease Chagas disease information] for travellers from the International Association for Medical Assistance to Travellers \| ICD10 = \| ICD9 = \| ICDO \| OMIM \| MedlinePlus = 001372 \| eMedicineSubj = med \| eMedicineTopic = 327 \| MeshID = D014355 \| Scholia = Q649558 }} Category:Parasitic infestations, stings, and bites of the skin Category:Insect-borne diseases Category:Protozoal diseases Category:Tropical diseases Category:Zoonoses Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate Category:Wikipedia infectious disease articles ready to translate	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chagas_disease	2025-04-05T18:28:01.950305
7015	Christiaan Barnard	\| birth_place = Beaufort West, Cape Province, Union of South Africa \| death_date \| death_place = Paphos, Cyprus \| profession = Surgeon \| specialism = \| research_field \| known_for First successful human-to-human heart transplant \| years_active = 1950–2001 \| education = \| work_institutions = \| prizes \| spouse \| \| }} \| children = 6 \| relatives = Marius Barnard (brother) }} Christiaan Neethling Barnard (8November 19222September 2001) was a South African cardiac surgeon who performed the world's first human-to-human heart transplant operation. His father, Adam Barnard, was a minister in the Dutch Reformed Church. Barnard matriculated from the Beaufort West High School in 1940, and went to study medicine at the University of Cape Town Medical School, where he obtained his MB ChB in 1945. His father served as a missionary to mixed-race people. His mother, the former Maria Elisabeth de Swart, instilled in the surviving brothers the belief that they could do anything they set their minds to. In 1951, he returned to Cape Town where he worked at the City Hospital as a Senior Resident Medical Officer, and in the Department of Medicine at Groote Schuur as a registrar. Owen Wangensteen at the University of Minnesota in the United States had been impressed by the work of Alan Thal, a young South African doctor working in Minnesota. Wangensteen asked the Groote Schuur Head of Medicine John Brock if he might recommend any similarly talented South Africans, and Brock recommended Barnard. In December 1955, Barnard travelled to Minneapolis, Minnesota to begin a two-year scholarship under Chief of Surgery Wangensteen, who assigned Barnard more work on the intestines, which Barnard accepted even though he wanted to move onto something new. Simply by luck, whenever Barnard needed a break from this work, he could wander across the hall and talk with Vince Gott who ran the lab for open-heart surgery pioneer Walt Lillehei. Gott had begun to develop a technique of running blood backwards through the veins of the heart so Lillehei could more easily operate on the aortic valve (McRae writes, "It was the type of inspired thinking that entranced Barnard"). In March 1956, Gott asked Barnard to help him run the heart-lung machine for an operation. Shortly thereafter, Wangensteen agreed to let Barnard switch to Lillehei's service. It was during this time that Barnard became acquainted with fellow future heart transplantation surgeon Norman Shumway. Barnard also became friendly with Gil Campbell, who had demonstrated that a dog's lung could be used to oxygenate blood during open-heart surgery. (The year before Barnard arrived, Lillehei and Campbell had used this procedure for twenty minutes during surgery on a 13-year-old boy with ventricular septal defect, and the boy had made a full recovery.) Barnard and Campbell met regularly for early breakfast. In 1958, Barnard received a Master of Science in Surgery for a thesis titled "The aortic valve – problems in the fabrication and testing of a prosthetic valve". He was promoted to full-time lecturer and Director of Surgical Research at the University of Cape Town. In 1960, he flew to Moscow in order to meet Vladimir Demikhov, a top expert on organ transplants (later he credited Demikhov's accomplishment saying that "if there is a father of heart and lung transplantation then Demikhov certainly deserves this title.") In 1961 he was appointed Head of the Division of Cardiothoracic Surgery at the teaching hospitals of the University of Cape Town. He rose to associate professor in the Department of Surgery at the University of Cape Town in 1962. Barnard's younger brother Marius, who also studied medicine, eventually became Barnard's right-hand man at the department of Cardiac Surgery. Among the recognition he received over the years, he was named Professor Emeritus in 1984. Historical context Following the first-ever successful kidney transplant in 1953, in the United States, Barnard performed South Africa's second kidney transplant in October 1967, the first having been done in Johannesburg the previous year. On 23 January 1964, James Hardy at the University of Mississippi Medical Center in Jackson, Mississippi, performed the world's first heart transplant and world's first cardiac xenotransplant by transplanting the heart of a chimpanzee into a desperately ill and dying man. This heart did beat in the patient's chest for approximately 60 to 90 minutes. The patient, Boyd Rush, died without regaining consciousness. Barnard had experimentally transplanted forty-eight hearts into dogs, which was about a fifth the number that Adrian Kantrowitz had performed at Maimonides Medical Center in New York and about a sixth the number Norman Shumway had performed at Stanford University in California. Barnard had no dogs which had survived longer than ten days, unlike Kantrowitz and Shumway who had had dogs survive for more than a year. With the availability of new breakthroughs introduced by several pioneers, also including Richard Lower at the Medical College of Virginia, several surgical teams were in a position to prepare for a human heart transplant. Barnard had a patient willing to undergo the procedure, but as with other surgeons, he needed a suitable donor. of surgeons, and assisted with Barnard's organ transplant program. Barnard said, "Hamilton Naki had better technical skills than I did. He was a better craftsman than me, especially when it came to stitching, and had very good hands in the theatre". A popular myth, propagated principally by a widely discredited documentary film called Hidden Heart and an erroneous newspaper article, First human-to-human heart transplant Barnard performed the world's first human-to-human heart transplant operation in the early morning hours of Sunday 3 December 1967. Louis Washkansky, a 54-year-old grocer who was suffering from diabetes and incurable heart disease, was the patient. Barnard was assisted by his brother Marius Barnard, as well as a team of thirty staff members. The operation lasted approximately five hours. Barnard stated to Washkansky and his wife Ann Washkansky that the transplant had an 80% chance of success. This has been criticised by the ethicists Peter Singer and Helga Kuhse as making claims for chances of success to the patient and family which were "unfounded" and "misleading". Barnard later wrote, "For a dying man it is not a difficult decision because he knows he is at the end. If a lion chases you to the bank of a river filled with crocodiles, you will leap into the water, convinced you have a chance to swim to the other side." The donor heart came from a young woman, Denise Darvall, who had been rendered brain dead in an accident on 2 December 1967, while crossing a street in Cape Town. Coert Venter and Bertie Bosman requested permission from Darvall's father for Denise's heart to be used in the transplant attempt. The afternoon before his first transplant, Barnard dozed at his home while listening to music. When he awoke, he decided to modify Shumway and Lower's technique. Instead of cutting straight across the back of the atrial chambers of the donor heart, he would avoid damage to the septum and instead cut two small holes for the venae cavae and pulmonary veins. Prior to the transplant, rather than wait for Darvall's heart to stop beating, at his brother Marius Barnard's urging, Christiaan had injected potassium into her heart to paralyse it and render her technically dead by the whole-body standard.Additional heart transplantsBarnard and his patient received worldwide publicity. A 2017 BBC retrospective article described the occasion as one where "Journalists and film crews flooded into Cape Town's Groote Schuur Hospital, soon making Barnard and Washkansky household names." Barnard himself was described as "charismatic" and "photogenic" while initial reports labeled the operation as "successful" despite the death of Washkansky 18 days later. Worldwide, approximately 100 transplants were performed by various doctors during 1968. However, only a third of these patients lived longer than three months. Many medical centers stopped performing transplants. In fact, a US National Institutes of Health publication states, "Within several years, only Shumway's team at Stanford was attempting transplants." Blaiberg's heart was donated by Clive Haupt, a 24-year-old black man who suffered a stroke, inciting controversy (especially in the African-American press) during the time of South African apartheid. Dirk van Zyl, who received a new heart in 1971, was the longest-lived recipient, surviving over 23 years. Between December 1967 and November 1974 at Groote Schuur Hospital in Cape Town, South Africa, ten heart transplants were performed, as well as a heart and lung transplant in 1971. Of these ten patients, four lived longer than 18 months, with two of these four becoming long-term survivors. One patient, Dorothy Fischer, lived for over thirteen years and another for over twenty-four years. Full recovery of donor heart function often takes place over hours or days, during which time considerable damage can occur. Other deaths to patients can occur from preexisting conditions. For example, in pulmonary hypertension the patient's right ventricle has often adapted to the higher pressure over time and, although diseased and hypertrophied, is often capable of maintaining circulation to the lungs. Barnard designed the idea of the heterotopic (or "piggy back" transplant) in which the patient's diseased heart is left in place while the donor heart is added, essentially forming a "double heart". Barnard performed the first such heterotopic heart transplant in 1974. From November 1974 through December 1983, 49 consecutive heterotopic heart transplants on 43 patients were performed at Groote Schuur. The survival rate for patients at one year was over 60%, as compared to less than 40% with standard transplants, and the survival rate at five years was over 36% as compared to less than 20% with standard transplants. Public life Barnard was an outspoken opponent of South Africa's laws of apartheid, and was not afraid to criticise his nation's government, although he had to temper his remarks to some extent to travel abroad. Rather than leaving his homeland, he used his fame to campaign for a change in the law. Christiaan's brother, Marius Barnard, went into politics, and was elected to the legislature from the Progressive Federal Party. Barnard later stated that the reason he never won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was probably because he was a "white South African". Shortly before his visit to Kenya in 1978, the following was written about his views regarding race relations in South Africa; "While he believes in the participation of Africans in the political process of South Africa, he is opposed to a one-man-one-vote system in South Africa". In answering a hypothetical question on how he would solve the race problem were he a "benevolent dictator in South Africa", Barnard stated the following in a long interview at the Weekly Review: * While "I would abolish Social discrimination", political discrimination would continue. International fame took a toll on his family, and in 1969, Barnard and his wife divorced. In 1970, he married heiress Barbara Zoellner when she was 19, the same age as his son, and they had two children: Frederick (born 1972) and Christiaan Jr. (born 1974). He divorced Zoellner in 1982.<!-- Czech translation of The Second Life --> that occurred in January 1968. During that visit to Rome he received an audience from Pope Paul VI.<!-- article via Google news with image of Barnard and Lollobrigida --> In October 2016, US Congresswoman Ann McLane Kuster stated that Barnard sexually assaulted her when she was 23 years old. According to Kuster, Barnard attempted to grope her under her skirt while she was seated at a business luncheon with US Representative Pete McCloskey, for whom she worked at the time.RetirementBarnard retired as Head of the Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery in Cape Town in 1983 after developing rheumatoid arthritis in his hands which ended his surgical career. He had struggled with arthritis since 1956, when it was diagnosed during his postgraduate work in the United States. He had by this time become very interested in anti-aging research, and his reputation suffered in 1986 when he promoted Glycel, an expensive "anti-aging" skin cream, whose approval was withdrawn by the United States Food and Drug Administration soon thereafter. He also spent time as a research advisor to the Clinique la Prairie, in Switzerland, where the controversial "rejuvenation therapy" was practised. Barnard divided the remainder of his years between Austria, where he established the Christiaan Barnard Foundation, dedicated to helping underprivileged children throughout the world, and his game farm in Beaufort West, South Africa. In his later years, he had Basal-cell carcinoma (skin cancer) on his face, for which he was treated in Parow, South Africa.DeathChristiaan Barnard died on 2 September 2001, while on holiday in Paphos, Cyprus. Early reports stated that he had died of a heart attack, but an autopsy showed his death was caused by a severe asthma attack. Books Barnard wrote two autobiographies. His first book, One Life, was published in 1969 () and sold copies worldwide. Some of the proceeds were used to set up the Chris Barnard Fund for research into heart disease and heart transplants in Cape Town. His second autobiography, The Second Life, was published in 1993, eight years before his death (). Apart from his autobiographies, Barnard wrote books including: The Donor Your Healthy Heart In the Night Season The Best Medicine Arthritis Handbook: How to Live With Arthritis ''Good Life Good Death: A Doctor's Case for Euthanasia and Suicide South Africa: Sharp Dissection 50 Ways to a Healthy Heart Body Machine'' See also René Favaloro * Bartley P. Griffith * Pierre Grondin * Hamilton Naki * Geoffrey Tovey References Further reading * * External links * [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1121917/ Christiaan Barnard: his first transplants and their impact on concepts of death] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20111001054057/http://www.heart-transplant.co.uk/barnard.html To Transplant and Beyond : First Human Heart Transplant] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20061217194135/http://www.ctsnet.org/doc/6272 In Memoriam : Christiaan Neethling Barnard] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120206092146/http://www.info.gov.za/speeches/2007/07113014151003.htm 40th anniversary of first human heart transplant] * [http://www.heartofcapetown.co.za Official Heart Transplant Museum – Heart Of Cape Town] Category:1922 births Category:2001 deaths Category:20th-century South African physicians Category:20th-century surgeons Category:Academic staff of the University of Cape Town Category:Afrikaner people Category:Deaths from asthma Category:Deaths from pneumonia in Cyprus Category:Founding members of the World Cultural Council Category:People from Beaufort West Category:South African cardiac surgeons Category:South African expatriates in the United States Category:South African transplant surgeons Category:University of Cape Town alumni Category:University of Minnesota alumni	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_Barnard	2025-04-05T18:28:02.029694
7016	Concubinage	Concubinage is an interpersonal and sexual relationship between two people in which the couple does not want to, or cannot, enter into a full marriage. Concubinage and marriage are often regarded as similar, but mutually exclusive. During the early stages of European colonialism, administrators often encouraged European men to practice concubinage to discourage them from paying prostitutes for sex (which could spread venereal disease) and from homosexuality. Colonial administrators also believed that having an intimate relationship with a native woman would enhance white men's understanding of native culture and would provide them with essential domestic labor. The latter was critical to the colonial project, as it meant white men did not require wives from the metropole, hence did not require a family wage. Colonial administrators eventually discouraged the practice when these liaisions resulted in offspring who threatened colonial rule by producing a mixed race class that might contest white hegemony. This political threat eventually prompted colonial administrators to encourage white women to travel to the colonies, where they contributed to the colonial project, benefitting from their racial privilege, while at the same time contributing to the cult of domesticity, the illusion of separate public and private spheres, and their own oppression via white men. In China, until the 20th century, concubinage was a formal and institutionalized practice that upheld concubines' rights and obligations. A concubine could be freeborn or of slave origin, and her experience could vary tremendously according to her master's whim. During the Mongol conquests, both foreign royals Concubinage was also common in Meiji Japan as a status symbol. The practice declined as a result of the abolition of slavery. In ancient Rome, the practice of concubinatus was a monogamous relationship that was an alternative to marriage, usually because of the woman's lesser social status. Widowed or divorced men often took a concubina, the Latin term from which the English "concubine" is derived, rather than remarrying, so as to avoid complications of inheritance. After the Christianization of the Roman Empire, Christian emperors improved the status of the concubine by granting concubines and their children the sorts of property and inheritance rights usually reserved for wives. In European colonies and American slave plantations, single and married men entered into long-term sexual relationships with local women. In the Dutch East Indies, concubinage created mixed-race Indian-European communities. In the Judeo-Christian-Islamic world, the term concubine has almost exclusively been applied to women, although a cohabiting male may also be called a concubine. In the 21st century, concubinage is used in some Western countries as a gender-neutral legal term to refer to cohabitation (including cohabitation between same-sex partners).Etymology and usage The English terms "concubine" and "concubinage" appeared in the 14th century, deriving from Latin terms in Roman society and law. The term concubine (), meaning "a paramour, a woman who cohabits with a man without being married to him", comes from the Latin (f.) and (m.), terms that in Roman law meant "one who lives unmarried with a married man or woman". The Latin terms are derived from the verb from "to lie with, to lie together, to cohabit," an assimilation of "com", a prefix meaning "with, together" and "", meaning "to lie down". Concubine is a term used widely in historical and academic literature, and which varies considerably depending on the context. In the twenty-first century, it typically refers explicitly to extramarital affection, "either to a mistress or to a sex slave", without the same emphasis on the cohabiting aspect of the original meaning. Concubinage emerged as an English term in the late 14th century to mean the "state of being a concubine; act or practice of cohabiting in intimacy without legal marriage", and was derived from Latin by means of Old French, The US legal system also used to use the term in reference to cohabitation, but the term never evolved further and is now considered outdated.CharacteristicsForms of concubinage have existed in all cultures, though the prevalence of the practice and the rights and expectations of the persons involved have varied considerably, as have the rights of the offspring born from such relationships, a concubine's legal and social status, their role within a household and society's perceptions of the institution. A relationship of concubinage could take place voluntarily, with the parties involved agreeing not to enter into marriage, or involuntarily (i.e. through slavery). In slave-owning societies, most concubines were slaves, also called "slave-concubines". and has been practiced in patriarchal cultures throughout history. Whatever the status and rights of the persons involved, they were typically inferior to those of a legitimate spouse, often with the rights of inheritance being limited or excluded. Concubinage and marriage are often regarded as similar but mutually exclusive. In the past, a couple may not have been able to marry because of differences in social class, ethnicity or religion, or a man might want to avoid the legal and financial complications of marriage. Practical impediments or social disincentives for a couple to marry could include differences in social rank status, an existing marriage and laws against bigamy, religious or professional prohibitions, or a lack of recognition by the appropriate authorities. The concubine in a concubinage tended to have a lower social status than the married party or home owner, and this was often the reason why concubinage was preferred to marriage. A concubine could be an "alien" in a society that did not recognize marriages between foreigners and citizens. Alternatively, they might be a slave, or person from a poor family interested in a union with a man from the nobility. In other cases, some social groups were forbidden to marry, such as Roman soldiers, and concubinage served as a viable alternative to marriage. In polygynous situations, the number of concubines there were permitted within an individual concubinage arrangement has varied greatly. In Roman law, where monogamy was expected, the relationship was identical (and alternative) to marriage except for the lack of marital affection from both or one of the parties, which conferred rights related to property, inheritance and social rank. By contrast, in parts of Asia and the Middle East, powerful men kept as many concubines as they could financially support. Some royal households had thousands of concubines. In such cases concubinage served as a status symbol and for the production of sons. In societies that accepted polygyny, there were advantages to having a concubine over a mistress, as children from a concubine were legitimate, while children from a mistress would be considered "bastards". Categorization Scholars have made attempts to categorize patterns of concubinage practiced in the world. The International Encyclopedia of Anthropology gives four distinct forms of concubinage: Royal concubinage, where politics was connected to reproduction. Concubines became consorts to the ruler, fostered diplomatic relations, and perpetuated the royal bloodline. Imperial concubines could be selected from the general population or prisoners of war. Examples of this included imperial China, the Ottoman empire and the Sultanate of Kano. Elite concubinage, which offered men the chance to increase social status and satisfy desires. Most such men already had wives. In East Asia this practice was justified by Confucianism. In the Muslim world, this concubinage resembled slavery. Concubinage could be a form of common-law relationship that allowed a couple who did not wish to marry to live together. This was prevalent in medieval Europe and colonial Asia. In Europe, some families discouraged younger sons from marriage to prevent division of family wealth among many heirs. Concubinage could also function as a form of sexual enslavement of women in a patriarchal system. In such cases the children of the concubine could become permanently inferior to the children of the wife. Examples include Mughal India and Joseon Korea. Junius P. Rodriguez gives three cultural patterns of concubinage: Asian, Islamic and European. Antiquity Mesopotamia In Mesopotamia, it was customary for a sterile wife to give her husband a slave as a concubine to bear children. The status of such concubines was ambiguous; they normally could not be sold but they remained the slave of the wife. However, in the late Babylonian period, there are reports that concubines could be sold. ;Middle Assyrian Period (14th–11th centuries BC) In the Middle Assyrian Period, the main wife (assatu) wore a veil in the street, as could a concubine (esirtu) if she were accompanying the main wife, or if she were married. "If a man veils his concubine in public, by declaring 'she is my wife,' this woman shall be his wife." Concubinage was a common occupation for women in ancient Egypt, especially for talented women. A request for forty concubines by Amenhotep III (c. 1386–1353 BC) to a man named Milkilu, Prince of Gezer states:<blockquote>"Behold, I have sent you Hanya, the commissioner of the archers, with merchandise in order to have beautiful concubines, i.e. weavers. Silver, gold, garments, all sort of precious stones, chairs of ebony, as well as all good things, worth 160 deben. In total: forty concubines—the price of every concubine is forty of silver. Therefore, send very beautiful concubines without blemish." – (Lewis, 146)</blockquote>Concubines would be kept in the pharaoh's harem. Amenhotep III kept his concubines in his palace at Malkata, which was one of the most opulent in the history of Egypt. The king was considered to be deserving of many women as long as he cared for his Great Royal Wife as well. Children produced by slaves remained slaves and those by non-slave concubines varied over time; sometimes they had the possibility of citizenship. The law prescribed that a man could kill another man caught attempting a relationship with his concubine. By the mid fourth century, concubines could inherit property, but, like wives, they were treated as sexual property. While references to the sexual exploitation of maidservants appear in literature, it was considered disgraceful for a man to keep such women under the same roof as his wife. Apollodorus of Acharnae said that hetaera were concubines when they had a permanent relationship with a single man, but nonetheless used the two terms interchangeably. Ancient Rome IX 2265)]] Concubinatus was a monogamous union recognized socially and to some extent legally as an alternative to marriage in the Roman Empire. Concubinage was practiced most often in couples when one partner, almost always the man, belonged to a higher social rank, especially the senatorial order, who were penalized for marrying below their class. The female partner was a concubina; the term concubinus is used of men mainly in a same-sex union or to deprecate a relationship in which the woman was dominant. The use of the term concubina in epitaphs for family memorials indicates that the role was socially acceptable. A man was not allowed to have both a concubina and a wife (uxor) at the same time, but a single tombstone might list multiple wives or concubinae serially. By contrast, the pejorative paelex referred to a concubine who was a sexual rival to a wife—in early Rome, most often a war captive and hence unwillingly—and by late antiquity was loosely equivalent to "prostitute". However, in Latin literature concubinae are often disparaged as slaves kept as sexual luxuries in the literal sense of "bedmate". The distinction is that the use of an enslaved woman was not concubinatus in the legal sense, which might involve a signed document, though even an informal concubine had some legal protections that placed her among the more privileged slaves of the household. Concubines occupied an entire chapter, now fragmentary, in the 6th-century compilation of Roman law known as the Digest, but concubinatus was never a fully realized legal institution. It evolved in ad hoc response to Augustan moral legislation that criminalized some forms of adultery and other consensual sexual behaviors among freeborn people (ingenui) outside marriage. Even Roman legal experts had trouble parsing the various forms of marriage, the status of a concubina, and whether an extramarital sexual relationship was adultery or permissible pleasure-seeking with a prostitute, professional entertainer, or slave. Roman emperors not infrequently took a concubina, often a freedwoman, rather than remarrying after the death of their wife to avoid the legal complications pertaining to succession and inheritance. Caenis, the freedwoman and secretary of Antonia Minor, was Vespasian's wife "in all but name", according to Suetonius, until her death in AD 74. Roman manumission law also allowed a slave-owner to free the slave and enter into concubinatus or a regular marriage. Epitaphs indicate that both partners in concubinatus might also be freedpersons, for reasons that are not entirely clear. A slave lacked the legal personhood to marry under Roman law or to contract concubinatus, but the heterosexual union of two slaves, or a freedperson and a slave, might be recognized as an intention to marry when both partners gained the legal status that permitted them to do so. In this quasi-marital union, called contubernium, children seem often to have been desired, in contrast to concubinatus, in which children more often were viewed as complications and there was no intention to marry. Asia Concubinage was highly popular before the early 20th century all over East Asia. The main functions of concubinage for men was for pleasure and producing additional heirs, whereas for women the relationship could provide financial security. Children of concubines had lower rights in account to inheritance, which was regulated by the Dishu system. In China and the Muslim world, the concubine of a king could achieve power, especially if her son also became a monarch. China (), poet and concubine to Emperor Cheng of the Han dynasty.]] , 1864]] In China, successful men often had concubines until the practice was outlawed when the Chinese Communist Party came to power in 1949. The standard Chinese term translated as "concubine" was qiè , a term that has been used since ancient times. Concubinage resembled marriage in that concubines were recognized sexual partners of a man and were expected to bear children for him. Unofficial concubines () were of lower status, and their children were considered illegitimate. The English term concubine is also used for what the Chinese refer to as pínfēi (), or "consorts of emperors", an official position often carrying a very high rank. In premodern China it was illegal and socially disreputable for a man to have more than one wife at a time, but it was acceptable to have concubines. From the earliest times wealthy men purchased concubines and added them to their household in addition to their wife. In the earliest records a man could have as many concubines as he could afford to purchase. From the Eastern Han period (AD 25–220) onward, the number of concubines a man could have was limited by law. The higher rank and the more noble identity a man possessed, the more concubines he was permitted to have. A concubine's treatment and situation was variable and was influenced by the social status of the male to whom she was attached, as well as the attitude of his wife. In the Book of Rites chapter on "The Pattern of the Family" () it says, "If there were betrothal rites, she became a wife; and if she went without these, a concubine." Wives brought a dowry to a relationship, but concubines did not. A concubinage relationship could be entered into without the ceremonies used in marriages, and neither remarriage nor a return to her natal home in widowhood were allowed to a concubine. There are early records of concubines allegedly being buried alive with their masters to "keep them company in the afterlife". The position of the concubine was generally inferior to that of the wife. Although a concubine could produce heirs, her children would be inferior in social status to a wife's children, although they were of higher status than illegitimate children. The child of a concubine had to show filial duty to two women, their biological mother and their legal mother—the wife of their father. After the death of a concubine, her sons would make an offering to her, but these offerings were not continued by the concubine's grandsons, who only made offerings to their grandfather's wife. Until the Song dynasty (960–1276), it was considered a serious breach of social ethics to promote a concubine to a wife. In Ming China (1368–1644) there was an official system to select concubines for the emperor. The age of the candidates ranged mainly from 14 to 16. Virtues, behavior, character, appearance and body condition were the selection criteria. Despite the limitations imposed on Chinese concubines, there are several examples in history and literature of concubines who achieved great power and influence. Lady Yehenara, otherwise known as Empress Dowager Cixi, was one of the most successful concubines in Chinese history. Cixi first entered the court as a concubine to Xianfeng Emperor and gave birth to his only surviving son, who later became Tongzhi Emperor. She eventually became the de facto ruler of Qing China for 47 years after her husband's death. An examination of concubinage features in one of the Four Great Classical Novels, Dream of the Red Chamber (believed to be a semi-autobiographical account of author Cao Xueqin's family life). Three generations of the Jia family are supported by one notable concubine of the emperor, Jia Yuanchun, the full elder sister of the male protagonist Jia Baoyu. In contrast, their younger half-siblings by concubine Zhao, Jia Tanchun and Jia Huan, develop distorted personalities because they are the children of a concubine. Emperors' concubines and harems are emphasized in 21st-century romantic novels written for female readers and set in ancient times. As a plot element, the children of concubines are depicted with a status much inferior to that in actual history. The zhai dou (，residential intrigue) and gong dou (，harem intrigue) genres show concubines and wives, as well as their children, scheming secretly to gain power. Empresses in the Palace, a gong dou type novel and TV drama, has had great success in 21st-century China. Hong Kong officially abolished the Great Qing Legal Code in 1971, thereby making concubinage illegal. Casino magnate Stanley Ho of Macau took his "second wife" as his official concubine in 1957, while his "third and fourth wives" retain no official status. Mongols Polygyny and concubinage were very common in Mongol society, especially for powerful Mongol men. Genghis Khan, Ögedei Khan, Jochi, Tolui, and Kublai Khan (among others) all had many wives and concubines. Genghis Khan frequently acquired wives and concubines from empires and societies that he had conquered, these women were often princesses or queens that were taken captive or gifted to him. Genghis Khan's most famous concubine was Möge Khatun, who, according to the Persian historian Ata-Malik Juvayni, was "given to Chinggis Khan by a chief of the Bakrin tribe, and he loved her very much." After Genghis Khan died, Möge Khatun became a wife of Ögedei Khan. Ögedei also favored her as a wife, and she frequently accompanied him on his hunting expeditions. Japan Toyotomi Hideyoshi with his wives and concubines]] Before monogamy was legally imposed in the Meiji period, concubinage was common among the nobility. Its purpose was to ensure male heirs. For example, the son of an Imperial concubine often had a chance of becoming emperor. Yanagihara Naruko, a high-ranking concubine of Emperor Meiji, gave birth to Emperor Taishō, who was later legally adopted by Empress Haruko, Emperor Meiji's formal wife. Even among merchant families, concubinage was occasionally used to ensure heirs. Asako Hirooka, an entrepreneur who was the daughter of a concubine, worked hard to help her husband's family survive after the Meiji Restoration. She lost her fertility giving birth to her only daughter, Kameko; so her husband—with whom she got along well—took Asako's maid-servant as a concubine and fathered three daughters and a son with her. Kameko, as the child of the formal wife, married a noble man and matrilineally carried on the family name. A samurai could take concubines but their backgrounds were checked by higher-ranked samurai. In many cases, taking a concubine was akin to a marriage. Kidnapping a concubine, although common in fiction, would have been shameful, if not criminal. If the concubine was a commoner, a messenger was sent with betrothal money or a note for exemption of tax to ask for her parents' acceptance. Even though the woman would not be a legal wife, a situation normally considered a demotion, many wealthy merchants believed that being the concubine of a samurai was superior to being the legal wife of a commoner. When a merchant's daughter married a samurai, her family's money erased the samurai's debts, and the samurai's social status improved the standing of the merchant family. If a samurai's commoner concubine gave birth to a son, the son could inherit his father's social status. Concubines sometimes wielded significant influence. Nene, wife of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, was known to overrule her husband's decisions at times and Yodo-dono, his concubine, became the de facto master of Osaka castle and the Toyotomi clan after Hideyoshi's death. Korea Joseon monarchs had a harem which contained concubines of different ranks. Empress Myeongseong managed to have sons, preventing sons of concubines from getting power. Children of concubines often had lower value in account of marriage. A daughter of concubine could not marry a wife-born son of the same class. For example, Jang Nok-su was a concubine-born daughter of a mayor, who was initially married to a slave-servant, and later became a high-ranking concubine of Yeonsangun. The Joseon dynasty established in 1392 debated whether the children of a free parent and a slave parent should be considered free or slave. The child of a scholar-official father and a slave-concubine mother was always free, although the child could not occupy government positions. India (reigned 1748–1757) with his favourite concubine Bani Thani.]] In Hindu society, concubinage was practiced with women with whom marriage was undesirable, such as a woman from an upper-caste or a Brahmin woman. Children born of concubinage followed the caste categorization of the mother. Before the Independence of India, in Gujarat, the Bhil women were concubines for the Koli landlords. In medieval Rajasthan, the ruling Rajput family often had certain women called paswan, khawaas, pardayat. These women were kept by the ruler if their beauty had impressed him, but without formal marriage. Concubinage was practiced in elite Rajput households between 16th and 20th centuries. Female slave-servants or slave-performers could be elevated to the rank of concubine (called khavas, pavas) if a ruler found them attractive. The entry into concubinage was marked by a ritual; however, this ritual differentiated from rituals marking marriage. Rajputs often took concubines from Jat, Gujjar, Muslim but did not take concubines from the untouchable castes and refrained from taking Charans, Brahmins, and other Rajputs. There are instances of wives eloping with their Rajput lovers and becoming their concubines.Europe Vikings Polygyny occurred among Vikings, and rich and powerful Viking men could have more than one wife as well as concubines. Viking men could capture women and make them into their wives or concubines. Concubinage for Vikings was connected to slavery; the Vikings took both free women and slaves as concubines. There are theories that polygynous relationships in Viking society could have led to a shortage of eligible women for the average male; polygyny increases male–male competition in society because it creates a pool of unmarried men willing to engage in risky status-elevating and sex-seeking behaviors. Thus, the average Viking man could have been forced to perform riskier actions to gain wealth and power to be able to find suitable women. The theory and concept was expressed in the 11th century by historian Dudo of Saint-Quentin in his semi imaginary History of The Normans. The Annals of Ulster depicts raptio and states that in 821 the Vikings plundered an Irish village and "carried off a great number of women into captivity". People taken captive during the Viking raids in Western Europe, such as Ireland, could be sold to Moorish Spain via the Dublin slave trade or transported to Hedeby or Brännö and from there via the Volga trade route to present day Russia, where slaves and furs were sold to Muslim merchants in exchange for Arab silver dirham and silk, which have been found in Birka, Wollin and Dublin; initially this trade route between Europe and the Abbasid Caliphate passed via the Khazar Kaghanate, but from the early 10th-century onward it went via Volga Bulgaria and from there by caravan to Khwarazm, to the Samanid slave market in Central Asia and finally via Iran to the Abbasid Caliphate in the Middle East where there was a great market for slave girls as concubines. Early Christianity and Feudalism The Christian morals developed by Patristic writers largely promoted marriage as the only form of union between men and women. Both Saint Augustine and Saint Jerome strongly condemned the institution of concubinage. Emperor Justinian in his great sixth-century code, the Corpus Iurus Civilis, granted to concubines and their children the sorts of property and inheritance rights usually reserved for wives. He brought the institution of concubinatus closer to marriage, but he also repeated the Christian injunction that concubinage must be permanent and monogamous. The two views, Christian condemnation and secular continuity with the Roman legal system, continued to be in conflict throughout the entire Middle Ages, until in the 14th and 15th centuries the Church outlawed concubinage in the territories under its control.Middle East was the "favorite concubine" of Suleiman the Magnificent and later his wife. Suleiman became monogamous with her, breaking Ottoman custom. Islam introduced legal restrictions and discipline to the concubinage and encouraged manumission. Islam furthermore endorsed educating (instruction in Islam), freeing or marrying female slaves if they embrace Islam abandoning polytheism or infidelity. Acknowledged children of concubines are generally declared as legitimate with or without wedlock, and the mother of a free child was considered free upon the death of her male enslaver. There is evidence that concubines had a higher rank than female slaves. Abu Hanifa and others argued for modesty-like practices for the concubine, recommending that the concubine be established in the home and their chastity be protected and not to misuse them for sale or sharing with friends or kins. Some scholars recommended holding a wedding banquet (walima) to celebrate the concubinage relationship; however, this is not required in teachings of Islam and is rather the self-preferred opinions of certain non-liberal Islamic scholars. Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi explains that "two categories of women have been excluded from the general command of guarding the private parts: (a) wives, (b) women who are legally in one's possession". Some contend that concubinage was a pre-Islamic custom that was allowed to be practiced under Islam, with Jews and non-Muslim people to marry a concubine after teaching her, instructing her well and then giving her freedom. In the traditions of the Abrahamic religions, Abraham had a concubine named Hagar, who was originally a slave of his wife Sarah. The story of Hagar would affect how concubinage was perceived in early Islamic history. Sikainiga writes that one rationale for concubinage in Islam was that "it satisfied the sexual desire of the female slaves and thereby prevented the spread of immorality in the Muslim community." Most Islamic schools of thought restricted concubinage to a relationship where the female slave was required to be monogamous to her master, (though the master's monogamy to her is not required), but according to Sikainga, in reality this was not always practiced and female slaves were targeted by other men of the master's household. or in numerous later Caliphates. It was encouraged to manumit slave women who rejected their initial faith and converted to Islam, or to bring them into formal marriage. The expansion of various Muslim dynasties resulted in acquisitions of concubines, through purchase from the slave trade, gifts from other rulers, and captives of war. To have a large number of concubines became a symbol of status. Almost all Abbasid caliphs were born to concubines. The custom to have concubines was common in all Islamic dynasties until the abolition of slavery in the 20th-century. Similarly, the sultans of the Ottoman empire were often the son of a concubine. As a result, some individual concubines came to exercise a degree of influence over Ottoman politics. Some concubines developed social networks, and accumulated personal wealth, both of which allowed them to rise on social status. The practice declined with the abolition of slavery, starting in the 19th century and finally abolished in the Arabian Peninsula in the 1960s, with slavery in Saudi Arabia being banned in 1962 and slavery in Oman in 1970. Ottoman sultans appeared to have preferred concubinage to marriage, and for a time all royal children were born of concubines. The consorts of Ottoman sultans were often neither Turkish, nor Muslim by birth. Leslie Peirce argues that this was because a concubine would not have the political leverage that would be possessed by a princess or a daughter of the local elite. Ottoman sultans also appeared to have only one son with each concubine; that is once a concubine gave birth to a son, the sultan would no longer have intercourse with her. This limited the power of each son. New World with her quadroon daughter; late 18th century collage painting, New Orleans]] When slavery became institutionalized in Colonial America, white men, whether or not they were married, sometimes took enslaved women as concubines; children of such unions remained slaves. In the various European colonies in the Caribbean, white planters took black and mulatto concubines, owing to the shortage of white women. The children of such unions were sometimes freed from slavery This sort of relationship was condemned by the Catholic Church and the Council of Trent threatened those who engaged in it with excommunication. One reason for taking non-white women as concubines was that free white men outnumbered free white women, although marriage between races was not illegal. United States Relationships with slaves in the United States and the Confederacy were sometimes euphemistically referred to as concubinary. From lifelong to single or serial sexual visitations, these relationships with enslaved people illustrate a radical power imbalance between a human owned as chattel, and the legal owner of same. When personal ownership of slaves was enshrined in the law, an enslaved person had no legal power over their own legal personhood, the legal control to which was held by another entity; therefore, a slave could never give real and legal consent in any aspect of their life. The inability to give any kind of consent when enslaved is in part due to the ability of a slave master to legally coerce acts and declarations including those of affection, attraction, and consent through rewards and punishments. Legally however, the concept of chattel slavery in the United States and Confederate States defined and enforced in the law owning the legal personhood of a slave; meaning that the proxy for legal consent was found with the slave's master, who was the sole source of consent in the law to the bodily integrity and all efforts of that slave except as regulated or limited by law. With slavery being recognized as a crime against humanity in the United States law, as well as in international customary law, the legal basis of slavery is repudiated for all time, as are any rights which owner-rapists had had to exercise any proxy consent, sexual or otherwise for their slaves. Free men in the United States sometimes took female slaves in relationships which they referred to as concubinage, This led to generations of multiracial slaves, some of whom were otherwise considered legally white (one-eighth or less African, equivalent to a great-grandparent) before the American Civil War. In some cases, men had long-term relationships with enslaved women, giving them and their mixed-race children freedom and providing their children with apprenticeships, education and transfer of capital. A relationship between Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings is an example of this. Such arrangements were more prevalent in the American South during the antebellum period. Plaçage In Louisiana and former French territories, a formalized system of concubinage called plaçage developed. European men took enslaved or free women of color as mistresses after making arrangements to give them a dowry, house or other transfer of property, and sometimes, if they were enslaved, offering freedom and education for their children. A third class of free people of color developed, especially in New Orleans. Many became educated, artisans and property owners. French-speaking and practicing Catholicism, these women combined French and African-American culture and created an elite between those of European descent and the slaves. Among the Israelites, men commonly acknowledged their concubines, and such women enjoyed the same rights in the house as legitimate wives. Ancient Judaism The term concubine did not necessarily refer to women after the first wife. A man could have many wives and concubines. Legally, any children born to a concubine were considered to be the children of the wife she was under. The concubine may not have commanded the exact amount of respect as the wife. In the Levitical rules on sexual relations, the Hebrew word that is commonly translated as "wife" is distinct from the Hebrew word that means "concubine". However, on at least one other occasion the term is used to refer to a woman who is not a wife specifically, the handmaiden of Jacob's wife. In the Levitical code, sexual intercourse between a man and a wife of a different man was forbidden and punishable by death for both persons involved. Since it was regarded as the highest blessing to have many children, wives often gave their maids to their husbands if they were barren, as in the case of Rachel and Bilhah. The children of the concubine often had equal rights with those of the wife; Later biblical figures, such as Gideon and Solomon, had concubines in addition to many childbearing wives. For example, the Books of Kings say that Solomon had 700 wives and 300 concubines. of the Benjamites taking women of Shiloh as concubines]] The account of the unnamed Levite in Judges 19–20 shows that the taking of concubines was not the exclusive preserve of kings or patriarchs in Israel during the time of the Judges, and that the rape of a concubine was completely unacceptable to the Israelite nation and led to a civil war. In the story, the Levite appears to be an ordinary member of the tribe, whose concubine was a woman from Bethlehem in Judah. This woman was unfaithful, and eventually abandoned him to return to her paternal household. However, after four months, the Levite, referred to as her husband, decided to travel to her father's house to persuade his concubine to return. She is amenable to returning with him, and the father-in-law is very welcoming. The father-in-law convinces the Levite to remain several additional days, until the party leaves behind schedule in the late evening. The group pass up a nearby non-Israelite town to arrive very late in the city of Gibeah, which is in the land of the Benjaminites. The group sit around the town square, waiting for a local to invite them in for the evening, as was the custom for travelers. A local old man invites them to stay in his home, offering them guest right by washing their feet and offering them food. A band of wicked townsmen attack the house and demand the host send out the Levite man so they can rape him. The host offers to send out his virgin daughter as well as the Levite's concubine for them to rape, to avoid breaking guest right towards the Levite. Eventually, to ensure his own safety and that of his host, the Levite gives the men his concubine, who is raped and abused through the night, until she is left collapsed against the front door at dawn. It is important to note that the Levite man chose to save himself from rape at the expense of his wife. In the morning, the Levite finds her when he tries to leave. When she fails to respond to her husband's order to get up (possibly because she is dead, although the language is unclear) the Levite places her on his donkey and continues home. Once home, he dismembers her body and distributes the 12 parts throughout the nation of Israel. The Israelites gather to learn why they were sent such grisly gifts, and are told by the Levite of the sadistic rape of his concubine. The crime is considered outrageous by the Israelite tribesmen, who then wreak total retribution on the men of Gibeah, as well as the surrounding tribe of Benjamin when they support the Gibeans, killing them without mercy and burning all their towns. The inhabitants of (the town of) Jabesh Gilead are then slaughtered as a punishment for not joining the 11 tribes in their war against the Benjaminites, and their 400 unmarried daughters given in forced marriage to the 600 Benjamite survivors. Finally, the 200 Benjaminite survivors who still have no wives are granted a mass marriage by abduction by the other tribes. Medieval and modern Judaism In Judaism, concubines are referred to by the Hebrew term pilegesh (). The term is a loanword from Ancient Greek , meaning "a mistress staying in house". According to the Babylonian Talmud, One opinion in the Jerusalem Talmud argues that the concubine should also receive a marriage contract, but without a clause specifying a divorce settlement. Other Jewish thinkers, such as Nahmanides, Samuel ben Uri Shraga Phoebus, and Jacob Emden, strongly objected to the idea that concubines should be forbidden. Despite these prohibitions, concubinage remained widespread among Jewish households of the Ottoman empire and resembled the practice among the Muslim households. In the Hebrew of the contemporary State of Israel, pilegesh is often used as the equivalent of the English word "mistress"—i.e., the female partner in extramarital relations—regardless of legal recognition. Attempts have been initiated to popularise pilegesh as a form of premarital, non-marital or extramarital relationship (which, according to the perspective of the enacting person(s), is permitted by Jewish law). Concubinage and slavery In some context, the institution of concubinage diverged from a free quasi-marital cohabitation to the extent that it was forbidden to a free woman to be involved in a concubinage and the institution was reserved only to slaves. This type of concubinage was practiced in patriarchal cultures throughout history. Many societies automatically freed the concubine after she had a child. Among societies that did not legally require the manumission of concubines, it was usually done anyway. See also * Courtesan * Polygamy * Polygamy in Christianity * Polygyny * Cicisbeo * Contubernium * Common-law marriage References Notes Citations Sources * * * * * * * * * * * }} }} * * * * }} * * * * }} }} * * * * Further reading * * Category:Heterosexuality Category:Polygyny Category:Female beauty Category:Feminism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concubinage	2025-04-05T18:28:02.223486
7017	Central Plaza (Hong Kong)	\|image = Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre 200906(cropped).jpg \|image_size = 200px \|caption = Central Plaza in June 2009 \|location = 18 Harbour Road<br/>Wan Chai, Hong Kong \|coordinates \|status = Complete \|start_date = \|completion_date = \|building_type = Commercial offices \|architectural_style = Postmodern \|architectural \|roof \|top_floor \|floor_count = 78 <br/>3 below ground \|elevator_count = 39 \|cost \|floor_area \|architect = Dennis Lau & Ng Chun Man Architects & Engineers \|structural_engineer = Arup \|main_contractor = Manloze Ltd \|developer = Ryoden Development<br>Sino Land<br>Sun Hung Kai Properties \|owner \|management \|references }} \|j=Zung1waan4 Gwong2coeng4 \|p=Zhōnghuán Guǎngchǎng \|w=Chung<sup>1</sup>-huan<sup>2</sup> Kuang<sup>3</sup>-chʻang<sup>3</sup> }} Central Plaza is a 78-storey, skyscraper at 18 Harbour Road, in Wan Chai on Hong Kong Island in Hong Kong. Completed in August 1992, it is the third tallest tower in the city after 2 International Finance Centre (2 IFC) in Central and the International Commerce Centre in West Kowloon. It was the tallest building in Asia from 1992 to 1996, until the Shun Hing Square was built in Shenzhen, a neighbouring city. Central Plaza surpassed the Bank of China Tower as the tallest building in Hong Kong until the completion of 2 IFC. Central Plaza was also the tallest reinforced concrete building in the world, until it was surpassed by CITIC Plaza, Guangzhou in 1996. The building uses a triangular floor plan. On the top of the tower is a four-bar neon clock that indicates the time by displaying different colours for 15-minute periods, blinking at the change of the quarter. An anemometer is installed on the tip of the building's mast, at above sea level. The mast has a height of . Central Plaza also houses the world's highest church inside a skyscraper, Sky City Church.HistoryThe land upon which Central Plaza sits was reclaimed from Victoria Harbour in the 1970s. The site was auctioned off by the Hong Kong Government at City Hall Theatre on 25 January 1989. It was sold for a record HK$3.35 billion to a joint venture called "Cheer City Properties", owned 50 per cent by Sun Hung Kai Properties and 50 per cent by fellow real estate conglomerate Sino Land and their major shareholder the Ng Teng Fong family. A third developer, Ryoden Development, joined the consortium afterwards. Ryoden Development disposed off its 5% interest for 190,790 square feet of office space in New Kowloon Plaza from Sun Hung Kai in 1995. The first major tenant to sign a lease was the Provisional Airport Authority, which on 2 August 1991 agreed to lease the 24th to 26th floors. A topping-out ceremony, presided over by Sir David Ford, was held on 9 April 1992. Design Central Plaza is made up of two principal components: a free standing office tower and a podium block attached to it. The tower is made up of three sections: a tower base forming the main entrance and public circulation spaces; a tower body containing 57 office floors, a sky lobby and five mechanical plant floors; and the tower top consisting of six mechanical plant floors and a tower mast. The ground level public area along with the public sitting out area form an landscaped garden with a fountain, trees and artificial stone paving. No commercial element is included in the podium. The first level is a public thoroughfare for three pedestrian bridges linking the Mass Transit Railway, the Convention and Exhibition Centre and the China Resources Building. By converting these space for public use, the building gained 20% more plot ratio. The shape of the tower is not truly triangular with its three corners truncated to provide better internal office spaces. Central Plaza was designed by the Hong Kong architectural firm Ng Chun Man and Associates (since renamed Dennis Lau & Ng Chun Man Architects, or DLN) and engineered by Arup. The main contractor was a joint venture, comprising the contracting firms Sanfield (a subsidiary of Sun Hung Kai) and Tat Lee, called Manloze Ltd. the actual task was performed on the 46th floor.See also * List of tallest buildings in Hong Kong * List of buildings and structures in Hong Kong * List of tallest freestanding structures References External links * * [https://archive.today/20090601234410/http://courses.arch.hku.hk/IntgBuildTech/cases/centplaz/centplaz.htm Architectural study of the building] * [http://www.skyscraperpage.com/diagrams/?c7 Hong Kong's skyscrapers in comparison] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090304062222/http://www.hku.hk/bse/bbse2001/lift-example03.gif Central Plaza Elevator Layout] Category:Office buildings completed in 1992 Category:Skyscraper office buildings in Hong Kong Category:Sun Hung Kai Properties Category:Wan Chai North Category:Ove Arup buildings and structures Category:Triangular buildings Category:1992 establishments in Hong Kong	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Plaza_(Hong_Kong)	2025-04-05T18:28:02.238599
7018	Caravaggio	\| birth_name = Michelangelo Merisi (or Amerighi) da Caravaggio \| birth_date = 29 September 1571 \| birth_place Milan, Duchy of Milan \| death_date \| death_place = Porto Ercole,<br/>State of the Presidi \| field = Painting \| training = Simone Peterzano \| movement \| works List of paintings by Caravaggio \| patrons = Cardinal Francesco Maria del Monte<br/>Alof de Wignacourt \| awards \| module }} Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio (also Michele Angelo Merigi or Amerighi da Caravaggio; , ; ; 29 September 1571 – 18 July 1610), known mononymously as Caravaggio, was an Italian painter active in Rome for most of his artistic life. During the final four years of his life, he moved between Naples, Malta, and Sicily until his death. His paintings have been characterized by art critics as combining a realistic observation of the human state, both physical and emotional, with a dramatic use of lighting, which had a formative influence on Baroque painting. Caravaggio employed close physical observation with a dramatic use of chiaroscuro that came to be known as tenebrism. He made the technique a dominant stylistic element, transfixing subjects in bright shafts of light and darkening shadows. Caravaggio vividly expressed crucial moments and scenes, often featuring violent struggles, torture, and death. He worked rapidly with live models, preferring to forgo drawings and work directly onto the canvas. His inspiring effect on the new Baroque style that emerged from Mannerism was profound. His influence can be seen directly or indirectly in the work of Peter Paul Rubens, Jusepe de Ribera, Gian Lorenzo Bernini, and Rembrandt. Artists heavily under his influence were called the "Caravaggisti" (or "Caravagesques"), as well as tenebrists or tenebrosi ("shadowists"). Caravaggio trained as a painter in Milan before moving to Rome when he was in his twenties. He developed a considerable name as an artist and as a violent, touchy and provocative man. He killed Ranuccio Tommasoni in a brawl, which led to a death sentence for murder and forced him to flee to Naples. There he again established himself as one of the most prominent Italian painters of his generation. He travelled to Malta and on to Sicily in 1607 and pursued a papal pardon for his sentence. In 1609, he returned to Naples, where he was involved in a violent clash; his face was disfigured, and rumours of his death circulated. Questions about his mental state arose from his erratic and bizarre behavior. He died in 1610 under uncertain circumstances while on his way from Naples to Rome. Reports stated that he died of a fever, but suggestions have been made that he was murdered or that he died of lead poisoning. Caravaggio's innovations inspired Baroque painting, but the latter incorporated the drama of his chiaroscuro without the psychological realism. The style evolved and fashions changed, and Caravaggio fell out of favour. In the 20th century, interest in his work revived, and his importance to the development of Western art was reevaluated. The 20th-century art historian stated: "What begins in the work of Caravaggio is, quite simply, modern painting." Biography Early life (1571–1592) '', , oil on canvas, Pinacoteca Ambrosiana, Milan]] Caravaggio (Michelangelo Merisi or Amerighi) was born in Milan, where his father, Fermo (Fermo Merixio), was a household administrator and architect-decorator to the marquess of Caravaggio, a town to the east of Milan and south of Bergamo. In 1576 the family moved to Caravaggio to escape a plague that ravaged Milan, and Caravaggio's father and grandfather both died there on the same day in 1577. It is assumed that the artist grew up in Caravaggio, but his family kept up connections with the Sforzas and the powerful Colonna family, who were allied by marriage with the Sforzas and destined to play a major role later in Caravaggio's life. Caravaggio's mother had to raise all of her five children in poverty. She died in 1584, the same year he began his four-year apprenticeship to the Milanese painter Simone Peterzano, described in the contract of apprenticeship as a pupil of Titian. Caravaggio appears to have stayed in the Milan-Caravaggio area after his apprenticeship ended, but it is possible that he visited Venice and saw the works of Giorgione, whom Federico Zuccari later accused him of imitating, and Titian. He would also have become familiar with the art treasures of Milan, including Leonardo da Vinci's Last Supper, and with the regional Lombard art, a style that valued simplicity and attention to naturalistic detail and was closer to the naturalism of Germany than to the stylised formality and grandeur of Roman Mannerism. Beginnings in Rome (1592/95–1600) Following his initial training under Simone Peterzano, in 1592, Caravaggio left Milan for Rome in flight after "certain quarrels" and the wounding of a police officer. The young artist arrived in Rome "naked and extremely needy... without fixed address and without provision... short of money." During this period, he stayed with the miserly Pandolfo Pucci, known as "monsignor Insalata". A few months later he was performing hack-work for the highly successful Giuseppe Cesari, Pope Clement VIII's favourite artist, "painting flowers and fruit" in his factory-like workshop. In Rome, there was a demand for paintings to fill the many huge new churches and palaces being built at the time. It was also a period when the Church was searching for a stylistic alternative to Mannerism in religious art that was tasked to counter the threat of Protestantism. Caravaggio's innovation was a radical naturalism that combined close physical observation with a dramatic, even theatrical, use of chiaroscuro that came to be known as tenebrism (the shift from light to dark with little intermediate value). , 1595–1596, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York]] Known works from this period include the small Boy Peeling a Fruit (his earliest known painting), Boy with a Basket of Fruit, and Young Sick Bacchus'', supposedly a self-portrait done during convalescence from a serious illness that ended his employment with Cesari. All three demonstrate the physical particularity for which Caravaggio was to become renowned: the fruit-basket-boy's produce has been analyzed by a professor of horticulture, who was able to identify individual cultivars right down to "...a large fig leaf with a prominent fungal scorch lesion resembling anthracnose (Glomerella cingulata)." Caravaggio left Cesari, determined to make his own way after a heated argument. At this point he forged some extremely important friendships, with the painter Prospero Orsi, the architect Onorio Longhi, and the sixteen-year-old Sicilian artist Mario Minniti. Orsi, established in the profession, introduced him to influential collectors; Longhi, more balefully, introduced him to the world of Roman street brawls. Minniti served Caravaggio as a model and, years later, would be instrumental in helping him to obtain important commissions in Sicily. Ostensibly, the first archival reference to Caravaggio in a contemporary document from Rome is the listing of his name, with that of Prospero Orsi as his partner, as an 'assistant' in a procession in October 1594 in honour of St. Luke. The earliest informative account of his life in the city is a court transcript dated 11 July 1597, when Caravaggio and Prospero Orsi were witnesses to a crime near San Luigi de' Francesi. (c. 1595), Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford]] The Fortune Teller, his first composition with more than one figure, shows a boy, likely Minniti, having his palm read by a Romani girl, who is stealthily removing his ring as she strokes his hand. The theme was quite new for Rome and proved immensely influential over the next century and beyond. However, at the time, Caravaggio sold it for practically nothing. The Cardsharps''—showing another naïve youth of privilege falling victim to card cheats—is even more psychologically complex and perhaps Caravaggio's first true masterpiece. Like The Fortune Teller, it was immensely popular, and over 50 copies survived. More importantly, it attracted the patronage of Cardinal Francesco Maria del Monte, one of the leading connoisseurs in Rome. For del Monte and his wealthy art-loving circle, Caravaggio executed a number of intimate chamber-pieces—The Musicians, The Lute Player, a tipsy Bacchus, and an allegorical but realistic Boy Bitten by a Lizard—featuring Minniti and other adolescent models. (Hermitage version), , Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg (commissioned by Francesco Maria del Monte)]] Caravaggio's first paintings on religious themes returned to realism and the emergence of remarkable spirituality. The first of these was the Penitent Magdalene, showing Mary Magdalene at the moment when she has turned from her life as a courtesan and sits weeping on the floor, her jewels scattered around her. "It seemed not a religious painting at all ... a girl sitting on a low wooden stool drying her hair ... Where was the repentance ... suffering ... promise of salvation?" It was understated, in the Lombard manner, not histrionic in the Roman manner of the time. It was followed by others in the same style: Saint Catherine; Martha and Mary Magdalene; Judith Beheading Holofernes; Sacrifice of Isaac; Saint Francis of Assisi in Ecstasy; and Rest on the Flight into Egypt. These works, while viewed by a comparatively limited circle, increased Caravaggio's fame with both connoisseurs and his fellow artists. But a true reputation would depend on public commissions, for which it was necessary to look to the Church. '', , Uffizi, Florence]] , 1597–1599, Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica, Rome]] Already evident was the intense realism or naturalism for which Caravaggio is now famous. He preferred to paint his subjects as the eye sees them, with all their natural flaws and defects, instead of as idealised creations. This allowed a full display of his virtuosic talents. This shift from accepted standard practice and the classical idealism of Michelangelo was very controversial at the time. Caravaggio also dispensed with the lengthy preparations for a painting that were traditional in central Italy at the time. Instead, he preferred the Venetian practice of working in oils directly from the subject—half-length figures and still life. Supper at Emmaus, from , is a characteristic work of this period demonstrating his virtuoso talent. "Most famous painter in Rome" (1600–1606) In 1599, presumably through the influence of del Monte, Caravaggio was contracted to decorate the Contarelli Chapel in the church of San Luigi dei Francesi. The two works making up the commission, The Martyrdom of Saint Matthew and The Calling of Saint Matthew, delivered in 1600, were an immediate sensation. Thereafter he never lacked commissions or patrons. '' (1599–1600), Contarelli Chapel, San Luigi dei Francesi, Rome. Without recourse to flying angels, parting clouds or other artifice, Caravaggio portrays the instant conversion of St. Matthew, the moment on which his destiny will turn, by means of a beam of light and the pointing finger of Jesus.]] Caravaggio's tenebrism (a heightened chiaroscuro) brought high drama to his subjects, while his acutely observed realism brought a new level of emotional intensity. Opinion among his artist peers was polarized. Some denounced him for various perceived failings, notably his insistence on painting from life, without drawings, but for the most part he was hailed as a great artistic visionary: "The painters then in Rome were greatly taken by this novelty, and the young ones particularly gathered around him, praised him as the unique imitator of nature, and looked on his work as miracles." Caravaggio went on to secure a string of prestigious commissions for religious works featuring violent struggles, grotesque decapitations, torture, and death. Most notable and technically masterful among them were The Incredulity of Saint Thomas (circa 1601) and The Taking of Christ (circa 1602) the latter only rediscovered in the 1990s in Dublin after remaining unrecognized for two centuries. For the most part, each new painting increased his fame, but a few were rejected by the various bodies for whom they were intended, at least in their original forms, and had to be re-painted or find new buyers. The essence of the problem was that while Caravaggio's dramatic intensity was appreciated, his realism was seen by some as unacceptably vulgar. '', 1599–1602, Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica, Rome]]His first version of Saint Matthew and the Angel, featuring the saint as a bald peasant with dirty legs attended by a lightly clad over-familiar boy-angel, was rejected and a second version had to be painted as The Inspiration of Saint Matthew. Similarly, The Conversion of Saint Paul was rejected, and while another version of the same subject, the Conversion on the Way to Damascus, was accepted, it featured the saint's horse's haunches far more prominently than the saint himself, prompting this exchange between the artist and an exasperated official of Santa Maria del Popolo: "Why have you put a horse in the middle, and Saint Paul on the ground?" "Because!" "Is the horse God?" "No, but he stands in God's light!" The aristocratic collector Ciriaco Mattei, brother of Cardinal Girolamo Mattei, who was friends with Cardinal Francesco Maria Bourbon Del Monte, gave The Supper at Emmaus to the city palace he shared with his brother, 1601 (National Gallery, London), The Incredulity of Saint Thomas, , "Ecclesiastical Version" (Private Collection, Florence), The Incredulity of Saint Thomas , 1601 "Secular Version" (Sanssouci Palace, Potsdam), John the Baptist with the Ram, 1602 (Capitoline Museums, Rome) and The Taking of Christ, 1602 (National Gallery of Ireland, Dublin) Caravaggio commissioned. , 1601–1606, Louvre, Paris]] Other works included Entombment, the Madonna di Loreto ("Madonna of the Pilgrims"), the Grooms' Madonna, and Death of the Virgin''. The history of these last two paintings illustrates the reception given to some of Caravaggio's art and the times in which he lived. The ''Grooms' Madonna, also known as Madonna dei palafrenieri'', painted for a small altar in Saint Peter's Basilica in Rome, remained there for just two days and was then removed. A cardinal's secretary wrote: "In this painting, there are but vulgarity, sacrilege, impiousness and disgust...One would say it is a work made by a painter that can paint well, but of a dark spirit, and who has been for a lot of time far from God, from His adoration, and from any good thought..." , 1601–1602, Gemäldegalerie, Berlin. Caravaggio shows Cupid prevailing over all human endeavors: war, music, science, government.]] Death of the Virgin'', commissioned in 1601 by a wealthy jurist for his private chapel in the new Carmelite church of Santa Maria della Scala, was rejected by the Carmelites in 1606. Caravaggio's contemporary Giulio Mancini records that it was rejected because Caravaggio had used a well-known prostitute as his model for the Virgin. Giovanni Baglione, another contemporary, tells that it was due to Mary's bare legs—a matter of decorum in either case. Caravaggio scholar John Gash suggests that the problem for the Carmelites may have been theological rather than aesthetic, in that Caravaggio's version fails to assert the doctrine of the Assumption of Mary, the idea that the Mother of God did not die in any ordinary sense but was assumed into Heaven. The replacement altarpiece commissioned (from one of Caravaggio's most able followers, Carlo Saraceni), showed the Virgin not dead, as Caravaggio had painted her, but seated and dying; and even this was rejected, and replaced with a work showing the Virgin not dying, but ascending into Heaven with choirs of angels. In any case, the rejection did not mean that Caravaggio or his paintings were out of favour. Death of the Virgin was no sooner taken out of the church than it was purchased by the Duke of Mantua, on the advice of Rubens, and later acquired by Charles I of England before entering the French royal collection in 1671. One secular piece from these years is Amor Vincit Omnia, in English also called Amor Victorious, painted in 1602 for Vincenzo Giustiniani, a member of del Monte's circle. The model was named in a memoir of the early 17th century as "Cecco", the diminutive for Francesco. He is possibly Francesco Boneri, identified with an artist active in the period 1610–1625 and known as Cecco del Caravaggio ('Caravaggio's Cecco'), carrying a bow and arrows and trampling symbols of the warlike and peaceful arts and sciences underfoot. He is unclothed, and it is difficult to accept this grinning urchin as the Roman god Cupid—as difficult as it was to accept Caravaggio's other semi-clad adolescents as the various angels he painted in his canvases, wearing much the same stage-prop wings. The point, however, is the intense yet ambiguous reality of the work: it is simultaneously Cupid and Cecco, as Caravaggio's Virgins were simultaneously the Mother of Christ and the Roman courtesans who modeled for them. Legal problems and flight from Rome (1606) , , Galleria Borghese, Rome]] Caravaggio led a tumultuous life. He was notorious for brawling, even in a time and place when such behavior was commonplace, and the transcripts of his police records and trial proceedings fill many pages. Bellori claims that around 1590–1592, Caravaggio, already well known for brawling with gangs of young men, committed a murder which forced him to flee from Milan, first to Venice and then to Rome. On 28 November 1600, while living at the Palazzo Madama with his patron Cardinal Del Monte, Caravaggio beat nobleman Girolamo Stampa da Montepulciano, a guest of the cardinal, with a club, resulting in an official complaint to the police. Episodes of brawling, violence, and tumult grew more and more frequent. Caravaggio was often arrested and jailed at Tor di Nona. After his release from jail in 1601, Caravaggio returned to paint first The Taking of Christ and then Amor Vincit Omnia. In 1603, he was arrested again, this time for the defamation of another painter, Giovanni Baglione, who sued Caravaggio and his followers Orazio Gentileschi and Onorio Longhi for writing offensive poems about him. The French ambassador intervened, and Caravaggio was transferred to house arrest after a month in jail in Tor di Nona. Between May and October 1604, Caravaggio was arrested several times for possession of illegal weapons and for insulting the city guards. He was also sued by a tavern waiter for having thrown a plate of artichokes in his face. An early published notice on Caravaggio, dating from 1604 and describing his lifestyle three years previously, recounts that "after a fortnight's work he will swagger about for a month or two with a sword at his side and a servant following him, from one ball-court to the next, ever ready to engage in a fight or an argument, so that it is most awkward to get along with him." In 1605, Caravaggio was forced to flee to Genoa for three weeks after seriously injuring Mariano Pasqualone di Accumoli, a notary, in a dispute over Lena, Caravaggio's model and lover. The notary reported having been attacked on 29 July with a sword, causing a severe head injury. Caravaggio's patrons intervened and managed to cover up the incident. Upon his return to Rome, Caravaggio was sued by his landlady Prudenzia Bruni for not having paid his rent. Out of spite, Caravaggio threw rocks through her window at night and was sued again. In November, Caravaggio was hospitalized for an injury which he claimed he had caused himself by falling on his own sword. On 29 May 1606, Caravaggio killed a young man, possibly unintentionally, resulting in his fleeing Rome with a death sentence hanging over him. Ranuccio Tomassoni was a gangster from a wealthy family. The two had argued many times, often ending in blows. The circumstances are unclear, whether a brawl or a duel with swords at Campo Marzio, but the killing may have been unintentional. Many rumours circulated at the time as to the cause of the fight. Several contemporary avvisi referred to a quarrel over a gambling debt and a pallacorda game, a sort of tennis, and this explanation has become established in the popular imagination. Other rumours, however, claimed that the duel stemmed from jealousy over Fillide Melandroni, a well-known Roman prostitute who had modeled for him in several important paintings; Tomassoni was her pimp. According to such rumours, Caravaggio castrated Tomassoni with his sword before deliberately killing him, with other versions claiming that Tomassoni's death had been caused accidentally during the castration. The duel may have had a political dimension, as Tomassoni's family was notoriously pro-Spanish, whereas Caravaggio was a client of the French ambassador. Caravaggio's patrons had hitherto been able to shield him from any serious consequences of his frequent duels and brawling, but Tomassoni's wealthy family was outraged by his death and demanded justice. Caravaggio's patrons were unable to protect him. Caravaggio was sentenced to beheading for murder, and an open bounty was decreed, enabling anyone who recognized him to carry out the sentence legally. Caravaggio's paintings began, obsessively, to depict severed heads, often his own, at this time. Modern accounts are to be found in Peter Robb's M and Helen Langdon's Caravaggio: A Life. A theory relating the death to Renaissance notions of honour and symbolic wounding has been advanced by art historian Andrew Graham-Dixon. Whatever the details, the matter was serious enough that Caravaggio was forced to flee Rome. He moved just south of the city, then to Naples, Malta, and Sicily. Exile and death (1606–1610) Naples Following the death of Tomassoni, Caravaggio fled first to the estates of the Colonna family south of Rome and then on to Naples, where Costanza Colonna Sforza, widow of Francesco Sforza, in whose husband's household Caravaggio's father had held a position, maintained a palace. In Naples, outside the jurisdiction of the Roman authorities and protected by the Colonna family, the most famous painter in Rome became the most famous in Naples. , 1606–1607, Pio Monte della Misericordia, Naples]] His connections with the Colonnas led to a stream of important church commissions, including the Madonna of the Rosary, and The Seven Works of Mercy''. The Seven Works of Mercy depicts the seven corporal works of mercy as a set of compassionate acts concerning the material needs of others. The painting was made for and is still housed in the church of Pio Monte della Misericordia in Naples. Caravaggio combined all seven works of mercy in one composition, which became the church's altarpiece. Alessandro Giardino has also established the connection between the iconography of "The Seven Works of Mercy" and the cultural, scientific and philosophical circles of the painting's commissioners. Malta Despite his success in Naples, after only a few months in the city Caravaggio left for Hospitaller Malta, the headquarters of the Knights of Malta. Fabrizio Sforza Colonna, Costanza's son, was a Knight of Malta and general of the Order's galleys. He appears to have facilitated Caravaggio's arrival on the island in 1607 (and his escape the next year). Caravaggio presumably hoped that the patronage of Alof de Wignacourt, Grand Master of the Knights of Saint John, could help him secure a pardon for Tomassoni's death. Wignacourt was so impressed at having the artist as official painter to the Order that he inducted him as a Knight, and the early biographer Bellori records that the artist was well pleased with his success. (1608) by Caravaggio (Saint John's Co-Cathedral, Valletta, Malta)]] Major works from his Malta period include the Beheading of Saint John the Baptist, his largest ever work, and the only painting to which he put his signature, Saint Jerome Writing (both housed in Saint John's Co-Cathedral, Valletta, Malta) and a Portrait of Alof de Wignacourt and his Page, as well as portraits of other leading Knights. Completed in 1608, the painting had been commissioned by the Knights of Malta as an altarpiece and measuring was the largest altarpiece Caravaggio painted. It still hangs in St. John's Co-Cathedral, for which it was commissioned and where Caravaggio himself was inducted and briefly served as a knight. Caravaggio was imprisoned by the Knights at Valletta, but he managed to escape. By December, he had been expelled from the Order "as a foul and rotten member", a formal phrase used in all such cases. Sicily and the Adoration of the Shepherds, Regional Museum of Messina, Sicily, Italy]] Caravaggio made his way to Sicily where he met his old friend Mario Minniti, who was now married and living in Syracuse. Together they set off on what amounted to a triumphal tour from Syracuse to Messina and, maybe, on to the island capital, Palermo. In Syracuse and Messina Caravaggio continued to win prestigious and well-paid commissions. Among other works from this period are Burial of St. Lucy, The Raising of Lazarus, and Adoration of the Shepherds''. His style continued to evolve, showing now friezes of figures isolated against vast empty backgrounds. "His great Sicilian altarpieces isolate their shadowy, pitifully poor figures in vast areas of darkness; they suggest the desperate fears and frailty of man, and at the same time convey, with a new yet desolate tenderness, the beauty of humility and of the meek, who shall inherit the earth." Contemporary reports depict a man whose behaviour was becoming increasingly bizarre, which included sleeping fully armed and in his clothes, ripping up a painting at a slight word of criticism, and mocking local painters. Caravaggio displayed bizarre behaviour from very early in his career. Mancini describes him as "extremely crazy", a letter from Del Monte notes his strangeness, and Minniti's 1724 biographer says that Mario left Caravaggio because of his behaviour. The strangeness seems to have increased after Malta. Susinno's early-18th-century ''Le vite de' pittori Messinesi'' ("Lives of the Painters of Messina") provides several colourful anecdotes of Caravaggio's erratic behaviour in Sicily, and these are reproduced in modern full-length biographies such as Langdon and Robb. Bellori writes of Caravaggio's "fear" driving him from city to city across the island and finally, "feeling that it was no longer safe to remain", back to Naples. Baglione says Caravaggio was being "chased by his enemy", but like Bellori does not say who this enemy was. Return to Naples , Royal Palace of Madrid]] After only nine months in Sicily, Caravaggio returned to Naples in the late summer of 1609. According to his earliest biographer, he was being pursued by enemies while in Sicily and felt it safest to place himself under the protection of the Colonnas until he could secure his pardon from the pope (now Paul V) and return to Rome. In Naples he painted The Denial of Saint Peter, a final John the Baptist (Borghese), and his last picture, The Martyrdom of Saint Ursula. His style continued to evolve—Saint Ursula is caught in a moment of highest action and drama, as the arrow fired by the king of the Huns strikes her in the breast, unlike earlier paintings that had all the immobility of the posed models. The brushwork was also much freer and more impressionistic. , 1609–1610, Galleria Borghese, Rome]] In October 1609, he was involved in a violent clash, an attempt on his life, perhaps ambushed by men in the pay of the knight he had wounded in Malta or some other faction of the Order. His face was seriously disfigured and rumours circulated in Rome that he was dead. He painted a Salome with the Head of John the Baptist (Madrid), showing his own head on a platter, and sent it to Wignacourt as a plea for forgiveness. Perhaps at this time, he also painted a David with the Head of Goliath, showing the young David with a strangely sorrowful expression gazing at the severed head of the giant, which is again Caravaggio. This painting he may have sent to his patron, the unscrupulous art-loving Cardinal Scipione Borghese, nephew of the pope, who had the power to grant or withhold pardons. Caravaggio hoped Borghese could mediate a pardon in exchange for works by the artist. News from Rome encouraged Caravaggio, and in the summer of 1610, he took a boat northwards to receive the pardon, which seemed imminent thanks to his powerful Roman friends. With him were three last paintings, the gifts for Cardinal Scipione. What happened next is the subject of much confusion and conjecture, shrouded in much mystery. The bare facts seem to be that on 28 July, an anonymous avviso (private newsletter) from Rome to the ducal court of Urbino reported that Caravaggio was dead. Three days later, another avviso said that he had died of fever on his way from Naples to Rome. A poet friend of the artist later gave 18 July as the date of death, and a recent researcher claims to have discovered a death notice showing that the artist died on that day of a fever in Porto Ercole, near Grosseto in Tuscany. Death Caravaggio had a fever at the time of his death, and what killed him was a matter of controversy and rumour at the time and has been a matter of historical debate and study since. Contemporary rumours held that either the Tomassoni family or the Knights had him killed in revenge. Traditionally historians have long thought he died of syphilis. Caravaggio's remains were buried in Porto Ercole's San Sebastiano cemetery, which closed in 1956, and then moved to St. Erasmus cemetery, where, in 2010, archaeologists conducted a year-long investigation of remains found in three crypts and after using DNA, carbon dating, and other methods. They believe with a high degree of confidence that they have identified those of Caravaggio. Initial tests suggested Caravaggio might have died of lead poisoning—paints used at the time contained high amounts of lead salts, and Caravaggio is known to have indulged in violent behavior, as caused by lead poisoning. Later research concluded he died as the result of a wound sustained in a brawl in Naples, specifically from sepsis caused by Staphylococcus aureus. Vatican documents released in 2002 support the theory that the wealthy Tomassoni family had him hunted down and killed as a vendetta for Caravaggio's murder of gangster Ranuccio Tomassoni, in a botched attempt at castration after a duel over the affections of model Fillide Melandroni. Sexuality ]] Since the 1970s art scholars and historians have debated the inferences of homoeroticism in Caravaggio's works as a way to better understand the man. Caravaggio never married and had no known children, and Howard Hibbard observed the absence of erotic female figures in the artist's oeuvre: "In his entire career he did not paint a single female nude", and the cabinet-pieces from the Del Monte period are replete with "full-lipped, languorous boys ... who seem to solicit the onlooker with their offers of fruit, wine, flowers—and themselves" suggesting an erotic interest in the male form. The model of Amor vincit omnia, Cecco del Caravaggio, lived with the artist in Rome and stayed with him even after he was obliged to leave the city in 1606. The two may have been lovers. A connection with a certain Lena is mentioned in a 1605 court deposition by Pasqualone, where she is described as "Michelangelo's girl". According to G. B. Passeri, this 'Lena' was Caravaggio's model for the Madonna di Loreto; and according to Catherine Puglisi, 'Lena' may have been the same person as the courtesan Maddalena di Paolo Antognetti, who named Caravaggio as an "intimate friend" by her own testimony in 1604. Caravaggio was also rumoured to be madly in love with Fillide Melandroni, a well known Roman prostitute who modeled for him in several important paintings. '', 1593–1594, oil on canvas, , Galleria Borghese, Rome]] Caravaggio's sexuality also received early speculation due to claims about the artist by Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau. Writing in 1783, Mirabeau contrasted the personal life of Caravaggio directly with the writings of St Paul in the Book of Romans, arguing that "Romans" excessively practice sodomy or homosexuality. The Holy Mother Catholic Church teachings on morality (and so on; short book title) contains the Latin phrase "Et fœminæ eorum immutaverunt naturalem usum in eum usum qui est contra naturam." ("and their women changed their natural habit to that which is against nature"). The phrase, according to Mirabeau, entered Caravaggio's thoughts, and he claimed that such an "abomination" could be witnessed through a particular painting housed at the Museum of the Grand Duke of Tuscany—featuring a rosary of a blasphemous nature, in which a circle of thirty men (turpiter ligati) are intertwined in embrace and presented in unbridled composition. Mirabeau notes the affectionate nature of Caravaggio's depiction reflects the voluptuous glow of the artist's sexuality. By the late nineteenth century, Sir Richard Francis Burton identified the painting as Caravaggio's painting of St. Rosario. Burton also identifies both St. Rosario and this painting with the practices of Tiberius mentioned by Seneca the Younger. The survival status and location of Caravaggio's painting is unknown. No such painting appears in his or his school's catalogues. . Intended as an attack on his hated enemy, Caravaggio, it shows a winged male youth with an arrow, most likely a representation of Eros, the god associated with Aphrodite and sexual (i.e., profane) love, on one side, a devil with Caravaggio's face on the other, and between an angel representing pure, meaning non-erotic or sacred, love.]] Aside from the paintings, evidence also comes from the libel trial brought against Caravaggio by Giovanni Baglione in 1603. Baglione accused Caravaggio and his friends of writing and distributing scurrilous doggerel attacking him; the pamphlets, according to Baglione's friend and witness Mao Salini, had been distributed by a certain Giovanni Battista, a bardassa, or boy prostitute, shared by Caravaggio and his friend Onorio Longhi. Caravaggio denied knowing any young boy of that name, and the allegation was not followed up. Baglione's painting of "Divine Love" has also been seen as a visual accusation of sodomy against Caravaggio. The art historian Andrew Graham-Dixon has summarised the debate: <blockquote>A lot has been made of Caravaggio's presumed homosexuality, which has in more than one previous account of his life been presented as the single key that explains everything, both the power of his art and the misfortunes of his life. There is no absolute proof of it, only strong circumstantial evidence and much rumour. The balance of probability suggests that Caravaggio did indeed have sexual relations with men. But he certainly had female lovers. Throughout the years that he spent in Rome, he kept close company with a number of prostitutes. The truth is that Caravaggio was as uneasy in his relationships as he was in most other aspects of life. He likely slept with men. He did sleep with women. He settled with no one... [but] the idea that he was an early martyr to the drives of an unconventional sexuality is an anachronistic fiction. The author notes the artist's fluid sexual desires but gives some of Caravaggio's most explicitly homoerotic paintings tortured readings to keep them safely in the category of mere "ambiguity".</blockquote> As an artist The birth of Baroque '', 1601, oil on canvas, , National Gallery, London. Self-portrait of Caravaggio as the figure at the top left.]] Caravaggio "put the oscuro (shadows) into chiaroscuro". Chiaroscuro was practised long before he came on the scene, but it was Caravaggio who made the technique a dominant stylistic element, darkening the shadows and transfixing the subject in a blinding shaft of light. With this came the acute observation of physical and psychological reality that formed the ground both for his immense popularity and for his frequent problems with his religious commissions. He worked at great speed, from live models, scoring basic guides directly onto the canvas with the end of the brush handle; very few of Caravaggio's drawings appear to have survived, and it is likely that he preferred to work directly on the canvas, an unusual approach at the time. His models were basic to his realism; some have been identified, including Mario Minniti and Francesco Boneri, both fellow artists, Minniti appearing as various figures in the early secular works, the young Boneri as a succession of angels, Baptists and Davids in the later canvasses. His female models include Fillide Melandroni, Anna Bianchini, and Maddalena Antognetti (the "Lena" mentioned in court documents of the "artichoke" case as Caravaggio's concubine), all well-known prostitutes, who appear as female religious figures including the Virgin and various saints. Caravaggio himself appears in several paintings, his final self-portrait being as the witness on the far right to the Martyrdom of Saint Ursula. , 1602, National Gallery of Ireland, Dublin. The chiaroscuro shows through on the faces and armour even in the absence of a visible shaft of light. The figure on the extreme right is a self-portrait.]] Caravaggio had a noteworthy ability to express in one scene of unsurpassed vividness the passing of a crucial moment. The Supper at Emmaus'' depicts the recognition of Christ by his disciples: a moment before he is a fellow traveller, mourning the passing of the Messiah, as he never ceases to be to the innkeeper's eyes; the second after, he is the Saviour. In The Calling of St Matthew, the hand of the Saint points to himself as if he were saying, "who, me?", while his eyes, fixed upon the figure of Christ, have already said, "Yes, I will follow you". With The Resurrection of Lazarus, he goes a step further, giving a glimpse of the actual physical process of resurrection. The body of Lazarus is still in the throes of rigor mortis, but his hand, facing and recognising that of Christ, is alive. Other major Baroque artists would travel the same path, for example Bernini, fascinated with themes from Ovid's Metamorphoses. The Caravaggisti '', 1601, Cerasi Chapel, Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome]] The installation of the St. Matthew paintings in the Contarelli Chapel had an immediate impact among the younger artists in Rome, and Caravaggism became the cutting edge for every ambitious young painter. The first Caravaggisti included Orazio Gentileschi and Giovanni Baglione. Baglione's Caravaggio phase was short-lived; Caravaggio later accused him of plagiarism and the two were involved in a long feud. Baglione went on to write the first biography of Caravaggio. In the next generation of Caravaggisti, there were Carlo Saraceni, Bartolomeo Manfredi and Orazio Borgianni. Gentileschi, despite being considerably older, was the only one of these artists to live much beyond 1620 and ended up as a court painter to Charles I of England. His daughter Artemisia Gentileschi was also stylistically close to Caravaggio and one of the most gifted of the movement. However, in Rome and Italy, it was not Caravaggio, but the influence of his rival Annibale Carracci, blending elements from the High Renaissance and Lombard realism, that ultimately triumphed. (Mauritshuis, The Hague)]] Caravaggio's brief stay in Naples produced a notable school of Neapolitan Caravaggisti, including Battistello Caracciolo and Carlo Sellitto. The Caravaggisti movement there ended with a terrible outbreak of plague in 1656, but the Spanish connection—Naples was a possession of Spain—was instrumental in forming the important Spanish branch of his influence. Rubens was likely one of the first Flemish artists to be influenced by Caravaggio whose work he got to know during his stay in Rome in 1601. He later painted a copy (or rather an interpretation) of Caravaggio's Entombment of Christ and recommended his patron, the Duke of Mantua, purchase Death of the Virgin (Louvre). Although some of this interest in Caravaggio is reflected in his drawings during his Italian residence, it was only after his return to Antwerp in 1608 that Rubens' works show openly Caravaggesque traits such as in the Cain slaying Abel (1608–1609) (Courtauld Institute of Art) and the Old Woman and Boy with Candles (1618–1619) (Mauritshuis). However, the influence of Caravaggio on Rubens' work would be less important than that of Raphael, Correggio, Barocci and the Venetians. Flemish artists, who were influenced by Rubens, such as Jacob Jordaens, Pieter van Mol, Gaspar de Crayer and Willem Jacob Herreyns, also used certain stark realism and strong contrasts of light and shadow, common to the Caravaggesque style. A number of Catholic artists from Utrecht, including Hendrick ter Brugghen, Gerrit van Honthorst and Dirck van Baburen travelled in the first decades of the 17th century to Rome. Here they became profoundly influenced by the work of Caravaggio and his followers. On their return to Utrecht, their Caravaggesque works inspired a short-lived but influential flowering of artworks inspired indirectly in style and subject matter by the works of Caravaggio and the Italian followers of Caravaggio. This style of painting was later referred to as Utrecht Caravaggism. In the following generation of Dutch artists the effects of Caravaggio, although attenuated, are to be seen in the work of Vermeer and Rembrandt, neither of whom visited Italy. Death and rebirth of a reputation '', (1602–1603), Pinacoteca Vaticana, Rome]] Caravaggio's innovations inspired the Baroque, but the Baroque took the drama of his chiaroscuro without the psychological realism. While he directly influenced the style of the artists mentioned above, and, at a distance, the Frenchmen Georges de La Tour and Simon Vouet, and the Spaniard Giuseppe Ribera, within a few decades his works were being ascribed to less scandalous artists, or simply overlooked. The Baroque, to which he contributed so much, had evolved, and fashions had changed, but perhaps more pertinently, Caravaggio never established a workshop as the Carracci did and thus had no school to spread his techniques. Nor did he ever set out his underlying philosophical approach to art, the psychological realism that may only be deduced from his surviving work. Thus his reputation was doubly vulnerable to the unsympathetic critiques of his earliest biographers, Giovanni Baglione, a rival painter with a vendetta, and the influential 17th-century critic Gian Pietro Bellori, who had not known him but was under the influence of the earlier Giovanni Battista Agucchi and Bellori's friend Poussin, in preferring the "classical-idealistic" tradition of the Bolognese school led by the Carracci. Baglione, his first biographer, played a considerable part in creating the legend of Caravaggio's unstable and violent character, as well as his inability to draw. In the 1920s, art critic Roberto Longhi brought Caravaggio's name once more to the foreground and placed him in the European tradition: "Ribera, Vermeer, La Tour and Rembrandt could never have existed without him. And the art of Delacroix, Courbet and Manet would have been utterly different". The influential Bernard Berenson agreed: "With the exception of Michelangelo, no other Italian painter exercised so great an influence." Epitaph '' (1610), Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City]] Caravaggio's epitaph was composed by his friend Marzio Milesi. It reads: He was commemorated on the front of the ''Banca d'Italia'' 100,000-lire banknote in the 1980s and '90s (before Italy switched to the euro), with the back showing his Basket of Fruit. Oeuvre There is disagreement as to the size of Caravaggio's oeuvre, with counts as low as 40 and as high as 80. In his monograph of 1983, the Caravaggio scholar Alfred Moir wrote, "The forty-eight color plates in this book include almost all of the surviving works accepted by every Caravaggio expert as autograph, and even the least demanding would add fewer than a dozen more", but there have been some generally accepted additions since then. One, The Calling of Saints Peter and Andrew, was in 2006 authenticated and restored; it had been in storage in Hampton Court, mislabeled as a copy. Richard Francis Burton writes of a "picture of St. Rosario (in the museum of the Grand Duke of Tuscany), showing a circle of thirty men turpiter ligati" ("lewdly banded"), which is not known to have survived. The rejected version of Saint Matthew and the Angel, intended for the Contarelli Chapel in San Luigi dei Francesi in Rome, was destroyed during the bombing of Dresden, though black and white photographs of the work exist. In June 2011 it was announced that a previously unknown Caravaggio painting of Saint Augustine dating to about 1600 had been discovered in a private collection in Britain. Called a "significant discovery", the painting had never been published and is thought to have been commissioned by Vincenzo Giustiniani, a patron of the painter in Rome. , 1601, Cerasi Chapel, Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome]] A painting depicting Judith Beheading Holofernes was allegedly discovered in an attic in Toulouse in 2014. In April 2016 the expert and art dealer to whom the work was shown announced that this was a long-lost painting by the hand of Caravaggio himself. That lost Caravaggio painting was only known up to that date by a presumed copy of it by the Flemish painter Louis Finson, who had shared a studio with Caravaggio in Naples. The French government imposed an export ban on the newly discovered painting while tests were carried out to establish whether it was an authentic painting by Caravaggio. In February 2019 it was announced that the painting would be sold at auction after the Louvre had turned down the opportunity to purchase it for €100 million. After an auction was considered, the painting was finally sold in a private sale to the American billionaire hedge fund manager J. Tomilson Hill. The art historical world is not united over the attribution of the work, with the art dealer who sold the work promoting its authenticity with the support of art historians who were given privileged access to the work, while other art historians remain unconvinced mainly based on stylistic and quality considerations. Some art historians believe it may be a work by Louis Finson himself. In April 2021 a minor work believed to be from the circle of a Spanish follower of Caravaggio, Jusepe de Ribera, was withdrawn from sale at the Madrid auction house Ansorena when the Museo del Prado alerted the Ministry of Culture, which placed a preemptive export ban on the painting. The by painting has been in the Pérez de Castro family since 1823, when it was exchanged for another work from the Real Academia of San Fernando. It had been listed as "Ecce-Hommo con dos saiones de Carabaggio" before the attribution was later lost or changed to the circle of Ribera. Stylistic evidence, as well as the similarity of the models to those in other Caravaggio works, has convinced some experts that the painting is the original Caravaggio 'Ecce Homo' for the 1605 Massimo Massimi commission. The attribution to Caravaggio is disputed by other experts. The painting is now undergoing restoration by Colnaghis, who will also be handling the future sale of the work. Theft '', 1600; stolen in 1969]] In October 1969, two thieves entered the Oratory of Saint Lawrence in Palermo, Sicily, and stole Caravaggio's Nativity with St. Francis and St. Lawrence from its frame. Experts estimated its value at $20 million. Following the theft, Italian police set up an art theft task force with the specific aim of re-acquiring lost and stolen artworks. Since the creation of this task force, many leads have been followed regarding the Nativity. Former Italian mafia members have stated that Nativity with St. Francis and St. Lawrence was stolen by the Sicilian Mafia and displayed at important mafia gatherings. Former mafia members have said that the Nativity was damaged and has since been destroyed. British filmmaker Derek Jarman made a critically applauded biopic entitled Caravaggio in 1986. Several poems written by Thom Gunn were responses to specific Caravaggio paintings. In 2013, a touring Caravaggio exhibition called "Burst of Light: Caravaggio and His Legacy" opened in the Wadsworth Atheneum Museum of Art in Hartford, Connecticut. The show included five paintings by the master artist that included Saint John the Baptist in the Wilderness (1604–1605) and Martha and Mary Magdalene (1589). The whole travelled to France and also to Los Angeles, California. Other Baroque artists like Georges de La Tour, Orazio Gentileschi, and the Spanish trio of Diego Velazquez, Francisco de Zurbarán, and Carlo Saraceni were also included in the exhibitions. In 2022 a new biopic about Caravaggio was released: ''L'Ombra di Caravaggio, an Italian-French movie directed by Michele Placido. Caravaggio was prominently featured as motif in Steven Zaillian's Netflix series Ripley, based on Patricia Highsmith's book The Talented Mr. Ripley. The murder of Rannucchio is also depicted. Caravaggio is portrayed by Daniele Rienzo. See also * Paintings in the Contarelli Chapel References Citations Primary sources The main primary sources for Caravaggio's life are: * Giulio Mancini's comments on Caravaggio in Considerazioni sulla pittura, * Giovanni Baglione's ''Le vite de' pittori'', 1642 * Giovanni Pietro Bellori's ''Le Vite de' pittori, scultori et architetti moderni'', 1672 All have been reprinted in Howard Hibbard's Caravaggio and in the appendices to Catherine Puglisi's Caravaggio. Secondary sources * Erin Benay (2017) Exporting Caravaggio: the Crucifixion of St. Andrew Giles Press Ltd. * Ralf van Bühren, ''[http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23753234.2017.1287283 Caravaggio's 'Seven Works of Mercy' in Naples. The relevance of art history to cultural journalism], in Church, Communication and Culture 2 (2017), pp. 63–87 * Claudio Strinati, [https://www.scriptamaneant.com/sm/negozio/caravaggio-vero/?lang=en Caravaggio Vero], Scripta Maneant, 2014, . * Maurizio Calvesi, Caravaggio, Art Dossier 1986, Giunti Editori (1986) (ISBN not available) * John Denison Champlin and Charles Callahan Perkins, Ed., Cyclopedia of Painters and Paintings'', Charles Scribner's Sons, New York (1885), p. 241 (available at the Harvard's Fogg Museum Library and scanned on Google Books) * Andrea Dusio, Caravaggio White Album, Cooper Arte, Roma 2009, * Michael Fried, The Moment of Caravaggio, Yale University Press, 2010, ISB: 9780691147017, [http://press.princeton.edu/titles/9265.html Review] * Walter Friedlaender, Caravaggio Studies, Princeton: Princeton University Press 1955 * John Gash, Caravaggio, Chaucer Press, (2004) ) * Rosa Giorgi, Caravaggio: Master of light and dark – his life in paintings, Dorling Kindersley (1999) * Andrew Graham-Dixon, Caravaggio: A Life Sacred and Profane, London, Allen Lane, 2009. * Jonathan Harr (2005). The Lost Painting: The Quest for a Caravaggio Masterpiece. New York: Random House. ["The Taking of Christ"] * Howard Hibbard, Caravaggio (1983) * Harris, Ann Sutherland. Seventeenth-century Art & Architecture, Laurence King Publishing (2004), . * Michael Kitson, The Complete Paintings of Caravaggio London, Abrams, 1967. New edition: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1969 and 1986, * Pietro Koch, Caravaggio – The Painter of Blood and Darkness, Gunther Edition, (Rome – 2004) * Gilles Lambert, Caravaggio, Taschen, (2000) * Helen Langdon, Caravaggio: A Life, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1999 (original UK edition 1998) * Denis Mahon (1947). Studies in Seicento Art. London: Warburg Institute. * Alfred Moir, The Italian Followers of Caravaggio, Harvard University Press (1967) * Ostrow, Steven F., review of Giovanni Baglione: Artistic Reputation in Baroque Rome by Maryvelma Smith O'Neil, The Art Bulletin, Vol. 85, No. 3 (Sep. 2003), pp. 608–611, [http://www.mutualart.com/OpenArticle/Giovanni-Baglione--Artistic-Reputation-i/119746C99929E2DE online text] * Catherine Puglisi, Caravaggio, Phaidon (1998) * Peter Robb, M, Duffy & Snellgrove, 2003 amended edition (original edition 1998) * John Spike, with assistance from Michèle Kahn Spike, Caravaggio with Catalogue of Paintings on CD-ROM, Abbeville Press, New York (2001) * John L. Varriano, Caravaggio: The Art of Realism, Pennsylvania State University Press (University Park, PA – 2006) * Rudolf Wittkower, Art and Architecture in Italy, 1600–1750, Penguin/Yale History of Art, 3rd edition, 1973, * Alberto Macchi, "L'uomo Caravaggio" – Atto unico (pref. Stefania Macioce), AETAS, Roma 1995, * * * Zerafa, Fr. Marius J. (2004). Caravaggio Diaries. Grimand Company Limited. ISBN 99932-0-322-X. External links <!-- ATTENTION! Please do not add links without discussion and consensus on the talk page. Undiscussed links will be removed. --> Articles and essays * [http://www.bergerfoundation.ch/Caravage/E/ Caravaggio, The Prince of the Night] * Christiansen, Keith. [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/crvg/hd_crvg.htm "Caravaggio...and his Followers."] In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. (October 2003) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100316185329/http://www.fbi.gov/hq/cid/arttheft/europe/italy/italyart.htm FBI Art Theft Notice for Caravaggio's Nativity] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20131203001449/http://vecchiaforma.com/uploads/3/3/3/5/3335127/e21-passion-cvgg.pdf The Passion of Caravaggio] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20131203002442/http://vecchiaforma.com/uploads/3/3/3/5/3335127/e4-cvgg-velz.pdf Deconstructing Caravaggio and Velázquez] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060207004930/http://www.duffyandsnellgrove.com.au/extracts/m_interview.htm Interview with Peter Robb, author of M] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060413211634/http://www.rijksmuseum.nl/formats/container_remcar_en.html Compare] Rembrandt with Caravaggio. * [http://www.webexhibits.org/hockneyoptics/post/grundy7.html Caravaggio and the Camera Obscura] * [http://www.vandewerken.nl/teksten/caravaggio%20english.html Caravaggio's incisions by Ramon van de Werken] * [http://www.physorg.com/news155889108.html Caravaggio's use of the Camera Obscura: Lapucci] * [http://painterpatrickswift.blogspot.co.uk/1970/03/some-notes-on-caravaggio-nimbus-1956.html Some notes on Caravaggio – Patrick Swift] * [http://www.robertalapucci.com Roberta Lapucci's website and most of her publications on Caravaggio as freely downloadable PDF] Art works * [http://www.caravaggio-foundation.org caravaggio-foundation.org] 175 works by Caravaggio * [https://www.caravaggio.org caravaggio.org] Analysis of 100 important Caravaggio works * [http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/caravaggio/ Caravaggio, Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio WebMuseum, Paris webpage] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130516081827/http://www.eyegate.com/showgal.php?id33 Caravaggio's EyeGate Gallery] Video * [http://smarthistory.khanacademy.org/caravaggio-matthew.html ''Caravaggio's Calling of Saint Matthew] at Smarthistory, accessed 13 February 2013 * [http://smarthistory.khanacademy.org/crucifixion-of-st.-peter.html Caravaggio's Crucifixion of Saint Peter] , accessed 13 February 2013 * [http://smarthistory.khanacademy.org/caravaggios-death-of-the-virgin.html Caravaggio's Death of the Virgin] , accessed 13 February 2013 * [http://smarthistory.khanacademy.org/narcissus-at-the-source.html Caravaggio's Narcissus at the Source] , accessed 13 February 2013 * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130116124302/http://smarthistory.khanacademy.org/contarelli-chapel.html Caravaggio's paintings in the Contarelli Chapel, San Luigi dei Francesi], accessed 13 February 2013 * [http://smarthistory.khanacademy.org/supper-at-emmaus.html Caravaggio's Supper at Emmaus''] , accessed 13 February 2013 <!-- please leave the empty space as standard --> Category:1571 births Category:1610 deaths Category:Italian Baroque painters Category:16th-century Italian painters Category:Italian male painters Category:17th-century Italian painters Category:Italian Roman Catholics Category:Knights of Malta Category:Artists from Milan Category:Catholic painters Category:Italian duellists Category:Deaths from sepsis Category:Italian slave owners Category:People from Caravaggio, Lombardy	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caravaggio	2025-04-05T18:28:02.296472
7019	Jean Siméon Chardin	\| birth_place = Rue de Seine, Paris, France \| death_date \| death_place = Louvre, Paris, France \| resting_place = Saint-Germain l'Auxerrois \| nationality = French \| movement = Baroque, Rococo \| field = Painting: still life and genre \| training = Pierre-Jacques Cazes, Noël-Nicolas Coypel, Académie de Saint-Luc \| patrons = Louis XV \| notable_works = }} Jean Siméon Chardin (; November 2, 1699 – December 6, 1779) was an 18th-century French painter. He is considered a master of still life, and is also noted for his genre paintings which depict kitchen maids, children, and domestic activities. Carefully balanced composition, soft diffusion of light, and granular impasto characterize his work.LifeChardin was born in Paris, the son of a cabinetmaker, and rarely left the city. He lived on the Left Bank near Saint-Sulpice until 1757, when Louis XV granted him a studio and living quarters in the Louvre. He served apprenticeships with the history painters Pierre-Jacques Cazes and Noël-Nicolas Coypel, and in 1724 became a master in the Académie de Saint-Luc. According to one nineteenth-century writer, at a time when it was hard for unknown painters to come to the attention of the Royal Academy, he first found notice by displaying a painting at the "small Corpus Christi" (held eight days after the regular one) on the Place Dauphine (by the Pont Neuf). Van Loo, passing by in 1720, bought it and later assisted the young painter. ]]Upon presentation of The Ray and The Buffet in 1728, he was admitted to the Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture. The following year he ceded his position in the Académie de Saint-Luc. He made a modest living by "produc[ing] paintings in the various genres at whatever price his customers chose to pay him", and by such work as the restoration of the frescoes at the Galerie François I at Fontainebleau in 1731. In November 1731 his son Jean-Pierre was baptized, and a daughter, Marguerite-Agnès, was baptized in 1733. In 1735 his wife Marguerite died, and within two years Marguerite-Agnès had died as well. regularly attending meetings for fifty years, and functioning successively as counsellor, treasurer, and secretary, overseeing in 1761 the installation of Salon exhibitions.]] Chardin's work gained popularity through reproductive engravings of his genre paintings (made by artists such as François-Bernard Lépicié and P.-L. Sugurue), which brought Chardin income in the form of "what would now be called royalties". In 1744 he entered his second marriage, this time to Françoise-Marguerite Pouget. The union brought a substantial improvement in Chardin's financial circumstances. In 1745 a daughter, Angélique-Françoise, was born, but she died in 1746. In 1752 Chardin was granted a pension of 500 livres by Louis XV. In 1756 Chardin returned to the subject of the still life. At the Salon of 1759 he exhibited nine paintings; it was the first Salon to be commented upon by Denis Diderot, who would prove to be a great admirer and public champion of Chardin's work. Beginning in 1761, his responsibilities on behalf of the Salon, simultaneously arranging the exhibitions and acting as treasurer, resulted in a diminution of productivity in painting, and the showing of 'replicas' of previous works. In 1763 his services to the Académie were acknowledged with an extra 200 livres in pension. In 1765 he was unanimously elected associate member of the Académie des Sciences, Belles-Lettres et Arts of Rouen, but there is no evidence that he left Paris to accept the honor. In the 1770s his eyesight weakened and he took to painting in pastels, a medium in which he executed portraits of his wife and himself (see Self-portrait at top right). His works in pastels are now highly valued. In 1772 Chardin's son, also a painter, drowned in Venice, a probable suicide. Chardin's work had little in common with the Rococo painting that dominated French art in the 18th century. At a time when history painting was considered the supreme classification for public art, Chardin's subjects of choice were viewed as minor categories. Woman Sealing a Letter (ca. 1733), which may have been his first attempt, was followed by half-length compositions of children saying grace, as in Le Bénédicité, and kitchen maids in moments of reflection. These humble scenes deal with simple, everyday activities, yet they also have functioned as a source of documentary information about a level of French society not hitherto considered a worthy subject for painting. The pictures are noteworthy for their formal structure and pictorial harmony. A child playing was a favourite subject of Chardin. He depicted an adolescent building a house of cards on at least four occasions. The version at Waddesdon Manor is the most elaborate. Scenes such as these derived from 17th-century Netherlandish vanitas works, which bore messages about the transitory nature of human life and the worthlessness of material ambitions, but Chardin's also display a delight in the ephemeral phases of childhood for their own sake. Chardin frequently painted replicas of his compositions—especially his genre paintings, nearly all of which exist in multiple versions which in many cases are virtually indistinguishable. Beginning with The Governess (1739, in the National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa), Chardin shifted his attention from working-class subjects to slightly more spacious scenes of bourgeois life. Chardin's extant paintings, which number about 200, Édouard Manet's half-length Boy Blowing Bubbles and the still lifes of Paul Cézanne are equally indebted to their predecessor. He was one of Henri Matisse's most admired painters; as an art student Matisse made copies of four Chardin paintings in the Louvre. Chaïm Soutine's still lifes looked to Chardin for inspiration, as did the paintings of Georges Braque, and later, Giorgio Morandi. Marcel Proust, in the chapter "How to open your eyes?" from In Search of Lost Time (À la recherche du temps perdu), describes a melancholic young man sitting at his simple breakfast table. The only comfort he finds is in the imaginary ideas of beauty depicted in the great masterpieces of the Louvre, materializing fancy palaces, rich princes, and the like. The author tells the young man to follow him to another section of the Louvre where the pictures of Chardin are. There he would see the beauty in still life at home and in everyday activities like peeling turnips. Gallery <gallery mode"packed" heights"150px"> File:Jean-Baptiste Siméon Chardin - Lapin mort et attirail de chasse.jpg\|Dead Rabbit and Hunting Gear (ca. 1727), oil on canvas., 81 x 65 cm., Louvre File:Jean-Baptiste Siméon Chardin 007.jpg\|The Ray (1727), oil on canvas, 114.5 x 146 cm., Louvre Image:Jean-Baptiste Siméon Chardin 029.jpg\|Glass Flask and Fruit (ca. 1728), oil on canvas, 55.7 x 46 cm., Staatliche Kunsthalle Karlsruhe File:Kitchen utensils (1729).jpg\|Kitchen Utensils and Three Herrings or Whitings (1729), oil on canvas, Clark Art Institute File:Cooking pots (1729).jpg\|Cooking Pots and Ladle with a White Cloth (1729), oil on canvas, 15 3/8 x 12 1/8 in. (39.1 x 30.8 cm), Clark Art Institute File:Chardin - Les attributs des Sciences.jpg\|The Attributes of Exploration (1731), oil on canvas, 141 x 219 cm., Musée Jacquemart-André File:Jean Siméon Chardin - Sealing the Letter - WGA04745.jpg\|Sealing the Letter (1733), oil on canvas, 146 x 147 cm., Schloss Charlottenburg File:Soap Bubbles 1733-5 Jean-Baptiste-Simeon Chardin.jpg\|Soap Bubbles (ca.1733-1734), oil on canvas, 93 x 74.6 cm., National Gallery of Art File:Jean Baptiste Simeon - The Drawing Lesson.jpg\|The Drawing Lesson (ca. 1734), oil on canvas, 41 × 47 cm., Tokyo Fuji Art Museum File:Le Jeune Dessinateur.jpg\|The Draftsman (1737), oil on canvas, 80 x 65 cm., Louvre Image:Jean-Baptiste Siméon Chardin 017.jpg\|Woman Cleaning Turnips (ca. 1738), oil on canvas, 46.2 x 37 cm., Alte Pinakothek File:Chardin - The Return from the Market, 1738.jpg\|The Return from the Market (1738–39), oil on canvas, 47 x 38 cm., Louvre File:Jean Siméon Chardin - La Gouvernante (The Governess) - WGA04762.jpg\|The Governess (1739), oil on canvas, 47 x 38 cm., National Gallery of Canada File:Chardin, Jean Siméon - Godefroy, Auguste Gabriel - Museu de Arte de São Paulo - Google Art Project.jpg\|Portrait of Auguste Gabriel Godefroy (1741), oil on canvas, 64.5 x 76.5 cm., São Paulo Museum of Art File:Jean Siméon Chardin - The Prayer before Meal - WGA04770.jpg\|Saying Grace (1744), oil on canvas, 50 x 38 cm., Hermitage Museum File:Jean Siméon Chardin, The Attentive Nurse, 1747, NGA 41649.jpg\|The Attentive Nurse (1747), oil on canvas, 46.2 x 37 cm., National Gallery of Art File:Chardin, Jean-Siméon - The Good Education - Google Art Project.jpg\|The Good Education (ca. 1753), oil on canvas, 43 x 47.3 cm., Museum of Fine Arts, Houston File:Chardin - LES DEBRIS D'UN DEJEUNER, 1763 vers (cropped).jpg\|The Preparations of a Lunch (1756), oil on canvas, 38 × 46 cm., Musée des Beaux-Arts de Carcassonne File:Chardin - Wildenstein 1969, 297.png\|A Basket of Wild Strawberries (ca, 1760), oil on canvas, 38 x 46 cm., private collection File:Jean Siméon Chardin - 'La Brioche' (Cake) - WGA04779.jpg\|La Brioche (1763), oil on canvas, 47 x 56 cm., Louvre File:Chardin - Basket of Plums, 1765.jpg\|Basket of Plums (1765), oil on canvas, 32.4 x 41.9 cm., Chrysler Museum of Art File:Chardin, Jean-Baptiste Siméon - Still Life with Attributes of the Arts - 1766.jpg\|Still Life with Attributes of the Arts (1766), oil on canvas, 112 x 140.5 cm., Hermitage Museum File:Jean Siméon Chardin - Basket of Peaches, with Walnuts, Knife and Glass of Wine - WGA04783.jpg\|Basket of Peaches, with Walnuts, Knife and Glass of Wine (1768), oil on canvas, 32 x 39 cm., Louvre File:Jean-Siméon Chardin (French - Still Life with Fish, Vegetables, Gougères, Pots, and Cruets on a Table - Google Art Project.jpg\|Still Life with Fish and Vegetables (1769), oil on canvas, 68.6 x 58.4 cm., J. Paul Getty Museum </gallery> See also The Attributes of Civilian and Military Music Soap Bubbles (painting) The House of Cards Notes References ArtCyclopedia: [http://www.artcyclopedia.com/artists/chardin_jean-baptiste-simeon.html Jean-Baptiste Siméon Chardin]. * * Rosenberg, Pierre (2000), Chardin. Munich: Prestel. . * Rosenberg, Pierre, and Florence Bruyant (2000), Chardin. London: Royal Academy of Arts. . External links [http://www.metmuseum.org/special/se_event.asp?OccurrenceId={A238C1BD-B848-11D3-936D-00902786BF44} Chardin exhibition] at the Metropolitan Museum of Art [http://www.getty.edu/art/gettyguide/artMakerDetails?maker=539 Getty Museum: Chardin]. [http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/chardin/ WebMuseum: Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin]. [http://www.jean-baptiste-simeon-chardin.org Jean-Baptiste-Simeon-Chardin.org] 124 works by Jean Siméon Chardin. [http://www.artcyclopedia.com/artists/chardin_jean-baptiste-simeon.html Artcylopedia: Jean-Baptiste Siméon Chardin – identifies where Chardin's work is in galleries and museums around the world]. [http://www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/html/c/chardin/index.html Web Gallery of Art: Chardin]. [http://www.pastellists.com Neil Jeffares, Dictionary of pastellists before 1800, online edition] [https://waddesdon.org.uk/the-collection/item/?id=17590 Chardin, Boy Building a House of Cards at Waddesdon Manor] Category:1699 births Category:1779 deaths Category:18th-century French painters Category:French male painters Category:Rococo painters Category:French still life painters Category:Waddesdon Manor Category:18th-century French male artists	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Siméon_Chardin	2025-04-05T18:28:02.311055
7021	Crookes radiometer	thumbnail\|Crookes radiometer The Crookes radiometer (also known as a light mill) consists of an airtight glass bulb containing a partial vacuum, with a set of vanes which are mounted on a spindle inside. The vanes rotate when exposed to light, with faster rotation for more intense light, providing a quantitative measurement of electromagnetic radiation intensity. The reason for the rotation was a cause of much scientific debate in the ten years following the invention of the device, but in 1879 the currently accepted explanation for the rotation was published. Today the device is mainly used in physics education as a demonstration of a heat engine run by light energy. It was invented in 1873 by the chemist Sir William Crookes as the by-product of some chemical research. In the course of very accurate quantitative chemical work, he was weighing samples in a partially evacuated chamber to reduce the effect of air currents, and noticed the weighings were disturbed when sunlight shone on the balance. Investigating this effect, he created the device named after him. It is still manufactured and sold as an educational aid or for curiosity. General description thumbnail\|250px\|right\|A Crookes radiometer in action The radiometer is made from a glass bulb from which much of the air has been removed to form a partial vacuum. Inside the bulb, on a low-friction spindle, is a rotor with several (usually four) vertical lightweight vanes spaced equally around the axis. The vanes are polished or white on one side and black on the other. When exposed to sunlight, artificial light, or infrared radiation (even the heat of a hand nearby can be enough), the vanes turn with no apparent motive power, the dark sides retreating from the radiation source and the light sides advancing. Cooling the outside of the radiometer rapidly causes rotation in the opposite direction. Effect observations The effect begins to be observed at partial vacuum pressures of several hundred pascals (or several torrs), reaches a peak at around and has disappeared by the time the vacuum reaches (see explanations note 1). At these very high vacuums the effect of photon radiation pressure on the vanes can be observed in very sensitive apparatus (see Nichols radiometer), but this is insufficient to cause rotation. Origin of the name The prefix "radio-" in the title originates from the combining form of Latin radius, a ray: here it refers to electromagnetic radiation. A Crookes radiometer, consistent with the suffix "-meter" in its title, can provide a quantitative measurement of electromagnetic radiation intensity. This can be done, for example, by visual means (e.g., a spinning slotted disk, which functions as a simple stroboscope) without interfering with the measurement itself. Radiometers are now commonly sold worldwide as a novelty ornament; needing no batteries, but only light to get the vanes to turn. They come in various forms, such as the one pictured, and are often used in science museums to illustrate "radiation pressure" – a scientific principle that they do not in fact demonstrate. Thermodynamic explanation thumb\|280px\|right\|A Crookes radiometer in action with the light switched on and off. (Note that the explanation given in the caption to the clip doesn't agree with the modern explanation.) Movement with absorption When a radiant energy source is directed at a Crookes radiometer, the radiometer becomes a heat engine. The operation of a heat engine is based on a difference in temperature that is converted to a mechanical output. In this case, the black side of the vane becomes hotter than the other side, as radiant energy from a light source warms the black side by absorption faster than the silver or white side. The internal air molecules are heated up when they touch the black side of the vane. The warmer side of the vane is subjected to a force which moves it forward. The internal temperature rises as the black vanes impart heat to the air molecules, but the molecules are cooled again when they touch the bulb's glass surface, which is at ambient temperature. This heat loss through the glass keeps the internal bulb temperature steady with the result that the two sides of the vanes develop a temperature difference. The white or silver side of the vanes are slightly warmer than the internal air temperature but cooler than the black side, as some heat conducts through the vane from the black side. The two sides of each vane must be thermally insulated to some degree so that the polished or white side does not immediately reach the temperature of the black side. If the vanes are made of metal, then the black or white paint can be the insulation. The glass stays much closer to ambient temperature than the temperature reached by the black side of the vanes. The external air helps conduct heat away from the glass. This theory was originally supported by James Clerk Maxwell, who had predicted this force. This explanation is still often seen in leaflets packaged with the device. The first experiment to test this theory was done by Arthur Schuster in 1876, who observed that there was a force on the glass bulb of the Crookes radiometer that was in the opposite direction to the rotation of the vanes. This showed that the force turning the vanes was generated inside the radiometer. If light pressure were the cause of the rotation, then the better the vacuum in the bulb, the less air resistance to movement, and the faster the vanes should spin. In 1901, with a better vacuum pump, Pyotr Lebedev showed that in fact, the radiometer only works when there is low-pressure gas in the bulb, and the vanes stay motionless in a hard vacuum. Finally, if light pressure were the motive force, the radiometer would spin in the opposite direction, as the photons on the shiny side being reflected would deposit more momentum than on the black side, where the photons are absorbed. This results from conservation of momentum – the momentum of the reflected photon exiting on the light side must be matched by a reaction on the vane that reflected it. The actual pressure exerted by light is far too small to move these vanes, but can be measured with devices such as the Nichols radiometer. It is in fact possible to make the radiometer spin in the opposite direction by either heating it or putting it in a cold environment (like a freezer) in absence of light, when black sides become cooler than the white ones due to the thermal radiation. Another incorrect theory was that the heat on the dark side was causing the material to outgas, which pushed the radiometer around. This was later effectively disproved by both Schuster's experiments (1876) and Lebedev's (1901) Currently accepted theory The currently accepted theory was formulated by Osborne Reynolds, who theorized that thermal transpiration was the cause of the motion. Reynolds found that if a porous plate is kept hotter on one side than the other, the interactions between gas molecules and the plates are such that gas will flow through from the cooler to the hotter side. The vanes of a typical Crookes radiometer are not porous, but the space past their edges behaves like the pores in Reynolds's plate. As gas moves from the cooler to the hotter side, the pressure on the hotter side increases. When the plate is fixed, the pressure on the hotter side increases until the ratio of pressures between the sides equals the square root of the ratio of absolute temperatures. Because the plates in a radiometer are not fixed, the pressure difference from cooler to hotter side causes the vane to move. The cooler (white) side moves forward, pushed by the higher pressure behind it. From a molecular point of view, the vane moves due to the tangential force of the rarefied gas colliding differently with the edges of the vane between the hot and cold sides. Maxwell died that year and the Royal Society refused to publish Reynolds's critique of Maxwell's rebuttal to Reynolds's unpublished paper, as it was felt that this would be an inappropriate argument when one of the people involved had already died. Horizontal vane light mill The thermal creep from the hot side of a vane to the cold side has been demonstrated in a mill with horizontal vanes that have a two-tone surface with a black half and a white half. This design is called a Hettner radiometer. This radiometer's angular speed was found to be limited by the behavior of the drag force due to the gas in the vessel more than by the behavior of the thermal creep force. This design does not experience the Einstein effect because the faces are parallel to the temperature gradient. Nanoscale light mill In 2010 researchers at the University of California, Berkeley succeeded in building a nanoscale light mill that works on an entirely different principle to the Crookes radiometer. A gold light mill, only 100 nanometers in diameter, was built and illuminated by laser light that had been tuned. The possibility of doing this had been suggested by the Princeton physicist Richard Beth in 1936. The torque was greatly enhanced by the resonant coupling of the incident light to plasmonic waves in the gold structure. Practical applications The radiometric effect has not been often used for practical applications. Marcel Bétrisey made in 2001 two different clocks (Le Chronolithe and Conti) powered by the light. Their pendulums had bulb lamps located outside the glass dôme and pointing against 4 mica vanes. One meter pendulum gives one second, two lamps placed in either side light up alternately, thus “pushing” the 4 kilos pendulum each time. As there was vacuum inside, its accuracy was of the order of 2 seconds per month. See also Crookes tube Marangoni effect Nichols radiometer Photophoresis Solar energy Solar wind Thermophoresis References General information Loeb, Leonard B. (1934) The Kinetic Theory of Gases (2nd Edition);McGraw-Hill Book Company; pp 353–386 Kennard, Earle H. (1938) Kinetic Theory of Gases; McGraw-Hill Book Company; pp 327–337 Patents External links Crooke's Radiometer applet How does a light-mill work?-Physics FAQ The Cathode Ray Tube site . 1933 Bell and Green experiment describing the effect of different gas pressures on the vanes. The Properties of the Force Exerted in a Radiometer archived Radiometric clocks made by Marcel Bétrisey: "Le Chronolithe" and "Conti" Category:Hot air engines Category:Electromagnetic radiation meters Category:Radiometry Category:External combustion engines Category:Heat transfer Category:Energy conversion Category:Novelty items Category:19th-century inventions Category:British inventions	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crookes_radiometer	2025-04-05T18:28:02.347339
7022	Cold Chisel	\| origin = Adelaide, South Australia \| genre = \| years_active = – * – * 2003 * –present }} \| label = \| associated_acts \| website \| current_members = * Ian Moss * Don Walker * Jimmy Barnes * Phil Small * Charley Drayton \| past_members = * Steve Prestwich * Ted Broniecki * Les Kaczmarek * John Swan * Ray Arnott }} Cold Chisel are<!-- This article is written is Australian English, which commonly treats collective nouns as plural. Please do not change "are" to "is". Thank you. --> an Australian pub rock band, which formed in Adelaide in 1973 by mainstay members Ian Moss on guitar and vocals, Steve Prestwich on drums, Les Kaczmarek on bass and Don Walker on piano and keyboards. They were soon joined by Jimmy Barnes on lead vocals and, in 1975, Phil Small became their bass guitarist. The group disbanded in late 1983 but subsequently re-formed several times. Musicologist Ian McFarlane wrote that they became "one of Australia's best-loved groups" as well as "one of the best live bands", fusing "a combination of rockabilly, hard rock and rough-house soul'n'blues that was defiantly Australian in outlook." Eight of their studio albums have reached the Australian top five, Breakfast at Sweethearts (February 1979), East (June 1980), Circus Animals (March 1982, No. 1), Twentieth Century (April 1984, No. 1), The Last Wave of Summer (October 1998, No. 1), No Plans (April 2012), The Perfect Crime (October 2015) and Blood Moon (December 2019, No. 1). They have achieved six number-one albums on the ARIA Charts, the latest being their 2024 compilation 50 Years – The Best Of. Their top-10 singles are "Cheap Wine" (1980), "Forever Now" (1982), "Hands Out of My Pocket" (1994) and "The Things I Love in You" (1998). At the ARIA Music Awards of 1993 they were inducted into the Hall of Fame. In 2001 Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA) listed their single "Khe Sanh" (May 1978) at No. 8 of the all-time best Australian songs. Circus Animals was listed at No. 4 in the book 100 Best Australian Albums (October 2010), while East appeared at No. 53. They won The Ted Albert Award for Outstanding Services to Australian Music at the APRA Music Awards of 2016. Cold Chisel's popularity is almost entirely confined to Australia and New Zealand, with their songs and musicianship highlighting working class life. Their early bass guitarist (1973–75), Les Kaczmarek, died in December 2008; Steve Prestwich died of a brain tumour in January 2011. History 1973–1978: Beginnings Cold Chisel originally formed as Orange in Adelaide in 1973 as a heavy metal band with Ted Broniecki on keyboards, Les Kaczmarek on bass guitar, Ian Moss on guitar and vocals, Steve Prestwich on drums and Don Walker on piano. Kaczmarek left Cold Chisel during 1975 and was replaced by Phil Small on bass guitar. In May 1977, Barnes told his fellow members that he would leave again. From July he joined Feather for a few weeks, on co-lead vocals with Swan – they were a Sydney-based hard rock group, which had evolved from Blackfeather. It peaked at No. 4 and was the top-selling album in Australia by a locally based artist for that year; 1981-1982: Swingshift to Circus Animals The Youth in Asia Tour performances were used for Cold Chisel's double live album, Swingshift (March 1981). Half of the songs had lyrics written by Barnes and music by Walker, a new combination for Cold Chisel, with Barnes noting his increased confidence after writing two autobiographies.2024: 50th Anniversary TourOn 29 May 2024, Cold Chisel announced 'The 50th Anniversary Tour', beginning in Armidale on 5 October 2024 and ending in the band's hometown of Adelaide on 17 November 2024. However, Jimmy Barnes' wife Jane subsequently posted on X.com that further tour dates including New Zealand would be announced later.Musical style and lyrical themesMcFarlane described Cold Chisel's early career in his Encyclopedia of Australian Rock and Pop (1999): "after ten years on the road, [they] called it a day. Not that the band split up for want of success; by that stage [they] had built up a reputation previously uncharted in Australian rock history. By virtue of the profound effect the band's music had on the many thousands of fans who witnessed its awesome power, Cold Chisel remains one of Australia's best-loved groups. As one of the best live bands of its day, [they] fused a combination of rockabilly, hard rock and rough-house soul'n'blues that was defiantly Australian in outlook."Members Current members * Ian Moss – guitars, backing and lead vocals <small>(1973–1983, 1997–1999, 2003, 2009–present)</small> * Don Walker – keyboards, backing vocals <small>(1973–1983, 1997–1999, 2003, 2009–present)</small> * Jimmy Barnes – lead and backing vocals, occasional guitar <small>(1973–1975, 1976–1977, 1978–1984, 1997–1999, 2003, 2009–present)</small> * Phil Small – bass guitar, backing vocals <small>(1975–1984, 1997–1999, 2003, 2009–present)</small> * Charley Drayton – drums, percussion, backing vocals, acoustic guitar <small>(2011–present)</small> Current touring musicians * Dave Blight – harmonica * Andy Bickers – saxophone * Juanita Tippins – backing vocals * Eliza Jane Barnes – backing vocals * Bek Jensen – backing vocals Former members * Steve Prestwich – drums, percussion, backing and lead vocals, acoustic guitar <small>(1973–1983, 1983, 1997–1999, 2003, 2009–2011; his death)</small> * Ted Broniecki – keyboards <small>(1973)</small> * Les Kaczmarek – bass guitar <small>(1973–1975; died 2008)</small> * John Swan – percussion, backing vocals <small>(1975)</small> * Ray Arnott – drums <small>(1983)</small> Former touring musicians * Billy Rogers – saxophone * Jimmy Sloggett – saxophone * Renée Geyer – backing vocals <small>(died 2023)</small> * Venetta Fields – backing vocals * Megan Williams – backing vocals <small>(died 2000)</small> * Peter Walker – acoustic guitar * Joe Camilleri – saxophone * Wilbur Wilde – saxophone Timeline TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal format:yyyy Legend = orientation:vertical position:bottom columns:3 ScaleMajor = increment:5 start:1973 ScaleMinor = increment:1 start:1973 Colors = id:vocals value:red legend:Lead_vocals id:bvocals value:pink legend:Backing_vocals id:guitar value:green legend:Guitar id:keys value:purple legend:Piano,_keyboards id:bass value:blue legend:Bass id:drums value:orange legend:Drums id:perc value:claret legend:Percussion id:studio value:black legend:Studio_album id:other value:gray(0.6) legend:Other_release id:bars value:gray(0.93) LineData = layer:back color:studio at:04/24/1978 at:02/01/1979 at:06/02/1980 at:03/01/1982 at:03/01/1984 at:10/01/1998 at:04/06/2012 at:10/05/2015 at:12/06/2019 color:other at:11/20/1978 at:04/01/1981 at:06/01/1983 at:12/01/1984 at:06/01/1985 at:06/01/1987 at:09/01/1991 at:10/01/1992 at:10/01/1994 at:12/06/1999 at:11/14/2003 at:06/01/2007 at:07/21/2011 at:07/21/2011 at:08/19/2011 at:10/14/2011 at:11/22/2013 at:11/14/2014 at:12/02/2016 at:11/10/2017 BarData = bar:Ian text:"Ian Moss" bar:Jimmy text:"Jimmy Barnes" bar:Don text:"Don Walker" bar:Ted text:"Ted Broniecki" bar:Les text:"Les Kaczmarek" bar:Phil text:"Phil Small" bar:Steve text:"Steve Prestwich" bar:Ray text:"Ray Arnott" bar:Charley text:"Charley Drayton" bar:John text:"John Swan" PlotData= width:11 textcolor:black align:left anchor:from shift:(10,-4) bar:Ian from:01/01/1973 till:12/01/1973 color:vocals bar:Ian from:01/01/1973 till:12/01/1973 color:guitar width:3 bar:Ian from:12/01/1973 till:06/01/1975 color:guitar bar:Ian from:12/01/1973 till:06/01/1975 color:bvocals width:3 bar:Ian from:06/01/1975 till:05/01/1976 color:vocals bar:Ian from:06/01/1975 till:05/01/1976 color:guitar width:3 bar:Ian from:05/01/1976 till:05/01/1977 color:guitar bar:Ian from:05/01/1976 till:05/01/1977 color:bvocals width:3 bar:Ian from:05/01/1977 till:10/01/1977 color:vocals bar:Ian from:05/01/1977 till:10/01/1977 color:guitar width:3 bar:Ian from:10/01/1977 till:12/15/1983 color:guitar bar:Ian from:10/01/1977 till:12/15/1983 color:vocals width:3 bar:Ian from:01/10/1997 till:12/01/1998 color:guitar bar:Ian from:01/10/1997 till:12/01/1998 color:vocals width:3 bar:Ian from:05/13/2003 till:01/30/2004 color:guitar bar:Ian from:05/13/2003 till:01/30/2004 color:vocals width:3 bar:Ian from:09/10/2009 till:end color:guitar bar:Ian from:09/10/2009 till:end color:vocals width:3 bar:Jimmy from:12/01/1973 till:06/01/1975 color:vocals bar:Jimmy from:05/01/1976 till:05/01/1977 color:vocals bar:Jimmy from:10/01/1977 till:12/15/1983 color:vocals bar:Jimmy from:01/01/1981 till:12/15/1983 color:guitar width:3 bar:Jimmy from:01/10/1997 till:12/01/1998 color:vocals bar:Jimmy from:05/13/2003 till:01/30/2004 color:vocals bar:Jimmy from:09/10/2009 till:end color:vocals bar:Don from:01/01/1973 till:12/15/1983 color:keys bar:Don from:10/01/1977 till:10/01/1978 color:bvocals width:3 bar:Don from:01/01/1981 till:12/15/1983 color:bvocals width:3 bar:Don from:01/10/1997 till:12/01/1998 color:keys bar:Don from:01/10/1997 till:12/01/1998 color:bvocals width:3 bar:Don from:05/13/2003 till:01/30/2004 color:keys bar:Don from:05/13/2003 till:01/30/2004 color:bvocals width:3 bar:Don from:09/10/2009 till:end color:keys bar:Don from:09/10/2009 till:end color:bvocals width:3 bar:Ted from:01/01/1973 till:09/01/1973 color:keys bar:Les from:01/01/1973 till:06/01/1975 color:bass bar:Phil from:06/01/1975 till:12/15/1983 color:bass bar:Phil from:01/01/1981 till:12/15/1983 color:bvocals width:3 bar:Phil from:01/10/1997 till:12/01/1998 color:bass bar:Phil from:01/10/1997 till:12/01/1998 color:bvocals width:3 bar:Phil from:05/13/2003 till:01/30/2004 color:bass bar:Phil from:05/13/2003 till:01/30/2004 color:bvocals width:3 bar:Phil from:09/10/2009 till:end color:bass bar:Phil from:09/10/2009 till:end color:bvocals width:3 bar:John from:01/01/1975 till:06/01/1975 color:perc bar:John from:01/01/1975 till:06/01/1975 color:bvocals width:3 bar:Steve from:01/01/1973 till:02/01/1983 color:drums bar:Steve from:01/01/1981 till:02/01/1983 color:bvocals width:3 bar:Steve from:01/10/1997 till:12/01/1998 color:drums bar:Steve from:01/10/1997 till:12/01/1998 color:bvocals width:3 bar:Steve from:05/13/2003 till:01/30/2004 color:drums bar:Steve from:05/13/2003 till:01/30/2004 color:bvocals width:3 bar:Ray from:02/01/1983 till:09/01/1983 color:drums bar:Steve from:09/01/1983 till:12/15/1983 color:drums bar:Steve from:09/01/1983 till:12/15/1983 color:bvocals width:3 bar:Steve from:09/10/2009 till:01/16/2011 color:drums bar:Steve from:09/10/2009 till:01/16/2011 color:bvocals width:3 bar:Charley from:07/01/2011 till:end color:drums bar:Charley from:07/01/2011 till:end color:bvocals width:3 }} Discography <!-- studio albums only here, go to Cold Chisel discography or nav-box below for other releases --> * Cold Chisel (1978) * Breakfast at Sweethearts (1979) * East (1980) * Circus Animals (1982) * Twentieth Century (1984) * The Last Wave of Summer (1998) * No Plans (2012) * The Perfect Crime (2015) * Blood Moon (2019) Awards and nominations APRA Awards The APRA Awards are presented annually from 1982 by the Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA), "honouring composers and songwriters". They commenced in 1982. ! \|- \| 2012 \| "All for You" (Don Walker) \| Song of the Year \| \| \|- \| 2016 \|\| "Lost" (Don Walker, Wes Carr) \|\| Song of the Year \|\| \|\| \|- \| rowspan"2"\| 2021 \|\|rowspan"2"\| "Getting the Band Back Together" (Don Walker) \|\| Most Performed Rock Work \|\| \|\| \|- \| Song of the Year \| \| \|- ARIA Music Awards The ARIA Music Awards is an annual awards ceremony that recognises excellence, innovation, and achievement across all genres of Australian music. They commenced in 1987. Cold Chisel was inducted into the Hall of Fame in 1993. \|- \| 1992 \| Chisel \| Highest Selling Album \| \|- \| 1993 \| Cold Chisel \| ARIA Hall of Fame \| \|- \| rowspan="2" \| 1999 \| rowspan="2" \| The Last Wave of Summer \| Best Rock Album \| \|- \| Highest Selling Album \| \|- \| rowspan="3" \| 2012 \| rowspan="2" \| No Plans \| Best Rock Album \| \|- \| Best Group \| \|- \| Light The Nitro Tour \| Best Australian Live Act \| \|- \| rowspan="3" \| 2020 \| Blood Moon \| Best Rock Album \| \|- \| Kevin Shirley for Blood Moon by Cold Chisel \| Producer of the Year \| \|- \| Blood Moon Tour \| Best Australian Live Act \| \|- Helpmann Awards The Helpmann Awards is an awards show, celebrating live entertainment and performing arts in Australia, presented by industry group Live Performance Australia since 2001. ! \|- \| 2012 \| Light the Nitro Tour \| Best Australian Contemporary Concert \| \| \|- South Australian Music Awards The South Australian Music Awards are annual awards that exist to recognise, promote and celebrate excellence in the South Australian contemporary music industry. They commenced in 2012. The South Australian Music Hall of Fame celebrates the careers of successful music industry personalities. ! \|- \| 2016 \| Cold Chisel \| Hall of Fame \| \| \|- TV Week / Countdown Awards Countdown was an Australian pop music TV series on national broadcaster ABC-TV from 1974 to 1987, it presented music awards from 1979 to 1987, initially in conjunction with magazine TV Week. The TV Week / Countdown Awards were a combination of popular-voted and peer-voted awards. \|- \| rowspan="3" \|1979 \| rowspan="2" \| Breakfast at Sweethearts \| Best Australian Album \| \|- \| Best Australian Record Cover Design \| \|- \| Don Walker for "Choirgirl" by Cold Chisel \| Best Recorded Songwriter \| \|- \| rowspan="8" \|1980 \| rowspan="3" \| East \| Best Australian Album \| \|- \| Best Australian Record Cover Design \| \|- \| Most Popular Australia Album \| \|- \| rowspan="2" \| Cold Chisel \| Most Outstanding Achievement \| \|- \| Most Popular Group \| \|- \| Jimmy Barnes (Cold Chisel) \| Most Popular Male Performer \| \|- \| Don Walker by Cold Chisel \| Best Recorded Songwriter \| \|- \| Mark Opitz for East by Cold Chisel \| Best Australian Producer \| \|- \| 1981 \| themselves \| Most Consistent Live Act \| \|- \|1982 \| Circus Animals \| Best Australian Album \| \|- \| 1984 \| "Saturday Night" \| Best Video \| \|- See also * Timeline of trends in Australian music References ;General * Note: Archived [on-line] copy has limited functionality. ;Specific External links * Category:APRA Award winners Category:ARIA Award winners Category:ARIA Hall of Fame inductees Category:Australian hard rock musical groups Category:Australian pub rock musical groups Category:Australian musical quintets Category:Musical groups established in 1973 Category:Musical groups disestablished in 1983 Category:Musical groups reestablished in 2009 Category:Musical groups from Adelaide Category:1973 establishments in Australia	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_Chisel	2025-04-05T18:28:02.408694
7023	Confederate States of America	<br />Bottom: Flag<br /> \| image_flag = Flag of the Confederate States (1861–1863).svg \| image_flag2 = Flag of the Confederate States (1865).svg \| symbol_type_article = Seal of the Confederate States \| symbol_type = Seal<br /><!-- Please do not add the word "Great" as it would be historically inaccurate. The word was not in the 1863 law passed by the C.S. Congress establishing the Seal. --> \| coa_size = 105px \| image_coat = Seal of the Confederate States of America.svg \| national_motto = Deo vindice \| englishmotto = Under God, our Vindicator \| anthem = God Save the South (unofficial)<hr />Dixie (popular, unofficial) \| march = The Bonnie Blue Flag \| image_map = Confederate States of America (orthographic projection).svg \| alt_map = Map of northern hemisphere with Confederate States of America highlighted \| map_caption * * * }} \| image_map_caption = Federal Union and Southern States \| capital Greensboro, North Carolina \| largest_city = New Orleans<br />(until May 1, 1862) \| common_languages = <br />minor languages: French (Louisiana), Indigenous languages (Indian territory) \| government_type = \| title_leader = President \| leader1 = Jefferson Davis \| year_leader1 = 1861–1865 \| title_deputy = Vice President \| deputy1 = Alexander H. Stephens \| year_deputy1 = 1861–1865 \| legislature = Congress \| house1 = Senate \| house2 = \| era = American Civil War \| event_start = Provisional constitution \| date_start = February 8, \| event2 = <!-- Please do not add individual American Civil War battles to this list. ACW is enough. --> \| date_event2 = April 12, 1861<!-- The start date of the American Civil War was when Confederate guns around the harbor opened fire on Fort Sumter, S.C. --> \| event3 = \| date_event3 = February 22, 1862 <!--**********************************************************************************************************************************************************--> <!-- Please do not add more armies or departments to list below of the 1865 surrender events. These were the "big three" field armies. --> <!--********************************************************************************************************************************************************-->\| event4 = Battle of Appomattox Court House \| date_event4 = April 9, 1865 \| event5 = Military collapse<!-- Largest surrender of Confederate forces occurred on April 26, 1865, of Joseph E. Johnston and his field army --> \| date_event5 = April 26, 1865 \| event_end = Debellation and dissolution \| date_end = May 5, <!--********************************************************************************************************************************************************--> <!-- Please do not add more armies or departments to above list of the 1865 surrender events. These were the "big three" field armies. --> <!--*********************************************************************************************************************************************************-->\| stat_year1 1860 \| stat_pop1 = 9,103,332 \| stat_year2 = Slaves \| stat_area2 \| stat_pop2 3,521,110 \| currency \| p1 = South Carolina in the American Civil War<!-- Seceded from the Union on December 20, 1860 --> \| flag_p1 = Flag of South Carolina (January 1861).svg \| p2 = Mississippi in the American Civil WarMississippi<!-- Seceded on January 9, 1861 --> \| flag_p2 = Flag of Mississippi (1861-1865).svg \| p3 = Florida in the American Civil WarFlorida<!-- Seceded on January 10, 1861 --> \| flag_p3 = Flag of Florida (1861-1865).svg \| p4 = Alabama in the American Civil WarAlabama<!-- Seceded on January 11, 1861 --> \| flag_p4 = Flag of Alabama (1861, obverse).svg \| p5 = Georgia in the American Civil WarGeorgia<!-- Seceded on January 19, 1861 --> \| flag_p5 = Flag of the State of Georgia (1861, red).svg \| p6 = Louisiana in the American Civil WarLouisiana<!-- Seceded on January 26, 1861 --> \| flag_p6 = Louisiana Feb 11 1861.svg \| p7 = Texas in the American Civil WarTexas<!-- Seceded on February 1, 1861 --> \| flag_p7 = Flag of Texas (1839–1879).svg \| p8 = Virginia in the American Civil WarVirginia<!-- Seceded on April 17, 1861 --> \| flag_p8 = Flag of Virginia (1861–1865).svg \| p9 = Arkansas in the American Civil WarArkansas<!-- Seceded on May 6, 1861 --> \| flag_p9 = Flag of the Confederate States (May 1861 – July 1861).svg \| p10 = North Carolina in the American Civil War \| flag_p10 = Flag of North Carolina (1861).svg<!-- Seceded on May 20, 1861 --> \| p11 = Tennessee in the American Civil WarTennessee<!-- Seceded on June 8, 1861 --> \| flag_p11 = Tennessee 1861 proposed.svg \| p12 = <!-- Territories are always listed after the States, regardless of alphabetical order. -->Confederate ArizonaArizona Territory<!-- Declared itself an independent territory (separate from U.S. New Mexico Territory) and seceded from the Union on March 28, 1861 --> \| flag_p12 = Flag of the Confederate States (1861–1863).svg \| s1 = West Virginia<!-- Admitted into the Union on June 20, 1863 --> \| flag_s1 = <!-- Please leave blank. The West Virginia Legislature did not enact legislation to adopt an official State flag until 1905. Please do not add the West Virginia flag adopted by the state government in 1905 (1905, 1907, 1929, or 1962) (42 years after the state was admitted into the Union) or any of the other so-called "proposed" flags as it would be historically inaccurate. --> \| s2 = Tennessee<!-- Readmitted on July 24, 1866 --> \| flag_s2 = Tennessee 1861 proposed.svg \| s3 = Arkansas<!-- Readmitted on June 22, 1868 --> \| flag_s3 = Flag of the Confederate States (May 1861 – July 1861).svg \| s4 = Florida<!-- Readmitted on June 25, 1868 --> \| flag_s4 = Flag of Florida (1861–1865).svg \| s5 = Alabama<!-- Readmitted on June 25, 1868 --> \| flag_s5 = Flag of Alabama (1861, reverse).svg \| s6 = Louisiana<!-- Readmitted on June 25, 1868 --> \| flag_s6 = Louisiana Feb 11 1861.svg \| s7 = North Carolina<!-- Readmitted on June 25, 1868 --> \| flag_s7 = Flag of North Carolina (1861).svg \| s8 = South Carolina<!-- Readmitted on June 25, 1868 --> \| flag_s8 = Flag of South Carolina (1861).svg \| s9 = Virginia<!-- Readmitted on January 27, 1870 --> \| flag_s9 = Flag of Virginia (1861–1865).svg \| s10 = Mississippi<!-- Readmitted on February 23, 1870 --> \| flag_s10 = Flag of Mississippi (1861-1865).svg \| s11 = Texas<!-- Readmitted on March 30, 1870 --> \| flag_s11 = Flag of Texas (1839–1879).svg \| s12 = Georgia (U.S. state)Georgia<!-- Readmitted on July 15, 1870 --> \| flag_s12 = Flag of the State of Georgia (non-official).svg \| s13 = <!-- Territories are always listed after the States, regardless of alphabetical order. -->Arizona Territory<!-- Organized by the United States on February 24, 1863 --> \| flag_s13 = Flag of the United States (1863–1865).svg <!-- Please do not add 1850–1912 New Mexico Territory to this list because it remained a U.S. territory during the War and Reconstruction. -->\| today = United States \| footnotes \| demonym Confederate<br />Southern }} The Confederate States of America (CSA), commonly referred to as the Confederate States (C.S.), the Confederacy, or the South, was an unrecognized breakaway It was composed of eleven U.S. states that declared secession: South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina. These states warred against the United States during the American Civil War. With Abraham Lincoln's election as President of the United States in 1860, eleven southern states believed their slavery-dependent plantation economies were threatened, and began to secede from the United States. The Confederacy was formed on February 8, 1861, by South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. They adopted a new constitution establishing a confederation government of "sovereign and independent states". The federal government in Washington D.C. and states under its control were known as the Union. The Civil War began on April 12, 1861, when South Carolina's militia attacked Fort Sumter. Four slave states of the Upper South—Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina—then seceded and joined the Confederacy. On February 22, 1862, Confederate States Army leaders installed a centralized federal government in Richmond, Virginia, and enacted the first Confederate draft on April 16, 1862. By 1865, the Confederacy's federal government dissolved into chaos, and the Confederate States Congress adjourned, effectively ceasing to exist as a legislative body on March 18. After four years of heavy fighting, most Confederate land and naval forces either surrendered or otherwise ceased hostilities by May 1865. The most significant capitulation was Confederate general Robert E. Lee's surrender on April 9, after which any doubt about the war's outcome or the Confederacy's survival was extinguished. Confederate President Davis's administration declared the Confederacy dissolved on May 5. After the war, during the Reconstruction era, the Confederate states were readmitted to Congress after each ratified the 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which outlawed slavery. Lost Cause mythology, an idealized view of the Confederacy valiantly fighting for a just cause, emerged in the decades after the war among former Confederate generals and politicians, and in organizations such as the United Daughters of the Confederacy and the Sons of Confederate Veterans. Intense periods of Lost Cause activity developed around the turn of the 20th century and during the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s in reaction to growing support for racial equality. Advocates sought to ensure future generations of Southern whites would continue to support white supremacist policies such as the Jim Crow laws through activities such as building Confederate monuments and influencing the authors of textbooks. The modern display of the Confederate battle flag primarily started during the 1948 presidential election, when the battle flag was used by the pro-segregationist and white supremacist Dixiecrat Party. During the civil rights movement, racial segregationists used it for demonstrations. Origins A consensus of historians who address the origins of the American Civil War agree that the preservation of the institution of slavery was the principal aim of the eleven Southern states (seven states before the onset of the war and four states after the onset) that declared their secession from the United States (the Union) and united to form the Confederate States of America (known as the "Confederacy"). While historians in the 21st century agree on the centrality of slavery in the conflict, they disagree sharply on which aspects of this conflict (ideological, economic, political, or social) were most important, and on the North's reasons for refusing to allow the Southern states to secede. Proponents of the pseudo-historical Lost Cause ideology have denied that slavery was the principal cause of the secession, a view that has been disproven by the overwhelming historical evidence against it, notably some of the seceding states' own secession documents. The principal political battle leading to Southern secession was over whether slavery would be permitted to expand into the Western territories destined to become states. Initially Congress had admitted new states into the Union in pairs, one slave and one free. This had kept a sectional balance in the Senate but not in the House of Representatives, as free states outstripped slave states in numbers of eligible voters. Thus, at mid-19th century, the free-versus-slave status of the new territories was a critical issue, both for the North, where anti-slavery sentiment had grown, and for the South, where the fear of slavery's abolition had grown. Another factor leading to secession and the formation of the Confederacy was the development of white Southern nationalism in the preceding decades. The primary reason for the North to reject secession was to preserve the Union, a cause based on American nationalism. Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 presidential election. His victory triggered declarations of secession by seven slave states of the Deep South, all of whose riverfront or coastal economies were based on cotton that was cultivated by slave labor. They formed the Confederate States of America after Lincoln was elected in November 1860 but before he took office in March 1861. Nationalists in the North and "Unionists" in the South refused to accept the declarations of secession. No foreign government ever recognized the Confederacy. The U.S. government, under President James Buchanan, refused to relinquish its forts that were in territory claimed by the Confederacy. The war itself began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces bombarded the Union's Fort Sumter, in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. Background factors in the run up to the Civil War were partisan politics, abolitionism, nullification versus secession, Southern and Northern nationalism, expansionism, economics, and modernization in the antebellum period. As a panel of historians emphasized in 2011, "while slavery and its various and multifaceted discontents were the primary cause of disunion, it was disunion itself that sparked the war." Historian David M. Potter wrote: "The problem for Americans who, in the age of Lincoln, wanted slaves to be free was not simply that southerners wanted the opposite, but that they themselves cherished a conflicting value: they wanted the Constitution, which protected slavery, to be honored, and the Union, which was a fellowship with slaveholders, to be preserved. Thus they were committed to values that could not logically be reconciled." Secession in Montgomery, Alabama]] The first secession state conventions from the Deep South sent representatives to the Montgomery Convention in Alabama on February 4, 1861. A provisional government was established. The new provisional Confederate President Jefferson Davis issued a call for 100,000 men from the states' militias to defend the newly formed Confederacy. The Confederate administration pursued a policy of national territorial integrity, continuing earlier state efforts in 1860–1861 to remove U.S. government presence. This included taking possession of U.S. courts, custom houses, post offices, and most notably, arsenals and forts. After the Confederate attack and capture of Fort Sumter in April 1861, Lincoln called up 75,000 of the states' militia to muster under his command. The stated purpose was to re-occupy U.S. properties throughout the South, as the U.S. Congress had not authorized their abandonment. The resistance at Fort Sumter signaled his change of policy from that of the Buchanan Administration. Lincoln's response ignited a firestorm of emotion. The people of both North and South demanded war, with soldiers rushing to their colors in the hundreds of thousands. Its establishment flowed from and deepened Southern nationalism, which prepared men to fight for "The Southern Cause". This "Cause" included support for states' rights, tariff policy, and internal improvements, but above all, cultural and financial dependence on the South's slavery-based economy. The convergence of race and slavery, politics, and economics raised South-related policy questions to the status of moral questions over, way of life, merging love of things Southern and hatred of things Northern. As the war approached, political parties split, and national churches and interstate families divided along sectional lines. According to historian John M. Coski: Following South Carolina's unanimous 1860 secession vote, no other Southern states considered the question until 1861; when they did, none had a unanimous vote. All had residents who cast significant numbers of Unionist votes. Voting to remain in the Union did not necessarily mean individuals were sympathizers with the North. Once fighting began, many who voted to remain in the Union accepted the majority decision, and supported the Confederacy. Many writers have evaluated the War as an American tragedy—a "Brothers' War", pitting "brother against brother, father against son, kin against kin of every degree". States Initially, some secessionists hoped for a peaceful departure. Moderates in the Confederate Constitutional Convention included a provision against importation of slaves from Africa to appeal to the Upper South. Non-slave states might join, but the radicals secured a two-thirds requirement in both houses of Congress to accept them. Seven states declared their secession from the United States before Lincoln took office on March 4, 1861. After the Confederate attack on Fort Sumter April 12, 1861, and Lincoln's subsequent call for troops, four more states declared their secession. Kentucky declared neutrality, but after Confederate troops moved in, the state legislature asked for Union troops to drive them out. Delegates from 68 Kentucky counties were sent to the Russellville Convention that signed an Ordinance of Secession. Kentucky was admitted into the Confederacy on December 10, 1861, with Bowling Green as its first capital. Early in the war, the Confederacy controlled more than half of Kentucky but largely lost control in 1862. The splinter Confederate government of Kentucky relocated to accompany western Confederate armies and never controlled the state population after 1862. By the end of the war, 90,000 Kentuckians had fought for the Union, compared to 35,000 for the Confederacy. In Missouri, a constitutional convention was approved and delegates elected. The convention rejected secession 89–1 on March 19, 1861. The governor maneuvered to take control of the St. Louis Arsenal and restrict Federal movements. This led to a confrontation, and in June federal forces drove him and the General Assembly from Jefferson City. The executive committee of the convention called the members together in July, and declared the state offices vacant and appointed a Unionist interim state government. The exiled governor called a rump session of the former General Assembly together in Neosho and, on October 31, 1861, it passed an ordinance of secession. The Confederate state government was unable to control substantial parts of Missouri territory, effectively only controlling southern Missouri early in the war. It had its capital at Neosho, then Cassville, before being driven out of the state. For the remainder of the war, it operated as a government in exile at Marshall, Texas. Not having seceded, neither Kentucky nor Missouri was declared in rebellion in Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation. The Confederacy recognized the pro-Confederate claimants in Kentucky (December 10, 1861) and Missouri (November 28, 1861) and laid claim to those states, granting them Congressional representation and adding two stars to the Confederate flag. Voting for the representatives was mostly done by Confederate soldiers from Kentucky and Missouri. Some southern unionists blamed Lincoln's call for troops as the precipitating event for the second wave of secessions. Historian James McPherson argues such claims have "a self-serving quality" and regards them as misleading: Historian Daniel W. Crofts disagrees with McPherson: The order of secession resolutions and dates are: :1. South Carolina (December 20, 1860) :2. Mississippi (January 9, 1861) :3. Florida (January 10) :4. Alabama (January 11) :5. Georgia (January 19) :6. Louisiana (January 26) :7. Texas (February 1; referendum February 23) : Inauguration of President Lincoln, March 4 :* Bombardment of Fort Sumter (April 12) and President Lincoln's call-up (April 15) :8. Virginia (April 17; referendum May 23, 1861) :9. Arkansas (May 6) :10. Tennessee (May 7; referendum June 8) :11. North Carolina (May 20) In Virginia, the populous counties along the Ohio and Pennsylvania borders rejected the Confederacy. Unionists held a Convention in Wheeling in June 1861, establishing a "restored government" with a rump legislature, but sentiment in the region remained deeply divided. In the 50 counties that would make up the state of West Virginia, voters from 24 counties had voted for disunion in Virginia's May 23 referendum on the ordinance of secession. In the 1860 election "Constitutional Democrat" Breckenridge had outpolled "Constitutional Unionist" Bell in the 50 counties by 1,900 votes, 44% to 42%. The counties simultaneously supplied over 20,000 soldiers to each side of the conflict. Representatives for most counties were seated in both state legislatures at Wheeling and at Richmond for the duration of the war. Attempts to secede from the Confederacy by counties in East Tennessee were checked by martial law. Although slaveholding Delaware and Maryland did not secede, citizens exhibited divided loyalties. Regiments of Marylanders fought in Lee's Army of Northern Virginia. Overall, 24,000 men from Maryland joined Confederate forces, compared to 63,000 who joined Union forces.Territories , a Cherokee secessionist and Confederate Representative in the Indian Territory of present-day Oklahoma]] Citizens at Mesilla and Tucson in the southern part of New Mexico Territory formed a secession convention, which voted to join the Confederacy on March 16, 1861, and appointed Dr. Lewis S. Owings as the new territorial governor. They won the Battle of Mesilla and established a territorial government with Mesilla serving as its capital. The Confederacy proclaimed the Confederate Arizona Territory on February 14, 1862, north to the 34th parallel. Marcus H. MacWillie served in both Confederate Congresses as Arizona's delegate. In 1862, the Confederate New Mexico campaign to take the northern half of the U.S. territory failed and the Confederate territorial government in exile relocated to San Antonio, Texas. Confederate supporters in the trans-Mississippi west claimed portions of the Indian Territory after the US evacuated the federal forts and installations. Over half of the American Indian troops participating in the War from the Indian Territory supported the Confederacy. On July 12, 1861, the Confederate government signed a treaty with both the Choctaw and Chickasaw Indian nations. After several battles, Union armies took control of the territory. The Indian Territory never formally joined the Confederacy, but did receive representation in the Congress. Many Indians from the Territory were integrated into regular Confederate Army units. After 1863, the tribal governments sent representatives to the Confederate Congress: Elias Cornelius Boudinot representing the Cherokee and Samuel Benton Callahan representing the Seminole and Creek. The Cherokee Nation aligned with the Confederacy. They practiced and supported slavery, opposed abolition, and feared their lands would be seized by the Union. After the war, the Indian territory was disestablished, their black slaves were freed, and the tribes lost some of their lands. Capitals 's mansion in Danville, Virginia was the temporary residence of Jefferson Davis and dubbed the "last Capitol of the Confederacy".]] Montgomery, Alabama, served as capital of the Confederate States from February 4 until May 29, 1861, in the Alabama State Capitol. Six states created the Confederacy there on February 8, 1861. The Texas delegation was seated at the time, so it is counted in the "original seven" states of the Confederacy; it had no roll call vote until after its referendum made secession "operative". The Permanent Constitution was adopted there on March 12, 1861. The permanent capital provided for in the Confederate Constitution called for a state cession of a 100 square mile district to the central government. Atlanta, which had not yet supplanted Milledgeville, Georgia, as its state capital, put in a bid noting its central location and rail connections, as did Opelika, Alabama, noting its strategically interior situation, rail connections and deposits of coal and iron. Richmond, Virginia, was chosen for the interim capital at the Virginia State Capitol. The move was used by Vice President Stephens and others to encourage other border states to follow Virginia into the Confederacy. In the political moment it was a show of "defiance and strength". The war for Southern independence was surely to be fought in Virginia, but it also had the largest Southern military-aged white population, with infrastructure, resources, and supplies. The Davis Administration's policy was that "It must be held at all hazards." The naming of Richmond as the new capital took place on May 30, 1861, and the last two sessions of the Provisional Congress were held there. As war dragged on, Richmond became crowded with training and transfers, logistics and hospitals. Prices rose dramatically despite government efforts at price regulation. A movement in Congress argued for moving the capital from Richmond. At the approach of Federal armies in mid-1862, the government's archives were readied for removal. As the Wilderness Campaign progressed, Congress authorized Davis to remove the executive department and call Congress to session elsewhere in 1864 and again in 1865. Shortly before the end of the war, the Confederate government evacuated Richmond, planning to relocate further south. Little came of these plans before Lee's surrender. Davis and most of his cabinet fled to Danville, Virginia, which served as their headquarters for eight days. Diplomacy During its four years, the Confederacy asserted its independence and appointed dozens of diplomatic agents abroad. None were recognized by a foreign government. The US government regarded the Southern states as being in rebellion or insurrection and so refused any formal recognition of their status. The US government never declared war on those "kindred and countrymen" in the Confederacy but conducted its military efforts beginning with a presidential proclamation issued April 15, 1861. It called for troops to recapture forts and suppress what Lincoln later called an "insurrection and rebellion". Mid-war parleys between the two sides occurred without formal political recognition, though the laws of war predominantly governed military relationships on both sides of uniformed conflict. Once war with the United States began, the Confederacy pinned its hopes for survival on military intervention by the UK or France. The Confederate government sent James M. Mason to London and John Slidell to Paris. On their way in 1861, the U.S. Navy intercepted their ship, the Trent, and took them to Boston, an international episode known as the Trent Affair. The diplomats were eventually released and continued their voyage. However, their mission was unsuccessful; historians judge their diplomacy as poor. Neither secured diplomatic recognition for the Confederacy, much less military assistance. The Confederates who had believed that "cotton is king", that is, that Britain had to support the Confederacy to obtain cotton, proved mistaken. The British had stocks to last over a year and been developing alternative sources. The United Kingdom took pride leading the end of transatlantic enslavement of Africans; by 1833, the Royal Navy patrolled middle passage waters to prevent additional slave ships from reaching the Western Hemisphere. It was in London that the first World Anti-Slavery Convention had been held in 1840. Black abolitionist speakers toured England, Scotland, and Ireland, exposing the reality of America's chattel slavery and rebutting the Confederate position that blacks were "unintellectual, timid, and dependent", and "not equal to the white man...the superior race." Frederick Douglass, Henry Highland Garnet, Sarah Parker Remond, her brother Charles Lenox Remond, James W. C. Pennington, Martin Delany, Samuel Ringgold Ward, and William G. Allen all spent years in Britain, where fugitive slaves were safe and, as Allen said, there was an "absence of prejudice against color. Here the colored man feels himself among friends, and not among enemies". Most British public opinion was against the practice, with Liverpool seen as the primary base of Southern support. Throughout the early years of the war, British foreign secretary Lord John Russell, Emperor Napoleon III of France, and, to a lesser extent, British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston, showed interest in recognition of the Confederacy or at least mediation of the war. Chancellor of the Exchequer William Gladstone attempted unsuccessfully to convince Palmerston to intervene. By September 1862 the Union victory at the Battle of Antietam, Lincoln's preliminary Emancipation Proclamation and abolitionist opposition in Britain put an end to these possibilities. The cost to Britain of a war with the U.S. would have been high: the immediate loss of American grain-shipments, the end of British exports to the U.S., and seizure of billions of pounds invested in American securities. War would have meant higher taxes in Britain, another invasion of Canada, and attacks on the British merchant fleet. In mid-1862, fears of a race war (like the Haitian Revolution of 1791–1804) led to the British considering intervention for humanitarian reasons. John Slidell, the Confederate States emissary to France, succeeded in negotiating a loan of $15,000,000 from Erlanger and other French capitalists for ironclad warships and military supplies. The British government did allow the construction of blockade runners in Britain; they were owned and operated by British financiers and shipowners; a few were owned and operated by the Confederacy. The British investors' goal was to acquire highly profitable cotton. Several European nations maintained diplomats in place who had been appointed to the U.S., but no country appointed any diplomat to the Confederacy. Those nations recognized the Union and Confederate sides as belligerents. In 1863, the Confederacy expelled European diplomatic missions for advising their resident subjects to refuse to serve in the Confederate army. Both Confederate and Union agents were allowed to work openly in British territories. The Confederacy appointed Ambrose Dudley Mann as special agent to the Holy See in September 1863, but the Holy See never released a statement supporting or recognizing the Confederacy. In November 1863, Mann met Pope Pius IX and received a letter supposedly addressed "to the Illustrious and Honorable Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederate States of America"; Mann had mistranslated the address. In his report to Richmond, Mann claimed a great diplomatic achievement for himself, but Confederate Secretary of State Judah P. Benjamin told Mann it was "a mere inferential recognition, unconnected with political action or the regular establishment of diplomatic relations" and thus did not assign it the weight of formal recognition. Nevertheless, the Confederacy was seen internationally as a serious attempt at nationhood, and European governments sent military observers to assess whether there had been a de facto establishment of independence. These observers included Arthur Lyon Fremantle of the British Coldstream Guards, who entered the Confederacy via Mexico, Fitzgerald Ross of the Austrian Hussars, and Justus Scheibert of the Prussian Army. European travelers visited and wrote accounts for publication. Importantly in 1862, the Frenchman Charles Girard's Seven months in the rebel states during the North American War testified "this government ... is no longer a trial government ... but really a normal government, the expression of popular will". Fremantle went on to write in his book Three Months in the Southern States that he had: French Emperor Napoleon III assured Confederate diplomat John Slidell that he would make "direct proposition" to Britain for joint recognition. The Emperor made the same assurance to British Members of Parliament John A. Roebuck and John A. Lindsay. Roebuck in turn publicly prepared a bill to submit to Parliament supporting joint Anglo-French recognition of the Confederacy. "Southerners had a right to be optimistic, or at least hopeful, that their revolution would prevail, or at least endure." Following the disasters at Vicksburg and Gettysburg in July 1863, the Confederates "suffered a severe loss of confidence in themselves" and withdrew into an interior defensive position. By December 1864, Davis considered sacrificing slavery in order to enlist recognition and aid from Paris and London; he secretly sent Duncan F. Kenner to Europe with a message that the war was fought solely for "the vindication of our rights to self-government and independence" and that "no sacrifice is too great, save that of honor". The message stated that if the French or British governments made their recognition conditional on anything at all, the Confederacy would consent to such terms. European leaders all saw that the Confederacy was on the verge of defeat. The Confederacy's biggest foreign policy successes were with Brazil and Cuba. Militarily this meant little. Brazil represented the "peoples most identical to us in Institutions", After the war, Brazil was the primary destination of those Southerners who wanted to continue living in a slave society, where, as one immigrant remarked, Confederado slaves were cheap. The Captain–General of Cuba declared in writing that Confederate ships were welcome, and would be protected in Cuban ports. Historians speculate that if the Confederacy had achieved independence, it probably would have tried to acquire Cuba as a base of expansion.At warMotivations of soldiers Most soldiers who joined Confederate national or state military units joined voluntarily. Perman (2010) says historians are of two minds on why millions of soldiers seemed so eager to fight, suffer and die over four years: Military strategy Civil War historian E. Merton Coulter wrote that for those who would secure its independence, "The Confederacy was unfortunate in its failure to work out a general strategy for the whole war". Aggressive strategy called for offensive force concentration. Defensive strategy sought dispersal to meet demands of locally minded governors. The controlling philosophy evolved into a combination "dispersal with a defensive concentration around Richmond". The Davis administration considered the war purely defensive, a "simple demand that the people of the United States would cease to war upon us". Historian James M. McPherson is a critic of Lee's offensive strategy: "Lee pursued a faulty military strategy that ensured Confederate defeat". As the Confederate government lost control of territory in campaign after campaign, it was said that "the vast size of the Confederacy would make its conquest impossible". The enemy would be struck down by the same elements which so often debilitated or destroyed visitors and transplants in the South: heat exhaustion, sunstroke, and endemic diseases such as malaria and typhoid. NYC 1856, slaveholding Washington is pictured in his uniform of the Revolution securing American independence. Though armed, he does not have his sword drawn as he is depicted in the equestrian statue at the Virginia Capitol, Richmond, Virginia. The plates for the Seal were engraved in England but never received due to the Union Blockade.}}]] Early in the war, both sides believed that one great battle would decide the conflict; the Confederates won a surprise victory at the First Battle of Bull Run, also known as First Manassas (the name used by Confederate forces). It drove the Confederate people "insane with joy"; the public demanded a forward movement to capture Washington, relocate the Confederate capital there, and admit Maryland to the Confederacy. A council of war by the victorious Confederate generals decided not to advance against larger numbers of fresh Federal troops in defensive positions. Davis did not countermand it. Following the Confederate incursion into Maryland halted at the Battle of Antietam in October 1862, generals proposed concentrating forces from state commands to re-invade the north. Nothing came of it. Again in mid-1863 at his incursion into Pennsylvania, Lee requested of Davis that Beauregard simultaneously attack Washington with troops taken from the Carolinas. But the troops there remained in place during the Gettysburg Campaign. The eleven states of the Confederacy were outnumbered by the North about four-to-one in military manpower. It was overmatched far more in military equipment, industrial facilities, railroads for transport, and wagons supplying the front. Confederates slowed the Yankee invaders, at heavy cost to the Southern infrastructure. The Confederates burned bridges, laid land mines in the roads, and made harbors inlets and inland waterways unusable with sunken mines (called "torpedoes" at the time). Coulter reports: The Confederacy relied on external sources for war materials. The first came from trade with the enemy. "Vast amounts of war supplies" came through Kentucky, and thereafter, western armies were "to a very considerable extent" provisioned with illicit trade via Federal agents and northern private traders. But that trade was interrupted in the first year of war by Admiral Porter's river gunboats as they gained dominance along navigable rivers north–south and east–west. Overseas blockade running then came to be of "outstanding importance". On April 17, President Davis called on privateer raiders, the "militia of the sea", to wage war on U.S. seaborne commerce. Despite noteworthy effort, over the course of the war the Confederacy was found unable to match the Union in ships and seamanship, materials and marine construction. An inescapable obstacle to success in the warfare of mass armies was the Confederacy's lack of manpower, and sufficient numbers of disciplined, equipped troops in the field at the point of contact with the enemy. During the winter of 1862–63, Lee observed that none of his famous victories had resulted in the destruction of the opposing army. He lacked reserve troops to exploit an advantage on the battlefield as Napoleon had done. Lee explained, "More than once have most promising opportunities been lost for want of men to take advantage of them, and victory itself had been made to put on the appearance of defeat, because our diminished and exhausted troops have been unable to renew a successful struggle against fresh numbers of the enemy." Armed forces , General in Chief (1865)]] The military armed forces of the Confederacy comprised three branches: Army, Navy and Marine Corps. On February 28, 1861, the Provisional Confederate Congress established a provisional volunteer army and gave control over military operations and authority for mustering state forces and volunteers to the newly chosen Confederate president, Jefferson Davis. On March 1, 1861, on behalf of the Confederate government, Davis assumed control of the military situation at Charleston, South Carolina, where South Carolina state militia besieged Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor, held by a small U.S. Army garrison. By March 1861, the Provisional Confederate Congress expanded the provisional forces and established a more permanent Confederate States Army. The total population of the Confederate Army is unknowable due to incomplete and destroyed Confederate records but estimates are between 750,000 and 1,000,000 troops. This does not include an unknown number of slaves pressed into army tasks, such as the construction of fortifications and defenses or driving wagons. Confederate casualty figures also are incomplete and unreliable, estimated at 94,000 killed or mortally wounded, 164,000 deaths from disease, and between 26,000 and 31,000 deaths in Union prison camps. One incomplete estimate is 194,026. The Confederate military leadership included many veterans from the United States Army and United States Navy who had resigned their Federal commissions and were appointed to senior positions. Many had served in the Mexican–American War (including Robert E. Lee and Jefferson Davis), but some such as Leonidas Polk (who graduated from West Point but did not serve in the Army) had little or no experience. The Confederate officer corps consisted of men from both slave-owning and non-slave-owning families. The Confederacy appointed junior and field grade officers by election from the enlisted ranks. Although no Army service academy was established for the Confederacy, some colleges (such as The Citadel and Virginia Military Institute) maintained cadet corps that trained Confederate military leadership. A naval academy was established at Drewry's Bluff, Virginia in 1863, but no midshipmen graduated before the Confederacy's end. Most soldiers were white males aged between 16 and 28; half were 23 or older by 1861. The Confederate Army was permitted to disband for two months in early 1862 after its short-term enlistments expired. The majority of those in uniform would not re-enlist after their one-year commitment, thus on April 16, 1862, the Confederate Congress imposed the first mass conscription on North American territory. (A year later, on March 3, 1863, the United States Congress passed the Enrollment Act.) Rather than a universal draft, the first program was a selective one with physical, religious, professional, and industrial exemptions. These became narrower as the battle progressed. Initially substitutes were permitted, but by December 1863 these were disallowed. In September 1862 the age limit was increased from 35 to 45 and by February 1864, all men under 18 and over 45 were conscripted to form a reserve for state defense inside state borders. By March 1864, the Superintendent of Conscription reported that all across the Confederacy, every officer in constituted authority, man and woman, "engaged in opposing the enrolling officer in the execution of his duties". Although challenged in the state courts, the Confederate State Supreme Courts routinely rejected legal challenges to conscription. Many thousands of slaves served as personal servants to their owner, or were hired as laborers, cooks, and pioneers. Some freed blacks and men of color served in local state militia units of the Confederacy, primarily in Louisiana and South Carolina, but their officers deployed them for "local defense, not combat". Depleted by casualties and desertions, the military suffered chronic manpower shortages. In early 1865, the Confederate Congress, influenced by the public support by General Lee, approved the recruitment of black infantry units. Contrary to Lee's and Davis's recommendations, the Congress refused "to guarantee the freedom of black volunteers". No more than two hundred black combat troops were ever raised.Raising troops The immediate onset of war meant that it was fought by the "Provisional" or "Volunteer Army". State governors resisted concentrating a national effort. Several wanted a strong state army for self-defense. Others feared large "Provisional" armies answering only to Davis. When filling the Confederate government's call for 100,000 men, another 200,000 were turned away by accepting only those enlisted "for the duration" or twelve-month volunteers who brought their own arms or horses. It was important to raise troops; it was just as important to provide capable officers to command them. With few exceptions the Confederacy secured excellent general officers. Efficiency in the lower officers was "greater than could have been reasonably expected". As with the Federals, political appointees could be indifferent. Otherwise, the officer corps was governor-appointed or elected by unit enlisted. Promotion to fill vacancies was made internally regardless of merit, even if better officers were immediately available. Anticipating the need for more "duration" men, in January 1862 Congress provided for company level recruiters to return home for two months, but their efforts met little success on the heels of Confederate battlefield defeats in February. Congress allowed for Davis to require numbers of recruits from each governor to supply the volunteer shortfall. States responded by passing their own draft laws. The veteran Confederate army of early 1862 was mostly twelve-month volunteers with terms about to expire. Enlisted reorganization elections disintegrated the army for two months. Officers pleaded with the ranks to re-enlist, but a majority did not. Those remaining elected majors and colonels whose performance led to officer review boards in October. The boards caused a "rapid and widespread" thinning out of 1,700 incompetent officers. Troops thereafter would elect only second lieutenants. In early 1862, the popular press suggested the Confederacy required a million men under arms. But veteran soldiers were not re-enlisting, and earlier secessionist volunteers did not reappear to serve in war. One Macon, Georgia, newspaper asked how two million brave fighting men of the South were about to be overcome by four million northerners who were said to be cowards. Conscription The Confederacy passed the first American law of national conscription on April 16, 1862. The white males of the Confederate States from 18 to 35 were declared members of the Confederate army for three years, and all men then enlisted were extended to a three-year term. They would serve only in units and under officers of their state. Those under 18 and over 35 could substitute for conscripts, in September those from 35 to 45 became conscripts. The cry of "rich man's war and a poor man's fight" led Congress to abolish the substitute system altogether in December 1863. All principals benefiting earlier were made eligible for service. By February 1864, the age bracket was made 17 to 50, those under eighteen and over forty-five to be limited to in-state duty. Confederate conscription was not universal; it was a selective service. The First Conscription Act of April 1862 exempted occupations related to transportation, communication, industry, ministers, teaching and physical fitness. The Second Conscription Act of October 1862 expanded exemptions in industry, agriculture and conscientious objection. Exemption fraud proliferated in medical examinations, army furloughs, churches, schools, apothecaries and newspapers. Rich men's sons were appointed to the socially outcast "overseer" occupation, but the measure was received in the country with "universal odium". The legislative vehicle was the controversial Twenty Negro Law that specifically exempted one white overseer or owner for every plantation with at least 20 slaves. Backpedaling six months later, Congress provided overseers under 45 could be exempted only if they held the occupation before the first Conscription Act. The number of officials under state exemptions appointed by state Governor patronage expanded significantly. <gallery style"float:right; text-align:center" perrow"2" heights="150"> Gabriel James Rains.jpg\|Gen. Gabriel J. Rains, General Gideon Johnson Pillow.jpg\|Gen. Gideon J. Pillow, </gallery> The Conscription Act of February 1864 "radically changed the whole system" of selection. It abolished industrial exemptions, placing detail authority in President Davis. As the shame of conscription was greater than a felony conviction, the system brought in "about as many volunteers as it did conscripts." Many men in otherwise "bombproof" positions were enlisted in one way or another, nearly 160,000 additional volunteers and conscripts in uniform. Still there was shirking. To administer the draft, a Bureau of Conscription was set up to use state officers, as state Governors would allow. It had a checkered career of "contention, opposition and futility". Armies appointed alternative military "recruiters" to bring in the out-of-uniform 17–50-year-old conscripts and deserters. Nearly 3,000 officers were tasked with the job. By late 1864, Lee was calling for more troops. "Our ranks are constantly diminishing by battle and disease, and few recruits are received; the consequences are inevitable." By March 1865 conscription was to be administered by generals of the state reserves calling out men over 45 and under 18 years old. All exemptions were abolished. These regiments were assigned to recruit conscripts ages 17–50, recover deserters, and repel enemy cavalry raids. The service retained men who had lost but one arm or a leg in home guards. Ultimately, conscription was a failure, and its main value was in goading men to volunteer. The survival of the Confederacy depended on a strong base of civilians and soldiers devoted to victory. The soldiers performed well, though increasing numbers deserted in the last year of fighting, and the Confederacy never succeeded in replacing casualties as the Union could. The civilians, although enthusiastic in 1861–62, seem to have lost faith in the future of the Confederacy by 1864, and instead looked to protect their homes and communities. As Rable explains, "This contraction of civic vision was more than a crabbed libertarianism; it represented an increasingly widespread disillusionment with the Confederate experiment." Victories: 1861 The American Civil War broke out in April 1861 with a Confederate victory at the Battle of Fort Sumter in Charleston. In January, President James Buchanan had attempted to resupply the garrison with the steamship, Star of the West, but Confederate artillery drove it away. In March, President Lincoln notified South Carolina Governor Pickens that without Confederate resistance to the resupply there would be no military reinforcement without further notice, but Lincoln prepared to force resupply if it were not allowed. Confederate President Davis, in cabinet, decided to seize Fort Sumter before the relief fleet arrived, and on April 12, 1861, General Beauregard forced its surrender. Following Sumter, Lincoln directed states to provide 75,000 troops for three months to recapture the Charleston Harbor forts and all other federal property. This emboldened secessionists in Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee and North Carolina to secede rather than provide troops to march into neighboring Southern states. In May, Federal troops crossed into Confederate territory along the entire border from the Chesapeake Bay to New Mexico. The first battles were Confederate victories at Big Bethel (Bethel Church, Virginia), First Bull Run (First Manassas) in Virginia July and in August, Wilson's Creek (Oak Hills) in Missouri. At all three, Confederate forces could not follow up their victory due to inadequate supply and shortages of fresh troops to exploit their successes. Following each battle, Federals maintained a military presence and occupied Washington, DC; Fort Monroe, Virginia; and Springfield, Missouri. Both North and South began training up armies for major fighting the next year. Union General George B. McClellan's forces gained possession of much of northwestern Virginia in mid-1861, concentrating on towns and roads; the interior was too large to control and became the center of guerrilla activity. General Robert E. Lee was defeated at Cheat Mountain in September and no serious Confederate advance in western Virginia occurred until the next year. Meanwhile, the Union Navy seized control of much of the Confederate coastline from Virginia to South Carolina. It took over plantations and the abandoned slaves. Federals there began a war-long policy of burning grain supplies up rivers into the interior wherever they could not occupy. The Union Navy began a blockade of the major southern ports and prepared an invasion of Louisiana to capture New Orleans in early 1862. Incursions: 1862 The victories of 1861 were followed by a series of defeats east and west in early 1862. To restore the Union by military force, the Federal strategy was to (1) secure the Mississippi River, (2) seize or close Confederate ports, and (3) march on Richmond. To secure independence, the Confederate intent was to (1) repel the invader on all fronts, costing him blood and treasure, and (2) carry the war into the North by two offensives in time to affect the mid-term elections. Much of northwestern Virginia was under Federal control. In February and March, most of Missouri and Kentucky were Union "occupied, consolidated, and used as staging areas for advances further South". Following the repulse of a Confederate counterattack at the Battle of Shiloh, Tennessee, permanent Federal occupation expanded west, south and east. Confederate forces repositioned south along the Mississippi River to Memphis, Tennessee, where at the naval Battle of Memphis, its River Defense Fleet was sunk. Confederates withdrew from northern Mississippi and northern Alabama. New Orleans was captured on April 29 by a combined Army-Navy force under U.S. Admiral David Farragut, and the Confederacy lost control of the mouth of the Mississippi River. It had to concede extensive agricultural resources that had supported the Union's sea-supplied logistics base. Although Confederates had suffered major reverses everywhere, as of the end of April the Confederacy still controlled territory holding 72% of its population. Federal forces disrupted Missouri and Arkansas; they had broken through in western Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee and Louisiana. Along the Confederacy's shores, Union forces had closed ports and made garrisoned lodgments on every coastal Confederate state except Alabama and Texas. Although scholars sometimes assess the Union blockade as ineffectual under international law until the last few months of the war, from the first months it disrupted Confederate privateers, making it "almost impossible to bring their prizes into Confederate ports". British firms developed small fleets of blockade running companies, such as John Fraser and Company and S. Isaac, Campbell & Company while the Ordnance Department secured its own blockade runners for dedicated munitions cargoes. During the Civil War fleets of armored warships were deployed for the first time in sustained blockades at sea. After some success against the Union blockade, in March the ironclad CSS Virginia was forced into port and burned by Confederates at their retreat. Despite several attempts mounted from their port cities, CSA naval forces were unable to break the Union blockade. Attempts were made by Commodore Josiah Tattnall III's ironclads from Savannah in 1862 with the CSS Atlanta. Secretary of the Navy Stephen Mallory placed his hopes in a European-built ironclad fleet, but they were never realized. On the other hand, four new English-built commerce raiders served the Confederacy, and several fast blockade runners were sold in Confederate ports. They were converted into commerce-raiding cruisers, and manned by their British crews. In the east, Union forces could not close on Richmond. General McClellan landed his army on the Lower Peninsula of Virginia. Lee subsequently ended that threat from the east, then Union General John Pope attacked overland from the north only to be repulsed at Second Bull Run (Second Manassas). Lee's strike north was turned back at Antietam MD, then Union Major General Ambrose Burnside's offensive was disastrously ended at Fredericksburg VA in December. Both armies then turned to winter quarters to recruit and train for the coming spring. In an attempt to seize the initiative, reprove, protect farms in mid-growing season and influence U.S. Congressional elections, two major Confederate incursions into Union territory had been launched in August and September 1862. Both Braxton Bragg's invasion of Kentucky and Lee's invasion of Maryland were decisively repulsed, leaving Confederates in control of but 63% of its population. The failures of the two invasions were attributed to the same irrecoverable shortcomings: lack of manpower at the front, lack of supplies including serviceable shoes, and exhaustion after long marches without adequate food. Also in September Confederate General William W. Loring pushed Federal forces from Charleston, Virginia, and the Kanawha Valley in western Virginia, but lacking reinforcements Loring abandoned his position and by November the region was back in Federal control.Anaconda: 1863–1864 The failed Middle Tennessee campaign was ended January 2, 1863, at the inconclusive Battle of Stones River (Murfreesboro), both sides losing the largest percentage of casualties suffered during the war. It was followed by another strategic withdrawal by Confederate forces. The Confederacy won a significant victory April 1863, repulsing the Federal advance on Richmond at Chancellorsville, but the Union consolidated positions along the Virginia coast and the Chesapeake Bay. Without an effective answer to Federal gunboats, river transport and supply, the Confederacy lost the Mississippi River following the capture of Vicksburg, Mississippi, and Port Hudson in July, ending Southern access to the trans-Mississippi West. July brought short-lived counters, Morgan's Raid into Ohio and the New York City draft riots. Robert E. Lee's strike into Pennsylvania was repulsed at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania despite Pickett's famous charge and other acts of valor. Southern newspapers assessed the campaign as "The Confederates did not gain a victory, neither did the enemy." September and November left Confederates yielding Chattanooga, Tennessee, the gateway to the lower south. For the remainder of the war fighting was restricted inside the South, resulting in a slow but continuous loss of territory. In early 1864, the Confederacy still controlled 53% of its population, but it withdrew further to reestablish defensive positions. Union offensives continued with Sherman's March to the Sea to take Savannah and Grant's Wilderness Campaign to encircle Richmond and besiege Lee's army at Petersburg. The Confederacy had altogether eighteen commerce-destroying cruisers, which seriously disrupted Federal commerce at sea and increased shipping insurance rates 900%. Commodore Tattnall again unsuccessfully attempted to break the Union blockade on the Savannah River in Georgia with an ironclad in 1863. Beginning in April 1864 the ironclad CSS Albemarle engaged Union gunboats for six months on the Roanoke River in North Carolina. The Federals closed Mobile Bay by sea-based amphibious assault in August, ending Gulf coast trade east of the Mississippi River. In December, the Battle of Nashville ended Confederate operations in the western theater. Large numbers of families relocated to safer places, usually remote rural areas, bringing along household slaves if they had any. Mary Massey argues these elite exiles introduced an element of defeatism into the southern outlook. Collapse: 1865 The first three months of 1865 saw the Federal Carolinas Campaign, devastating a wide swath of the remaining Confederate heartland. The "breadbasket of the Confederacy" in the Great Valley of Virginia was occupied by Philip Sheridan. The Union Blockade captured Fort Fisher in North Carolina, and Sherman finally took Charleston, South Carolina, by land attack. The Davis policy was independence or nothing, while Lee's army was wracked by disease and desertion, barely holding the trenches defending Jefferson Davis' capital. The Confederacy's last remaining blockade-running port, Wilmington, North Carolina, was lost. When the Union broke through Lee's lines at Petersburg, Richmond fell immediately. Lee surrendered at Appomattox Court House, Virginia, on April 9, 1865. "The Surrender" marked the end of the Confederacy. The CSS Stonewall sailed from Europe to break the Union blockade in March; on making Havana, Cuba, it surrendered. Some high officials escaped to Europe, but President Davis was captured May 10; all remaining Confederate land forces surrendered by June 1865. The U.S. Army took control of the Confederate areas, but peace was subsequently marred by a great deal of local violence, feuding and revenge killings. The last confederate military unit, the commerce raider CSS Shenandoah, surrendered on November 6, 1865, in Liverpool. Historian Gary Gallagher concluded that the Confederacy capitulated in early 1865 because northern armies crushed "organized southern military resistance". The Confederacy's population, soldier and civilian, had suffered material hardship and social disruption. Jefferson Davis' assessment in 1890 determined, "With the capture of the capital, the dispersion of the civil authorities, the surrender of the armies in the field, and the arrest of the President, the Confederate States of America disappeared ... their history henceforth became a part of the history of the United States." Government and politics Political divisions Constitution In February, 1861, Southern leaders met in Montgomery, Alabama to adopt their first constitution, establishing a confederation of "sovereign and independent states", guaranteeing states the right to a republican form of government. Prior to adopting to the first Confederate constitution, the independent states were sovereign republics. The Confederate Constitution also explicitly denied States the power to bar slaveholders from other parts of the Confederacy from bringing their slaves into any state of the Confederacy or to interfere with the property rights of slave owners traveling between different parts of the Confederacy. In contrast with the secular language of the United States Constitution, the Confederate Constitution overtly asked God's blessing ("... invoking the favor and guidance of Almighty God ..."). Some historians have referred to the Confederacy as a form of Herrenvolk democracy.Executive The Montgomery Convention to establish the Confederacy and its executive met on February 4, 1861. Each state as a sovereignty had one vote, with the same delegation size as it held in the U.S. Congress, and generally 41 to 50 members attended. Offices were "provisional", limited to a term not to exceed one year. One name was placed in nomination for president, one for vice president. Both were elected unanimously, 6–0. , President of the Confederacy from 1861 to 1865]] Jefferson Davis was elected provisional president. His U.S. Senate resignation speech greatly impressed with its clear rationale<!-- source? sounds biased, but could use further explanation. did someone say it was clear? --> for secession and his pleading for a peaceful departure from the Union to independence. Although he had made it known that he wanted to be commander-in-chief of the Confederate armies, when elected, he assumed the office of Provisional President. Three candidates for provisional Vice President were under consideration the night before the February 9 election. All were from Georgia, and the various delegations meeting in different places determined two would not do, so Alexander H. Stephens was elected unanimously provisional Vice President, though with some privately held reservations. Stephens was inaugurated February 11, Davis February 18. Davis and Stephens were elected president and vice president, unopposed on November 6, 1861. They were inaugurated on February 22, 1862. Coulter stated, "No president of the U.S. ever had a more difficult task." Washington was inaugurated in peacetime. Lincoln inherited an established government of long standing. The creation of the Confederacy was accomplished by men who saw themselves as fundamentally conservative. Although they referred to their "Revolution", it was in their eyes more a counter-revolution against changes away from their understanding of U.S. founding documents. In Davis' inauguration speech, he explained the Confederacy was not a French-like revolution, but a transfer of rule. The Montgomery Convention had assumed all the laws of the United States until superseded by the Confederate Congress. The Permanent Constitution provided for a President of the Confederate States of America, elected to serve a six-year term but without the possibility of re-election. Unlike the United States Constitution, the Confederate Constitution gave the president the ability to subject a bill to a line item veto, a power also held by some state governors. The Confederate Congress could overturn either the general or the line item vetoes with the same two-thirds votes required in the U.S. Congress. In addition, appropriations not specifically requested by the executive branch required passage by a two-thirds vote in both houses of Congress. The only person to serve as president was Jefferson Davis, as the Confederacy was defeated before the completion of his term. Administration and cabinet , Stephen Mallory, Alexander H. Stephens, Jefferson Davis, John Henninger Reagan, and Robert Toombs<br />Back row, standing left to right: Christopher Memminger and LeRoy Pope Walker<br />Illustration printed in ''Harper's Weekly]] Legislative ', Montgomery, Alabama]] The only two "formal, national, functioning, civilian administrative bodies" in the Civil War South were the Jefferson Davis administration and the Confederate Congresses. The Confederacy was begun by the Provisional Congress in Convention at Montgomery, Alabama on February 28, 1861. The Provisional Confederate Congress was a unicameral assembly; each state received one vote. The Permanent Confederate Congress was elected and began its first session February 18, 1862. The Permanent Congress for the Confederacy followed the United States forms with a bicameral legislature. The Senate had two per state, twenty-six Senators. The House numbered 106 representatives apportioned by free and slave populations within each state. Two Congresses sat in six sessions until March 18, 1865. The absence of political parties made individual roll call voting all the more important, as the Confederate "freedom of roll-call voting [was] unprecedented in American legislative history." Key issues throughout the life of the Confederacy related to (1) suspension of habeas corpus, (2) military concerns such as control of state militia, conscription and exemption, (3) economic and fiscal policy including impressment of slaves, goods and scorched earth, and (4) support of the Jefferson Davis administration in its foreign affairs and negotiating peace. ;Provisional Congress For the first year, the unicameral Provisional Confederate Congress functioned as the Confederacy's legislative branch. ;President of the Provisional Congress * Howell Cobb, Sr. of Georgia, February 4, 1861 – February 17, 1862 ;Presidents pro tempore of the Provisional Congress * Robert Woodward Barnwell of South Carolina, February 4, 1861 * Thomas Stanhope Bocock of Virginia, December 10–21, 1861 and January 7–8, 1862 * Josiah Abigail Patterson Campbell of Mississippi, December 23–24, 1861 and January 6, 1862 ;Sessions of the Confederate Congress * Provisional Congress * 1st Congress * 2nd Congress ;Tribal Representatives to Confederate Congress * Elias Cornelius Boudinot 1862–65, Cherokee * Samuel Benton Callahan Unknown years, Creek, Seminole * Burton Allen Holder 1864–65, Chickasaw * Robert McDonald Jones 1863–65, Choctaw Judicial <gallery style"float:right; text-align:center" perrow"2"> Jesse Finley - Brady-Handy.jpg\|Jesse J. Finley<br />Florida District HenryRootesJackson.jpg\|Henry R. Jackson<br />Georgia District NC-Congress-AsaBiggs.jpg\|Asa Biggs<br />North Carolina District Andrew Gordon Magrath.jpg\|Andrew Magrath<br />South Carolina District </gallery> The Confederate Constitution outlined a judicial branch of the government, but the ongoing war and resistance from states-rights advocates, particularly on the question of whether it would have appellate jurisdiction over the state courts, prevented the creation or seating of the "Supreme Court of the Confederate States". Thus, the state courts generally continued to operate as they had done, simply recognizing the Confederate States as the national government. Confederate district courts were authorized by Article III, Section 1, of the Confederate Constitution, and President Davis appointed judges within the individual states of the Confederate States of America. In many cases, the same US Federal District Judges were appointed as Confederate States District Judges. Confederate district courts began reopening in early 1861, handling many of the same type cases as had been done before. Prize cases, in which Union ships were captured by the Confederate Navy or raiders and sold through court proceedings, were heard until the blockade of southern ports made this impossible. After a Sequestration Act was passed by the Confederate Congress, the Confederate district courts heard many cases in which enemy aliens (typically Northern absentee landlords owning property in the South) had their property sequestered (seized) by Confederate Receivers. When the war began, the US Post Office briefly delivered mail from the secessionist states. Mail that was postmarked after the date of a state's admission into the Confederacy through May 31, 1861, and bearing US postage was still delivered. After this time, private express companies still managed to carry some of the mail across enemy lines. Later, mail that crossed lines had to be sent by 'Flag of Truce' and was allowed to pass at only two specific points. Mail sent from the Confederacy to the U.S. was received, opened and inspected at Fortress Monroe on the Virginia coast before being passed on into the U.S. mail stream. Mail sent from the North to the South passed at City Point, also in Virginia, where it was also inspected before being sent on. With the chaos of the war, a working postal system was more important than ever for the Confederacy. The Civil War had divided family members and friends and consequently letter writing increased dramatically across the entire divided nation, especially to and from the men who were away serving in an army. Mail delivery was also important for the Confederacy for a myriad of business and military reasons. Because of the Union blockade, basic supplies were always in demand and so getting mailed correspondence out of the country to suppliers was imperative to the successful operation of the Confederacy. Volumes of material have been written about the Blockade runners who evaded Union ships on blockade patrol, usually at night, and who moved cargo and mail in and out of the Confederate States throughout the course of the war. Of particular interest to students and historians of the American Civil War is Prisoner of War mail and Blockade mail as these items were often involved with a variety of military and other war time activities. The postal history of the Confederacy along with surviving Confederate mail has helped historians document the various people, places and events that were involved in the American Civil War as it unfolded. Civil liberties The Confederacy actively used the army to arrest people suspected of loyalty to the United States. Historian Mark Neely found 4,108 names of men arrested and estimated a much larger total. The Confederacy arrested pro-Union civilians in the South at about the same rate as the Union arrested pro-Confederate civilians in the North. Neely argues: Economy Slaves Across the South, widespread rumors predicted the slaves were planning insurrection, causing panic. Patrols were stepped up. The slaves did become increasingly independent and resistant to punishment, but historians agree there were no insurrections. Many slaves became spies for the North, and large numbers ran away to federal lines. According to the 1860 United States census, about 31% of free households in the eleven states that would join the Confederacy owned slaves. The 11 states that seceded had the highest percentage of slaves as a proportion of their population, representing 39% of their total population. The proportions ranged from a majority in South Carolina (57.2%) and Mississippi (55.2%) to about a quarter in Tennessee (24.8%). Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863, legally freed three million slaves in designated areas of the Confederacy. The long-term effect was that the Confederacy could not preserve the institution of slavery and lost the use of the core element of its plantation labor force. Over 200,000 freed slaves were hired by the federal army as teamsters, cooks, launderers and laborers, and eventually as soldiers. Plantation owners, realizing that emancipation would destroy their economic system, sometimes moved their slaves as far as possible out of reach of the Union army. Though the concept was promoted within certain circles of the Union hierarchy during and immediately following the war, no program of reparations for freed slaves was ever attempted. Unlike other Western countries, such as Britain and France, the U.S. government never paid compensation to Southern slave owners for their "lost property". The only place compensated emancipation was carried out was the District of Columbia.Political economy The plantations of the South, with white ownership and an enslaved labor force, produced substantial wealth from cash crops. It supplied two-thirds of the world's cotton, which was in high demand for textiles, along with tobacco, sugar, and naval stores (such as turpentine). These raw materials were exported to factories in Europe and the Northeast. Planters reinvested their profits in more slaves and fresh land, as cotton and tobacco depleted the soil. There was little manufacturing or mining; shipping was controlled by non-southerners. The plantations that enslaved over three million black people were the principal source of wealth. Most were concentrated in "black belt" plantation areas (because few white families in the poor regions owned slaves). For decades, there had been widespread fear of slave revolts. During the war, extra men were assigned to "home guard" patrol duty and governors sought to keep militia units at home for protection. Historian William Barney reports, "no major slave revolts erupted during the Civil War." Nevertheless, slaves took the opportunity to enlarge their sphere of independence, and when union forces were nearby, many ran off to join them. Slave labor was applied in industry in a limited way in the Upper South and in a few port cities. One reason for the regional lag in industrial development was top-heavy income distribution. Mass production requires mass markets, and slaves living in small cabins, using self-made tools and outfitted with one suit of work clothes each year of inferior fabric, did not generate consumer demand to sustain local manufactures of any description in the same way as did a mechanized family farm of free labor in the North. The Southern economy was "pre-capitalist" in that slaves were put to work in the largest revenue-producing enterprises, not free labor markets. That labor system as practiced in the American South encompassed paternalism, whether abusive or indulgent, and that meant labor management considerations apart from productivity. Approximately 85% of both the North and South white populations lived on family farms, both regions were predominantly agricultural, and mid-century industry in both was mostly domestic. But the Southern economy was pre-capitalist in its overwhelming reliance on the agriculture of cash crops to produce wealth, while the great majority of farmers fed themselves and supplied a small local market. Southern cities and industries grew faster than ever before, but the thrust of the rest of the country's exponential growth elsewhere was toward urban industrial development along transportation systems of canals and railroads. The South was following the dominant currents of the American economic mainstream, but at a "great distance" as it lagged in the all-weather modes of transportation that brought cheaper, speedier freight shipment and forged new, expanding inter-regional markets. A third count of the pre-capitalist Southern economy relates to the cultural setting. White southerners did not adopt a work ethic, nor the habits of thrift that marked the rest of the country. It had access to the tools of capitalism, but it did not adopt its culture. The Southern Cause as a national economy in the Confederacy was grounded in "slavery and race, planters and patricians, plain folk and folk culture, cotton and plantations". National production The Confederacy started its existence as an agrarian economy with exports, to a world market, of cotton, and, to a lesser extent, tobacco and sugarcane. Local food production included grains, hogs, cattle, and gardens. The cash came from exports but the Southern people spontaneously stopped exports in early 1861 to hasten the impact of "King Cotton", a failed strategy to coerce international support for the Confederacy through its cotton exports. When the blockade was announced, commercial shipping practically ended (the ships could not get insurance), and only a trickle of supplies came via blockade runners. The cutoff of exports was an economic disaster for the South, rendering useless its most valuable properties, its plantations and their enslaved workers. Many planters kept growing cotton, which piled up everywhere, but most turned to food production. All across the region, the lack of repair and maintenance wasted away the physical assets. The eleven states had produced $155 million (~$}} in ) in manufactured goods in 1860, chiefly from local gristmills, and lumber, processed tobacco, cotton goods and naval stores such as turpentine. The main industrial areas were border cities such as Baltimore, Wheeling, Louisville and St. Louis, that were never under Confederate control. The government did set up munitions factories in the Deep South. Combined with captured munitions and those coming via blockade runners, the armies were kept minimally supplied with weapons. The soldiers suffered from reduced rations, lack of medicines, and the growing shortages of uniforms, shoes and boots. Shortages were much worse for civilians, and the prices of necessities steadily rose. The Confederacy adopted a tariff or tax on imports of 15%, and imposed it on all imports from other countries, including the United States. The tariff mattered little; the Union blockade minimized commercial traffic through the Confederacy's ports, and very few people paid taxes on goods smuggled from the North. The Confederate government in its entire history collected only $3.5 million in tariff revenue. The lack of adequate financial resources led the Confederacy to finance the war through printing money, which led to high inflation. The Confederacy underwent an economic revolution by centralization and standardization, but it was too little too late as its economy was systematically strangled by blockade and raids. Transportation systems . The two were hanged by Confederate authorities near the railroad tracks so passing train passengers could see them.]] In peacetime, the South's extensive and connected systems of navigable rivers and coastal access allowed for cheap and easy transportation of agricultural products. The railroad system in the South had developed as a supplement to the navigable rivers to enhance the all-weather shipment of cash crops to market. Railroads tied plantation areas to the nearest river or seaport and so made supply more dependable, lowered costs and increased profits. In the event of invasion, the vast geography of the Confederacy made logistics difficult for the Union. Wherever Union armies invaded, they assigned many of their soldiers to garrison captured areas and to protect rail lines. At the onset of the Civil War the South had a rail network disjointed and plagued by changes in track gauge as well as lack of interchange. Locomotives and freight cars had fixed axles and could not use tracks of different gauges (widths). Railroads of different gauges leading to the same city required all freight to be off-loaded onto wagons for transport to the connecting railroad station, where it had to await freight cars and a locomotive before proceeding. Centers requiring off-loading included Vicksburg, New Orleans, Montgomery, Wilmington and Richmond. In addition, most rail lines led from coastal or river ports to inland cities, with few lateral railroads. Because of this design limitation, the relatively primitive railroads of the Confederacy were unable to overcome the Union naval blockade of the South's crucial intra-coastal and river routes. The Confederacy had no plan to expand, protect or encourage its railroads. Southerners' refusal to export the cotton crop in 1861 left railroads bereft of their main source of income. Many lines had to lay off employees; many critical skilled technicians and engineers were permanently lost to military service. In the early years of the war the Confederate government had a hands-off approach to the railroads. Only in mid-1863 did the Confederate government initiate a national policy, and it was confined solely to aiding the war effort. Railroads came under the de facto control of the military. In contrast, the U.S. Congress had authorized military administration of Union-controlled railroad and telegraph systems in January 1862, imposed a standard gauge, and built railroads into the South using that gauge. Confederate armies successfully reoccupying territory could not be resupplied directly by rail as they advanced. The C.S. Congress formally authorized military administration of railroads in February 1865. In the last year before the end of the war, the Confederate railroad system stood permanently on the verge of collapse. There was no new equipment and raids on both sides systematically destroyed key bridges, as well as locomotives and freight cars. Spare parts were cannibalized; feeder lines were torn up to get replacement rails for trunk lines, and rolling stock wore out through heavy use. Horses and mules The Confederate army experienced a persistent shortage of horses and mules and requisitioned them with dubious promissory notes given to local farmers and breeders. Union forces paid in real money and found ready sellers in the South. Both armies needed horses for cavalry and for artillery. Mules pulled the wagons. The supply was undermined by an unprecedented epidemic of glanders, a fatal disease that baffled veterinarians. After 1863 the invading Union forces had a policy of shooting all the local horses and mules that they did not need, in order to keep them out of Confederate hands. The Confederate armies and farmers experienced a growing shortage of horses and mules, which hurt the Southern economy and the war effort. The South lost half of its 2.5 million horses and mules; many farmers ended the war with none left. Army horses were used up by hard work, malnourishment, disease and battle wounds; they had a life expectancy of about seven months. Financial instruments Both the individual Confederate states and later the Confederate government printed Confederate States of America dollars as paper currency in various denominations, with a total face value of $1.5 billion. Much of it was signed by Treasurer Edward C. Elmore. Inflation became rampant as the paper money depreciated and eventually became worthless. The state governments and some localities printed their own paper money, adding to the runaway inflation. Many bills still exist, although in recent years counterfeit copies have proliferated. depicts a vignette of Hope flanked by R. M. T. Hunter and C. G. Memminger.]] The Confederate government initially wanted to finance its war mostly through tariffs on imports, export taxes, and voluntary donations of gold. After the spontaneous imposition of an embargo on cotton sales to Europe in 1861, these sources of revenue dried up and the Confederacy increasingly turned to issuing debt and printing money to pay for war expenses. The Confederate States politicians were worried about angering the general population with hard taxes. A tax increase might disillusion many Southerners, so the Confederacy resorted to printing more money. As a result, inflation increased and remained a problem for the southern states throughout the rest of the war. By April 1863, for example, the cost of flour in Richmond had risen to $100 (~$}} in ) a barrel and housewives were rioting. The Confederate government took over the three national mints in its territory: the Charlotte Mint in North Carolina, the Dahlonega Mint in Georgia, and the New Orleans Mint in Louisiana. During 1861 all of these facilities produced small amounts of gold coinage, and the latter half dollars as well. Since the mints used the current dies on hand, all appear to be U.S. issues. However, by comparing slight differences in the dies specialists can distinguish 1861-O half dollars that were minted either under the authority of the U.S. government, the State of Louisiana, or finally the Confederate States. Unlike the gold coins, this issue was produced in significant numbers (over 2.5 million) and is inexpensive in lower grades, although fakes have been made for sale to the public. However, before the New Orleans Mint ceased operation in May 1861, the Confederate government used its own reverse design to strike four half dollars. This made one of the great rarities of American numismatics. A lack of silver and gold precluded further coinage. The Confederacy apparently also experimented with issuing one cent coins, although only 12 were produced by a jeweler in Philadelphia, who was afraid to send them to the South. Like the half dollars, copies were later made as souvenirs. US coinage was hoarded and did not have any general circulation. U.S. coinage was admitted as legal tender up to $10, as were British sovereigns, French Napoleons and Spanish and Mexican doubloons at a fixed rate of exchange. Confederate money was paper and postage stamps. Food shortages and riots By mid-1861, the Union naval blockade virtually shut down the export of cotton and the import of manufactured goods. Food that formerly came overland was cut off. As women were the ones who remained at home, they had to make do with the lack of food and supplies. They cut back on purchases, used old materials, and planted more flax and peas to provide clothing and food. They used ersatz substitutes when possible, but there was no real coffee, only okra and chicory substitutes. The households were severely hurt by inflation in the cost of everyday items like flour, and the shortages of food, fodder for the animals, and medical supplies for the wounded. State governments requested that planters grow less cotton and more food, but most refused. When cotton prices soared in Europe, expectations were that Europe would soon intervene to break the blockade and make them rich, but Europe remained neutral. The Georgia legislature imposed cotton quotas, making it a crime to grow an excess. But food shortages only worsened, especially in the towns. The overall decline in food supplies, made worse by the inadequate transportation system, led to serious shortages and high prices in urban areas. When bacon reached a dollar a pound in 1863, the poor women of Richmond, Atlanta and many other cities began to riot; they broke into shops and warehouses to seize food, as they were angry at ineffective state relief efforts, speculators, and merchants. As wives and widows of soldiers, they were hurt by the inadequate welfare system.Devastation by 1865By the end of the war deterioration of the Southern infrastructure was widespread. The number of civilian deaths is unknown. Every Confederate state was affected, but most of the war was fought in Virginia and Tennessee, while Texas and Florida saw the least military action. Much of the damage was caused by direct military action, but most was caused by lack of repairs and upkeep, and by deliberately using up resources. Historians have recently estimated how much of the devastation was caused by military action. Paul Paskoff calculates that Union military operations were conducted in 56% of 645 counties in nine Confederate states (excluding Texas and Florida). These counties contained 63% of the 1860 white population and 64% of the slaves. By the time the fighting took place, undoubtedly some people had fled to safer areas, so the exact population exposed to war is unknown. <gallery style"float:right; text-align:center" perrow"2"> PottersHouseAtlanta1864.jpg\|Potters House, Atlanta GA Charleston ruins.jpg\|Downtown Charleston SC Virginia, Norfolk Navy Yard, Ruins of - NARA - 533292.tif\|Navy Yard, Norfolk VA Ruins of Petersburg, R.R. Bridge, Richmond, Va. April, 1865 - NARA - 528974.jpg\|Rail bridge, Petersburg VA </gallery> The eleven Confederate States in the 1860 United States census had 297 towns and cities with 835,000 people; of these 162 with 681,000 people were at one point occupied by Union forces. Eleven were destroyed or severely damaged by war action, including Atlanta (with an 1860 population of 9,600), Charleston, Columbia, and Richmond (with prewar populations of 40,500, 8,100, and 37,900, respectively); the eleven contained 115,900 people in the 1860 census, or 14% of the urban South. Historians have not estimated what their actual population was when Union forces arrived. The number of people (as of 1860) who lived in the destroyed towns represented just over 1% of the Confederacy's 1860 population. In addition, 45 court houses were burned (out of 830). The South's agriculture was not highly mechanized. The value of farm implements and machinery in the 1860 Census was $81 million; by 1870, there was 40% less, worth just $48 million. Many old tools had broken through heavy use; new tools were rarely available; even repairs were difficult. The economic losses affected everyone. Banks and insurance companies were mostly bankrupt. Confederate currency and bonds were worthless. The billions of dollars invested in slaves vanished. Most debts were also left behind. Most farms were intact, but most had lost their horses, mules and cattle; fences and barns were in disrepair. Paskoff shows the loss of farm infrastructure was about the same whether or not fighting took place nearby. The loss of infrastructure and productive capacity meant that rural widows throughout the region faced not only the absence of able-bodied men, but a depleted stock of material resources that they could manage and operate themselves. During four years of warfare, disruption, and blockades, the South used up about half its capital stock. The North, by contrast, absorbed its material losses so effortlessly that it appeared richer at the end of the war than at the beginning. Effect on women and families at Natchez City Cemetery is in Natchez, Mississippi.]] More than 250,000 Confederate soldiers died during the war. Some widows abandoned their family farms and merged into the households of relatives, or even became refugees living in camps with high rates of disease and death. In the Old South, being an "old maid" was an embarrassment to the woman and her family, but after the war, it became almost a norm. Some women welcomed the freedom of not having to marry. Divorce, while never fully accepted, became more common. The concept of the "New Woman" emerged – she was self-sufficient and independent, and stood in sharp contrast to the "Southern Belle" of antebellum lore. National flags <gallery class"center" style"margin:auto" widths"140" heights"100" perrow"4" mode"packed" caption="Flags of the Confederate States of America"> CSA FLAG 4.3.1861-21.5.1861.svg\|1st National Flag<br />[7, 9, 11, 13 stars]<br />"Stars and Bars" Second national flag of the Confederate States of America.svg\|2nd National Flag<br />[Richmond Capitol]<br />"Stainless Banner" Confederate National Flag since Mar 4 1865.svg\|3rd National Flag<br />[never flown]<br />"Blood Stained Banner" Conf Navy Jack (light blue).svg\|CSA Naval Jack<br />1863–65 Battle flag of the Confederate States of America.svg\|Battle Flag<br />"Southern Cross" To rectify the situation, a separate "Battle Flag" was designed for use by troops in the field. Also known as the "Southern Cross", many variations sprang from the original square configuration. Although it was never officially adopted by the Confederate government, the popularity of the Southern Cross among both soldiers and the civilian population was a primary reason why it was made the main color feature when a new national flag was adopted in 1863. This new standard—known as the "Stainless Banner"—consisted of a lengthened white field area with a Battle Flag canton. This flag too had its problems when used in military operations as, on a windless day, it could easily be mistaken for a flag of truce or surrender. Thus, in 1865, a modified version of the Stainless Banner was adopted. This final national flag of the Confederacy kept the Battle Flag canton, but shortened the white field and added a vertical red bar to the fly end. Because of its depiction in the 20th-century and popular media, many people consider the rectangular battle flag with the dark blue bars as being synonymous with "the Confederate Flag", but this flag was never adopted as a Confederate national flag. Unionists, led by Parson Brownlow and Senator Andrew Johnson, took control of East Tennessee in 1863. Unionists also attempted control over western Virginia, but never effectively held more than half of the counties that formed the new state of West Virginia. Union forces captured parts of coastal North Carolina, and at first were largely welcomed by local unionists. The occupiers became perceived as oppressive, callous, radical and favorable to Freedmen. Occupiers pillaged, freed slaves, and evicted those who refused to swear loyalty oaths to the Union. In Texas, local officials harassed and murdered Unionists. In Cooke County, Texas, 150 suspected Unionists were arrested; 25 were lynched without trial and 40 more were hanged after a summary trial. Draft resistance was widespread especially among Texans of German or Mexican descent, many of the latter leaving for Mexico. Confederate officials attempted to hunt down and kill potential draftees who had gone into hiding. Over 4,000 suspected Unionists were imprisoned in the Confederate States without trial. , a 22-year-old cavalry colonel from Knoxville, and his regiment of Southern Unionist "mountaineers", were called "damned Tennessee Yankees" by Confederate troops.]] Up to 100,000 men living in states under Confederate control served in the Union Army or pro-Union guerilla groups. Although Southern Unionists came from all classes, most differed socially, culturally, and economically from the region's dominant pre-war planter class. Geography Region and climate The Confederate States of America claimed a total of of coastline, thus a large part of its territory lay on the seacoast with level and often sandy or marshy ground. Most of the interior portion consisted of arable farmland, though much was also hilly and mountainous, and the far western territories were deserts. The southern reaches of the Mississippi River bisected the country, and the western half was often referred to as the Trans-Mississippi. The highest point (excluding Arizona and New Mexico) was Guadalupe Peak in Texas at . Much of the area had a humid subtropical climate with mild winters and long, hot, humid summers. The climate and terrain varied from vast swamps to semi-arid steppes and arid deserts. The subtropical climate made winters mild but allowed infectious diseases to flourish; on both sides more soldiers died from disease than were killed in combat. Demographics Population The 1860 United States census gives a picture of the population for the areas that had joined the Confederacy. The population numbers exclude non-assimilated Indian tribes. {\|class"wikitable plainrowheaders sortable" style"clear: both; text-align: right;" \|- ! scope="col" \| State ! scope="col" \| Total<br />population ! scope="col" \| Total<br />number of<br />slaves ! scope="col" \| Total<br />number of<br />households ! scope="col" \| Total<br />free<br />population ! scope="col" \| Total number<br />slaveholders ! scope="col" \| % of Free<br />population<br />owning<br />slaves ! scope"col" \| % of Free<br />families<br />owning<br />slaves ! scope="col" \| Slaves<br />as % of<br />population ! scope="col" \| Total<br />free<br />colored \|- ! scope="row" \| Alabama \| 964,201 \| 435,080 \| 96,603 \| 529,121 \| 33,730 \| 6% \| 35% \| 45% \| 2,690 \|- style="background: #f5f5f5;" ! scope="row" \| Arkansas \| 435,450 \| 111,115 \| 57,244 \| 324,335 \| 11,481 \| 4% \| 20% \| 26% \| 144 \|- ! scope="row" \| Florida \| 140,424 \| 61,745 \| 15,090 \| 78,679 \| 5,152 \| 7% \| 34% \| 44% \| 932 \|- style="background: #f5f5f5;" ! scope="row" \| Georgia \| 1,057,286 \| 462,198 \| 109,919 \| 595,088 \| 41,084 \| 7% \| 37% \| 44% \| 3,500 \|- ! scope="row" \| Louisiana \| 708,002 \| 331,726 \| 74,725 \| 376,276 \| 22,033 \| 6% \| 29% \| 47% \| 18,647 \|- style="background: #f5f5f5;" ! scope="row" \| Mississippi \| 791,305 \| 436,631 \| 63,015 \| 354,674 \| 30,943 \| 9% \| 49% \| 55% \| 773 \|- ! scope="row" \| North Carolina \| 992,622 \| 331,059 \| 125,090 \| 661,563 \| 34,658 \| 5% \| 28% \| 33% \| 30,463 \|- style="background: #f5f5f5;" ! scope="row" \| South Carolina \| 703,708 \| 402,406 \| 58,642 \| 301,302 \| 26,701 \| 9% \| 46% \| 57% \| 9,914 \|- ! scope="row" \| Tennessee \| 1,109,801 \| 275,719 \| 149,335 \| 834,082 \| 36,844 \| 4% \| 25% \| 25% \| 7,300 \|- style="background: #f5f5f5;" ! scope="row" \| Texas \| 604,215 \| 182,566 \| 76,781 \| 421,649 \| 21,878 \| 5% \| 28% \| 30% \| 355 \|- ! scope="row" \| Virginia \| 1,596,318 \| 490,865 \| 201,523 \| 1,105,453 \| 52,128 \| 5% \| 26% \| 31% \| 58,042 \|- class"sortbottom" style"background: #f9f9f9; font-weight: bold;" ! scope="row" \| Total \| 9,103,332 \| 3,521,110 \| 1,027,967 \| 5,582,222 \| 316,632 \| 6% \| 31% \| 39% \| 132,760 \|} {\| class"wikitable plainrowheaders" style"clear: both; text-align: right;" \|- ! scope="col" \| Age structure ! scope="col" \| 0–14 years ! scope="col" \| 15–59 years ! scope="col" \| 60 years and over \|- ! scope="row" \| White males \| 43% \| 52% \| 4% \|- style="background: #f5f5f5;" ! scope="row" \| White females \| 44% \| 52% \| 4% \|- ! scope="row" \| Male slaves \| 44% \| 51% \| 4% \|- style="background: #f5f5f5;" ! scope="row" \| Female slaves \| 45% \| 51% \| 3% \|- ! scope="row" \| Free black males \| 45% \| 50% \| 5% \|- style="background: #f5f5f5;" ! scope="row" \| Free black females \| 40% \| 54% \| 6% \|- style="background: #f9f9f9; font-weight: bold;" ! scope="row" \| Total population \| 44% \| 52% \| 4% \|} In 1860, the areas that later formed the eleven Confederate states (and including the future West Virginia) had 132,760 (2%) free blacks. Males made up 49% of the total population and females 51%. Rural and urban population , Currier and Ives, 1871]] The CSA was overwhelmingly rural. Few towns had populations of more than 1,000—the typical county seat had a population under 500. Of the twenty largest U.S. cities in the 1860 census, only New Orleans lay in Confederate territory. Only 13 Confederate-controlled cities ranked among the top 100 U.S. cities in 1860, most of them ports whose economic activities vanished or suffered severely in the Union blockade. The population of Richmond swelled after it became the Confederate capital, reaching an estimated 128,000 in 1864. The cities of the Confederacy included (by size of population): {\| class"wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style"margin: auto;" \|- ! scope="col" \| # ! scope="col" \| City ! scope="col" \| 1860 population ! scope="col" \| 1860 U.S. rank ! Return to U.S. control !Notes \|- ! scope="row" \| 1. \| New Orleans, Louisiana \| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" \| 168,675 \| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" \| 6 \| style="text-align: center; \|1862 \|See New Orleans in the American Civil War \|- ! scope="row" \| 2. \| Charleston, South Carolina \| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" \| 40,522 \| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" \| 22 \| style="text-align: center; \|1865 \|See Charleston in the American Civil War \|- ! scope="row" \| 3. \| Richmond, Virginia \| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" \| 37,910 \| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" \| 25 \| style="text-align: center; \|1865 \|See Richmond in the American Civil War \|- ! scope="row" \| 4. \| Mobile, Alabama \| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" \| 29,258 \| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" \| 27 \| style="text-align: center; \|1865 \| \|- ! scope="row" \| 5. \| Memphis, Tennessee \| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" \| 22,623 \| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" \| 38 \| style="text-align: center; \|1862 \| \|- ! scope="row" \| 6. \| Savannah, Georgia \| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" \| 22,619 \| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" \| 41 \| style="text-align: center; \|1864 \| \|- ! scope="row" \| 7. \| Petersburg, Virginia \| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" \| 18,266 \| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" \| 50 \| style="text-align: center; \|1865 \| \|- ! scope="row" \| 8. \| Nashville, Tennessee \| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" \| 16,988 \| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" \| 54 \| style="text-align: center; \|1862 \|See Nashville in the American Civil War \|- ! scope="row" \| 9. \| Norfolk, Virginia \| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" \| 14,620 \| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" \| 61 \| style="text-align: center; \|1862 \| \|- ! scope="row" \| 10. \| Alexandria, Virginia \| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" \| 12,652 \| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" \| 75 \| style="text-align: center; \|1861 \| \|- ! scope="row" \| 11. \| Augusta, Georgia \| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" \| 12,493 \| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" \| 77 \| style="text-align: center; \|1865 \| \|- ! scope="row" \| 12. \| Columbus, Georgia \| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" \| 9,621 \| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" \| 97 \| style="text-align: center; \|1865 \| \|- ! scope="row" \| 13. \| Atlanta, Georgia \| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" \| 9,554 \| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" \| 99 \| style="text-align: center; \|1864 \|See Atlanta in the American Civil War \|- ! scope="row" \| 14. \| Wilmington, North Carolina \| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" \| 9,553 \| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" \| 100 \| style="text-align: center; \|1865 \|See Wilmington, North Carolina in the American Civil War \|} Religion , Montgomery. The Secession Convention of Southern Churches was held here in 1861.]] The CSA was overwhelmingly Protestant. Both free and enslaved populations identified with evangelical Protestantism. Baptists and Methodists together formed majorities of both the white and the slave population, becoming the Black church. Freedom of religion and separation of church and state were fully ensured by Confederate laws. Church attendance was very high and chaplains played a major role in the Army. Most large denominations experienced a North–South split in the prewar era on the issue of slavery. The creation of a new country necessitated independent structures. For example, the Presbyterian Church in the United States split, with much of the new leadership provided by Joseph Ruggles Wilson. Baptists and Methodists both broke off from their Northern coreligionists over the slavery issue, forming the Southern Baptist Convention and the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. Elites in the southeast favored the Protestant Episcopal Church in the Confederate States of America, which had reluctantly split from the Episcopal Church in 1861. Other elites were Presbyterians belonging to the 1861-founded Presbyterian Church in the United States. Catholics included an Irish working-class element in coastal cities and an old French element in southern Louisiana. The southern churches met the shortage of Army chaplains by sending missionaries. One result was wave after wave of revivals in the Army. Legacy and assessment Amnesty and treason issue When the war ended over 14,000 Confederates petitioned President Johnson for a pardon; he was generous in giving them out. He issued a general amnesty to all Confederate participants in the "late Civil War" in 1868. Congress passed additional Amnesty Acts in May 1866 with restrictions on office holding, and the Amnesty Act in May 1872 lifting those restrictions. There was a great deal of discussion in 1865 about bringing treason trials, especially against Jefferson Davis. There was no consensus in President Johnson's cabinet, and no one was charged with treason. An acquittal of Davis would have been humiliating for the government. Davis was indicted for treason but never tried; he was released from prison on bail in May 1867. The amnesty of December 25, 1868, eliminated any possibility of Davis standing trial for treason. Henry Wirz, the commandant of a notorious prisoner-of-war camp near Andersonville, Georgia, was tried and convicted by a military court, and executed on November 10, 1865. The charges against him involved conspiracy and cruelty, not treason. The U.S. government began a decade-long process known as Reconstruction which attempted to resolve the political and constitutional issues of the Civil War. The priorities were: to guarantee that Confederate nationalism and slavery were ended, to ratify and enforce the Thirteenth Amendment which outlawed slavery; the Fourteenth which guaranteed dual U.S. and state citizenship to all native-born residents, regardless of race; the Fifteenth, which made it illegal to deny the right to vote because of race; and repeal each state's ordinance of secession. By 1877, the Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction in the former Confederate states. Federal troops were withdrawn from the South, where conservative white Democrats had already regained political control of state governments, often through extreme violence and fraud to suppress black voting. The war left the entire region economically devastated by military action, ruined infrastructure, and exhausted resources. Still dependent on an agricultural economy and resisting investment in infrastructure, it remained dominated by the planter elite into the next century. Confederate veterans had been temporarily disenfranchised by Reconstruction policy, and Democrat-dominated legislatures passed new constitutions and amendments to now exclude most blacks and many poor whites. This exclusion and a weakened Republican Party remained the norm until the Voting Rights Act of 1965. The Solid South of the early 20th century did not achieve national levels of prosperity until long after World War II. Supreme Court rulings In Texas v. White (1869), the Supreme Court ruled by a 5–3 majority that Texas had remained a state ever since it first joined the Union, despite claims that it joined the Confederate States of America. The Court held that the Constitution did not permit a state to unilaterally secede. In declaring that no state could leave the Union, "except through revolution or through consent of the States", it was "explicitly repudiating the position of the Confederate states that the United States was a voluntary compact between sovereign states". In Sprott v. United States (1874), the Supreme Court ruled 8–1 to reaffirm its conclusion in White and held that the Confederate States of America was little more than a briefly existing breakaway state which totally perished upon being overthrown. Specifically, declaring that its "foundation was treason" and "single purpose, so long as it lasted, was to make that treason successful."Theories regarding downfallHistorian Frank Lawrence Owsley argued that the Confederacy "died of states' rights". The central government was denied requisitioned soldiers and money by governors and state legislatures because they feared that Richmond would encroach on the rights of the states. Georgia's governor Joseph Brown warned of a secret conspiracy by Jefferson Davis to destroy states' rights and individual liberty. The first conscription act in North America, authorizing Davis to draft soldiers, was said to be the "essence of military despotism". Roger Lowenstein argued in Ways and Means: Lincoln and His Cabinet and the Financing of the Civil War (2022) that the Confederacy's failure to raise adequate revenue led to hyperinflation and being unable to win a war of attrition, despite the prowess of its military leadership such as Robert E. Lee. Though political differences were within the Confederacy, no national political parties were formed because they were seen as illegitimate. "Anti-partyism became an article of political faith." Without a system of political parties building alternate sets of national leaders, electoral protests tended to be narrowly state-based, "negative, carping and petty". The 1863 mid-term elections became mere expressions of futile and frustrated dissatisfaction. According to historian David M. Potter, the lack of a functioning two-party system caused "real and direct damage" to the Confederate war effort since it prevented the formulation of any effective alternatives to the conduct of the war by the Davis administration. The enemies of President Davis proposed that the Confederacy "died of Davis". He was unfavorably compared to George Washington by critics such as Edward Alfred Pollard, editor of the most influential newspaper in the Confederacy, the Daily Richmond Examiner. Beyond the early honeymoon period, Davis was never popular. Ellis Merton Coulter, viewed by historians as a Confederate apologist, argues that Davis was unable to mobilize Confederate nationalism in support of his government effectively, and especially failed to appeal to the small farmers who made up the bulk of the population. Escott also emphasizes that the widespread opposition to any strong central government combined with the vast difference in wealth between the slave-owning class and the small farmers created insolvable dilemmas when the Confederate survival presupposed a strong central government backed by a united populace. The prewar claim that white solidarity was necessary to provide a unified Southern voice in Washington no longer held. Davis failed to build a network of supporters who would speak up when he came under criticism, and he repeatedly alienated governors and other state-based leaders by demanding centralized control of the war effort. See also * American Civil War prison camps * Cabinet of the Confederate States of America * Commemoration of the American Civil War * Commemoration of the American Civil War on postage stamps * Confederate colonies * Confederate Patent Office * Confederate war finance * C.S.A.: The Confederate States of America * History of the Southern United States * Knights of the Golden Circle * List of Confederate arms manufacturers * List of Confederate arsenals and armories * List of Confederate monuments and memorials * List of treaties of the Confederate States of America * List of historical separatist movements * List of civil wars * National Civil War Naval Museum Notes References Sources * Bowman, John S. (ed), The Civil War Almanac, New York: Bison Books, 1983 * Eicher, John H., & Eicher, David J., Civil War High Commands, Stanford University Press, 2001, * Martis, Kenneth C. The Historical Atlas of the Congresses of the Confederate States of America 1861–1865 (1994) Further reading External links <!-- WIKIPEDIA IS NOT A COLLECTION OF LINKS. Only a limited number of new links should be added to this article. Consider adding links to the appropriate category at the Open Directory Project (www.dmoz.org) and link back to that category using the template. --><!--See Wikipedia:External links and Wikipedia:Spam for further details--> <!--Please: 1)Follow the WP:EL guideline where possible and consider discussing on the talk page; 2)Do not turn these bullets into headers! They expand the TOC too much--> * Civil War Research & Discussion Group – [https://web.archive.org/web/20081206024047/http://fax.libs.uga.edu/canu/ Confederate States of Am. Army and Navy Uniforms], 1861 * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081206024037/http://fax.libs.uga.edu/AP2xC84/ The Countryman, 1862–1866], published weekly by Turnwold, Ga., edited by J.A. Turner * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090111231646/http://fax.libs.uga.edu/ccsus/ The Federal and the Confederate Constitution Compared] * [http://www.libs.uga.edu/hargrett/selections/confed/confed.html Photographs of the original Confederate Constitution] and other Civil War documents owned by the [http://www.libs.uga.edu/hargrett/speccoll.html Hargrett Rare Book and Manuscript Library] at the [http://www.libs.uga.edu/ University of Georgia Libraries]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081206024042/http://fax.libs.uga.edu/E468x7xM647/ Photographic History of the Civil War, 10 vols., 1912.] * [http://docsouth.unc.edu/index.html DocSouth: Documenting the American South] – numerous online text, image, and audio collections. * The [http://cdm.bostonathenaeum.org/cdm/landingpage/collection/p16057coll14 Boston Athenæum] has over 4000 Confederate imprints, including rare books, pamphlets, government documents, manuscripts, serials, broadsides, maps, and sheet music that have been conserved and digitized. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20121024013411/http://www.library.okstate.edu/okmaps/ Oklahoma Digital Maps: Digital Collections of Oklahoma and Indian Territory] * [https://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/coll/050.html Confederate States of America Collection at the Library of Congress] * [http://www.oldmagazinearticles.com/article-summary/civil_war_religion#.Xs_0q2hKizk Religion in the CSA: Confederate Veteran Magazine'', May, 1922] * }} <!-- Please do not add "Portal:United States". --> Category:1861 establishments in North America Category:1865 disestablishments in North America Category:American Civil War Category:Anti-black racism in the United States Category:Federal constitutional republics Category:Former confederations Category:Former countries of the United States Category:Former regions and territories of the United States Category:Former unrecognized countries Category:History of the Southern United States * Category:Separatism in the United States Category:Slavery in the United States Category:States and territories disestablished in 1865 Category:States and territories established in 1861 Category:White separatism Category:White supremacy in North America Category:White supremacy in the United States Category:Former republics in North America	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America	2025-04-05T18:28:02.518954
7025	Cranberry	Cranberries are a group of evergreen dwarf shrubs or trailing vines in the subgenus Oxycoccus of the genus Vaccinium. Cranberries are low, creeping shrubs or vines up to long and in height; they have slender stems that are not thickly woody and have small evergreen leaves. The flowers are dark pink. The fruit is a berry that is larger than the leaves of the plant; it is initially light green, turning red when ripe. It is edible, but has an acidic taste. In Britain, cranberry may refer to the native species Vaccinium oxycoccos, Vaccinium oxycoccos is cultivated in central and northern Europe, while V. macrocarpon is cultivated throughout the northern United States, Canada and Chile. In some methods of classification, Oxycoccus is regarded as a genus in its own right. Cranberries can be found in acidic bogs throughout the cooler regions of the Northern Hemisphere. In 2020, the U.S., Canada, and Chile accounted for 97% of the world production of cranberries. Most cranberries are processed into products such as juice, sauce, jam, and sweetened dried cranberries, with the remainder sold fresh to consumers. Cranberry sauce is a traditional accompaniment to turkey at Christmas and Thanksgiving dinners in the U.S. and Canada, and at Christmas dinner in the United Kingdom. Description and species Cranberries are low, creeping shrubs or vines up to long and in height; they have slender, wiry stems that are not thickly woody and have small evergreen leaves. The flowers are dark pink, with very distinct reflexed petals, leaving the style and stamens fully exposed and pointing forward. They are pollinated by bees. The fruit is a berry that is larger than the leaves of the plant; it is initially light green, turning red when ripe. It has an acidic taste which usually overwhelms its sweetness. There are 4–5 species of cranberry, classified by subgenus: Subgenus Oxycoccus {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Image !! Name !! Description !! Distribution \|- \| \|\|Vaccinium oxycoccos or Oxycoccus palustris (common cranberry, northern cranberry or cranberry) \|\| It has small leaves, with an inrolled margin. The flowers are dark pink, with a purple central spike, produced on finely hairy stalks. The fruit is a small pale pink to red berry, with a refreshing sharp acidic flavor.\|\| Widespread throughout the cool temperate Northern Hemisphere, including northern Europe, northern Asia, and northern North America. \|- \|\|\|Vaccinium microcarpum or Oxycoccus microcarpus (small cranberry) \|\| It is highly similar to V. oxycoccos, differing in the leaves being more triangular, and the flower stems hairless; additionally, their stems can also be smaller and produce a smaller number of flowers than V. ocycoccos. They also differ in the fact that their leaves can be smaller in size, even though the main difference is their triangular shape. Some botanists include it within V. oxycoccos.\|\|Occurs in northern North America, northern Europe and northern Asia. \|- \|\|\|Vaccinium macrocarpon or Oxycoccus macrocarpus (large cranberry, American cranberry, bearberry) \|\| It differs from V. oxycoccos in the leaves being larger, long, and flat, and in the slightly apple-like taste of the berries. \|\|Native to northern North America across Canada, and eastern United States, south to North Carolina at high altitudes). \|- \|} Subgenus Oxycoccus, sect. Oxycoccoides {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Image !! Name !! Description !! Distribution \|- \| \|Vaccinium erythrocarpum or Oxycarpus erythrocarpus (southern mountain cranberry, bearberry) \|\| This species differs significantly from sect. oxycoccus cranberries particularly in growth habit. A deciduous shrub, their flowers are borne in June of a tubular shape with reflexed petals consistent with the rest of the subgenera. They produce edible scarlet berries described as being seemingly translucent. \|\| Native to southeastern United States at high altitudes in the southern Appalachian Mountains \|- \| \|Vaccinium japonicum \|They are typically found in forests and thickets within alpine areas between . \|Native to Southern China, Taiwan, the Japanese archipelago, and the Korean Peninsula \|} Similar species Cranberries are related to bilberries, blueberries, and huckleberries, all in Vaccinium subgenus Vaccinium. These differ in having bell-shaped flowers, petals that are not reflexed, and woodier stems, forming taller shrubs. Around 1694, German and Dutch colonists in New England used the word, cranberry, to represent the expanding flower, stem, calyx, and petals resembling the neck, head, and bill of a crane. The traditional English name for the plant more common in Europe, Vaccinium oxycoccos, fenberry, originated from plants with small red berries found growing in fen (marsh) lands of England. Cranberries have had two major breeding events. In more recent years, there have been heavier restrictions on pesticides due to environmental safety concerns, leading to a larger emphasis of high yield-high resistance varieties. Geography and bog method Historically, cranberry beds were constructed in wetlands. Today's cranberry beds are constructed in upland areas with a shallow water table. The topsoil is scraped off to form dykes around the bed perimeter. Clean sand is hauled in and spread to a depth of . The surface is laser leveled flat to provide even drainage. Beds are frequently drained with socked tile in addition to the perimeter ditch. In addition to making it possible to hold water, the dykes allow equipment to service the beds without driving on the vines. Irrigation equipment is installed in the bed to provide irrigation for vine growth and for spring and autumn frost protection. A common misconception about cranberry production is that the beds remain flooded throughout the year. During the growing season cranberry beds are not flooded, but are irrigated regularly to maintain soil moisture. Beds are flooded in the autumn to facilitate harvest and again during the winter to protect against low temperatures. In cold climates like Wisconsin, New England, and eastern Canada, the winter flood typically freezes into ice, while in warmer climates the water remains liquid. When ice forms on the beds, trucks can be driven onto the ice to spread a thin layer of sand to control pests and rejuvenate the vines. Sanding is done every three to five years. Propagation Cranberry vines are propagated by moving vines from an established bed. The vines are spread on the surface of the sand of the new bed and pushed into the sand with a blunt disk. The vines are watered frequently during the first few weeks until roots form and new shoots grow. Beds are given frequent, light application of nitrogen fertilizer during the first year. The cost of renovating cranberry beds is estimated to be between . Ripening and harvest , Child Labor, Cranberry Bog, 1939. Brooklyn Museum]] Cranberries are harvested in the fall when the fruit takes on its distinctive deep red color, and most ideally after the first frost. Berries that receive sun turn a deep red when fully ripe, while those that do not fully mature are a pale pink or white color. This is usually in September through the first part of November. To harvest cranberries, the beds are flooded with of water above the vines. A harvester is driven through the beds to remove the fruit from the vines. For the past 50 years, water reel type harvesters have been used. Harvested cranberries float in the water and can be corralled into a corner of the bed and conveyed or pumped from the bed. From the farm, cranberries are taken to receiving stations where they are cleaned, sorted, and stored prior to packaging or processing. While cranberries are harvested when they take on their deep red color, they can also be harvested beforehand when they are still white, which is how white cranberry juice is made. Yields are lower on beds harvested early and the early flooding tends to damage vines, but not severely. Vines can also be trained through dry picking to help avoid damage in subsequent harvests. Although most cranberries are wet-picked as described above, 5–10% of the US crop is still dry-picked. This entails higher labor costs and lower yield, but dry-picked berries are less bruised and can be sold as fresh fruit instead of having to be immediately frozen or processed. Originally performed with two-handed comb scoops, dry picking is today accomplished by motorized, walk-behind harvesters which must be small enough to traverse beds without damaging the vines. Cranberries for fresh market are stored in shallow bins or boxes with perforated or slatted bottoms, which deter decay by allowing air to circulate. Because harvest occurs in late autumn, cranberries for fresh market are frequently stored in thick walled barns without mechanical refrigeration. Temperatures are regulated by opening and closing vents in the barn as needed. Cranberries destined for processing are usually frozen in bulk containers shortly after arriving at a receiving station. Diseases Diseases of cranberry include: Cranberry fruit rot Cranberry root rot Cranberry false blossom disease, caused by a phytoplasma that is vectored by the blunt-nosed leafhopper (Limotettix vaccinii), and prevents the plant from creating fertile flowers and thus berries. Insect Pests Probably due to the high phenolics and plant defenses, in addition to the harsh environments that cranberries are grown under (acid, sandy soils that get flooded every year), a majority of insect pests associated with cranberries are native to the cranberry's home range of North America. The top studied insect pests of cranberries include: Wisconsin (59% of US production) and Quebec (60% of Canadian production) are two of the largest producers of cranberries in the two countries. Cranberries are also a major commercial crop in Massachusetts, New Jersey, Oregon, and Washington, as well as in the Canadian province of British Columbia (33% of Canadian production). Other safety concerns from consuming large quantities of cranberry juice or using cranberry supplements include potential for nausea, and increasing stomach inflammation, sugar intake or kidney stone formation. The drying process also eliminates vitamin C content. In James Rosier's book The Land of Virginia there is an account of Europeans coming ashore and being met with Native Americans bearing bark cups full of cranberries. In Plymouth, Massachusetts, there is a 1633 account of the husband of Mary Ring auctioning her cranberry-dyed petticoat for 16 shillings. In 1643, Roger Williams's book A Key into the Language of America described cranberries, referring to them as "bearberries" because bears ate them. In 1648, preacher John Elliott was quoted in Thomas Shepard's book Clear Sunshine of the Gospel with an account of the difficulties the Pilgrims were having in using the Indians to harvest cranberries as they preferred to hunt and fish. In 1663, the Pilgrim cookbook appears with a recipe for cranberry sauce. In 1667, New Englanders sent to King Charles ten barrels of cranberries, three barrels of codfish and some Indian corn as a means of appeasement for his anger over their local coining of the pine tree shilling minted by John Hull. In 1669, Captain Richard Cobb had a banquet in his house (to celebrate both his marriage to Mary Gorham and his election to the Convention of Assistance), serving wild turkey with sauce made from wild cranberries. In the 1672 book New England Rarities Discovered author John Josselyn described cranberries, writing:<blockquote>Sauce for the Pilgrims, cranberry or bearberry, is a small trayling plant that grows in salt marshes that are overgrown with moss. The berries are of a pale yellow color, afterwards red, as big as a cherry, some perfectly round, others oval, all of them hollow with sower astringent taste; they are ripe in August and September. They are excellent against the Scurvy. They are also good to allay the fervor of hoof diseases. The Indians and English use them mush, boyling them with sugar for sauce to eat with their meat; and it is a delicate sauce, especially with roasted mutton. Some make tarts with them as with gooseberries.</blockquote> ''The Compleat Cook's Guide, published in 1683, made reference to cranberry juice. In 1703, cranberries were served at the Harvard University commencement dinner. In 1787, James Madison wrote Thomas Jefferson in France for background information on constitutional government to use at the Constitutional Convention. Jefferson sent back a number of books on the subject and in return asked for a gift of apples, pecans and cranberries. William Aiton, a Scottish botanist, included an entry for the cranberry in volume II of his 1789 work Hortus Kewensis. He notes that Vaccinium macrocarpon (American cranberry) was cultivated by James Gordon in 1760. In 1796, cranberries were served at the first celebration of the landing of the Pilgrims, and Amelia Simmons (an American orphan) wrote a book entitled American Cookery'' which contained a recipe for cranberry tarts. Products As fresh cranberries are hard, sour, and bitter, about 95% of cranberries are processed and used to make cranberry juice and sauce. They are also sold dried and sweetened. Usually cranberries as fruit are cooked into a compote or jelly, known as cranberry sauce. Such preparations are traditionally served with roast turkey, as a staple of Thanksgiving (both in Canada and in the United States) as well as English dinners. The berry is also used in baking (muffins, scones, cakes and breads). In baking it is often combined with orange or orange zest. Less commonly, cranberries are used to add tartness to savory dishes such as soups and stews. There are several alcoholic cocktails, including the cosmopolitan, that include cranberry juice. Urinary tract infections A 2023 Cochrane systematic review of 50 studies concluded there is evidence that consuming cranberry products (such as juice or capsules) is effective for reducing the risk of urinary tract infections (UTIs) in women with recurrent UTIs, in children, and in people susceptible to UTIs following clinical interventions; there was little evidence of effect in elderly people, those with urination disorders or pregnant women. When the quality of meta-analyses on the efficacy of consuming cranberry products for preventing or treating UTIs is examined with the weaker evidence that is available, large variation and uncertainty of effects are seen, resulting from inconsistencies of clinical research design and inadequate numbers of subjects. In 2014, the European Food Safety Authority reviewed the evidence for one brand of cranberry extract and concluded that a cause and effect relationship had not been established between cranberry consumption and reduced risk of UTIs. A 2022 review of international urology guidelines on UTI found that most clinical organizations felt the evidence for use of cranberry products to inhibit UTIs was conflicting, unconvincing or weak. Research Phytochemicals Raw cranberries, cranberry juice and cranberry extracts are a source of polyphenols – including proanthocyanidins, flavonols and quercetin. These phytochemical compounds are being studied in vivo and in vitro for possible effects on the cardiovascular system, immune system and cancer. However, there is no confirmation from human studies that consuming cranberry polyphenols provides anti-cancer, immune, or cardiovascular benefits. Cranberry juice components are also being studied for possible effects on kidney stone formation. Extract quality Problems may arise with the lack of validation for quantifying of A-type proanthocyanidins (PAC) extracted from cranberries. For instance, PAC extract quality and content can be performed using different methods including the European Pharmacopoeia method, liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry, or a modified 4-dimethylaminocinnamaldehyde colorimetric method. Variations in extract analysis can lead to difficulties in assessing the quality of PAC extracts from different cranberry starting material, such as by regional origin, ripeness at time of harvest and post-harvest processing. Assessments show that quality varies greatly from one commercial PAC extract product to another. Marketing and economics United States Cranberry sales in the United States have traditionally been associated with holidays of Thanksgiving and Christmas. In the U.S., large-scale cranberry cultivation has been developed as opposed to other countries. American cranberry growers have a long history of cooperative marketing. As early as 1904, John Gaynor, a Wisconsin grower, and A.U. Chaney, a fruit broker from Des Moines, Iowa, organized Wisconsin growers into a cooperative called the Wisconsin Cranberry Sales Company to receive a uniform price from buyers. Growers in New Jersey and Massachusetts were also organized into cooperatives, creating the National Fruit Exchange that marketed fruit under the Eatmor brand. The success of cooperative marketing almost led to its failure. With consistent and high prices, area and production doubled between 1903 and 1917 and prices fell. With surplus cranberries and changing American households some enterprising growers began canning cranberries that were below-grade for fresh market. Competition between canners was fierce because profits were thin. The Ocean Spray cooperative was established in 1930 through a merger of three primary processing companies: Ocean Spray Preserving company, Makepeace Preserving Co, and Cranberry Products Co. The new company was called Cranberry Canners, Inc. and used the Ocean Spray label on their products. Since the new company represented over 90% of the market, it would have been illegal under American antitrust laws had attorney John Quarles not found an exemption for agricultural cooperatives. , about 65% of the North American industry belongs to the Ocean Spray cooperative. In 1958, Morris April Brothers—who produced Eatmor brand cranberry sauce in Tuckahoe, New Jersey—brought an action against Ocean Spray for violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act and won $200,000 in real damages plus triple damages, just in time for the Great Cranberry Scare: on 9 November 1959, Secretary of the United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Arthur S. Flemming announced that some of the 1959 cranberry crop was tainted with traces of the herbicide aminotriazole. The market for cranberries collapsed and growers lost millions of dollars.Cranberry Marketing CommitteeThe Cranberry Marketing Committee is an organization that was established in 1962 as a Federal Marketing Order to ensure a stable, orderly supply of good quality product. The order has been renewed and modified slightly over the years. The market order has been invoked during six crop years: 1962 (12%), 1963 (5%), 1970 (10%), 1971 (12%), 2000 (15%), and 2001 (35%). Even though supply still exceeds demand, there is little will to invoke the Federal Marketing Order out of the realization that any pullback in supply by U.S. growers would easily be filled by Canadian production. The Cranberry Marketing Committee, based in Wareham, Massachusetts, represents more than 1,100 cranberry growers and 60 cranberry handlers across Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey, Wisconsin, Michigan, Minnesota, Oregon, Washington and New York (Long Island). The authority for the actions taken by the Cranberry Marketing Committee is provided in Chapter IX, Title 7, Code of Federal Regulations which is called the Federal Cranberry Marketing Order. The Order is part of the Agricultural Marketing Agreement Act of 1937, identifying cranberries as a commodity good that can be regulated by Congress. The Federal Cranberry Marketing Order has been altered over the years to expand the Cranberry Marketing Committee's ability to develop projects in the United States and around the world. The Cranberry Marketing Committee currently runs promotional programs in the United States, China, India, Mexico, Pan-Europe, and South Korea. International trade , the European Union was the largest importer of American cranberries, followed individually by Canada, China, Mexico, and South Korea. From 2013 to 2017, U.S. cranberry exports to China grew exponentially, making China the second largest country importer, reaching $36 million in cranberry products. The China–United States trade war resulted in many Chinese businesses cutting off ties with their U.S. cranberry suppliers. References Notes Further reading Cole, S. & Gifford, L. (2009). The Cranberry: Hard Work and Holiday Sauce. Tilbury House Publishers. * Trehane, J. (2009). Blueberries, Cranberries and Other Vacciniums. Timber Press. External links * Germplasm Resources Information Network: [https://web.archive.org/web/20151102182245/http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/splist.pl?18661 Sect. Oxycoccus] and [https://web.archive.org/web/20151102182246/http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/splist.pl?18658 Sect. Oxycoccoides] * [http://www.umass.edu/cranberry University of Massachusetts Amherst Cranberry Station] for information on cranberry research * [https://web.archive.org/web/20121029070614/http://www.library.wisc.edu/guides/agnic/cranberry/cranhome.html Cranberry Library Page] Hosted by the University of Wisconsin-Madison * [http://www.wikimapia.org/#y44426885&x-89758258&z15&l0&m=s Wikimapia] An overhead view of a cranberry farm near Wisconsin Rapids, Wisconsin * [http://pemaruccicenter.rutgers.edu/ Cranberry research at Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey] * [http://scholarworks.umass.edu/cranberry/ University of Massachusetts Cranberry Station] Hosted by the University of Massachusetts – Amherst * [https://archive.org/stream/appletonsmagazin04newy#page/748/mode/2up "Harvest-Time in a Cranberry Bog"], The Booklovers Magazine, December 1904. Internet Archive. * Category:Berries Category:Crops originating from the United States Category:Vaccinium Category:Crops originating from Canada Category:Subshrubs Category:Medicinal plants of North America Category:Crops originating from indigenous Americans	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cranberry	2025-04-05T18:28:02.606284
7030	Code coverage	In software engineering, code coverage, also called test coverage, is a percentage measure of the degree to which the source code of a program is executed when a particular test suite is run. A program with high code coverage has more of its source code executed during testing, which suggests it has a lower chance of containing undetected software bugs compared to a program with low code coverage. Many different metrics can be used to calculate test coverage. Some of the most basic are the percentage of program subroutines and the percentage of program statements called during execution of the test suite. Code coverage was among the first methods invented for systematic software testing. The first published reference was by Miller and Maloney in Communications of the ACM, in 1963. Coverage criteria To measure what percentage of code has been executed by a test suite, one or more coverage criteria are used. These are usually defined as rules or requirements, which a test suite must satisfy. Basic coverage criteria There are a number of coverage criteria, but the main ones are: Function coveragehas each function (or subroutine) in the program been called? Statement coveragehas each statement in the program been executed? Edge coveragehas every edge in the control-flow graph been executed? Branch coveragehas each branch (also called the DD-path) of each control structure (such as in if and case statements) been executed? For example, given an if statement, have both the true and false branches been executed? (This is a subset of edge coverage.) Condition coveragehas each Boolean sub-expression evaluated both to true and false? (Also called predicate coverage.) For example, consider the following C function: int foo (int x, int y) { int z = 0; if ((x > 0) && (y > 0)) { z = x; } return z; } Assume this function is a part of some bigger program and this program was run with some test suite. Function coverage will be satisfied if, during this execution, the function foo was called at least once. Statement coverage for this function will be satisfied if it was called for example as foo(1,1), because in this case, every line in the function would be executed—including z = x;. Branch coverage will be satisfied by tests calling foo(1,1) and foo(0,1) because, in the first case, both if conditions are met and z x; is executed, while in the second case, the first condition, (x>0), is not satisfied, which prevents the execution of z x;. Condition coverage will be satisfied with tests that call foo(1,0), foo(0,1), and foo(1,1). These are necessary because in the first case, (x>0) is evaluated to true, while in the second, it is evaluated to false. At the same time, the first case makes (y>0) false, the second case does not evaluate (y>0) (because of the lazy-evaluation of the Boolean operator), the third case makes it true. In programming languages that do not perform short-circuit evaluation, condition coverage does not necessarily imply branch coverage. For example, consider the following Pascal code fragment: if a and b then Condition coverage can be satisfied by two tests: atrue, bfalse afalse, btrue However, this set of tests does not satisfy branch coverage since neither case will meet the if condition. Fault injection may be necessary to ensure that all conditions and branches of exception-handling code have adequate coverage during testing. Modified condition/decision coverage A combination of function coverage and branch coverage is sometimes also called decision coverage. This criterion requires that every point of entry and exit in the program has been invoked at least once, and every decision in the program has taken on all possible outcomes at least once. In this context, the decision is a Boolean expression comprising conditions and zero or more Boolean operators. This definition is not the same as branch coverage, however, the term decision coverage is sometimes used as a synonym for it. Condition/decision coverage requires that both decision and condition coverage be satisfied. However, for safety-critical applications (such as avionics software) it is often required that modified condition/decision coverage (MC/DC) be satisfied. This criterion extends condition/decision criteria with requirements that each condition should affect the decision outcome independently. For example, consider the following code: if (a or b) and c then The condition/decision criteria will be satisfied by the following set of tests: a b c true true true false false false However, the above tests set will not satisfy modified condition/decision coverage, since in the first test, the value of 'b' and in the second test the value of 'c' would not influence the output. So, the following test set is needed to satisfy MC/DC: a b c false true false false true true false false true true false true Multiple condition coverage This criterion requires that all combinations of conditions inside each decision are tested. For example, the code fragment from the previous section will require eight tests: a b c false false false false false true false true false false true true true false false true false true true true false true true true Parameter value coverage Parameter value coverage (PVC) requires that in a method taking parameters, all the common values for such parameters be considered. The idea is that all common possible values for a parameter are tested. For example, common values for a string are: 1) null, 2) empty, 3) whitespace (space, tabs, newline), 4) valid string, 5) invalid string, 6) single-byte string, 7) double-byte string. It may also be appropriate to use very long strings. Failure to test each possible parameter value may result in a bug. Testing only one of these could result in 100% code coverage as each line is covered, but as only one of seven options are tested, there is only 14.2% PVC. Other coverage criteria There are further coverage criteria, which are used less often: Linear Code Sequence and Jump (LCSAJ) coverage a.k.a. JJ-Path coverage has every LCSAJ/JJ-path been executed? Path coverageHas every possible route through a given part of the code been executed? Entry/exit coverageHas every possible call and return of the function been executed? Loop coverageHas every possible loop been executed zero times, once, and more than once? State coverageHas each state in a finite-state machine been reached and explored? Data-flow coverageHas each variable definition and its usage been reached and explored? Safety-critical or dependable applications are often required to demonstrate 100% of some form of test coverage. For example, the ECSS-E-ST-40C standard demands 100% statement and decision coverage for two out of four different criticality levels; for the other ones, target coverage values are up to negotiation between supplier and customer. However, setting specific target values - and, in particular, 100% - has been criticized by practitioners for various reasons (cf.) Martin Fowler writes: "I would be suspicious of anything like 100% - it would smell of someone writing tests to make the coverage numbers happy, but not thinking about what they are doing". Some of the coverage criteria above are connected. For instance, path coverage implies decision, statement and entry/exit coverage. Decision coverage implies statement coverage, because every statement is part of a branch. Full path coverage, of the type described above, is usually impractical or impossible. Any module with a succession of n decisions in it can have up to 2^n paths within it; loop constructs can result in an infinite number of paths. Many paths may also be infeasible, in that there is no input to the program under test that can cause that particular path to be executed. However, a general-purpose algorithm for identifying infeasible paths has been proven to be impossible (such an algorithm could be used to solve the halting problem). Basis path testing is for instance a method of achieving complete branch coverage without achieving complete path coverage. Methods for practical path coverage testing instead attempt to identify classes of code paths that differ only in the number of loop executions, and to achieve "basis path" coverage the tester must cover all the path classes. In practice The target software is built with special options or libraries and run under a controlled environment, to map every executed function to the function points in the source code. This allows testing parts of the target software that are rarely or never accessed under normal conditions, and helps reassure that the most important conditions (function points) have been tested. The resulting output is then analyzed to see what areas of code have not been exercised and the tests are updated to include these areas as necessary. Combined with other test coverage methods, the aim is to develop a rigorous, yet manageable, set of regression tests. In implementing test coverage policies within a software development environment, one must consider the following: What are coverage requirements for the end product certification and if so what level of test coverage is required? The typical level of rigor progression is as follows: Statement, Branch/Decision, Modified Condition/Decision Coverage (MC/DC), LCSAJ (Linear Code Sequence and Jump) Will coverage be measured against tests that verify requirements levied on the system under test (DO-178B)? Is the object code generated directly traceable to source code statements? Certain certifications, (i.e. DO-178B Level A) require coverage at the assembly level if this is not the case: "Then, additional verification should be performed on the object code to establish the correctness of such generated code sequences" (DO-178B) para-6.4.4.2. Notable code coverage tools Hardware manufacturers Aldec Mentor Graphics Silvaco Synopsys Software LDRA Testbed Parasoft C / C++ Cantata++ Gcov Insure++ LDRA Testbed Tcov Testwell CTC++ Trucov Squish (Froglogic) C# .NET DevPartner Studio JetBrains NCover Java Clover DevPartner Java EMMA Jtest LDRA Testbed PHP PHPUnit, also need Xdebug to make coverage reports Usage in industry Test coverage is one consideration in the safety certification of avionics equipment. The guidelines by which avionics gear is certified by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is documented in DO-178B and DO-178C. Test coverage is also a requirement in part 6 of the automotive safety standard ISO 26262 Road Vehicles - Functional Safety. See also Cyclomatic complexity Intelligent verification Linear code sequence and jump Modified condition/decision coverage Mutation testing Regression testing Software metric Static program analysis White-box testing Java code coverage tools References Category:Software metrics Category:Software testing tools	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_coverage	2025-04-05T18:28:02.645520
7033	Caitlin Clarke	\| birth_place = Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S. \| death_date = \| death_place = Sewickley, Pennsylvania, U.S. \| occupation = Actress \| years_active = 1978–2001 \| education = }} Caitlin Clarke (born Katherine Anne Clarke; May 3, 1952 – September 9, 2004) Her family moved to Sewickley when she was ten. Clarke received her B.A. in theater arts from Mount Holyoke College in 1974 and her M.F.A. from the Yale School of Drama in 1978. During her final year at Yale, Clarke performed with the Yale Repertory Theater in such plays as Tales from the Vienna Woods.CareerClarke starred in the 1981 fantasy film Dragonslayer. Clarke moved to Los Angeles for several years as a film and television actress. In 1986, she appeared in the film Crocodile Dundee as Simone, a friendly prostitute. That same year, Clarke appeared in the television series The Equalizer as Jessie Moore, the mother of Laura, played by nine year-old Melissa Joan Hart, who asks McCall for protection from an abusive ex-husband in "Torn." She returned to theater in the early 1990s, and to Broadway as Charlotte Cardoza in Titanic. From 1997 to 2000, Clarke had a reoccurring role on Law & Order as Defense Attorney Linda Walsh. Personal life and death Clarke was diagnosed with ovarian cancer in 2000. She returned to Pittsburgh to teach theater at the University of Pittsburgh and at the Pittsburgh Musical Theater's Rauh Conservatory as well as to perform in Pittsburgh theatre until her death on September 9, 2004. Stage Broadway 1983 – Teaneck Tanzi: The Venus Flytrap 1985 – The Marriage of Figaro 1985 – Arms and the Man 1985 – Strange Interlude 1998 – Titanic: A New Musical Off-Broadway 1979 – Othello 1981 – No End of Blame 1983 – Summer 1984 – Total Eclipse 1984 – ''Quartermaine's Terms 1984 – Thin Ice 1994 – Three Birds Alighting On A Field 1994 – Unexpected Tenderness Regional 1978 – Tales from the Vienna Woods (New Haven) 1979 – The Winter's Tale (Washington) 1980 – Bal (Chicago) 1981 – Plenty (Chicago) 1982 – Summer Vacation Madness (Minneapolis) 1984 – As You Like It (San Diego) 1984 – Not Quite Jerusalem (New Haven) 1989 – Our Country's Good (Los Angeles) 1991 – The Queen And The Rebels (Baltimore) 1996 – Mrs. Warren's Profession (New Haven) 1997 – Indiscretions (Dallas) 1997 – The Glass Menagerie (Portland, Maine) 1999 – Griller (Baltimore) 2000 – Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf (Rochester, NY) 2002 – The Gigli Concert (Pittsburgh) 2002 – Aristocrats (Pittsburgh) Filmography Film 1981 Dragonslayer as Valerian * 1986 Crocodile Dundee as Simone * 1988 Kenny (The Kid Brother) as Sharon * 1989 The Big Picture as Sharon * 1989 Penn & Teller Get Killed as Carlotta / Officer McNamara * 1994 Blown Away as Officer Rita * 1997 Cost of Living as Annie * 1997 A Cure For Serpents (Short) as Mother * 1999 Joe the King as Pat * 2001 Never Again as Allison (final film role) Television {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|+ Caitlin Clarke television credits<!-- WP:ACCESSIBILITY & MOS:TABLECAPTION --> \|- ! Year !! Title !! Role !! Notes \|- \| 1986 \| The Equalizer \| Jessie Moore \| Episode: "Torn" \|- \| 1987 \| Moonlighting \| Elaine Johnson \| 2 episodes \|- \| 1987 \| Once a Hero \| Emma Greely / Emma Greeley \| 3 episodes \|- \| 1986 \| Mayflower Madam \| Virginia \| TV movie \|- \| 1990 \| Matlock \| Sandra Townsend \| Episode: "The Witness" \|- \| 1991 \| Love, Lies and Murder \| Sandra Eden \| TV movie \|- \| 1991 \| Northern Exposure \| Irene Rondenet \| Episode: "Only You" \|- \| 1996 \| The Stepford Husbands \| Lisa \| TV movie \|- \| 1997–2000 \| Law & Order \| Defense Attorney Linda Walsh \| \| <br>"Menace" <br>"Juvenile" <br>"Stiff" }} \|- \| 2000 \| Sex And The City'' \| Uptight Woman \| 1 episode \|} References External links * * Category:1952 births Category:2004 deaths Category:Actresses from Pittsburgh Category:American film actresses Category:American stage actresses Category:American television actresses Category:Mount Holyoke College alumni Category:Deaths from ovarian cancer in the United States Category:David Geffen School of Drama at Yale University alumni Category:Deaths from cancer in Pennsylvania Category:20th-century American actresses Category:Sewickley Academy alumni Category:21st-century American women	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caitlin_Clarke	2025-04-05T18:28:02.679206
7034	Cruiser	}} USS Arkansas. The Virginia class was the last class of nuclear-powered cruisers to be built in the United States.]] Marshal Ustinov]] A cruiser is a type of warship. Modern cruisers are generally the largest ships in a fleet after aircraft carriers and amphibious assault ships, and can usually perform several operational roles from search-and-destroy to ocean escort to sea denial. The term "cruiser", which has been in use for several hundred years, has changed its meaning over time. During the Age of Sail, the term cruising referred to certain kinds of missions—independent scouting, commerce protection, or raiding—usually fulfilled by frigates or sloops-of-war, which functioned as the cruising warships of a fleet. In the middle of the 19th century, cruiser came to be a classification of the ships intended for cruising distant waters, for commerce raiding, and for scouting for the battle fleet. Cruisers came in a wide variety of sizes, from the medium-sized protected cruiser to large armored cruisers that were nearly as big (although not as powerful or as well-armored) as a pre-dreadnought battleship. With the advent of the dreadnought battleship before World War I, the armored cruiser evolved into a vessel of similar scale known as the battlecruiser. The very large battlecruisers of the World War I era that succeeded armored cruisers were now classified, along with dreadnought battleships, as capital ships. By the early 20th century, after World War I, the direct successors to protected cruisers could be placed on a consistent scale of warship size, smaller than a battleship but larger than a destroyer. In 1922, the Washington Naval Treaty placed a formal limit on these cruisers, which were defined as warships of up to 10,000 tons displacement carrying guns no larger than 8 inches in calibre; whilst the 1930 London Naval Treaty created a divide of two cruiser types, heavy cruisers having 6.1 inches to 8 inch guns, while those with guns of 6.1 inches or less were light cruisers. Each type were limited in total and individual tonnage which shaped cruiser design until the collapse of the treaty system just prior to the start of World War II. Some variations on the Treaty cruiser design included the German "pocket battleships", which had heavier armament at the expense of speed compared to standard heavy cruisers, and the American , which was a scaled-up heavy cruiser design designated as a "cruiser-killer". In the later 20th century, the obsolescence of the battleship left the cruiser as the largest and most powerful surface combatant ships (as opposed to the aerial warfare role of aircraft carriers). The role of the cruiser varied according to ship and navy, often including air defense and shore bombardment. During the Cold War the Soviet Navy's cruisers had heavy anti-ship missile armament designed to sink NATO carrier task-forces via saturation attack. The U.S. Navy built guided-missile cruisers upon destroyer-style hulls (some called "destroyer leaders" or "frigates" prior to the 1975 reclassification) primarily designed to provide air defense while often adding anti-submarine capabilities, being larger and having longer-range surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) than early Charles F. Adams guided-missile destroyers tasked with the short-range air defense role. By the end of the Cold War the line between cruisers and destroyers had blurred, with the cruiser using the hull of the destroyer but receiving the cruiser designation due to their enhanced mission and combat systems. , only two countries operated active duty vessels formally classed as cruisers: the United States and Russia. These cruisers are primarily armed with guided missiles, with the exceptions of the aircraft cruiser . was the last gun cruiser in service, serving with the Peruvian Navy until 2017. Nevertheless, other classes in addition to the above may be considered cruisers due to differing classification systems. The US/NATO system includes the Type 055 from China and the Kirov and Slava from Russia. International Institute for Strategic Studies' "The Military Balance" defines a cruiser as a surface combatant displacing at least 9750 tonnes; with respect to vessels in service as of the early 2020s it includes the Type 055, the Sejong the Great from South Korea, the Atago and Maya from Japan and the Flight III Arleigh Burke, Ticonderoga and Zumwalt from the US.Early historyThe term "cruiser" or "cruizer" was first commonly used in the 17th century to refer to an independent warship. "Cruiser" meant the purpose or mission of a ship, rather than a category of vessel. However, the term was nonetheless used to mean a smaller, faster warship suitable for such a role. In the 17th century, the ship of the line was generally too large, inflexible, and expensive to be dispatched on long-range missions (for instance, to the Americas), and too strategically important to be put at risk of fouling and foundering by continual patrol duties. The Dutch navy was noted for its cruisers in the 17th century, while the Royal Navy—and later French and Spanish navies—subsequently caught up in terms of their numbers and deployment. The British Cruiser and Convoy Acts were an attempt by mercantile interests in Parliament to focus the Navy on commerce defence and raiding with cruisers, rather than the more scarce and expensive ships of the line. During the 18th century the frigate became the preeminent type of cruiser. A frigate was a small, fast, long range, lightly armed (single gun-deck) ship used for scouting, carrying dispatches, and disrupting enemy trade. The other principal type of cruiser was the sloop, but many other miscellaneous types of ship were used as well. Steam cruisers During the 19th century, navies began to use steam power for their fleets. The 1840s saw the construction of experimental steam-powered frigates and sloops. By the middle of the 1850s, the British and U.S. Navies were both building steam frigates with very long hulls and a heavy gun armament, for instance or . The 1860s saw the introduction of the ironclad. The first ironclads were frigates, in the sense of having one gun deck; however, they were also clearly the most powerful ships in the navy, and were principally to serve in the line of battle. In spite of their great speed, they would have been wasted in a cruising role. The French constructed a number of smaller ironclads for overseas cruising duties, starting with the , commissioned 1865. These "station ironclads" were the beginning of the development of the armored cruisers, a type of ironclad specifically for the traditional cruiser missions of fast, independent raiding and patrol. '', the Royal Italian Navy's first armored cruiser]] The first true armored cruiser was the Russian , completed in 1874, and followed by the British a few years later. Until the 1890s armored cruisers were still built with masts for a full sailing rig, to enable them to operate far from friendly coaling stations. Unarmored cruising warships, built out of wood, iron, steel or a combination of those materials, remained popular until towards the end of the 19th century. The ironclad's armor often meant that they were limited to short range under steam, and many ironclads were unsuited to long-range missions or for work in distant colonies. The unarmored cruiser—often a screw sloop or screw frigate—could continue in this role. Even though mid- to late-19th century cruisers typically carried up-to-date guns firing explosive shells, they were unable to face ironclads in combat. This was evidenced by the clash between , a modern British cruiser, and the Peruvian monitor Huáscar. Even though the Peruvian vessel was obsolete by the time of the encounter, it stood up well to roughly 50 hits from British shells.Steel cruisers In the 1880s, naval engineers began to use steel as a material for construction and armament. A steel cruiser could be lighter and faster than one built of iron or wood. The Jeune Ecole school of naval doctrine suggested that a fleet of fast unprotected steel cruisers were ideal for commerce raiding, while the torpedo boat would be able to destroy an enemy battleship fleet. Steel also offered the cruiser a way of acquiring the protection needed to survive in combat. Steel armor was considerably stronger, for the same weight, than iron. By putting a relatively thin layer of steel armor above the vital parts of the ship, and by placing the coal bunkers where they might stop shellfire, a useful degree of protection could be achieved without slowing the ship too much. Protected cruisers generally had an armored deck with sloped sides, providing similar protection to a light armored belt at less weight and expense. The first protected cruiser was the Chilean ship Esmeralda, launched in 1883. Produced by a shipyard at Elswick, in Britain, owned by Armstrong, she inspired a group of protected cruisers produced in the same yard and known as the "Elswick cruisers". Her forecastle, poop deck and the wooden board deck had been removed, replaced with an armored deck. Esmeraldas armament consisted of fore and aft 10-inch (25.4 cm) guns and 6-inch (15.2 cm) guns in the midships positions. It could reach a speed of , and was propelled by steam alone. It also had a displacement of less than 3,000 tons. During the two following decades, this cruiser type came to be the inspiration for combining heavy artillery, high speed and low displacement. Torpedo cruisers The torpedo cruiser (known in the Royal Navy as the torpedo gunboat) was a smaller unarmored cruiser, which emerged in the 1880s–1890s. These ships could reach speeds up to and were armed with medium to small calibre guns as well as torpedoes. These ships were tasked with guard and reconnaissance duties, to repeat signals and all other fleet duties for which smaller vessels were suited. These ships could also function as flagships of torpedo boat flotillas. After the 1900s, these ships were usually traded for faster ships with better sea going qualities. Pre-dreadnought armored cruisers Steel also affected the construction and role of armored cruisers. Steel meant that new designs of battleship, later known as pre-dreadnought battleships, would be able to combine firepower and armor with better endurance and speed than ever before. The armored cruisers of the 1890s and early 1900s greatly resembled the battleships of the day; they tended to carry slightly smaller main armament ( rather than 12-inch) and have somewhat thinner armor in exchange for a faster speed (perhaps rather than 18). Because of their similarity, the lines between battleships and armored cruisers became blurred.Early 20th century Shortly after the turn of the 20th century there were difficult questions about the design of future cruisers. Modern armored cruisers, almost as powerful as battleships, were also fast enough to outrun older protected and unarmored cruisers. In the Royal Navy, Jackie Fisher cut back hugely on older vessels, including many cruisers of different sorts, calling them "a miser's hoard of useless junk" that any modern cruiser would sweep from the seas. The scout cruiser also appeared in this era; this was a small, fast, lightly armed and armored type designed primarily for reconnaissance. The Royal Navy and the Italian Navy were the primary developers of this type. Battle cruisers The growing size and power of the armored cruiser resulted in the battlecruiser, with an armament and size similar to the revolutionary new dreadnought battleship; the brainchild of British admiral Jackie Fisher. He believed that to ensure British naval dominance in its overseas colonial possessions, a fleet of large, fast, powerfully armed vessels which would be able to hunt down and mop up enemy cruisers and armored cruisers with overwhelming fire superiority was needed. They were equipped with the same gun types as battleships, though usually with fewer guns, and were intended to engage enemy capital ships as well. This type of vessel came to be known as the battlecruiser, and the first were commissioned into the Royal Navy in 1907. The British battlecruisers sacrificed protection for speed, as they were intended to "choose their range" (to the enemy) with superior speed and only engage the enemy at long range. When engaged at moderate ranges, the lack of protection combined with unsafe ammunition handling practices became tragic with the loss of three of them at the Battle of Jutland. Germany and eventually Japan followed suit to build these vessels, replacing armored cruisers in most frontline roles. German battlecruisers were generally better protected but slower than British battlecruisers. Battlecruisers were in many cases larger and more expensive than contemporary battleships, due to their much larger propulsion plants. Light cruisers ]] At around the same time as the battlecruiser was developed, the distinction between the armored and the unarmored cruiser finally disappeared. By the British , the first of which was launched in 1909, it was possible for a small, fast cruiser to carry both belt and deck armor, particularly when turbine engines were adopted. These light armored cruisers began to occupy the traditional cruiser role once it became clear that the battlecruiser squadrons were required to operate with the battle fleet. Flotilla leaders Some light cruisers were built specifically to act as the leaders of flotillas of destroyers. Coastguard cruisers These vessels were essentially large coastal patrol boats armed with multiple light guns. One such warship was Grivița of the Romanian Navy. She displaced 110 tons, measured 60 meters in length and was armed with four light guns. Auxiliary cruisers The auxiliary cruiser was a merchant ship hastily armed with small guns on the outbreak of war. Auxiliary cruisers were used to fill gaps in their long-range lines or provide escort for other cargo ships, although they generally proved to be useless in this role because of their low speed, feeble firepower and lack of armor. In both world wars the Germans also used small merchant ships armed with cruiser guns to surprise Allied merchant ships. Some large liners were armed in the same way. In British service these were known as Armed Merchant Cruisers (AMC). The Germans and French used them in World War I as raiders because of their high speed (around 30 knots (56 km/h)), and they were used again as raiders early in World War II by the Germans and Japanese. In both the First World War and in the early part of the Second, they were used as convoy escorts by the British. World War I Cruisers were one of the workhorse types of warship during World War I. By the time of World War I, cruisers had accelerated their development and improved their quality significantly, with drainage volume reaching 3000–4000 tons, a speed of 25–30 knots and a calibre of 127–152 mm. Mid-20th century Naval construction in the 1920s and 1930s was limited by international treaties designed to prevent the repetition of the Dreadnought arms race of the early 20th century. The Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 placed limits on the construction of ships with a standard displacement of more than 10,000 tons and an armament of guns larger than 8-inch (203 mm). A number of navies commissioned classes of cruisers at the top end of this limit, known as "treaty cruisers". The London Naval Treaty in 1930 then formalised the distinction between these "heavy" cruisers and light cruisers: a "heavy" cruiser was one with guns of more than 6.1-inch (155 mm) calibre. The Second London Naval Treaty attempted to reduce the tonnage of new cruisers to 8,000 or less, but this had little effect; Japan and Germany were not signatories, and some navies had already begun to evade treaty limitations on warships. The first London treaty did touch off a period of the major powers building 6-inch or 6.1-inch gunned cruisers, nominally of 10,000 tons and with up to fifteen guns, the treaty limit. Thus, most light cruisers ordered after 1930 were the size of heavy cruisers but with more and smaller guns. The Imperial Japanese Navy began this new race with the , launched in 1934. After building smaller light cruisers with six or eight 6-inch guns launched 1931–35, the British Royal Navy followed with the 12-gun in 1936. To match foreign developments and potential treaty violations, in the 1930s the US developed a series of new guns firing "super-heavy" armor piercing ammunition; these included the 6-inch (152 mm)/47 caliber gun Mark 16 introduced with the 15-gun s in 1936, and the 8-inch (203 mm)/55 caliber gun Mark 12 introduced with in 1937. Heavy cruisers ]] The heavy cruiser was a type of cruiser designed for long range, high speed and an armament of naval guns around 203 mm (8 in) in calibre. The first heavy cruisers were built in 1915, although it only became a widespread classification following the London Naval Treaty in 1930. The heavy cruiser's immediate precursors were the light cruiser designs of the 1910s and 1920s; the US lightly armored 8-inch "treaty cruisers" of the 1920s (built under the Washington Naval Treaty) were originally classed as light cruisers until the London Treaty forced their redesignation. Initially, all cruisers built under the Washington treaty had torpedo tubes, regardless of nationality. However, in 1930, results of war games caused the US Naval War College to conclude that only perhaps half of cruisers would use their torpedoes in action. In a surface engagement, long-range gunfire and destroyer torpedoes would decide the issue, and under air attack numerous cruisers would be lost before getting within torpedo range. Thus, beginning with launched in 1933, new cruisers were built without torpedoes, and torpedoes were removed from older heavy cruisers due to the perceived hazard of their being exploded by shell fire. The Japanese took exactly the opposite approach with cruiser torpedoes, and this proved crucial to their tactical victories in most of the numerous cruiser actions of 1942. Beginning with the launched in 1925, every Japanese heavy cruiser was armed with torpedoes, larger than any other cruisers'. By 1933 Japan had developed the Type 93 torpedo for these ships, eventually nicknamed "Long Lance" by the Allies. This type used compressed oxygen instead of compressed air, allowing it to achieve ranges and speeds unmatched by other torpedoes. It could achieve a range of at , compared with the US Mark 15 torpedo with at . The Mark 15 had a maximum range of at , still well below the "Long Lance". The Japanese were able to keep the Type 93's performance and oxygen power secret until the Allies recovered one in early 1943, thus the Allies faced a great threat they were not aware of in 1942. The Type 93 was also fitted to Japanese post-1930 light cruisers and the majority of their World War II destroyers. Heavy cruisers continued in use until after World War II, with some converted to guided-missile cruisers for air defense or strategic attack and some used for shore bombardment by the United States in the Korean War and the Vietnam War. German pocket battleships The German was a series of three Panzerschiffe ("armored ships"), a form of heavily armed cruiser, designed and built by the German Reichsmarine in nominal accordance with restrictions imposed by the Treaty of Versailles. All three ships were launched between 1931 and 1934, and served with Germany's Kriegsmarine during World War II. Within the Kriegsmarine, the Panzerschiffe had the propaganda value of capital ships: heavy cruisers with battleship guns, torpedoes, and scout aircraft. (The similar Swedish Panzerschiffe were tactically used as centers of battlefleets and not as cruisers.) They were deployed by Nazi Germany in support of the German interests in the Spanish Civil War. Panzerschiff Admiral Graf Spee represented Germany in the 1937 Coronation Fleet Review. The British press referred to the vessels as pocket battleships, in reference to the heavy firepower contained in the relatively small vessels; they were considerably smaller than contemporary battleships, though at 28 knots were slower than battlecruisers. At up to 16,000 tons at full load, they were not treaty compliant 10,000 ton cruisers. And although their displacement and scale of armor protection were that of a heavy cruiser, their main armament was heavier than the guns of other nations' heavy cruisers, and the latter two members of the class also had tall conning towers resembling battleships. The Panzerschiffe were listed as Ersatz replacements for retiring Reichsmarine coastal defense battleships, which added to their propaganda status in the Kriegsmarine as Ersatz battleships; within the Royal Navy, only battlecruisers HMS Hood, HMS Repulse and HMS Renown were capable of both outrunning and outgunning the Panzerschiffe. They were seen in the 1930s as a new and serious threat by both Britain and France. While the Kriegsmarine reclassified them as heavy cruisers in 1940, Deutschland-class ships continued to be called pocket battleships in the popular press. Large cruiser The American represented the supersized cruiser design. Due to the German pocket battleships, the , and rumored Japanese "super cruisers", all of which carried guns larger than the standard heavy cruiser's 8-inch size dictated by naval treaty limitations, the Alaskas were intended to be "cruiser-killers". While superficially appearing similar to a battleship/battlecruiser and mounting three triple turrets of 12-inch guns, their actual protection scheme and design resembled a scaled-up heavy cruiser design. Their hull classification symbol of CB (cruiser, big) reflected this. Anti-aircraft cruisers A precursor to the anti-aircraft cruiser was the Romanian British-built protected cruiser Elisabeta. After the start of World War I, her four 120 mm main guns were landed and her four 75 mm (12-pounder) secondary guns were modified for anti-aircraft fire. The development of the anti-aircraft cruiser began in 1935 when the Royal Navy re-armed and . Torpedo tubes and low-angle guns were removed from these World War I light cruisers and replaced with ten high-angle guns, with appropriate fire-control equipment to provide larger warships with protection against high-altitude bombers. A tactical shortcoming was recognised after completing six additional conversions of s. Having sacrificed anti-ship weapons for anti-aircraft armament, the converted anti-aircraft cruisers might themselves need protection against surface units. New construction was undertaken to create cruisers of similar speed and displacement with dual-purpose guns, which offered good anti-aircraft protection with anti-surface capability for the traditional light cruiser role of defending capital ships from destroyers. The first purpose built anti-aircraft cruiser was the British , completed in 1940–42. The US Navy's cruisers (CLAA: light cruiser with anti-aircraft capability) were designed to match the capabilities of the Royal Navy. Both Dido and Atlanta cruisers initially carried torpedo tubes; the Atlanta cruisers at least were originally designed as destroyer leaders, were originally designated CL (light cruiser), and did not receive the CLAA designation until 1949. The concept of the quick-firing dual-purpose gun anti-aircraft cruiser was embraced in several designs completed too late to see combat, including: , completed in 1948; , completed in 1949; two s, completed in 1947; two s, completed in 1953; , completed in 1955; , completed in 1959; and , and , all completed between 1959 and 1961. Most post-World War II cruisers were tasked with air defense roles. In the early 1950s, advances in aviation technology forced the move from anti-aircraft artillery to anti-aircraft missiles. Therefore, most modern cruisers are equipped with surface-to-air missiles as their main armament. Today's equivalent of the anti-aircraft cruiser is the guided-missile cruiser (CAG/CLG/CG/CGN). World War II Cruisers participated in a number of surface engagements in the early part of World War II, along with escorting carrier and battleship groups throughout the war. In the later part of the war, Allied cruisers primarily provided anti-aircraft (AA) escort for carrier groups and performed shore bombardment. Japanese cruisers similarly escorted carrier and battleship groups in the later part of the war, notably in the disastrous Battle of the Philippine Sea and Battle of Leyte Gulf. In 1937–41 the Japanese, having withdrawn from all naval treaties, upgraded or completed the Mogami and es as heavy cruisers by replacing their triple turrets with twin turrets. Torpedo refits were also made to most heavy cruisers, resulting in up to sixteen tubes per ship, plus a set of reloads. In 1941 the 1920s light cruisers and were converted to torpedo cruisers with four guns and forty torpedo tubes. In 1944 Kitakami was further converted to carry up to eight Kaiten human torpedoes in place of ordinary torpedoes. Before World War II, cruisers were mainly divided into three types: heavy cruisers, light cruisers and auxiliary cruisers. Heavy cruiser tonnage reached 20–30,000 tons, speed 32–34 knots, endurance of more than 10,000 nautical miles, armor thickness of 127–203 mm. Heavy cruisers were equipped with eight or nine guns with a range of more than 20 nautical miles. They were mainly used to attack enemy surface ships and shore-based targets. In addition, there were 10–16 secondary guns with a caliber of less than . Also, dozens of automatic antiaircraft guns were installed to fight aircraft and small vessels such as torpedo boats. For example, in World War II, American Alaska-class cruisers were more than 30,000 tons, equipped with nine guns. Some cruisers could also carry three or four seaplanes to correct the accuracy of gunfire and perform reconnaissance. Together with battleships, these heavy cruisers formed powerful naval task forces, which dominated the world's oceans for more than a century. After the signing of the Washington Treaty on Arms Limitation in 1922, the tonnage and quantity of battleships, aircraft carriers and cruisers were severely restricted. In order not to violate the treaty, countries began to develop light cruisers. Light cruisers of the 1920s had displacements of less than 10,000 tons and a speed of up to 35 knots. They were equipped with 6–12 main guns with a caliber of 127–133 mm (5–5.5 inches). In addition, they were equipped with 8–12 secondary guns under 127 mm (5 in) and dozens of small caliber cannons, as well as torpedoes and mines. Some ships also carried 2–4 seaplanes, mainly for reconnaissance. In 1930 the London Naval Treaty allowed large light cruisers to be built, with the same tonnage as heavy cruisers and armed with up to fifteen guns. The Japanese Mogami class were built to this treaty's limit, the Americans and British also built similar ships. However, in 1939 the Mogamis were refitted as heavy cruisers with ten guns. 1939 to Pearl Harbor In December 1939, three British cruisers engaged the German "pocket battleship" Admiral Graf Spee (which was on a commerce raiding mission) in the Battle of the River Plate; German cruiser Admiral Graf Spee then took refuge in neutral Montevideo, Uruguay. By broadcasting messages indicating capital ships were in the area, the British caused Admiral Graf Spees captain to think he faced a hopeless situation while low on ammunition and order his ship scuttled. On 8 June 1940 the German capital ships and , classed as battleships but with large cruiser armament, sank the aircraft carrier with gunfire. From October 1940 through March 1941 the German heavy cruiser (also known as "pocket battleship", see above) conducted a successful commerce-raiding voyage in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. On 27 May 1941, attempted to finish off the German battleship with torpedoes, probably causing the Germans to scuttle the ship. Bismarck (accompanied by the heavy cruiser ) previously sank the battlecruiser and damaged the battleship with gunfire in the Battle of the Denmark Strait. On 19 November 1941 sank in a mutually fatal engagement with the German raider Kormoran in the Indian Ocean near Western Australia. Atlantic, Mediterranean, and Indian Ocean operations 1942–1944 Twenty-three British cruisers were lost to enemy action, mostly to air attack and submarines, in operations in the Atlantic, Mediterranean, and Indian Ocean. Sixteen of these losses were in the Mediterranean. The British included cruisers and anti-aircraft cruisers among convoy escorts in the Mediterranean and to northern Russia due to the threat of surface and air attack. Almost all cruisers in World War II were vulnerable to submarine attack due to a lack of anti-submarine sonar and weapons. Also, until 1943–44 the light anti-aircraft armament of most cruisers was weak. In July 1942 an attempt to intercept Convoy PQ 17 with surface ships, including the heavy cruiser Admiral Scheer, failed due to multiple German warships grounding, but air and submarine attacks sank 2/3 of the convoy's ships. In August 1942 Admiral Scheer conducted Operation Wunderland, a solo raid into northern Russia's Kara Sea. She bombarded Dikson Island but otherwise had little success. On 31 December 1942 the Battle of the Barents Sea was fought, a rare action for a Murmansk run because it involved cruisers on both sides. Four British destroyers and five other vessels were escorting Convoy JW 51B from the UK to the Murmansk area. Another British force of two cruisers ( and ) and two destroyers were in the area. Two heavy cruisers (one the "pocket battleship" Lützow), accompanied by six destroyers, attempted to intercept the convoy near North Cape after it was spotted by a U-boat. Although the Germans sank a British destroyer and a minesweeper (also damaging another destroyer), they failed to damage any of the convoy's merchant ships. A German destroyer was lost and a heavy cruiser damaged. Both sides withdrew from the action for fear of the other side's torpedoes. On 26 December 1943 the German capital ship Scharnhorst was sunk while attempting to intercept a convoy in the Battle of the North Cape. The British force that sank her was led by Vice Admiral Bruce Fraser in the battleship , accompanied by four cruisers and nine destroyers. One of the cruisers was the preserved . Scharnhorsts sister Gneisenau, damaged by a mine and a submerged wreck in the Channel Dash of 13 February 1942 and repaired, was further damaged by a British air attack on 27 February 1942. She began a conversion process to mount six guns instead of nine guns, but in early 1943 Hitler (angered by the recent failure at the Battle of the Barents Sea) ordered her disarmed and her armament used as coast defence weapons. One 28 cm triple turret survives near Trondheim, Norway. Pearl Harbor through Dutch East Indies campaign The attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 brought the United States into the war, but with eight battleships sunk or damaged by air attack. On 10 December 1941 HMS Prince of Wales and the battlecruiser were sunk by land-based torpedo bombers northeast of Singapore. It was now clear that surface ships could not operate near enemy aircraft in daylight without air cover; most surface actions of 1942–43 were fought at night as a result. Generally, both sides avoided risking their battleships until the Japanese attack at Leyte Gulf in 1944. Six of the battleships from Pearl Harbor were eventually returned to service, but no US battleships engaged Japanese surface units at sea until the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal in November 1942, and not thereafter until the Battle of Surigao Strait in October 1944. was on hand for the initial landings at Guadalcanal on 7 August 1942, and escorted carriers in the Battle of the Eastern Solomons later that month. However, on 15 September she was torpedoed while escorting a carrier group and had to return to the US for repairs. It is likely that the poor charts affected other battleships as well. Except for the Kongō class, most Japanese battleships spent the critical year of 1942, in which most of the war's surface actions occurred, in home waters or at the fortified base of Truk, far from any risk of attacking or being attacked. From 1942 through mid-1943, US and other Allied cruisers were the heavy units on their side of the numerous surface engagements of the Dutch East Indies campaign, the Guadalcanal Campaign, and subsequent Solomon Islands fighting; they were usually opposed by strong Japanese cruiser-led forces equipped with Long Lance torpedoes. Destroyers also participated heavily on both sides of these battles and provided essentially all the torpedoes on the Allied side, with some battles in these campaigns fought entirely between destroyers. Along with lack of knowledge of the capabilities of the Long Lance torpedo, the US Navy was hampered by a deficiency it was initially unaware of—the unreliability of the Mark 15 torpedo used by destroyers. This weapon shared the Mark 6 exploder and other problems with the more famously unreliable Mark 14 torpedo; the most common results of firing either of these torpedoes were a dud or a miss. The problems with these weapons were not solved until mid-1943, after almost all of the surface actions in the Solomon Islands had taken place. Another factor that shaped the early surface actions was the pre-war training of both sides. The US Navy concentrated on long-range 8-inch gunfire as their primary offensive weapon, leading to rigid battle line tactics, while the Japanese trained extensively for nighttime torpedo attacks. Since all post-1930 Japanese cruisers had 8-inch guns by 1941, almost all of the US Navy's cruisers in the South Pacific in 1942 were the 8-inch-gunned (203 mm) "treaty cruisers"; most of the 6-inch-gunned (152 mm) cruisers were deployed in the Atlantic. With one other Allied cruiser withdrawn for repairs, the only remaining Allied cruiser in the area was the damaged . Despite their rapid success, the Japanese proceeded methodically, never leaving their air cover and rapidly establishing new air bases as they advanced. Guadalcanal campaign After the key carrier battles of the Coral Sea and Midway in mid-1942, Japan had lost four of the six fleet carriers that launched the Pearl Harbor raid and was on the strategic defensive. On 7 August 1942 US Marines were landed on Guadalcanal and other nearby islands, beginning the Guadalcanal Campaign. This campaign proved to be a severe test for the Navy as well as the Marines. Along with two carrier battles, several major surface actions occurred, almost all at night between cruiser-destroyer forces. Battle of Savo Island<br /> On the night of 8–9 August 1942 the Japanese counterattacked near Guadalcanal in the Battle of Savo Island with a cruiser-destroyer force. In a controversial move, the US carrier task forces were withdrawn from the area on the 8th due to heavy fighter losses and low fuel. The Allied force included six heavy cruisers (two Australian), two light cruisers (one Australian), and eight US destroyers. Of the cruisers, only the Australian ships had torpedoes. The Japanese force included five heavy cruisers, two light cruisers, and one destroyer. Numerous circumstances combined to reduce Allied readiness for the battle. The results of the battle were three American heavy cruisers sunk by torpedoes and gunfire, one Australian heavy cruiser disabled by gunfire and scuttled, one heavy cruiser damaged, and two US destroyers damaged. The Japanese had three cruisers lightly damaged. This was the most lopsided outcome of the surface actions in the Solomon Islands. Along with their superior torpedoes, the opening Japanese gunfire was accurate and very damaging. Subsequent analysis showed that some of the damage was due to poor housekeeping practices by US forces. Stowage of boats and aircraft in midships hangars with full gas tanks contributed to fires, along with full and unprotected ready-service ammunition lockers for the open-mount secondary armament. These practices were soon corrected, and US cruisers with similar damage sank less often thereafter. Savo was the first surface action of the war for almost all the US ships and personnel; few US cruisers and destroyers were targeted or hit at Coral Sea or Midway. Battle of the Eastern Solomons<br /> On 24–25 August 1942 the Battle of the Eastern Solomons, a major carrier action, was fought. Part of the action was a Japanese attempt to reinforce Guadalcanal with men and equipment on troop transports. The Japanese troop convoy was attacked by Allied aircraft, resulting in the Japanese subsequently reinforcing Guadalcanal with troops on fast warships at night. These convoys were called the "Tokyo Express" by the Allies. Although the Tokyo Express often ran unopposed, most surface actions in the Solomons revolved around Tokyo Express missions. Also, US air operations had commenced from Henderson Field, the airfield on Guadalcanal. Fear of air power on both sides resulted in all surface actions in the Solomons being fought at night. Battle of Cape Esperance<br /> The Battle of Cape Esperance occurred on the night of 11–12 October 1942. A Tokyo Express mission was underway for Guadalcanal at the same time as a separate cruiser-destroyer bombardment group loaded with high explosive shells for bombarding Henderson Field. A US cruiser-destroyer force was deployed in advance of a convoy of US Army troops for Guadalcanal that was due on 13 October. The Tokyo Express convoy was two seaplane tenders and six destroyers; the bombardment group was three heavy cruisers and two destroyers, and the US force was two heavy cruisers, two light cruisers, and five destroyers. The US force engaged the Japanese bombardment force; the Tokyo Express convoy was able to unload on Guadalcanal and evade action. The bombardment force was sighted at close range () and the US force opened fire. The Japanese were surprised because their admiral was anticipating sighting the Tokyo Express force, and withheld fire while attempting to confirm the US ships' identity. One Japanese cruiser and one destroyer were sunk and one cruiser damaged, against one US destroyer sunk with one light cruiser and one destroyer damaged. The bombardment force failed to bring its torpedoes into action, and turned back. The next day US aircraft from Henderson Field attacked several of the Japanese ships, sinking two destroyers and damaging a third. The US victory resulted in overconfidence in some later battles, reflected in the initial after-action report claiming two Japanese heavy cruisers, one light cruiser, and three destroyers sunk by the gunfire of alone. Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands<br /> The Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands took place 25–27 October 1942. It was a pivotal battle, as it left the US and Japanese with only two large carriers each in the South Pacific (another large Japanese carrier was damaged and under repair until May 1943). Due to the high carrier attrition rate with no replacements for months, for the most part both sides stopped risking their remaining carriers until late 1943, and each side sent in a pair of battleships instead. The next major carrier operations for the US were the carrier raid on Rabaul and support for the invasion of Tarawa, both in November 1943. Naval Battle of Guadalcanal<br /> The Naval Battle of Guadalcanal occurred 12–15 November 1942 in two phases. A night surface action on 12–13 November was the first phase. The Japanese force consisted of two Kongō-class battleships with high explosive shells for bombarding Henderson Field, one small light cruiser, and 11 destroyers. Their plan was that the bombardment would neutralize Allied airpower and allow a force of 11 transport ships and 12 destroyers to reinforce Guadalcanal with a Japanese division the next day. However, US reconnaissance aircraft spotted the approaching Japanese on the 12th and the Americans made what preparations they could. The American force consisted of two heavy cruisers, one light cruiser, two anti-aircraft cruisers, and eight destroyers. The Americans were outgunned by the Japanese that night, and a lack of pre-battle orders by the US commander led to confusion. The destroyer closed with the battleship , firing all torpedoes (though apparently none hit or detonated) and raking the battleship's bridge with gunfire, wounding the Japanese admiral and killing his chief of staff. The Americans initially lost four destroyers including Laffey, with both heavy cruisers, most of the remaining destroyers, and both anti-aircraft cruisers damaged. The Japanese initially had one battleship and four destroyers damaged, but at this point they withdrew, possibly unaware that the US force was unable to further oppose them. The Japanese transport force was rescheduled for the 14th and a new cruiser-destroyer force (belatedly joined by the surviving battleship ) was sent to bombard Henderson Field the night of 13 November. Only two cruisers actually bombarded the airfield, as Kirishima had not arrived yet and the remainder of the force was on guard for US warships. The bombardment caused little damage. The cruiser-destroyer force then withdrew, while the transport force continued towards Guadalcanal. Both forces were attacked by US aircraft on the 14th. The cruiser force lost one heavy cruiser sunk and one damaged. Although the transport force had fighter cover from the carrier , six transports were sunk and one heavily damaged. All but four of the destroyers accompanying the transport force picked up survivors and withdrew. The remaining four transports and four destroyers approached Guadalcanal at night, but stopped to await the results of the night's action. It was significant that these two were not lost to Long Lance hits as happened in previous battles; American battle readiness and damage control had improved. The next day the Japanese Navy proposed abandoning Guadalcanal; this was approved by the Imperial General Headquarters on 31 December and the Japanese left the island in early February 1943.Post-GuadalcanalAfter the Japanese abandoned Guadalcanal in February 1943, Allied operations in the Pacific shifted to the New Guinea campaign and isolating Rabaul. The Battle of Kula Gulf was fought on the night of 5–6 July. The US had three light cruisers and four destroyers; the Japanese had ten destroyers loaded with 2,600 troops destined for Vila to oppose a recent US landing on Rendova. Although the Japanese sank a cruiser, they lost two destroyers and were able to deliver only 850 troops. On the night of 12–13 July, the Battle of Kolombangara occurred. The Allies had three light cruisers (one New Zealand) and ten destroyers; the Japanese had one small light cruiser and five destroyers, a Tokyo Express run for Vila. All three Allied cruisers were heavily damaged, with the New Zealand cruiser put out of action for 25 months by a Long Lance hit. The Allies sank only the Japanese light cruiser, and the Japanese landed 1,200 troops at Vila. Despite their tactical victory, this battle caused the Japanese to use a different route in the future, where they were more vulnerable to destroyer and PT boat attacks. After the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands in October 1942, both sides were short of large aircraft carriers. The US suspended major carrier operations until sufficient carriers could be completed to destroy the entire Japanese fleet at once should it appear. The Central Pacific carrier raids and amphibious operations commenced in November 1943 with a carrier raid on Rabaul (preceded and followed by Fifth Air Force attacks) and the bloody but successful invasion of Tarawa. The air attacks on Rabaul crippled the Japanese cruiser force, with four heavy and two light cruisers damaged; they were withdrawn to Truk. The US had built up a force in the Central Pacific of six large, five light, and six escort carriers prior to commencing these operations. From this point on, US cruisers primarily served as anti-aircraft escorts for carriers and in shore bombardment. The only major Japanese carrier operation after Guadalcanal was the disastrous (for Japan) Battle of the Philippine Sea in June 1944, nicknamed the "Marianas Turkey Shoot" by the US Navy. Leyte Gulf The Imperial Japanese Navy's last major operation was the Battle of Leyte Gulf, an attempt to dislodge the American invasion of the Philippines in October 1944. The two actions at this battle in which cruisers played a significant role were the Battle off Samar and the Battle of Surigao Strait. Battle of Surigao Strait<br /> The Battle of Surigao Strait was fought on the night of 24–25 October, a few hours before the Battle off Samar. The Japanese had a small battleship group composed of and , one heavy cruiser, and four destroyers. They were followed at a considerable distance by another small force of two heavy cruisers, a small light cruiser, and four destroyers. Their goal was to head north through Surigao Strait and attack the invasion fleet off Leyte. The Allied force, known as the 7th Fleet Support Force, guarding the strait was overwhelming. It included six battleships (all but one previously damaged in 1941 at Pearl Harbor), four heavy cruisers (one Australian), four light cruisers, and 28 destroyers, plus a force of 39 PT boats. The only advantage to the Japanese was that most of the Allied battleships and cruisers were loaded mainly with high explosive shells, although a significant number of armor-piercing shells were also loaded. The lead Japanese force evaded the PT boats' torpedoes, but were hit hard by the destroyers' torpedoes, losing a battleship. Then they encountered the battleship and cruiser guns. Only one destroyer survived. The engagement is notable for being one of only two occasions in which battleships fired on battleships in the Pacific Theater, the other being the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal. Due to the starting arrangement of the opposing forces, the Allied force was in a "crossing the T" position, so this was the last battle in which this occurred, but it was not a planned maneuver. The following Japanese cruiser force had several problems, including a light cruiser damaged by a PT boat and two heavy cruisers colliding, one of which fell behind and was sunk by air attack the next day. An American veteran of Surigao Strait, , was transferred to Argentina in 1951 as , becoming most famous for being sunk by in the Falklands War on 2 May 1982. She was the first ship sunk by a nuclear submarine outside of accidents, and only the second ship sunk by a submarine since World War II. Battle off Samar<br /> At the Battle off Samar, a Japanese battleship group moving towards the invasion fleet off Leyte engaged a minuscule American force known as "Taffy 3" (formally Task Unit 77.4.3), composed of six escort carriers with about 28 aircraft each, three destroyers, and four destroyer escorts. The biggest guns in the American force were /38 caliber guns, while the Japanese had , , and guns. Aircraft from six additional escort carriers also participated for a total of around 330 US aircraft, a mix of F6F Hellcat fighters and TBF Avenger torpedo bombers. The Japanese had four battleships including Yamato, six heavy cruisers, two small light cruisers, and 11 destroyers. The Japanese force had earlier been driven off by air attack, losing Yamatos sister . Admiral Halsey then decided to use his Third Fleet carrier force to attack the Japanese carrier group, located well to the north of Samar, which was actually a decoy group with few aircraft. The Japanese were desperately short of aircraft and pilots at this point in the war, and Leyte Gulf was the first battle in which kamikaze attacks were used. Due to a tragedy of errors, Halsey took the American battleship force with him, leaving San Bernardino Strait guarded only by the small Seventh Fleet escort carrier force. The battle commenced at dawn on 25 October 1944, shortly after the Battle of Surigao Strait. In the engagement that followed, the Americans exhibited uncanny torpedo accuracy, blowing the bows off several Japanese heavy cruisers. The escort carriers' aircraft also performed very well, attacking with machine guns after their carriers ran out of bombs and torpedoes. The unexpected level of damage, and maneuvering to avoid the torpedoes and air attacks, disorganized the Japanese and caused them to think they faced at least part of the Third Fleet's main force. They had also learned of the defeat a few hours before at Surigao Strait, and did not hear that Halsey's force was busy destroying the decoy fleet. Convinced that the rest of the Third Fleet would arrive soon if it hadn't already, the Japanese withdrew, eventually losing three heavy cruisers sunk with three damaged to air and torpedo attacks. The Americans lost two escort carriers, two destroyers, and one destroyer escort sunk, with three escort carriers, one destroyer, and two destroyer escorts damaged, thus losing over one-third of their engaged force sunk with nearly all the remainder damaged. Losing 20 cruisers in 1940–42, the British completed no heavy cruisers, thirteen light cruisers ( and classes), and sixteen anti-aircraft cruisers (Dido class) during the war.Late 20th centuryThe rise of air power during World War II dramatically changed the nature of naval combat. Even the fastest cruisers could not maneuver quickly enough to evade aerial attack, and aircraft now had torpedoes, allowing moderate-range standoff capabilities. This change led to the end of independent operations by single ships or very small task groups, and for the second half of the 20th century naval operations were based on very large fleets believed able to fend off all but the largest air attacks, though this was not tested by any war in that period. The US Navy became centered around carrier groups, with cruisers and battleships primarily providing anti-aircraft defense and shore bombardment. Until the Harpoon missile entered service in the late 1970s, the US Navy was almost entirely dependent on carrier-based aircraft and submarines for conventionally attacking enemy warships. Lacking aircraft carriers, the Soviet Navy depended on anti-ship cruise missiles; in the 1950s these were primarily delivered from heavy land-based bombers. Soviet submarine-launched cruise missiles at the time were primarily for land attack; but by 1964 anti-ship missiles were deployed in quantity on cruisers, destroyers, and submarines. US cruiser development The US Navy was aware of the potential missile threat as soon as World War II ended, and had considerable related experience due to Japanese kamikaze attacks in that war. The initial response was to upgrade the light AA armament of new cruisers from 40 mm and 20 mm weapons to twin 3-inch (76 mm)/50 caliber gun mounts. For the longer term, it was thought that gun systems would be inadequate to deal with the missile threat, and by the mid-1950s three naval SAM systems were developed: Talos (long range), Terrier (medium range), and Tartar (short range). Talos and Terrier were nuclear-capable and this allowed their use in anti-ship or shore bombardment roles in the event of nuclear war. Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Arleigh Burke is credited with speeding the development of these systems. Terrier was initially deployed on two converted Baltimore-class cruisers (CAG), with conversions completed in 1955–56. and development of the DDGs resulted in the completion of numerous additional guided-missile ships deploying all three systems in 1959–1962. Also completed during this period was the nuclear-powered , with two Terrier and one Talos launchers, plus an ASROC anti-submarine launcher the World War II conversions lacked. The converted World War II cruisers up to this point retained one or two main battery turrets for shore bombardment. However, in 1962–1964 three additional Baltimore and cruisers were more extensively converted as the . These had two Talos and two Tartar launchers plus ASROC and two 5-inch (127 mm) guns for self-defense, and were primarily built to get greater numbers of Talos launchers deployed. An economical crew size compared with World War II conversions was probably a factor, as the Leahys required a crew of only 377 versus 1,200 for the Cleveland-class conversions. Through 1980, the ten Farraguts were joined by four additional classes and two one-off ships for a total of 36 guided-missile frigates, eight of them nuclear-powered (DLGN). In 1975 the Farraguts were reclassified as guided-missile destroyers (DDG) due to their small size, and the remaining DLG/DLGN ships became guided-missile cruisers (CG/CGN). Around this time the Terrier ships were upgraded with the RIM-67 Standard ER missile. The guided-missile frigates and cruisers served in the Cold War and the Vietnam War; off Vietnam they performed shore bombardment and shot down enemy aircraft or, as Positive Identification Radar Advisory Zone (PIRAZ) ships, guided fighters to intercept enemy aircraft. By 1995 the former guided-missile frigates were replaced by the s and s. The U.S. Navy's guided-missile cruisers were built upon destroyer-style hulls (some called "destroyer leaders" or "frigates" prior to the 1975 reclassification). As the U.S. Navy's strike role was centered around aircraft carriers, cruisers were primarily designed to provide air defense while often adding anti-submarine capabilities. These U.S. cruisers that were built in the 1960s and 1970s were larger, often nuclear-powered for extended endurance in escorting nuclear-powered fleet carriers, and carried longer-range surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) than early Charles F. Adams guided-missile destroyers that were tasked with the short-range air defense role. The U.S. cruiser was a major contrast to their contemporaries, Soviet "rocket cruisers" that were armed with large numbers of anti-ship cruise missiles (ASCMs) as part of the combat doctrine of saturation attack, though in the early 1980s the U.S. Navy retrofitted some of these existing cruisers to carry a small number of Harpoon anti-ship missiles and Tomahawk cruise missiles. The line between U.S. Navy cruisers and destroyers blurred with the . While originally designed for anti-submarine warfare, a Spruance destroyer was comparable in size to existing U.S. cruisers, while having the advantage of an enclosed hangar (with space for up to two medium-lift helicopters) which was a considerable improvement over the basic aviation facilities of earlier cruisers. The Spruance hull design was used as the basis for two classes; the which had comparable anti-air capabilities to cruisers at the time, and then the DDG-47-class destroyers which were redesignated as the Ticonderoga-class guided-missile cruisers to emphasize the additional capability provided by the ships' Aegis combat systems, and their flag facilities suitable for an admiral and his staff. In addition, 24 members of the Spruance class were upgraded with the vertical launch system (VLS) for Tomahawk cruise missiles due to its modular hull design, along with the similarly VLS-equipped Ticonderoga class, these ships had anti-surface strike capabilities beyond the 1960s–1970s cruisers that received Tomahawk armored-box launchers as part of the New Threat Upgrade. Like the Ticonderoga ships with VLS, the Arleigh Burke and , despite being classified as destroyers, actually have much heavier anti-surface armament than previous U.S. ships classified as cruisers. ]] Following the American example, three smaller light cruisers of other NATO countries were rearmed with anti-aircraft missiles installed in place of their aft armament: the Dutch De Zeven Provinciën, the Italian Giuseppe Garibaldi, and the French Colbert. Only the French ship, rebuilt last in 1972, also received Exocet anti-ship missile launchers and domestically produced Masurca anti-aircraft missiles. In the Soviet Navy, only one cruiser, Dzerzhinsky, of Project 68bis, was similarly rearmed with anti-aircraft missiles. The M-2 missiles used on it, adapted from the land-based S-75, proved ineffective as a naval system, and further conversions were abandoned. Another cruiser of this project, Admiral Nakhimov, was used for testing anti-ship missiles but never entered service in this role. Several other classical cruisers from various countries were rearmed with short-range anti-aircraft systems requiring fewer modifications, such as Seacat or Osa-M, but since these were intended only for self-defense, they are not considered guided-missile cruisers (e.g., the Soviet Zhdanov and Admiral Senyavin of Project 68U). US Navy "cruiser gap" Prior to the introduction of the Ticonderogas, the US Navy used odd naming conventions that left its fleet seemingly without many cruisers, although a number of their ships were cruisers in all but name. From the 1950s to the 1970s, US Navy cruisers were large vessels equipped with heavy, specialized missiles (mostly surface-to-air, but for several years including the Regulus nuclear cruise missile) for wide-ranging combat against land-based and sea-based targets. Naming conventions changed, and some guided-missile cruisers were classified as frigates or destroyers during certain periods or at the construction stage. later new-build cruisers were actually converted frigates (DLG/CG , , and the Leahy, , , and classes) or uprated destroyers (the DDG/CG Ticonderoga class was built on a Spruance-class destroyer hull). Ultimately, after the 1975 classification reform in the US, larger ships were called cruisers, slightly smaller and weaker fleet escorts were called destroyers, and smaller ships for ocean escort and anti-submarine warfare were called frigates. However, the size and qualitative differences between them and destroyers were vague and arbitrary. Frigates under this scheme were almost as large as the cruisers and optimized for anti-aircraft warfare, although they were capable anti-surface warfare combatants as well. In the late 1960s, the US government perceived a "cruiser gap"—at the time, the US Navy possessed six ships designated as cruisers, compared to 19 for the Soviet Union, even though the USN had 21 ships designated as frigates with equal or superior capabilities to the Soviet cruisers at the time. Because of this, in 1975 the Navy performed a massive redesignation of its forces: while NATO combatants instead used individually smaller and lighter missiles (while appearing under-armed when compared to Soviet ships). The four more modest s, with launchers for four SS-N-3 ASCMs and no reloads, entered service in 1967–69. In 1969–79 Soviet cruiser numbers more than tripled with ten s and seven s entering service. These had launchers for eight large-diameter missiles whose purpose was initially unclear to NATO. This was the SS-N-14 Silex, an over/under rocket-delivered heavyweight torpedo primarily for the anti-submarine role, but capable of anti-surface action with a range of up to . Soviet doctrine had shifted; powerful anti-submarine vessels (these were designated "Large Anti-Submarine Ships", but were listed as cruisers in most references) were needed to destroy NATO submarines to allow Soviet ballistic missile submarines to get within range of the United States in the event of nuclear war. By this time Long Range Aviation and the Soviet submarine force could deploy numerous ASCMs. Doctrine later shifted back to overwhelming carrier group defenses with ASCMs, with the Slava and Kirov classes. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Russian cruiser Moskva of Project 1164 became the flagship of the Black Sea Fleet and in 2022 participated in the invasion of Ukraine, shelling and blockading the coast, but was subsequently sunk by anti-ship missiles. Current cruisers has been classified by the United States Department of Defense as a cruiser because of its large size and armament.]] The end of the Cold War and the subsequent reduction of military rivalry led to significant reductions in naval forces. This reduction was more pronounced in the Soviet Navy, which was mostly taken over by Russia. Faced with severe financial difficulties, Russia was forced to decommission most of its ships in the 1990s or send them for extended overhauls. The most recent Soviet/Russian rocket cruisers, the four <nowiki/>s, were built in the 1970s and 1980s. One of the Kirov class is in refit, and 2 are being scrapped, with the in active service. Russia also operates two <nowiki/>s and one Admiral Kuznetsov-class carrier which is officially designated as a cruiser, specifically a "heavy aviation cruiser" () due to her complement of 12 P-700 Granit supersonic AShMs. In 2022, the cruiser Moskva of Project 1164 sank after being hit by a Ukrainian missile. Formally, only the aforementioned ships are classified as cruisers globally. The latest American futuristic large destroyers of the Zumwalt class, despite their displacement of approximately 16,000 tons and armament with two large-caliber (155 mm) guns traditionally associated with cruisers, are classified as destroyers. Literature often emphasizes that these ships are essentially large cruisers. Similarly, Japanese large missile destroyers of the Kongō class, with a displacement of 9,485 tons and equipped with the Aegis system (derived from the Arleigh Burke-class destroyers), are sometimes referred to as cruisers. Their improved versions, the Atago and Maya classes, exceed 10,000 tons. These Japanese destroyers also provide ballistic missile defense. Outside the US and Soviet navies, new cruisers were rare following World War II. Most navies use guided-missile destroyers for fleet air defense, and destroyers and frigates for cruise missiles. The need to operate in task forces has led most navies to change to fleets designed around ships dedicated to a single role, anti-submarine or anti-aircraft typically, and the large "generalist" ship has disappeared from most forces. The United States Navy and the Russian Navy are the only remaining navies which operate active duty ships formally classed as cruisers. Italy used until 2003 (decommissioned in 2006) and the aircraft cruiser until 2024; France operated a single helicopter cruiser until May 2010, , for training purposes only. While Type 055 of the Chinese Navy is classified as a cruiser by the U.S. Department of Defense, the Chinese consider it a guided-missile destroyer. cruiser's design was based on that of Spruance-class destroyer.]] In the years since the launch of in 1981, the class has received a number of upgrades that have dramatically improved its members' capabilities for anti-submarine and land attack (using the Tomahawk missile). Like their Soviet counterparts, the modern Ticonderogas can also be used as the basis for an entire battle group. Their cruiser designation was almost certainly deserved when first built, as their sensors and combat management systems enable them to act as flagships for a surface warship flotilla if no carrier is present, but newer ships rated as destroyers and also equipped with Aegis approach them very closely in capability, and once more blur the line between the two classes.Aircraft cruisers , Sold to India as INS Vikramaditya.]] From time to time, some navies have experimented with aircraft-carrying cruisers. One example is the Swedish . Another was the Japanese Mogami, which was converted to carry a large floatplane group in 1942. Another variant is the helicopter cruiser. The further development of helicopter cruisers led to the creation of ships formally classified only as cruisers but significantly larger and effectively light aircraft carriers. In the Soviet Union, a series of unusual hybrid ships of Project 1143 (Kiev class) were built in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Initially classified as anti-submarine cruisers, they were ultimately designated as "heavy aircraft cruisers". These ships combined the architecture of cruisers and aircraft carriers and were armed with long-range anti-ship and anti-aircraft missiles along with a deck for vertical take-off and landing aircraft. Their full displacement of approximately 43,000 tons is typical for aircraft carriers. (although the 'C' in the pennant for Giuseppe Garibaldi indicated it retained some status as an aircraft-carrying cruiser). It was armed with missiles, but these were short-range self-defense missiles (anti-aircraft Aspide and anti-ship Otomat) and did not match the significance of its aviation capabilities. Similarly, the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force's "helicopter destroyers" are really more along the lines of helicopter cruisers in function and aircraft complement, but due to the Treaty of San Francisco, must be designated as destroyers. One cruiser alternative studied in the late 1980s by the United States was variously entitled a Mission Essential Unit (MEU) or CG V/STOL. In a return to the thoughts of the independent operations cruiser-carriers of the 1930s and the Soviet Kiev class, the ship was to be fitted with a hangar, elevators, and a flight deck. The mission systems were Aegis, SQS-53 sonar, 12 SV-22 ASW aircraft and 200 VLS cells. The resulting ship would have had a waterline length of 700 feet, a waterline beam of 97 feet, and a displacement of about 25,000 tons. Other features included an integrated electric drive and advanced computer systems, both stand-alone and networked. It was part of the U.S. Navy's "Revolution at Sea" effort. The project was curtailed by the sudden end of the Cold War and its aftermath, otherwise the first of class would have been likely ordered in the early 1990s. Strike cruisers ]] – visible vertical missile launchers]] An alternative development path for guided-missile cruisers was represented by ships armed with heavy long-range anti-ship missiles, primarily developed in the Soviet Union with a focus on combating aircraft carriers. Starting in 1962, four ships of Project 58 (NATO designation: Kynda) entered service. They were armed with eight P-35 missile launchers with a range of 250 km and a twin launcher for M-1 Volna anti-aircraft missiles. With a moderate full displacement of 5,350 tons, they were initially intended to be classified as destroyers but ultimately entered service as guided-missile cruisers. During this period, designs for larger cruisers, such as Project 64 and the nuclear-powered Project 63 (with 24 anti-ship missiles), were also developed. However, their construction was abandoned due to high costs and vulnerability to air attacks due to the shortcomings of available anti-aircraft missiles. These were transitional types with lesser strike capabilities and were initially classified as large anti-submarine ships but were reclassified as guided-missile cruisers in 1977. In the 1980s, before the dissolution of the Soviet Union, only three guided-missile cruisers of the new generation Project 1164 (Slava class) with a full displacement of 11,300 tons were completed out of a longer planned series. They carried 16 Bazalt anti-ship missile launchers and eight vertical launchers for long-range Fort anti-aircraft missiles. The pinnacle of development for cruisers designed to engage surface ships, while also protecting fleet formations from aircraft and submarines, was the four large nuclear-powered cruisers of Project 1144 (Kirov class) from the 1980s. These were officially classified as "heavy nuclear guided-missile cruisers". For anti-submarine warfare, they were equipped with rocket-torpedo launchers and three helicopters, and their crew numbered up to 744 people. The ship and its classification reflected the ambitions of dictator Nicolae Ceaușescu amid limited industrial capabilities. It carried eight Soviet P-20M medium-range anti-ship missiles but lacked anti-aircraft missile armament and was equipped with two light helicopters without means for long-range anti-submarine warfare.Operators Few cruisers are still operational in the world's navies. Those that remain in service today are: * : The cruiser is kept in ceremonial commission as the flagship of the Hellenic Navy due to her historical significance. * : 2 and 2 guided-missile cruisers, the heavy aviation cruiser ; the cruiser was ceremonially recommissioned as the flagship of the Russian Navy due to her historical significance. * : 9 guided-missile cruisers in service. 13 more in the Reserve Fleet. The following is laid up: * : The cruiser is a Slava-class cruiser that was under construction during the breakup of the Soviet Union. Ukraine inherited the ship following its independence. Progress to complete the ship has been slow and has been at 95% complete since circa 1995. It is estimated that an additional US$30 million are needed to complete the ship, and in 2019 Ukroboronprom announced that the ship would be sold. The cruiser sits docked and unfinished at the harbor of Mykolaiv in southern Ukraine. It was reported that the Ukrainian government invested ₴6.08 million into the ship's maintenance in 2012. On 26 March 2017, it was announced that the Ukrainian Government will be scrapping the vessel which has been laid up, incomplete, for nearly 30 years in Mykolaiv. Maintenance and construction was costing the country US$225,000 per month. On 19 September 2019, the new director of Ukroboronprom Aivaras Abromavičius announced that the ship will be sold. * : 2 s, 2 s, 2 s. Despite the official classification of these ships as destroyers, these vessels are of a displacement greater than most of the world's destroyer classes. The Maya-class ships incorporate a level of armament more akin to cruisers. The Hyūga-class ships incorporate a level of armament more akin to helicopter cruisers than helicopter carriers. * : 4 s. Despite their classification as a destroyer, many naval analysts feel they are in fact cruisers due to their size and armament, which are both greater than most of the world's destroyer classes. * : 2 s. Even if considered a destroyer, they remain significantly larger and more capable than the only definitive cruisers in USN service, the Ticonderoga-class.Future development* will add 8 more Type 055 destroyers to its fleet for a total of 16. As of 2024, 4 of these are under construction. * has ordered 6 F126 frigates, displacing some 10,383 tons. As of 2024, 1 of these is under construction. It is also developing the Type F127 frigate and plans to procure 6 of these vessels. The design is expected to be a MEKO A-400 AMD, which has a displacement of 10,000 tons. * announced that between 8 and 10 ships would be built under the . The destroyers will displace from 10,000 to 13,000-tons. * is developing its DDX destroyer project. The 2 ships will displace 10,000 tons each, making them the largest surface combatants Italy has built since World War II. * : announced that it would build 2 guided-missile warships, nominally called Aegis system equipped vessels, each displacing 20,000 tons, easily placing them into the cruiser classification. * is to build an unknown number of Lider-class destroyers. At 19,000 tons of displacement they will more than double the displacement of existing s. * will add 2 more Sejong the Great-class destroyers to its fleet. * is developing the Type 83 destroyer, likely to be larger than the Type 45 destroyer it is set to replace and, in terms of displacement, possibly in the 10,000 tonne range. Analysis at 'DefenceConnect' of a BAE concept for the class stated that their proposal displaced at least 11,810 tons. * currently has 1 Zumwalt-class destroyer undergoing sea trials and is developing its DDG(X) project to replace the aging Ticonderoga-class cruisers. Displacing 12,000 tons, much greater than their predecessors, the DDG(X) ships will be cruisers in all but name. Museum ships As of 2019, several decommissioned cruisers have been saved from scrapping and exist worldwide as museum ships. They are: * A floating replica of the is on display in Dandong, China. * in Athens, Greece; still active as the flagship of the Hellenic Navy * in St. Petersburg, Russia; still active as the flagship of the Russian Navy * in Novorossiysk, Russia; the last surviving * in London, England * in Belfast, Northern Ireland; the last surviving ship from the Battle of Jutland * in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; the world's oldest steel-hulled warship afloat. * in Buffalo, New York * in Quincy, Massachusetts; the world's last heavy cruiser. * Bow section of in La Spezia, Italy Former museums * The was on display in Bordeaux, France until 2006, when she was forced to close due to financial difficulties. She sat in the French Navy's mothball fleet in Landevennec until she was sold for scrap in 2014.Former operators * last cruiser, the was sunk in action during the Falklands War in 1982. * lost its entire navy following the Empire's collapse following World War I. * decommissioned both its surviving s in 1949. * returned its only cruiser, to France following the abolition of its navy in 1920. * decommissioned its last , Almirante Tamandaré in 1976. * decommissioned HMCS Quebec in 1961. * decommissioned its last , ''O'Higgins'' in 1991. * 's last cruiser, , was decommissioned in 1958 and sold for scrapping in 1959. This light cruiser was akin to pre-WW1 light cruisers at time of commissioning and its contemporaries were gunboats; Taiwan's penultimate cruiser was ROCS Chung King, their lone vessel in the Arethusa-class. She defected to the People's Liberation Army Navy during the Chinese Civil War in 1949. * only cruiser, Znaim was handed over to Germany in 1943. * decommissioned its last cruiser, in 1923. * decommissioned its last cruiser, in 2010. * decommissioned its last cruiser, in 1990. * decommissioned its last active duty cruiser, Elli in 1965. * Haitian Navy only cruiser, Consul Gostrück sank due to the inexperience of her crew in 1910. * decommissioned its , in 1985. * decommissioned its only cruiser, the RI Irian in 1972. * decommissioned helicopter cruiser Vittorio Veneto in 2006 and aircraft cruiser in 2024. * surrendered all its remaining cruisers to the Allies following World War II. * decommissioned its last cruiser, HMNZS Royalist in 1966. * decommissioned its last cruiser, in 1975. * decommissioned its only cruiser, between 1982 and 1985. The ship was scrapped in 1985. * decommissioned its last , in 2017. * returned its lone surviving , ORP Conrad, to the United Kingdom in 1946. * decommissioned its last cruiser, NRP Vasco da Gama in 1935. * decommissioned its only cruiser, in 1929. From 1985 to 1990, the Romanian People's Navy (and subsequently, the Romanian Naval Forces) classified Muntenia as a light helicopter cruiser, but it was refitted and redesignated as a destroyer (ultimately, it was redesignated as a frigate in 2001). * decommissioned its only cruiser SATS General Botha in 1947. * decommissioned its last cruiser, in 1977. * decommissioned its last cruiser, in 1971. * decommissioned its last cruiser, TCG Mecidiye in 1948; they retained a battlecruiser, TCG Yavuz, which was decommissioned in 1950 and stricken from the Naval Register in 1954. * decommissioned its last cruiser in 1979. * lost its entire fleet upon its reintegration into the Soviet Union in 1921. * decommissioned its only cruiser, ROU Montevideo in 1932. * decommissioned its only cruiser, FNV Mariscal Sucre in 1940. * only cruiser KB Dalmacija was captured by Germany during the Invasion of Yugoslavia in 1941. See also * List of battlecruisers of the Second World War * List of cruisers * List of cruisers of World War I * List of cruisers of the Second World War * List of ships of the Second World War References Sources * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Parkes, Oscar British Battleships (2nd Edition). Leo Cooper, London, 1990. . * }} * * * * }} * * * * External links * * Category:Ship types	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruiser	2025-04-05T18:28:02.745382
7037	Chlamydia	, \| image = Pap smear showing clamydia in the vacuoles 500x H&E.jpg \| caption = Pap smear showing C. trachomatis (H&E stain) \| field = Infectious disease, gynecology, urology \| symptoms None, vaginal discharge, discharge from the penis, burning with urination Symptoms in women may include vaginal discharge or burning with urination. Chlamydia infections can occur in other areas besides the genitals, including the anus, eyes, throat, and lymph nodes. Repeated chlamydia infections of the eyes that go without treatment can result in trachoma, a common cause of blindness in the developing world. Chlamydia can be spread during vaginal, anal, oral, or manual sex and can be passed from an infected mother to her baby during childbirth. The eye infections may also be spread by personal contact, flies, and contaminated towels in areas with poor sanitation. Diagnosis is often by screening, which is recommended yearly in sexually active women under the age of 25, others at higher risk, and at the first prenatal visit. In 2015, about 61 million new cases occurred globally. In the United States, about 1.4 million cases were reported in 2014. Infections are most common among those between the ages of 15 and 25 and are more common in women than men. The word chlamydia is from the Greek , meaning 'cloak'. Signs and symptoms Genital disease <!-- Wikipedia is NOT censored and contains many different images, some of which are considered objectionable or offensive by some readers. The images shown here are relevant to the content, please do not remove them.--> from chlamydia infection characterized by mucopurulent cervical discharge, redness, and inflammation]] .]] Women Chlamydial infection of the cervix (neck of the womb) is a sexually transmitted infection which has no symptoms for around 70% of women infected. The infection can be passed through vaginal, anal, oral, or manual sex. Of those who have an asymptomatic infection that is not detected by their doctor, approximately half will develop pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), a generic term for infection of the uterus, fallopian tubes, and/or ovaries. PID can cause scarring inside the reproductive organs, which can later cause serious complications, including chronic pelvic pain, difficulty becoming pregnant, ectopic (tubal) pregnancy, and other dangerous complications of pregnancy. and can linger for months or years before being discovered. Signs and symptoms may include abnormal vaginal bleeding or discharge, abdominal pain, painful sexual intercourse, fever, painful urination or the urge to urinate more often than usual (urinary urgency). For sexually active women who are not pregnant, screening is recommended in those under 25 and others at risk of infection. Risk factors include a history of chlamydial or other sexually transmitted infection, new or multiple sexual partners, and inconsistent condom use. Guidelines recommend all women attending for emergency contraceptive are offered chlamydia testing, with studies showing up to 9% of women aged under 25 years had chlamydia. Men In men, those with a chlamydial infection show symptoms of infectious inflammation of the urethra in about 50% of cases. Eye disease Trachoma is a chronic conjunctivitis caused by Chlamydia trachomatis. It was once the leading cause of blindness worldwide, but its role diminished from 15% of blindness cases by trachoma in 1995 to 3.6% in 2002. The infection can be spread from eye to eye by fingers, shared towels or cloths, coughing and sneezing and eye-seeking flies. Symptoms include mucopurulent ocular discharge, irritation, redness, and lid swelling. The updated World Health Assembly neglected tropical diseases road map (2021–2030) sets 2030 as the new timeline for global elimination.JointsChlamydia may also cause reactive arthritis—the triad of arthritis, conjunctivitis and urethral inflammation—especially in young men. About 15,000 men develop reactive arthritis due to chlamydia infection each year in the U.S., and about 5,000 are permanently affected by it. It can occur in both sexes, though is more common in men. Infants As many as half of all infants born to mothers with chlamydia will be born with the disease. Chlamydia can affect infants by causing spontaneous abortion; premature birth; conjunctivitis, which may lead to blindness; and pneumonia. Conjunctivitis due to chlamydia typically occurs one week after birth (compared with chemical causes (within hours) or gonorrhea (2–5 days)).Other conditionsA different serovar of Chlamydia trachomatis is also the cause of lymphogranuloma venereum, an infection of the lymph nodes and lymphatics. It usually presents with genital ulceration and swollen lymph nodes in the groin, but it may also manifest as rectal inflammation, fever or swollen lymph nodes in other regions of the body. Transmission Chlamydia can be transmitted during vaginal, anal, oral, or manual sex or direct contact with infected tissue such as conjunctiva. Chlamydia can also be passed from an infected mother to her baby during vaginal childbirth. Pathophysiology Chlamydia bacteria have the ability to establish long-term associations with host cells. When an infected host cell is starved for various nutrients such as amino acids (for example, tryptophan), iron, or vitamins, this has a negative consequence for chlamydia bacteria since the organism is dependent on the host cell for these nutrients. Long-term cohort studies indicate that approximately 50% of those infected clear within a year, 80% within two years, and 90% within three years. The starved chlamydia bacteria can enter a persistent growth state where they stop cell division and become morphologically aberrant by increasing in size. Persistent organisms remain viable as they are capable of returning to a normal growth state once conditions in the host cell improve. There is debate as to whether persistence has relevance: some believe that persistent chlamydia bacteria are the cause of chronic chlamydial diseases. Some antibiotics such as β-lactams have been found to induce a persistent-like growth state. Diagnosis ]] The diagnosis of genital chlamydial infections evolved rapidly from the 1990s through 2006. Nucleic acid amplification tests (NAAT), such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR), transcription mediated amplification (TMA), and the DNA strand displacement amplification (SDA) now are the mainstays. NAAT for chlamydia may be performed on swab specimens sampled from the cervix (women) or urethra (men), on self-collected vaginal swabs, or on voided urine. NAAT has been estimated to have a sensitivity of approximately 90% and a specificity of approximately 99%, regardless of sampling from a cervical swab or by urine specimen. In women seeking treatment in a sexually transmitted infection clinic where a urine test is negative, a subsequent cervical swab has been estimated to be positive in approximately 2% of the time. The swab sample for chlamydial infections does not show difference whether the sample was collected in home or in clinic in terms of numbers of patient treated. The implications in cured patients, reinfection, partner management, and safety are unknown. Rapid point-of-care tests are, as of 2020, not thought to be effective for diagnosing chlamydia in men of reproductive age and non-pregnant women because of high false-negative rates. Prevention Prevention is by not having sex, the use of condoms, or having sex with only one other person, who is not infected. In the United Kingdom the National Health Service (NHS) aims to: # Prevent and control chlamydia infection through early detection and treatment of asymptomatic infection; # Reduce onward transmission to sexual partners; # Prevent the consequences of untreated infection; # Test at least 25 percent of the sexually active under 25 population annually. # Retest after treatment. Treatment C. trachomatis infection can be effectively cured with antibiotics. Guidelines recommend azithromycin, doxycycline, erythromycin, levofloxacin or ofloxacin. In men, doxycycline (100 mg twice a day for 7 days) is probably more effective than azithromycin (1 g single dose) but evidence for the relative effectiveness of antibiotics in women is very uncertain. Agents recommended during pregnancy include erythromycin or amoxicillin. An option for treating sexual partners of those with chlamydia or gonorrhea includes patient-delivered partner therapy (PDT or PDPT), which is the practice of treating the sex partners of index cases by providing prescriptions or medications to the patient to take to his/her partner without the health care provider first examining the partner. Following treatment people should be tested again after three months to check for reinfection. Epidemiology (DALY) for chlamydia per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004 ]] Globally, as of 2015, sexually transmitted chlamydia affects approximately 61 million people. In 2015 it resulted in about 200 deaths. It affects around 2% of young people. Chlamydial infection is the most common bacterial sexually transmitted infection in the UK. Chlamydia causes more than 250,000 cases of epididymitis in the U.S. each year. Chlamydia causes 250,000 to 500,000 cases of PID every year in the United States. Women infected with chlamydia are up to five times more likely to become infected with HIV, if exposed.<ref name=CDC/> See also * Chlamydia research References External links * [https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/chlamydia WHO fact sheet on chlamydia] * [https://www.cdc.gov/chlamydia/about/ About Chlamydia] from the CDC , , – \| ICD10 = , , \| ICD9 = , \| ICDO \| OMIM \| DiseasesDB = 2384 \| MedlinePlus \| eMedicineSubj med \| eMedicineTopic = 340 \| MeshID = D002690 }} Category:Sexually transmitted diseases and infections Category:Chlamydiota Category:Infectious causes of cancer Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate Category:Vaccine-preventable diseases	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlamydia	2025-04-05T18:28:02.784490
7038	Candidiasis	Candida yeasts are generally present in healthy humans, frequently part of the human body's normal oral and intestinal flora, and particularly on the skin; however, their growth is normally limited by the human immune system and by competition of other microorganisms, such as bacteria occupying the same locations in the human body. Candida requires moisture for growth, notably on the skin. For example, wearing wet swimwear for long periods of time is believed to be a risk factor. Candida can also cause diaper rashes in babies. Factors that increase the risk of candidiasis include HIV/AIDS, mononucleosis, cancer treatments, steroids, stress, antibiotic therapy, diabetes, and nutrient deficiency. Hormone replacement therapy and infertility treatments may also be predisposing factors. Use of inhaled corticosteroids increases risk of candidiasis of the mouth. Inhaled corticosteroids with other risk factors such as antibiotics, oral glucocorticoids, not rinsing mouth after use of inhaled corticosteroids or high dose of inhaled corticosteroids put people at even higher risk. A weakened or undeveloped immune system or metabolic illnesses are significant predisposing factors of candidiasis. Almost 15% of people with weakened immune systems develop a systemic illness caused by Candida species. Diets high in simple carbohydrates have been found to affect rates of oral candidiases. C. albicans was isolated from the vaginas of 19% of apparently healthy women, i.e., those who experienced few or no symptoms of infection. External use of detergents or douches or internal disturbances (hormonal or physiological) can perturb the normal vaginal flora, consisting of lactic acid bacteria, such as lactobacilli, and result in an overgrowth of Candida cells, causing symptoms of infection, such as local inflammation. Pregnancy and the use of oral contraceptives have been reported as risk factors. Diabetes mellitus and the use of antibiotics are also linked to increased rates of yeast infections. Breast-feeding mothers may also develop candidiasis on and around the nipple as a result of moisture created by excessive milk-production. Diagnosis culture of C. albicans]] on a vaginal wet mount, showing slings of pseudohyphae of Candida albicans surrounded by round vaginal epithelial cells, conferring a diagnosis of candidal vulvovaginitis ]] specimen, PAS stain]] of Candida albicans from a vaginal swab; the small oval chlamydospores are 2–4 μm in diameter ]] In oral candidiasis, simply inspecting the person's mouth for white patches and irritation may make the diagnosis. A sample of the infected area may also be taken to determine what organism is causing the infection. Symptoms of vaginal candidiasis are also present in the more common bacterial vaginosis; aerobic vaginitis is distinct and should be excluded in the differential diagnosis. In a 2002 study, only 33% of women who were self-treating for a yeast infection were found to have such an infection, while most had either bacterial vaginosis or a mixed-type infection. Diagnosis of a yeast infection is confirmed either via microscopic examination or culturing. For identification by light microscopy, a scraping or swab of the affected area is placed on a microscope slide. A single drop of 10% potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution is then added to the specimen. The KOH dissolves the skin cells, but leaves the Candida cells intact, permitting visualization of pseudohyphae and budding yeast cells typical of many Candida species. For the culturing method, a sterile swab is rubbed on the infected skin surface. The swab is then streaked on a culture medium. The culture is incubated at 37 °C (98.6 °F) for several days, to allow development of yeast or bacterial colonies. The characteristics (such as morphology and colour) of the colonies may allow initial diagnosis of the organism causing disease symptoms. Respiratory, gastrointestinal, and esophageal candidiasis require an endoscopy to diagnose. For gastrointestinal candidiasis, it is necessary to obtain a 3–5 milliliter sample of fluid from the duodenum for fungal culture. Candidal balanitis — infection of the glans penis, Esophageal candidiasis (candidal esophagitis) Gastrointestinal candidiasis Candidid ** Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis * Systemic candidiasis * Antibiotic candidiasis (iatrogenic candidiasis) Prevention A diet that supports the immune system and is not high in simple carbohydrates contributes to a healthy balance of the oral and intestinal flora. Wearing cotton underwear may help to reduce the risk of developing skin and vaginal yeast infections, along with not wearing wet clothes for long periods of time. This includes either as pills or as yogurt. Gentian violet can be used for thrush in breastfeeding babies. A one-time dose of fluconazole by mouth is 90% effective in treating a vaginal yeast infection. For severe nonrecurring cases, several doses of fluconazole is recommended. For vaginal yeast infection in pregnancy, topical imidazole or triazole antifungals are considered the therapy of choice owing to available safety data. For vaginal yeast infections, many complementary treatments are proposed, however a number have side effects. No benefit from probiotics has been found for active infections. Examples include intravenous fluconazole or an echinocandin such as caspofungin may be used. Among individuals being treated in intensive care units, the mortality rate is about 30–50% when systemic candidiasis develops. Epidemiology Oral candidiasis is the most common fungal infection of the mouth, and it also represents the most common opportunistic oral infection in humans. Infections of the mouth occur in about 6% of babies less than a month old. In the United States there are approximately 1.4 million doctor office visits every year for candidiasis. About three-quarters of women have at least one yeast infection at some time during their lives. Candida is the fourth most common cause of bloodstream infections among hospital patients in the United States. The incidence of bloodstream candida in intensive care units varies widely between countries. History Descriptions of what sounds like oral thrush go back to the time of Hippocrates circa 460–370 BCE. The first description of a fungus as the causative agent of an oropharyngeal and oesophageal candidosis was by Bernhard von Langenbeck in 1839. Vulvovaginal candidiasis was first described in 1849 by Wilkinson. The colloquial term "thrush" is of unknown origin but may stem from an unrecorded Old English word <i>þrusc</i> or from a Scandinavian root. The term is not related to the bird of the same name. The term candidosis is largely used in British English, and candidiasis in American English. Candida is also pronounced differently; in American English, the stress is on the "i", whereas in British English the stress is on the first syllable. The genus Candida includes about 150 different species. However, only a few are known to cause human infections. C. albicans is the most significant pathogenic species. Other species pathogenic in humans include C. auris, C. tropicalis, C. parapsilosis, C. dubliniensis, and C. lusitaniae. The name Candida was proposed by Berkhout. It is from the Latin word toga candida, referring to the white toga (robe) worn by candidates for the Senate of the ancient Roman republic. has developed around the topic of Candida, with claims stating that up to one in three people are affected by yeast-related illness, particularly a condition called "Candidiasis hypersensitivity". Some practitioners of alternative medicine have promoted these purported conditions and sold dietary supplements as supposed cures; a number of them have been prosecuted. In 1990, alternative health vendor Nature's Way signed an FTC consent agreement not to misrepresent in advertising any self-diagnostic test concerning yeast conditions or to make any unsubstantiated representation concerning any food or supplement's ability to control yeast conditions, with a fine of $30,000 payable to the National Institutes of Health for research in genuine candidiasis. There has been an increase in resistance to antifungals worldwide over the past 30–40 years. References External links \| ICD10 = \| ICD9 = \| ICDO \| OMIM \| MedlinePlus = 001511 \| eMedicineSubj = med \| eMedicineTopic = 264 \| eMedicine_mult = \| MeshID = D002177 }} Category:Animal fungal diseases Category:Bird diseases Category:Bovine diseases Category:Horse diseases Category:Mycosis-related cutaneous conditions Category:Sheep and goat diseases Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate Category:Wikipedia emergency medicine articles ready to translate Category:Fungal diseases	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candidiasis	2025-04-05T18:28:02.847811
7039	Control theory	Control theory is a field of control engineering and applied mathematics that deals with the control of dynamical systems in engineered processes and machines. The objective is to develop a model or algorithm governing the application of system inputs to drive the system to a desired state, while minimizing any delay, overshoot, or steady-state error and ensuring a level of control stability; often with the aim to achieve a degree of optimality. To do this, a controller with the requisite corrective behavior is required. This controller monitors the controlled process variable (PV), and compares it with the reference or set point (SP). The difference between actual and desired value of the process variable, called the error signal, or SP-PV error, is applied as feedback to generate a control action to bring the controlled process variable to the same value as the set point. Other aspects which are also studied are controllability and observability. Control theory is used in control system engineering to design automation that have revolutionized manufacturing, aircraft, communications and other industries, and created new fields such as robotics. Extensive use is usually made of a diagrammatic style known as the block diagram. In it the transfer function, also known as the system function or network function, is a mathematical model of the relation between the input and output based on the differential equations describing the system. Control theory dates from the 19th century, when the theoretical basis for the operation of governors was first described by James Clerk Maxwell. Control theory was further advanced by Edward Routh in 1874, Charles Sturm and in 1895, Adolf Hurwitz, who all contributed to the establishment of control stability criteria; and from 1922 onwards, the development of PID control theory by Nicolas Minorsky. Although a major application of mathematical control theory is in control systems engineering, which deals with the design of process control systems for industry, other applications range far beyond this. As the general theory of feedback systems, control theory is useful wherever feedback occurs - thus control theory also has applications in life sciences, computer engineering, sociology and operations research. History thumb\|right\|Centrifugal governor in a Boulton & Watt engine of 1788 Although control systems of various types date back to antiquity, a more formal analysis of the field began with a dynamics analysis of the centrifugal governor, conducted by the physicist James Clerk Maxwell in 1868, entitled On Governors. A centrifugal governor was already used to regulate the velocity of windmills. Maxwell described and analyzed the phenomenon of self-oscillation, in which lags in the system may lead to overcompensation and unstable behavior. This generated a flurry of interest in the topic, during which Maxwell's classmate, Edward John Routh, abstracted Maxwell's results for the general class of linear systems. Independently, Adolf Hurwitz analyzed system stability using differential equations in 1877, resulting in what is now known as the Routh–Hurwitz theorem. A notable application of dynamic control was in the area of crewed flight. The Wright brothers made their first successful test flights on December 17, 1903, and were distinguished by their ability to control their flights for substantial periods (more so than the ability to produce lift from an airfoil, which was known). Continuous, reliable control of the airplane was necessary for flights lasting longer than a few seconds. By World War II, control theory was becoming an important area of research. Irmgard Flügge-Lotz developed the theory of discontinuous automatic control systems, and applied the bang-bang principle to the development of automatic flight control equipment for aircraft. Other areas of application for discontinuous controls included fire-control systems, guidance systems and electronics. Sometimes, mechanical methods are used to improve the stability of systems. For example, ship stabilizers are fins mounted beneath the waterline and emerging laterally. In contemporary vessels, they may be gyroscopically controlled active fins, which have the capacity to change their angle of attack to counteract roll caused by wind or waves acting on the ship. The Space Race also depended on accurate spacecraft control, and control theory has also seen an increasing use in fields such as economics and artificial intelligence. Here, one might say that the goal is to find an internal model that obeys the good regulator theorem. So, for example, in economics, the more accurately a (stock or commodities) trading model represents the actions of the market, the more easily it can control that market (and extract "useful work" (profits) from it). In AI, an example might be a chatbot modelling the discourse state of humans: the more accurately it can model the human state (e.g. on a telephone voice-support hotline), the better it can manipulate the human (e.g. into performing the corrective actions to resolve the problem that caused the phone call to the help-line). These last two examples take the narrow historical interpretation of control theory as a set of differential equations modeling and regulating kinetic motion, and broaden it into a vast generalization of a regulator interacting with a plant. Open-loop and closed-loop (feedback) control Classical control theory Linear and nonlinear control theory The field of control theory can be divided into two branches: Linear control theory – This applies to systems made of devices which obey the superposition principle, which means roughly that the output is proportional to the input. They are governed by linear differential equations. A major subclass is systems which in addition have parameters which do not change with time, called linear time invariant (LTI) systems. These systems are amenable to powerful frequency domain mathematical techniques of great generality, such as the Laplace transform, Fourier transform, Z transform, Bode plot, root locus, and Nyquist stability criterion. These lead to a description of the system using terms like bandwidth, frequency response, eigenvalues, gain, resonant frequencies, zeros and poles, which give solutions for system response and design techniques for most systems of interest. Nonlinear control theory – This covers a wider class of systems that do not obey the superposition principle, and applies to more real-world systems because all real control systems are nonlinear. These systems are often governed by nonlinear differential equations. The few mathematical techniques which have been developed to handle them are more difficult and much less general, often applying only to narrow categories of systems. These include limit cycle theory, Poincaré maps, Lyapunov stability theorem, and describing functions. Nonlinear systems are often analyzed using numerical methods on computers, for example by simulating their operation using a simulation language. If only solutions near a stable point are of interest, nonlinear systems can often be linearized by approximating them by a linear system using perturbation theory, and linear techniques can be used. Analysis techniques – frequency domain and time domain Mathematical techniques for analyzing and designing control systems fall into two different categories: Frequency domain – In this type the values of the state variables, the mathematical variables representing the system's input, output and feedback are represented as functions of frequency. The input signal and the system's transfer function are converted from time functions to functions of frequency by a transform such as the Fourier transform, Laplace transform, or Z transform. The advantage of this technique is that it results in a simplification of the mathematics; the differential equations that represent the system are replaced by algebraic equations in the frequency domain which is much simpler to solve. However, frequency domain techniques can only be used with linear systems, as mentioned above. Time-domain state space representation – In this type the values of the state variables are represented as functions of time. With this model, the system being analyzed is represented by one or more differential equations. Since frequency domain techniques are limited to linear systems, time domain is widely used to analyze real-world nonlinear systems. Although these are more difficult to solve, modern computer simulation techniques such as simulation languages have made their analysis routine. In contrast to the frequency-domain analysis of the classical control theory, modern control theory utilizes the time-domain state space representation, a mathematical model of a physical system as a set of input, output and state variables related by first-order differential equations. To abstract from the number of inputs, outputs, and states, the variables are expressed as vectors and the differential and algebraic equations are written in matrix form (the latter only being possible when the dynamical system is linear). The state space representation (also known as the "time-domain approach") provides a convenient and compact way to model and analyze systems with multiple inputs and outputs. With inputs and outputs, we would otherwise have to write down Laplace transforms to encode all the information about a system. Unlike the frequency domain approach, the use of the state-space representation is not limited to systems with linear components and zero initial conditions. "State space" refers to the space whose axes are the state variables. The state of the system can be represented as a point within that space. System interfacing Control systems can be divided into different categories depending on the number of inputs and outputs. Single-input single-output (SISO) – This is the simplest and most common type, in which one output is controlled by one control signal. Examples are the cruise control example above, or an audio system, in which the control input is the input audio signal and the output is the sound waves from the speaker. Multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) – These are found in more complicated systems. For example, modern large telescopes such as the Keck and MMT have mirrors composed of many separate segments each controlled by an actuator. The shape of the entire mirror is constantly adjusted by a MIMO active optics control system using input from multiple sensors at the focal plane, to compensate for changes in the mirror shape due to thermal expansion, contraction, stresses as it is rotated and distortion of the wavefront due to turbulence in the atmosphere. Complicated systems such as nuclear reactors and human cells are simulated by a computer as large MIMO control systems. Classical SISO system design The scope of classical control theory is limited to single-input and single-output (SISO) system design, except when analyzing for disturbance rejection using a second input. The system analysis is carried out in the time domain using differential equations, in the complex-s domain with the Laplace transform, or in the frequency domain by transforming from the complex-s domain. Many systems may be assumed to have a second order and single variable system response in the time domain. A controller designed using classical theory often requires on-site tuning due to incorrect design approximations. Yet, due to the easier physical implementation of classical controller designs as compared to systems designed using modern control theory, these controllers are preferred in most industrial applications. The most common controllers designed using classical control theory are PID controllers. A less common implementation may include either or both a Lead or Lag filter. The ultimate end goal is to meet requirements typically provided in the time-domain called the step response, or at times in the frequency domain called the open-loop response. The step response characteristics applied in a specification are typically percent overshoot, settling time, etc. The open-loop response characteristics applied in a specification are typically Gain and Phase margin and bandwidth. These characteristics may be evaluated through simulation including a dynamic model of the system under control coupled with the compensation model. Modern MIMO system design Modern control theory is carried out in the state space, and can deal with multiple-input and multiple-output (MIMO) systems. This overcomes the limitations of classical control theory in more sophisticated design problems, such as fighter aircraft control, with the limitation that no frequency domain analysis is possible. In modern design, a system is represented to the greatest advantage as a set of decoupled first order differential equations defined using state variables. Nonlinear, multivariable, adaptive and robust control theories come under this division. Being fairly new, modern control theory has many areas yet to be explored. Scholars like Rudolf E. Kálmán and Aleksandr Lyapunov are well known among the people who have shaped modern control theory. Topics in control theory Stability The stability of a general dynamical system with no input can be described with Lyapunov stability criteria. A linear system is called bounded-input bounded-output (BIBO) stable if its output will stay bounded for any bounded input. Stability for nonlinear systems that take an input is input-to-state stability (ISS), which combines Lyapunov stability and a notion similar to BIBO stability. For simplicity, the following descriptions focus on continuous-time and discrete-time linear systems. Mathematically, this means that for a causal linear system to be stable all of the poles of its transfer function must have negative-real values, i.e. the real part of each pole must be less than zero. Practically speaking, stability requires that the transfer function complex poles reside in the open left half of the complex plane for continuous time, when the Laplace transform is used to obtain the transfer function. inside the unit circle for discrete time, when the Z-transform is used. The difference between the two cases is simply due to the traditional method of plotting continuous time versus discrete time transfer functions. The continuous Laplace transform is in Cartesian coordinates where the x axis is the real axis and the discrete Z-transform is in circular coordinates where the \rho axis is the real axis. When the appropriate conditions above are satisfied a system is said to be asymptotically stable; the variables of an asymptotically stable control system always decrease from their initial value and do not show permanent oscillations. Permanent oscillations occur when a pole has a real part exactly equal to zero (in the continuous time case) or a modulus equal to one (in the discrete time case). If a simply stable system response neither decays nor grows over time, and has no oscillations, it is marginally stable; in this case the system transfer function has non-repeated poles at the complex plane origin (i.e. their real and complex component is zero in the continuous time case). Oscillations are present when poles with real part equal to zero have an imaginary part not equal to zero. If a system in question has an impulse response of \ x[n] = 0.5^n u[n] then the Z-transform (see this example), is given by \ X(z) = \frac{1}{1 - 0.5z^{-1}} which has a pole in z = 0.5 (zero imaginary part). This system is BIBO (asymptotically) stable since the pole is inside the unit circle. However, if the impulse response was \ x[n] = 1.5^n u[n] then the Z-transform is \ X(z) = \frac{1}{1 - 1.5z^{-1}} which has a pole at z = 1.5 and is not BIBO stable since the pole has a modulus strictly greater than one. Numerous tools exist for the analysis of the poles of a system. These include graphical systems like the root locus, Bode plots or the Nyquist plots. Mechanical changes can make equipment (and control systems) more stable. Sailors add ballast to improve the stability of ships. Cruise ships use antiroll fins that extend transversely from the side of the ship for perhaps 30 feet (10 m) and are continuously rotated about their axes to develop forces that oppose the roll. Controllability and observability Controllability and observability are main issues in the analysis of a system before deciding the best control strategy to be applied, or whether it is even possible to control or stabilize the system. Controllability is related to the possibility of forcing the system into a particular state by using an appropriate control signal. If a state is not controllable, then no signal will ever be able to control the state. If a state is not controllable, but its dynamics are stable, then the state is termed stabilizable. Observability instead is related to the possibility of observing, through output measurements, the state of a system. If a state is not observable, the controller will never be able to determine the behavior of an unobservable state and hence cannot use it to stabilize the system. However, similar to the stabilizability condition above, if a state cannot be observed it might still be detectable. From a geometrical point of view, looking at the states of each variable of the system to be controlled, every "bad" state of these variables must be controllable and observable to ensure a good behavior in the closed-loop system. That is, if one of the eigenvalues of the system is not both controllable and observable, this part of the dynamics will remain untouched in the closed-loop system. If such an eigenvalue is not stable, the dynamics of this eigenvalue will be present in the closed-loop system which therefore will be unstable. Unobservable poles are not present in the transfer function realization of a state-space representation, which is why sometimes the latter is preferred in dynamical systems analysis. Solutions to problems of an uncontrollable or unobservable system include adding actuators and sensors. Control specification Several different control strategies have been devised in the past years. These vary from extremely general ones (PID controller), to others devoted to very particular classes of systems (especially robotics or aircraft cruise control). A control problem can have several specifications. Stability, of course, is always present. The controller must ensure that the closed-loop system is stable, regardless of the open-loop stability. A poor choice of controller can even worsen the stability of the open-loop system, which must normally be avoided. Sometimes it would be desired to obtain particular dynamics in the closed loop: i.e. that the poles have Re[\lambda] , where \overline{\lambda} is a fixed value strictly greater than zero, instead of simply asking that Re[\lambda]. Another typical specification is the rejection of a step disturbance; including an integrator in the open-loop chain (i.e. directly before the system under control) easily achieves this. Other classes of disturbances need different types of sub-systems to be included. Other "classical" control theory specifications regard the time-response of the closed-loop system. These include the rise time (the time needed by the control system to reach the desired value after a perturbation), peak overshoot (the highest value reached by the response before reaching the desired value) and others (settling time, quarter-decay). Frequency domain specifications are usually related to robustness (see after). Modern performance assessments use some variation of integrated tracking error (IAE, ISA, CQI). Model identification and robustness A control system must always have some robustness property. A robust controller is such that its properties do not change much if applied to a system slightly different from the mathematical one used for its synthesis. This requirement is important, as no real physical system truly behaves like the series of differential equations used to represent it mathematically. Typically a simpler mathematical model is chosen in order to simplify calculations, otherwise, the true system dynamics can be so complicated that a complete model is impossible. System identification The process of determining the equations that govern the model's dynamics is called system identification. This can be done off-line: for example, executing a series of measures from which to calculate an approximated mathematical model, typically its transfer function or matrix. Such identification from the output, however, cannot take account of unobservable dynamics. Sometimes the model is built directly starting from known physical equations, for example, in the case of a mass-spring-damper system we know that m \ddot(t) = - K x(t) - \Beta \dot{x}(t). Even assuming that a "complete" model is used in designing the controller, all the parameters included in these equations (called "nominal parameters") are never known with absolute precision; the control system will have to behave correctly even when connected to a physical system with true parameter values away from nominal. Some advanced control techniques include an "on-line" identification process (see later). The parameters of the model are calculated ("identified") while the controller itself is running. In this way, if a drastic variation of the parameters ensues, for example, if the robot's arm releases a weight, the controller will adjust itself consequently in order to ensure the correct performance. Analysis Analysis of the robustness of a SISO (single input single output) control system can be performed in the frequency domain, considering the system's transfer function and using Nyquist and Bode diagrams. Topics include gain and phase margin and amplitude margin. For MIMO (multi-input multi output) and, in general, more complicated control systems, one must consider the theoretical results devised for each control technique (see next section). I.e., if particular robustness qualities are needed, the engineer must shift their attention to a control technique by including these qualities in its properties. Constraints A particular robustness issue is the requirement for a control system to perform properly in the presence of input and state constraints. In the physical world every signal is limited. It could happen that a controller will send control signals that cannot be followed by the physical system, for example, trying to rotate a valve at excessive speed. This can produce undesired behavior of the closed-loop system, or even damage or break actuators or other subsystems. Specific control techniques are available to solve the problem: model predictive control (see later), and anti-wind up systems. The latter consists of an additional control block that ensures that the control signal never exceeds a given threshold. System classifications Linear systems control For MIMO systems, pole placement can be performed mathematically using a state space representation of the open-loop system and calculating a feedback matrix assigning poles in the desired positions. In complicated systems this can require computer-assisted calculation capabilities, and cannot always ensure robustness. Furthermore, all system states are not in general measured and so observers must be included and incorporated in pole placement design. Nonlinear systems control Processes in industries like robotics and the aerospace industry typically have strong nonlinear dynamics. In control theory it is sometimes possible to linearize such classes of systems and apply linear techniques, but in many cases it can be necessary to devise from scratch theories permitting control of nonlinear systems. These, e.g., feedback linearization, backstepping, sliding mode control, trajectory linearization control normally take advantage of results based on Lyapunov's theory. Differential geometry has been widely used as a tool for generalizing well-known linear control concepts to the nonlinear case, as well as showing the subtleties that make it a more challenging problem. Control theory has also been used to decipher the neural mechanism that directs cognitive states. Decentralized systems control When the system is controlled by multiple controllers, the problem is one of decentralized control. Decentralization is helpful in many ways, for instance, it helps control systems to operate over a larger geographical area. The agents in decentralized control systems can interact using communication channels and coordinate their actions. Deterministic and stochastic systems control A stochastic control problem is one in which the evolution of the state variables is subjected to random shocks from outside the system. A deterministic control problem is not subject to external random shocks. Main control strategies Every control system must guarantee first the stability of the closed-loop behavior. For linear systems, this can be obtained by directly placing the poles. Nonlinear control systems use specific theories (normally based on Aleksandr Lyapunov's Theory) to ensure stability without regard to the inner dynamics of the system. The possibility to fulfill different specifications varies from the model considered and the control strategy chosen. List of the main control techniques Optimal control is a particular control technique in which the control signal optimizes a certain "cost index": for example, in the case of a satellite, the jet thrusts needed to bring it to desired trajectory that consume the least amount of fuel. Two optimal control design methods have been widely used in industrial applications, as it has been shown they can guarantee closed-loop stability. These are Model Predictive Control (MPC) and linear-quadratic-Gaussian control (LQG). The first can more explicitly take into account constraints on the signals in the system, which is an important feature in many industrial processes. However, the "optimal control" structure in MPC is only a means to achieve such a result, as it does not optimize a true performance index of the closed-loop control system. Together with PID controllers, MPC systems are the most widely used control technique in process control. Robust control deals explicitly with uncertainty in its approach to controller design. Controllers designed using robust control methods tend to be able to cope with small differences between the true system and the nominal model used for design. The early methods of Bode and others were fairly robust; the state-space methods invented in the 1960s and 1970s were sometimes found to lack robustness. Examples of modern robust control techniques include H-infinity loop-shaping developed by Duncan McFarlane and Keith Glover, Sliding mode control (SMC) developed by Vadim Utkin, and safe protocols designed for control of large heterogeneous populations of electric loads in Smart Power Grid applications. Robust methods aim to achieve robust performance and/or stability in the presence of small modeling errors. Stochastic control deals with control design with uncertainty in the model. In typical stochastic control problems, it is assumed that there exist random noise and disturbances in the model and the controller, and the control design must take into account these random deviations. Adaptive control uses on-line identification of the process parameters, or modification of controller gains, thereby obtaining strong robustness properties. Adaptive controls were applied for the first time in the aerospace industry in the 1950s, and have found particular success in that field. A hierarchical control system is a type of control system in which a set of devices and governing software is arranged in a hierarchical tree. When the links in the tree are implemented by a computer network, then that hierarchical control system is also a form of networked control system. Intelligent control uses various AI computing approaches like artificial neural networks, Bayesian probability, fuzzy logic, machine learning, evolutionary computation and genetic algorithms or a combination of these methods, such as neuro-fuzzy algorithms, to control a dynamic system. Self-organized criticality control may be defined as attempts to interfere in the processes by which the self-organized system dissipates energy. People in systems and control Many active and historical figures made significant contribution to control theory including Pierre-Simon Laplace invented the Z-transform in his work on probability theory, now used to solve discrete-time control theory problems. The Z-transform is a discrete-time equivalent of the Laplace transform which is named after him. Irmgard Flugge-Lotz developed the theory of discontinuous automatic control and applied it to automatic aircraft control systems. Alexander Lyapunov in the 1890s marks the beginning of stability theory. Harold S. Black invented the concept of negative feedback amplifiers in 1927. He managed to develop stable negative feedback amplifiers in the 1930s. Harry Nyquist developed the Nyquist stability criterion for feedback systems in the 1930s. Richard Bellman developed dynamic programming in the 1940s. Warren E. Dixon, control theorist and a professor Kyriakos G. Vamvoudakis, developed synchronous reinforcement learning algorithms to solve optimal control and game theoretic problems Andrey Kolmogorov co-developed the Wiener–Kolmogorov filter in 1941. Norbert Wiener co-developed the Wiener–Kolmogorov filter and coined the term cybernetics in the 1940s. John R. Ragazzini introduced digital control and the use of Z-transform in control theory (invented by Laplace) in the 1950s. Lev Pontryagin introduced the maximum principle and the bang-bang principle. Pierre-Louis Lions developed viscosity solutions into stochastic control and optimal control methods. Rudolf E. Kálmán pioneered the state-space approach to systems and control. Introduced the notions of controllability and observability. Developed the Kalman filter for linear estimation. Ali H. Nayfeh who was one of the main contributors to nonlinear control theory and published many books on perturbation methods Jan C. Willems Introduced the concept of dissipativity, as a generalization of Lyapunov function to input/state/output systems. The construction of the storage function, as the analogue of a Lyapunov function is called, led to the study of the linear matrix inequality (LMI) in control theory. He pioneered the behavioral approach to mathematical systems theory. See also Examples of control systems Topics in control theory s Other related topics References Further reading For Chemical Engineering External links Control Tutorials for Matlab, a set of worked-through control examples solved by several different methods. Control Tuning and Best Practices Advanced control structures, free on-line simulators explaining the control theory Category:Control engineering Category:Computer engineering Category:Management cybernetics	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_theory	2025-04-05T18:28:02.951941
7042	Joint cracking	Joint cracking is the manipulation of joints to produce a sound and related "popping" sensation. It is sometimes performed by physical therapists, chiropractors, and osteopaths pursuing a variety of outcomes. The cracking of joints, especially knuckles, was long believed to lead to arthritis and other joint problems. However, this has been debunked. The cracking mechanism and the resulting sound is caused by dissolved gas (nitrogen gas) cavitation bubbles suddenly collapsing inside the joints. This happens when the joint cavity is stretched beyond its normal size. The pressure inside the joint cavity drops and the dissolved gas suddenly comes out of solution and takes gaseous form which makes a distinct popping noise. To be able to crack the same knuckle again requires waiting about 20 minutes before the bubbles dissolve back into the synovial fluid and will be able to form again. It is possible for voluntary joint cracking by an individual to be considered as part of the obsessive–compulsive disorders spectrum. Causes thumb\|MRI of a cracking finger joint depicting cavitation between the bones thumb\|right\|Static images of the hand in the resting phase before cracking (left). The same hand following cracking with the addition of a post-cracking distraction force (right). Note the dark, interarticular void (yellow arrow). For many decades, the physical mechanism that causes the cracking sound as a result of bending, twisting, or compressing joints was uncertain. Suggested causes included: Cavitation within the joint—small cavities of partial vacuum form in the synovial fluid and then rapidly collapse, producing a sharp sound. Rapid stretching of ligaments. There were several hypotheses to explain the cracking of joints. Synovial fluid cavitation has some evidence to support it. When a spinal manipulation is performed, the applied force separates the articular surfaces of a fully encapsulated synovial joint, which in turn creates a reduction in pressure within the joint cavity. In this low-pressure environment, some of the gases that are dissolved in the synovial fluid (which are naturally found in all bodily fluids) leave the solution, making a bubble, or cavity (tribonucleation), which rapidly collapses upon itself, resulting in a "clicking" sound. The contents of the resultant gas bubble are thought to be mainly carbon dioxide, oxygen and nitrogen. The effects of this process will remain for a period of time known as the "refractory period", during which the joint cannot be "re-cracked", which lasts about 20 minutes, while the gases are slowly reabsorbed into the synovial fluid. There is some evidence that ligament laxity may be associated with an increased tendency to cavitate. In 2015, research showed that bubbles remained in the fluid after cracking, suggesting that the cracking sound was produced when the bubble within the joint was formed, not when it collapsed. The snapping of tendons or scar tissue over a prominence (as in snapping hip syndrome) can also generate a loud snapping or popping sound. Relation to arthritis The common old wives' tale that cracking one's knuckles causes arthritis is without scientific evidence. A study published in 2011 examined the hand radiographs of 215 people (aged 50 to 89). It compared the joints of those who regularly cracked their knuckles to those who did not. The study concluded that knuckle-cracking did not cause hand osteoarthritis, no matter how many years or how often a person cracked their knuckles. The medical doctor Donald Unger cracked the knuckles of his left hand every day for more than sixty years, but he did not crack the knuckles of his right hand. No arthritis or other ailments formed in either hand, and for this, he was awarded 2009's satirical Ig Nobel Prize in Medicine. See also Crepitus—sounds made by joint References Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Habits Category:Joints	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_cracking	2025-04-05T18:28:02.964701
7043	Chemical formula	-\overset{\displaystyle H \atop \|}{\underset{\| \atop \displaystyle H}{C}}-\overset{\displaystyle H \atop \|}{\underset{\| \atop \displaystyle H}{C}}-\overset{\displaystyle H \atop \|}{\underset{\| \atop \displaystyle H}{C}}-H \| data2 = Structural formula for butane }} A chemical formula is a way of presenting information about the chemical proportions of atoms that constitute a particular chemical compound or molecule, using chemical element symbols, numbers, and sometimes also other symbols, such as parentheses, dashes, brackets, commas and plus (+) and minus (−) signs. These are limited to a single typographic line of symbols, which may include subscripts and superscripts. A chemical formula is not a chemical name since it does not contain any words. Although a chemical formula may imply certain simple chemical structures, it is not the same as a full chemical structural formula. Chemical formulae can fully specify the structure of only the simplest of molecules and chemical substances, and are generally more limited in power than chemical names and structural formulae. The simplest types of chemical formulae are called empirical formulae, which use letters and numbers indicating the numerical proportions of atoms of each type. Molecular formulae indicate the simple numbers of each type of atom in a molecule, with no information on structure. For example, the empirical formula for glucose is (twice as many hydrogen atoms as carbon and oxygen), while its molecular formula is (12 hydrogen atoms, six carbon and oxygen atoms). Sometimes a chemical formula is complicated by being written as a condensed formula (or condensed molecular formula, occasionally called a "semi-structural formula"), which conveys additional information about the particular ways in which the atoms are chemically bonded together, either in covalent bonds, ionic bonds, or various combinations of these types. This is possible if the relevant bonding is easy to show in one dimension. An example is the condensed molecular/chemical formula for ethanol, which is or . However, even a condensed chemical formula is necessarily limited in its ability to show complex bonding relationships between atoms, especially atoms that have bonds to four or more different substituents. Since a chemical formula must be expressed as a single line of chemical element symbols, it often cannot be as informative as a true structural formula, which is a graphical representation of the spatial relationship between atoms in chemical compounds (see for example the figure for butane structural and chemical formulae, at right). For reasons of structural complexity, a single condensed chemical formula (or semi-structural formula) may correspond to different molecules, known as isomers. For example, glucose shares its molecular formula with a number of other sugars, including fructose, galactose and mannose. Linear equivalent chemical names exist that can and do specify uniquely any complex structural formula (see chemical nomenclature), but such names must use many terms (words), rather than the simple element symbols, numbers, and simple typographical symbols that define a chemical formula. Chemical formulae may be used in chemical equations to describe chemical reactions and other chemical transformations, such as the dissolving of ionic compounds into solution. While, as noted, chemical formulae do not have the full power of structural formulae to show chemical relationships between atoms, they are sufficient to keep track of numbers of atoms and numbers of electrical charges in chemical reactions, thus balancing chemical equations so that these equations can be used in chemical problems involving conservation of atoms, and conservation of electric charge. Overview A chemical formula identifies each constituent element by its chemical symbol and indicates the proportionate number of atoms of each element. In empirical formulae, these proportions begin with a key element and then assign numbers of atoms of the other elements in the compound, by ratios to the key element. For molecular compounds, these ratio numbers can all be expressed as whole numbers. For example, the empirical formula of ethanol may be written because the molecules of ethanol all contain two carbon atoms, six hydrogen atoms, and one oxygen atom. Some types of ionic compounds, however, cannot be written with entirely whole-number empirical formulae. An example is boron carbide, whose formula of is a variable non-whole number ratio with n ranging from over 4 to more than 6.5. When the chemical compound of the formula consists of simple molecules, chemical formulae often employ ways to suggest the structure of the molecule. These types of formulae are variously known as molecular formulae and condensed formulae. A molecular formula enumerates the number of atoms to reflect those in the molecule, so that the molecular formula for glucose is rather than the glucose empirical formula, which is . However, except for very simple substances, molecular chemical formulae lack needed structural information, and are ambiguous. For simple molecules, a condensed (or semi-structural) formula is a type of chemical formula that may fully imply a correct structural formula. For example, ethanol may be represented by the condensed chemical formula , and dimethyl ether by the condensed formula . These two molecules have the same empirical and molecular formulae (), but may be differentiated by the condensed formulae shown, which are sufficient to represent the full structure of these simple organic compounds. Condensed chemical formulae may also be used to represent ionic compounds that do not exist as discrete molecules, but nonetheless do contain covalently bound clusters within them. These polyatomic ions are groups of atoms that are covalently bound together and have an overall ionic charge, such as the sulfate ion. Each polyatomic ion in a compound is written individually in order to illustrate the separate groupings. For example, the compound dichlorine hexoxide has an empirical formula , and molecular formula , but in liquid or solid forms, this compound is more correctly shown by an ionic condensed formula , which illustrates that this compound consists of ions and ions. In such cases, the condensed formula only need be complex enough to show at least one of each ionic species. Chemical formulae as described here are distinct from the far more complex chemical systematic names that are used in various systems of chemical nomenclature. For example, one systematic name for glucose is (2R,3S,4R,5R)-2,3,4,5,6-pentahydroxyhexanal. This name, interpreted by the rules behind it, fully specifies glucose's structural formula, but the name is not a chemical formula as usually understood, and uses terms and words not used in chemical formulae. Such names, unlike basic formulae, may be able to represent full structural formulae without graphs. Types Empirical formula In chemistry, the empirical formula of a chemical is a simple expression of the relative number of each type of atom or ratio of the elements in the compound. Empirical formulae are the standard for ionic compounds, such as , and for macromolecules, such as . An empirical formula makes no reference to isomerism, structure, or absolute number of atoms. The term empirical refers to the process of elemental analysis, a technique of analytical chemistry used to determine the relative percent composition of a pure chemical substance by element. For example, hexane has a molecular formula of , and (for one of its isomers, n-hexane) a structural formula , implying that it has a chain structure of 6 carbon atoms, and 14 hydrogen atoms. However, the empirical formula for hexane is . Likewise the empirical formula for hydrogen peroxide, , is simply , expressing the 1:1 ratio of component elements. Formaldehyde and acetic acid have the same empirical formula, . This is also the molecular formula for formaldehyde, but acetic acid has double the number of atoms. Like the other formula types detailed below, an empirical formula shows the number of elements in a molecule, and determines whether it is a binary compound, ternary compound, quaternary compound, or has even more elements. Molecular formula class=skin-invert-image\|thumb\|right\|180px\|Isobutane structural formulaMolecular formula: Condensed formula: -\overset{\displaystyle H \atop \|}{\underset{\| \atop \displaystyle H}{C}}-\overset{\displaystyle H \atop \|}{\underset{\| \atop \displaystyle H}{C}}-\overset{\displaystyle H \atop \|}{\underset{\| \atop \displaystyle H}{C}}-H \|alignright\|width180 \|caption=n-Butane structural formulaMolecular formula: Condensed formula: }} Molecular formulae simply indicate the numbers of each type of atom in a molecule of a molecular substance. They are the same as empirical formulae for molecules that only have one atom of a particular type, but otherwise may have larger numbers. An example of the difference is the empirical formula for glucose, which is (ratio 1:2:1), while its molecular formula is (number of atoms 6:12:6). For water, both formulae are . A molecular formula provides more information about a molecule than its empirical formula, but is more difficult to establish. Structural formula In addition to indicating the number of atoms of each elementa molecule, a structural formula indicates how the atoms are organized, and shows (or implies) the chemical bonds between the atoms. There are multiple types of structural formulas focused on different aspects of the molecular structure. The two diagrams show two molecules which are structural isomers of each other, since they both have the same molecular formula , but they have different structural formulas as shown. Condensed formula The connectivity of a molecule often has a strong influence on its physical and chemical properties and behavior. Two molecules composed of the same numbers of the same types of atoms (i.e. a pair of isomers) might have completely different chemical and/or physical properties if the atoms are connected differently or in different positions. In such cases, a structural formula is useful, as it illustrates which atoms are bonded to which other ones. From the connectivity, it is often possible to deduce the approximate shape of the molecule. A condensed (or semi-structural) formula may represent the types and spatial arrangement of bonds in a simple chemical substance, though it does not necessarily specify isomers or complex structures. For example, ethane consists of two carbon atoms single-bonded to each other, with each carbon atom having three hydrogen atoms bonded to it. Its chemical formula can be rendered as . In ethylene there is a double bond between the carbon atoms (and thus each carbon only has two hydrogens), therefore the chemical formula may be written: , and the fact that there is a double bond between the carbons is implicit because carbon has a valence of four. However, a more explicit method is to write or less commonly . The two lines (or two pairs of dots) indicate that a double bond connects the atoms on either side of them. A triple bond may be expressed with three lines () or three pairs of dots (), and if there may be ambiguity, a single line or pair of dots may be used to indicate a single bond. Molecules with multiple functional groups that are the same may be expressed by enclosing the repeated group in round brackets. For example, isobutane may be written . This condensed structural formula implies a different connectivity from other molecules that can be formed using the same atoms in the same proportions (isomers). The formula implies a central carbon atom connected to one hydrogen atom and three methyl groups (). The same number of atoms of each element (10 hydrogens and 4 carbons, or ) may be used to make a straight chain molecule, n-butane: . Chemical names in answer to limitations of chemical formulae The alkene called but-2-ene has two isomers, which the chemical formula does not identify. The relative position of the two methyl groups must be indicated by additional notation denoting whether the methyl groups are on the same side of the double bond (cis or Z) or on the opposite sides from each other (trans or E). As noted above, in order to represent the full structural formulae of many complex organic and inorganic compounds, chemical nomenclature may be needed which goes well beyond the available resources used above in simple condensed formulae. See IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry and IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry 2005 for examples. In addition, linear naming systems such as International Chemical Identifier (InChI) allow a computer to construct a structural formula, and simplified molecular-input line-entry system (SMILES) allows a more human-readable ASCII input. However, all these nomenclature systems go beyond the standards of chemical formulae, and technically are chemical naming systems, not formula systems. Polymers in condensed formulae For polymers in condensed chemical formulae, parentheses are placed around the repeating unit. For example, a hydrocarbon molecule that is described as , is a molecule with fifty repeating units. If the number of repeating units is unknown or variable, the letter n may be used to indicate this formula: . Ions in condensed formulae For ions, the charge on a particular atom may be denoted with a right-hand superscript. For example, , or . The total charge on a charged molecule or a polyatomic ion may also be shown in this way, such as for hydronium, , or sulfate, . Here + and − are used in place of +1 and −1, respectively. For more complex ions, brackets [ ] are often used to enclose the ionic formula, as in , which is found in compounds such as caesium dodecaborate, . Parentheses ( ) can be nested inside brackets to indicate a repeating unit, as in Hexamminecobalt(III) chloride, . Here, indicates that the ion contains six ammine groups () bonded to cobalt, and [ ] encloses the entire formula of the ion with charge +3. This is strictly optional; a chemical formula is valid with or without ionization information, and Hexamminecobalt(III) chloride may be written as or . Brackets, like parentheses, behave in chemistry as they do in mathematics, grouping terms togetherthey are not specifically employed only for ionization states. In the latter case here, the parentheses indicate 6 groups all of the same shape, bonded to another group of size 1 (the cobalt atom), and then the entire bundle, as a group, is bonded to 3 chlorine atoms. In the former case, it is clearer that the bond connecting the chlorines is ionic, rather than covalent. Isotopes Although isotopes are more relevant to nuclear chemistry or stable isotope chemistry than to conventional chemistry, different isotopes may be indicated with a prefixed superscript in a chemical formula. For example, the phosphate ion containing radioactive phosphorus-32 is . Also a study involving stable isotope ratios might include the molecule . A left-hand subscript is sometimes used redundantly to indicate the atomic number. For example, for dioxygen, and for the most abundant isotopic species of dioxygen. This is convenient when writing equations for nuclear reactions, in order to show the balance of charge more clearly. Trapped atoms thumb\|180px\|Traditional formula: The "@" notation: The @ symbol (at sign) indicates an atom or molecule trapped inside a cage but not chemically bound to it. For example, a buckminsterfullerene () with an atom (M) would simply be represented as regardless of whether M was inside the fullerene without chemical bonding or outside, bound to one of the carbon atoms. Using the @ symbol, this would be denoted if M was inside the carbon network. A non-fullerene example is , an ion in which one arsenic (As) atom is trapped in a cage formed by the other 32 atoms. This notation was proposed in 1991 with the discovery of fullerene cages (endohedral fullerenes), which can trap atoms such as La to form, for example, or . The choice of the symbol has been explained by the authors as being concise, readily printed and transmitted electronically (the at sign is included in ASCII, which most modern character encoding schemes are based on), and the visual aspects suggesting the structure of an endohedral fullerene. Non-stoichiometric chemical formulae Chemical formulae most often use integers for each element. However, there is a class of compounds, called non-stoichiometric compounds, that cannot be represented by small integers. Such a formula might be written using decimal fractions, as in , or it might include a variable part represented by a letter, as in , where x is normally much less than 1. General forms for organic compounds A chemical formula used for a series of compounds that differ from each other by a constant unit is called a general formula. It generates a homologous series of chemical formulae. For example, alcohols may be represented by the formula (n ≥ 1), giving the homologs methanol, ethanol, propanol for 1 ≤ n ≤ 3. Hill system The Hill system (or Hill notation) is a system of writing empirical chemical formulae, molecular chemical formulae and components of a condensed formula such that the number of carbon atoms in a molecule is indicated first, the number of hydrogen atoms next, and then the number of all other chemical elements subsequently, in alphabetical order of the chemical symbols. When the formula contains no carbon, all the elements, including hydrogen, are listed alphabetically. By sorting formulae according to the number of atoms of each element present in the formula according to these rules, with differences in earlier elements or numbers being treated as more significant than differences in any later element or number—like sorting text strings into lexicographical order—it is possible to collate chemical formulae into what is known as Hill system order. The Hill system was first published by Edwin A. Hill of the United States Patent and Trademark Office in 1900. It is the most commonly used system in chemical databases and printed indexes to sort lists of compounds. A list of formulae in Hill system order is arranged alphabetically, as above, with single-letter elements coming before two-letter symbols when the symbols begin with the same letter (so "B" comes before "Be", which comes before "Br"). The following example formulae are written using the Hill system, and listed in Hill order: BrClH2Si BrI CCl4 CH3I C2H5Br H2O4S See also Formula unit Glossary of chemical formulae Nuclear notation Periodic table Skeletal formula Simplified molecular-input line-entry system Notes References External links Hill notation example, from the University of Massachusetts Lowell libraries, including how to sort into Hill system order Molecular formula calculation applying Hill notation. The library calculating Hill notation is available on npm. Category:Chemical nomenclature Category:Notation	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_formula	2025-04-05T18:28:03.010418
7044	Beetle	<small>Earliest Permian–Present</small> \| image = Coleoptera collage.png \| image_caption = Clockwise from top left: female golden stag beetle (Lamprima aurata), rhinoceros beetle (Megasoma sp.), long nose weevil (Rhinotia hemistictus), cowboy beetle (Chondropyga dorsalis), and a species of Amblytelus \| taxon = Coleoptera \| authority = Linnaeus, 1758 \| subdivision_ranks = Suborders \| subdivision_ref \| subdivision = * Adephaga * Archostemata * Myxophaga * Polyphaga * †Protocoleoptera See subgroups of the order Coleoptera }} Beetles are insects that form the order Coleoptera (), in the superorder Holometabola. Their front pair of wings are hardened into wing-cases, elytra, distinguishing them from most other insects. The Coleoptera, with about 400,000 described species, is the largest of all orders, constituting almost 40% of described insects and 25% of all known animal species; new species are discovered frequently, with estimates suggesting that there are between 0.9 and 2.1 million total species. However, the number of beetle species is challenged by the number of species in dipterans (flies) and hymenopterans (wasps). Found in almost every habitat except the sea and the polar regions, they interact with their ecosystems in several ways: beetles often feed on plants and fungi, break down animal and plant debris, and eat other invertebrates. Some species are serious agricultural pests, such as the Colorado potato beetle, while others such as Coccinellidae (ladybirds or ladybugs) eat aphids, scale insects, thrips, and other plant-sucking insects that damage crops. Some others also have unusual characteristics, such as fireflies, which use a light-emitting organ for mating and communication purposes. Beetles typically have a particularly hard exoskeleton including the elytra, though some such as the rove beetles have very short elytra while blister beetles have softer elytra. The general anatomy of a beetle is quite uniform and typical of insects, although there are several examples of novelty, such as adaptations in water beetles which trap air bubbles under the elytra for use while diving. Beetles are holometabolans, which means that they undergo complete metamorphosis, with a series of conspicuous and relatively abrupt changes in body structure between hatching and becoming adult after a relatively immobile pupal stage. Some, such as stag beetles, have a marked sexual dimorphism, the males possessing enormously enlarged mandibles which they use to fight other males. Many beetles are aposematic, with bright colors and patterns warning of their toxicity, while others are harmless Batesian mimics of such insects. Many beetles, including those that live in sandy places, have effective camouflage. Beetles are prominent in human culture, from the sacred scarabs of ancient Egypt to beetlewing art and use as pets or fighting insects for entertainment and gambling. Many beetle groups are brightly and attractively colored making them objects of collection and decorative displays. Over 300 species are used as food, mostly as larvae; species widely consumed include mealworms and rhinoceros beetle larvae. However, the major impact of beetles on human life is as agricultural, forestry, and horticultural pests. Serious pest species include the boll weevil of cotton, the Colorado potato beetle, the coconut hispine beetle, the mountain pine beetle, and many others. Most beetles, however, do not cause economic damage and some, such as numerous species of lady beetles, are beneficial by helping to control insect pests. The scientific study of beetles is known as coleopterology. Etymology , Germany]] The name of the taxonomic order, Coleoptera, comes from the Greek koleopteros (κολεόπτερος), given to the group by Aristotle for their elytra, hardened shield-like forewings, from koleos, sheath, and pteron, wing. The English name beetle comes from the Old English word bitela, little biter, related to bītan (to bite), leading to Middle English betylle. Another Old English name for beetle is ċeafor, chafer, used in names such as cockchafer, from the Proto-Germanic kebrô ("beetle"; compare German Käfer, Dutch kever, Afrikaans kewer). Distribution and diversity Beetles are by far the largest order of insects: the roughly 400,000 species make up about 40% of all insect species so far described, and about 25% of all animal species. A 2015 study provided four independent estimates of the total number of beetle species, giving a mean estimate of some 1.5 million with a "surprisingly narrow range" This immense diversity led the evolutionary biologist J. B. S. Haldane to quip, when some theologians asked him what could be inferred about the mind of the Christian God from the works of His Creation, "An inordinate fondness for beetles". However, the ranking of beetles as most diverse has been challenged. Multiple studies posit that Diptera (flies) and/or Hymenoptera (sawflies, wasps, ants and bees) may have more species. Beetles are found in nearly all habitats, including freshwater and coastal habitats, wherever vegetative foliage is found, from trees and their bark to flowers, leaves, and underground near roots - even inside plants in galls, in every plant tissue, including dead or decaying ones. Tropical forest canopies have a large and diverse fauna of beetles, including Carabidae, Chrysomelidae, and Scarabaeidae. The heaviest beetle, indeed the heaviest insect stage, is the larva of the goliath beetle, Goliathus goliatus, which can attain a mass of at least and a length of . Adult male goliath beetles are the heaviest beetle in its adult stage, weighing and measuring up to . Adult elephant beetles, Megasoma elephas and Megasoma actaeon often reach and . The longest beetle is the Hercules beetle Dynastes hercules, with a maximum overall length of at least 16.7 cm (6.6 in) including the very long pronotal horn. The smallest recorded beetle and the smallest free-living insect (), is the featherwing beetle Scydosella musawasensis which may measure as little as 325 μm in length. <gallery heights"175px" mode"packed"> File:Titanus giganteus MHNT dos.jpg\|Titan beetle, Titanus giganteus, a tropical longhorn, is one of the largest and heaviest insects in the world. File:Scydosella musawasensis.jpg\|Scydosella musawasensis, the smallest known beetle: scale bar (right) is 50 μm. File:Dynastes hercules ecuatorianus MHNT.jpg\|Hercules beetle, Dynastes hercules ecuatorianus, the longest of all beetles. File:Protaetia-cuprea-ignicollis-IZE-257.jpg\|Iridescent Protaetia cuprea feeding on thistle. </gallery> Evolution Late Paleozoic and Triassic ) from the Early Permian of the Czech Republic, representative of the morphology of early beetles]] The oldest known beetle is Coleopsis, from the earliest Permian (Asselian) of Germany, around 295 million years ago. Early beetles from the Permian, which are collectively grouped into the "Protocoleoptera" are thought to have been xylophagous (wood eating) and wood boring. Fossils from this time have been found in Siberia and Europe, for instance in the red slate fossil beds of Niedermoschel near Mainz, Germany. Further fossils have been found in Obora, Czech Republic and Tshekarda in the Ural mountains, Russia. However, there are only a few fossils from North America before the middle Permian, although both Asia and North America had been united to Euramerica. The first discoveries from North America made in the Wellington Formation of Oklahoma were published in 2005 and 2008. The earliest members of modern beetle lineages appeared during the Late Permian. In the Permian–Triassic extinction event at the end of the Permian, most "protocoleopteran" lineages became extinct. Beetle diversity did not recover to pre-extinction levels until the Middle Triassic. Jurassic were mainly saprophages (detritivores) in the Permian and Triassic. During the Jurassic, herbivorous and then carnivorous genera became more common. In the Cenozoic, genera at all three trophic levels became far more numerous.]]During the Jurassic (), there was a dramatic increase in the diversity of beetle families, Close to the Upper Jurassic, the Cupedidae decreased, but the diversity of the early plant-eating species increased. Most recent plant-eating beetles feed on flowering plants or angiosperms, whose success contributed to a doubling of plant-eating species during the Middle Jurassic. However, the increase of the number of beetle families during the Cretaceous does not correlate with the increase of the number of angiosperm species. Around the same time, numerous primitive weevils (e.g. Curculionoidea) and click beetles (e.g. Elateroidea) appeared. The first jewel beetles (e.g. Buprestidae) are present, but they remained rare until the Cretaceous. The first scarab beetles were not coprophagous but presumably fed on rotting wood with the help of fungus; they are an early example of a mutualistic relationship. There are more than 150 important fossil sites from the Jurassic, the majority in Eastern Europe and North Asia. Outstanding sites include Solnhofen in Upper Bavaria, Germany, Karatau in South Kazakhstan, the Yixian formation in Liaoning, North China, as well as the Jiulongshan formation and further fossil sites in Mongolia. In North America there are only a few sites with fossil records of insects from the Jurassic, namely the shell limestone deposits in the Hartford basin, the Deerfield basin and the Newark basin.CretaceousThe Cretaceous saw the fragmenting of the southern landmass, with the opening of the southern Atlantic Ocean and the isolation of New Zealand, while South America, Antarctica, and Australia grew more distant. while longhorn beetles (Cerambycidae) were rather rare: their diversity increased only towards the end of the Upper Cretaceous. and may have lived on the excrement of herbivorous dinosaurs. The first species where both larvae and adults are adapted to an aquatic lifestyle are found. Whirligig beetles (Gyrinidae) were moderately diverse, although other early beetles (e.g. Dytiscidae) were less, with the most widespread being the species of Coptoclavidae, which preyed on aquatic fly larvae. Many fossil sites worldwide contain beetles from the Cretaceous. Most are in Europe and Asia and belong to the temperate climate zone during the Cretaceous.]] <!-- beetle preserved in Baltic amber]]--> Beetle fossils are abundant in the Cenozoic; by the Quaternary (up to 1.6 mya), fossil species are identical to living ones, while from the Late Miocene (5.7 mya) the fossils are still so close to modern forms that they are most likely the ancestors of living species. The large oscillations in climate during the Quaternary caused beetles to change their geographic distributions so much that current location gives little clue to the biogeographical history of a species. It is evident that geographic isolation of populations must often have been broken as insects moved under the influence of changing climate, causing mixing of gene pools, rapid evolution, and extinctions, especially in middle latitudes. Phylogeny The very large number of beetle species poses special problems for classification. Some families contain tens of thousands of species, and need to be divided into subfamilies and tribes. Polyphaga is the largest suborder, containing more than 300,000 described species in more than 170 families, including rove beetles (Staphylinidae), scarab beetles (Scarabaeidae), blister beetles (Meloidae), stag beetles (Lucanidae) and true weevils (Curculionidae). These polyphagan beetle groups can be identified by the presence of cervical sclerites (hardened parts of the head used as points of attachment for muscles) absent in the other suborders. Adephaga contains about 10 families of largely predatory beetles, includes ground beetles (Carabidae), water beetles (Dytiscidae) and whirligig beetles (Gyrinidae). In these insects, the testes are tubular and the first abdominal sternum (a plate of the exoskeleton) is divided by the hind coxae (the basal joints of the beetle's legs). Archostemata contains four families of mainly wood-eating beetles, including reticulated beetles (Cupedidae) and the telephone-pole beetle. The Archostemata have an exposed plate called the metatrochantin in front of the basal segment or coxa of the hind leg. The myxophagan beetles are small and mostly alga-feeders. Their mouthparts are characteristic in lacking galeae and having a mobile tooth on their left mandible. The consistency of beetle morphology, in particular their possession of elytra, has long suggested that Coleoptera is monophyletic, though there have been doubts about the arrangement of the suborders, namely the Adephaga, Archostemata, Myxophaga and Polyphaga within that clade. The twisted-wing parasites, Strepsiptera, are thought to be a sister group to the beetles, having split from them in the Early Permian. The cladogram is based on McKenna (2015). \|label2Adephaga \|sublabel2200 mya \|2= }} \|label2Polyphaga \|sublabel2225 mya \|2= }} }} \|2= }} }} }} \|sublabel2=190 mya \|2= \|2=Curculionoidea (97,000, weevils) }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} External morphology . A: head, B: thorax, C: abdomen. 1: antenna, 2: compound eye, 3: femur, 4: elytron (wing cover), 5: tibia, 6: tarsus, 7: claws, 8: mouthparts, 9: prothorax, 10: mesothorax, 11: metathorax, 12: abdominal sternites, 13: pygidium.]] Beetles are generally characterized by a particularly hard exoskeleton and hard forewings (elytra) not usable for flying. Almost all beetles have mandibles that move in a horizontal plane. The mouthparts are rarely suctorial, though they are sometimes reduced; the maxillae always bear palps. The antennae usually have 11 or fewer segments, except in some groups like the Cerambycidae (longhorn beetles) and the Rhipiceridae (cicada parasite beetles). The coxae of the legs are usually located recessed within a coxal cavity. The genitalic structures are telescoped into the last abdominal segment in all extant beetles. Beetle larvae can often be confused with those of other holometabolan groups. The beetle's exoskeleton is made up of numerous plates, called sclerites, separated by thin sutures. This design provides armored defenses while maintaining flexibility. The general anatomy of a beetle is quite uniform, although specific organs and appendages vary greatly in appearance and function between the many families in the order. Like all insects, beetles' bodies are divided into three sections: the head, the thorax, and the abdomen.Head ]] The head, having mouthparts projecting forward or sometimes downturned, is usually heavily sclerotized and is sometimes very large. have divided eyes, while many have eyes that are notched, and a few have ocelli, small, simple eyes usually farther back on the head (on the vertex); these are more common in larvae than in adults. The anatomical organization of the compound eyes may be modified and depends on whether a species is primarily crepuscular, or diurnally or nocturnally active. Ocelli are found in the adult carpet beetle (as a single central ocellus in Dermestidae), some rove beetles (Omaliinae), and the Derodontidae. but may also be used to physically feel a beetle's environment. Beetle families may use antennae in different ways. For example, when moving quickly, tiger beetles may not be able to see very well and instead hold their antennae rigidly in front of them in order to avoid obstacles. Certain Cerambycidae use antennae to balance, and blister beetles may use them for grasping. Some aquatic beetle species may use antennae for gathering air and passing it under the body whilst submerged. Equally, some families use antennae during mating, and a few species use them for defense. In the cerambycid Onychocerus albitarsis, the antennae have venom injecting structures used in defense, which is unique among arthropods. Antennae vary greatly in form, sometimes between the sexes, but are often similar within any given family. Antennae may be clubbed, threadlike, angled, shaped like a string of beads, comb-like (either on one side or both, bipectinate), or toothed. The physical variation of antennae is important for the identification of many beetle groups. The Curculionidae have elbowed or geniculate antennae. Feather like flabellate antennae are a restricted form found in the Rhipiceridae and a few other families. The Silphidae have a capitate antennae with a spherical head at the tip. The Scarabaeidae typically have lamellate antennae with the terminal segments extended into long flat structures stacked together. The Carabidae typically have thread-like antennae. The antennae arises between the eye and the mandibles and in the Tenebrionidae, the antennae rise in front of a notch that breaks the usually circular outline of the compound eye. They are segmented and usually consist of 11 parts, the first part is called the scape and the second part is the pedicel. The other segments are jointly called the flagellum. Beetles have mouthparts like those of grasshoppers. The mandibles appear as large pincers on the front of some beetles. The mandibles are a pair of hard, often tooth-like structures that move horizontally to grasp, crush, or cut food or enemies (see defence, below). Two pairs of finger-like appendages, the maxillary and labial palpi, are found around the mouth in most beetles, serving to move food into the mouth. In many species, the mandibles are sexually dimorphic, with those of the males enlarged enormously compared with those of females of the same species. , a diving beetle with hind legs adapted as swimming limbs]] Legs The multisegmented legs end in two to five small segments called tarsi. Like many other insect orders, beetles have claws, usually one pair, on the end of the last tarsal segment of each leg. While most beetles use their legs for walking, legs have been variously adapted for other uses. Aquatic beetles including the Dytiscidae (diving beetles), Haliplidae, and many species of Hydrophilidae, the legs, often the last pair, are modified for swimming, typically with rows of long hairs. Male diving beetles have suctorial cups on their forelegs that they use to grasp females. Other beetles have fossorial legs widened and often spined for digging. Species with such adaptations are found among the scarabs, ground beetles, and clown beetles (Histeridae). The hind legs of some beetles, such as flea beetles (within Chrysomelidae) and flea weevils (within Curculionidae), have enlarged femurs that help them leap. Wings taking off, showing the hard elytra (forewings adapted as wing-cases) held stiffly away from the flight wings\|left]] The forewings of beetles are not used for flight, but form elytra which cover the hind part of the body and protect the hindwings. The elytra are usually hard shell-like structures which must be raised to allow the hindwings to move for flight. Other soft wing beetles include the net-winged beetle Calopteron discrepans, which has brittle wings that rupture easily in order to release chemicals for defense. Beetles' flight wings are crossed with veins and are folded after landing, often along these veins, and stored below the elytra. A fold (jugum) of the membrane at the base of each wing is characteristic. Some beetles have lost the ability to fly. These include some ground beetles (Carabidae) and some true weevils (Curculionidae), as well as desert- and cave-dwelling species of other families. Many have the two elytra fused together, forming a solid shield over the abdomen. In a few families, both the ability to fly and the elytra have been lost, as in the glow-worms (Phengodidae), where the females resemble larvae throughout their lives. The presence of elytra and wings does not always indicate that the beetle will fly. For example, the tansy beetle walks between habitats despite being physically capable of flight. Abdomen The abdomen is the section behind the metathorax, made up of a series of rings, each with a hole for breathing and respiration, called a spiracle, composing three different segmented sclerites: the tergum, pleura, and the sternum. The tergum in almost all species is membranous, or usually soft and concealed by the wings and elytra when not in flight. The pleura are usually small or hidden in some species, with each pleuron having a single spiracle. The sternum is the most widely visible part of the abdomen, being a more or less sclerotized segment. The abdomen itself does not have any appendages, but some (for example, Mordellidae) have articulating sternal lobes.Anatomy and physiology<!--or, Body systems-->Digestive systemThe digestive system of beetles is primarily adapted for a herbivorous diet. Digestion takes place mostly in the anterior midgut, although in predatory groups like the Carabidae, most digestion occurs in the crop by means of midgut enzymes. In the Elateridae, the larvae are liquid feeders that extraorally digest their food by secreting enzymes. Carbon dioxide is more soluble in water than either oxygen or nitrogen, so it readily diffuses out faster than in. Nitrogen is the most plentiful gas in the bubble, and the least soluble, so it constitutes a relatively static component of the bubble and acts as a stable medium for respiratory gases to accumulate in and pass through. Occasional visits to the surface are sufficient for the beetle to re-establish the constitution of the bubble. Circulatory system Like other insects, beetles have open circulatory systems, based on hemolymph rather than blood. As in other insects, a segmented tube-like heart is attached to the dorsal wall of the hemocoel. It has paired inlets or ostia at intervals down its length, and circulates the hemolymph from the main cavity of the haemocoel and out through the anterior cavity in the head. Specialized organs Different glands are specialized for different pheromones to attract mates. Pheromones from species of Rutelinae are produced from epithelial cells lining the inner surface of the apical abdominal segments; amino acid-based pheromones of Melolonthinae are produced from eversible glands on the abdominal apex. Other species produce different types of pheromones. Dermestids produce esters, and species of Elateridae produce fatty acid-derived aldehydes and acetates. Several species of the genus Cicindela (Carabidae) have hearing organs on the dorsal surfaces of their first abdominal segments beneath the wings; two tribes in the Dynastinae (within the Scarabaeidae) have hearing organs just beneath their pronotal shields or neck membranes. Both families are sensitive to ultrasonic frequencies, with strong evidence indicating they function to detect the presence of bats by their ultrasonic echolocation. The larvae are commonly called grubs and the pupa sometimes is called the chrysalis. In some species, the pupa may be enclosed in a cocoon constructed by the larva towards the end of its final instar. Some beetles, such as typical members of the families Meloidae and Rhipiphoridae, go further, undergoing hypermetamorphosis in which the first instar takes the form of a triungulin.Mating s (Neorrhina punctata, Scarabaeidae) mating]] Some beetles have intricate mating behaviour. Pheromone communication is often important in locating a mate. Different species use different pheromones. Scarab beetles such as the Rutelinae use pheromones derived from fatty acid synthesis and others use pheromones from organic compounds, while other scarabs such as the Melolonthinae use amino acids and terpenoids. Another way beetles find mates is seen in the fireflies (Lampyridae) which are bioluminescent, with abdominal light-producing organs. The males and females engage in a complex dialog before mating; each species has a unique combination of flight patterns, duration, composition, and intensity of the light produced. In another example, the intromittent organ of male thistle tortoise beetles is a long, tube-like structure called the flagellum which is thin and curved. When not in use, the flagellum is stored inside the abdomen of the male and can extend out to be longer than the male when needed. During mating, this organ bends to the complex shape of the female reproductive organ, which includes a coiled duct that the male must penetrate with the organ. Furthermore, these physical properties of the thistle tortioise beetle have been studied because the ability of a thin, flexible structure to harden without buckling or rupturing is mechanically challenging and may have important implications for the development of microscopic catheters in modern medicine. Competition can play a part in the mating rituals of species such as burying beetles (Nicrophorus), the insects fighting to determine which can mate. Many male beetles are territorial and fiercely defend their territories from intruding males. In such species, the male often has horns on the head or thorax, making its body length greater than that of a female. Copulation is generally quick, but in some cases lasts for several hours. During copulation, sperm cells are transferred to the female to fertilize the egg. Larva The larva is usually the principal feeding stage of the beetle life cycle. Larvae tend to feed voraciously once they emerge from their eggs. Some feed externally on plants, such as those of certain leaf beetles, while others feed within their food sources. Examples of internal feeders are most Buprestidae and longhorn beetles. The larvae of many beetle families are predatory like the adults (ground beetles, ladybirds, rove beetles). The larval period varies between species, but can be as long as several years. The larvae of skin beetles undergo a degree of reversed development when starved, and later grow back to the previously attained level of maturity. The cycle can be repeated many times (see Biological immortality). Larval morphology is highly varied amongst species, with well-developed and sclerotized heads, distinguishable thoracic and abdominal segments (usually the tenth, though sometimes the eighth or ninth). All beetle larvae go through several instars, which are the developmental stages between each moult. In many species, the larvae simply increase in size with each successive instar as more food is consumed. In some cases, however, more dramatic changes occur. Among certain beetle families or genera, particularly those that exhibit parasitic lifestyles, the first instar (the planidium) is highly mobile to search out a host, while the following instars are more sedentary and remain on or within their host. This is known as hypermetamorphosis; it occurs in the Meloidae, Micromalthidae, and Ripiphoridae. The blister beetle Epicauta vittata (Meloidae), for example, has three distinct larval stages. Its first stage, the triungulin, has longer legs to go in search of the eggs of grasshoppers. After feeding for a week it moults to the second stage, called the caraboid stage, which resembles the larva of a carabid beetle. In another week it moults and assumes the appearance of a scarabaeid larva—the scarabaeidoid stage. Its penultimate larval stage is the pseudo-pupa or the coarcate larva, which will overwinter and pupate until the next spring. The larval period can vary widely. A fungus feeding staphylinid Phanerota fasciata undergoes three moults in 3.2 days at room temperature while Anisotoma sp. (Leiodidae) completes its larval stage in the fruiting body of slime mold in 2 days and possibly represents the fastest growing beetles. Dermestid beetles, Trogoderma inclusum can remain in an extended larval state under unfavourable conditions, even reducing their size between moults. A larva is reported to have survived for 3.5 years in an enclosed container. Behaviour Locomotion , firefly, in flight]] The elytra allow beetles to both fly and move through confined spaces, doing so by folding the delicate wings under the elytra while not flying, and folding their wings out just before takeoff. The unfolding and folding of the wings is operated by muscles attached to the wing base; as long as the tension on the radial and cubital veins remains, the wings remain straight. The altitude reached by beetles in flight varies. One study investigating the flight altitude of the ladybird species Coccinella septempunctata and Harmonia axyridis using radar showed that, whilst the majority in flight over a single location were at 150–195 m above ground level, some reached altitudes of over 1100 m. Many rove beetles have greatly reduced elytra, and while they are capable of flight, they most often move on the ground: their soft bodies and strong abdominal muscles make them flexible, easily able to wriggle into small cracks. Aquatic beetles use several techniques for retaining air beneath the water's surface. Diving beetles (Dytiscidae) hold air between the abdomen and the elytra when diving. Hydrophilidae have hairs on their under surface that retain a layer of air against their bodies. Adult crawling water beetles use both their elytra and their hind coxae (the basal segment of the back legs) in air retention, while whirligig beetles simply carry an air bubble down with them whenever they dive. Communication Beetles have a variety of ways to communicate, including the use of pheromones. The mountain pine beetle emits a pheromone to attract other beetles to a tree. The mass of beetles are able to overcome the chemical defenses of the tree. After the tree's defenses have been exhausted, the beetles emit an anti-aggregation pheromone. This species can stridulate to communicate, but others may use sound to defend themselves when attacked.Parental careParental care is found in a few families of beetle, perhaps for protection against adverse conditions and predators. Burying beetles are attentive parents, and participate in cooperative care and feeding of their offspring. Both parents work to bury small animal carcass to serve as a food resource for their young and build a brood chamber around it. The parents prepare the carcass and protect it from competitors and from early decomposition. After their eggs hatch, the parents keep the larvae clean of fungus and bacteria and help the larvae feed by regurgitating food for them. Some dung beetles provide parental care, collecting herbivore dung and laying eggs within that food supply, an instance of mass provisioning. Some species do not leave after this stage, but remain to safeguard their offspring. Most species of beetles do not display parental care behaviors after the eggs have been laid. Subsociality, where females guard their offspring, is well-documented in two families of Chrysomelidae, Cassidinae and Chrysomelinae.EusocialityEusociality involves cooperative brood care (including brood care of offspring from other individuals), overlapping generations within a colony of adults, and a division of labor into reproductive and non-reproductive groups. Few organisms outside Hymenoptera exhibit this behavior; the only beetle to do so is the weevil Austroplatypus incompertus. This Australian species lives in horizontal networks of tunnels, in the heartwood of Eucalyptus trees. It is one of more than 300 species of wood-boring Ambrosia beetles which distribute the spores of ambrosia fungi. The fungi grow in the beetles' tunnels, providing food for the beetles and their larvae; female offspring remain in the tunnels and maintain the fungal growth, probably never reproducing.Feeding sp. (Meloidae) feeding on the petals of Ipomoea carnea]] Beetles are able to exploit a wide diversity of food sources available in their many habitats. Some are omnivores, eating both plants and animals. Other beetles are highly specialized in their diet. Many species of leaf beetles, longhorn beetles, and weevils are very host-specific, feeding on only a single species of plant. Ground beetles and rove beetles (Staphylinidae), among others, are primarily carnivorous and catch and consume many other arthropods and small prey, such as earthworms and snails. While most predatory beetles are generalists, a few species have more specific prey requirements or preferences. In some species, digestive ability relies upon a symbiotic relationship with fungi - some beetles have yeasts living their guts, including some yeasts previously undiscovered anywhere else. Decaying organic matter is a primary diet for many species. This can range from dung, which is consumed by coprophagous species (such as certain scarab beetles in the Scarabaeidae), to dead animals, which are eaten by necrophagous species (such as the carrion beetles, Silphidae). Some beetles found in dung and carrion are in fact predatory. These include members of the Histeridae and Silphidae, preying on the larvae of coprophagous and necrophagous insects. Many beetles feed under bark, some feed on wood while others feed on fungi growing on wood or leaf-litter. Some beetles have special mycangia, structures for the transport of fungal spores.Ecology <!-- (lower left) are preyed upon by insects such as this robber fly.]]--> d longhorn beetle, Ecyrus dasycerus]] Anti-predator adaptations Beetles, both adults and larvae, are the prey of many animal predators including mammals from bats to rodents, birds, lizards, amphibians, fishes, dragonflies, robberflies, reduviid bugs, ants, other beetles, and spiders. Beetles use a variety of anti-predator adaptations to defend themselves. These include camouflage and mimicry against predators that hunt by sight, toxicity, and defensive behaviour. Camouflage Camouflage is common and widespread among beetle families, especially those that feed on wood or vegetation, such as leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae, which are often green) and weevils. In some species, sculpturing or various colored scales or hairs cause beetles such as the avocado weevil Heilipus apiatus to resemble bird dung or other inedible objects. Mimicry and aposematism (Cerambycidae), a Batesian mimic of wasps]] Some longhorn beetles (Cerambycidae) are effective Batesian mimics of wasps. Beetles may combine coloration with behavioural mimicry, acting like the wasps they already closely resemble. Many other beetles, including ladybirds, blister beetles, and lycid beetles secrete distasteful or toxic substances to make them unpalatable or poisonous, and are often aposematic, where bright or contrasting coloration warn off predators; many beetles and other insects mimic these chemically protected species. Bombardier beetles have well-developed pygidial glands that empty from the sides of the intersegment membranes between the seventh and eighth abdominal segments. The gland is made of two containing chambers, one for hydroquinones and hydrogen peroxide, the other holding hydrogen peroxide and catalase enzymes. These chemicals mix and result in an explosive ejection, reaching a temperature of around , with the breakdown of hydroquinone to hydrogen, oxygen, and quinone. The oxygen propels the noxious chemical spray as a jet that can be aimed accurately at predators. The click beetles (Elateridae) can suddenly catapult themselves out of danger by releasing the energy stored by a click mechanism, which consists of a stout spine on the prosternum and a matching groove in the mesosternum. Others are kleptoparasites of other invertebrates, such as the small hive beetle (Aethina tumida) that infests honey bee nests, while many species are parasitic inquilines or commensal in the nests of ants. A few groups of beetles are primary parasitoids of other insects, feeding off of, and eventually killing their hosts. Pollination ignicollis) on a crown daisy (Glebionis coronaria'')]] Beetle-pollinated flowers are usually large, greenish or off-white in color, and heavily scented. Scents may be spicy, fruity, or similar to decaying organic material. Beetles were most likely the first insects to pollinate flowers. Most beetle-pollinated flowers are flattened or dish-shaped, with pollen easily accessible, although they may include traps to keep the beetle longer. The plants' ovaries are usually well protected from the biting mouthparts of their pollinators. The beetle families that habitually pollinate flowers are the Buprestidae, Cantharidae, Cerambycidae, Cleridae, Dermestidae, Lycidae, Melyridae, Mordellidae, Nitidulidae and Scarabaeidae. Beetles may be particularly important in some parts of the world such as semiarid areas of southern Africa and southern California and the montane grasslands of KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa.Mutualismupright1.2\|thumb\| 1: Adult ambrosia beetle burrows into wood and lays eggs, carrying fungal spores in its left Mutualism is well known in a few beetles, such as the ambrosia beetle, which partners with fungi to digest the wood of dead trees. The beetles excavate tunnels in dead trees in which they cultivate fungal gardens, their sole source of nutrition. After landing on a suitable tree, an ambrosia beetle excavates a tunnel in which it releases spores of its fungal symbiont. The fungus penetrates the plant's xylem tissue, digests it, and concentrates the nutrients on and near the surface of the beetle gallery, so the weevils and the fungus both benefit. The beetles cannot eat the wood due to toxins, and uses its relationship with fungi to help overcome the defenses of its host tree in order to provide nutrition for their larvae. Chemically mediated by a bacterially produced polyunsaturated peroxide, this mutualistic relationship between the beetle and the fungus is coevolved. ]] Tolerance of extreme environments , Stenocara gracilipes, is able to survive by collecting water from fog on its back.]] About 90% of beetle species enter a period of adult diapause, a quiet phase with reduced metabolism to tide unfavourable environmental conditions. Adult diapause is the most common form of diapause in Coleoptera. To endure the period without food (often lasting many months) adults prepare by accumulating reserves of lipids, glycogen, proteins and other substances needed for resistance to future hazardous changes of environmental conditions. This diapause is induced by signals heralding the arrival of the unfavourable season; usually the cue is photoperiodic. Short (decreasing) day length serves as a signal of approaching winter and induces winter diapause (hibernation). A study of hibernation in the Arctic beetle Pterostichus brevicornis showed that the body fat levels of adults were highest in autumn with the alimentary canal filled with food, but empty by the end of January. This loss of body fat was a gradual process, occurring in combination with dehydration. All insects are poikilothermic, so the ability of a few beetles to live in extreme environments depends on their resilience to unusually high or low temperatures. The bark beetle Pityogenes chalcographus can survive whilst overwintering beneath tree bark; the Alaskan beetle Cucujus clavipes puniceus is able to withstand ; its larvae may survive . At these low temperatures, the formation of ice crystals in internal fluids is the biggest threat to survival to beetles, but this is prevented through the production of antifreeze proteins that stop water molecules from grouping together. The low temperatures experienced by Cucujus clavipes can be survived through their deliberate dehydration in conjunction with the antifreeze proteins. This concentrates the antifreezes several fold. The hemolymph of the mealworm beetle Tenebrio molitor contains several antifreeze proteins. The Alaskan beetle Upis ceramboides can survive −60 °C: its cryoprotectants are xylomannan, a molecule consisting of a sugar bound to a fatty acid, and the sugar-alcohol, threitol. Conversely, desert dwelling beetles are adapted to tolerate high temperatures. For example, the Tenebrionid beetle Onymacris rugatipennis can withstand . Tiger beetles in hot, sandy areas are often whitish (for example, Habroscelimorpha dorsalis), to reflect more heat than a darker color would. These beetles also exhibits behavioural adaptions to tolerate the heat: they are able to stand erect on their tarsi to hold their bodies away from the hot ground, seek shade, and turn to face the sun so that only the front parts of their heads are directly exposed. The fogstand beetle of the Namib Desert, Stenocara gracilipes, is able to collect water from fog, as its elytra have a textured surface combining hydrophilic (water-loving) bumps and waxy, hydrophobic troughs. The beetle faces the early morning breeze, holding up its abdomen; droplets condense on the elytra and run along ridges towards their mouthparts. Similar adaptations are found in several other Namib desert beetles such as Onymacris unguicularis. Some terrestrial beetles that exploit shoreline and floodplain habitats have physiological adaptations for surviving floods. In the event of flooding, adult beetles may be mobile enough to move away from flooding, but larvae and pupa often cannot. Adults of Cicindela togata are unable to survive immersion in water, but larvae are able to survive a prolonged period, up to 6 days, of anoxia during floods. Anoxia tolerance in the larvae may have been sustained by switching to anaerobic metabolic pathways or by reducing metabolic rate. Anoxia tolerance in the adult carabid beetle Pelophilia borealis was tested in laboratory conditions and it was found that they could survive a continuous period of up to 127 days in an atmosphere of 99.9% nitrogen at 0 °C.Migration Many beetle species undertake annual mass movements which are termed as migrations. These include the pollen beetle Meligethes aeneus and many species of coccinellids. These mass movements may also be opportunistic, in search of food, rather than seasonal. A 2008 study of an unusually large outbreak of Mountain Pine Beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) in British Columbia found that beetles were capable of flying 30–110 km per day in densities of up to 18,600 beetles per hectare.Relationship to humansIn ancient cultures <!-- statue in Karnak]]--> ]] Several species of dung beetle, especially the sacred scarab, Scarabaeus sacer, were revered in Ancient Egypt. The hieroglyphic image of the beetle may have had existential, fictional, or ontologic significance. Images of the scarab in bone, ivory, stone, Egyptian faience, and precious metals are known from the Sixth Dynasty and up to the period of Roman rule. The scarab was of prime significance in the funerary cult of ancient Egypt. The scarab was linked to Khepri, the god of the rising sun, from the supposed resemblance of the rolling of the dung ball by the beetle to the rolling of the sun by the god. Beetles are mentioned as a symbol of the sun, as in ancient Egypt, in Plutarch's 1st century Moralia. The Greek Magical Papyri of the 2nd century BC to the 5th century AD describe scarabs as an ingredient in a spell. Pliny the Elder discusses beetles in his Natural History, describing the stag beetle: "Some insects, for the preservation of their wings, are covered with (elytra)—the beetle, for instance, the wing of which is peculiarly fine and frail. To these insects a sting has been denied by Nature; but in one large kind we find horns of a remarkable length, two-pronged at the extremities, and forming pincers, which the animal closes when it is its intention to bite." The stag beetle is recorded in a Greek myth by Nicander and recalled by Antoninus Liberalis in which Cerambus is turned into a beetle: "He can be seen on trunks and has hook-teeth, ever moving his jaws together. He is black, long and has hard wings like a great dung beetle". The story concludes with the comment that the beetles were used as toys by young boys, and that the head was removed and worn as a pendant. As pests ]] About 75% of beetle species are phytophagous in both the larval and adult stages. Many feed on economically important plants and stored plant products, including trees, cereals, tobacco, and dried fruits. The bark beetle, elm leaf beetle and the Asian longhorned beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis) are among the species that attack elm trees. Bark beetles (Scolytidae) carry Dutch elm disease as they move from infected breeding sites to healthy trees. The disease has devastated elm trees across Europe and North America. , Leptinotarsa decemlineata, a serious crop pest]] Some species of beetle have evolved immunity to insecticides. For example, the Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata, is a destructive pest of potato plants. Its hosts include other members of the Solanaceae, such as nightshade, tomato, eggplant and capsicum, as well as the potato. Different populations have between them developed resistance to all major classes of insecticide. The Colorado potato beetle was evaluated as a tool of entomological warfare during World War II, the idea being to use the beetle and its larvae to damage the crops of enemy nations. Germany tested its Colorado potato beetle weaponisation program south of Frankfurt, releasing 54,000 beetles. The death watch beetle, Xestobium rufovillosum (Ptinidae), is a serious pest of older wooden buildings in Europe. It attacks hardwoods such as oak and chestnut, always where some fungal decay has taken or is taking place. The actual introduction of the pest into buildings is thought to take place at the time of construction. Other pests include the coconut hispine beetle, Brontispa longissima, which feeds on young leaves, seedlings and mature coconut trees, causing serious economic damage in the Philippines. The mountain pine beetle is a destructive pest of mature or weakened lodgepole pine, sometimes affecting large areas of Canada.As beneficial resources '', a predatory beetle beneficial to agriculture]] Beetles can be beneficial to human economics by controlling the populations of pests. The larvae and adults of some species of lady beetles (Coccinellidae) feed on aphids that are pests. Other lady beetles feed on scale insects, whitefly and mealybugs. If normal food sources are scarce, they may feed on small caterpillars, young plant bugs, or honeydew and nectar. Ground beetles (Carabidae) are common predators of many insect pests, including fly eggs, caterpillars, and wireworms. Ground beetles can help to control weeds by eating their seeds in the soil, reducing the need for herbicides to protect crops. The effectiveness of some species in reducing certain plant populations has resulted in the deliberate introduction of beetles in order to control weeds. For example, the genus Calligrapha is native to North America but has been used to control Parthenium hysterophorus in India and Ambrosia artemisiifolia in Russia. Dung beetles (Scarabidae) have been successfully used to reduce the populations of pestilent flies, such as Musca vetustissima and Haematobia exigua which are serious pests of cattle in Australia. The beetles make the dung unavailable to breeding pests by quickly rolling and burying it in the soil, with the added effect of improving soil fertility, tilth, and nutrient cycling. The Australian Dung Beetle Project (1965–1985), introduced species of dung beetle to Australia from South Africa and Europe to reduce populations of Musca vetustissima, following successful trials of this technique in Hawaii. The Dermestidae are often used in taxidermy and in the preparation of scientific specimens, to clean soft tissue from bones. Larvae feed on and remove cartilage along with other soft tissue. As food and medicine ]] Beetles are the most widely eaten insects, with about 344 species used as food, usually at the larval stage. The mealworm (the larva of the darkling beetle) and the rhinoceros beetle are among the species commonly eaten. A wide range of species is also used in folk medicine to treat those suffering from a variety of disorders and illnesses, though this is done without clinical studies supporting the efficacy of such treatments.As biodiversity indicatorsDue to their habitat specificity, many species of beetles have been suggested as suitable as indicators, their presence, numbers, or absence providing a measure of habitat quality. Predatory beetles such as the tiger beetles (Cicindelidae) have found scientific use as an indicator taxon for measuring regional patterns of biodiversity. They are suitable for this as their taxonomy is stable; their life history is well described; they are large and simple to observe when visiting a site; they occur around the world in many habitats, with species specialised to particular habitats; and their occurrence by species accurately indicates other species, both vertebrate and invertebrate. According to the habitats, many other groups such as the rove beetles in human-modified habitats, dung beetles in savannas and saproxylic beetles in forests have been suggested as potential indicator species.In art and adornment in jewellery at the Texas A&M University Insect Collection]] Many beetles have durable elytra that has been used as material in art, with beetlewing the best example. Sometimes, they are incorporated into ritual objects for their religious significance. Whole beetles, either as-is or encased in clear plastic, are made into objects ranging from cheap souvenirs such as key chains to expensive fine-art jewellery. In parts of Mexico, beetles of the genus Zopherus are made into living brooches by attaching costume jewelry and golden chains, which is made possible by the incredibly hard elytra and sedentary habits of the genus. In entertainment Fighting beetles are used for entertainment and gambling. This sport exploits the territorial behavior and mating competition of certain species of large beetles. In the Chiang Mai district of northern Thailand, male Xylotrupes rhinoceros beetles are caught in the wild and trained for fighting. Females are held inside a log to stimulate the fighting males with their pheromones. These fights may be competitive and involve gambling both money and property. In South Korea the Dytiscidae species Cybister tripunctatus is used in a roulette-like game. Beetles are sometimes used as instruments: the Onabasulu of Papua New Guinea historically used the "hugu" weevil Rhynchophorus ferrugineus as a musical instrument by letting the human mouth serve as a variable resonance chamber for the wing vibrations of the live adult beetle. in Borneo]] In Japan the practice of keeping horned rhinoceros beetles (Dynastinae) and stag beetles (Lucanidae) is particularly popular amongst young boys. Such is the popularity in Japan that vending machines dispensing live beetles were developed in 1999, each holding up to 100 stag beetles. As things to collect Beetle collecting became extremely popular in the Victorian era. The naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace collected (by his own count) a total of 83,200 beetles during the eight years described in his 1869 book The Malay Archipelago, including 2,000 species new to science. As inspiration for technologies Several coleopteran adaptations have attracted interest in biomimetics with possible commercial applications. The bombardier beetle's powerful repellent spray has inspired the development of a fine mist spray technology, claimed to have a low carbon impact compared to aerosol sprays. Moisture harvesting behavior by the Namib desert beetle (Stenocara gracilipes) has inspired a self-filling water bottle which utilises hydrophilic and hydrophobic materials to benefit people living in dry regions with no regular rainfall. Living beetles have been used as cyborgs. A Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency funded project implanted electrodes into Mecynorhina torquata beetles, allowing them to be remotely controlled via a radio receiver held on its back, as proof-of-concept for surveillance work. Similar technology has been applied to enable a human operator to control the free-flight steering and walking gaits of Mecynorhina torquata as well as graded turning, backward walking and feedback control of Zophobas morio. Research published in 2020 sought to create a robotic camera backpack for beetles. Miniature cameras weighing 248 mg were attached to live beetles of the Tenebrionid genera Asbolus and Eleodes. The cameras filmed over a 60° range for up to 6 hours. In conservation Since beetles form such a large part of the world's biodiversity, their conservation is important, and equally, loss of habitat and biodiversity is essentially certain to impact on beetles. Many species of beetles have very specific habitats and long life cycles that make them vulnerable. Some species are highly threatened while others are already feared extinct. Island species tend to be more susceptible as in the case of Helictopleurus undatus of Madagascar which is thought to have gone extinct during the late 20th century. Conservationists have attempted to arouse a liking for beetles with flagship species like the stag beetle, Lucanus cervus, and tiger beetles (Cicindelidae). In Japan the Genji firefly, Luciola cruciata, is extremely popular, and in South Africa the Addo elephant dung beetle offers promise for broadening ecotourism beyond the big five tourist mammal species. Popular dislike of pest beetles, too, can be turned into public interest in insects, as can unusual ecological adaptations of species like the fairy shrimp hunting beetle, Cicinis bruchi. Notes See also Beetle Monuments References Bibliography * * Further reading * * * * * * External links * [http://tolweb.org/Coleoptera/8221 Coleoptera] from the Tree of Life Web Project * [https://www.kaefer-der-welt.de/index.htm Käfer der Welt] * [http://www.coleoptera-atlas.com/ Coleoptera Atlas] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120313193822/http://www.insectlifeforms.com/Orders736/BEETLES_COLEOPTERA_60502060_736.aspx Beetles – Coleoptera] Category:Extant Pennsylvanian first appearances Category:Insects in culture	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beetle	2025-04-05T18:28:03.121052
7045	Concorde	\| designer \| first_flight 2 March 1969 \| fate = Preserved in museums \| introduction = 21 January 1976 \| national_origin = France and United Kingdom \| retired (last commercial flight)\| (final flight to Bristol Filton Airport) \| variants = }} <!-- This article is a part of Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft. Please see Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout, and guidelines. Note: This article uses British English since it covers a Franco-British airliner. Please don't attempt to change it to another variety of English. For details on Wikipedia's policies on this subject, see: Wikipedia:Manual of Style#National varieties of English or MOS:ENGVAR. Also by convention, the aircraft's name is simply "Concorde", without an article. The article adheres to this convention throughout. --> Concorde () is<!-- Use "is", NOT "was", as the aircraft still exists in museums. Read end of sentence for retired part. --> a retired Anglo-French supersonic airliner jointly developed and manufactured by Sud Aviation (later Aérospatiale) and the British Aircraft Corporation (BAC). <!--development--> Studies started in 1954, and France and the United Kingdom signed a treaty establishing the development project on 29 November 1962, as the programme cost was estimated at £70 million (£}} in ). Construction of the six prototypes began in February 1965, and the first flight took off from Toulouse on 2 March 1969. <!--market--> The market was predicted for 350 aircraft, and the manufacturers received up to 100 option orders from many major airlines. On 9 October 1975, it received its French certificate of airworthiness, and from the UK CAA on 5 December. <!--design--> Concorde is a tailless aircraft design with a narrow fuselage permitting four-abreast seating for 92 to 128 passengers, an ogival delta wing, and a droop nose for landing visibility. It is powered by four Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593 turbojets with variable engine intake ramps, and reheat for take-off and acceleration to supersonic speed. Constructed out of aluminium, it was the first airliner to have analogue fly-by-wire flight controls. <!--performance--> The airliner had transatlantic range while supercruising at twice the speed of sound for 75% of the distance. <!--operational history--> Delays and cost overruns increased the programme cost to £1.5–2.1 billion in 1976, (£\|0}}–\|1}} in ). Concorde entered service on 21 January 1976 with Air France from Paris-Roissy and British Airways from London Heathrow. Transatlantic flights were the main market, to Washington Dulles from 24 May, and to New York JFK from 17 October 1977. Air France and British Airways remained the sole customers with seven airframes each, for a total production of 20. Supersonic flight more than halved travel times, but sonic booms over the ground limited it to transoceanic flights only. <!--competition--> Its only competitor was the Tupolev Tu-144, carrying passengers from November 1977 until a May 1978 crash, while a potential competitor, the Boeing 2707, was cancelled in 1971 before any prototypes were built. <!--Accidents--> On 25 July 2000, Air France Flight 4590 crashed shortly after take-off with all 109 occupants and four on the ground killed. This was the only fatal incident involving Concorde; commercial service was suspended until November 2001. The surviving aircraft were retired in 2003, 27 years after commercial operations had begun. All but two of the 20 aircraft built have been preserved and are on display across Europe and North America. Development Early studies In the early 1950s, Arnold Hall, director of the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE), asked Morien Morgan to form a committee to study supersonic transport (SST). The group met in February 1954 and delivered their first report in April 1955. Robert T. Jones' work at NACA had demonstrated that the drag at supersonic speeds was strongly related to the span of the wing. This led to the use of short-span, thin, trapezoidal wings such as those seen on the control surfaces of many missiles, or aircraft such as the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter interceptor or the planned Avro 730 strategic bomber that the team studied. The team outlined a baseline configuration that resembled an enlarged Avro 730. This short wingspan produced little lift at low speed, resulting in long take-off runs and high landing speeds. In an SST design, this would have required enormous engine power to lift off from existing runways, and to provide the fuel needed, "some horribly large aeroplanes" resulted. Based on this, the group considered the concept of an SST infeasible, and instead suggested continued low-level studies into supersonic aerodynamics. Slender deltas Soon after, Johanna Weber and Dietrich Küchemann at the RAE published a series of reports on a new wing planform, known in the UK as the "slender delta". The team, including Eric Maskell whose report "Flow Separation in Three Dimensions" contributed to an understanding of separated flow, worked with the fact that delta wings can produce strong vortices on their upper surfaces at high angles of attack. The vortex will lower the air pressure and cause lift. This had been noticed by Chuck Yeager in the Convair XF-92, but its qualities had not been fully appreciated. Weber suggested that the effect could be used to improve low-speed performance.Supersonic Transport Aircraft CommitteeOn 1 October 1956, the Ministry of Supply asked Morgan to form a new study group, the Supersonic Transport Aircraft Committee (STAC) (sometimes referred to as the Supersonic Transport Advisory Committee), to develop a practical SST design and find industry partners to build it. At the first meeting, on 5 November 1956, the decision was made to fund the development of a test-bed aircraft to examine the low-speed performance of the slender delta, a contract that eventually produced the Handley Page HP.115. The aircraft would need more thrust than a subsonic design of the same size. Although they would use more fuel in cruise, they would be able to fly more revenue-earning flights in a given time, so fewer aircraft would be needed to service a particular route. This would remain economically advantageous as long as fuel represented a small percentage of operational costs. STAC suggested that two designs naturally fell out of their work, a transatlantic model flying at about Mach 2, and a shorter-range version flying at Mach 1.2. Morgan suggested that a 150-passenger transatlantic SST would cost about £75 to £90 million to develop, and be in service in 1970. The smaller 100-passenger short-range version would cost perhaps £50 to £80 million, and be ready for service in 1968. To meet this schedule, development would need to begin in 1960, with production contracts let in 1962. Morgan suggested that the US was already involved in a similar project, and that if the UK failed to respond, it would be locked out of an airliner market that he believed would be dominated by SST aircraft. In 1959, a study contract was awarded to Hawker Siddeley and Bristol for preliminary designs based on the slender delta, which developed as the HSA.1000 and Bristol 198. Armstrong Whitworth also responded with an internal design, the M-Wing, for the lower-speed, shorter-range category. Both the STAC group and the government were looking for partners to develop the designs. In September 1959, Hawker approached Lockheed, and after the creation of British Aircraft Corporation in 1960, the former Bristol team immediately started talks with Boeing, General Dynamics, Douglas Aircraft, and Sud Aviation. Ogee planform selected Küchemann and others at the RAE continued their work on the slender delta throughout this period, considering three basic shapes - the classic straight-edge delta, the "gothic delta" that was rounded outward to appear like a gothic arch, and the "ogival wing" that was compound-rounded into the shape of an ogee. Each of these planforms had advantages and disadvantages. As they worked with these shapes, a practical concern grew to become so important that it forced selection of one of these designs. Generally, the wing's centre of pressure (CP, or "lift point") should be close to the aircraft's centre of gravity (CG, or "balance point") to reduce the amount of control force required to pitch the aircraft. As the aircraft layout changes during the design phase, the CG commonly moves fore or aft. With a normal wing design, this can be addressed by moving the wing slightly fore or aft to account for this. With a delta wing running most of the length of the fuselage, this was no longer easy; moving the wing would leave it in front of the nose or behind the tail. Studying the various layouts in terms of CG changes, both during design and changes due to fuel use during flight, the ogee planform immediately came to the fore. To test the new wing, NASA assisted the team by modifying a Douglas F5D Skylancer to mimic the wing selection. In 1965, the NASA test aircraft successfully tested the wing, and found that it reduced landing speeds noticeably over the standard delta wing. NASA also ran simulations at Ames that showed the aircraft would exhibit a sudden change in pitch when entering ground effect. Ames test pilots later participated in a joint cooperative test with the French and British test pilots and found that the simulations had been correct, and this information was added to pilot training. Partnership with Sud Aviation France<!-- do not link major countries--> had its own SST plans. In the late 1950s, the government requested designs from the government-owned Sud Aviation and Nord Aviation, as well as Dassault. All three returned designs based on Küchemann and Weber's slender delta; Nord suggested a ramjet-powered design flying at Mach 3, and the other two were jet-powered Mach 2 designs that were similar to each other. Of the three, the Sud Aviation Super-Caravelle won the design contest with a medium-range design deliberately sized to avoid competition with transatlantic US designs they assumed were already on the drawing board. As soon as the design was complete, in April 1960, Pierre Satre, the company's technical director, was sent to Bristol to discuss a partnership. Bristol was surprised to find that the Sud team had designed a similar aircraft after considering the SST problem and coming to the same conclusions as the Bristol and STAC teams in terms of economics. It was later revealed that the original STAC report, marked "For UK Eyes Only", had secretly been passed to France to win political favour. Sud made minor changes to the paper and presented it as their own work. France had no modern large jet engines and had already decided to buy a British design (as they had on the earlier subsonic Caravelle). As neither company had experience in the use of heat-resistant metals for airframes, a maximum speed of around Mach 2 was selected so aluminium could be used – above this speed, the friction with the air heats the metal so much that it begins to soften. This lower speed would also speed development and allow their design to fly before the Americans. Everyone involved agreed that Küchemann's ogee-shaped wing was the right one. The British team was still focused on a 150-passenger design serving transatlantic routes, while France was deliberately avoiding these. Common components could be used in both designs, with the shorter-range version using a clipped fuselage and four engines, and the longer one a stretched fuselage and six engines, leaving only the wing to be extensively redesigned. The teams continued to meet in 1961, and by this time it was clear that the two aircraft would be very similar in spite of different ranges and seating arrangements. A single design emerged that differed mainly in fuel load. More-powerful Bristol Siddeley Olympus engines, being developed for the TSR-2, allowed either design to be powered by only four engines. Cabinet response, treaty While the development teams met, the French Minister of Public Works and Transport Robert Buron was meeting with the UK Minister of Aviation Peter Thorneycroft, and Thorneycroft told the cabinet that France was much more serious about a partnership than any of the US companies. The various US companies had proved uninterested, likely due to the belief that the government would be funding development and would frown on any partnership with a European company, and the risk of "giving away" US technological leadership to a European partner. When the STAC plans were presented to the UK cabinet, the economic considerations were considered highly questionable, especially as these were based on development costs, now estimated to be , which were repeatedly overrun in the industry. The Treasury Ministry presented a negative view, suggesting that the project in no way would have any positive financial returns for the government, especially because "the industry's past record of over-optimistic estimating (including the recent history of the TSR.2) suggests that it would be prudent to consider" the cost "to turn out much too low." This led to an independent review of the project by the Committee on Civil Scientific Research and Development, which met on the topic between July and September 1962. The committee rejected the economic arguments, including considerations of supporting the industry made by Thorneycroft. Their report in October stated that any direct positive economic outcome would be unlikely, but that the project should still be considered because everyone else was going supersonic, and they were concerned they would be locked out of future markets. The project apparently would not be likely to significantly affect other, more important, research efforts. At the time, the UK was pressing for admission to the European Economic Community, and this became the main rationale for moving ahead with the aircraft. The development project was negotiated as an international treaty between the two countries rather than a commercial agreement between companies, and included a clause, originally asked for by the UK government, imposing heavy penalties for cancellation. This treaty was signed on 29 November 1962. Charles de Gaulle vetoed the UK's entry into the European Community in a speech on 25 January 1963. Naming At Charles de Gaulle's January 1963 press conference, the aircraft was first called "Concorde". The name was suggested by the 18-year-old son of F.G. Clark, the publicity manager at BAC's Filton plant. the British Minister of Technology, Tony Benn, announced that he would change the spelling back to Concorde. This created a nationalist uproar that died down when Benn stated that the suffixed "e" represented "Excellence, England, Europe, and Entente (Cordiale)". In his memoirs, he recounted a letter from a Scotsman claiming, "you talk about 'E' for England, but part of it is made in Scotland." Given Scotland's contribution of providing the nose cone for the aircraft, Benn replied, "it was also 'E' for 'Écosse' (the French name for Scotland) – and I might have added 'e' for extravagance and 'e' for escalation as well!" In common usage in the United Kingdom, the type is known as "Concorde" without an article, rather than " Concorde" or " Concorde".Sales efforts Concorde in early BA livery at London-Heathrow Airport in the early 1980s]] Advertisements for Concorde during the late 1960s placed in publications such as Aviation Week & Space Technology predicted a market for 350 aircraft by 1980. The new consortium intended to produce one long-range and one short-range version, but prospective customers showed no interest in the short-range version, thus it was later dropped. Its sonic boom made travelling supersonically over land impossible without causing complaints from citizens. World events also dampened Concorde sales prospects; the 1973–74 stock market crash and the 1973 oil crisis had made airlines cautious about aircraft with high fuel consumption, and new wide-body aircraft, such as the Boeing 747, had recently made subsonic aircraft significantly more efficient and presented a low-risk option for airlines. While carrying a full load, Concorde achieved 15.8 passenger miles per gallon of fuel, while the Boeing 707 reached 33.3 pm/g, the Boeing 747 46.4 pm/g, and the McDonnell Douglas DC-10 53.6 pm/g. A trend in favour of cheaper airline tickets also caused airlines such as Qantas to question Concorde's market suitability. During the early 2000s, Flight International described Concorde as being "one of aerospace's most ambitious but commercially flawed projects", The consortium received orders (non-binding options) for more than 100 of the long-range version from the major airlines of the day: Pan Am, BOAC, and Air France were the launch customers, with six aircraft each. Other airlines in the order book included Panair do Brasil, Continental Airlines, Japan Airlines, Lufthansa, American Airlines, United Airlines, Air India, Air Canada, Braniff, Singapore Airlines, Iran Air, Olympic Airways, Qantas, CAAC Airlines, Middle East Airlines, and TWA. At the time of the first flight, the options list contained 74 options from 16 airlines: {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|- ! Airline ! Number ! Reserved ! Cancelled ! Remarks \|- \| Pan Am \|\| 6 \|\| 3 June 1963 \|\| 31 January 1973 \|\| 2 extra options in 1964 \|- \| Air France \|\| 6 \|\| 3 June 1963 \|\| \|\| 2 extra options in 1964 \|- \| BOAC \|\| 6 \|\| 3 June 1963 \|\| \|\| 2 extra options in 1964 \|- \| Continental Airlines \|\| 3 \|\| 24 July 1963 \|\| March 1973 \|\| \|- \| American Airlines \|\| 4 \|\| 7 October 1963 \|\| February 1973 \|\| 2 extra options in 1965 \|- \| TWA \|\| 4 \|\| 16 October 1963 \|\| 31 January 1973 \|\| 2 extra options in 1965 \|- \| Middle East Airlines \|\| 2 \|\| 4 December 1963 \|\| February 1973 \|\| \|- \| Qantas \|\| 6 \|\| 19 March 1964 \|\| June 1973 \|\| 2 cancelled in May 1966 \|- \| Air India \|\| 2 \|\| 15 July 1964 \|\| February 1975 \|\| \|- \| Japan Airlines \|\| 3 \|\| 30 September 1965 \|\| 1973 \|\| \|- \| Sabena \|\| 2 \|\| 1 December 1965 \|\| February 1973 \|\| \|- \| Eastern Airlines \|\| 2 \|\| 28 June 1966 \|\| February 1973 \|\| 2 extra options on 15 August 1966 <br/>2 other extra options on 28 April 1967 \|- \| United Airlines \|\| 6 \|\| 29 June 1966 \|\| 26 October 1972 \|\| \|- \| Braniff \|\| 3 \|\| 1 September 1966 \|\| February 1973 \|\| \|- \| Lufthansa \|\| 3 \|\| 16 February 1967 \|\| April 1973 \|\| \|- \| Air Canada \|\| 4 \|\| 1 March 1967 \|\| 6 June 1972 \|\| \|- \| CAAC \|\| 2 \|\| 24 July 1972 \|\| December 1979 \|\| \|- \| Iran Air \|\| 2 \|\| 8 October 1972 \|\| February 1980 \|\| \|} Testing The design work was supported by a research programme studying the flight characteristics of low ratio delta wings. A supersonic Fairey Delta 2 was modified to carry the ogee planform, and, renamed as the BAC 221, used for tests of the high-speed flight envelope; the Handley Page HP.115 also provided valuable information on low-speed performance. Construction of two prototypes began in February 1965: 001, built by Aérospatiale at Toulouse, and 002, by BAC at Filton, Bristol. 001 made its first test flight from Toulouse on 2 March 1969, piloted by André Turcat, and first went supersonic on 1 October. The first UK-built Concorde flew from Filton to RAF Fairford on 9 April 1969, piloted by Brian Trubshaw. Both prototypes were presented to the public on 7–8 June 1969 at the Paris Air Show. As the flight programme progressed, 001 embarked on a sales and demonstration tour on 4 September 1971, which was also the first transatlantic crossing of Concorde. Concorde 002 followed on 2 June 1972 with a tour of the Middle and Far East. Concorde 002 made the first visit to the United States in 1973, landing at Dallas/Fort Worth Regional Airport to mark the airport's opening. Concorde had initially held a great deal of customer interest, but the project was hit by order cancellations. The Paris Le Bourget air show crash of the competing Soviet Tupolev Tu-144 had shocked potential buyers, and public concern over the environmental issues of supersonic aircraftthe sonic boom, take-off noise and pollutionhad produced a change in the public opinion of SSTs. By 1976 the remaining buyers were from four countries: Britain, France, China, and Iran. The US government cut federal funding for the Boeing 2707, its supersonic transport programme, in 1971; Boeing did not complete its two 2707 prototypes. The US, India, and Malaysia all ruled out Concorde supersonic flights over the noise concern, although some of these restrictions were later relaxed. Professor Douglas Ross characterised restrictions placed upon Concorde operations by President Jimmy Carter's administration as having been an act of protectionism of American aircraft manufacturers.Programme costThe original programme cost estimate was £70 million in 1962, (£}} in ). After cost overruns and delays the programme eventually cost between £1.5 and £2.1 billion in 1976, (£}} – }} in ). This cost was the main reason the production run was much smaller than expected. Design General features Concorde is an ogival delta winged aircraft with four Olympus engines based on those employed in the RAF's Avro Vulcan strategic bomber. It has an unusual tailless configuration for a commercial aircraft, as does the Tupolev Tu-144. Concorde was the first airliner to have a fly-by-wire flight-control system (in this case, analogue); the avionics system Concorde used was unique because it was the first commercial aircraft to employ hybrid circuits. Concorde pioneered the following technologies: For high speed and optimisation of flight: * Double delta (ogee/ogival) shaped wings * Supercruise capability For weight-saving and enhanced performance: * Mach 2.02 (~) cruising speed for optimum fuel consumption (supersonic drag minimum and turbojet engines are more efficient at higher speed); fuel consumption at and at altitude of was . * Mainly aluminium construction using a high-temperature alloy similar to that developed for aero-engine pistons. This material gave low weight and allowed conventional manufacture (higher speeds would have ruled out aluminium) * Full-regime autopilot and autothrottle allowing "hands off" control of the aircraft from climb out to landing * Fully electrically controlled analogue fly-by-wire flight controls systems * High-pressure hydraulic system using for lighter hydraulic components. * Air data computer (ADC) for the automated monitoring and transmission of aerodynamic measurements (total pressure, static pressure, angle of attack, side-slip). * Fully electrically controlled analogue brake-by-wire system * No auxiliary power unit, as Concorde would only visit large airports where ground air start carts were available.Powerplant A symposium titled "Supersonic-Transport Implications" was hosted by the Royal Aeronautical Society on 8 December 1960. Various views were put forward on the likely type of powerplant for a supersonic transport, such as podded or buried installation and turbojet or ducted-fan engines. Concorde needed to fly long distances to be economically viable; this required high efficiency from the powerplant. Turbofan engines were rejected due to their larger cross-section producing excessive drag (but would be studied for future SSTs). Olympus turbojet technology was already available for development to meet the design requirements. Rolls-Royce proposed developing the RB.169 to power Concorde during its initial design phase, but developing a wholly-new engine for a single aircraft would have been extremely costly, so the existing BSEL Olympus Mk 320 turbojet engine, which was already flying in the BAC TSR-2 supersonic strike bomber prototype, was chosen instead. Boundary layer management in the podded installation was put forward as simpler with only an inlet cone, however, Dr. Seddon of the RAE favoured a more integrated buried installation. One concern of placing two or more engines behind a single intake was that an intake failure could lead to a double or triple engine failure. While a ducted fan over the turbojet would reduce noise, its larger cross-section also incurred more drag. Acoustics specialists were confident that a turbojet's noise could be reduced and SNECMA made advances in silencer design during the programme. The Olympus Mk.622 with reduced jet velocity was proposed to reduce the noise but was not pursued. By 1974, the spade silencers which projected into the exhaust were reported to be ineffective but "entry-into-service aircraft are likely to meet their noise guarantees". The powerplant configuration selected for Concorde highlighted airfield noise, boundary layer management and interactions between adjacent engines and the requirement that the powerplant, at Mach 2, tolerate pushovers, sideslips, pull-ups and throttle slamming without surging. Extensive development testing with design changes and changes to intake and engine control laws addressed most of the issues except airfield noise and the interaction between adjacent powerplants at speeds above Mach 1.6 which meant Concorde "had to be certified aerodynamically as a twin-engined aircraft above Mach 1.6". Situated behind the wing leading edge, the engine intake had a wing boundary layer ahead of it. Two-thirds were diverted and the remaining third which entered the intake did not adversely affect the intake efficiency except during pushovers when the boundary layer thickened and caused surging. Wind tunnel testing helped define leading-edge modifications ahead of the intakes which solved the problem. Each engine had its own intake and the nacelles were paired with a splitter plate between them to minimise the chance of one powerplant influencing the other. Only above was an engine surge likely to affect the adjacent engine. The air intake design for Concorde's engines was especially critical. The intakes had to slow down supersonic inlet air to subsonic speeds with high-pressure recovery to ensure efficient operation at cruising speed while providing low distortion levels (to prevent engine surge) and maintaining high efficiency for all likely ambient temperatures in cruise. They had to provide adequate subsonic performance for diversion cruise and low engine-face distortion at take-off. They also had to provide an alternative path for excess intake of air during engine throttling or shutdowns. The variable intake features required to meet all these requirements consisted of front and rear ramps, a dump door, an auxiliary inlet and a ramp bleed to the exhaust nozzle. As well as supplying air to the engine, the intake also supplied air through the ramp bleed to the propelling nozzle. The nozzle ejector (or aerodynamic) design, with variable exit area and secondary flow from the intake, contributed to good expansion efficiency from take-off to cruise. Concorde's Air Intake Control Units (AICUs) made use of a digital processor for intake control. It was the first use of a digital processor with full authority control of an essential system in a passenger aircraft. It was developed by BAC's Electronics and Space Systems division after the analogue AICUs (developed by Ultra Electronics) fitted to the prototype aircraft were found to lack sufficient accuracy. Ultra Electronics also developed Concorde's thrust-by-wire engine control system. Engine failure causes problems on conventional subsonic aircraft; not only does the aircraft lose thrust on that side but the engine creates drag, causing the aircraft to yaw and bank in the direction of the failed engine. If this had happened to Concorde at supersonic speeds, it theoretically could have caused a catastrophic failure of the airframe. Although computer simulations predicted considerable problems, in practice Concorde could shut down both engines on the same side of the aircraft at Mach 2 without difficulties. During an engine failure the required air intake is virtually zero. So, on Concorde, engine failure was countered by the opening of the auxiliary spill door and the full extension of the ramps, which deflected the air downwards past the engine, gaining lift and minimising drag. Concorde pilots were routinely trained to handle double-engine failure. Concorde used reheat (afterburners) only at take-off and to pass through the transonic speed range, between Mach 0.95 and 1.7. Heating problems Kinetic heating from the high speed boundary layer caused the skin to heat up during supersonic flight. Every surface, such as windows and panels, was warm to the touch by the end of the flight. Apart from the engine bay, the hottest part of any supersonic aircraft's structure is the nose, due to aerodynamic heating. Hiduminium R.R. 58, an aluminium alloy, was used throughout the aircraft because it was relatively cheap and easy to work with. The highest temperature it could sustain over the life of the aircraft was , which limited the top speed to Mach 2.02. Concorde went through two cycles of cooling and heating during a flight, first cooling down as it gained altitude at subsonic speed, then heating up accelerating to cruise speed, finally cooling again when descending and slowing down before heating again in low altitude air before landing. This had to be factored into the metallurgical and fatigue modelling. A test rig was built that repeatedly heated up a full-size section of the wing, and then cooled it, and periodically samples of metal were taken for testing. The airframe was designed for a life of 45,000 flying hours. As the fuselage heated up it expanded by as much as . The most obvious manifestation of this was a gap that opened up on the flight deck between the flight engineer's console and the bulkhead. On some aircraft that conducted a retiring supersonic flight, the flight engineers placed their caps in this expanded gap, wedging the cap when the airframe shrank again. To keep the cabin cool, Concorde used the fuel as a heat sink for the heat from the air conditioning. The same method also cooled the hydraulics. During supersonic flight a visor was used to keep high temperature air from flowing over the cockpit skin. Concorde had livery restrictions; the majority of the surface had to be covered with a highly reflective white paint to avoid overheating the aluminium structure due to heating effects. The white finish reduced the skin temperature by . In 1996, Air France briefly painted F-BTSD in a predominantly blue livery, with the exception of the wings, in a promotional deal with Pepsi. In this paint scheme, Air France was advised to remain at for no more than 20 minutes at a time, but there was no restriction at speeds under Mach 1.7. F-BTSD was used because it was not scheduled for any long flights that required extended Mach 2 operations. Structural issues Due to its high speeds, large forces were applied to the aircraft during turns, causing distortion of the aircraft's structure. There were concerns over maintaining precise control at supersonic speeds. Both of these issues were resolved by ratio changes between the inboard and outboard elevon deflections, varying at differing speeds including supersonic. Only the innermost elevons, attached to the stiffest area of the wings, were used at higher speeds. The narrow fuselage flexed, When any aircraft passes the critical mach of its airframe, the centre of pressure shifts rearwards. This causes a pitch-down moment on the aircraft if the centre of gravity remains where it was. The wings were designed to reduce this, but there was still a shift of about . This could have been countered by the use of trim controls, but at such high speeds, this would have increased drag which would have been unacceptable. Instead, the distribution of fuel along the aircraft was shifted during acceleration and deceleration to move the centre of gravity, effectively acting as an auxiliary trim control.RangeTo fly non-stop across the Atlantic Ocean, Concorde required the greatest supersonic range of any aircraft. This was achieved by a combination of powerplants which were efficient at twice the speed of sound, a slender fuselage with high fineness ratio, and a complex wing shape for a high lift-to-drag ratio. Only a modest payload could be carried and the aircraft was trimmed without using deflected control surfaces, to avoid the drag that would incur. It would have higher thrust engines with noise reducing features and no environmentally-objectionable afterburner. Preliminary design studies showed that an engine with a 25% gain in efficiency over the Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593 could be produced. This would have given additional range and a greater payload, making new commercial routes possible. This was cancelled due in part to poor sales of Concorde, but also to the rising cost of aviation fuel in the 1970s. Radiation concerns Concorde's high cruising altitude meant people on board received almost twice the flux of extraterrestrial ionising radiation as those travelling on a conventional long-haul flight. Upon Concorde's introduction, it was speculated that this exposure during supersonic travels would increase the likelihood of skin cancer. Due to the proportionally reduced flight time, the overall equivalent dose would normally be less than a conventional flight over the same distance. Unusual solar activity might lead to an increase in incident radiation. To prevent incidents of excessive radiation exposure, the flight deck had a radiometer and an instrument to measure the rate of increase or decrease of radiation.<!-- Concorde's maximum cruising altitude was ; subsonic airliners typically cruise below . A sudden reduction in cabin pressure is hazardous to all passengers and crew. Above , a sudden cabin depressurisation would leave a "time of useful consciousness" up to 10–15 seconds for a conditioned athlete. At Concorde's altitude, the air density is very low; a breach of cabin integrity would result in a loss of pressure severe enough that the plastic emergency oxygen masks installed on other passenger jets would not be effective and passengers would soon suffer from hypoxia despite quickly donning them. Concorde was equipped with smaller windows to reduce the rate of loss in the event of a breach, a reserve air supply system to augment cabin air pressure, and a rapid descent procedure to bring the aircraft to a safe altitude. The FAA enforces minimum emergency descent rates for aircraft and noting Concorde's higher operating altitude, concluded that the best response to pressure loss would be a rapid descent. Continuous positive airway pressure would have delivered pressurised oxygen directly to the pilots through masks.Flight characteristicsWhile subsonic commercial jets took eight hours to fly from Paris to New York (seven hours from New York to Paris), the average supersonic flight time on the transatlantic routes was just under 3.5 hours. Concorde had a maximum cruising altitude of and an average cruise speed of , more than twice the speed of conventional aircraft. With no other civil traffic operating at its cruising altitude of about , Concorde had exclusive use of dedicated oceanic airways, or "tracks", separate from the North Atlantic Tracks, the routes used by other aircraft to cross the Atlantic. Due to the significantly less variable nature of high altitude winds compared to those at standard cruising altitudes, these dedicated SST tracks had fixed co-ordinates, unlike the standard routes at lower altitudes, whose co-ordinates are replotted twice daily based on forecast weather patterns (jetstreams). Concorde would also be cleared in a block, allowing for a slow climb from during the oceanic crossing as the fuel load gradually decreased. In regular service, Concorde employed an efficient cruise-climb flight profile following take-off. The delta-shaped wings required Concorde to adopt a higher angle of attack at low speeds than conventional aircraft, but it allowed the formation of large low-pressure vortices over the entire upper wing surface, maintaining lift. The normal landing speed was . Because of this high angle, during a landing approach Concorde was on the backside of the drag force curve, where raising the nose would increase the rate of descent; the aircraft was thus largely flown on the throttle and was fitted with an autothrottle to reduce the pilot's workload. Brakes and undercarriage Because of the way Concorde's delta-wing generated lift, the undercarriage had to be unusually strong and tall to allow for the angle of attack at low speed. At rotation, Concorde would rise to a high angle of attack, about 18 degrees. Prior to rotation, the wing generated almost no lift, unlike typical aircraft wings. Combined with the high airspeed at rotation ( indicated airspeed), this increased the stresses on the main undercarriage in a way that was initially unexpected during the development and required a major redesign. Due to the high angle needed at rotation, a small set of wheels was added aft to prevent tailstrikes. The main undercarriage units swing towards each other to be stowed but due to their great height also needed to contract in length telescopically before swinging to clear each other when stowed. The four main wheel tyres<!-- please leave British spelling of "tyres" on British/French aircraft ---> on each bogie unit are inflated to . The twin-wheel nose undercarriage retracts forwards and its tyres are inflated to a pressure of , and the wheel assembly carries a spray deflector to prevent standing water from being thrown up into the engine intakes. The tyres are rated to a maximum speed on the runway of . The high take-off speed of required Concorde to have upgraded brakes. Like most airliners, Concorde has anti-skid braking to prevent the tyres from losing traction when the brakes are applied. The brakes, developed by Dunlop, were the first carbon-based brakes used on an airliner. The use of carbon over equivalent steel brakes provided a weight-saving of . Each wheel has multiple discs which are cooled by electric fans. Wheel sensors include brake overload, brake temperature, and tyre deflation. After a typical landing at Heathrow, brake temperatures were around . Landing Concorde required a minimum of runway length; the shortest runway Concorde ever landed on carrying commercial passengers was Cardiff Airport. Concorde G-AXDN (101) made its final landing at Duxford Aerodrome on 20 August 1977, which had a runway length of just at the time. This was the last aircraft to land at Duxford before the runway was shortened later that year. Droop nose Concorde's drooping nose, developed by Marshall's of Cambridge, enabled the aircraft to switch from being streamlined to reduce drag and achieve optimal aerodynamic efficiency during flight, to not obstructing the pilot's view during taxi, take-off, and landing operations. Due to the high angle of attack, the long pointed nose obstructed the view and necessitated the ability to droop. The droop nose was accompanied by a moving visor that retracted into the nose prior to being lowered. When the nose was raised to horizontal, the visor would rise in front of the cockpit windscreen for aerodynamic streamlining. Operational history First flights and routes flown Concorde began scheduled flights with British Airways and Air France on 21 January 1976. Concorde operated on various routes, including London–Bahrain, London–New York, London–Miami, and London–Barbados (with British Airways), and Paris–Dakar–Rio de Janeiro, Paris–Azores–Caracas, Paris–New York, and Paris–Washington (with Air France), but faced challenges such as bans and low profitability. Later, British Airways repositioned Concorde as a super-premium service and it then became profitable. Retirement In 2003, Air France and British Airways announced the retirement of Concorde, due to rising maintenance costs, low passenger numbers following the 25 July 2000 crash, and the slump in air travel following the September 11 attacks. Air France flew its last commercial flight on 30 May 2003 with British Airways retiring its Concorde fleet on 24 October 2003.Operators * Air France * British Airways * Braniff International Airways operated Concordes at subsonic speed between Dulles International Airport and Dallas Fort Worth International Airport, from January 1979 until May 1980, using its own flight and cabin crew, under its own insurance and operator's license. Stickers containing a US registration were placed over the French and British registrations of the aircraft during each rotation, and a placard was temporarily placed behind the cockpit to signify the operator and operator's license in command. * Singapore Airlines had its livery placed on the left side of Concorde G-BOAD, and held a joint marketing agreement which saw Singapore insignias on the cabin fittings, as well as the airline's "Singapore Girl" stewardesses jointly sharing cabin duty with British Airways flight attendants. All flight crew, operations, and insurances remained solely under British Airways however, and at no point did Singapore Airlines operate Concorde services under its own operator's certification, nor wet-lease an aircraft. This arrangement initially only lasted for three flights, conducted between 9–13 December 1977; it later resumed on 24 January 1979, and operated until 1 November 1980. The Singapore livery was used on G-BOAD from 1977 to 1980. Accidents and incidents Air France Flight 4590 On 25 July 2000, Air France Flight 4590, registration F-BTSC, crashed in Gonesse, France, after departing from Charles de Gaulle Airport en route to John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York City, killing all 100 passengers and nine crew members on board as well as four people on the ground.<!-- per MOS:NUMERAL, comparable quantities should be all spelled out or all in figures --> It was the only fatal accident involving Concorde. This crash also damaged Concorde's reputation and caused both British Airways and Air France to temporarily ground their fleets. Safety improvements made after the crash included more secure electrical controls, Kevlar lining on the fuel tanks and specially developed burst-resistant tyres. The first flight with the modifications departed from London Heathrow on 17 July 2001, piloted by BA Chief Concorde Pilot Mike Bannister. In a flight of 3 hours 20 minutes over the mid-Atlantic towards Iceland, Bannister attained Mach 2.02 and then returned to RAF Brize Norton. The test flight, intended to resemble the London–New York route, was declared a success and was watched on live TV, and by crowds on the ground at both locations. The first flight with passengers after the 2000 grounding landed shortly before the World Trade Center attacks in the United States. This was not a commercial flight: all the passengers were BA employees. Normal commercial operations resumed on 7 November 2001 by BA and AF (aircraft G-BOAE and F-BTSD), with service to New York JFK, where Mayor Rudy Giuliani greeted the passengers.Other accidents and incidentsOn 12 April 1989, Concorde G-BOAF, on a chartered flight from Christchurch, New Zealand, to Sydney, Australia, suffered a structural failure at supersonic speed. As the aircraft was climbing and accelerating through Mach 1.7, a "thud" was heard. The crew did not notice any handling problems, and they assumed the thud they heard was a minor engine surge. No further difficulty was encountered until descent through at Mach 1.3, when a vibration was felt throughout the aircraft, lasting two to three minutes. Most of the upper rudder had separated from the aircraft at this point. Aircraft handling was unaffected, and the aircraft made a safe landing at Sydney. The UK's Air Accidents Investigation Branch (AAIB) concluded that the skin of the rudder had been separating from the rudder structure over a period before the accident due to moisture seepage past the rivets in the rudder. Production staff had not followed proper procedures during an earlier modification of the rudder; the procedures were difficult to adhere to.Aircraft on display Twenty Concorde aircraft were built: two prototypes, two pre-production aircraft, two development aircraft and 14 production aircraft for commercial service. With the exception of two of the production aircraft, all are preserved, mostly in museums. One aircraft was scrapped in 1994, and another was destroyed in the Air France Flight 4590 crash in 2000. Comparable aircraft Tu-144 ]] 3-view diagram]] mockup]] Concorde was one of only two supersonic jetliner models to operate commercially; the other was the Soviet-built Tupolev Tu-144, which operated in the late 1970s.}} The Tu-144 was nicknamed "Concordski" by Western European journalists for its outward similarity to Concorde. Soviet espionage efforts allegedly stole Concorde blueprints to assist in the design of the Tu-144. As a result of a rushed development programme, the first Tu-144 prototype was substantially different from the preproduction machines, but both were cruder than Concorde. The Tu-144S had a significantly shorter range than Concorde. Jean Rech, Sud Aviation, attributed this to two things, a very heavy powerplant with an intake twice as long as that on Concorde, and low-bypass turbofan engines with too high a bypass ratio which needed afterburning for cruise. The aircraft had poor control at low speeds because of a simpler wing design. The Tu-144 required braking parachutes to land. The Tu-144 had two crashes, one at the 1973 Paris Air Show, and another during a pre-delivery test flight in May 1978. Passenger service commenced in November 1977, but after the 1978 crash the aircraft was taken out of passenger service after only 55 flights, which carried an average of 58 passengers. The Tu-144 had an inherently unsafe structural design as a consequence of an automated production method chosen to simplify and speed up manufacturing. The Tu-144 program was cancelled by the Soviet government on 1 July 1983.SST and others The main competing designs for the US government-funded supersonic transport (SST) were the swing-wing Boeing 2707 and the compound delta wing Lockheed L-2000. These were to have been larger, with seating for up to 300 people. The Boeing 2707 was selected for development. Concorde first flew in 1969, the year Boeing began building 2707 mockups after changing the design to a cropped delta wing; the cost of this and other changes helped to kill the project. The operation of US military aircraft such as the Mach 3+ North American XB-70 Valkyrie prototypes and Convair B-58 Hustler strategic nuclear bomber had shown that sonic booms were capable of reaching the ground, and the experience from the Oklahoma City sonic boom tests led to the same environmental concerns that hindered the commercial success of Concorde. The American government cancelled its SST project in 1971 having spent more than $1 billion without any aircraft being built. Impact Environmental Before Concorde's flight trials, developments in the civil aviation industry were largely accepted by governments and their respective electorates. Opposition to Concorde's noise, particularly on the east coast of the United States, forged a new political agenda on both sides of the Atlantic, with scientists and technology experts across a multitude of industries beginning to take the environmental and social impact more seriously. Although Concorde led directly to the introduction of a general noise abatement programme for aircraft flying out of John F. Kennedy Airport, many found that Concorde was quieter than expected, In 1971, BAC's technical director stated, "It is certain on present evidence and calculations that in the airport context, production Concordes will be no worse than aircraft now in service and will in fact be better than many of them." Concorde produced nitrogen oxides in its exhaust, which, despite complicated interactions with other ozone-depleting chemicals, are understood to result in degradation to the ozone layer at the stratospheric altitudes it cruised. It has been pointed out that other, lower-flying, airliners produce ozone during their flights in the troposphere, but vertical transit of gases between the layers is restricted. The small fleet meant overall ozone-layer degradation caused by Concorde was negligible. Concorde's technical leap forward boosted the public's understanding of conflicts between technology and the environment as well as awareness of the complex decision analysis processes that surround such conflicts. In France, the use of acoustic fencing alongside TGV tracks might not have been achieved without the 1970s controversy over aircraft noise. In the UK, the CPRE has issued tranquillity maps since 1990.Public perception at the Queen's Golden Jubilee, June 2002]] Concorde was normally perceived as a privilege of the rich, but special circular or one-way (with return by other flight or ship) charter flights were arranged to bring a trip within the means of moderately well-off enthusiasts. As a symbol of national pride, an example from the BA fleet made occasional flypasts at selected Royal events, major air shows and other special occasions, sometimes in formation with the Red Arrows. On the final day of commercial service, public interest was so great that grandstands were erected at Heathrow Airport. Significant numbers of people attended the final landings; the event received widespread media coverage. The aircraft was usually referred to by the British as simply "Concorde". In France it was known as "le Concorde" due to "le", the definite article, used in French grammar to introduce the name of a ship or aircraft, and the capital being used to distinguish a proper name from a common noun of the same spelling. In French, the common noun concorde means "agreement, harmony, or peace". \|groupN}} Concorde's pilots and British Airways in official publications often refer to Concorde both in the singular and plural as "she" or "her". In 2006, 37 years after its first test flight, Concorde was announced the winner of the Great British Design Quest organised by the BBC (through The Culture Show) and the Design Museum. A total of 212,000 votes were cast with Concorde beating other British design icons such as the Mini, mini skirt, Jaguar E-Type car, the Tube map, the World Wide Web, the K2 red telephone box and the Supermarine Spitfire. Special missions and the Duke of Edinburgh disembark Concorde in 1991]] The heads of France and the United Kingdom flew in Concorde many times. Presidents Georges Pompidou, Valéry Giscard d'Estaing and François Mitterrand regularly used Concorde as French flagship aircraft on foreign visits. Elizabeth II and Prime Ministers Edward Heath, Jim Callaghan, Margaret Thatcher, John Major and Tony Blair took Concorde in some charter flights such as the Queen's trips to Barbados on her Silver Jubilee in 1977, in 1987 and in 2003, to the Middle East in 1984 and to the United States in 1991. Pope John Paul II flew on Concorde in May 1989. Concorde sometimes made special flights for demonstrations, air shows (such as the Farnborough, Paris-Le Bourget, Oshkosh AirVenture and MAKS air shows) as well as parades and celebrations (for example, of Zurich Airport's anniversary in 1998). The aircraft were also used for private charters (including by the President of Zaire Mobutu Sese Seko on multiple occasions), for advertising companies (including for the firm OKI), for Olympic torch relays (1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville) and for observing solar eclipses, including the solar eclipse of 30 June 1973 and again for the total solar eclipse on 11 August 1999. Records The fastest transatlantic airliner flight was from New York JFK to London Heathrow on 7 February 1996 by the British Airways G-BOAD in 2 hours, 52 minutes, 59 seconds from take-off to touchdown aided by a 175 mph (282 km/h) tailwind. On 13 February 1985, a Concorde charter flight flew from London Heathrow to Sydney in a time of 17 hours, 3 minutes and 45 seconds, including refuelling stops. Concorde set the FAI "Westbound Around the World" and "Eastbound Around the World" world air speed records. On 12–13 October 1992, in commemoration of the 500th anniversary of Columbus' first voyage to the New World, Concorde Spirit Tours (US) chartered Air France Concorde F-BTSD and circumnavigated the world in 32 hours 49 minutes and 3 seconds, from Lisbon, Portugal, including six refuelling stops at Santo Domingo, Acapulco, Honolulu, Guam, Bangkok, and Bahrain. The eastbound record was set by the same Air France Concorde (F-BTSD) under charter to Concorde Spirit Tours On its way to the Museum of Flight in November 2003, G-BOAG set a New York City-to-Seattle speed record of 3 hours, 55 minutes, and 12 seconds. Due to the restrictions on supersonic overflights within the US the flight was granted permission by the Canadian authorities for the majority of the journey to be flown supersonically over sparsely-populated Canadian territory.Specifications The International Directory of Civil Aircraft, Aérospatiale/BAC Concorde 1969 onwards (all models) \|prime units?= imp <!-- General characteristics --> \|genhide\|crew 3 (2 pilots and 1 flight engineer) \|capacity= 92–120 passengers <br/>(128 in high-density layout) \|length m = 61.66 \|length note\|span m 25.6 \|span note\|height m 12.2 \|height note\|wing area sqm 358.25 \|wing area note\|airfoil \|empty weight kg= 78,700 \|gross weight kg= 111,130 \|gross weight note\|max takeoff weight kg 185,070 \|fuel capacity; \|more general* Fuselage internal length: * Fuselage width: maximum of external, internal * Fuselage height: maximum of external, internal * Maximum taxiing weight: <!-- Powerplant --> \|eng1 number= 4 \|eng1 name= Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593 Mk 610 \|eng1 type= turbojets with reheat \|eng1 lbf=31000 \|eng1 kn= 140 \|eng1 note\|power original \|thrust original\|eng1 kn-ab 169 \|eng1 lbf-ab= 38,050 <!-- Performance --> \|perfhide\|max speed kmh 2,179 \|max speed note\|max speed mach 2.04 (temperature limited) <!-- temperature limited is relevant, since most aircraft are limited in speed by power or aerodynamics: Concorde is unusual in that is has the power and aerodynamics to go faster --> \|cruise speed kmh= 2,158 \|cruise speed note\|stall speed kmh \|stall speed note\|never exceed speed kmh \|never exceed speed note\|minimum control speed kmh \|minimum control speed note\|range km 7,222.8 \|range note\|endurance<!-- if range unknown --> \|ceiling m= 18,300 \|ceiling note\|climb rate ms 17–25 \|climb rate noteat sea level \|time to altitude\|lift to drag Low speed– 3.94; Approach– 4.35; 250 kn, 10,000 ft– 9.27; Mach 0.94– 11.47, Mach 2.04– 7.14 \|wing loading kg/m2\|wing loading note \|disk loading kg/m2\|disk loading note \|fuel consumption kg/km= 13.2 \|power/mass\|thrust/weight 0.373 \|more performance* Maximum nose tip temperature: * Runway requirement (with maximum load): \|avionics= * Digital Air Intake Control Units * Fly by wire flight controls * Analogue electronic engine controls * Triple inertial navigation units, one per flight crew * Dual VHF omnidirectional range instruments * Dual automatic direction finder instruments * Dual distance measuring equipment instruments * Triple Delco Carousel Inertial Navigation Units * Dual instrument landing systems * Automatic flight control system with dual autopilots, autothrottles, and flight directors: full autoland capability with visibility limits horizontally, decision height * Ekco E390/564 weather radar * Radio altimeters <!-- Radio altimeter is the precise term used in the Haynes book --> }} Notable appearances in media <!-- Please READ Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft/page content#Popular culture before attempting to place "Popular culture" items. Tenuously connected material including all Ace Combat appearances and anime and fiction lookalike speculation, will be removed. Material here must be notable *with respect to Concorde* or should go in another article --> See also * Barbara Harmer, the first qualified female Concorde pilot * Museo del Concorde, a former museum in Mexico dedicated to the airliner Notes References Citations Bibliography * * * * * * * * * . * * * }} * * * * * * * * * * * * * * External links Legacy * [http://www.britishairways.com/concorde/index.html British Airways Concorde page] * [https://www.baesystems.com/en/heritage/bac-concorde BAC Concorde at BAE Systems site] * [http://www.designmuseum.org/design/concorde Design Museum (UK) Concorde page] * [http://heritageconcorde.com/ Heritage Concorde preservation group site] Articles * <!--from http://aviationweek.com/blog/1969-concordes-hopeful-first-flight --> * * * * Videos <!--Only list videos from "official" accounts!--> * "[https://www.youtube.com/watch?vPn0PJc-v510&listPLNxwX7r4A557deayljDNLqVA7Pl9Y8K9Z&index=14 Video: Roll-out]." British Movietone/Associated Press. 14 December 1967, posted online on 21 July 2015. * "[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a_wuykzfFzE This plane could cross the Atlantic in 3.5 hours. Why did it fail?]." Vox Media. 19 July 2016. Category:Air France–KLM Category:British Airways Category:British Aircraft Corporation aircraft Category:Tailless delta-wing aircraft Category:France–United Kingdom relations Category:1960s international airliners Category:Quadjets Category:Supersonic transports Category:History of science and technology in the United Kingdom Category:Aircraft first flown in 1969 Category:Aircraft with retractable tricycle landing gear	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concorde	2025-04-05T18:28:03.219882

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